^^■/^y/

LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

No._26Z4_„_ _ DATE.6:i6a_e__

souRCE_irT_aLTc_h_-:^i47id_._

H Phimps. R.A .

ESBeclc

LcridarC JhiiUsh

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

VOLUME THE THIRTEENTH.

(second sertes.)

JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCXLVI.

LONDON:
OFFICE, 24, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND.

MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS.

LONDON: \ % ^ h \ «

Printed by Joseph Rogerson,
24, Norfolk-street, Strand.

£OLLt_

THE EAEMEK'S MAGAZI:N'B.

JANUARY, 1840.
No. 1.— Vol. XIII.] [Second Series.

PLATE I.
PORTRAIT OF R. M. JAQUES, ESQ.

ENGRAVED BY H. BECKAVITH, FROM A PAINTING BY T. PHILLIPS, R.A.

PLATE II.
YEARLING BULL, CAPTAIN SHAFTOE.

ENGRAVED BY HACKER FROM A PAINTING BY DAVIES.

Yearling Bull, Captain Shaftoe, red, calved August 19, 1S42, bred by Mr. Thomas Lax, of Ravens-
worth, near Richmond, Yorkshire ; now the jiroperty of Mr. L^nthank, of Netherscales, near Penrith ;
got by Magician, dam (Miss Shaftoe) by Mr. Mason's Miracle {'2320), g. d. by Richard (1376), gr. g. d.
by Fitz Remus (2025), gr, gr. g. d. by Whitworth (695), gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Charles (127).

At Richmond, Captain Shaftoe beat Cramer, the prize bull at Shrewsbury. Magician's pedigree is
not yet giA'en in the Herd Book ; but he has been recently purchased for Sir C. Tempest, from Mr. Lax,
who is an old breeder of some celebiity, and who purchased the bull Sir Dimple, at Mr. C. ColHng's sale
in 1810. Mr. Lax's celebrated twin bulls Bob and Shaftoe ai-e also from the Captain's dam, a very
fine cow which he bought from Mr. Shaftoe, of Whitworth Park, Durham, who was the breeder of
Cassandra, dam of Clementi, CoUard, and Cramer, each sold for 200 guineas, under one year old ;
which cow was by the same bull Miracle.

E. M. JAQUES, ESQ.
Of Easby Abbey, Richmond, Yorkshire.

It very rarely happens for a man to achieve any whose fortune and position rank him as an Englisli

great eminence in a pursuit where natural taste is country gentleman— a character which, however

not one of the chief reasons for engaging in it. enviable in the abstract, has to mainly depend on

The heartiness with which he sets about and con- the habits and disposition of its representative for

tinues his endeavours, goes very far of itself, in the respect and good properties so generally attach-

this country, to ensure a favourable opinion with ed to it. If the squire of the parish has unhappily

the public, if not absolute success in the experi- no enjoyment in rural life, or the society of those

ment. There are few stronger or better examples A\dth whom it is connected — if he goes through the

of this than that afforded in the life of a man common customs, and fulfils the certain duties of

OLD SERIES.} A \_No. I. —VOL. XXIV.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

his station, merely because lie feels, or perhaps
rather is told, he ought to pay attention to them, or
that so much has invarial)ly been expected from
the family at the Hall— if there is little beyond
these forms and ceremonies to actuate him, his
name and countenance to the middle, his kindness
and generosity to the lower classes will, depend
upon it, be received with very much of that same
want of innate sympathy and cordiality Math
1 which it is given. On the other hand, if the true
countiy gentleman has the health, heart, and spirit
jto enter bodily into the well-doing of those
' around him — if he can really feel an interest and
a i)leasure not only in watching their progress, but
in entering on the same employment of time and
capital himself— if he has ability sufficient to stand
amongst the first in suggesting improvement,
and determination enough to figure as forward in
carrying it out — if to the simjile weight of his name
he can add the counsel of experience and the zeal
of participation, he will command an affectionate
regard and a proud popularity, that no false pre-
tences or forced motives, let them be ever so well
contrived and concealed, could either excite or retain.
On these favourable terms ha-\'e we to introduce
Mr. Jaques as an English gentleman, while at the
same time the very fact of his portrait appearing in
this work guarantees him as an English farmer — a
union that never yet failed in further increasing
the advantages and i-ecommendations of both
chai'acters. To the latter, indeed, of the two
so interested, Mr. Jaques has in every way
been more than a usually sincere and serviceable
friend ; his doings and successes as an agri-
culturist bearing rather on what has been effected
for a whole body of farmers than any particular in-
dividual honour or object devised or accomplished
for himself alone. Very many men, we are aware
it may be said, have attempted this wholesale sys-
tem of advancing a cause it is their desire to see
improve ; but none possessing equal fortune,
and consequently equal temj^tation to do things by
deputy, have studied or worked harder for the
genuine good of the farmer than the subject of our
present notice. Power of purse, to be sure, is a
very fine starting point; but when we can join with
it absolutely hard labour in furthering its bene-
ficial influence — when we can witness such labour,
well directed and long continued, gratefully ac-
knowledged by those for whom it was employed,
and triumphantly defeating those difficulties it had
encountered, we must give, as in the present in-
stance, the well-earned laurels to the able man
rather than to the rich one.

Our opinion of the benefit arising from the es-
tablishment of farmers' clubs and local agricultural
meetings has been too often repeated to require

farther consideration here ; but were we requested
to name any one whose object, management, and
success would aflford a good model for a new
society of the same description about to be founded,
we should unhesitatingly point to the Richmondshire
Agricultural Association, or the Richmondshire Far-
mers' Club. And again, were we pressed to give
some reason for the admirable system of either or
both these institutions, we would impress upon
our inquirer the manifest advantages of a good
jjractical working patron, and furnish him with
the name and address of R. M. Jaques, Esq.,
the late president of one, and chairman and acting
secretary of the other; through whose indefatigable
exertions and well-applied liberality they ha^^e
chiefly reached that high position they now enjoy.
Indeed, Mr. Jaques's efforts, suggestions, and im-
provements in agriculture have been so intimately
connected with the transactions of these two
societies, that it will be necessary for us to take
something like a brief review of their rise and pro-
gress in enumerating the leading features in the ca-
reer of their worthy "guide, philosopher, and friend."
The Richmondshire Agricultural Association held
its first annual meeting in 1836; Mr. Jaques becom-
ing president on the retirement of the Earl of Zet-
land, about the fourth year from its commencement.
The Farmers' Club dates its origin some years
after the Association, the rules and original list of
members not being published before the July of
1841, in which we find Mr. Jaques leading off" with
the offices he yet fills of chairman and secretary.
Tlie Agricultural Association, although from the
first gradually increasing in strength, did not reach
any great or general importance until the fifth
meeting, in October, 1840, when, amongst other
additions to its funds and attractions, Mr. Jaques
ga\'e a judicious help in the follo■^^ing offer : — Two
premiums at the next meeting, for stock the pro-
perty of tenants at less than 500 pounds a-year
rent ; five pounds for the best cow, and five pounds
for the best two-year-old heifer. The increase of the
visual premiums at this agricultural show was after-
wards, at the suggestion of Mr. Jaques, still further
carried out by the formation of an additional class
for that purpose; which was subsequently adopted
by the Northallerton, Stockton, and other local
shows in the neighbourhood at their formation. The
good policy of confining certain premiums to such a
class of agriculturists can scarcely be too greatly
extolled : if any men need encouragement in their
vocations, the small tenant farmer is surely one
of the first who should have it. At the majority of
these shows, however, we confess, the competition
in almost everything being left entirely open, the
farmer who is fighting his way up has disadvan-
tages to contend with that often render it next to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

8

impossible for liim to exhil)it his stock on fair i repeat : "He" (Mr. Ransome) " was perfectly sa
terms, or with any reasonable hope of success ; tisfied with the manner in which the trial of impk

the great wealth alone of many of his opponents
giving them a pull in all that relates to breeding
and rearing stock, which the mere industry and
e\-perience of the man who farms for bread could
scarcely be expected even for a moment to stand
up against. To remedy this, and give every per-
son, from the highest to the lowest interested in
agricidture, a chance in attending and a pleasure in
supporting such meetings, let every show have a
stake formed .on the principle of that Mr. Jaques
started at the Richmond Association in 1840, and
then shall we have Farmer Jones showing as much
dehght and pride in beating his neighbour Brown,
as his Royal Highness Prince Albert or His Grace
the Uiike of Richmond, in beating all the world.

The next suggestion we have to notice, as pro-
posed by Mr. Jaques, and afterwards acted upon
mainly through his instrumentality, is equally
worthy of attention and adoption, as far as it well
can be, by managers of other societies of this cha-
racter. Up to this very day, perhaps the most objec-
tionable, as decidedly least satisfactory, department
in the usual order of agricultural associations is
that in which the implements are exhibited. With
manufacturers who have a really good article, and
purchasers who wish to have one, the short time
and opportunity allowed for trial can scarcely ever
be conducive of any lasting benefit to either. The
one may almost as well spare himself that j^^o
forma trouble, by putting just as much recommen-
dation as he pleases into his circular; and the
other rest contented with reading it. Mr.
Jaques, with his usual judgment and spirit, was
the first both to acknowledge and counteract
the effect of this growing evil. At the Bristol
meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, in his
capacity as president of the Richmond Asso-
ciation, he purchased one hundred pounds'
worth of the best implements exhibited, and
then and there invited their inventors and makers
to a week's trial of them on a farm of his, called
Broken Brea. This challenge was readily taken
up, in the same straightforward tone it was given,
l)y Messrs. Ransome, Clyburn, Crosskill, and
other leading machinists; and a week passed in
testing the merits of the different inventions,
that every farmer may refer to with advan-
tage, and that many a manufacturer has to thank
for establishing the name and fame of his produc-
tions. The latter gentlemen, as a body, were loud
in their approval of the course determined on by
Mr. Jaques ; and Mr. Ransome, in returning
thanks on their behalf, paid a well-merited compli-
ment to the chairman and his project, which we
cannot, from its (i-jrropos character, do better than

ments had been conducted. If any advantage was
to be derived from the use of good and perfect im-
plements, that advantage would be increased in a
tenfold degree could they bring them forth under
circumstances of fair competition. At agricultural
meetings, the time apjjointed for carrjdng into ope-
ration the awarding of premiums to implements
was so short, that it was in the power of any one
v/ho chose to compete for the prize, and beguile
the judgment of the judges by a machine which for
a short time would perform its work, but if sub-
jected to a fair test would be found to be, on the
whole, incompetent to that for which it was in-
tended. The prize, under such circumstances,
however valuable it was for puffing the exhibitor of
the implement into notoi-iety, instead of tending to
svipply the farmer v/ith good implements, often in-
duced him to purchase such as turned out ulti-
mately to be worthless. To such an extent had
this been the case, that he (Mr. Ransome) had de-
termined in future not to place his implements in
competition with those of others ;,but upon hearing
of the proposition of Mr. Jaques, he made up his
mind to attend if it were possible for him to do so.
A too exclusive dwelling upon their own perfections
often bhnded individuals to the merits of others ;
but from the present trial, both him and his com-
petitors would reap an amount of advantage which
would tend to induce them to introduce better im-
plements than any of them had done before. He
congratulated the society on having so respectable,
enterprising, and spirited a man as Mr. Jaques at
its head."

The kind of " thorough investigation " thus
auspiciously opened on has, we believe, been to a
certain extent since continued by the Richmond-
shire Agricultural Association.* In proof of this
we may mention, amongst many other proposals for
establishing such an annual week's work, an offer
made at this same meeting to Mr. Ransome, by the
chairman, Mr. Jaques, viz., that if Mr. Ransome
would attend, with implements from his manufac-
tory, any similar trials at Richmond, Mr. Jaques
would, in the event of his ])eing awarded the first
prize, pay all his \'isitors' expenses ; if ouly a second
prize, pay half his expenses; and if entirely unsuc-
cessful, Mr. Ransome to pay his own. The follow-
ing year Mr. Ransome availed himself of this offer,
by sending down one of his ploughs, a pair of

* A considerable portion of the implements
purchased having afterwards been distributed as
prizes, instead of, and far preferable (as we think),
to " money do-wn," the expenses of the association
were but little increased by this experiment.

A 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Suffolk horses, andamanagln^man; and being thus
entirely furnished with his own work and workmen,
carried off the first prize in a field of twenty-seven
competing ploughs. The liberality of this invitation
is scarcely superior to thewell defined terms on which
it was given, as it naturally stands to reason that no
one, without great confidence in the actual utility of
what he purposed exhibiting, would avail himself of
it. It is not, however, with the implements alone
that Mr. Jaques has been so energetic in ascertain-
ing their real virtues for the benefit of those with
whom he is connected, he having two or three years
previous to this set apart a certain portion on one
of his farms for trying every new variety of wheat
procurable. These samples, moreover, were dib-
bled at different distances (a mode of ])lanting not
very generally adopted with this seed), while the
crop was always open for the inspection of any
members of the association.

With the Farmers' Club matters are equally well
managed; in the chief features of which, right
worthy of attention from its contemporaries, are a
register oftice for farm servants, started under the
patronage of the club, and the custom of bringing
forward and discussing on appointed occasions all
sorts of subjects in any way bearing on the interests
of farming and farmers. In these home-made ar-
guments, so calculated to draw out and encourage
men even of the most moderate pretensions, it is
hardly necessary to add that the chairman and se-
cretary take a very prominent and able part ; as in-
deed he does in everything connected wth that
science — if we may thus designate it — to which he
has so continually and successfully devoted his
energies. In selecting and breeding his cattle we
find the same determination to have the best, a state-
ment that the stock sales at St. Trinians (Mr.
Jaques's residence previous to the decease of his
father), show ample evidence in support of, that
might be yet further increased by the fact of Mr.
Jaques's short-horns not only almost invariably
gaining premiums at the Richmondshire, Northal-
lerton, and Yorkshire Meetings, held at Doncaster,
Hull, and York, but also in th.eir having, at the
Cambridge Meeting of the Royal Agricidtural So-
ciety of England in 1840, taken two prizes, when
their owner had sent but those two to be exhibited.
These were a yearling heifer, Mermaid, and a bull
called Clementi, portraits of both of which have
appeai'ed in this work. Also at the Bristol meeting,
in 1842, a yearling heifer. Golden Drop, obtained
the premium.

The sale of short-horns at St, Trinians, in Oc-

tober, 1841, and September, 1844, when Mr.
Jaques, we trust for a time only, gave up breeding,
we insert here as the " confirmation strong" of the
talent displayed by comparatively so young a hand.

Name. Sold for. Purchased by.

Melody 173 gs. Lord Hill .

Mermaid 165 Mr. Booth, of Killerby

Golden Drop 160 Lord Hill

Lady Anne 135 Mr. Parkinson, of Ley-

fields
Young Rachael 100 Mr. Brown

Concertina 87 Lord Hill

DahHa 70 Mr. Harrison

Celia 67 Mr. Baker

Victoria 61 Mr. Brown

Warren Rose 61 Mr. Wetherell

Epaulet 60 Mr. Brown

Rosa 50 Mr. Hincks

Wild Rose 45 Mr. Knowles

Romp 42 Mr. Foster

Violet 40 Mr. Maynard

Etta 40 Mr. Drury

Rosebud 40 Mr. Mauleverer

Heifer Cala^es.
Hippodamia 60 Mr. Le^vis

Purity 51 Mr. Lewis

Caradori 41 Mr. Baker

Catilani 23 Mr. Baker

Bulls.
Clementi 150 Mr. Rutson

Dulcimer, a bull calf 105 Mr. Booth, of Killerby
Magistrate, a year-
ling bull 40 Mr. Harrison
The A'ery excellent painting and portrait from
which our engraving is taken occupied a distin-
guished place in the exhibition of pictures at the
Royal Academy the year before last, with a line or
two of particulars in the catalogue that proclaim
Mr. Jaques's worth far more concisely and decisively,
perhaps, than all we have said in our endeavours
to do justice to it. The heading runs and reads
thus : —

" Portrait of R. M. Jaques, Esq. Painted

for the Farmers' Club, Richmond, and presented

by the Members to Mr. Jaques."

This is as it should be, and in recording the very

high and appropriate mark of respect the members

of the Richmond Farmers' Club have paid to their

Chairman, in this portrait of an Eminent British

Farmer, we cannot but congratulate them, in the

words of Mr. Ransome, " on having so respectable,

enterprising, and spirited a man as Mr. Jaques at

their head."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

GEOLOGY AS APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE.

JIONTHLY MEETING OF THE I

The subject which . stood for this evening was
Geology as apphed to AgricuUure, and at six o'clock

Mr. Baker rose to open the question. He said
it had been arranged that their discussions should
commence at six o'clock in the summer, and at five
in the winter; but he supjwsed it was almost as
difficult to say when summer ended and winter be-
gan, as it was in some cases to draw the line be-
t\\'een sanity and insanity. He had on a former
occasion addressed some remarks to the member;;
of the club, at one of their monthly meetings ; and
they had entered into the subject with so much in-
terest that he was induced to make a second attempt
of the same kind, treating the subject as applicable
to the jmrposes of agriculture. Now it was doubt-
less rather a difficult task to treat the subject in this
way, for he had never directed his attention to it as
particularly applicable to agriculture, although he
had profited by his geology to some extent as far as
the kno^^'ledge of soils went. The most important
matter perhaps known to geologists, in an agricul-
tural point of view, Avas the substance calledchalk,
which appeared to be designed for the use of the
agriculturist. No doubt all things were designed
for our use ; but it was impossible to regard the
important uses of this substance so abundant in
nature without adopting the view taken in the
Bridgwater Treatise, and regarding its existence as
an evidence of design on the part of the great Creator
which led us to trace it up to its first source. In
the primitive rocks no carbonate of lime was found;
but these masses of chalk ajjpeared to be formed of
very minute insects or corals, so minute indeed as
well to deserve to be termed animalcules, athousand
of which occiipied only the square inch, but which
by their continued efforts formed islands of vast ex-
tent. Thus in the course of time the little coral
insects formed in masses until they got to the surface
of the water, and these masses became little islands,
forming another and another, until, joining together,
they at length became almost continents, as in the
south seas. Thus we had the key to carjjonate of
lime. By an examination of chalk with the micro-
scope, it was found to consist of innumerable animal
deposits ; by inference, therefore, we were led to
suppose that chalk was formed in the same manner
and under the same circumstances as coral rocks.
How these large masses of chalk were formed itwas
difficult to imagine, except by supposing that they
were formed beneath the surface of the sea; they could
not otherwise be so perfectly formed as they were.
They were found sometimes to contain various shells,
teeth of sharks, and other substances, which plainly
demonstrate that they must have once formed part

,VRMERS' CLUB, DECEMBER 8.

of a vast inland or marine sea. The greater part of
this kingdom is a large basin of chalk, which crops
out in all directions towards Dover, Cambridgeshire,
and Huntingdon, of which London is supposed to
]je the centre. This immense basin of chalkis sup-
posed to be the bottom of some inland sea, formed
])y an invasion of the waters, as a succession of both
fresh water and marine animals hasbeen found therein.
The London clay would appear to have been the
deposit formed in this great l)asin of chalk, for on
examination it appears to be immediately in this
basin. In this mud have been found vast varieties
of the remains of animals, and the chalk is seen
cropping out in all directions. The chalk is not a
level surface, having been apparently acted upon by
volcanic action, or by some other power from below.
This is the case under London, and the surround-
ing counties ; and therefore it is that, in boring
for water, we sometimes find the chalk much
nearer, and at other times much deeper,
from a given point, than we ex])ect. One of the
principal uses to which this knowledge of the rela-
tive position of the London clay and chalk had
been applied was that of boring for water. An
opinion had formerly existed that Essex was a
very unhealthy county ; ail that portion of it lying
south-east of Chelmsford was formerly very sub-
ject to agues, and was doubtless a very unhealthy
district. A great deal of miasma was generated,
and labourers going to get in the haiTCst in that
part of the country used frequently to be attacked
with ague. This arose from the great quantities of
stagnant water which were necessarily kept for do-
mestic ])urposes ; but, after the modern plan of
boring through the chalk had been adopted, and
I fine springs of water had been obtained, sufficient
I for the cattle and every domestic purpose, this had
I not been the case. Springs thus obtained were
! frequently called Artesian wells (from the fact of the
[ plan having been brought to this country from the
I province of Artois,in France); but in Essex they were
■ generally termed "bored water," simply. ^Ir. Baker
I here exhibited several diagrams, in explanation of
i the geology of the portions of Essex in the vicinity
! of Saffron ^yalden and Chelmsford, and showed
how the chalk and the clay had, by the action of
the water, in some places become mixed. He had
first brought this under the notice of the London
geologists, showing that it was not a distinct and
separate formation, but only two substances united.
It was in the case of some of the Artesian wells
that the water did not rise to the surface at one
time, and that it would at another : this phenome-
non appeared to depend upon the tides ; for, al-

6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thovxgh the water in the instances mentioned would
not come to the surface v/hen the tide was down,
it wouhl rise when the tide was up. It was there-
fore evident that, at some point or other, this water
did find its Vv^ay out into the sea ; that was clearly
ascertained, and showed that there was a connec-
tion between the chalk and many parts of the
ocean. By other diagrams he exhibited the alluvial
deposits which were to be found embedded in the
clay in parts of Essex, and stated that it was from
the nature of the Essex soil that they were enabled,
by the use of wood or even straw, to make drains
at a very small cost, which woiild last for ten or
twenty years. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, had ex-
pressed his surprise that they did not make per-
manent drains, as they did in Scotland ; but,"as the
drains to which he had alluded, from the particular
local circumstances, answered so well, it was not to
be expected that they should construct permanent
drains at a cost of four-and-thirty shilhngs an acre.
It was veiy diflerent, however, when they came into
the middle portions of the coimtry, where they had
what they called " squaly" land, or land consisting
of alternate successions. Tlie ordinary mode of
draining would not do there ; and it was necessary
to resort to pipe, or tile, or stone, according to Mr.
Smith's plan. As long as the water met gravel
only, it would flow from the high lands to the low
freely enough ; but, as soon as it came in contact
with clay, an accumulation of water took place, un-
til it broke forth in what was termed a common
spring. All the lands temtied " squaly" were af-
fected in the same way ; and, if not drained, the'
bottom water did great injury to the crops. The
value of geological knowledge, in the pursuit of
agriculture, must be evident from the fact that a
good geologist must know far more of what was
passing beneath than he who was only acquainted
with the surface. He (Mr. Baker) had, on several
occasions, opportunities of making viseful sug-
gestions to those who were conducting operations
in ignorance of the science of geology — namely,
digging for water in the London clay. He told them
that they were only spending time and money in so
doing, as no water was to be found until they got
through the chalk ; and as it was probable they
would not reach the necessary depth under many
hundred feet, it woidd be better to resort to the
process of boring. It turned out as he said, and
one gentleman had got water at a depth of 468 feet,
and another at about 500. In this clay were found
remains of large shells of the oyster kind, sharks'
teeth, gourds, seeds, and plants of a singular cha-
racter. He had mentioned this fact to show that
a knowledge of geology might frequently prove of
great advantage, and that it might moreover not
only save a xiseless expenditure of money, but also

spare us from the ridicule of those about us. It
was of no matter to what depth a person bored, if
he got into a wrong series ; and hence a knowledge
of geology was of great importance in this respect.
The geologist, as soon as you showed him the sub-
soil, knew what to expect beneath it. The London
clay of Essex, Kent, and the surrounding counties,
formed one of the least productive soils of any,
but, when combined with chalk, became one of the
most productive, and grew the best wheat perhaps
of any soil {hear). In many such soils, where
chalking was resorted to, no other manure was
necessary ; but it was remarkable that, fertilizing
as the first application was, the second appli-
cation did not take at all, so that there was
some chemical action at work, which was not
clearly understood. He had tried it upon farms at
Writtle ; and although he did it at great expense,
having to bring the chalk from some distance, he
had always found it answer. He had found, in the
case of lands which were covered with the May-
weed, hemlock, and a sort of wld marygold, that,
after the application of forty, fifty, or sixty loads
per acre, these weeds wei"e no more seen {hear).
From the irregularity of the position of the London
clay, in many cases, it would appear to have been
forced ujjwards by some considerable power ; the
same was occasionally observed with respect to
coal. In one part of Essex the London clay was
observed to be forced up exactly as if it had been
built up into a kind of wall. These "faults" of
clay appeared to be designed by the Almighty
power for the purpose of giving us water in every
part of the earth ; for, mthout them, the water
would drain oflF from the high lands to the low,
leaving the former altogether mthout. When there
was too much water flowing through the land, the
practical farmer cut his drain, and turned it oflf
much in the same way as a surgeon in an aneurism
takes up the artery. Mr. Baker here exhibited
several diagrams for the purpose of showing that
the stratification ran in a particular direction —
namely, from north-west to north, and also that
the series were alternating. The same geological
observations which apphed to one covinty would
not ap])ly to another : in one direction we found
Bath or Portland stone ; in another Oxford clay ;
then the oolitic series, and so on until we came to
coal. "VMiere they found stone, it was useless to dig
for chalk, because it was always found lying higher
than stone. It was only by a thorough knowledge
of this science that we could tell which was the
higher and which was the lower series. By the
application of this knowledge, large portions of the
county of Norfolk, which formerly only produced
a few rabbits, had been converted into one of the
finest corn-growing districts of the country. The

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

whole of Lincolnshire was formerly nothing but a
bog, upon which there wan j^artial vegetation, form-
ing jjeat ; now, by digging through the peat until
they arrived at the clay, and spreading that clay
upon the surface, they had produced land which
grew as fine corn as any in the kingdom. It
was to a knowledge of geology and chemistry that
was to be attributed the superior knowledge of the
farmer of the present day as compared with the
farmer of 200 years ago {hcai; hear). With some
encouragement, with a proper application of their
talents and capital, and with some certainty as to
the fate ^\'hich awaited them — for nothing was so
mischievous as uncertainty (hear) — the position of
the farmer might be greatly improved (hear).
There were many other points of this delightful
science to which he might draw their attention,
said the hon. gentleman, and proceeded to allude
to the remains of fish of a rude form and charac-
ter, which were often found in pieces of slate.
These fish appear to have been fortified with means
of self-defence far beyond those of our age. Other
remains showed that the vegetable world of the
period to which these specimens belonged differed
widely from the vegetable world of the pi'esent age.
For it was common to find ferns 30 or 40 feet in
height — as many feet, in fact, as they now were
inches. Other plants of an enormous size were
found embedded in clay, which nuist have been
deposited there long after the coal formation took
place. Vast amounts of vegetable mattei', which
had grown upon the surface of the earth, indeed,
appeared to have been forced down either by some
hurricane or tempest, and thus to have formed the
immense beds of coal-like peat which were some-
times discovered. In a similar manner the deposit
from which coal was formed had doubtless taken
place ; and although at first sight there did not
appear anything like design in all this, yet now
that in these latter ages of the world we were reap-
ing the benefit of it, we could not but attribute it
to one of the great designs of Providence for our
benefit. In no one instance had any remains'
of vertebrated animals been found in the limestone
series. But in the later formations we began to
find organised remains, and a gradual succession
of animals, apparently following each other in the
habitation of the world — such as, first, fish of a
very rude form ; then vegetables ; then animals
adapted to Uving on the earth or in the water,
having fin-like feet ; and 'so on, until at last the
earth became a fit habitation for man. All this
was the work, not of ages merely, but of millions
of ages. Of all the different kinds of animal and
vegetable remains which had been found at different
times and under difl'ei'ent circumstances, every one
had, doubtlessly, at some time or other been on the

surface of the earth. They must have existed there
before they v/cre deposited where they were found ;
they were justified in arguing, therefore, that the
earth had been gradually progressing for many
ages, until it arrived at its present state of exist-
ence. There had been a good deal of difference of
opinion upon this point at first, but Dr. Buckland
had explained many of the difficulties. It was now
well known that when Moses spoke of the earth's
having been created in the space of seven days, he
did not mean seven periods of twenty-four hours
each. In the Hebrew, the word " day" was
variously applied, and had several different and
distinct significations; sometimes it meant the
ordinary day of 24 hours, at others the measure of
man's life, and others much longer periods. With
this understanding of the term, the books of Moses
were found to agree perfectly well with the calcula-
tions of philosophers of the present day ; but how-
ever deeply they might investigate, there was still
something which the finite mind of man could not
reach, because he had the works of an infinite mind
to contemplate (hear, hear). After some further
remarks, Mr. Baker resumed his seat amid the
applause of the meeting.

Mr, HuMBY then rose to move a vote of thanks
to Mr. Baker for the lecture he had deUv-ered, He
had heard his observations with much delight, and
he was sure the club owed him a greater debt of
gratitude for the part he always took in their dis-
cussions, and the handsome manner in which he at
all times endeavoured to advance the interests of
the tenant farmers of England, than it could ever
repay (cheers). He concluded by moving a vote of
thanks to Mr. Baker.

Mr. Brown said he quite concurred in the sen-
timents expressed by Mr, Humby, and with great
pleasure seconded the motion, which was carried
unanimously.

Mr. Baker returned thanks. He said he did
not feel that he had done anything to boast of, but
he was very much obhged to them for the kind ex-
pressions to which they had given utterance. He
had always been identified with those who, hke
himself, were connected mth agriculture. They
were a very intelligent class of men, and he had
found by experience that they only wanted to be
brought out (hear). There was much good to be
done, as Sir Robert Peel had said, by a number of
men meeting and rubbing their minds together ; if
twenty men met, and communicated to each other
what they knew, the chances were that each of the
twenty would go away benefited by what each had
individually stated (hear, hear). It was the duty
of all to contribute to the general good, and, by so
doing, we were only filling that place in the hiunan
family which Providence had designed, — Adjourned,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

M

(U)
«35

M

PI?:,

^

?3

©

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

9

\- : HALL'S PATENT BRICK MACHINE.

Strongly as we advocate the most rigid economy
in every mechanical process employed either in ag-
ricultural or manufacturing operations, still it is
not mere cheapness that we would recommend ;
for, unless the quality of the ojjeration, or article
produced by machinery, be equal or superior to
that which results from manual labour, we should
not think it would be wise to allow the former to
displace the latter; but where it can be shown
that l)y the aid of machinery any given process
can be conducted, through a less expensive channel,
to a more uniformly perfect standard of excel-
lence than can be achieved by mere manual dex-
terity, in such a case, we should feel no difficulty
in advising the use of mechanical auxllicuies ; and in
stating this, we believe we are advocating the real
interests of the laljouring classes. The manufac-
ture of pipes and tiles for draining pur])oses, sug-
gests a case in point : within the last five or six
years, upwards of forty new machines, varying in
merit, have been brought into activity, many of
them with remarkable success ; and the result is,
that the price of draining and some other tiles has
been brought dou-n nearly 70 per cent., whilst the
demand has increased — say, for the purpose of
argument, 300 per cent.; and we have the same
number of men and l)oys receiving the same wages, in
full employment, and manufacturing by the aid of
machinery three times the quantity, and of a better
quality, than could be made by hand.

On the subject of increased demand, although
we cannot quote from positive statistical authority,
we have conversed with many eminent agricultural
engineers and tile-makers, who are of opinion that
it is nearer 3000 per cent, than 300 ; and that, con-

sequently, ten men and hoys are now in fidl work
with the machines, where only one could obtain
employment as a tile-maker previous to their intro-
duction. Now taking this statement as only an
approximation towards the fact, it is enough to
show that tile-machines at least must stand acquit-
ted of having de])rived the " labourer of his hire."
The same observations will, we hope and beheve,
apply to the general introduction of machines for
the manufacture of bricks. We this month present
our readers with a beautiful wood-cvit of one that
is considered to be the most effective yet introduced
to public notice ; and that there is ample room for
improvement in this (at present) rude art, will be
readily admitted by any one who has ever looked
upon the miserable misshapen things that are
manufactured in the vicinity of the metropolis, and
called bricks.

This machine is the invention of Mr. Hall, an
American brick-maker, and is in general operation
throughout the United States. It is so simple and
efficient in its construction and performance, that
it seems destined here also to take the lead. It
consists of a pug mill ujjon an improved principle,
to which the moulding ai)]3aratus is so attached,
that the clay, after passing through the pug mill, is
forced immediately into a series of moulds prepared
to receive it.

The bricks made by this machine are much
sounder and better than those made by hand ; and
with the power of one horse and two men, from
8,000 to 10,000 bricks can be produced per day.

One of these machines can at any time be seen
in full operation, by applying to Mr. Frederick
Ransome, at Fhnt Wharf, Ipswich, sole proprie-
tors of the English patent.

r Vfl4

MESSRS. BARRETr, EXALL, AND ANDREWES' (OF READING) HAND THRASHING

MACHINE AT WORK.

These machines have now been before the agri- I value, and the highest prize that can be awarded to
cultural world neai'ly three years ; and the many I the very respectable firm who invented it. An im-
hundreds in use afford the best testimony to their | portant improvement has lately been introduced ii\

10

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the construction of the concave or breasting, which
is made to expand or contract, so as to maintain a
xmiforai si)ace beUveen it and the drum, thus adapt-

ing it to all kinds of grain or seed. The adjusting
screw is fitted with a pointer^ which shows on the
index how to set it for any particular grain.

THE COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MANURES.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESa., F.R.S,

Their Gases, — Nitrogen.

In this paper I propose to investigate the com-
])Osition of those portions of the organic fertiUzers
which are composed of only gaseous substances,
or are absorbed by the plant in the state of gas.
That vegetables contain these in A'ery large propor-
tions, we are well assured ; and it is only in case
this assertion should be doubted by the younger
portion of my readers that I insert, as an introduc-
tion to the subsequent observations, the analysis of
a few of the farmers' commonly cultivated crops ;

and this I take from page 36 of the valuable Lec-
tures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, by
Professor J. F. Johnston, merely requesting the
student to remember that the first substance on the
list, carbon (charcoal), is absorbed by the grooving
plant only in the state of gas, when — as, for instance,
united with oxygen — it forms the carbonic acid gas
(or fixed air) of the chemist. The following table,
then, gives the composition of 1000 parts of eight
different substances : —

Hay from

Clover-

Aftermath

Young Clover.

Oats.

seed.

Hay.

Peas.

Wheat.

Hay.

Potatoes

Cai-bon

. 507

507

494

471

465

455

458

441

Hydrogen

. 66

64

58

56

61

57

50

58

Oxygen

. 389

367

350

349

401

431

387

439

Nitrogen

. 38

22

70

24

42

34

15

12

Ashes

—

40

28

100

31

23

90

50

The composition of plants, and the sources from
whence they derived their constituents, long since
engaged the chemical jjliilosopher's attention. The
history of the research — how, step by step, the
chemist's repeated and laborious experiments
added to the farmer's knowledge, one fact after
another, constitutes one of the most valuable pages
in the history of chemistry. It is needless in this
paper to examine this interesting jjrogress of know-
ledge; the conclusion to which these researches
lead appear to be pretty well established — that plants
absorb all their purely organic constituents in the
gaseous state, and that of these only a portion of
the carbon and the oxygen are derived from the
atmosphere in which the plants are placed, but that
their nitrogen and their hydrogen are chiefiy ab-
sorbed from the decomposing organic substances
of the soil.

Experiments made as long since as the days of
M. Saussure seem to have proved that plants do
not absorb the nitrogen, but that they do absorb
the carbonic acid gas which is contained in the
atmosphere in which they are placed. Amongst
other trials {Thomson's Chem. v. iv., p. 345) he
caused some plants of the Vinca minor (lesser
periMdnkle) to vegetate in a confined portion of
air. The following table gives the composition in

square inches of that air previous to the introduc-
tion of the plants, and after the periwinkles had
vegetated in it for six days :

"Wlien put in. When taken out.
Nitrogen . . 211-92 218'95

Oxygen . . 56-33 71*05

Carbonic acid gas 2r75 0-00

The cultivator will notice in this table, that
although the plants absorbed all the carbonic acid
gas, yet that the nitrogen of the air was rather in-
creased. It then became a question of consider-
able interest, from whence is the nitrogen of vege-
table substances obtained. All later researches
seem to show that this portion of their food enters
into the plant in combination wth other substances,
as in ammonia (composed entirely of nitrogen and
hydrogen) or nitric acid (nitrogen and oxygen).
And these conclusions of the chemist are entirely
supported by the observations of the practical
farmer. To give an instance : if it be true that
nitrogen is absorbed by the roots of plants in
combination with other substances, then it would
be apparently reasonable to conclude that those
crops manured with fertiUzers the most abound-
ing in nitrogen should yield, upon examination, a
larger proportion of that gas than those not so
treated. Now, from the results of careful exami-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

U

nations, the chemist quite agrees in tlie correctness
of this assumption. Take, for instance, the wheat
])lant, and examine the composition of the
Hour it produces (composed chiefly of starch and
ghiten) as raised by being dressed mth various
manures, and it will be found that the proportion
of ghiten (which contains 7'8 per cent, of nitrogen)
is invariably increased by the increased ])roportion
of the nitrogen in the manure. M. Hermstadt's
experiments on this question are very important ; he
sowed equal quantities of the same wheat on the
same ground, and manured them with equal
weights of difterent manures : from 100 parts of
each sample of grain produced he obtained starch
and gluten in the following proportions {Johnston'' s
Lee on Ag. and Geo., jj. 103) :

Gluten.
Soil, simple . . 9'2
Potato haulm . 9' 6
Cow dung . . 12*0
Pigeons' dimg . r2"2
Horse dung . . 13'7
Goats' dung . . 32'9
Sheep's dimg . 32'9
Dried nightsoil . 33-14
Dried ox-blood . 34-24
Dried human urme 35" I

Starch. Produce.
667 3 fold

65-94 5

62-3 7

63-2 9

61-64 10

42-4 12

42-8 12

41-44 14

41-3 14

39' 3 12

The farmer will notice how steadily the propor-
tion of the gluten (starch does not contain nitro-
gen) is increased with the increased proportion of
nitrogen (or richness) in the manure. Mr. J. Hay-
ward has given the proportion of nitrogen con-
tained in one ton of various commonly-employed
manures {Far. Mag., v. xx., 2J. 138) :

Farm-yard manure

Night-soil .

Fresh bones

Rape dust . .

Dry blood .

Guano

Shoddy

Sulphate of ammonia

Soot .

Nitrate of potash

Pearl ashes .

Nitrate of soda .

Common salt

Gypsum

Urine, per 100 gallons

Gas hquor, do.

lb.

11

39
120

70
366
182
270
470

41
299

364 0

15

18

Indeed, as Professor Johnstone remarks {Ag.
Chem., p. 170), the amount of nitrogen present in
each of the organic manui-es affords one of the
readiest and most simple tests by which their rela-
tive agricultural values, compared with those of
vegetable matters and vAi\\ each other, can be
pretty nearly estunated. In reference to their relative
quantities of nitrogen, therefore, they have been

arranged in the following order, the number 0]ipo-
site to each representing the weight in Ib.s. which
is equivalent to or would ])roduce the same sensi-
ble effect upon the soil as lOOlbs. of farm-yard
manure : —

Flemish liquid manure

. 200

Sohd excrements of the

cow . . .

125

»> j>

horse . .

73

Liquid ditto of the

cow

91

horse .

16

Mi.xed ditto of the

cow

. 98

horse .

. 54

55 55 .

sheep .

. 36

55 55

pig •

. 64

Liquid blood 15

Dry blood 4

Dry fieyh 3

Pigeon dung 5

Feathers 3

Cow hair 3

Bone shavings 3

Dry woollen rags 2^

The fertilizing properties, however, of these
vary very considerably, according to their state of
decomposition. Liquid manure, for instance, is
well known to the farmer to be more powerful after
it has undergone the putrefactive fermentation, that
is when its proportion of ammonia is increased ;
that such is the case may be seen from the fol-
lowing important analysis, by Sprengel, of 100
parts of the iirine of the cow in three different
states {Ag. Gaz. vol. i., p. 342) ; the first specimen
being in its fresh state, the second when putrefied
by itself, the third putrefied with its oy>n\ bulk of
water : —

Fresh. Putrid. Watered.

Urea 4000 1000 600

Albumen . . . . 10 -— —

Mucus 190 40 30

Benzoic acid .... 90 25o 120

Lactic acid 516 500 500

Carbonic acid .... 256 165 1633

Ammonia 200 487 1622

Potash 664 664 664

Soda 554 554 554

SiUca 36 5 8

Alumina 2 — —

Oxide of iron .... 41 ■ —

Oxide of manganese . . 1 — 30

Magnesia 30 22 —

Chlorine 272 272 272

Sulphuric acid ... 405 338 332

Phosphoric acid ... 70 26 46

Acetic acid — 1 20

Sulphuretted hydrogen . . — 1 30

Earthy phosphates and

carbonates .... — - 180 150

Water 92624 95442 95481*

* " During the putrefaction ofdead animal bodies,"
remarks Professor Johnstone {Elements of Agri,

12

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

" Such great differences," obseiTes Professor
Liebig {Orcfanic Chem. p. 81), "must be owing to
some cause ; and this ,.we find in the different
methods of cultivation. An increase of animal
manure give rise not only to an increase in the
number of seeds, but also to a most remarkable
difference in the jn-oportion of the gluten which
they contain. Animal manure acts only by the
formation of ammonia : one hundred parts of
wheat gi'own on a soil manured with cow-dung (a
manure containing the smallest quantity of nitro-
gen) afforded only ] I'Oo parts of gluten, and C4'34
parts of starch ; while the same quantity, grown on
a sod manured with human mine, yielded the max-
imum of gluten, namely 35"1 per cent. Putrefied
urine contains nitrogen in the forms of carbonate,
phos})hate, and lactate of ammonia ; and in no
other form than that of ammoniacal salts." "All
animal manure," he adds in another place (p. 85),
" emit carbonic acid and ammonia as long as nitro-
gen exists in them. In every stage of their putre-
faction, an escape of ammonia from them may be
induced by moistening them with a potash ley ; the
ammonia being apparent to the senses by a pecu-
liar smell, and by the dense white vapour which
arises when a solid body, moistened with an acid,
is brought near to it."*

It is worthy of notice, as I have elsewhere had

Chem. and GeoL p. 22), "ammonia is invariably
given off. From the animal substances of the
farm-yard, it is evolved during their decay or
putrefaction, as well as from all sohd and hquid
manures of animal origin. Ammonia is natu-
rally formed also during the decay of vegetable
substances in the soil. This happens either, as in
animal bodies, by the direct union of their nitro-
gen with a portion of the hydrogen of which they
consist, or by the combination of a portion of their
hydrogen with the nitrogen of the air ; or when
they decompose in contact with air and water
at the same time by their taking the oxy-
gen of a quantity of the water, and dis-
posing its hydrogen at the moment of
hberation, to combine with the nitrogen of
the air, and form ammonia. In the two latter
modes ammonia is formed most abundantly when
the oxygen of the air does not gain the readiest ac-
cess. Hence in open subsoils, in which vegetable
matter abounds, it is most hkely to be jjroduced.
And thus one of the benefits which follow from
thorough-draining and subsoil ploughing is, that
the roots penetrate, and fill the soil with vegetable
matter, which, by its decay in the confined atmo-
sphere of the subsoil, gives rise to this production of
ammonia."

* It must be carefully borne in mind by the
student, that it is to the gaseous matters of which
ammonia is composed that the salts of which it
forms a portion owe their fertilizing properties;
ammonia, as I have before stated, being composed of

occasion to remark, that those vegetable sub-
stances in which gluten exists in the largest pro-
portions are precisely those which are the most
nutritious (and in animal substances nitrogen
abounds).* Thus Davy found in 1000 parts of
Middlesex wheat 190 parts of gluten> and in the
same quantity of spring wheat, 240 parts; but in
blighted wheat only 32 ])arts ; in mildewed wheat,
however, 130 parts; in Polish wheat 200 parts, in
two varieties of Sicilian wheat 230 and 239 parts,
in barley GO parts, oats 87, rye 109, common
bean 103, peas 35, potatoes from 30 to 40, linseed
cake 17, Swedish turnips 2, and common turnips
only 1 part. M. Yogel detected in the wheat of
Bavaria 240 parts ; and Boussingault found in the
wheat grown in the Jardin des Plantes 270 parts,
but in winter wheat only 33 parts.

The farmer must not conclude that nitrogen is
found only in peculiar ])lants. In the examina-
tions of M. Boussingault (Jojir. A(/. Soc, vol. iii., p.
150) 100,000 parts, by weight, of

Wheat, contained of nitrogen.

^^'heat straw

Barley

Barley straw .

Beans

Peas . . .

Lucern, when green

Do., when dry
j Red clover-r^vhen green
j Do., when dry
i Beet roots, dried

Do., fresh gathered

Cabbage or rape plants, dried

Oats

Oat straw

Rye . .

R3'e straw

Potatoes

Turnips, fresh gathered

Do., when dry

Carrot roots, dried in the air.

Do., when fresh gathered

Buckwheat seeds

Meadow catstail, green

Rye grass

Parts.
238

30
202

26
513
408

30
166
176
277
270

26
550
222

36
229

20
180

17
220
240

30
240
106
106

nitrogen 24 parts, and hydrogen 76 parts. The
following is the composition of its chief salts : —
Acid. Ammonia. Water.
Sulphate .... 54-66 14-24 31-10
Carbonate . . . .45" 43* 12.

Muriate .... 49-55 31-95 18-50

* "The quantity of food," says Liebig, "which
animals take for their nourishment, diminishes or
increases in the same proportion, as it contains
more or less of the substances containing nitrogen.
A horse may be kept alive by feeding it with pota-
toes which contain a very small quantity of
nitrogen; but life thus supported, is a gradual
starvation : the animal increases in neither size nor

Mr. Robert Rigg (Phils.
detected in 100 parts of the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

Trans. 1838, j). 395)

13

Parts of
Nitrogen.

Flour of wheat, not nearly ripe
Flour of the same kind, nearly ripe .
Leaves of the wheat, not nearly
ripe . . . .

Leaves of the wheat, nearly ripe
Stems of wheat, not nearly ripe

„ „ nearly ripe

Chaff of wheat, not nearly ripe

„ ,, when nearly ripe .

Common grass, not gromng freely.

„ „ growing very freely

Turnip, when attacked by the fly .

Cabbage leaf not eaten

„ ,, part eaten by insects ,

Tlie insects themselves
Green part of a cabbage leaf
WTiite part of the same
Tendril of the same
Very centre part of the cabbage
Root of the same plant
Red clover stems

Leaf ....

Flower ....

Potato itself
„ stem
„ leaves
„ apple
„ corolla
„ pistils
Young carrot ^ inch in diameter
„ „ leaves

,, ,, steins

2.9
2.3

3.3
2.1
3.5
1.3
1.8
1.3
4.4
5.6
8.0
8.1
5.7
14.0
6.5
8.0
5.4
4.1
5.5
2.5
4.2
3.6
2.9
3.1
8.5
3.9
3.9
4.6
2.9
2,7

1.7

It is also noticeable that Mr. Rigg found that
when barley was made to vegetate in the shade, the
increase in the quantity of its nitrogen was found
to be nearly 50 per cent. ; but when vegetating, ex-
posed to the direct rays of the sun, that then the
increase was only 30 per cent. ; and he also made
the observation that the more rapidly the plants
vegetate, the more nitrogen they are found to con-
tain. It is also well known to the cultivator, that
plants growing in the shade have usually a deep
green colour, vegetating with much luxuriance ;
and that certain animal manures applied to plants
produce similar results, such as gelatine, oils, urine,
blood, fish, &c. Now, it is noticeable that these
fertilizers abound in nitrogen, which gas must
be slowly evolved during their decomposition in
the soil; gelatine containing 16.998, albumen
15.705, the fibrin of blood 19,934, urea 46.66 per
cent. {Farmers' Encyclopedia).

From these few facts, the farmer will readily
perceive how important are the uses of nitrogen in
the fertilizers he applies to his lands, a very
valuable knowledge acquired only from the la-
borious experiments of the chemist. It is need-
less to examine nitrogen in its other combina-
tions, such as with oxygen in the atmospheric gases,
and \vith the same gas in nitric acid ; for those
in which it exists in the plants he cultivates
and the manures he employs, are facts far more
than sufficient to excite with the farmer's thirst for
scientific information, his curiosity, and his grati-
tude.

{To be continued.)

LITERARY INSTRUCTION AND RURAL LABOUR.

TO THE EDITOR.

SiR,^ — In your number of last October you in-
serted for me a letter, in which I endeavoured to
develoj) some of the advantages that would arise
to society from establishing schools in which were
carried on literar)'- instruction and rural labour.
Since, I have been turning the scheme in my
mind; and it certainly does not acquire less im-
portance from investigation. I \A'ill repeat that by
spade-husbandry persons have been able to live

strength, and sinks under every exertion. The
quantity of rice which an Indian eats astonishes
the European ; but the fact that rice contains less
nitrogen than any other kind of grain at once ex-
plains the circumstance." (Organic Chemistry.
p. 83.)

and thrive on small takings of land, as it seems
they do in Flanders. Then there can be no ques-
tion that a schoolmaster might find the advantage
of giving literary instruction for a given portion of
the day to his scholars, on his receiving their la-
bour for the remainder; for the labour of thirty
or forty boys, Avith good tools, and judiciously di-
rected, wei'e it merely for one hour daily, would be
of no trifling amount of value during the year.
This position as to its great importance may not be
clear to all persons ; I beg therefore to refer them
to the "Farmers' Almanac" for 1845, where it is
shown that one master maintains sLx persons on
three acres of land, another seven persons on five
acres, another nine persons on five acres, and pay-

14

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ing rent, but receiving only the nominal money of
one penny from each scholar, and their labour for
a given time ; that surely the British Government
could not do better, for the general instruction of
the country portion of the people, than to convert
some of the schools into joint literary instruction
and rural labour schools, which might include gar-
dening and other branches of rural economy.
And besides, the plan would enable them to do
with less expenditure of public money for the new
schools that might be wanted ; for it appears that
they might be nearly, if not entirely, self-sup]}ort-
ing institutions. And such schools would be the
means of teaching the way small takings of land
should be farmed so that the greatest advantage
might be derived from them, and which method, it
seems, requires that the farmer should have a com-
fortable dwelling for himself, and good houses for
his stock, with tanks to hold liquid manure and
water, and other necessary appendages of ci\alized
life that would require the aid of the carpenter and
mason. Then he would have to raise on his small
taking many of the varied green and white crops
which a large farmer does ; and of course he would
have to partake of some of them, instead of living
on one production, and that one which must be
consumed within the year, which, it is to be re-
gretted, is too much the case in Ireland, so that the
development of the plan is particularly called for
in that countiy. I do not know whether the new
Inclosure Act extends to that country ; but it might
be well if some member of Parliament would see
that there was a power obtained to appropriate por-
tions of the waste land in the parishes where they
may lie for joint rural labour and literary instruc-
tion schools. Then, could the school-rooms of
such institutions be apjjlied for transacting the bu-
siness of the country benefit clubs, the saving to
their funds u'ould be very great. The charge
which each member of a club in this neighbour-
hood is at is two-pence monthly, to be consumed
for ale for the benefit of the publican, and a dinner
that costs two shillings or more, which makes the an-
nual expense full foiu' shillings ; but were three-
pence saved monthly for five hundred thousand
members, which are only half the ninnber in the
kingdom, their funds woiild be annually improved
by the great sum of seventy-five thousand pounds,
besides esca]>ing the acknowledged evil of meeting
in public-houses, so that it might be well that
public attention were called to the subject.

We hear nothing of an experimental farm and
agricultural museum being established in the
neighbourhood of London. The Zoological Gar-
den, which attracts such numbers, is, I believe, a
joint-stock concern ; and why could not an experi-
mental farm and museum be set on foot in the

same way ? Or could not a spirited farmer, who
held three or four hundred acres of land in the
neighbourhood of London, convert it into an exhi-
bition farm, and render it profitable to himself and
beneficial to the country. Some of the means he
would have to render it attractive and useful to the
country would be to have a museum there ; then a
dairy with its ai)purtenances, built on the best
l)rinciples, would have great attractions among the
Londoners. Then the farmer might allow the
Royal Agricultural Society of England to carry out
any experiments there, or to place there any pro-
duction or machinery they might think worth exhi-
biting ; and it is likely the makers of agricultural
implements would avail themselves of such an op-
portunity of bringing their implements before the
public, and where they might be tried. Had we
such a farm, what opportunities it might have
afl^orded of communicating to the public what oc-
curred respecting the potato malady, and to show
practically M-hat was thought the best manner of
treating them ; and we might have lectures as well.
By the bye, there seems to me that much food is
wasted if persons throw away generally the da-
maged potatoes, as I have seen done. Now, as the
frost probably -mU not act upon them as on the
good potatoes, and as they will be found on
fields and gardens for some time, would it not be
well if some of our great societies could devise a
means to inirchase the damaged potatoes at a low
price all over the country, and have them converted
into starch, or render them fit for stock. I lately
stove-dried potatoes that would have been thrown
away. They certainly would be good for stock,
and, in case of urgent necessity, for human food ;
and I beg to remark, I do not consider that method
of rendering the damaged potato available for food
sufficiently tried and attended to, to do it justice.
The Ijoiling them in two waters may be an useful
method of treating them, as has been stated.

Perhaps it may not be out of jolace here to sug-
gest that an official, as a conservator of the public
health, is much wanted in parishes, having power
to notice and remove nuisances. Of course he
would have to look to lanes, courts, and gutters, as
well as that the public roads were not covered with
puddle, which must interfere much with the com-
fort, if not the health, of small towns, and is a re-
flection on our civihzation. Then it may be ob-
served that society would be benefited by such an
official in more ways than one ; for the manure
would go a great way to pay the men that did the
work, and it would enable the farmers to increase
the agricultural produce of the country.

I am, sir, your obedient serA'ant,

Cadogan Williams^'

Bridgend, Dec, 1845.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

la

CULTURE OF INDIAN CORN.

ZEA MAYS — OF THE NATURAL ORDER OF GRASSES.
BY J. TOWERS.

It is also called maize and Turkey corn. The
male and female flowers are apart on the same
jjlant (hence, are moncecioiis). The male blossoms
are produced in elegant, loose, wavy spikes, at the
summits of the stems ; some cream colour, in
other varieties with a tint of red ; the stamens are
three in number ; the calyx is a two flowered glume
or husk, without horn, as is also the corolla. The
fertile flowers are produced from a compound sheath
arising from the bosoms of the leaves, deep-set in
their axils; they are two, three, or more in number
on each plant. The germens are closely arranged
in upright or spiral ranks, firmly eral)edded in a
rather conic pyramidnal receptacle, which is termed
tlie cob.

Thus much is required to convey some idea of
the botanical character of this truly interesting and
beautiful plant; and as it as lately been again
spoken of, and noticed as worthy of attention, I am
impelled to take up a subject ^A'ith which I am fa-
miliar, in consequence of cultivating the plant ex-
tensively during several consecutive years, and
ha\ing also written two practical articles upon it,
one for each edition of the " Domestic Gardener's
Manual."

When the late Mr. Cobbett first announced thai
small variety, which assumed the name of " Cob-
bett's Corn," multitudes purchased his packets in
the hope of being able to acclimatize it upon the
farm. In nine instances out of ten such persons
failed. I was perfectly aware that poultry prefarred
this grain, and throve most rapidly upon it ; and
therefore introduced it to the garden, where it pros-
])ered summer after summer, and so im])roved by
culture that, whereas the poor little spikes first
purchased contained barely one-hundred seeds, my
specimens, three or four of which were often borne
by one plant, frequently comprised ten ranks, with
from twenty to thirty seeds in each. Dwarf Indian
corn, therefore, could, and can be, improved by
culture.

As the question, after a lapse of twelve years, has
been again started, and the season of the year is
somewhat favourable to the setting apart and prepa-
ration of an experimental plot ; as also we cannot
err in bringing every apphance to bear, at a period
of solicitude, I think it advisable to adduce so much
of my o\\Ti sxperience as may enable those who are
interested in the attempt, to make trial of a method
which cannot mislead.

But where is the variety to be wojw procured ?
For though, as my " Diary" instructs — " In very
hot summers, like those of 1825-26, the variety
known as the ' early yellow' might be made to
ripen." Yet " I am satisfied that in wet seasons,
the dwarf (Cobbett's dwarf) is the only one which
will bring one single ear to perfection."

In Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Wight, and on
the south coast, to Cornwall inclusive, the success
would be more complete ; but beyond the 52nd
parallel, the crop would be very frec[uently in peril.

I acquired my early experience on the borders of
Wiltshire, between Warminster and Frome, during
the wet and windy summer of 1829. Subsequently,
the dwarf corn alone was cultivated for five years in
succession on my present property, and invariably
with success. There are sub-varieties of the hardy
dwarf, some with deej) brown seeds. I hybridized
three of these, and produced ears of very superior
quahtj', and therefore I can confidently recommend
the following mode of treatment.

1. Select the best and softest loam of the garden,
that will, if chemically analyzed, respond to all the
tests required to show the presence, in fair pro-
portions, of the four staple earths, i, e., fine silex
(not harsh gravel-grit), aluminous earth, chalk, and
per oxide of iron, with portions of phosphate of
lime, saline compounds of potass, and soda, a
little humus, and organic acids. Such a soil— and it
is very common — is always fertile if duly tilled and
enriched according to the crop ; and to none is it
more propitious than to maize, particularly if the
site be open, and fully exposed to the sun.

At any favourable period of the rising year, make
trenches three or four feet asunder, as for celery,
taking out six inches of the earth, digging into the
trench a good three-inch layer of rotten mamu'e.
Let the trenches point south and north, or nearly so
as possible, and leave the work to settle till the last
week of April, or the beginning of May; being
guided herein by the warm and dry state of the
weather, because a cold rainy season would be just
as inimical to Indian corn as to kidney beans.

Presuming that the 1st of May Avill be the pe-
riod, at that time fill the trenches \\dth fine soil to
■within three inches of the previous le\'el. Strain
the garden-line, and dot in three seeds in a tri-
angle, five or six inches apart, at every foot
throughout the length of the ro\\'S. Cover them
with an inch of earth, and pat it firmly on the

16

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

seeds. If the weather hecome veiy dry, it will h
advisable to soak the soil \\'ith water two or
three times, till the plants germinate, and to cover
the trenches ^\^th mats or boards during the heat
of the sun.

Most of the seeds will rise, but they are liable to
accidents, and are often devoured; and as every
foot should contain one plant at least, the precau-
tion should be taken to sow some dozens of single
seeds in small pots, keeping these imder glass, so
that a blank may always be filled up when it has
become evident that the seeds sown are gone.

When growth shall appear to be fully established,
and the plants stand at regular distances, a light hoe-
ingmust be made along the trenches ; andat the same
time the practice of the Pennaans may be safely
imitated, particularly in dry seasons, by forming a
small ring or basin round the stem of each, sprink-
ling a very little pure guano in the cavity, so as
not to touch the stem, flooding the c/round about it
with water.

2. After a time, as the plants attain a foot in
height, three inches of the earth removed first from
the trenches should be returned into them, so as
nearly to level the ground. In a short time, the
remaining earth should be brought against the
stems, to support them from the force of high
wind.

3. When the male spikes shall be formed at the
summits, it will be beneficial to cover the surface
between the rows with an inch of manure, or to
sprinkle a little more guano on the ground, always
remembering that one shovel-full of that wonderful
substance, if really good, contains more than the
equivalent of a large barrow-load of common ma-
nure, in phosphates, ammoniacal, and alkaline
salts, besides the uric and azotized organic sub-
stances which are almost peculiar to it.

Wliatever be the dress, it should be pointed in
with the fork, being careful not to injure the roots
and stems. This manuring will supply nutriment,
and cause the foliage to assume a dark, rich A'er-
dure, which it will retain during the hottest and
driest season.

Cobbett taught the necessity and efficacy of
digging and forking. He was a great admirer of
Tull, and, like him, beheved that tillage and pul-
verization would go far to obviate the need of ma-
nuring. That tillage will induce chemical ac-
tion between inorganic and organic decomposable
matters in the ground, the agricultural chemist is
well assured ; but he is equally svu'e that appro-
priate manures must be, from time to time, intro-
duced otherwise a fodder or corn-plant, be it what
it may, cannot thrive in luxuriance.

WTien the farina from the male spikes shall
cease to be discharged, the plants can safely be cut

back to within two leaves of the upper ear, and the
corn will equally advance to maturity.

Our experience of five years proves that, as an
average, October is the harvest month. The plants
begin to ripen by losing colour, assuming a pale
brown tint, and then the seeds acquire their perfect
glossy yellow cream-colour, or pale brown. Birds
are voraciously fond of the seed, and M'ill pene-
trate or turn aside the complicated husks till
they reach the cob : therefore, it is desirable to pull
oflf every one as it becomes ripe.

Whether or not Indian corn can ever be pro-
fitably introduced to the farm, is somewhat ques-
tionable. The chief objection arises from the late-
ness of the ripening season, which prevents the
simultaneous ripening of the ears. The farmer
will find in the above directions wherewithal to un-
dertake an experiment in some open plot either of
field or garden ; and it is well to try all things. At
all events, the grain is truly valuable, is an excel-
lent pabulum for turkeys and barn-door fowls,
and forms good bread with wheat-flour. Even if
imported in quantity, it might be found a cheap
and wholesome adjunct to the farm estabhshment.

We are rejoiced to be enabled to state that the
subject of " tenant rights" is not only exciting
much interest, but has already obtained the ap-
proval of a gentleman whose opinions in favour of
the system will go far to promote its successful
estabhshment. At the Smithfield Club dinner —

"Mr. Pusey, M.P., urged the importance of a good
understanding between landlord and tenant, the perfect
equity of making reasonable compensation to all out-
going tenants for the improvements which they might
have made, and the justice of supplying the farmer, if
not with money, at least with entire security against
loss. He was at present engaged with a surveyor in
preparing a new plan of agreement, which he intended to
submit to his tenantry, aud by which he expected very
much to promote their advantage, which in the long run
would be supporting his own. The chairman also stren-
uously recommended the practice of making leases and
of granting compensation to outgoing tenants."

CoATEs's Herd Book. — The breeders and ad-
mirers of Short-Horned Cattle will be pleased to hear
that, for meeting the repeatedly urged desire for a new
edition of the above work, Mr. H. Strafford (the
owner of the copyright) has now in the press, and
nearly ready for publication, a revised edition of the
Herd Book. Gentlemen having lists of pedigrees which
have not yet been entered would materially assist the
compiler in his labours, as well as benefit themselves and
the public, by furnishing such information to him as early
as possible, for a continuation of this useful work.
We refer our readers to the advertisement in another
column for further particulars.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

17

ON THE IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEM
AND METHODICAL ARRANGEMENT IN FARMING.

BY J. Sl'ROULE.

The prevailing want of methodical arrangement
either in the succession of crops or in the opera-
tions of the farm, as well as the slovenly manner in
which the latter are generally executed, is apparent
to every observer. Talk to the great mass of far-
mers of the importance of system and neatness in
their operations, and they will generally assent to
the propriety of your observations ; though perhaps
in each individual case there are so many draw-
backs and difficulties to be surmounted, that he is
not able to manage things as he would wish, when,
in fact, no exertions are made to ettect such very
desirable results. Part of this apathy may ))roceed
from not turning the attention to such trifliiif/ ob-
jects J l)ut if from the perusal of this paper some
of the class of persons for whom these remarks are
intended can be influenced with a proper idea of
their importance, the object of the writer will be
accomplished .

It has been truly remarked that no other portion
of the community are so much averse to the intro-
duction of anything new as the cultivators of the
soil : but in nothing are they more deficient than in
the habit of accurate observation, which is of the
utmost importance in every department of indus-
try. It is no uncommon thing for a person to see
a thing done a dozen of thnes, and not be able to do
it again, though it may be even some of the com-
mon operations of the farm, requiring neither much
skill to plan nor dexterous manipulation to exe-
cute ; and all this proceeding from inattention, by
which an indistinct impression is left on the mind.

The projier arrangement of the crops of the
season is of the first importance to the farmer,
though in general the crop which is to occupy any
particular field is not decided on until perhaps the
period nearly arrives for putting it in the ground.
A person unacquainted Avith rural affairs could
scarcely suppose that this could be the case ; the
farmer, however, knowing the character of his dif-
ferent fields, should have his arrangement of crops
for the ensuing season made out while the preced-
ing crop is stLU gromng, and he will thus have
the advantage of a whole season to test the pro-
priety of his arrangement. Should he, from fur-
ther observation, see cause to change any part of
his plan, it will be maturely done, and at a time
when the change will not be productive of any in-

convenience, instead of thinking of it when too late.
In arranging his crops, the prmciples of a rotation
of cropping, now so well understood,'should be kept
steadily in view, obsers'ing to make the different
kinds of crops alternate with each other. Where
a variety of crops is cultivated, there is in general
sufficient time to attend properly to all ; but when
the produce of the farm is chiefly spring corn, or
any other crop, all is bustle and confusion at the
period of the somng of the crop in such a case, the
process being often delayed until the proper time
for performing it has ])assed, while there is almost
nothing to do at other periods of the season. For
this reason, therefore, crops which are to be so\vn
in the autumn are deserving of attention, and
should be combined with spring crops, as thereby
more regularly apportioning the farm labour
throughout the different periods of the year.

An important object in the arrangement of labour
is to perform such operations as are not dependant
on season, at a time when the other operations of
the farm are at a stand. Tlius, during the frosts
of winter, manure is advantageously conveyed to
the fields, and there formed into heaps, in which it
is to remain until it is to be applied to the land.
The roads through the farm will at this time be
little injured by traffic on them; and when the
season of active labour arrives in the spring, this
arrangement will be found to facilitate the putting
down of the crops in a material degree. In like
manner the land intended for green crops should
be ploughed early in the winter, that not being a
period of active labour ; and the land is, besides,
materially benefited by exposure to the atmosphere
through the winter, as may be observed in spring
when it is to be harrowed, that ploughed early in the
season being much more easily pulverized, and as
a consequence more easily cleared of root-weeds.
The necessary preparations for the harvesting of the
grain should also not be deferred until the neces-
sary hurry of the harvest has arrived. Stands for
stacks may require repairs, and this should be
done before hand, so that no interruption may take
place when the grain is ready to be carried in.
The harvest carts and waggons, too, should un-
dergo inspection for a similar purpose before the
time arrives when they will be required.

The thrashing and winnowing of the grain are

18

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

important oi)erations to the farmer, no matter on
Avhat extent of land ; and it is proper that in their
execution they should interfere as little as pos«ible
with the other ojierations of the farm. For this
jjurpose it may be proper, especially on the smaller
sized farms, to put a quantity of imthrashed grain
into the barn so soon as the last thrashing is dis-
posed of ; and in the event of wet weather setting
in, M'hich would prevent the usual out- door opera-
tions, thrashing can go on ; thus affording constant
employment for the men and horses, and prevent-
ing the thrashing of the corn from interfering with
other farm work. When thrashing machineiy is
driven by water, the same precaution maybe neces-
sary, so that advantage may be taken of the in-
creased supply obtained in wet weather. Similar
remarks are aj)plicable regarding the making of
mats, baskets, and brooms, or such of these as are
made on the farm. These latter, indeed, it might
appear superfluous to notice, were it not the fact
that they are so genei'ally neglected. It is not at
all imcommon to see these minor though useful
articles to be provided just when they are wanted ;
and, whatever may be the urgency of the occasion,
affairs must remain at a stand until they are
obtained. It may be here remarked that the manu-
facture of such small matters might often be carried
on in the farm where they are at i^resent provided
from extraneous sources. Some of the farm
labourers would be much better employed in
making baskets, or similar articles, on wet days
than be discharged by the farmer, and spend their
time in the ale-house. No doubt can, in fact, be
entertained that a little additional attention to what
may be termed the minor details of farm manage-
ment would not fail to be the means of procuring
an increased quantity of profitable employment to
the labouring classes, which in many districts of
the country is so very important an object.

In the arrangement of the operations of the
farm-yard during the v/inter, when the store cattle
are confined to their yards, the utmost attention to
the regularity of their perfonnance is essential.
The animals of the different kinds are to be sup-
plied with their food at fixed intervals of time.
Perfect quietude is known to be one of the condi-
tions necessary to facihtate the accumulation of
flesh, and there is no more effectual way of secur-
ing this than by feeding at stated hours ; the ani-
mals, from habit, soon become accustomed to the
hour of feeding, and become uneasy when not
supphed with their food when it arrives. The effect
of such irregularity not being at the time apparent,
its importance is the less felt, but it is not on that
account less inimical to the growth of the animals.
This is pre-eminently one of the departments of
rural economy in which attention to small matters

is of most importance, and in which it is perhaps
least regarded. If the farmer for a moment con-
sidei'edthe carewhich a merchant will exerciseto pre-
vent any depreciation in the value of the stock, what-
ever it maybe, which he has on hand, he would surely
not be so careless in the maintenance of his. When-
ever, through mismanagement of any kind, a due
return is not made for the food consumed, it must
be recollected that a direct loss is sustained;
growing or fattening animals should never be a
day stationary, as in such a case the food which is
thus consumed may be regarded as so much thrown
away. A further advantage is secured by perform-
ing the operations at a fixed time, as intervals will
then frequently occur between the different meals,
during which the attendants will have leisure to do
sundry other matters in the farm-yard essential to
neatness and cleanliness ; while under different
management they are always in a hurry with their
work, and never done. This remark indeed applies
to work of every description ; those who do not
practise habits of order and regularity being pro-
verbially in a bustle, everything they do being done
out of season, as well as imperfectly performed.
When workmen of any kind are aware that they
must have their operations performed at a fixed
hour, on penalty of being discharged for their
neglect, they usually make previous preparations
to effect that purpose.

A very common cause of irregularity and loss of
time is usually occasioned by neglecting to have
broken implements repaired, and such additional
ones procured as the case may require, until they
are actually required for use. A labourer is fre-
quently working under the disadvantage of using a
mattock or crowbar*, the point of which is worn off
by use ; or a ploughman working with plough-
irons which require sharpening. In either case a
direct loss is to a greater or less extent sustained,
inasmuch as the workman in the one case, and the
horses in the other, are subjected to an unnecessary
amount of exertion in the performance of their
work; ^^'hereas with a little attention the evil is
easily remedied. It should indeed be observed as
a rule to be invariably ]iractised, that, in any case, a
broken implement should not be laid aside wthout
having it repaired, even should there be no further
call for it during the season. When everything is
kept in proper order, no loss of time is sustained in
commencing an operation, or in changing from one
thing to another. Both in seed time and harvest it
is frequently necessary, in taking advantage of any
change of weather, to go from one kind of work to
another several times during the day, which, as
usually managed, is often a fruitful source of
annoyance and loss of time. In the spring,
especially on the smaller class of farms on which

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

19

the different kinds of work cannot be car-
ried simultaneously forward, it is necessary to
change men and horses from the ploughs to
the harrows, and vice versa ; and in the autumn
a still greater diversity of labour is often to be' per-
foi-med in a short time. In each of these cases,
however, little time may be lost if the necessary
articles are always at hand, and in proper order.
Generally speaking, the plan for the entire day's
proceedings should be made out and attentively
considered in the morning, and such additional im-
plements taken to the fields, before commencing
work, as are Ukely to be required during the day,
instead of sending for each as it may be required.

Circumstances may indeed occur during the day
which it was impossible to have foreseen ; but the
loss of time occasioned by such means is trifling,
compared \vith that proceeding from general in-
attention.

Some of the preceding remarks may seem to relate
to circumstances too trivial in their nature to de-
mand so much attention ; but it is to be remem-
bered that it is by attention to minutiee in farming,
as in everything else, that success is to be expected.
When small matters are properly attended to, it
may be regarded as certain that the more impor-
tant affairs are not likely to be neglected.

DR. BUCKLAND ON SUBSTITUTES FOR POTATOES.

The following extract from a paper " On the Origin
and Extent of the Prevailing Potato Disease, and on its
effects and Remedies," read by Dr. Buckland, a few
days ago, before the membei'S of the Ashmolean Society,
Oxford, cannot fail to be interesting to a large portion of
om' readers : —

" Liebig has shown, in his Organic Chemistry, that
it is one function of the vegetable kingdom to prepare
the elements of flesh and blood for the use of the ani-
mals. That carbon or charcoal, which is indispensable to
the act of breathing, but contributes little to muscle or
bone, abounds in potatoes, rice, sago, and sugar, brandy
and beer ; while the cereal grains of wheat, barley, rye,
and oats, and seeds of leguminous plants, especially peas
and beans, are loaded with the constituents of muscle
and bone, ready pi-epared to form and maintain the mus-
cular fibre of the body of animals, e. g. gluten, phos-
phorus, hme, magnesia, sulphur, &c. Hence the
rapid restoration of the shrunk muscle of the exhausted
post-horse by a good feed of oats and beans. Hence
the sturdy growth of the Scotch children on oat-cake
and porridge, and of broth made of the meal of parched
or kihi-dried peas : on this a man can live, and do good
work, for l^d. a day ; while the children of the rich, who
are pampered on the finest wheat flour (without the
pollard or bran), and on sago, rice, butter, and sugar,
become fat and sleek, and would often die, as sometimes
they do, from such non-nutricious food, but for the
mixture of milk and eggs they eat in cakes and pud-
dings. Tlic best biscuits for children have an admix-
ture of burnt bones, and the flour of bones is often
mixed by bakers with that of wheat in bread, and
(bating the fraud) the bread is better and more strength-
ening than if made entirely of wheat. Potatoes contain
but little nutriment in proportion to their bulk : they
are chiefly made of water and charcoal. Thus an Irish-
man, Uving exclusively on potatoes, and eating daily
eight pounds, would get more nourishment and strength
from two pounds of wheat brown bread (not white), or

two pounds of oatmeal, and from less than two pounds
of peas or beans ; and as about six potatoes of middling
size go to a pound, an Irishman will eat daily 48 pota-
toes, and a family of seven 336 potatoes.

" Before potatoes were known, the food of the poor-
est EngUsh peasantry and of soldiers was barley -bread
and peas. Sir W. Bethham has found ui Dublm,
records of a vessel that was wrecked in the 15th century
near Liverpool, loaded with peas from Ireland for the
army in England. In Hollinshed's Chronicle we read
this passage : — ' A large mouth in mine opinion, and
not to eat peasen with ladies of my time.' Peas were
then the food of ladies, and also of monasteries. Friar
Tuck laid before his prince, as his first dish, parched
peas. An old labourer at Axbridge complained to his
master, Mr. Symons (who died in 1844), that labourers
feeding now on potatoes could not do so good a day's
work now as when he was young, and when they fed on
peas. ' Peas, Sir,' said he, * stick to the ribs.' He ut-
tered the very truths of organic chemistry.

"In beans we have vegetable * caseine,' or the pe-
cuhar element of cheese. What is more restorative or
more grateful to man, when fatigued by labour or a long
walk? As we heat or toast it, it melts, and, ere it reaches
our mouth, is drawn into strings of almost ready-made
fibre ; and who has ever dined so fully as not to have
room left for a little bit of cheese ?

" Economic farmers should feed their growing, but
not their fattening hogs, on beans, and finish them
with barley-meal ; their flesh is hard, and the fat not
solid, and dissolves in boiling, if fed to the last on
beans.

"What is so restorative as beans to the jaded hack or
the exhausted race-horse ? Sepoys on long voyages hve
exclusively on peas. The working and healthy man
and beast want muscle, and want not fat ; fat encumbers
and impedes activity, and every excess of it is disease.
We seldom see a fat labourer or a fat soldier, except

B 2

20

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

among the sergeants, who sometimes eat or drink too
much.

"Charcoal, which, next to water, forms the chief
ingredient in potatoes, is subsidiary to life, though not
to strength. The same is true of the charcoal, which is
the main ingredient of rice, sago, sugar, butter, and fat.
The woman at Tutbury, who pretended to fast for many
days and weeks, sustained life by secretly sucking hand-
kerchiefs charged with sugar or starch. During the
manufacturers' distress in Lancashire, five years ago,
many of the poer remained in bed covered with blan-
kets, where warmth and the absence of exercise lessened
materially the need of food. "When Sir John Franklin
and his polar party travelled on snow nearly a fortnight
without food, they felt no pain of hunger after the
second day : they became lean and weak by severe exer-
cise and cold, but sustained life by drinking warm
water, and sleeping in blankets with their feet round a
fire ; alas, a knowledge of such facts may become needful
and useful in the approaching winter.

' ' T will now consider the best substitutes for at least
one-third of the potato crop, which has already perished
all over Europe, and this in Ireland is the loss of the
only winter food of 2,000,000 of the people. In times of
scarcity, man must take unusual trouble and adopt un-
usual expedients. Happily this year the crop of turnijjs
is large and good, and already in Hampshire farmers are
selling turnips to the poor at a moderate price. This, if
done generally, will form one kind of substitute for the
lost potatoes. Field carrots and parsnips and mangel-
wurzel, which have been grown for sheep and cattle,
may be also reserved for boiling, and if sold at the usual
price of potatoes, will supply more nourishment than an
equal weight thereof. I shall not plead in vain to the
farmers of England for this boon and benefit to their
poor neighbours, who may otherwise be distressed for
food and sufl'er hunger. Oil-cake will do as well or
better for the sheep, and may be bought with the price
of the above roots.

" It has been already stated that the most nutritious
of all vegetable food is the flour of peas, which was the
staple food in Europe before potatoes. The flour of
kiln-dried peas stirred in hot water makes a strong and
pleasant Scotch brose, on which alone a man may do
good work. Barrels of peas brose flour maybe brought
from Scotland, or prepared in England wherever there
isamait-kiln.

" In England, pea-soup and peas-pudding are still
a common and most nourishing food. Our forefathers
and their children we know from nursery rhymes, ate

' Peas pu Jduig hot, peas pudding cold,

' Peas pudding in the pot, and nine days old.'

" Let us for a part of this and next year once live as
they lived 300 years ago. Boiled or fried slices of peas-

pudding are not unsavoury food ; and what boy would
not prefer parched peas to nuts ?

' ' Let every labourer who can get them lay up a sack
or two of peas, and he will be safe. Where peas cannot
be had, let him lay in a sack or two of beans; their flour
is as nutritious as that of peas, and has no bad taste ;
bakers mix it with bread, and we taste it not ; mixed
with meal of wheat, barley, or oats, it makes good cakes
and puddings, and strong soup or broth. All over the
world, excepting England, both the rich and poor rarely
dine without a dish of beans, sometimes their only dish.
Let resident proprietors and chief farmers in each vil-
lage lay in a stock of peas and beans, and sell them to
the poor three or four months hence, at their present
cost. Let them also reserve for their labourers, at
present prices, some good barley and good oats, to be
ground into meal next spring, when food will be most
scarce.

" Barley bread or cakes alone are not good for work-
ing men — they are too heating ; but mixed with other
flour, or eaten with other kinds of food, barley is very
nourishing.

" Oat cake is the bread of all Scotland, and of much
of Ireland, and of the North of England ; and oatmeal
made into broth and porridge is the universal and
almost the only food of Highland children. Let those
who have quailed under the charge of a Highland regi-
ment tell the results.

' ' Bread made of rye is the chief food of farmers and
labourers in Germany and the north of Europe ; it is of
a dark colour, and little used with us, but it is very
nourishing, and in a time of scarcity is a good substitute
for wheat.

" Indian corn or maize is the food of man over a large
part of the world, and makes bread and cakes ; not very
palatable to us, but better than nothing in times of
scarcity.

" Rice and sago eaten alone may suffice for persons
who take little exercise, for women and children, but
not for working men. These and potato flour may be
added to give bulk to the more nutritious kinds of meal
above mentioned.

" Lastly, let every poor man get his garden vegetables
as forward as possible next spring. Let him plant his
potatoes early, and when the ground is dry ; let the sets
be entire, or if cut, let the pieces be shaken in a sieve of
quick-lime before jjlanting. Before to-morrow's sun
has set let every man bestir himself, and take a little ex-
tra trouble in the next week, that he and his children
may not suflfer hunger in the next year. Let no man
shut his eyes and fold his arms, and say there is no
danger ; but let one and all arise to-morrow, and put
their shoulders to the wheel. The blessing of Provi-
dence will help, and rest on those who may help them-
selves. ' Up and be doing, and God will prosper.' "

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

21

STATE OF THE HARVEST, AND ESPECIALLY THE POTATO CROP.

Sir, — As a very considerable anxiety has for some
time prevailed throughout the country regarding the
state of the crops generally, and of the potato crop in
particular, and having had very considerable experience
as a practical farmer, and having been for many years
used to go through the various parts of the country to en-
able me to form an opinion on the state of the crops, I
hope I may be permitted to give my opinion to the
jiublic, in the hope that I shall be able in some degree
to moderate the panic which is now so unnecessarily
raging.

Towards the middle of September I went down the
Tweed from Peebles, which I followed to Berwick, di-
verging occasionally to the right and left, and found
harvest just commencing — barley uniformly ripe, potato
oats within a week of being ripe, but wheat backward ;
potatoes a very moderate crop ; early turnips, where the
land was well drained, a splendid crop ; the pasture
grass overflowing, and the hay a great ci-op, although
not well made. The same remai-ks apply to Berwick-
shire ; and 1 do not know if, of the very frequent times
that I have travelled that road, I ever saw the country
looking so rich. The oats and barley were superb, and
the wheat seemed a full average. I returned home
through East Lothian, by Dunbar and Haddington, and
there the crops were everything that the most fastidious
farmer could desire. I may, however, add, that the
potato crop generally never showed vigour almost any-
where. Shoi'tly after, on the 27th September, I went
up to London, where I remained a week, and returned
home through the centre of England, where I found the
crops all r'pe, but very little north of Birmingham har-
vested ; the crops seemed as good as usual. I have tra-
velled that road very frequently during a period of forty
years, and I regret to say that I perceive little or no im-
provement. I afterwards went through Ayrshire,
Lanarkshire, Peebleshire, and Dumfries-shire, and West
and Mid-Lothian, and the conclusion which I came to
was that, taking all the crops together, including pota-
toes, there is a very full average crop in the country.

It is true that the long tract of wet weather which has
prevailed has injured the colour and caused the grain
to weigh less, but not to any extent to do harm, the
weather being cold prevented sprouting.

1 shall now proceed to lay before you the produce of
my own farm, so far as I have thrashed. In autumn
last I sowed a field of 20 Scotch acres of wheat, after
beans ; it was all mown. I have only thrashed a part
of it, but have accurately measured the part I thrashed:
I find the produce to be 52 bushels per acre, weighing
611bs. per bushel ; the rest of the field I consider will
be a good deal better.

About the end of September I thrashed a considerable
quantity of potato oats. They were a very great bulk,
and no one could expect that the produce would corres -
pond with the bulk ; but upon measuring the ground I
found the yield to be 11 2-8th quarters, or 90 bushels

per acre, weighing 421bs. per bushel, and witli a very
large and valuable produce of straw. I have not thrashed
any barley yet, but I have a very bulky crop. My peas
and beans are a very great crop. I have still 1 5 acres
in the field, which are ready to be taken in as soon as
they are dry.

In order to confirm my own opinion, I applied to a
very intelligent farmer in my own immediate neighbour-
hood, and he writes me that he has thrashed out the
whole of a 14 -acre field of oats, excepting one stack,
which he has kept for seed, and he finds the produce a
little above 15 bolls per Scotch acre, or 90 bushels.
" Of wheat I have thrashed so little, that I can sav
nothing as to the yield; but the quality is good. I have
thrashed no barley. As to potatoes, I lifted and sold a
six-acre field early ; the produce was only twenty-seven
bolls per acre, without the small ; but," he adds, "the
rest of my potatoes are better, but by no means a great
crop ; however, I am happy to say they are of excellent
quality, and keeping well." Such is the opinion of a
most intelligent agriculturist ; and, indeed, every farmer
whom I have conversed with is nearly of the same opinion.
As to my own potatoes, I have already lifted upwards of
COO bolls of 4 cwt. each ; the quality is much superior
to the average of years. They are not yet all lifted, but
my overseer calculates that they will be 50 bolls per
Scotch acre of 4 cwt. each. I have numerous corres-
pondents both in England and Scotland, but not one has
talked either of scarcity or famine. One which I re-
ceived yesterday, an annual circular from Mr. Benjamin
Dowson, Great Yarmouth, a very eminent and extensive
shipper of corn of long standing, sums up the account
of the crops: — "Of wheat the yield I expect will be
over an average, though the weight will be 21bs. defi-
cient. As to barley, the yield, I expect, will be over
an average. Maple and white peas, great crops ;
and beans promise an abundant crop, and if they are
well secured, no doubt they will be mucli over an aver-
age growth."

I do not mean to say that there is not a disease among
the potatoes, but, in truth, very little of it has come
under my observation, and all the farmers in this neigh-
bourhood maintain that they have not any, or next to
none ; but supposing there really was an extensive dis-
ease, although in many districts there is scarcely any, I
will venture to say, there is no field where the disease
extends to one-fourth ; and although we have read in
tiie papers that the tainted potatoes have killed " pigs
and Irishmen," which I do not believe, yet at least
half the potato may be made available for feeding ; and
as there are always a great many more planted than re-
quired for human food, I see no reason to fear that there
will be any want of this valuable root. A very few years
ago I was getting 12s. and 14s. per boll for my potatoes :
this year I have difficulty in getting 12s.

But the great produce and fine quality of crop '44 have
made us fxpect too much, and it is not fair to compare

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

this crop with the last ; but comparing it with an aver-
age crop, this will not be found wanting. Let any one
who takes an interest in these subjects compare the
produces above stated, and I am sure they must confess
they are very far beyond an average. If they have still
doubts, if they will come to me, I will give them such
proofs as must convince them.

There is a peculiarity in the corn panic which now
seems raging. The citizens generally have been accus-
tomed to call the farmers discontented and grumblers,
but this year I have never heard a complaint from them.
They have allowed the towns to do the work for them,
by running up the prices very unnecessarily ; but the
citizens would make us believe that we are to be starved.
My belief is, that the Corn-law-League is at the bottom
of it, and there will be soon a corn panic as disastrous
as the railway panic.

I beg you will excuse this long letter, and that you

will give me a corner of your paper on Saturday. I shall

send you a statement of the produce of various sorts of

wheat which I have experimented on this last season, and

which may be useful at tins time. I am, &c.,

William Aitchison.
JDrummore, October 29.

My overseer notices this season that the buff potatoes
are producing a much greater crop than the dons.—
— Courant.

MALTING.

Much excitement has prevailed among persons con-
cerned in the malting business, in consequence of officers
of excise having lately used extra vigilance in seeking
for penalties, especially in the counties of Wilts, Somer-
set, and Dorset. At Weyhill fair a memorial to the
Board of Excise was signed by a large number of malt-
sters, and a deputation was appointed to seek an inter-
view with the Commissioners, which was granted last
week. The deputation were kindly received, and due
attention was paid to their observations at a long con-
ference. In addition to the memorial, a statement,
bearing the signatures of Messrs. Abraham Crowley, of
Alton ; William Morgan and John Warren, Warminster;
William Snellgrove, Heytesbury, Wilts ; Joseph Oxley,
Frome ; G. Butler, Kennet, Wilts ; and William De-
venish, Weymouth, was presented to the Board, being
the result of the deliberations of the deputation at a
previous meeting in London, settmg forth that the said
laws are in some respects, both in principle and practice,
repugnant to the feelings, and calculated to destroy the
character of an honest trader, and, moreover, not neces-
sary for the protection of the revenue.

As to the principle — 1st. They consider it to be at
variance with sound principles of justice that men of
respectable character, in conducting their business,
should be subjected to grievous penalties, upon the evi-
dence of an officer of excise, who receives half the
amount in case of conviction, such evidence being un-
supported by any disinterested witness. 2nd. That the

character of honest men is in jeopardy, in fact, placed
entirely at the mercy of labouring maltstei's, whom they
employ, inasmuch as they have no means of preventing
them from filling a couch improperly, either from care-
lessness or with a design to injure their employers, or
even at the instigation of a needy officer of excise. 3rd
That it appears high time to review the state of the law
when magistrates, who are appointed to administer it,
have in various instances felt reluctant to fine a trader
even the smallest amount, viz., one-fourth part of the
penalty, and have even expressed their regret that it was
out of their power to remit the whole, being satisfied
that no moral guilt attached to him. 4th. That to re-
ceive the sympathy of a magistrate is but a cruel satis-
faction to honest men, who may be placed far above the
temptation to commit fraud, and the infliction of a
penalty for no moral crime is very unequal in its opera-
tion. It is a circumstance which may be exaggerated,
affording an opportunity for malicious detraction of
character by envious competitors in trade, so
that many honest men would rather lose 1,000^ than
be fined 25/.

As to the practice — 1st. It is indisputable that ex-
perienced officers of excise differ in their gauging, and
this difference may operate in the two gauges, so as to
render the allowance of five per cent, in favour of the
trader unavailable, 2nd. That even if this difference of
gauging did not so operate, there are variovis other cir-
cumstances which, if they happen to combine, may
render the said allowance of five per cent, an uncertain
protection to an honest trader, viz., mild temperature,
light condition of the grain after having been many
hours in the couch, the delicate manner in which officers
may re-couch the grain, far beyond what can be ex-
pected from young hands, or even experienced maltsters,
in their usual and proper course of proceeding ; and, in
addition to all these, the officer returns the grain from
a level instead of over the cistern wall, by which he is
enabled to lay it lighter.

In order to remedy these defects, and duly to protect
the revenue, it is most respectfully suggested — 1st.
That the duty be chai-ged on a drained cistern gauge,
and that the barley remain in the cistern for such period
as may be considered by the Honourable Commissioners
necessary for the protection of the revenue, not exceed-
ing the whole period which it is now allowed to remain
in cistern and couch together. 2nd. That any regula-
tions or extra charges which may be necessary for the
protection of the revenue be established by law. 3rd.
That the barley in the cistern be under the lock of the
excise for such period as they may deem proper. 4th.
That the officer may continue to charge duty whenever
he can find highest gauge as at present, but that a trader
be liable for penalties, only when detected in the fact,
and not for any assumed infringement of the law.

Full persuasion is expressed that these suggestions are
reasonable, and that the fraudulent trader wiU have no
more facility for evading the duty than at present ;
at the same time, any restrictions or impositions will be
cheerfully submitted to, which can be clearly shown to
be indispensable for the protection of the revenue ; but

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

23

as it is possible that the Honourable Commissioners of
Excise may not be prepared at present to unite in all
the sentiments above expressed, yet it is most respect-
fully urged that what common justice clearly requires
may be immediately granted, viz. — That no officer be
permitted to have any interest in the penalties, but that
they be appropriated to some charitable fund, or in aid
of the poor rates, or to some other suitable purpose.
That the trader be allowed some disinterested test of

the officer's gauge. That the officer be compelled to
empty the couch into the cistern instead of on to the
floor, in order to place him upon ecpml terms with the
workman who filled it. That the magistrates have power
to remit the whole or any part of the penalty, according
to their discretion, so that they may thereby become
judges as to the moral as well as the legal guilt of a
trader.

LETTER FROM E. S. CAYLEY, ESQ., M.P., TO LORD JOHN RUSSELL,

ON THE CORN LAWS.

Dear Lord John, — I have just read your letter to
your London constituents, on the subject of the corn
laws. From the interest I have so long taken in this
question, I am sure you will forgive me if I venture to
make some observations upon it, by way of reply. Ob-
loquy may attach to those who still adhere to their views
on this matter, but from a member of the house of Rus-
sell I can never learn the miserable lesson of yielding to
clamour what cannot be conceded by conviction, or of
deserting opinions long conscientiously maintained, be-
cause they support what for the moment may appear to
be a falling cause.

Believing the corn-laws to have been founded on a
comprehensive principle of public advantage, I should
belie the faith that is in me, and be a coward to what I
deem the truth, could I shrink from the avowal of it at
a time especially when so many are girt for its attack,
and so few for its defence. I may be wrong in my view
of this great subject. If I am I hope to be corrected,
and that truth will prevail. I am not so presumptuous
even as to suppose that I can be entirely right in my es-
timation of all the bearings of so large a question. What
human being ever was absolutely and perfectly right in
his judgment of any one subject .-' I have tried to steer
clear of error as far as my feeble light will permit, and if
1 have erred, I have erred with an honest intention. But
doubting the infallibility of human powers in judging of
the future, and having already seen too many instances
in which, as legislators (to the subsequent cost and in-
jury of thousands), "our anticipations have been lament-
ably disappointed, I would, in matters where small mis-
takes may breed great wrongs, argue for being guided
by the practical cautious lessons of history, rather than
by the visions however ingenious, by the conjectures
however specious, of speculation and the closet.

I repeat my belief that the corn laws are founded on
public principle— that they are essentially for the public
good, for the welfare, the permanent welfare, not of the
few, but of the many. On no other ground could they
have stood so long ; on no other can they stand ; on no
other ground ought they to stand for a moment longer,
unless with a view of gradually breaking the violence of
the shock to the property embarked in the land, which
so sudden a change would confiscate. And I start with

this broad affirmation, because if the landlords and far-
mers of England had believed the corn-laws to be inju^
rious to the majority of their countrymen — if they had
believed them to be, as some assert, laws for the star-
vation of the people, and not laws constituted for the
lasting support of the people, and for the continuous
cultivation of the land, they would never have supported
them.

It is because the landlords and farmers of England — a
body of men, you well know, as amenable to the chari-
ties of life, as interested in the welfare of those around
them, as anxious to do their utmost to alleviate the pangs
of suffering and distress they may witness, as ready to
submit to personal privation when the claims of religion,
humanity, or their country call for the sacrifice, as ready
— to say the least — as any other body of men ; — it is only
because the landlords and farmers of England, as a body,
ai-e convinced that the corn laws are for the public beiie-
fit, that those laws have always received and still continue
to receive their unabated support. If they had thought
them injurious to the permanent welfare of the people, I
cannot doubt that they would have been as ready to re-
peal them as yourself.

Your letter naturally divides itself into two parts : the
first relating to your apprehensions of present scarcity,
and to your views as to the proper legislation consequent
ujjon such apprehension ; the second part referring to
your objections to the corn laws generally. I will take
each part in its order.

You state that " Parliament should have been called
together three weeks ago, and that no party in Parliament
would have made itself responsible for the obstruction of
a measure so urgent and so beneficial' ' as the suspension
of the import duties on corn. To this it may be replied,
that if no one could have opposed such a measure, an
order in council would, without delay, or risk to the
government, have much more speedily, and therefore
much more efficiently, responded to the public wants.
But what would have been the effect of the immediate sus-
pension of the import duties ? Either we could have ob-
tained an immediate supply, or we could not. If we
could not, it would have been mischievous to have opened
the ports, since the importation of a large additional
supply would have so lowered the price of corn, and

24

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

have led to such an increased consumption, as might have
trenched injuriously on the means of supply before the
next harvest.

If we could have obtained an immediate supply, an
equally mischievous result might have followed ; it would
have equally led to immediate increase of consumption,
and might equally have trenclied on the ultimate means
of supply ; since it is notorious that, with perhaps the
exception of Canada and the United States, and possibly
Spain and Italy, there is as great a deficiency of wheat
in the rest of the world as in England, if not a greater
deficiency ; and this does not appear to be a casual oc-
currence. Mr. Lowe, in his "State of Agriculture "
(published, I think, in 1818), from a careful survey and
comparison of the seasons for a number of years back,
states, " that it appears that the corn-growing countries
of Europe lie between 45 and 55 degrees of latitude, and
are subject, in a great degree, to similar winds, rains,
droughts, and frosts. There are," he says, "some re-
markable instances of this. In 1794 the spring was pre-
maturely warm on the continent, as well as in England.
The summer of 1798 was dry, and that of 1790 wet, in
both places. Again in 1811, the harvest was deficient
throughout the no^th-west of Europe generally, and from
the same cause — blight ; while that of 1816 was still
more generally deficient, from rain and want of warmth.
From a coincidence of prices in the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries, it is also highly probable that similar
seasons prevailed here and on the Continent, especially
in 1708, 1709, and in several seasons between 1704 and
1773. When, therefore, it is proposed to leave England
dependent on foreign supplies, it should be recollected
that the same causes which occasion a bad harvest in
England would very probably produce them in other
com countries."

These were occasions when dearths appear to have
been the most general. Instances have also doubtless
occurred of more partial scarcities ; instances, perhaps,
like those when Prussia could supply our wants ; but,
when we took off the duty on importation, the King of
Prussia put it on at his side of the water, thus filling his
exchequer at the expense of ours, without the suspension
of the duty being of the slightest benefit to the EngUsh
consumer. When, however, the dearth is general, we
cannot be surprised that other countries, and their rulers,
should prevent the exportation of corn to their neigh-
bours, at a time when famine stares them in the face at
home ; nor need it astonish any one, that France, Rus-
sia, and Naples, if I remember rightly (for I have the
advantage of few or no documents to refer to), have all,
on various occasions, taken the precaution of first sup-
plying themselves in a time of scarcity — a precaution
which the people of those, and I believe other countries,
have on such occasions not unfrequently adopted in de-
spite of their governments, and forcibly prevented the
exportation of food.

Under the apprehension of contingencies such as
these it was that the late Mr. Huskisson probably
formed his celebrated conclusion that the main reliance
of the people of this country for a sure and permanent

supply of food should be placed on that , which is grown
at home.

In arguing, therefore, for an immediate suspension of
the import duties, you appear to involve yourself in a
contradiction, for you very justly observe in another place
that " the effect of a bad harvest is, in the first place, to
diminish the supply in the market, and to raise the price.
Hence diminished consumption and the privation of in-
cipient scarcity, by which the whole stock is more equally
distributed over the year, and the ultimate pressure is
greatly mitigated." But an immediate suspension of the
import duties would produce, in all probability, an im-
mediate letting out of bond of a million quarters of wheat ;
besides, before winter, causing another million quarters
to be poured into the market, and thus possibly at once
exhaust the foreign supply, to the great aggravation, if
there be a scarcity (and if there be no scarcity, then there
is still less necessity for the measure), of the deficiency
before next harvest.

But the contradiction in which you appear involved
in this part of the subject is infinitely increased when re-
ference is made to what you say in relation to potatoes.
"But the fear of the breaking out of this unknown dis-
ease in the potato induces the holders to hurry into the
market ; and thus we have at one and the same time rapid
consumption and impending deficiency, scarcity of the
article and cheapness of price. The ultimate suffering
must thereby be rendered far more severe than it other-
wise would be." I could not, if I would, make use of
stronger words and stronger arguments in support of my
view that an immediate suspension of the import duties
would (if there be the scarcity you apprehend) greatly
aggravate the public distress in the spring and summer
months. If a fear is entertained that a limited supply
only can be obtained from abroad, would you, in defiance
of your own rule, and in the face of scarcity, let it all
in at once, to add a stimulus to the consumption you so
prudently deprecate ?

How much more wisely, in my opinion, and as I think
facts have proved and will prove, have the corn-laws
provided for the permanent supply of the people, under
an apprehension of scarcity. Observe what in this law
(or rather in the graduated scale) you will perhaps re-
member my warmly contending for, in the agricultural
committees of 1833 and 1836, viz., the steadiness which
it promotes in prices. Take any six weeks since harvest,
when the reported scarcity (if no obstructive principle
had been at work, would pi'obably have produced a vari-
ation in prices from week to week, of 5s. or 10s. per
quarter, as reports vacillated of the prospects of supply,
and what do you see ? scarcely a variation of 2d. a bushel j
but, instead of it, a steady progression in price, approx-
imating very gradually to that point where the duty vir-
tually ceases, and free importation begins ; that point
near which popular clamour is so easily excited, but at
which the duty vanishes, to the instant relief of the con-
sumers, and the mortification of those who would profit
by the clamour. With these parties, this safety-valve
(which after reasonably protecting the grower, proceeds
at once to the reasonable protection of the consumer) has

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

25

always been the most oxnoxious part of the present corn-
laws ; because, just as they are clutching a plausible po-
pular cry, it eludes their grasp.

Upon what grounds, however, do you anticipate such
calamitous effects from one year's apprehended scarcity ?
Is it from the present corn-laws ? If I do not mis-
take, we imported last year, or the year before
about 800,000 quarters of wheat at a 14s. duty.
How much more may we import when the duty falls to
the vanishing point .' Putting the present corn law for
a moment aside, turn to tlie effects of four deficient har-
vests, under a more stringent corn-law — that of 1828, of
which the present is only a modification with diminished
duties ; turn to the deficient harvests of 1828, 1829,
1830, 1831, and see whether the anticipations of an in-
sufficient supply — fourfold more likely, under such re-
peated scarcity, to be fulfilled at tliat time than this —
were then fulfilled ! Rumour, with her busy tongue —
panic, with its prostrate imbecility — wei-e as rife then as
now. And what was the result .' In no four years in
any period of English history, before or since, had we
such large importations ; a supply so commensurate with
our wants, that those only who took a political intei'cst
in the question appear now to remember them ; except,
indeed, those poor farmers who cultivated what were
then emphatically designated the wheat soils of England !
— full a thiid of whom, in spite of the protective price
afforded by the corn- law, were so inadequately compen-
sated for their deficient crops, that with this addition to
the pressure of accumulated distress, from the great
fall in prices subsequent to the Money Act of 1819, they
sunk to the earth, to rise no more ; and had it not been
for the protection then afforded by those corn -laws, the
stoutest of those cultivators of the wheat soils of England
must have been swept away from the face of the land.
Thank God ! we had still resolution enough to abide by
the experience of the past, instead of the infatuation to
run headlong into an unknown abyss of a new-fangled
philosophy. If the higher duties of the corn law of 1828
did not, during four successive deficient harvests, pre-
vent our obtaining a sufficient foreign supply, why should
we so much dread the effects of a corn-law, with lower
duties, in preventing a foreign supply sufficient to meet
the deficiency of only one year ?

Had the corn -laws been abolished in 1828 — throwing
thousands upon thousands of labourers and acres out of
employment and cultivation as the consequence — under
the fallacious apprehension of the effects of scarcity, I
should have, indeed, trembled for the supply of food for
the people in the year 184G. Nothing but the firmest
conviction of the truth of Mr. Huskisson's axiom, " that
on British corn must our British people mainly rely, in
war andin peace, for the food tliey eat," gives me the con-
fidence I feel. With gratitude to Heaven I utter it (pro-
vided our legislative vacillations, while they paralyze the
future efforts of the British farmer, do not at the same
time clog the well-nigh omnipotent powers of the Bri-
tish merchant, and of British gold), that in England at
least we shall experience none of the miseries of famine.
To the eaters of potatoes in Ireland (whose forlorn de-
pendence on that lowest species of food I commiserate,

especially under present adverse circumstances, as much
as you can do) — to the Irish, open ports would not give the
money to purchase corn.

But what is the real truth respecting the crops in
England .' As yet it may not be fully ascertained ; but
for the comfort of those who are more apprehensive than
myself, I may state that an extensive inquiry is now
making, and in part made, into the state of the cro]is in
Yorkshire ; and, as far as I liave seen, the following are
the almost invariable answers (with certain limitations)
to the queries sent : —

1. That the wheat crop, though very deficient in yield,
when considered relatively to the quantity of straw, is
yet believed to be little below the average of the last few
years, in consequence of the large proportion of land
cropped with wheat, the unprecedently large bulk of
straw, and the unusually productive crops in many of
the backward and upland districts.

2. That the deficiency of yield chiefly arises from the
number of light grains which are necessarily blown out
in dressing the corn for market, leaving the whole of the
marketable grain, with but few exceptions, sound and
wholesome ; whereas in years of real scarcity, such as
1800, 1816, &c., a large proportion of the wheat crop
was sprouted and unfit for use.

3. That where proper care has been taken in sorting
potatoes attacked with gangrene or murrain, and in
storing them in dry, cool situations, little progress ap-
pears to have been made by the disease of late ; and it
may, therefore, be reasonably hoped that the full extent
of the evil is already known.

i. That the deficiency caused by the potato failure will
be, in some measure, compensated by the unusually
arge crops of oats, barley, and beans.

I am very glad to be able to add to this account (con-
trary to your experience) that potatoes are not generally
forced into the market, but that the labourers hereabouts
are generally turning their worst potatoes into bacon, in
the expectation of the best keeping till spring ; and I
am greatly in hopes that the extra pig which they are
thus enabled to feed will go, as well as the others, to the
comfortable support of their families ; for the demand
for labour is so good, that I rejoice to say I can scarcely
find an extra hand, when I want one, at half-a-crown a
day — the wages, more or less, ever since I can remem-
ber, of this district. May a free trade in corn never re-
duce them !

I find my observations on the first part of your letter
drawn out to so much greater length than I had expected,
that my intended comments on the second jjart I most
unwilUngly reserve for a second letter. I will not close
this, however, although it might be said more properly
to belong to the second part, without expressing my sa-
tisfaction at your not joining (which, indeed, it would
have been the worst injustice to have suspected you of)
in the exaggerated statements so common to the oppo-
nents of the corn-laws, that they entirely restrict the
people to the consumption of British-grown corn ; and
that, with an increasing population, they limit us to the
comparatively stationary amount of food which the Bri-
tish islands can produce. But can any one, with truth,

26

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

deny that if our population were tenfold what it now is,
the present corn-law would admit as much corn as could
possibly be imported, whenever the duty fell to that point
at which it served the merchant's interest to enter it for
consumption ? When the period arrives that the corn-
laws do practically prevent our importing foreign corn
in sufficient quantities to meet the deficiencies of home
growth, then will be the just time, and not till then, to
complain of their effects under an apprehension of
scarcity.

The corn-laws, then, do not prohibit the importation
of foreign corn. They do but prevent its being entered
for consumption at a price that would ruin the English
grower, and disemploy the English labourer. After that
risk is passed, importation is free ; and surely you should
not object to this principle, who hold that so much evil
may accrue from having, at one and the same time,
" scarcity of the article, and cheapness of price !"

Of this, indeed, as it appears to me, it may be truly
stated of the corn-law, viz., that, as between the English
grower and the English consumer (leaving foreign corn
out of the question), it does not in the least affect the
price of corn; but tliat the price, under the circum-
stances of this mere domestic interchange, is determined,
and determined alone, by the supply and the demand —
i. e., by the plenty or deficiency of the article, as com-
pared with the increase or decrease of the demand ; or
it is determined by the plenty or scarcity of that medium
called money, in which the price is measured. It is an
error, therefore, to imagine that, under thesecircumstances
of mere domestic interchange (separate from a foreign
importation), the corn-law does or can raise or fix the
pi-ice of corn. Its real effect is to prevent foreign com-
petition from throwing down the natural price struck
out between the domestic producer and consumer.

The question, however, is totally changed when you
introduce into the question the elements of foreign com-
petition. Just as with any other commodity, so with
com ; if you bring a larger quantity into the market, you
as certainly diminish its price for the time being. But
if, by this competition, you diive the parties employed
in producing a commodity to give up producing it, with
the view of relying upon a foreign supply ; if that arti-
cle be one of first necessity, like corn, and there comes a
period of war, or of scarcity in the foreign country or
countries on which you usually rely for your supply of
such article, then it may turn out that tliis species of
competition may prove a " penny wise and pound foolish
economy" — one which has given you cheap corn when
you do not want it — and very dear corn — or worse than
that — none at all, when you do want it.

What the English farmer wants is not scarcity or
dearness. Scarcity is a curse to man and beast ; plenty
a blessing to both. But he wants that degree of price
which, under our most artificial state, with debts, taxes,
embarrassments, and entanglements innumerable, and
almost out of count, will enable him to compete with
those who have no such burdens to bear, or incompara-
bly fewer. Strip him, as his foreign competitors are
stripped, of these heavy weights, and, if I know the Bri-
tish farmer, and I think I do, he would not be afraid to

run an equal race. But fettered as he now is, he re-
quires for his existeilce as a cultivator, and the great
body of consumers, as I think, require for the continu-
ous cultivation of the land, protection against prices
which are unequal to repay the cost of cultivation ; and
the farmer also requires, as other producers do, some
compensation, in an increased price for a scarcity of his
commodity from a dispensation of Providence. And he
considers this compensation as indispensable to the per-
manence of his occupation, as it is to that of all others.
That scarcity and increased price should go together, he
both learns from you, and believes to be one of the wise
regulations of nature. If, however, you at once admit
foreign corn, the moment some deficiency is apprehended
in his crojis, you, at the same time, deprive him of that
increase of price which he thinks the natural compensa-
tion for deficiency ; and you rob him of what, vinder our
artificial system, he believes, and not um-easonably be-
lieves, to be his due.

Nor does the farmer believe that the public (unexcited
by specious declamation) would ever grudge him the be-
nefit of a law which, under low prices (when the con-
sumer's interest is not palpably involved) protects the
grower; which, under scarcity, partially compensates
him for a deficient crop, and which admits foreign corn
to the consumer at a price (considering scarcity) not un-
reasonably high. The British farmer does not think this
so unreasonable a demand, that the British public — al-
ways in the end pretty just in their conclusions — should,
if left to the exercise of their own independent sense of
fairness, in the long run refuse it to them.

My reply to your more general observations on the
corn-laws I reserve, as I said before (providing the phy-
sical strength be left me), to a second letter.

'More! do the farmers want?' do you ask ? May I
answer you ? Yes ! They now, not improbably, want,
as J do, to see Lord John Russell in his old place, as
leader of the House of Commons ; for then they would
feel tliat they might safely repose under the protection
and consistency of her Majesty's — Opposition.

Dear Lord John, Your's very truly,

Wydale, Nov. 23. E. S. Caylev.

HONOURS OF GEOLOGY.— The St. Petershirg Gazette
of Oct. 30, contains an extract from an ukase of the senate,of
Sept. 22, by wliicli the Emperor of Russia appoints Mr. Mur-
cliison an Effective Member of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences (of wliich he was previonsly an honorary member;
with all the riyhts, privileges, and rank attached to that office
in tlie imperial service. On the recent presentation to the
Emperor, by Mr. Murcliison, of tlie large work (in which, in
conjunction with M. E. de Verneuil and Coiuit Keyserhng, he
has been for five years engaged) " On the Geographical Struc-
ture of Russia in Europe and the Ural Moimtains," his Im-
perial Majesty was pleased to confer on liim the order of St.
Stanislaus of tlie first class, and on M. de Verneuil the order
of St. Vladimh of the third class. It is gratifying to see such
notice takeu of the united exertions of English and French
geologists in such distant regions ; this is, indeed, the true
entente cordiale among civiUsed nations.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

27

ALL PLANTS DO NOT FOUL THE SOIL EQUALLY.

It is said that a plant fouls the soil, when it
facilitates or permits the growth of weeds, which
exhaust the earth, weaiy the plant, appropriate to
themselves a part of its nourishment, and hasten
its decay. All plants not provided with an exten-
sive system of large and vigorous leaves, calculated
to cover the ground, foul the soil.

The grains, from their slender stalks rising
into the air, and their long, nan'ow leaves, easily
admit into their inten'als those weeds that grow
upon the surface, which, being defended from heat
and winds, grow by favour of the grain they in-
jure.

Herbaceous plants, on the contrary, which
cover the surfare of the soil with their leaves, and
raise their stallcs to only a moderate height, stifle
all that endeavours to grow at their roots, and the
earth remains clean. It must be observed, how-
ever, that this last is not the case unless the soil be
adapted to the plants, and contain a sufficient quan-
tity of manure to support them in a state of healthy
and vigorous vegetation: it is for want of these
favourable circumstances that Ave often see these
same jilants languishing, and allowing the growth
of less delicate herbs, which cause them to perish
before their time. Vegetables sown and cultivated
in furrows, as are the various roots and the greater
part of the leguminous plants, allow room for a
large number of weeds ; but the soil can be easily
kept free by a frequent use of the hoe or weeding
fork ; and by this means may be preserved rich
enough for raising a second crop, especially if the
first be not allowed to go to seed.

The seeds that are committed to the ground
often contain those of weeds amongst them, and
too much care cannot be taken to avoid this : it is
more frequently the case, however, that these are
brought by the winds, deposited by water, or sown
with the manure of the farm-yard.

The carelessness of those agriculturists who
allow thistles and other hurtful plants to remain in
their fields cannot be too much censured; each
year these plants produce new seeds, thus exhaust-
ing the land and increasing their own numbers, till
it becomes almost impossible to free the soil from
them. This negligence is carried by some to such
an extent, that they will reap the grain all around
the thistles, and leave them standing at lilierty to
complete their growth and fructification. How
much better it would be to cut those hurtful plants
before they flower, and to add them to the manure
of the farm. From the principles which I have

just established, we may draw the following con-
clusions.

1st. That however well prepared a sod may he,
it cannot nourish a long succession of crops without
becoming exhausted.

2nd. Each harvest impoverishes the soil to a cer-
tain extent, depending upon the degree of nourish-
ment which it restores to the earth.

3rd. The cultivation of spindle roots ought to
succeed that of running and superficial roots.

4th. It is necessary to avoid returning too soon
to the cultivation of the same or of analogous kinds
of vegetables, in the same soil.*

5th. It is very unwise to allow two kinds of
plants, which admit of the ready growth of weeds
among them, to be raised in succession.

Otli. Those plants that derive their principal
support from the soil should not be sown, excepting
when the soil is sufficiently provided with manure.

7th. When the soil exhibits symptoms of ex-
haustion from successive harvests, the cultivation
of those plants that restore most to the soil must
be resorted to.

These principles are confirmed by experience ;
they form the basis of a system of agriculture rich
in its products, but more rich in its economy, by
the dimunition of the usual quantity of labour and
manure. All cultivators ought to be governed by
them ; but their application must be modified by
the nature of soils and climates, and the particular
wants of each locality.

To prescribe a series of successive and various
harvests, without paying any regard to the diflfer-
ence of soils, would be to commit a great error, and
to condemn the system of cropping in the eyes of
those agriculturists who are too little enlightened
to think of introducing into their grounds the re-
quisite changes.

* In addition to the reasons I have given why
plants of the same or analogous kinds should not
be cultivated in succession upon the same soil,
there is another which I will here assign. M.
Olivier, member of the French Institute, has de-
scribed Avith much care all the insects which devour
the neck of the roots of grain : these multiply in-
finitely, if the same or analogous kinds of plants be
presented to the sod for several successive years ;
but perish for want of food, whenever plants not
suited to be food for their laiTcC are made to suc-
ceed the grains. These insects belong to the family
of Tipulse, or to that of flies. — (Sixteenth Vol. of
the Memoirs of the Royal and Central Agricultural
Society of Paris.)

28

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Clover and sainfoin are placed amongst the vege-
tables that ought to enter into the system of crop-
ping ; but these plants require a deep and not too
compact soil, in order that their roots may fix
themselves firmly.

Flax, hemp, and corn require a good soil, and
can be admitted as a crop only upon those lands
that are fertile and well prepared.

Light and dry soils cannot bear the same kind of
crop as those that are compact and moist.

Each kind of soil, then, requires a particular sys-
tem of crops, and each farmer ought to establish
his own upon a perfect knowledge of the character
and properties of the land he cultivates.

As in each locality the soil presents shades of
difference, more or less marked, according to the
exposure, composition, depth of the soil, &c., the
proprietor ought so to vary his crops as to give to
each portion of the land the plants for which it is
best adapted, and thus establish a particular rota-
tion of crops upon the several divisions of his
estate.

The wants of the neighbourhood, the facility
with which the products may be disposed of, and
the comparati\e value of the various kinds of crops,
should all be taken into the calculation of tbe far-
mer, in forming his plan of proceedings. — Chaptal's
Agricultural Chemistry.

ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF THE POTATO DISEASE.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

At the meeting of the Philosophical Society on
Wednesday last, Mr. Walter Crum, referring to a
letter addressed to him by Professor Liebig on the
subject of the potato, in which the disease of that
root is attril)uted to the putrefactive quality of the
sap, stated, that in consequence of that letter he had
been induced to make a few expei'iments, the re-
sults of which he proposed to lay Ijefore the meet-
ing. On grating down (he said) a healthy potato,
the surface of the pulp, or the part of it immediately
in contact with the air, soon accpiires a flesh-red
colour, which goes on increasing in depth to a ma-
hogany brown. In a few hours this is changed
into a sooty black colour, such as I have observed
in certain stages of the potato disease ; and at last,
after five or six days, we have again a brown colour,
similar to what appears in that stage of the disease
when the part has lost its firmness. This is a well-
known process of putrefaction. It occurs in the
apple, where a part that has been bruised very soon
becomes brown. And the cause is also well under-
stood to be the rupture of the vessels or bags in
which, while the fruit remains entire, the saccharine
matter is contained, and kept apart from the nitro-
genous or fermenting principle. The grape also,
in which the solution of sugar is contained in cells
distinct from the gluten, may be preserved for a
long time unchanged ; l)ut as soon as it is bruised,
and the contents of the various cells are thereby
allowed to mix together, the gluten, by attracting
oxygen from the atmosphere, becomes converted
into yeast, and fermentation goes on. By the con-
tinued exposure of such mixture to the air, putre-
faction ensues, and the conditions are fuliilled for

the development of fungi. Such is the case when
the potato is broken up and exposed. Its sap,
which contains albumen (similar in composition
and properties to the white of egg), and occasion-
ally also casein, is thus brought in contact with the
other ingredients of the root, and with the air.
The consequence is a commencement of putrefac-
tion, and the production of a disease to all appear-
ance similar to that which has occurred in nature
during the present year. Examination by the mi-
croscope confirms their identity. In two or three
days a mouldiness ajipears upon the surface of the
blackened pulp, consisting of fungi with long stalk,
and glol)ular heads, which emit when compressed a
profusion of small round bodies, called sporuless
the seeds of new fungi. These seeds are in no
danger of being confounded with the granules of
starch, most of which, in comparison wtli them,
are several hundred times as large. Sporules are
said by the Irish Commissioners to exist in abun-
dance in the diseased potato. If I have not been
able to assure myself of having seen them there, at
least of so definite a form as those from the new
fungus, it is probably because I have not lately had
an opportunity of examining the disease in its ear-
lier stages. Lastly, after an exposure of eight days
(and my observations extend over no longer time),
when the jmlp has in a great measure lost its black-
ness, and taken the (I beheve more permanent)
brown colour, small, extremely white and fine tufts
appear on its surface, of a totally different variety
of fungus, having apparently no head like the ear-
her crop, and consisting of long slender stems,
which, when pressed dpwn between pieces of glass.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

29

appear lined on both sides ^vith multitudes of
very small sporules. This fungus corresponds with
the tufts which grow on the outside of the diseased
part of the potato. Their appearance is the same ;
but any specimens of the tuft from the diseased po-
tato I have at present at command are much older
than the crop of which I speak, and perhaps for
that reason show fewer sporules. That a rupture
of the cellular tissue of the diseased potato has ac-
tually taken place during the present year, has been
already made known by Professor Kutzig, a German
physiologist, who describes the so-called dry rot of
former seasons as a disease in which the starch
granules are so altered as to exhibit minute brown
fungi, preA'ious to the destruction of the cellular
tissue ; whereas at present the ceUs become de-
stroyed, while the starch granules remain entire.
On account of this peculiarity he has given to the
existing disease the name of cell rot. In the short
time during which I have been occupied with this
subject, 1 have not been able to verify under the
microscope these observations on the structure of
the cellular tissue, from the difficulty of obtaining
thin enough perfect sections of the substance. Pro-
fessor Kutzig attributes the e fleets he describes to
the weakness of the parts, occasioned by the too
rapid growth of the tubers, and the absorption of
too much water, which render the formation of a
strong and durable cellular membrane impossible.
But, on making the experiment, I have not been
able to find that the quantity of water contained in
a perfectly healthy potato is less than in one hable
to the disease. I rasped down very fine white po-
tatoes, from a moderate crop, grown on poor land
wth but httle manure ; and, having put a pound of
the pulp into a bag, and squeezed it firmly with the
hand, I obtained from it 59 per cent, of juice. A
red potato from the same field, and equally unaf-
fected with the disease, yielded 58 per cent. An-
other red potato, itself sound, but from a field which
had been well manured, and which was much af-
fected with the disease, gave 58^. In another ex-
periment, where the juice was pi'essed out and the
solid part dried, the fine white potato left 2 1 .4 per
cent, of sohd matter, and a portion of a diseased
potato left 20.79 per cent. There is therefore no
difference in the quantity of water.

I shall not trouble the Society with any specula-
tions of my own as to the manner in which this
rupture of the potato may have been effected. The
subject is surrounded with difficulties, and much
close investigation is wanted to learn the circum-
stances which attend it. If the statements now
made are correct, we shall find that fungi are not
the cause, but a consequence of the disease in ques-
tion, and our attention will be directed to prevent
the formation of a soil in which the fungus always

fructifies, rather than to the parasite itself, of whose
existence we should be ignorant without it.

Acids generally, and tlie acetic as well as the
mineral acids, when added to the ])otato pulp, prevent
or, if in very small quantities, retard its putrefaction.
Small doses of lime or of carbonate of soda, on the
contrary, accelerate the blackening of the surface.
Alum acts like an acid. Such neutral salts as the
sulphates of soda, magnesia, or lime, nitrate of po-
tash, sal ammoniac, and common salt produce little
effect, and even the salts of copper and mercury, if
added in quantities too small to precipitate the
albumen, do not entirely prevent discolouration.

The quantity of albumen in the sap of the potato
is much greater than is usually supposed. By
boihng, it coagulates, of a light grey colour, and is
easily collected on a cloth. On being dried at a
steam heat it becomes quite black, breaks with a
vitreous fracture, and has the smell of roasted meat.
One pound of clear juice, representing a pound and
a quarter of potatoes, yielded 112 grains ; and
nearly the same quantity was o1)tained from aU the
three specimens of sound potato already named.
An ordinary sized egg contains 144 grains of the
same substance in the white and yolk together.
Two pounds, therefore, of potatoes contain as much
nourishment, independently of the starch, as one
egg. The manufacturers of potato starch would
seem in this manner to throw away much valuable
food which they might easily preserve.

PROPOSED ASYLUM FOR DECAYED FARMERS
AND AGED AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS.— Under
the above title some hints have been embodied and circidated
in this neighbourhood in the form of a small pamphlet. We
have been requested to draw attention to this scheme, and we
readUy comply with the request — premising, however, that we
do so rather to invite discussion than to give any formal opi-
nion ourselves, because there are several points on which much
difference of judgment may very properly exist. Still in many
respects it is deserving notice, and if we caimot agree with all
the ^VTiter advances, yet every one will allow that to secure a
comfortable retirement in old age for those who have toiled hard
for many years is worthy a large amomit of approval. It appears
this asylum is proposed for the reception of such decayed far-
mers as are reduced to the necessity of requiring parish aid and
whose characters are unexceptionable, and also for the poor
agricultural laboiu-ers who ha^'e brought up their families with-
out parish aid, and have also received rewards as able workmen
and for long servitude, from agricultural societies. This pro-
posed asylum is to be established so as to provide for its own
support after the lapse of such time as will bring its resident
members into active operation for its various wants. The pro-
poser of the plan strongly urges the argument that the hard-
working labourer, whose honesty and industry has been con
spicuous, should have some more appropriate place than the
workhouse, which, although good and sufficient in its way,
treats all alike, and where those who have been diligent meet

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

only the same reward as those whose lives have been spent in
idleness and dissipation. The small farmer, it is urged, has
hitherto had no opportunity of making such provisions as are
enjoyed by merchants and tradesmen. The annual income
would be raised from many different sources, such as payments
from societies, from various imions, subscriptions from the cha-
ritable and also volimtary subscriptions, profits from spade hus-
bandry, as well as others, for which we must refer to the pam-
pUet itself. We observe that the projector of the plan is
mixious to obtain the opinions of agriculturists and gentlemen
interested in rural affairs, and all such communications can be

sent for him to jNIr. J. Bowring, of the St. Thomas Union.
For our ovm parts we feel that the only way in which anytlung
like a competent opinion can be formed is by a careful consi-
deration of the whole matter, and a perusal of the document it-
self will doubtless give rise to many valuable suggestions, and
' thus the result may at last be the practical formation of a plan
embodying in a great measure the wishes of the projector. In-
deed, if we cannot couicide with the author in all his opinions,
we cordially welcome the pliilanthropic feehng which prompts
him to benefit the honest and industrious when they arrive at
" the vale of declining years." — E.'ceter Flying Post.

ON THE ST. JOHN'S-DAY RYE.

BY PH. PUSEY, M.P.

The late Lord Leicester advised tliat no farming
experiment should be published until it had been
successfully tried for three years. But though I
have not grown the St. John's-day rye as yet even
for two complete years, its promising appearance,
and the approval of neighbouring farmers, en-
courage me to lay a short account of this plant be-
fore the Society. It was in 1842 that Mr. Taunton
of Ashley, near Stockbridge, first made it known
to me in the following terms ; —

" In your digest of the progress of agricultural
knowledge, you say, of early rye, that ' some far-
mers do not approve of it ; for while young it gives
but little food, and it shoots up rapidly to a harsh
stalk, which stock do not relish.' But this re-
proach does not apply to the variety of rye which
is the best worth culti^-ating, and, as I think, the
only one worth cultivating to any e.xtent for the
purpose of green meat — namely, the St. John's-
day rye (seiffle de St. Jean). This plant, if sown
in proper time, and on a suitable soil, jiresents it-
self to the scythe in a state palatable to horses for
fuU three weeks, or more. I wovdd sow not more
than one-fourth of the ground with common rye
by the side of it, for the common rye is a very few
days earlier, and by the time when that becomes
harsh and woody the St. John's-day rye has at-
tained its perfection. Of this latter I have had, on
a suitable soil, to the extent of 11 London loads of
straw per acre when left for seed ; for it will grow
from 6 to 7 feet high. The time to sow it is the
24th of June ; at all events, get it in before July.
The soil for rye ought to be a siliceous soil; it does
not reject a considerable admixture of clay, but it
ought to come under the description of a sandy
loam. If you want such a burthen as I have de-
scribed, of course the condition of the soil must not
be poor, and such produce will pay for good land.

The soil, too, needs to be compressed after sowing,
if the land be at all light, by rolling or sheep-tread-
ing ; otherwise the rye-plant is peculiarly obnoxious
to the wire-worm. Tlie mass of foliage in October
would induce you to feed it then ; but I v/ould
recommend you to abstain : the leaf (unlike winter
barley) is very little changed by the winter, and it
so cherishes the young foliage, which shoots up in
spring covered with this dense mantle, that it will
repay your forbearance with ample interest, I
have seen it in the end of February, or beginning of
March, equal, if not superior, to the best water-
meadow for ewes and lambs : for soiUng in stable,
the horses will eat it when the ear is fairly de-
veloped, and it may perhaps be 5 feet high (accord-
ing to the soil) ; it will have tillered so much that
the produce wiU be a very heavy one."

In June of the following year (1843) Mr, Taim-
ton sent me another account of his further success
in the growth of the St. John's-day rye : —

" I inclose to you a stalk of my St, John's-day
rye, length 6 feet ; it has not yet flowered, I began
to soil eight cart-horses with it on the 13th of May,
then 3 feet high, and four cows a week later. Both
these kinds of stock stiU eat nearly the whole of it,
with scarce any waste, so that it has no^v been
twenty-two days in use, and I expect that they AviU
eat it freely some days longer ; thus, you see, ex-
tending its eatable state nearly to a month. If I
had possessed a greater breadth of this crop in the
present season, I should have begun a week
earher, not waiting till it had attained the height
of 3 feet.

" The ground which bore this had a dressing of
dung just before sowing. It succeeded wheat, cut
green into stable; but your calcareous grit de-
tritus is a far more favourable soil for rye than our
chalk.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

31

" This plant, and, I believe, this variety, proved
fatal to luindreds of our brave men on the sandy
plains of Belgium, two days before the battle of
Waterloo. They marched through fields of it
higher than their heads. The glittering points of
their bayonets marked the track of their march to
the enemy's artillery, which was on an eminence ;
while the rye being higher than their heads, they
could see no enemy, and knew not whither to di-
rect their fire."

Mr. Taunton having presented me with some
seed of this rye, it was sown in the course of July,
1843, on some poor moory soil without manure,
was fed oif in the autumn, and again in the spring,
yet produced on little more than a quarter of an
acre, 13 bushels of seed. That seed was sown
again last year in August as soon as harvested : it
produced on a sandy loam very good feed in the
autumn, and in this backward spring it realized
Mr. Taunton's description, and established its
character here by covering 4 or 5 acres with a
thick coat of herbage, in which the lambs were
browsing breast high, while there was little or no
other feed in the neighbourhoood. I find, too, in
the late Mr.Rham's "Dictionary of the Farm," ayet
more favourable account of it. Under the article
Rye in that convenient little book, our lamented
colleague observes : " There is a variety of rye men-
tioned by continental authors by the name of St.
John's-day rye, because it grows so rapidly that if
sown about St. John's day it will be fit to mow
green by the middle of September ; and in favour-
able seasons may be fed off again in November
without i)reventing its giving ample feed in spring,
and a good crop of grain at the next harvest. It
might be advantageous to introduce this variety
into England, if it be not already known." On
the other hand, it is right to state that, when our
seedsman, Mr. Gibbs, inquired respecting it in its
native country, he was informed that its cultivation
was not spreading in Belgium. But the reason
assigned was its inferiority to the common rj'e in
yield of seed ; and this objection, though ^-alid in
countries where rye-bread is eaten, will not apply
v.'here, as in England, lye is intended principally
for green fodder. Although then, as I said, my
trial of the St. John's-day rye is incomplete, and
though it has not been sown here as yet on its pe-
culiar day, it has evidently two advantages over the
common rye. It tillers so much as to produce
double the quantity of herbage on the same space
of ground. Indeed in one field where the two va-
rieties were growing together, the common rye,
after twice feeding off, became so thin that I
ploughed it up ; while this new rye covers the
ground with its third crop as with its first. Be-
sides tillering more, it is also sweeter than the

common rye when young. Where they grow to-
gether, the hares and rabbits, while we had any,
ate it before the other. Its principal merit, how-
ever, is its superior sweetness in advanced growth,
and the consequently longer time during which it
remains fit for use as spring feed. Good farmers who
have seen it agree with me, that this new rye should
be tried upon such light hollow soils as we some-
times findon our southern chalk-hills. On suchland,
in dry seasons, farmers often lose their turnip crop
after it is singled out ; but rye is known to bear
well such looseness of soil. If it were sown in-
stead of turnips, or where the turnips had missed,
on a part of the turnip-land, even one green crop
in the autumn, to say nothing of two, and another
in spring, might compensate for such a crop of
roots as this land generally yields. If it stood for
seed afterwards, it would then also take the place
of the barley crop, the turnip's natural successor ;
and the rotation would remain undisturbed. I will
only add one suggestion, or rather call attention to
a statement of Mr. Taunton's — that if the St.
John's-day rye be left uneaten in the autumn, it
will aflbrd feed for ewes and lambs equal to the
])est water-meadow, as early as the beginning of
March or the end of February — an invaluable time
for such feed. All that is hoped of a new plant is
seldom realized in practice ; but what I have my-
self seen of the St. John's-day rye, and the
opinions of farmers who have also watched it make
me sure that I should not be rash in advising oc-
cupiers of light lands to give it a trial, but that un-
fortunately, as I am informed, no seed is now to
be procured abroad with a certainty of its genuine
ness. — Puseij, May 12, 1845. — Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.

ON A VARIETY OF RYE AS GREEN
FODDER.

BY ROBERT BAKER.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq., M.P.

Sir, — I read with much attention the communi-
cation made by you to the Committee of the Royal
Agi"icultural Society " upon the growth of St.
John's-day rye," and as I have cultivated rye for
feeding purposes for several years with great ad-
vantage, I have much pleasure in communicating
the results.

The difference in the varieties of rye I discovered
accidentally some years since. Having obtained
seed from two different seedsmen, I found in the
following spring that for the purposes of early feed

3-2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the produce from the one was a fortnight earlier-,
and twice as much in produce superior to the other.
Since that time I have invariably grown ray own
seed, and rarely fail in obtaining a plant, whereas
previously I hardly ever obtained one, from the
circumstance of old rye being mixed with new by
persons interested ; and the old very rarely vege-
tating, my plants were thin, or failed altogether,

I have, from long experience and observation,
brought my system of cultivation to such a degree
of perfection, that I never fail succeeding in obtain-
ing a plant ; and by the application of the produce
I am enabled to support all my horses and neat
stock for two or three weeks before my neighbours
commence. From the middle of Ajiril last I have
thus been enabled to maintain upwards of forty
horses and colts, and fifty head of neat stock : the
former up to the present time, and the latter until
the 14th of this month, almost without the assist-
ance of hay. The chief difficulty I had to contend
with was to remedy the great waste occasioned by
the horses and stock in foddering ; for as the rye
advanced in stem, the stock would eat only the
most tender portion, and if tares were sown in con-
junction, would M'aste the greater ]iart of the rye in
the endea-\'oiTr to extract them whilst feeding. To
remedy this, I now cut the whole into chaff"; and
by the addition of a small quantity of hay, and
about one-half sweet wheat or oat-straw (which I
gradually diminish as the season advances) I suc-
ceed in obtaining a description of food of which,
for early use, I know of nothing as an equivalent,
whether in point of cheapness or utility, besides
the advantage of gradually adopting the change
from the diy to green food without risk or incon-
venience to the animal. The number of acres con-
sumed to the present time, of rye alone, and in
conjunction with tares, does not exceed nine acres,
and the land upon which it is grown is already in a
forward state for turnips. I will now give a con-
densed statement of the process, and advert to those
points necessary to be attended to in the cultivation
as I proceed.

To succeed to perfection, a fine tilth must be ob-
tained, and the land should be of a sandy or gra-
velly quality. The lye should be sown when the
weather is perfectly dry, and the land harrowed
previously, so that it may be covered as lightly as
possible. If sown upon a whole furrow, or during
wet weather, or if put in deep, it rarely succeeds.
These are the three i)oints that i-equire particular
attention in its cultivation. My plan is to plough
a clean wheat eddish immediately after the wheat-
crop is removed ; and with two or three scarifyings
or additional ploughings, reduce the soil to the
finest possible degree of pulverization. After the
last ploughing I harrow the land before depositing

the seed ; and about the middle of September or
early in October I sow three bushels of seed per
acre, which is harrowed in lightly, and the land
left without rolling, unless with a very light roller
between the harrowings. If the rye is very forward
(which, from having a mild autumn, is sometimes
the case), it will, in the event of a heavy fall of
snow succeeding, be sometimes greatly injured for
spring use ; but it must on no account be fed off
with sheep, as it never comes well to the scythe
afterwards. A portion should be manured for the
first cutting, to enable its being used a week or
ten days earlier. When ready for use, which in
ordinary seasons takes place at the commencement
of the month of April, it is carefully mown, and
cut b}'a chaff-cutting machine, with the addition of
a moiety of straw and hay, the proportion of the
former being as four to one of the latter ; and the
cutting should so proceed that it may be adapted to
the consumption of each day, using it as soon after
being cut as possible. The chaff-boxes used by
me are of the common sort, having an adjustment,
invented by Dyball of North Walsham, for feeding
without assistance of the person using them. The
cost of cutting is from 14d. to 15d. per 60 bushels,
and a man cuts from 100 to 120 bushels per diem.
Tlie horses are fed in the stable with oats in addi-
tion, and in the yards at night with cut chaff only.
The cows and neat stock are fed with the addition
of oilcake, broken fine or not, as may be requisite,
and no portion whatever is allowed to be wasted ;
for by supplying it from time to time as required,
every particle will be eaten. As the rye advances
into ear, less straw and hay are then used ; and of
every 100 bushels added at the present time, 561bs.
of hay and 72ll}s. of wheat-straw are the propor-
tion, some tares being grown in conjunction with
the rye.

I know of no other food for early spring use, as
a substitute for hay, equal to this, nor of any other
system whereby so large an amount of excellent
food can be procured from a small quantity of land;
and, in point of economy, those who have not
adopted the system have not the slightest concep-
tion. During this s])ring in ])articular I have found
it of most decided advantage; and at the high
price of hay at the present moment I 'estimate that
every acre of rye, thus produced, has been worth
at least 8/. ; and when it is considered that it is
obtained with scarcely any injury to the land what-
ever (turnips succeeding as well after | it as it can be
desired), 1 am induced to make this communication
in the hope that, through your endeavours to pro-
mote the interests of the British agriculturist, it
may become known and more generally adopted in
other districts.

I shall be very glad to forward you a small quan-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tity of my seed when ripe, that you may be ahle to
compare it with the St. John's-day rye you have
referred to.

I have the honour to remain, sir,

Your obedient servant,

Robert Baker.
Writtle, Essex, May 24, 1845.

P.S. — I have since weighed a square perch, and
find the weight to be tweh^e stones, or iGSlbs. ; and
on parts of the field it would have weighed at least
200lbs. Upon an experiment made, we found the

horses refused altogether to eat it if uncut ; and I
am so convinced of the economy of this mode of
feeding, that I am still cutting that of which the
larger portion is tares, and shall continue to do so
until midsummer.

JVo^e.— It appears to me that Mr. Baker's variety
of rye, though e(iually or even more valuable, can-
not be the same with the St. John's-day rye, be-
cause it is carher than the common rye ; whereas
Mr. Taunton states that the St. John's-day rye, so
far from being earlier, is a few days later. — Ph.
PusEY.— Journal of the Royal Agri. Soc.

PUOTECTION TO AGRICULTURE.
ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL PROTECTION SOCIETY.

The annual meeting of this national society took place I their main and especial authority from the fact that each
on Tuesday, Dec. 9, in the rooms of the society in Old of them, singly, represented a considerable district of the
Bond-street. Tlie position which tlie great question of country, and that they all stood there as the representa
the corn laws at present occupies, and the statements
recently put forward with regard to it, had attracted

more than an ordinary share of public attention to this
society, and to the steps which, at the present emer-
gency, it would take. The agricultural interest through-
out the land was anxious to hear authoritatively from
the leaders of the protection party whether they were
willing to adopt the advice which weak men or inter-
ested writers had given to them, and to follow the ex-
ample set by some pretended friends of the farmer, in
recommending a compromise of this grave and all-im-
portant matter. The eyes, therefore, of all the farmers
and landowners of England were turned towards this
society, which was established for the very purpose of
maintaining and upholding a fair and legitimate protec-
tion to the industry of the country ; and it was antici-
pated— and, we are glad to say, not in vain anticipated —
that the president or committee of the society would be
prepared to recommend the adoption of more active and
energetic measures at the present crisis. The meeting
of members was announced to take place at two o'clock ;
and before that hour had arrived, fifty or sbcty of the
most influential landowners and tenant-farmers, from all
parts of England, were assembled. It must not, how-
ever, be supposed that the number of those actually
present affords anything like a fair criterion of the
power and influence of the Protection Society. Unlike
their vulgar and noisy competitors of the League, this
society is not desirous of influencing popular opinion by
the muster of its forces, or by the clamour of its
speakers. Hitherto, perhaps, foolishly disregardful of
the ordinary and more familiar means of moving and
exciting public sentiment, they have contented them-
selves with a quiet, silent, and unambitious support of
the principles they profess ; and the fifty or sixty gen-
tlemen present on Tuesday afternoon — of great personal
weight and individual influence, no doubt— yet derive

tives of the views, the principles, and the resolute deter-
mination of absent hundreds scarcely less powerful or
influential than themselves. In addition to this consi-
derable and most respectable body of gentlemen who
formed the great bulk of yesterday's meeting, we were
glad to see, as must indeed every friend of British agri-
culture be glad to hear, that members of the Legisla-
ture, upon whom must rest the leadership and manage-
ment of the question in the field where its issue will be
decided, were not wanting. liis Grace the Duke of
Richmond was in the chair — a man, than whom this
country has none more able, more honest, or more re-
solute to help her when her hour of trial shall arrive.
The president was surrounded by several of the best, the
truest, and most determined friends of agricultural pro-
tection. We more particularly observed the Marquis of
Sahsbury, G. J. Heathcote, Esq., M.P., A. S. O'Brien,
Esq., M.P., C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P., W. Miles,
Esq., M.P. ; Revs. J. Cox and — Gwilt ; Messrs. Su-
therland, Fisher Hobbs, Healy, Shackel, G. Brown,
Pickin, Bennett, Jonas, Turner, Lewis, Hudson, Weall,
Alhiatt, Rodwell, and W. R. Browne, as well as several
gentlemen representing county protection associations.
Communications were also received from his Grace the
Duke of Buckingham, Lord Tngestre, and Mr. R.
Baker, who had been desirous of being present, but were
prevented from attending by unavoidable causes.

His Grace the Duke of Richmond, having taken the
chair, immediately rose and spoke as follows : — Gentle-
men,— I am anxious, before I propose the first motion
which I shall make to you — viz., that the report of the
committee be read — to call the attention of the society
to the situation which at the present moment we are iu
{loud cheers) . You, gentlemen, are aware that, since
our last annual meeting, a certain number of individuals
who formerly called themselves " friends of the farmer,"
who stated boldly on the hustings their adherence to our

34

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

opinions, and who said that they were willing to give
protection to agriculture, have since changed their
opinion (c/ieers), and that now they are found to be the
bitterest opponents to protection of British industry
{loud cheers). It is not for me to impute motives to
such persons. I will not impute to them motives other
than those from which I myself would act (hear, hear).
They are not here to defend themselves, and I am too
much of an Englishman to attack any persons behind
their backs. But I will say, that it is most unfortunate
that they ever joined the cause of protection, that they
ever stated on the hustings their willingness and deter-
mination to support that cause, and that they succeeded
solely because they so stated (loicd cheers). For my
own part, I am not surprised at Lord John Russell's
letter {hear, hear, hear) to his constituents of London ;
for after I had heard him say, in the House of Com-
mons, that " Protection was the bane of British agri-
culture," I expected nothing whatever — at least, no-
thing better— at his hands. And I confess that I am
glad that he has spoken out (cheers). I always re-
garded his proposal of a fixed duty as nothing but a
declaration of an anti-protection principle ; and I
thought then, and still believe now, that if that proposal
had reached a third reading, absolute free trade would
have been established {hear, hear). There is another
lord— I mean Lord Morpeth — of whom I must also say
a word. That noble lord is everything one could wish
in private life — honest, upright, straightforward, and
most amiable ; and I confess that I am surprised that
Lord Morpeth should have sent £b to the League. A
man of such high honour and noble principles— would
he create fictitious votes in every county of England ?
{hear, hear.) Would he, personally and individually,
give £b to a newspaper for promoting and publishing
libels against the character of those with whom in po-
litics he disagreed ? (hear, hear.) He, gentlemen,
•would do neither in his own person; but he sends £b,
that others may do for him the dirty work he is too ho-
nourable to do himself. So, I say, I am surprised that
that noble lord has thought himself justified in joining
the League ; but I ask you, the landowners and tenant-
farmers of England, are two or three noble lord^ or half-
a-dozen members of Parliament to frighten the yeo-
manry of this country ? (loud and general cheering.)
Is their condition, and is your condition, so low that
you dare not venture to maintain and uphold your own
honest opinion in favour of yourselves and of the la-
bourers you employ ; and you dare not so do, because a
few inconsistent men have deserted you ? {loud cheers.)
There is one thing I particularly wish to mention. I
will tell you at once, plainly, that I believe the alarm
so industriously spread about, as to famine, to be a gross
delusion (hear, hear). From what you have been al-
ready able to hear up to the present moment, and from
the returns which will be presently read to you, you
will see that the cry which has been raised is a delu-
sion, which no men of respectability would have put
forth if they had been acquainted with the facts as we
are {hear). At the last general meeting of the society,
I said that I did not think it desirable that we should
agitate the country in favour of protection. I felt that

it was not our business as farmers. I knew that it
would be against the wishes and inclinations and habits
of us all to excite a general agitation in this momentous
question, to set man against man, to beget those evils
which, in my opinion, agitation must always produce
(hear, hear). But (cheers) — but in the present pos-
ture of affairs I say that it is our bounden duty to speak
out {loud cheering). I say that it is the boixnden duty
of every farmer to proclaim his opinion and his deter-
mination. I say it is our bounden duty to appeal to
the yeomanry of our country, and to ask them if they
have changed those views with which they triumphed
four years ago (continued cheering). For my own
part, I still believe that protection is necessary for all
the interests of this great country. No one would be
less disposed to support it, if I did not think it of vital
importance to the welfare, the happiness, and the inde-
pendence of the nation (cheers). But in advocating
protection, let it not be supposed that I do so for the
benefit exclusively of one class of society. I advocate
it for the combined benefit of all. Why, it is said that
we landowners support agricultural jirotection for our
own interests, and for the maintenance of our own rents ;
but I am sure I never heard any free-trade landowner
go so far as I would on that point. The free-traders
say that their scheme will not hurt the landed interest.
Then, if this be so, how can they say that the landed in-
terest, from selfish motives , opposes a measui-e which is
not to hurt them ? How can they take credit to them-
selves for supporting a measure by which, according to
their own showing, they will lose nothing ? (hear, hear.)
This very statement, which they are so fond of making,
cuts from under their feet the ground of their accusa-
tions against us {hear, hear). But, I ask, if free trade is
carried, are they willing to destroy the existing leases ?
{loud, cheers). I should be willing to get rid of every
lease ; but what is the farmer to do with his stock ? What
is he to turn his hand to ? Oh no ! the matter does
not admit of argument — it is ruin to the country from
beginning to end. Lord John Russell may tell me that
protection is the bane of agriculture, but I ^know what
really is the bane of agriculture. It is the spirit of party
{loud cheers), those party politics which induce men to
stick to their party leaders when they know that those
leaders are wrong. Yes, these party politics are the real
bane of agriculture — the great and grievous cause of evil
to the country at large — party politics, which induce the
men in opposition to bid higher than the Minister for
power which, if the Minister bids 2s. 6d., induce them
to bid 5s. This it is that has been, and still is, the bane
of agriculture. But now, Gentlemen, in your hands,
and, with the Protection Society, rests the weal and
welfare of this country (loud cheering). I have not
come to this conclusion without much reflection. I beg
of you not to be weak enough to be deluded into any
compromise. Your real enemies, who falsely profess to
be your friends, will say to you, " Do it now, now con-
sent to a compromise ; later you cannot ; after this it
will not be ofl'ered to you." But, Gentlemen, remem-
ber this is a question of principle. Once consent to any
compromise, and we shall not have a leg to stand on
{cheers). So, I say to you, act accoi'ding to theconsti-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tution of the country ; for I will not recommend to
others what I could not and am not ready to do myself;
and come what may, I, for one, must stand by the con-
stitution (cheers) . But the constitution gives you power,
and power enough, to accomplish our purpose. The
Protection Societies throughout the country must be up
and doing. By all fair and legitimate means you must
show your determination to the Minister and to the
Leader of the Opposition. I say nothing of the League
— for the League would be nothing were it not led and
supported by such men as Sir Robert Peel and Lord
John Russell. I hope and trust that the recent report
of an intention on the part of the Government to move
the repeal of the Corn Laws on the first or second day
of the session is not correct. I, for my own part, do
not believe it. I cannot believe, upon such authority
at least, that such perfidy would or could enter into
the mind of man. If, however, such should turn out to
be the case, all I can say is, that I most sincerely hope
that the House of Commons — that the representa-
tives of the agricultural constituencies returned for the
express purpose of defending agricultural interests —
will turn it out in the Lower House (loud cheers). But
if they do not, I look to the hereditary peerage of Eng-
land (loud cheering). I have thought it my duty to say
thus much, and in saying what I have said, I have
spoken my own individual opinions. No one else is
compromised or committed by anything which has fallen
from me as an independent member of the Protection
Society ; but what I have said here I am willing to re-
peat in the House of Lords, or anywhere else; for upon
my conscience I believe every word I have uttered to be
strictly true. I will now say no more, than to request
my friend, Mr. Stafford O'Brien, to read the report of
your committee. Then, gentlemen, it will be for you to
express your opinion as to that report, and to state what
you recommend for the purpose of preventing protection
from being taken away from us either as a whole or in
part. His grace resumed his seat amidst loud and ge-
neral cheering.

A. S. O'Brien, Esq., M.P., then read the following
report : —

" In presenting their second report, tiie committee need not
remind the society that as the demand for tracts, whether in
favour of the principle of protection, or of free importation, has
very considerably diminished, if not wholly ceased, the exer-
tions of the committee during the last year have not been needed,
either to issue reprints, or to increase the stock of publications,
whose list is on the table befere you. The mode of agitation
adopted by our adversaries has been partially changed : they have
not so much attempted to influence public opinion through the
press, except by means of their own periodicals, neither have they
been so energetic in the employment of itinerant lecturers as be-
fore : their labour, since they find they caiuiot influence constitu-
encies, has been directed chiefly to create them, and this is amode
of warfare which the fourth rule of your society forbids us to
engage in. We have no means of knowing how far their pro-
ceedings have been attended \v\i\\ success, as we beheve the
coiuitry societies have laid down for their ovn\ guidance the
same rule which you laid do^ii for the guidance of this central
one. The last session of Parliament was not mucli occupied
with questions affecting the agricultural interest, hut the re-
sults of the divisions taken against ^Ministers, in reference to

the principle of protection to British industry, were hardly
such as would have been anticipated by the constituencies of
1841 ; and when our friends see that such diversity of opinion
exists amongst those who represent them in Parliament, they
can hardly expect that any central society, however constituted,
should realize the expectations formed at its connnencement.
Tlie question of agricultural statistics was agaui brought unde'
the consideration of the House of Commons this year, and
Uovcrnment gave it to be luiderstood that the dilhculties hi the
way of obtaumig them were insuperable. Your committee have,
however, forwarded to every protection society in the country
printed circulars, requesting returns of the quantity and quality
of the crops. These returns are not yet entirely conqdeted,
some of tliem only arrived yesterday, and some few societies
have written to state that they cannot prepare them for a few
days. The general conclusion, however, to be drawn from them
is, that although the potato crop, in parts of England and Ire-
land is deficient to a greater or less degree, yet the supply of
food in this country is such as to set at rest all fears of scarcity ;
and, considering the unfavourable seasons of the past year, and
the scarcity either at present existing, or to he reasonably anti-
cipated, in many of the neighbouring countries, your committee
cannot but feel that the plenty in our O'mi land may be a
source of honest pride to the English agricvdturist, and of sincere
thankfulness to divine Providence. Yoiur committee caimot
but feel that if the people of this country had unfortunately
consented to render themselves habitually dependent upon
foreign nations for a miich larger supply of corn than they at
present derive from them, the circumstances of the foreign corn
trade, and the conduct of some foreign Governments afford,
this year a striking proof how serious might be our chsappoint-
ment, and how great our national distress, upon the occurrence
of a partial failure in the domestic supply. The possibility of
devising a plan whereby, without serious injury to the revenue,
the use of malt would be permitted duty free for the feeding
of the cattle, has engaged the attention of your committee.
Not\nthstanduig the failure of all chemical experiments on this
subject, a l)ill was introduced, whereby it was hoped this end
might be attained. The Government opposed this bill by
raising technical objections, and the opponents of protv^ction by
demanding the introduction of Indian corn or Egyptian beans,
forgetting, or not choosing to remember, the abolition of all
protecti\e duties would leave the question of the desirableness
of malt for cattle precisely where it was before. The number
of country societies in connexion with us is larger than at any
time suice our formation, and we receive from all of them the
cheering intelligence of constant employment and good wages
being given to the agricultural laljourer. B ut we liave still to re-
gret the existence in several counties of societies so small as tore-
quire consolidation among themselves, whereby great unity of ac-
tioncouldbe obtainedandgreaterstrength exhibited. While yoiur
committee adhere to the present protection by law established,
they must strenuously urge upon landlords to encourage theic
tenants by every means in their power, and the tenants to res-
pond to such efforts on the part of their landlords, in order that
these combhicd efforts may keep a domestic supply of pro-
visions commensurate with the rapid increase of our popidation.
Your committee have read, without astonishment, tlie recent
declaration on the part of Lord John Russell, of his having
abandoned, irrespectively of any temporary cause, all his former
opinions in favour of a fixed duty, wliich dcchuation, however,
on his partis a couclusiveproof of the little reliance to be placed
in those who ^^■ould propose further concessions. An assertion
been made iu the Tiiues newspaper that it is the intention of
Government to repeal the Corn I«iws next session. Your com-
mittee cannot beUeve this, considering the magnitude of the

C %

30

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

interests iiivolvecl, and the principles professed by those who
framed this very Corn Law ; but they trust that Ministers will
see in the general panic diffused by this unauthorised statement
an unfortunate residt of thek conduct during the last four
years. While your committee have to congratidate the society
on the result of all the recent elections, as pro^^ug that noise
and clamour \\a\e not changed the public opinion, and while
your committee well know that pohtical agitation is as distaste-
ful to the habits as it is prejudicial to the business of the agri-
culturist, they must remind the society that the declaration of
Lord John Russell, raid the renewed efforts of the League, have
rendered necessary every watchfid exertion on the part of the
friends of protection. We, therefore, feel justified in calling on
all country societies to use all the means they may, in their
several localities, judge best suited to the enmiciation and
maintenance of the common prmciple wliich bmds us together.
Our strenuous co-operation shall not be wanting, well convinced,
as we are, that there never was a time since our formation
when so much depended on muted exertions for the support of
the most valued mstitutions of our great and free country."

Mr. Weall moved that the report be approved of,
which was seconded by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, and
unanimously agreed to.

Mr. H.Byron, the secretary of the society, then, at the
request of the chairman, read an analysis of reports which
had been sent up to the society from local societies in
ahnost every part of England, respecting the result of
this year's crop ; the result of which was that in every
district from which returns had been received there was
stated to be a full average of wheat and other crops, in
many of them considerably above an average ; and that
though in almost every district the potato crop was more
or less diseased, still that disease had been m almost
every instance greatly exaggerated, and that m the words
of the noble chairman, the labourers throughout the
whole of the agricultural districts had full work, and at
good wages.

Mr.HARRioTTsaid there was one view of the potato dis-
ease which he was anxious to impress upon the meeting ;
that as they could be used in fattening hogs, and as the
yield of turnips was greater than in any former year, it
was probable a greater quantity of hogs and sheep would
be brought to market than before ; so that the potatoes,
though they could not be used for human food in the
first instance, would go to increase the supply in the
shape of butcher's meat. This was a view of the case
which he thought was calculated to diminish the alarm
that now prevailed (hear, hear).

Mr. Thomas, a tenant-farmer in Bedfordshire, rose
to move the next resolution — "That the Agricultural
Protection Society of England, having made inquiries
in every county of England, into the probable yield of
grain for the subsistence of man, have the most unbounded
satisfaction in stating that an average crop of corn has
been secured for the maintenance of the people of the
nation." He was very sensible of liis incapacity to do
justice to this resolution ; for the quiet habits and the
secluded position of an agriculturist unfitted him from
expressing himself with ease or clearness m public. But
there were times, when it was necessary to get over these
difficulties, in order, if possible, to stem the torrent of
a great mistake, or to correct reports which might possi-
bly have a mischievous effect oii the country. There

were times when private feeling must yield to public
duty ; and there never was a time caUing for such exer-
tions as the present {Applause). He would be the last
man to come forward and move such a resolution as that
he had read, were he not convinced in his conscience that
it was the fact. He was himself extensively connected
with agriculture, and he was acquainted with farmers in al-
most every county in England, so that he could honestly
bear testimony to the truth of the resolution, that, taking
the whole of the country, there was above an average
supply of food for the use of man {Applause). With
regard to the potato crop, some extraordinary statements
had appeared in the newspapers, and great fears were
entertained lest the supply should fail in Ireland. Now
it must be admitted on all hands that the potatoes in
many parts of the country were more or less diseased ;
but, then it must be remarked, that if they had not been
diseased there would have been a larger crop of potatoes
this year than had ever before been known in this country ;
and if the per centage of the diseased potatoes were taken
away, there would remain nearly the same available
amount of potatoes as in ordinary years. Besides, every
man Vv'ho knew anything of agriculture knew that a con-
siderable quantity of potatoes were used for tlie food of
cattle. Now, in years of scarcity, the potatoes, of course,
would not be so used, and, therefore, they might calcu-
late that the potatoes which in ordinary years went to
feed cattle, would this year be available for the support
of man. Taking these things together, he was sure the
meeting would agree with him that among those really
acquainted with agriculture, there was no fear, no like-
lihood of fear, of any starvation in the country. It was
only on coming to the metropolis, and mixing with men
who knew nothing of agriculture — men who were afraid
to leave their desks — it was only on coming among them
that he heard the apprehensions of scarcity. This feel-
ing had been very considerably added to by the statement
which lately appeared in the " Times," and which was
calculated to create a general panic, to the eflFect that
the ministry were now about to propose the abolition of
a law which they themselves had proposed and carried in
the present House of Commons. He, like his Grace
the Chairman, did not beheve that statement ; he did
not, and could not believe, that all honour, and good
faith, and integrity, v/ere banished from the land (Loud
applause). He could not suppose that parties in their
station in life, and in the power to which they had attained,
could be so forgetful of their promises, so faithless to
their pledges — could be so forgetful of their words, so
deceitful to their supporters (Great applause). He did
not say there might not be times when parties might be
honestly convinced that the opinions they formerly held
were erroneous. It was possible that some of the present
ministers might take a different view of the measure now
to what they formerly did ; but then he did not think
that they ought to be the parties to propose a change,
but, as honest men and as gentlemen, they ought to allow
others to propose such a measure, and thus let the " en-
gineer hoist with his own petard." But if they did so,
he must regard them with a feeling of disgust, as well as
of scorn, and the same remarks would apply to those
who raised the cry of farmers' friends in IS-il, and who,

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37

forgetful of all their pledges on the hustmgs, now joined
the ministry in attacking the very principle which they
were sent to Parliament to defend {Hear, hear). A con-
siderable per centage of protection had already been re-
moved by the ministry, and now they wanted clearly to
know from their representatives where they meant to
stop, or whether they were prepared to go as far as Lord
John Russell, who had now declared for the Leaguers.
He did not conceive that such would be the case ; but
certainly the recent conduct of a few members of Parlia-
ment was calculated in a great degree to shake their con-
fidence in public men. Another election was, perhaps,
near at hand — in the course of events it could not be far
ofT — and then he hoped there would be no mistake as to
the character of the candidates {Loud cheering). He,
for one, would never consent to vote for any man who
would merely give in his adhesion to the ministry ; who
would vote that black was white one day, or that white
was black the next, merely to please them — to such a
man he would never adhere, much less vote for him.
He concluded by moving the resolution, which he ho-
nestly believed to be perfectly true, or he should have
been the last man to move it (Great applause).

Mr. W. Bennett, a tenant of his Grace the Duke of
Bedford, said he had been called upon to second this re-
solution, and in doing so he trusted his Grace would
pardon him for making a few observations on the present
circumstances in which they appeared to be placed. He
wished it distinctly to be understood that as for many years
he had been a decided and conscientious supporter of pro-
tection to British agriculture, he remained now precisely
of the same opinion as in years gone by ; and he would say,
at the same time, that if he thought that, by advocating
protection to British agriculture, he was advocating a
cause that was mischievous to the rest of the commu-
nity, he hoped he would be the last to proceed in the
course he had taken on this great principle, which was,
that not only was protection to the agriculture of the
country really necessary to secure the good cultivation
of the land, but that it was necessary also for all the best
interests of the country. It was to him a matter of re-
gret as well as to the last speaker, that they were placed
in the position in which they were with regard to public
men. His Grace had observed in his opening speech
that he never would sanction any but constitutional mea-
sures ; but he must say, after witnessing so many deri-
lections of principle on the part of public men of late
years, that it was no wonder if the agriculturists in some
instances had fallen into extravagance, for they had often
been deceived, and almost goaded into madness. He
knev/ at the same time that the agriculturists had many
sincere friends who advocated their interests in part, and
in many instances at great personal sacrifice. It was
with deep regret that he saw the farmers placed in their
present position, especially as it unsettled every thing
connected with agriculture. That was the greatest bane
they could have. A noble lord had lately stated that
protection was the bane of agriculture. His (Mr. Ben-
nett's) decided conviction was that the everlasting med-
dling with agriculture was its great bane. There was no
security whatever. When they sowed they did not know
but some new-fangled notion would be promulgated,

and perhaps adopted, before their crop was secured.
This awful insecurity of everything relating to the soil
was calculated to drive a wise man mad. He confessed,
if it were to come to that, he knew that it would cause
the greatest possible miscliief in the country ; but, if it
were to come to total repeal, he said the sooner the
better. He was persuaded that every kind of agitation
was mischievous in the highest degree, and their only
security was to look out for honest men who would sup-
port their cause, without regard to party, as the noble
duke had justly observed, that the greatest bane to the
country was the party feeling in the land. Unless they
endeavoured to secure men of honesty and integrity,
without regard to party, there would be no security for
anything connected with the country. He was forced
to make tliese observations ; but facts showed that the
agriculturists had been exceedingly ill-used ; and that
it was necessary they should now look round and take
that course which would be likely to place them in a
more beneficial position than that they now occupied.
Much had been said about a scarcity in the country. He
had never been so staggered in his life as when that cry
was first raised. It was very palpable that that cry had
been raised by certain parties with the view of breaking
faith with the agriculturists — that it had been raised in
order to justify the admission of corn from every part or
the world. But what was the fact— a fact which must
stagger every right-minded person who had become
alarmed at the idea of scarcity — why, in the first six
weeks after harvest, more corn had been sold in market
than at any corresponding period for the last seven
years — that more corn had been brought into the mar-
kets of England, by some thousands of quarters, than
in any previous year for a number of years back. How,
then, in the name of common sense, could such a state
of thmgs be considered as a proof of scarcity ? Then a
commission had been sent over to Ireland to show that
Ireland was in a desperate condition of famine. But
let them look at the quantity of Irish produce which
was every year brought into England, and they v.'ould
find that every week it was increasing, and that the quan-
tity sent this year was enormous. If the poor wretches
were really starving, they ought to keep these good
things at home ; and this state of things showed, at least,
that they were very fond of the English market for the
sale of their goods. He made these remarks because he
conscientiously believed that these statements of famine
and scarcity had been got up for an illegitimate and dis-
honest purpose (Applause) . He believed he was sur-
rounded by agriculturists from the county from which
he came, and he was sure they would bear him out in
saying, that he never before saw the stack-yards so full,
that there never were such crops of turnips and of other
food for cattle ; that barley was above an average ; and
that though the wheat crop was not equal to that of last
year, yet, that over the whole country they had a full
average crop (Several gentlemen — " More.") He
wished to speak within bounds ; if he were to speak his
private opinion he should say, more than an average —
{hear, hear) — but, speaking moderately, he should say-
that the crop was fully an average one. Then, though
there were diseased potatoes in the country, yet it must

S8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

be remembered that it was a large potato-growing coun-
try, there being many market- gardeners in it, and it was
known that more potatoes had been raised this year
than ever before, so that he believed there was a fair
average crop of potatoes fit for the consumption of human
beings. It therefore appeared to him that this marvel-
lous statement had been got up to damage their cause
and to aid the League. If he thought that the means
of the League tended to benefit the general interests of
the country, he would be the last man to oppose them ;
but it was to be remembered, that with the reasonable
protection which the last corn bill afforded them, all
classes were flourishing. There was another fact,
which could not be denied, and which certainly placed
the League statements in a singular point of view. It
had been stated by them repeatedly, that the interests
of the country never could rally under the sliding- scale,
while it was the fact that at the present moment, and
under the existing law, the manufacturers wei'e in a better
state than they had enjoyed for many years. In every
large town the people were well employed, and all this
took place under the operation of the much abused slid-
ing-scale. How this came about he wanted to know.
Now, if protection was the bane both of agriculture and
manufactures, how wei'e the manufacturers so well off ?
His decided conviction was, that there was not a word
of truth in their statements — that the country was in
a flourishing state — that the agriculturists were in a con-
dition to supply food at a reasonable rate to the people —
and that the country was in much better circumstances
than it would be if, our home agriculture being
discouraged, we were to depend upon foreign i^roduce.
If that state of things were to take place, the country
would be in a much worse position than at present ; and
he would call to their mind an observation made by Mr.
Grant, in committee, relative to the duty of foreign
Governments and the exportation of food in a time of
scarcity. He thought that ought to convince every man
that he could not be in better hands than in those of the
British farmer. The fact was, that at the present time
the French Government had laid a duty equal to 10s.
per quarter on the present marketprice of exported corn.
This was a striking proof of what they might expect if
they depended upon foreigners, and allowed the poor
lands of this country to go out of cultivation, which they
knew grew a great deal of wheat. If he was not mistaken
some of the German states had prohibited the exporta-
tion of wheat altogether {hear, hear). With these ob-
servations he would very cordially second the resolution
which had just been proposed, as he had no reason to
apprehend any scarcity in the country at all. He would
only further remark that, since he came to town, he had
had an opportunity of comparing Lord John Russell's
letter to the farmers of Huntingdon with his recent let-
ter to the citizens of London, and that he infinitely pre-
ferred the first to the last {laughter and applause.')

Mr. J. J. Allnatt, of Berkshire, said he was anxious to
state his opinions upon this important national question,
the probabihty of a scarcity of food. He lived in a part
of Berkshire which was of a highly cultivated character,
and he was extensively connected with the tenant-farmers,
and he could attest that, far from tliere being a scarcity

of food, in his neighbourhood there had not been a more
abundant crop for many years past. Instead, therefore,
of indulging in repining and gloomy forebodings, it be-
hoved them, not only as members of this society, and as
connected with agriculture, but as members of the com-
munity and as Christian men, to return their hearty
thanks to divine Providence, because of the highly fa-
vourable position of this country at the present moment
over the other corn-growing countries of continental
Europe. If the present state of the crop was to be urged
as a reason for abandoning protective duties, he thought
it right to say that under this system they had been ena-
bled at the present time, when scarcity had visited the
continental states, to supply the people of the land with
corn at the present emergency. They should also recol-
lect that the crop of last year was an abundant one, and
that the supply of old corn was not yet exhausted ; so
that there could be no doubt, with the blessing of Provi-
dence, the people of this country, in spite of the outcry
which had been made, would have enough and to spare ;
and if, under the protective system, they could provide
enough for the country, he thought that was a greater
inducement why they should oppose a system which left
them dependent upon foreigners for their supplies. It
was an extraordinary fact, that in countries which had
not been cursed, as the modern phrase went, with Corn
Laws, where corn was free enough — where, in fact, we
looked in severe years for supplies ourselves — he alluded
to Poland and some of the Russian states —they were in
greater distress than this country was, and we were in a
position rather to off'er them some of our corn, than to
send for any for our support. Now, supposing that
League principles had been adopted fand, if they were
good, the sooner they had been adopted the better^, and
that League predictions had been fulfilled that the poor
soils would be thrown out of cultivation — if this had
taken place, he would not pause to inquire what would
have become of the poor ; but he asked generally what
would have been the effect if a fifth part of the soil had
been given up to sterdity in the present condition of
foreign States ? If this had happened, tjien they would
really have been in the condition in which they were
falsely stated now to be, for they required more food
than the produce of this and of foreign countries would
then together have supplied. So the very arguments,
and the very facts upon which their opponents relied
upon against them, were the strongest arguments in
their favour — in the favour of that fair protection which
induced the cultivators of the soil to produce a supply
sufficient under any emergency (hear, hear). Allusion
had been made to the alteration of opinion on the part
of Lord John Russell. That alteration had not astonished
him. It was true, as had been stated by their noble
chairman, that some men would bid higher for popula-
rity than others, and that the recent declaration of the
noble Lord was to be attributed to his desire for popular
favour. He had indeed prognosticated that the noble
Lord would before any long time declare in favour of
free trade. He had predicted when the League had — to
use a common expression — called him and his fixed duty
over the coals, that the noble lord would be dragooned
into its forces (cheers). He was not astonished at it, and he

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39

could assure the society tliat he did not regret it (hefn-,
hear). They ought to know the good and true men
(cheers). He had observed last session a great deal of
friendly feeling- between the Premier and Lord John
Russell, and he had been afraid of a coalition. This
friendly feeling — if it was not quite brotherly love,
seemed at least of a nature to soften down what were
termed the asperities of party, and he was afraid that
they would suffer from it. But now there was no mis-
take. The Minister must either be in direct opposition
to Lord John Russell, or must altogether abandon pro-
tection to agriculture (cheers). He, as an Englishman,
liked honesty and open dealing, and he was glad that
there could no longer be any cozening {cheers andlavgh-
ter). He therefore rejoiced, though he olushed for him
individually as a man and as an Englishman, for the re-
cent declaration he had made. It was really astonishing
(as Mr. Bennett had said) that men could so forget their
former principles and take to new views as stepping
stones to office. The difference between Lord John
Russell, on the subject of protection (upon which prin-
ciple he stood for Huntingdon) at that period, and
Lord John Russell addressing the merchants of London
the other day, was so striking, that, with their permis-
sion, he would read an extract from his Huntingdon let-
ter. It was dated the 4th Januaiy, 1822, and contained
the following passage : — " I am inclined to think that if
foreign corn were admitted, even if you had scarcely any
taxes to pay, it would not be easy for the farmers of
England, who require to live in a certain degree of re-
spectability and comfort, to compete with the lords of
Poland and Russia, whose vassal peasantry are unac-
quainted with the wants of a civilised state. Corn is a
manufacture (to use the new phraseology) cheaply pro-
duced in a fertile soil by wretched ploughs, wretched
horses, and wretched men." Now he wished to ask,
had circumstances altered in these respects since that
period ? Was the land of Poland less fertile ? were the
peasantry of that country, the wretched serfs, in higher
condition now, morally or physically ? Did they con-
sume now more wheaten bread ? Were they now more
advanced in civilisation than were the English farmers
at the date to which Lord John Russell had referred ?
If the same difficulty in competing with the lords of
Poland and of Russia existed now as had existed in 1822
he could not see how the noble Lord could state that
protection — which was then necessary — was now the
very bane of aginculture {cheers). But the truth was,
that the noble Lord had then been the candidate of an
agricultural constituency, but now was an aspirant for
League support and popularity. Much as he admired
the letter of their friend; Mr. Cayley, he could not agree
with its last paragraph, in which he expressed a desire
to see Lord John Russell in his natural position of a
leader of a constitutional opposition. He could not
agree in this opinion, for he did not want to see Lord
John in any conspicuous position at all {hear, hear, and
laughter). No ; he did not wish to see him holding
any public position, for he was a man not to be trusted
{hear, fiear). He wished to see men of integrity in
the high places of this country, and he wanted to see
Lord John Russell nowhere {hear, and laughter). No .'

" Proteus, we can never trust thee more !"

{Laughter). But there had been rather an amusing
statement in the Times, to which he wished to refer.
The editor, or writer, in the article to which he alluded
had treated the agriculturists as if they had no power —
as if they were of no use— as if their opinions on this
question ought not to be consulted any more than the
opinions of the beasts which they fattened for exhibition.
But he could assure the writer, whoever he might be,
that he reckoned without his host {hear, hear). The
time had arrived when the opinions of the farmers must
avail much, if they had thes])irit to bring those opinions
into play (cheers). They would'give him the credit of
admitting that ever since the establishment of that so-
ciety he had recommended the adoption of energetic
measures. But now the enemy no longer deceived
them. Their enemies thickened around them — the plot
grew more and more complicated — but let them be united
amongst themselves, and he would guarantee victory to
their cause. They had the strength of a giant — they
would not, he knew, use it as a giant tyrannously — but
if they exercise fairly, boldly, resolutely the power which
was theirs, no Minister dare despise it {cheers). It was
for them to preach and promulgate such doctrines
amongst the tenant-farmers in their own districts. Let
them not be supine. He entreated them to come for-
ward without fear or misgivings in opposition and in re-
sistance to the danger by which they were threatened.
Some few Noble Lords might subscribe to the League,
who wished to do by others what they were ashamed to
do for themselves ; but he saw no more reason why
Lord Radnor should not personally interfere in an elec-
tion— improper and unconstitutional as such conduct
would be — than for his not giving money and support to
those who did most grossly and indecently meddle and
interfere {hear, hear). The subject was so fruitful a one,
that he scarcely knew how to conclude ; but this he
would say, that if the society were determined to pro-
ceed— and they had given to-day evidence of that deter-
mination— he had no doubt that they must succeed.
The League had been nearly dead up to the time when
the two Noble Lords thought fit to join and resuscitate
it, and if they persevered, it would before long die, de-
spite of their patronage aud support. But he cared
nothing for the League, He did, however, care for, and
he must ever protest against principles and conduct
that made him think and say that" all men were liars "
{cheers).

The President then read the resolution. It was put
from the chair, and carried unanimously.

Wm. Miles, Esq., M.P., then rose and said, that
after the way in which the noble Chairman had addressed
the society, and in which other gentlemen had followed
him, he felt that nothing was wanted to stimulate them
to action (cheers). For, whatever might have been tht
signs of the times previously— however grave and por-
tentous they had before been, still the present time they
knew to be one in which, unless they all put their shoul-
ders to the wheel— strongly, firmly, determinately — pro-
tection to British agriculture was annihilated, for he
, would not conceal either from himself or the society

40

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

what had already been hmted by previous speakers, that
the League, by the support and adherence of such men
as Lord John Russell and Lord Morpeth, had gained a
friend, which they before had not {hear). But this he
could also say, that, having attended very large and
imjiortant meetings in his own county (and he could
assure them that he spoke the sentiments of the
whole of Somersetshire, extensive as it was), he had
found the farmers ready and eager to do everything
to uphold the entire integrity of the agricultural pro-
tection, but they ought not there to content themselves
with reading reports, or with making speeches, or with
stating that there was not, and that there would not be
famine, or with declaring the sufficiency of our present
supply ; but they ought to set others to work with them
— to resist all opposition to their rights — to take a leaf
out of Lord John Russell's book, and not only to do
so, but to go further, and to do more than even Lord
John Russell had recommended to their opponents
(loiul cheers). AVhal he recommended was, that every
parish in England should petition against a repeal of
the corn laws, and that their petition should state re-
spectfully, but forcibly, their determined resistance to
that measure. But he recommended also that they
should go further ; for if it were the intention of the
Government to repeal the corn laws, then he should
propose that every parish throughout the country
should call upon them to appeal to their constituents,
and to try the question by a general election. That
was the power which the constitution gave to them,
and to that issue he challenged the League, he chal-
lenged the Government, he challenged the whole com-
bination of their opponents (cheers). In his recent
letter to the electors of London, what had Lord John
Russell said ? He had said, " Let us, then, unite to
put an end to a system which has proved to be the
blight of commerce, the bane of agriculture, the
source of bitter divisions amongst classes, the cause of
penury, fever, mortality, and crime among the people"
(loud laughter). That certainly was pretty strong
even for a partisan ; but how did the noble lord pro-
ceed? " But if this end is to be achieved, it must be
gained by the unequivocal expression of the public
voice. It is not to be denied that many elections for
cities and towns in 1841, and some in 1845, appear to
favour the assertion that free trade is not popular with
the great mass of the community. The Government
appear to be M'aiting for some excuse to give up the
present corn law." Indeed ! npon what authority
had the noble lord stated that? "Let the people,
however," he went on, "by petition, by address, by
remonstrance, afford them the excuse they seek."
Now, he begged to adopt for them the recommenda-
tion of the noble lord. What he required was that, in
the first instance, they should petition from all parts
of the country. That step was clearly necessary. The
next course which he should recommend — if it became
necessary — was remonstrance ; and if that were not
sufficient, then a demand upon the Government to ap-
peal again to the people, and so to determine at once
the question whether free trade was or was not expe-
dient for the combined interests of the British people;

for it was not the farmer, but the people, who were
benefited by the corn laws (cheers). After the ad-
dresses which had been delivered, he would only touch
upon one point which Mr. AUnatt had mentioned.
He said that the League would have been dead but for
the support and assistance of Lord J. Russell and Lord
Morpeth. Let the farmers of England not so deceive
themselves. The League was still using the most
active exertions ; and it would require all their ener-
gies to prevent those exertions from being successful.
From what he heard, he was afraid that so many free
traders had been placed upon the registration in South
Lancashire and in the North Riding of Yorkshire,
that it was very doubtful whether they would not
carry those elections. He understood that he was to
be threatened next, and that the county which he had
the honour to represent was to become a great sup-
porter of the League and its principles (" hear, hear,"
and a laugh). Now, though they could not, and
would not, interfere in elections, as the League did,
yet much may be done by union, much by the friendly
intercourse at market and at farmers' tables, much by
energy, perseverance, and determination ; aud, if they
were all united, let them remember the great force
they carried along with them in their labourers, who
were their 403. freeholders (cheers). Then let them
try the question at issue, whether agricultural protec-
tion is or is not to be maintained, by an appeal to the
country; and for that appeal they would then be pre-
pared (cheers). A very clever and active gentleman,
Mr. Andrewes, the secretary of a local protection so-
ciety, had forwarded to him certain resolutions for his
opinion; and he thought, with a few alterations, they
were so good for a jjetition, that, without any attempt
at dictating to them a particular form, he would ven-
ture to read it. This petition would of course do
either for the House of Lords or Commons — mutatis
mutandis. It was as follows : —

" TO THE HON. THE HOUSE OF COMMONS IN PARLIA-
LIAMENT ASSEMBLED.

'• The himible Petition of the Landowners, Tenants, Labourers,
and otliers intested in Protection to Agricultme,

" Sheweth, — That, in consequence of the declarations made
by several leading members of her IMajesty's Government in
tlie last session of Parliament, indicating that further deduc-
tions might be made at no distant period on the already
greatly diminished amount of protection now afforded to agricul-
ture, aud iu consequence of the interpretation put on these de-
clarations by some iMueutial members of your hon. House, as
well as by the pubhc press, we deem it expedient to press upon
the members of Government aud your hon. House that such
an impression, whether well or ill founded, is calculated to de-
stroy all confidence in the stability of the present corn laws,
and to arrest tlie progress now making for the permanent im-
provement of the inferior soils of this country, by which the
production of grain has very nearly kept pace with the rapid
increase of our population.

" Tiiat your petitioners, being practically engaged iu culti-
vation, and employing a large amount of capital and laboiu' in
farming, are enabled, from their experience, to state that the
frequent diminutions of protective duties which have occurred
since 1815 have led to the total loss of a vast amount of fin-m-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

41

in» capital, and have consequently acted as a bar to the gi-eater
extension of agriculturiil inipro^cmeut.

" Your petitioners have ascertained from the most unques
tioiiable sources the prices of wheat and otlier corn during tlie
last twcnty-fivc j'ears in the shipping ports of central Europe,
and lind tliat the diflerent descriptions of grahi coidd be im-
ported into the markets of this countiy at such low prices as
nuist prevent the cultivation of a very considerable portion of
tlie inferior soils of this comitry.

" Tliat during the operation, and in consequence of reliance
upon the contumance of protective laws, a vast amount of ca-
pital has been invested in the piurchase of lands, ui the pur-
chase of leases, in tlic erection of buihliugs and fences, and in
draining and other expensive permanent improvements, which
capital would in many instances be either partially or euthcly
sacrificed, were foreign corn admitted duty free.

" That the doctrines of those who advocate a free importa-
tion of foreign corn liave no reference to these circumstances,
or to the ruin which must fall on tlic capital and labour of by
far the most extensive interest in the country, but are based
entirely on the principle that if corn can be imported cheaper
than it can be grown in tliis countiy, the cultivation of our
own soil should be abandoned.

" Tiiat the inevitable consequence of canying out this do c-
ti'ine would be the ruin of the cultivators of the soil, and the
labourers now employed by them.

" Impressed by this conviction, your petitioners feel it their
bounden duty respectfully but firmly to call upon the Legisla-
ture, either to uphold in their integrity the present system of
the corn laws, or, by an appeal to the constituencies of the
United Kingdom, call a national opinion upon the expediency
and policy of adoptmg, or not, the principles of free trade.

" And yoiur petitioners, as in duty bound, v/ill ever pray."

lie threw out this for the consideration of the so-
ciety. He thought that they ought not to separate
without doing something. They ought to show the
county societies what they should do. He would now,
therefore, move a resolution, to the effect " that peti-
tions be immediately forwarded from every parish in
the kingdom, praying the Houses of Parliament to
take into their most serious consideration the evils that
must result from any diminution in the protection to
British agriculture; and that the form of petition
adopted be similar to that above given."

C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P., rose and said
that, after the allusions which had been made to the
League before the accession to their forces of Lord
John Russell and of Lord Morpeth, he was desirous
of making a few observations. The League had at-
tacked him in his own constituency, and by a system
of perjury and of forgery had nearly succeeded, and
would have succeeded if not detected, in reviving dead
votes and in creating fictitious ones. The recent sup-
port given to the League has arisen from the fact that
they stood in need of a diversion of attention. Men's
minds had become tired and disgusted with their old
talk and their old practices, and to this account
might be attributed the new adherents they had
gained. They had called in their contingents. It had
been wisely done, hut it had not been done at a good
time. It was quite true, as had been stated, that
there was no well-founded fear of famine; but
circumstances had rendered a coalition between the

Whig leaders and the League necessary. It was
quite unavoidable. It was sure to have taken
place. And it was only by individual exertion
that they could struggle against such opponents.
Every man amongst them must act as detective po-
lice. They could not create votes, as did their oppo-
nents, if they would ; but he would not stop to speak
of their disgraceful and underhand machinations.
There was a doubt in the minds of some men as to the
objects of their opponents; but those objects were ob-
vious enough. The Times newspaper had recently at-
tacked all protection societies, and by its de-:cription
of the farmer, by the contempt it threw on agriculture,
by the line it adopted on the whole question, fully de-
served the title of a bitter enemy of the agriculturists.
But he begged to call their attention to the last para-
graph of the leading article of that day. The extract
to which he alluded began thus : — " There is, then,
some reason to fear an extravagant competition by the
British capitalist for the hundred thousand quarters of
British wheat still within his reach." What, this under
a system that was to exclude all competition .' But tl e
article proceeds — " It is a mere nothing compared with
the enormous sums available and ready for speculation,
or with the sums actually embarked in other specula-
tions of a much more uncertain character." And yet
the speculation under the corn laws was a gambling
which, they said, was unworthy of houses of ascertained
credit. " We believe it to be within the capacity of
half-a-dozen merchants of London to monopolize all tie
redundant produce of the world, both now existing and
for years to come — a monopoly far more likely to set
up the farmer than any sliding scale his friends have
eyer given him." This from the uncompromising advo-
cate of free trade ! This from the men who have raised
the cry of monopoly, who have attempted to saddle that
odious name upon men who enjoy only that fair protec-
tion which the burdens cast upon them would justify.
Was this the object at last avowed — to create a mono-
poly in the hands of the great merchants of London ?
How would this suit the farmer ? they advocated the
principle of buying in the cheapest markets. How
would it suit the consumer } they advocated the prin-
ciple of seUing in the dearest (great applause). All
the article before this was intended to soothe the farmer.
They were assured that, if the ports were opened, grain
would rise in every market in the world. Who
doubted it .' and who would profit by the rise .' (hear,
hear). Such were the advocates and such were the in-
struments which the League found and employed to im-
pose upon the agriculturists. If they succeeded, then
he would say that the agriculturists deserved all that was
said of them (loud applause). He would not trespass
upon the meeting further than to say that now he
trusted their course was clear ; that their enemies were
separated from their friends ; that they would all now pur-
sue a direct and manly course ; that the farmers would
hot be so short-sighted and so foolish as to suppose that,
because prices were remunerating at present, that there-
fore they would do without protection. He was in a
position to confirm the statement which was made by
Mr. Villiers in the House of Commons last sessions,

42

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

that, on taking an average of years preceding the last,
bad the ports been opened, the price of wheat would
have been 35s. per quarter.' How that price would
suit the producers of England, he need not tell the
agriculturists. Such a price would be absolute ruin to
the farmer, yet that would be the price in abundant
years ; while now, forsooth, if the ports were opened,
the price would rise in all parts of the world (hea?-,
hear).

Mr. G. J, Heathcote, M.P., wished to say a few
words on this occasion. Though he had the honour of
being a member of the House of Commons, and an old
member too, and had occasionally fought their battles
there to the best of his ability, yet he appeared before
them as the chairman of a local society. In that capa-
city he would address to them a few words, and he
would take tliat ojjportunity of stating that whatever
changes might have occurred in the opinions of others,
his own were entirely unaltered (Jo2td and p7-olonffed
cheering). He well knew that they had many difficulties
to encounter in fighting this question. Many eminent
men on both sides in the House of Commons, be feared,
were against them. He fearefl that the recent declara-
tions of the leaders of the Whigs showed that they were
opposed to them ; while speeches made last session by
several of the Conservative leaders showed that they took
far too low a tone — that they, in a great measure, gave
up the principle for which the agriculturists were con-
tending. He was aware that great odds were placed
against them — that they had to contend with many
highly talented men who were against them, but, in the
midst of this gloom, there were still some rays of hope
to which they could cling. If great personal examples
were against them, there were great national examples in
their favour. Whether they looked at home or abroad,
they would find reasons for hope and for encouragement.
If they looked to other nations of the world, they would
find that almost all of them had repudiated the doctrine
of free trade. This wJs valuable as an example. The
cases of France, Germany, and America, were valuable
as examples, and they were also valuable as showing
that almost every nation absolutely repudiated the prin-
ciple of reciprocity. Acting upon that principle, this
country had unwisely abandoned many of its best inter-
ests ; but now we were placed in that position, that other
countries absolutely repudiated the idea of a reciprocity
treaty with us. If they looked abroad, he thought that
the free traders had little reason for congratulating them-
selves, as they saw so few ready to assist them ; and if
they looked to this country, to the middle classes, let
them speak for themselves. The free traders said that
the middle classes were in their favour ; he said they
were against them. Look to the elections that had
lately taken place through the country — they were com-
pletely in favour of agriculture, and the result was the
same, whether the fight was in a great country or in a
great town. So obvious was this, that even Lord John
Russell was constrained to allude to it in his letter ; and
this gave them the hope that they had still the power to
defend themselves, if they made the right use of it.
There was no reason for a change either on one side or
the other. But it was urged that a scarcity was likely

to prevail. Now, he was addressing many who were
much more competent than he was to go into local de-
tails upon this subject, but he would say, look at the
prices which prevail upon this subject. Were they famine
prices or were they not ? (great applause.) They were
(veil aware that in 1800 the price of a quarter of wheat
was 113s. ; that in the next year it was 110s. ; that in
1812 it was 126s, But what said the Gazette now ?
The average for the last sLx weeks was 58s., and the
average for the last week was only 57s. Not only did
this show that the price was a moderate one, but it
showed further, that the prices were falling ; and he
believed that for the last month the averages had fallen
Is. a week. But, besides all this, he thought he had
heard, in 1842, from the mouth of a very high authority
— from Sir Robert Peel himself — that the probable
range of prices under his new bill would be from 54s. to
58s. He fancied he had heard Sir Robert Peel say so
{cries of " True"). Well, were the prices dissimilar
now ? Could any person say that the present prices
were unusual or uncontemplated? (hear, hear). There
was another and a curious fact to which he would allude.
The average price of corn had been 56s. per qr. during
the greater part of the time in which their honest friends,
the Whigs, had been in office. If that price was now
to be considered as a famine price, then it was clear that
the Whigs had allowed the country to remain with corn
at a famine price through the whole of their duration of
office (laughter, and cries of " Hear"). But all these
things did the greatest possible mischief ; they frus-
trated the very objects which the League professed to
have in view, for they tended to lower the prices ; low
prices ))roduced consumption, and thus there was a pre-
mature using up of the store of food which, managed
with economy, might be made to last till another har-
vest. Not only that ; they would recollect that he was
arguing with his opponents on the ground of their own
professed objects, but it tended to lower the averages,
and thus to make the duty higher ; so that a greater
difficulty was thrown in the way of the introduction of
foreign corn, which they desired to bring in. Tlie far-
mers had a right to fair and just prices. He said this
was just to the consumer and just to the producer. It
was just to their producer, that on some occasions tlie
price ought in a certain degree to make amends
for years of low prices ; and it was just to
the consumer, because a certain rise in price prevented
waste. As he had already said, whatever opinions
others might hold, he maintained those which he had
always hitherto done, and he hoped that his constituents,
and the agricultural constituents at large, if ever they
looked to such a humble individual as himself, would
ever find him endeavouring to maintain that just and
necessary protection which he believed to be necessa'ry
for the maintenance of the agricultural body — in his
opinion the most important class in the country
(applause) .

Mr. Weale did not intend to take up the time of
the meeting ; but he could not refrain from congratula-
ting them upon the fact that the reports from all parts
of the kingdom showed that there was no reason to
entertain any apprehension of scarcity. Allusion

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

43

had been matle to the registrations ; and he wished
to impress upon his brother farmers the necessity
of their registering under the £bO clause. There
were many men who were not registered, thus
leaving power in the hands of their opponents. An
election could not be far distant, when a call for exer-
tion would be made upon all the farmers of England,
and he should be sorry to see any of them wanting. lie
would, therefore, recommend to the farmers that every
man who had an opportunity should register. He hailed
with delight the letter of Lord John Russell, because it
showed him at last under his right character. He had
hitherto been playing his part under a veil, so that they
could not see him ; butnow theyfound thenoble lord pay-
ing homage to the Lord Mayor of London, and truckling
to the citizens, because he knew that an election was
coming round ; and with all his talk about philanthropy
and the duty of finding cheap food for the starving poor,
he knew that he stood a good chance of being served in
London as he was served in Huntingdon (loud
applause). He knew that the intelligent and reflecting
portion of the population were against him, and he
thought he could not too early take the field to say that
he was against the corn laws. But he (Mr. Weale) be-
lieved he would, after all, find he was mistaken ; for he
had reason to think that a good man would stand against
him, and he hoped would turn him out {loud applause).
One fact had been alluded to of great importance to
graziers — the feeding of cattle on malt. They were told
that the importation of cattle under the tariff would do
the British grazier no harm. Now it appeared that the
first year there were 1,100 cattle imported, in the next
year there were 2,900, and last year there were 11,000.
This was a fact of great importance. Why did they
find the Belgian and other foreign breeders going round
the country and purchasing the best bulls and cows they
could procure ? Why, but because they had been in
tlie markets of the metropolis, and saw the kind of
cattle that were wanted there, and were now endeavour-
ing to supply them. They were told that they might
easily compete with foreigners in the breeding of cattle.
But to show the meeting the disadvantages under which
the British grazier laboured, it would be enough to state
that they were prevented from converting their .inferior
barley into malt. The foreigner was not prevented
from doing so; but in consequence of this prohibition,
the British grazier was compelled to purchase oil-cake,
which was the produce of another country. Look at
the large quantity of barley in the market that was not
fit for malting, a large proportion of which might be
usefully converted into malt for feeding cattle (hear,
bear). He hoped these remarks would go forth, and
that the whole agriculturists of the kingdom would be
ready to fight their battle under the leadership of their
noble Chairman, who had fought and bled for his coun-
try {loud applause). They were now told that the
time for action was come ; he had long been of opinion
that the time was come, but as it was now the general
opinion that the time was indeed come, let them show
their enemies that the English yeomen were fully pre-
pared to meet yiem {cheers).
Mr. Umbers, of Warwickshire, hoped the tenant

farmers would be unanimous now, as they had been
on former occasions. But there was also a duty
which the landowners of England owed to their
tenantry (loud applause) — a duty which they
really ought to perform, as without tlieir assistance al
the labours of the tenantry would avail nothing. He
had no doubt that if the landed proprietors of England
were to come forward, and take their proper places on
the question, England would supply them with weapons,
which would effectually vindicate their rights, as well as
essentially secure the interests of the country. They
might be assured that their only mainstay was the yeo-
men of England. In tlie case of internal emergency,
who were relied upon to preserve the public peace but
theyeomany? {Hear, hear.) He wished this meeting
would resolve to call upon all the principal landed pro-
prietors of the United Kingdom, who were not already
members of the society, to become members, to carry
out the purposes for which the society was founded.
He concluded by moving a resolution to the effect that
it was the opinion of the meeting that every principal
landed proprietor in England, Ireland, Scotland, and
Wales should be written to by their secretary, and re-
quested to become a member of this society, in order to
oppose the efforts of the League for the total repeal of
the corn laws.

Mr. G. Shackel seconded the motion.

Mr. BowYER, of Cambridgeshire, said he was sorry
that no person had attended from the fen districts to
express their opinion to the society respecting the state
of the crops in that quarter. lie had attended a
meeting of a society where there were twenty-one
farmers in the fen districts, farming among them 6,600
acres of land ; and from questions which had been put
to them and the answers they had returned, it ap-
peared that last year the produce of an acre was six-
quarters of wheat, that on an average of the preceding
seven years it was four quarters, and that in the pre-
sent year the yield was three-and-a-half quarters.
This was borne out by the returns made from the
great market in the fen districts— the market
of Wisbeach, where 4,000 quarters of wheat had been
sold on an average of the last twelve weeks. This
showed that there was no great deficiency in the fen
districts; and when he heard these men say that the de-
ficiency in their locality was only l-8th while all the
gentlemen present stated that in their localities they
had a full average crop, he contended that under the
present system of Corn Laws the present prices could
not be supported, that it had been got up by false re-
ports, and that it would not be supported.

Mr. Healy, of Lincolnshire, was also desirous of
confirming what they had heard /romlall quarters re-
garding the competency of the present crop. In the
county in which he lived, and on his own farm, which
was a tolerably extensive one, there was no cause for any
alarm regarding deficiency or defalcation, which did
not exist in former years ; and the disease in the po-
tatoes had in a great degree abated. He quite con-
curred in tlie observations which had fallen from Mr.
Umbers. If the landed interest would do their duty,
they might depend upon it the yeomanry would do

44

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

theirs ; but if they did not boldly come forward, they
could not, and would not, be supported. If the yeo-
manry thought rightly, they acted weakly. They
were good soldiers, but bad officers. They were well
able to follow, but they wanted leaders to guide them.
But if properly led, their power was greater than was
generally expected. Though they were scattered, yet
they were all over the country. There was no nook in
any part of the country where some man of intelligence
and respectability as a farmer did not reside. If the
landed interest did not support the farmers against the
coalition of the Whigs and League, they would lose their
estates. He ventured to say that the question was a
vital one to the landlords. The farmer would be beaten
first, for the landlord could only be struck tlirough the
side of the farmer ; but the farmer could fall back on
his industry ; but if the landed interest were deprived
of their rents and estates, what would become of them?
He said to the landowners of England what Madame
Roland had said to the Brissotins. "If you do not
destroy the League, the League will destroy 'you.'' So
he called upon them to join in a strong pull, a long
pull, and a pull altogether {hear).

The President here suggested that the resolution
before the chair, proposed by JSIr. Umbers, should be
left for the consideration of the committee. Tlie com-
mittee quite understood that the society were desirous
that every exertion should be made, but he feared by the
motion of the hon. gentleman too large an increase would
be made to the revenue of the Postmaster- General.

Mr. Umbers very willingly acceded to the suggestion
of the noble duke, and the resolution was therefore with-
drawn for future consideration by the committee.

A. Stafford O'Brien, Esq., M.P., rose and said,
that in his opinion Mr. Umbers had very wisely left his
motion for the consideration of the committee ; but, at
the same time, he thought that he had also acted wisely
in bringing it forward, {hear, hear). With regard to
the general objects of the society, they had two remark-
able statements before them. The League stated that
this was a landlords question, and the tenant-farmers had
that day and at other times stated that the landlords did
not take up the question as they ought. These were an-
tagonist assertions ; but he began to feel, that if assertions
of perverted truth, of perpetual falsehood — assertions ex-
citing popular feehngs and public sympathy — if they met
all this by conduct very quiet and very gentlemanly (as
the landlords were very gentlemanly and very popidar in
their own districts), he said distinctly — and this he knew
was the opinion of the farmers — it was not sufficient
{loud cheers). Whatever happened between this and
the meeting of Parliament, there was a call on the land-
lords of the country, not merely in reference to their own
interests and the interests of their tenants and their
labourers, but for the sake of those institutions upon the
stabiHty of which this country depended, to come forward
and to state the high grounds upon which they advocated
the continuance of agricultural protection ; and then let
the general election, which might be near at handand could
not be far off, settle whether their opinions were responded
to by the country (cheers). On the whole, their present
meeting had been a satisfactory one. If they disbelieved

the report of the Times, their position was still difficult.
The report stated to them the minorities in which they
had been left on questions affecting agricultural interests
last session ; but now, when they found the League not
merely existing by a cry of clamour, but that it had cleared
all neutral ground, and that it ranked amongst its sup-
porters, the leader of a great constitutional body, as well
as many other noble lords, the position of the agricultural
interest was a different one ; and while they could not
complain of the past, they might at least expect more re-
solute and determined conduct on their part for the future
{cheers). They had inadvertently forgotten a formal part
of their duty, which would now be performed —and no
doubt eloquently performed, by Sir. F. Hobbs {hear).

Mr. Fisher Hobbs then said that it afforded him very
great pleasure to propose that his Grace the Duke of
Richmond be president of the society for the ensuing
year. From his high ability — from the manner in which
he was beloved by the farmers {cheers) — from the man
ner in which he was universally esteemed, no man could
be more fit for the position than was the Duke of Rich-
mond {cheers).

Mr. G. Turner seconded the motion. He felt as-
sured that they would all agree with him , when he said
that-there had never lived a gentleman better calculated
from his personal worth, his rank and influence, for the
office of President of the Agricultural Society than the
noble duke, whose nomination he felt great pleasure in
seconding.

The motion was then put by William Mdes, Esq.,
M.P., and carried by acclamation.

The Duke of Richmond said that no thanks were due
to him for the course he had pursued with regard to
agricultural protection ; for it was his opinion that by
that alone this country could continue free, enUghtened,
or independent {loud cheers). He accepted with plea-
sure the office of their president, and thanked them for
the manner in which they had conferred it upon him.
In the station which he held, and entertaining the strong
opinions he had always expressed, he had been open to
a good deal of abuse and calumny, but he had never
thought it worth his while to answer the attacks made
upon him. He had not done so for two reasons — first,
because he was quite aware of the benefit of a free press,
and he knew that the editors of newspapers had not time
to analyze every statement sent to them, or every attack
they inserted ; and they frequently put them in, know-
ing that public men were not very sensitive upon the
subject (hear, and a laugh). His other reason was,
that he had always mixed a good deal with the tenantry
of England, and he had never attended any single meeting
in which he had not met with strong expressions of their
regard for, and attachment towards, him, showing that
they thought him determined to pursue an upright,
independent, and straightforward course {hear, hear).
In conclusion (said the noble duke), I ask you to exert
yourselves. I can do but little, but if we bring toge-
ther and unite the free-born Englishmen, the yeomanry,
the strength of the country, this society may lead to
success {loud cheers).

Tlie Rev. Mr. Gwilt rose to propose that his Grace
the Duke of Buckingham be appointed vice-president.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

45

and that the former trustees and members of the general
committee be re-elected. He had great pleasure in pro-
posing this resolution ; for, after what had fallen from
the noble duke in the chair, and the assurances which
he had given of his strong support of the agricultural in-
terest, and with the assistance of the noble Duke of
Buckingham, with whom he had acted for several years
in protection societies, and knowing well the interest
which he took in agriculture, he could not but congra-

tulate the society on the support which it had received.
They had no reason to despond so long as they could
command such a gathering as they had seen that day, and
remained determined to protect the interests of agricul-
ture (cheers).

The resolution was agreed to.

Thanks were then voted to the chairman, and the
meeting broke up.

ADDRESS OF THE AGRICULTURAL PROTECTION SOCIETY
TO LANDED PROPRIETORS.

At the annual meeting of the Agricultural Protection
Society, held at No. 1 7, Old Bond-street, on Tuesday,
the 9th of December, the following resolution was pro-
posed by Mr. Umbers, of Warwickshire, and seconded
by Mr. G. Shackel, of Berkshire : —

" That, in the opinion of this meeting, every proprie-
tor of land in the United Kingdom should be communi-
cated with, and solicited immediately to become a mem-
ber of this society, and to oppose by every means in his
power the efforts of the enemies of protection to British
industry."

ADDRESS.

The above resolutian was unanimously adopted at the
annual meeting of this society yesterday, and it has be-
come the duty of the committee veiy earnestly to press
upon your consideration the grave and important truth
to which it alludes. While this society was acting in
opposition to those reductions of duties which were
proposed by the present government, it could not be de-
nied that many friends to protection were unwilling to
aid our endeavours, believing either that the reductions
themselves were of comparatively minor importance —
that the evil of breaking up a great political party was
the evil most to be feared, or that concessions to the
advocates of free importation were likely to be fairly
met by them, and to abate the zeal of many for the total
destruction of the system of protection. But now that
Lord John Russell, the head of the Opposition, has
announced himself, and with him, of course, his party,
fully prepared to carry out the immediate repeal of the
corn-laws, we feel that no motives such as those men-
tioned above can deter you from aiding our endeavours.
You will observe that the question is no longer as to the
cautious modification, or even the gradual removal of
duties. It is no question as to the consideration of our
system of taxation, or as to negotiations on this subject
with foreignpowers. It is no question even of free trade ;
it is simply and only a question of free importation.
As opposed to such a system, you, landow)iers of
England, have assisted to return a House of Commons
so strongly protesting against it, that your enemies have
named it the Landlords' Parliament. Your tenantry
stood by you in array, as was believed, invincible. A
great modification of the then existing corn -laws, and a
great diminution of protection, has since been made—

whether wisely or unwisely it is not for us to say. But
you will remember that two years ago the tenant farmers
of England rose as one man in opposition to a most
active and wealthy society, which, however it has been
taught the wisdom of comparative decency in language,
is still actuated with the same determination that has
ever animated it to destroy that social and political
influence which this country has, from immemorial
time, reposed in those connected with the land. In
obedience to the voice of the tenant farmers, this soci-
ety was established. We have no wish to claim your
approval of our formation or of our conduct ; but we
must tell you that one unceasing complaint has been
made to us, by the farmers, of your apathy — of your ne-
glect ; and while on the one side your enemies have been
declaring that the maintenance of corn-laws was a land-
lords' question, your tenants have been complaining
bitterly that you were leaving them to fight a hard battle
by themselves.

Whether the altered circumstances of the times may
persuade you to alter your conduct, the next six weeks
must show ; but we should be wanting to ourselves, and
to the tenant farmers, and to the cause we have espoused,
if we failed now to remind'you that unless the tenantry of
England are led by those whose privilege and responsibiUty
it is to lead them, they will seek for leaders elsewhere,
and too soon they will find them. The farmers are not
to be coerced ; but they look up to those their ftithers
looked up to, and they require them, in times of emer-
gency like the present, to prove themselves not only good
landlords — not only kind neighbours— but firm patriots
and wise, bold leaders. It is so easy to attribute ex-
isting evils to existing laws — it is so easy to distort the
facts of the past, and to give bright prospects of the
future— that no institution in this country can be main-
tained unless the arguments for its maintenance be rested
on high, strong grounds ; and when we consider how
active the enemies of protection have been, and how
passive its friends, our wonder is, that no farther inroads
have been made on the good sense of our fellow-country-
men. Doubtless this question has occupied your anxious
thoughts — doubtless you have approached its considera-
tion divested, as far as may be, of self-interest or party
prejudice. By this time your minds must be made up.
If you believe that our highly artificial state of society

46

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

could bear a shock so great as that proposed by Lord
Joha Russell, we can only say that we respect your
motives, and earnestly wish that the results of such an
event may be what you hope, rather than what we fear.
But if you have searched history in vain to discover
prosperity arising from such a revolution — if you have
considered our colonial empire in connexion with our
home industry — our national debt, our local taxation,
our church, our monetary system, the capital expended,
the engagements contracted, the stake perilled— and have
come to the conclusion that Lord John Russell's plan is
what the last prime minister characterised such a one to
be ; then we call upon you to remember the honourable
position you occupy socially and politically, and not,
through fear of obloquy or dislike of active exertion, to
shrink from asserting its rights by fulfilling its duties.

Whether or no you join this society is comparatively of
little moment ; but you belong to a nation that speaks
the truth and bears to hear it spoken, and we know that
we shall not offend you when we earnestly implore you
to join, whenever you can, the English tenant farmer.
He will express strong opinions to you ; he will ask you
to aid him in demonstrating how anxious he is to be still
what the yeomanry of England have ever been. Let
your presence cheer and your voice animate him wherever
he may wish to meet you ; and do not let it be said that
the class to which you belong was obstinate to maintain
that which it was unable to justify, or that by a su-
pineness akin to treachery it lost at once its character,
its station, and its property.

17, OldBond-slreet, Dec. 10, 1845.

MR. CAYLEY'S SECOND LETTER TO LORD JOHN RUSSELL.

Dear Lord John, — Somewhat exhausted with my
first effort, but in nowise disheartened, I appear, I trust,
to time ; and as compensations mercifully surround us
on every side, even for the worst calamities, so this few
days' interval which an infirm state of health demanded
for repose, has brought with it the satisfactory reflection
that, after all, in this urgent crisis of his fate, you are,
perhaps, among the most useful of the farmers' friends.
When every day, and almost every hour, was to him
pregnant with alarm that your great Vival — who, as mi-
nister, with your help as leader of the Opposition, really
has, unfortunately, the power to alter jthe corn laws —
was issuing forth his awful fiat for their final doom —
forth you rush with all the noble bearing, with all the
high-wrought chivalry of an approved and redoubted
knight of old, impetuous and self-devoted, to their res-
cue ! From the farmers of England — a thousand times
repeated thanks, for the gallantry yoH have displayed on
their behalf ! You have taken the lead out of the hands
of the minister, who, in fealty to the great party through
which he governs, must disdain to follow you in the path
to which you so significantly point. You have bound
him under the heaviest recognizances — those, at least,
of self-love — to preserve the scale of duties on foreign
grain, as by law established, until Parliament meets —
when the elastic and self-acting principle of that scale
will have accommodated itself to the public wants, and
when every cause for clamour, as T trust, will in conse-
quence have passed away.

On the probable supply of corn , through the medium
of the corn-laws, I have already spoken. What is the
short history of those laws .' Is it true, as has been as-
serted, that they are an invention of late date, suggested
by the cupidity of landlords for their own enrichment,
at the expense of the stomachs of the people ? This is,
indeed, one of the many plausible weapons employed
against them. But what is the truth respecting the
origin of the com laws ? The farmers of England, from
^he Norman conquest to the year 1436 (i. e., for above

350 years), were absolutely prohibited from exporting
corn to the continent. This corn-law could scarcely
have been invented by the cupidity of landlords ! In
1463 (from which year may be dated the principle of the
present corn-laws), as some compensation to the farmers
for being prevented exporting their corn to what market
they pleased — in 1463 the importation of corn underwent
a modified restriction. This modification consisted, not
of a fixed [duty, but a sliding-scale ! This act, with
slight alterations, continued — nominally, at least — in
force for about a century ; when, in 1670, an act was passed
which prevented the exportation of wheat after it rose to
53s. 4d. ; and imposed prohibitory duties on wheat (and
on other grain in proportion) till the price i-ose to 53s.
4d. ; and a duty of 8s. between that price and 80s. !
By this act, passed 175 years ago, we have a far more
stringent protective conr-law (especially taking the gene-
ral prices of those times into the account) than the pre-
sent. And, curious enough, we have in it a combina-
tion of the sliding scale ; and of your quondam favourite
fixed duty of 8s., between 53s. 4d. and 80s.

From this account of the corn-laws, from the Con-
quest to 1670, how does it appear that they are an enact-
ment of late invention .' By whom, and by what cir-
cumstances, was the landed interest of that time driven
to seek for increased protection, by increased duties
on the importation of corn ? Mr. Porter, of the Board
of Trade, in his useful digest, tells us that from a very
early period the woollen manufacture has been an ob-
ject of the especial protection of the English government ;
and that the exportation of English wool, in 1660, was
strictly prohibited. This law remained in force till 1825,
when the woollen manufacturers no longer required it.
The prohibition was grounded upon the belief that the
long stajile, or combing wool of England, would secure
to themselves the exclusive manufacture of certain fabrics.
So that we now see, that the higher duties upon the im-
portation of com, obtained by the landed interest in
1670, was by way of compensation for the prohibition

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

47

of the exportation of their wool, which the manufac-
turers of woollen liad obtained in 16G0, ten years be-
fore. Do we hear of the landlords opposing the pro-
tection sought for by the woollen manufacturers in 1660 ?
They only appear to have asked, in return, for an equi-
valent protection for the land.

It thus appears, that the object of the woollen manu-
facturers, in commencing the modern system of restric-
tion on trade, was to secure to themselves a monopoly.
Were they content with simply obtaining the prohibition
of the export of English wool ? Alas ! not so. In
progress of time they caused it to be enacted, that the
punishment of death should be awarded to the English
grower of wool, if he dared to export it; and, alarmed
at the rapid progress then being made in Ireland in that
branch of industry, the woollen manufacturers induced
the Houses of Parliament to interpose with the king
(William III.) for its suppression.

In his answer to their address, he makes the following
promise : — " I shall do all that in me lies to discourage
the woollen manufacture in Ireland, and encourage the
linen manufacture, and promote the trade of England."
And well has it been promoted ; and at the expense, as
it appears, of poor Ireland. Until enabled by protec-
tive laws to stand alone, it appears to forget the means
of its own rise, or to extend to others, when they want
it, the help which, in its need, was extended to itself.
The other branches of our manufactures had their origin
under a similar system of protection.

The woollen manufacture having thus sprung from
the practice of prohibition, from the desire of monopoly,
we shall in the end perceive that a similar desire, viz.,
that of monopoly — acting only under a different name —
actuates those connected with it (as well as those con-
nected with its sister, the cotton manufacture), who in
the present day are so strenuous in their efforts in favour
of free trade.

In the j^ear 1773 a new act was framed imposing a no-
minal duty of 6d. on the importation of wheat, when-
ever the home price was at or above 48s. per qr. Ano-
ther sliding-scale ! In 1791, another act was passed,
which admitted foreign wheat at the duty of 6d., after
the price rose to 54s. per qr. Under 54s., and above
50s., the duty was made 2s. 6d., and under 00s. a pro-
hibiting duty of 24s. 3d. was imposed. A more flagrant
instance still of a sliding-scale ! This act was succeeded
by the acts of 1804, 1815, 1822, and 1842.

This account of the corn-laws, more tedious than
was intended, at once disproves the assertion which
charges them of being an innovation of modern date ;
whilst, on the contrary, it shows that protection to do-
mestic industry, and restriction upon importation, has
been interwoven with our agricultural, commercial, and
manufacturing system for many hundred years. When
was this ancient system of trade and agriculture — the
system under which our commercial greatness sprung
up — first prominently mvaded ? Since the war of the
French i-evolution. But since the system of protection
has been tampered with, has England been more pros-
perous than before ? Assuredly not. In the three in-
stances of shipping, silks, and gloves, in which the old
system has been specially broken in upon, what has been

the result ^ Universal complaint, and a desire by the
interests involved to revert again to the ancient system.
Was this invasion of the old system of protection re-
sorted to at the suggestion of practical men, to effect a
remedy of some acknowledged distress or evil in these
three trades ? No ! they were selected as the victims
for experiment of a new school of political philosophy —
that new school, which, in quaint, but no measured
terms, you in 1822 emphatically assailed. Twenty years
of experience have changed your opinions ; but it is
surely not the success of the experiment of the new phi-
losophy in the three instances just mentioned that has
changed your opinioAS ; for in these instances the expe-
riment has signally failed. Have you learned to place
more faith in speculative opinions ?

Who was the modern instigator of these new experi-
ments on the trade and agriculture of this country ? Mr.
Ricardo. It was this gentleman, a writer of great talent
no doubt, on whom the Legislature leaned for guidance
in the great monetary change of 1819 ; and from whom
it gathered its conviction that that change woidd not
produce an effect upon prices of more than four cent.
If we are credibly informed, he himself subsequently
acknowledged, before his death, that the effect upon
prices had been 30 per cent. ; as you yourself, in your
excellent work on the constitution, also assert ; although
50 per cent, reduction in prices was far nearer the
truth — to the untold misery of the industrious classes,
and the incalculable destruction of the property of this
country. Does this gigantic error, committed by Mr.
Ricardo, by which he betrayed his country into a state
of wretchedness, which impelled it to seek relief in po-
litical changes, and was the proximate cause of the
peaceful revolution of tlie Reform Act — the safety-valve
of a people, fortunately so long accustomed to the use
of liberty, as, even in their anguish, not to be induced
to abuse it — does this gigantic error of Mr. Ricardo give
us confidence in his wisdom , or implant faith in him as
a teacher, or offer us an inducement to persevere in his
system ? And yet he, with his disciple, Mr. M'CuUoch,
are the real parents of the present agitation for a re-
peal of the corn-laws. Mr. Ricardo, too, recommended
a sliding-scale ! but a sliding scale very much of the
nature of your fixed duty ; which was to slide away to no-
thing at all.

Mr. M'CuUoch also, some years ago, gave utterance
to a dogma which can hardly be said to found for him a
claim to the character of a sound political philosopher ;
and yet, under his chair, sat most of the Whig converts
to free trade of the present day. Tliis new dogma, if I
do not strangely forget, was that, on no grounds of po-
litical economy could it be shown that the residence of
an Irish landlord was a benefit to his country dependants.
Fortunately this was a specimen of a fallacy so glaring,
and so immediate an insult to the common sense of man-
kind, as to require but little time to dispel it. In this
case I will concede to you that the people of both Eng-
land and Ireland preferred the fixed duty of residence
to the vanisliing point of absenteeism ! Mr. M'CuUoch
has probably changed this opinion ; and he appears also
to have changed another relating to the manufacturing
system ; which, in the last edition of his " PoUtical

48

[THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Economy," he considers to have expanded to so dan-
gerous a degree, that if the Legislature could have fore-
seen the extent our manufactures would have reached, it
would have liesitated before it had lent any stimulus to
its progress. And yet, to the still further expansion of
this overgrown manufacturing system, are we required
to sacrifice the com laws ! What conclusion does Mr,
M'Culloch come to, under his present apprehension with
respect to the over-expansion of our manufacturing sys-
tem ? To go back — or to endeavour to limit their pro-
gress— or to become stationary ? Not at all ! but he
concludes, that having gone thus far (whatever the dan-
ger may be), we cannot recede, and that we must go
on ! This is surely on the principle of that illustrious
philosopher, of whom we have heard in our nursery
rhymes, who, having jumped into a quickset hedge and
scratched out both his eyes— and who (like a philosopher)
having seen that his eyes were out, proceeded (most
philosophically, certainly — ^but)

-with all his might and main

To jump uito a bramble bush.
And scratch tliem in again."

Do not understand, from this momentary tone of
levity, that I am intending to speak disrespectfully of
Mr. M'Culloch, or in disparagement of his real merits,
which are those perhaps of the most eminent and labo-
rious statistician of his day. But certainly the errors
into which he and Mr. Ricardo must be confessed to
have fallen from the changes their opinions have been
shown to have undergone, and after the suffering their
country has passed through in consequence of being
guided by the opinions of speculative writers like them,
that country may reasonably hesitate before it again
exposes itself to the wish of being influenced by sug-
gestions of theory, instead of abiding by long-established
principles of acknowledged benefit.

Neither would 1 be supposed to derogate, by what I
have said, from the attributes of genuine science, when
founded upon mduction ; nor from the high respect due
to the character of a real philosopher, who, in a spirit of
patient and cautious perseverance, and with all the
earnestness and the high intelligence of genius, follows
after knowledge that may benefit his species, or that
may lay open to the admiring gratitude of the creature
the merciful wonders of an allwise Creator, but who yet
proclaims what appears to him a discoveiy with all the
candid simplicity and hesitating modesty of childhood—
from such a character, instead of daring to derogate, I
can conceive of no inferior tribute to be paid to it than
that of the deepest veneration and love. But the specu-
lative conclusions of even such a man should be adopted
by any legislature with the utmost caution ; for he deals
with materials of a much more mysterious and compli-
cate and evanescent character than those which are the
subjects of the purer sciences ; where the obstacles can,
with comparative ease, be a 2)riori detected. Yet even
in mechanics, one of these latter sciences, we hear as an
axiom, at the patent offices, that out of one hundred
patents taken out, although fifty are on the average true
in principle, so little do the most ingenious men foresee
the difficulties in their way, only ten out of the hundred

turn out true in practice. What a lesson to speculative
political philosophers of the present day ! Since they
cannot forget that, as regards the practical concerns of
any gi-eat nation, we have as yet no experience of free
trade, so that their views of it, in application to this
country, must be purely hypothetical.

The philosophy, so called, which, as it appears to me,
deserves to be suspected, and which is not a genuine but
a false philosophy, is one which on too limited expei-i-
ence too hastily assumes conclusions, and too hastily, if
unopposed, would proceed to carry them into operation.
This has been the fault of, and the cause of, the suspi-
cion attached to the dogmas of the economical school of
this age, from which, as has been said, has emanated the
change which did take place, with such dreadful results,
of the monetary system, and which is proposed to take
place in the system of protection by a repeal of the corn-
laws. And surely it is a wise provision that the gi'eat
mass of the people should view with a sceptical mind
any novelties which have not the test of experience to
support them. In return they are branded, indeed, by
the advocates of such novelties, as governed by prejudice
or self-interest. The feeling of self-interest, although,
when exercised within i^roper limits, designed apparently
as one never-failing means of individual protection, is,
indeed, too apt to warp the better judgment of most of
us. But the term prejudice is often too indiscriminately
applied, and after all is of rather an uncertain character,
for what is prejudice to-day was firmness yesterday.

How has prejudice arisen ? It is an opinion very
generally entertained for a long period of time, which
men are unwilling to surrender. It was once a novelty,
at first resisted by a previous prejudice, which only
I gave way to the present prejudice ; because the latter,
after long careful sifting — an anxious winnowing of
the chaff from the corn, and after long repeated dis-
cussions over llie family hearths of an entire country,
was accepted by the concurrent conviction of the age.
The opinion thus carefully examined (although not in
itself absolutely true), is more likely to be suited to
the temper, taste, and condition of a people finally
adopting it, than any new opinion backed by autho-
rity, however commanding, which has not undergone
the same process of national elaboration ; and, although
passing under the name of a prejudice, will continue
to be received by the majority until some new doctrine,
after having received the same sort of investigation,
shall better recommend itself to their suspicious con-
victions. Under what heavier infliction could a
country suffer than to be exposed , without delay, to
the operation of every crude sophism that was sug-
gested to it? If Providence had intended each new
dogma to be carried into operation as soon as invented,
some machinery would have been contrived of a dif-
ferent kind to the slow conviction of the mass of man-
kind. The very tediousness of the operation of pro-
ducing a general conviction is evidence that the great
affairs of humanity were to be entrusted to the care of
the slow and safe progress of experience, rather than
to be blown to and fro by every wind of doctrine ; and
thus it may be taken as an axiom that the commonest
prejudice has, ^mw« /acJe, u better chance of being

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

49

relatively true than the most specious novelty, until
tlie latter has undergone the anxious examination
which the former has done before it has been accepted.

From hence I would not be thought to prejudge the
case of those who would rejieal the corn-laws, |because
it is comparatively a novelty ; but rather as intending
to show that what may appear a prejudice in ressistiug
anything new, however attractive to the eye, may have
some foundation in nature and reason • and I have
been thus tedious on this point, because anxious to
prove that, on purely hypothetical grounds, it is dan-
gerous to found alterations in laws which involve ex-
tensive interests. In such instances the plain, com-
mon, unper verted sense of mankind, acting upon
approved experience, is the only safe and satisfactory
guide. Nor would 1 be thought to infer that, because
speculative men have committed many mistakes, the
proposition for a repeal of the corn-laws must neces-
sarily be untrue. No ! on its own merits it must stand
or fall ; and on that basis I proceed at once to treat it.

You may tell me that the manufacturers are prac-
tical men, and that they should know their own in-
terests. If I concede this point, it is one which to me,
as an agriculturist, has frequently been denied, when
I iiave advocated the corn law. My answer to you,
however, is, that if the manufacturers are practical
men, and if it be an undisputed axiom in that in-
fluential class, that the corn laws are so disastrous to
their interests, why don't they all unite in condemn-
hig those laws ? \Yc learn, on the contrary, from
members of the manufacturing body, that in various
towns from which petitions proceed against the corn
laws, half, if not more, of the manufacturing interests
of such towns (especially if the capital embarked be
taken into the consideration) have refused to sign such
petitions. You may reply to this, that it is their Con-
servaiive opisions that prevent them signing. I might
answer, that Whig opinions may lead others to the
opposite course of signing them. But it may appear
presumptuous in me to remind you who have so long
had a seat in the House of Commons of the notorious
fact that when constituents (in times of election so
ardent on points of political difference) come to Lon-
don, to superintend a private bill, their interest in
public questions is for the most jiart swallowed up and
absorbed in the private business on which they are
come up, whilst to general politics scarcely a reference
is made. Surely this is evidence that a large body of
the manufacturers would not, on political grounds,
forego the expression of an opinion that was so fa-
vourable to their private interests, as some represent
a repeal of the corn laws as certain to prove.

The benefit to accrue from a repeal of the corn laws
is, therefore, amongst the manufacturing body itself, a
disputed point ; and that it is so, we must be con-
vinced, at least until Lancashire sends to Parliament
four opponents of the corn laws, imtead of four sup -
porters of it ; until the West Riding sends two op-
ponents instead of two supporters; and until the
borough of Leeds (with as upright and powerful ai:)ro-
viucial journal as any in the kingdom to supjiort their
cause) sends two opponents of the corn law, instead of

one opponent and one supporter of it. What the result
may be at another election— when the anti-corn-law
party, unwilling to trust tlieir case to the verdict of
the old constituencies, numerous though they be, have
established a number of new voters virtually pledged
to their views — it would be difficult to say. Those who
would swamp the peerage, may object as little to
swamp the constituencies to gain a 2>oint. Be that as
it may, 2,000 of these votes of the anti-corn-law party
are said to have been already purchased in the West
Riding of Yorkshire. And I, for my part, cannot sec
what there is in the law to prevent them. I am not
objecting to the purchase of small freeholds to give
votes, but rather intending to show the distrust tlic
anti-corn-law party evince of constituencies not of
their own creation.

Then, if we turn to the members for London, wc
find the three supporters of the corn-laws, and one
distinguished opponent of them — yourself; but only
by a very narrow majority returned. Turn, then, to
Liverpool : two supporters of the corn-laws not only
represent it, but I have heard from both of them very
able speeches in their defence. The manufacturing
body being divided upon the question, and the two
greatest emporiums of commerce (arguing from their
representation) being in its favour, and from the
nature of their transactions more likely to be com-
petent judges upon the subject than manufacturing
towns, it cannot be said that, among practical men,
i.e., men practically affected in their business by tha
operation of the corn-laws, that there is an undisputed
opinion in favour of their repeal. If, indeed, we may
infer anything from the calculated eflTect of even a
15s. duty on corn, it would be surprising to find this
uniformity of opinion ; for it would amount only to a
l-132nd part, or -J of 1 per cent— i.e , the buyer would
have to distinguish between goods worth 132^. and
l.'iS^.—supposing the produce of a man's hands, with
GOl. per annum, to be worth lOOl. To a gentleman,
however, of great authority on such questions, I put,
a few years ago, this question— What would the effect
of a 15s. duty on wheat be on the sale of manu-
factures ? His reply was, that it could not affect the
price of the commonest goods— say such as are worth
about double the price of the most ordinary un-
bleached calicoes — more than -} of 1 per cent. To
which he added, *' One-half at least of the cotton
manufactures of Lancashire and Yorkshire have vo-
luntarily imposed on themselves a tax of equal amount,
by opening accounts with joint-stock banks; they
never having such before 1826."

If the corn-laws do not affect the price of manu-
factured goods more than from > to 1 per cent., or if
our manufacturing competition with foreigners is run
so close as to leave us a superiority of barely 1 per
cent., it surely would be a gratuitous prodigality to
run the risk of ruining the great landed interest of
this country — a source of wealth and employment
of which no foreign jealousy could forcibly deprive us
— on the remote chance of maintaining so doubtful a
struggle.
It will be replied to this, that our own restrictive

50

THE FARMER'S MAfrAZINE.

poliej'^, especially in the sbape of corn-laws, has
produced this foreign jealousy, and that they are the
cause of our manufacturing difficulties. In [answer to
this latter objection, I have before shown that it was
under a protective system that our infant manufac-
tures were allowed to grow up, and under which they
■were preserved from the destructive effects of a com-
petition, which, had they not been thus protected,
would in all probability have nipped them in their
bud. I answer, also, tliat it has been under the system
of the corn laws that our manufactures have advanced
with such rapid strides to their present degree of
eminence. In 1662-3, just before the modern corn
laws were enacted, the official value of our exports
was 2,022,812Z.> in 1834 (the last year I can at this
moment refer to) the official value of our exports was
79,823,093L ; they are now probably more than
100,000,000^ in official value. Does this amazing
increase point to great evils in the system under which
it has taken place ? j\Iany of those who are loudest
in their demand for a repeal of the corn laws have, in
one life-time, sprung from comj^arative indigence to
riches and power, and some even to seats in the
Legislature, of which their intelligence and energy
make them most efficient and worthy members. Do
these facts, however, look like the corn laws obstruct-
ing the progress of the country's v/ealth, [or the rise of
honest intelligence to its proper station ?

Then with respect to the charge that the corn-laws
have excited foreign jealousy. Tiie Zollverein is stated
io be the fruitful offspring of British restriction on the
importation of German corn. In reply to this asser-
tion, one of the principal merchants of Frankfort com-
municated to me the information as a fact, with which
he was well acquainted, that the German Custom-
duties Union had its origin in purely political and
social causes. This view is certainly supported |by the
extraordinary circumstance that, when Sir Robert
Peel, in 1843, relaxed, by hia new tariff, the duties
on a vast number of articles of commerce, and had
the year before also diminished the duties on corn,
the significant reply he received, from so many dif-
ferent foreign countries, was six retaliating tarifTs, in-
creasing the duties on articles of British production.
This bears with it no appearance of those countries
anxiously awaiting the diminution of the duties of the
British Custom-house, in order at once to allow in-
creased facilities to British manufactures entering their
dominions. Is it not far more reasonable to suppose
that, viewing, perhaps with envy, the mighty struggles
made by England in the cause of European freedom,
proceeding as they did from the combined agricultuaal,
commercial, and manufacturing resources, they turned
to the page in her history which should discover to
them the origin of so much power concentrated on so
small a surface, and that they found that it had grown
up under a system of protection to industry ? And
having learnt the lesson, is itsuprising that they should
have acted upon it ?

But, it is further urged, that if we will only consent
to import foreign corn, since it will not be given to us
for nothing, our manufactures must be sent out in

exchange. This is true^ but what is the course and
the manner of this exchange? The countries from
which wc could derive the largest supply of corn, do
not want, and will not take our manufactures. They
are cherishing their own manufactures ; and they de-
mand gold for their corn. But the gold must be
bought with something ! Yes, it is bought with manu-
factures. But what is the course and the consequence
of this purchase? We already send as many manu-
factures to those countries that will receive our manu-
factures as they wish to take ; but in order to buy
gold to pay those countries for corn which will not
take our manufactures, we must send more manufac-
tures to buy gold to those countries that are already
supplied with our manufactures. In other words, we
must, in order to obtain gold to pay for foreign corn,
so deluge markets, already full of our manufactures,
with a repeated dose of them, that we should so de-
preciate the value of the manufactures exported as that
the additional quantity thus exported would, on the
whole, produce no greater return than the first quan-
tity sent out in answer to the legitimate demands of
trade. I leave entirely out of the question, for want
of space, the effects upon our monetary system of this
hide and seek after gold, although that evil alone, expe-
rience has taught us, is of itself grievous enoughto bear.
After all, the most specious and plausible pretext for
a free importation of corn (its liberality is another ques-
tion) was the late lamented Lord Spencer's ; and, if
true, would certainly be the cause of little or no national
pecuniary loss, but the contrary. Allow foreign corn,
said he, to be introduced, and it will so raise the price
abroad that, while the injury to our home growers will
be as nothing, the rise in the price abroad will neces-
sarily so raise the price of. foreign wages as to make it
impossible for their manufacturers to compete with ours.
Granting for a moment the possibility of such a specu-
lative result, does any man in his senses, at this day, be-
lieve, whatever our Legislature might do with the corn-
laws — whether they repealed them, or whether they re-
tained them — that ^one single foreign country would
allow its rising manufactures to be destroyed by British
competition ? No ! the spendthrift principle which
some of our manufacturers have adopted ever since the
war, of exporting yarn instead of goods, has already de-
cided this question. The exports of cotton yarn, which
in 1818 amounted to 14,743,6751bs., in 1838 amounted
to 115,000,0001bs. ! We have given foreign countries
by these means, unwilling to lose a short-lived gain,
every faciUty to undertake the weaving of their own
fabrics, and now complain of their having become such
apt scholars. If, indeed, such an universal monopoly of
our manufactures could be established, and that perma-
nently, v/ithout injury to our agriculture, it might be a
consummation devoutly to be wished. But is any one
sanguine enough to believe in its realization ? Already,
in 1827, in the United States, at the Convention of Har-
risburg, comiilaint was made of a disposition on the part
of " liberal England to smother their rising manufac-
tures." Look at almost every country of Europe,
none of them in so artificial or so heavily burthened a
state as England, and see corn-laws almost universal.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

51

Look at tlie United States, without a debt ! and ob-
serve a corn-law, compared to their average prices of
corn, as restrictive, if not more so than our own.
Ask of what two men, now living, that country of
republican institutions — where ancient aristocracies and
their supposed selfish interests find no place — is justly
the most proud ! An American will at once point to
the names of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay. Both of
them equally, with every president downwards from
General Washington to General Jackson, in favour of
protection to domestic industry against foreign compe--
tition. You have read Mr. Webster's speech the other
day on the Oregon and tariff questions ; and you find
that he mentions and defends the curious circumstance
that from General Washington's administration to this
time, the average of all their duties, reducing specific
duties to ad valorem, would amount to an average ad
valorem duty of more than 34 per cent.

These are not the opinions and the practice of what
are called benighted farmers and selfish landlords. They
are the opinions of the master-minds of the Anglo-
Saxon race in a new world. Above all, observe the
conclusions to which that most eloquent and enlightened
•writer of America, and that most self-devoted enemy to
slavery, himself an advocate of freedom of trade, the
late Dr. Channing, at last came ; the extract is worthy
of the deepest reflection : — " I would ask, what is to be
the effect of bringing the labouring classes of Europe
twice as near as they now are ? Is there no danger of
a competition that is to depress the labouring classes
here ? Can the workman here stand his ground against
the half-famished, ignorant woi'kmen of Europe ; who
will toil for any wages, and who never think of redeem-
ing an hour for personal improvement ? Is there no
danger, that with increasing intercourse with Europe, we
shall import the striking, fearful contrasts, which there
divide one people into separate nations ? Sooner than
that our labouring class should become an European
populace, a good man would almost wish that perpetual
hurricanes, driving every ship from the ocean, should
sever wholly the two hemispheres from each other.
Heaven preserve us from the anticipated benefits of
nearer connection with Europe, if with these must come
the degradation which we see or read of among the
squalid poor of her great cities, among the over-worked
operatives of her manufactories, among her ignorant and
half-brutalised peasants. Anything, everything, should
be done to save us from the social evils which deform
the old world, and to build up here an intelligent,
right-minded, self-respecting population. If this end
should require us to change our present modes of life,
to narrow our foreign connections, to desist from the
race of commercial and manufacturing competition with
Europe — if it should require that our great cities should
cease to grow, and that a large portion of our trading
population should return to labour, these requisitions
ought to be obeyed."

And yet our English people would be exposed to risks
like these from a repeal of the corn laws, notwithstand-
ing the pathetic appeals founded on the assertion that
these laws starve the people, and that their repeal would
fill them with an unstinted plenty of food— their com-

mon sense — a quality in which tliey are behind no class
or station — convinces them of the fallacy of expecling a
fall in the price of food cotemporaneously with the
maintenance of their present rate of wages. They know
that as corn fell their wages would fall ; and they
shrewdly suspect that the chief object of those masters
who wish for free trade, and for a reduction of the price
of corn in this country, is, at the same time, to reduce
their wages to a level with the wages of the continent.
They have, in fact, advanced the logic of that school
which would teach them that cheapness must be an \m-
qualified good ; for they have found that what is
absolutely cheap may, sometimes, be relatively dear.
Although wheat may be from 15s. to 30s. a quarter in
Russia, Prussia, and Poland, they have not failed to ask
the question — " What blessings attend this cheapness of
wheat ?" They have found that wages are so low, that
rye, and not wheaten bread, is eaten by the working
classes of those countries ; and, with regard to wages,
Mr. Gregg, of Manchester, one of the most intelligent
of the manufacturers, and an advocate of free trade, is
reported to have told them , in a comparison which (in
the year 1839) he made between British and continental
wages :—

Operatives arc paid in—

France 5s. 8d. per week of 72 hours.

Switzerland .... 43. 5d 82 ..

Austria 4s. Od. .... 76 . .

Tyrol 3s.0d 88 ..

Saxony 3s. Gd 72 . .

Bonn on the Rhine 2s. 6d 84 ..

The average wages being a fraction under 4s. per
week ; the average wages paid to bands similarly
employed in England, but for fewer hours, being 12s.

The working classes, therefore, have too vividly
before their eyes the consequences of being reduced to
a level with the continent, to look forward- to the re-
peal of the corn laws as the anchor of their hopes,
especially when they find, after minute examination,
that, supposing even the price of the quartern loaf to
be lOd., the landlords' share of it, from a 15s. a quar-
ter corn law, will not amount to more than a farthing
and l-16tb.

We have now seen that the most enlightened of the
advocates of a repeal of the corn laws found their
anticipations of its advantageous result on the faith of
its establishing the universal monopoly of British
manufactures. This monopoly our manufacturers
enjoyed for many years, almost uninterrupted by
foreign rivalry. They still enjoy this monopoly, as
far as they are permitted to extend it. Under this
monopoly it is, and cotemporaneously with the exist-
ence of the corn laws, that their amazing riches have
been amassed. Would they, at every risk to the rest
of our home industry, and at every cost, attempt to
compel foreign countries to permit them to preserve
this their giant monopoly ? Vain and futile expec-
tation ! All authority, and the commonest experience,
alike forbid the possibility of its consummation. Mon-
tesquieu, indeed, informs us that a monopoly of this
kiud may, for a short time, be possessed by any one

D 2

52

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

country ] but that, after a time, being set on an emi-
nence— the object of the general gaze — other coun-
tries, from interest or envy, soon follow closely in its
steps, and finally overtake it. These are the observa-
tions of profound wisdom ; and instances of their
trutli are manifest to the eye of the most superficial
reader. Whence the greatness of Tyre, Sidon, and
Carthage ? Monopoly ! Whence that of Ancona,
Venice, Genoa, or Amalfi? Monopoly! Short-lived,
indeed ; and each, in turn, to give way to a monopoly
of greater power; but all, from a state of splendour
and greatness, to sink to insignificance and contempt ;
unless, like Tuscany, Holland, Flanders, and England,
its great accumulation of wealth was secured to it by
its solid investment in land— the only lasting basis of
national greatness.

To hasten to my conclusion, then — Why would I
maintain a system of corn-laws ? Among other reasons,
I answer — that by them I believe, with the help of oc-
casional foreign importation, the whole people are more
viniformly supplied with good food than they would be
by the freest trade ; that by them neither the manufac-
turing operatives, or any other workmen, are injured ;
because their wages would be lowered with a fall in the
vrice of corn ; that if the corn-laws were repealed, the
labourers thrown out of employment in agriculture
would, by competition with the operatives, drive down
still lower the rate of their wages ; that our manufac-
turing greatness grevr up under the corn-laws ; and that
the repeal of them would establish the lasting monopoly
of the British manufacturer over the whole world, is an
utterly fallacious expectation ; whilst this attempt to es-
tablish such a monopoly would not only meet with a
sio-nal repulse from foreign powers, but would be made
at the imminent risk of the agricultural and the remain-
ing interests of this country, which are not manufac-
turing. I fear the result, in one generation, of a second
great prostration of industry, from a fall in jirices ; that
might be followed by a revolution, which, even in
England, might not again prove a peaceful one. It is
for that great remamder of my countrymen, which is
not manufacturing, that my principal alarm is enter-
tained. The country towns with their retail trade — the
country villages with their artizans — the farms with
their labourers, form the great majority of the people of
this country. The number of those, more or less in-
terested in the growth of British corn, cannot be esti-
mated at less than three-fourths of the entire popula-
tion. The manufactures of cotton, woollen, linen, and
hardwares, do not constitute the greatest trades of this
great country. The trade of growing corn is its
GREATEST TRADE. The Capital, in this great trade of
growing corn, of the tenants alone, is estimated at more
than that engaged in the four manufactures put together
to which I have just referred. When we add to this
not less, perhaps, than fifteen hundred millions sterhng,
embarked in the land by its owners, and all the capital
invested in the retail trade of the agricultural towns de-
pendent on the well-being of the British cultivator, we
may see at a glance the terrible consequence that might
ensue from even the smallest mistake in dealing with
such mighty interests. We might anticipate the conse-

cpxences more clearly, perhaps, if, instead of the
15,000,000 of people connected with the land, we were
to place before our eyes, in idea, the possibility of
15,000,000 being engaged in the cotton manufacture
(although half-a-dozen worlds could scarcely employ
so many), and their being suddenly exposed to a com-
petition with foreigners to whom they were mferior in
the art of producing cotton, or through the pressure of
taxes and liabilities, might be considered as practically,
although not absolutely inferior ; imagine for a moment
the contingency of these 15,000,000 cotton manufac-
turers, through an opening of the ports, being suddenly
deprived of employment, or reduced to half employ-
ment, or to a quarter, and to a quarter profits of their
trade ! Would any man — even a modern economist,
bemused with abstract theories — have the complacency,
or rather the gladiatorial daring, to persist in his beloved
system (however true according to first principles) in
the face of a contingency like this ? It is from so dread
a contingency that, through the medium of the ancient
system of protection and of the corn-laws, I seek to
protect the greatest trade of the country — that which
produces its main supply of food ; and by the same
means, to secure the great majority of the people, which
that great trade of growing corn maintains, in a state of
permament employment and comfort. And he is a bold
minister who on the rocks of theory or clamour will
venture to run the risk of allowing such mighty interests
to split.

And yet, since this letter was commenced, the rumour
lias become stronger and stronger that this violent risk
is to be undergone. What ! by the Government of Sir
Robert Peel? Impossible ! when we call to mind the
circumstances under which he expelled you from
power, and himself assumed tlie reins of government !
Is it because you threatened a comparatively moderate
blow at the system of protection, and to him, in con-
sequence (who then upheld that system), you were
compelled to forfeit the seals of office, that he can ven-
ture now to propose to Parliament, as minister, the
entire abolition of that protection? Impossible! again,
and again, impossible I — unless even the small vestige
of faith in public men, to which the people still fear-
fully cling with indeed almost incredulous hope, is at
once, and for ever, to disappear from the earth. Sir
Robert Peel, when he proposed the present corn-law,
must have foreseen that scarcity might ensue; the very
virtue of his graduated scale was to consist in meeting
tlie necessities of every turn of fortune — a large or a
deficient supply. He may have seen reason to doubt,
as some of the supporters of the corn-law have done,
the policy of those jumps in his scale, which lead to
too much speculation on the part of the mer:'hant.
He may think, as I am inclined to do, that a uniform
graduation of the scale of Is. from 50s. to 65s. (which
would leave the duty 10s. at 60s., and 5s. at 65s. a
quarter — descending no lower than the latter duty),
might better answer tlie wants both of the consumer
and tlie grower than the present scale. But, from a
jumping scale, to lea]) at once to the entire demolition
of a system uf protection, of 400 years standing, is a
spring of such stretch and elasticity, as to be worthy

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

53

rather of the arena of the gymnasium, than of the
school of prudent and sagacious statesmen. This busy
and ill-favoured rumour I will not therefore believe,
because I cannot believe it. Neither in ancient history
nor in modern experience can I discover any example
of a transition of such an extent, under such circum-
stances ; therefore, I repeat, it is a belief that 1 can
neither compass nor imagine.

The minister might, indeed, have seen cause to
doubt, in his own mind, the expediency of a corn-law.
lie might, as an individual, abstain from voting ; or,
as an individual, ho might even publicly recant his
opinion, and vote with you for a repeal of the corn-
laws. But to use his influence as a minister, to repeal
laws which he was constituted minister purposely to
uphold, is, to my mind, an irreconcilable impossibility.
If the corn-laws were repealed by any government,
they must be repealed by one of which you are the
first, or a principal member. But I could not envy
even you the office of uprooting this sturdy oak of
centuries of British growth — of loosing from its sacred
fastenings this anchor of a people's established trust—
a trust so deeply fixed that, as I think, all the ener-
getic and almost unopposed efforts of a most active
and not very scrupnlous party, have been unable seri-
ously to shake it. The middle classes of the borough
and market towns may have their leaning to this corn-
law or that ; but, as a body, they are not, I am bold
to say, in favour of that unrestricted freedom of com-
petition with foreign countries which a repeal of the
corn-laws, as its first consequence, necessarily involves.
And I add to this assertion another equally strong —
that had there been, or were there now, a minister,
whose language in upholding these laws was evidently
based on conviction — a minister who showed a deter-
mination, so long as the representatives of the people
supported him, to support the old system of protection
— the corn laws would still run on for many a long
year, for the security and welfare of the people.

We will suppose, however, for one moment, your
return to power ; a day, indeed, which I should rejoice
to see, but one to which, all things considered, I
should look forward as encanopied by no unclouded
sky. You would, if not prevented by a strong mer-
cantile and agricultural opposition, proceed to repeal

the corn laws. I am not sure you would have tl.e
power J but granting you had, you must, as certainly
as the present minister cannot repeal the corn laws
forthwith repeal the income tax also. In addition to
this, what import duties could you then maintain ?
How many would the mercantile and agricultural
opposition arrayed against you allow you to maintain 1
Literally none. Wliere would be your revenue?
Where would be your means to ui)hold the public
credit? Wiience could arise jour power to continue
the payment of the National Debt? These are reflec-
tions which will, of couise, have occurred to you.
Your fertility in resource may enable you to overcome
difficulties of this kind. My infirm nerves, I confess,
would shrink from the encounter. You would, at
least, possess my best wishes, should you be put to the
trial. It may be presumptuous in me, however, even
to doubt your ability to ride upon such a storm ; for,
as I said at first, my speculations or my fears can lay
no claim to infallibility.

But, come what may, we are in all-wise and all-
mei-ciful hands, which surround and maintain us ;
and I will not despair; and should my dismal fore-
bodings prove to have no foundation in the result —
should the measure you advocate prove, as you
expect, a comfort and relief to my countrymen — at
any sacrifice to private Interests of my own, Jf they
will be at all affected by the change in question— nay,
even if a still heavier sacrifice were demanded of me
on the altar of the public good, I trust I could grate-
fully welcome the hour of increased happiness, from
whatever source, to a country I love ; and humbly
invoke the blessing of Heaven on the man who was
the instrument of so transceudant a boon. For, that
" the welfare of the people is the supreme law" I can
scarcely be ignorant, when I am favoured with the
friendship of one whose patriotism is of that high
order, that his private virtues, without any change in
their character, have but to expand with the occasion
into enlarged public affections. That honoured in-
dividual, I need scarcely add, is no other than yourself.

With many apologies for this too long intrusion,
and with every sentiment of respect, believe me to re-
main, my dear Lord John, ever truly yours,

Wydale, Dec. 6. E. S. Cayley.

"TEN ANT-RI GH T."

IMPORTANT MEETING AT THE FARMERS' CLUB-HOUSE.

On Wednesday, Dec. 10, a special general meeting of
the members of the Farmers' Club was held in their
rooms at the York Hotel, Bridge-street, Blackfriars,
for the purpose of taking into consideration the sub-
ject of "tenant-right" of tenant-farmers. Mr. Baker,
of Writtle, Essex, occupied the chair. The discussion
of this subject had been postponed from the indisposition

of Mr. Shaw, who had undertaken to open the ques-
tion, and this evening having been specially fixed as
an extra meeting for the purpose, the attendance
of members was unusually large — the largest, in fact,
which has as yet taken place since the for-
mation of the club. Among those present we
observed George Emery, Esq., of Banwell, Somer-

54

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

set ; Cuthberfc W. Jolinson, Esq.; Jonas Webb, Esq.,
Babraham ; T. Chapman, Esq., Stoneleigh ; Dan-
iel Trinder, Esq., Cirencester ; George Bod-
dington, Esq., Sutton Coldfield ; John Barnard, Esq.,
Cantield Hall ; William Fisher Hobbs, Esq., Marks
Hall, Essex; W. R. Browne, Esq., Chiseldon ; Henry
Cheffins, Esq. , Little Easton ; William Cheffins, Esq.,
Islington ; Richard Gates Esq., Bramley, near Guildford ;
Charles Page, Esq., Southminster ; George Kilby, Esq.,
Leicestershire; John Kemp, Esq., Southminster; T.
W, Burness, Esq., Chelmsford ; Jeremiah Birdits, Esq.,
Bretford, Coventry ; Robert Page, Esq., Bradwell, Es-
sex ; J. F. Kemp, jun., Southminster; James Thomas,
Esq., Lidlington Park ; Jas. Grove, Esq. Great Baddow ;
Robert Baker, Esq., Writtle; John Browne, Esq.,
Chiselden, Wilts ; Kersey Cooper, Esq., Euston, Suf-
folk ; John Beck, Esq., Congham, Castle Rasin, Nor-
folk; George Turner, Esq., Barton, Exeter; Robert
Smith, Esq., Burley Park, Oakham; J. A, Ransome,
Esq., Ipswich; Thomas Pope, Esq., Kidbrook ; W,
Bell, Esq., Bucklersbury ; W. Hutley, Powers Hall.
Witham ; C. Pocock, Latham, Berks ; W. Bennett,
Lewsey, Beds ; S. Bennett, Bickneys Park, Beds, &c.

The Chairman, in opening the business of the
evening, stated that the question they had this evening as-
sembled to discuss was that of the rights of tenant-
farmers ; and it was, as most of them well knew, to be
opened by Mr. Shaw (cheers). That gentleman would
take precedence on the present occasion, and he [Mr.
Baker) was quite satisfied, from the abilities and intel-
ligence of that gentleman, and the great amount of in-
formation he had acquired upon the subject, that he
would give rise to an instructive and satisfactory
discussion (Hear, hear). He begged leave to call
upon Mr. Shaw.

Mr. Shaw immediately rose amid the cheers of the
meeting, and said — Knowing as he did that when the
members of this club met they were sure of having
associated men of pi-actical knowldge and experience,
who were so much better able to form a just opinion
upon the subject which they were about to enter upon
than him, he could assure them that if any one else
had made an overture to bring it forward, he should
not have done so (Hear, hear). But believing the
question to be one of vital importance, whether to the
landlord, the tenant, or the labourer, he was unwill-
ing that an opportunity should not be offered for its
discussion (cheers), and therefore be now appeared be-
fore them for the purpose of mainly raising a discussion,
leaving the main and material parts of it — which were
the practical ones — to be discussed by those who pos-
sessed an amount of experience and such habits of
business as would enable them to arrive at a sound
conclusion (Hear, hear).

Mr. Shaw tlien proceeded as follows: — "On
all occasions where the subject of ' tenant-right ' has
been discussed, as it has been by several local farmers'
clubs and societies, the practical details have occupied
the greater part of the discussion. I am fully sensible
of the advantages of well-regulated details as regards
' tenant-right ;' but on this occasion I am anxious to see
the principle affirmed by this club, leaving the mode of

carrying out, or details incidental to this discussion, to
be made the subject of future consideration. Not
having met with a precise definition of ' tenant-right, I
have experienced much difficulty in wording it ; and I
must confess I have not been able to do so to my own
satisfaction. Mr. Sharman Crawford, who has for up-
wards of 10 years agitated this question, in reference to
the tenantry of Ireland, and has twice introduced bills
into the House of Commons on the subject, thus defines
'tenant-right :' — 'It is tlie interest the tenant should
have in the capital he has expended in money and
labour, in building houses, and making permanent im-
provements." It must be borne in mind, however, that
although the principle is very much the same, still the
actual situation of the Irish and English tenant is es-
sentially different, the outlay of the former upon per-
manent improvements, such as buildings, &c., being
much more general than is performed by the English
tenant. I should define * tenant-right ' to be ' the right
of the tenant to require compensation legally for outlay
in the improvement of the soil or buildings when the
period of his occupation has not been of sufficient dura-
tion to enable him to reimburse that outlay.' I need
scarcely remark that the proportion of the outlay which
should be reimbursed, is that which remains after
making due allowance for the benefit he has derived.
In entering into this question, I must premise that I
consider ' tenant-right' as a question purely between
landlord and tenant, and wholly distinct from the rights
between incoming and outgoing tenants, commonly
called ' tenants'-rights ' or ' dues.' The payments
made by the incoming to the outgoing tenant vary ac-
cording to custom, and although embracing certain
other items, are little more than payments for labour,
frequently used as a means of drawing heavily upon the
purse of the incomer, absorbing his capital, crippling
his means, and preventing him from managing his farm
to advantage. Upon this subject Messrs. Kennedy
and Grainger, in their work on ' The Customs of Te-
nantry,' thus express themselves: — ' There is nothing
more deserving of remark than the superior advantages
enjoyed by tenants entering upon farms in Scotland, and
some parts of the north of England, over those in a
similar situation in the south, or in some of the mid-
land districts. In the former he has nothing to pay for
on taking possession, but is enabled to lay out his capi-
tal to the best advantage in stocking his farm, and af-
terwards conducting it upon an improved system ;
whilst in the latter he is, in the first instance, frequently
crippled as to pecuniary resources, by being obliged to
pay a heavy valuation on entering, and does not in con-
sequence, afterwards possess the means of making those
improvements from which he might derive the greatest
advantage. Thus in the former a farm may be stocked,
and conducted more profitably to the occupier, with
little more than half the money that is required in the
latter. In many counties in England a farmer entering
upon 200 acres of land, with a capital of 1500/., has to
pay according to the custom of the place, 1200Z. upon a
valuation for stock, leaving him only 300/. to carry on
the lousiness ; whilst in the north, and in Scotland, a
farmer may enter upon the same quantity of land,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

having no valuation to pay, with only 800/., and after
stocking liis farm to the best advantage, have the same
sum left that the other has, but with much better
opportunities of employing it profitably. It is these
advantages enjoyed by a tenant, combined with his
having an interest in the soil for a certain number of
years, and the superior management of the land, that
render estates in Scotland so much more valuable than
in England, the rents in the former being nearly double
what they are in the latter. It is true, that in Scotland
the tenants pay no taxes or rates ; but after deducting
for this, and considering the measure, the rents would then
behigherby 5s. an acre than they are in England; and under
the Scotch system, a farmer would derive a greater ad-
vantage from paying an additional 5s. per acre, than he
could by entering upon a farm subject to a valuation,
even at a reduction of 5s. per acre ; thus making a differ-
ence per acre of no less than 10s.' Seeing that this custom
prevails, with more or less intensity, in every county in
England, it should unite the tenantry to co-operation in
demanding the general adoption of a ' tenant-right,'
whereby this one of many evils would be removed. I
am well aware that if landlords were required to pay
their out-going tenants for their so-called ' tenants' -
rights,' it would draw heavily upon their resources;
but once bought up they would not recur, and they
would derive a permanent advantage. I am, however,
convinced that it is as essential for their mutual benefit
that a landlord should be possessed of sufficient capital
to meet the recpurements of his estate, as it is for a
tenant to be possessed of sufficient capital for the culti-
vation and good management of his farm. I am con-
firmed in my opinion of the advantages which landlords
would derive from buying up their customary ' tenants' -
rights, or tenants'-dues,' as they are sometimes called
by Mr. Layton Cooke, in his work on the valuation of
estates, in which he thus states Ihe question. * The fol-
lowing statement shows the effect produced by the ex-
traordinary charges alluded to, and, to a certain extent,
accounts for the difference in the value of land of similar
quality in districts where these valuations prevail, com-
pared with those in which they are unknown :—

The rent of a farm of 200 acres unfettered by

valuations, at 30s, per acre, is ^300

If the extraordinary charges average 3^. per acre,
the sum to be paid by the incoming tenant is
GOO/., and the deduction of 10 per cent there-
on is ..../. CO

Which reduces the rent, subject to valuations, to. . i?240

Being a reduction of 40 per cent, on the value of
the estate, and in cases where the valuation of tenants'
dues, upon a similar description of land, exceeds 3/.
per acre, or where the land is of a still lower quality,
it occasions a fearful diminution, involving, possibly,
an amount equal to a moiety of the value of the pro-
perty. Tenants who have paid for these items on
entry are entitled to be reimbursed on quitting : but a
landowner could not appropriate his surplus capital
to a better purpose than to paying the amount of those
inventories, and re-letting his estate free from all such

incumbrances, at proportionally improved rents." The
question of " tenant right," according to the defini-
tion I have attempted to give of it, divides itself into
two heads. First, " as regards outlay in the ' improve-
ment of the soil,' whether permanent or oihorwise ;"
and, secondly, " as regards outlay on the improvement
of buildings." The first of these heads, " improve-
ment of the soil," may be again subdivided into two
parts. First, permanent improvements, or such as
will endure through a long [period; as enclosing
and breaking up waste land, uprooting trees and
hedge-rows, and levelling banks when the enclosures
are small, draining, making roads, &c. Secondly, im-
provement of the soil by extra tilling, subsoiling, and
the application of an additional quantity of manures.
Now, as regards the first class of improvements, it is
manifest that a considerable period of time is requisite
to enable the tenant to recover back so large an outlay.
I am anxious to establish the right of the tenant to
compensation under any tenure, the duration of wliich
has not been originally agreed upon, and hence any
reference to leases will only be made for the purpose
of exemplifying the subject. A lease for this purpose
may be considered as a mode of payment by the land-
lord to the tenant for improvements, by securing to
him the enjoyment of his outlay during a sufficient
period to enable him to reimburse himself. Upon some
estates, the best and most equitably regulated (as, for
instance, those of the Earl of Yarborough, in Lincoln-
shire) no leases are granted, but an agreement is
entered into between the landlord and the tenant,
whereby, in the event of an unwilling removal of the
tenant, compensation for permanent improvement is
made. But to carry out my views to the full extent,
the tenant should obtain compensation for actual im-
provements, under whatever circumstances he might
quit his occupation. Leases and agreements, such as
I have just alluded to, cannot bo otherwise regarded
than as affirming the principle of " tenant right;" for
if it be just that the tenant should have time to reim-
burse his outlay, he has an equal claim in the event of
his being deprived of his occupancy by unforeseen cir-
cumstances, and which of course is more likely to occur
where he has no fixed tenure. Assuming that the view
I have taken of a lease, in its application to this ques-
tion, be correct, it may be desirable to cite a valuable
and living authority upon the question. Professor
Low, in the last edition of his work on agriculture,
thus speaks of the benefit of leases : — " All experience
shows that the means of perfecting the agriculture of
the British islands, as a branch of public industry, de-
pends essentially upon the relationship which we shall
be able to establish between the landowner and the
farmer. Not even the accumulation of capital to the
degree of stocking the farms of the country will avail
for giving to agriculture the means of successful culti-
vation and improvemeut. The owner of this capital
must have the means of employing it with advantage,
by security of possession, by the privileges required for
the proper management of bis business, and by that
fair and lenient exaction upon his industry which will
enable him to enjoy his capital with a profit. If these

56

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

conditions are witlil)elcl, the capital invested in the cnl-
tivatioH of land is snbjccted to drawbacks in Ihe ap-
plication of it to its necessary uses, which lessen the
returns which it is fitted to yield, and the means of
improviiin; the national territory to the degree which
the case admits of, Wliile if, along with the power of
acquiring capital, are afforded the means of applying
it to its purposes with effect, the improvement of the
country and of the state of its agriculture will follow
fis a consequence. Wherever these necessary condi-
tions are supplied agriculture improves, intelligence
extends amongst the great body of the farmers, and
one generation excels the preceding one in the know-
ledge acquired and the means of employing it for pri-
vate advantage and the general good. Wlierever, ac-
cordingly, in any part of the British islands just
relations, or relations approaching to just, have been
established between the landlord and the tenant, the
effects are observable in a jnore advanced condition of
agriculture, and the existence of a more prosperous
tenantry. In the finest parts of England funds have
been progressivelj^ accumulated for stocking the farm
to a degree unknown in any other country in Europe;
but the essential conditions having been too often
■wanting of security of possession, and a beneficial con-
7iection between the landlord and the tenants, agricul-
ture has remained comparatively fixed, while every
other branch of industry has been advancing, and the
great mass of the farmers have continued prejudiced
andill-informed,from father to son, unable ornnwilling
to profit by the natural advantages of their situation.
Whereas, in a few parts of the country, where toge-
ther with security of possession has been accorded
sometliing like a system of just and beneficial tenures,
the farmers have been enabled to establish and pursue a
system of agriculture which has become the model for
other parts of the country far more favourably situated
with respect to natural advantages." No sound reason
ran be adduced to show that the tenant farmer should
bo called upon to place his property in a state of
jeopardy which is not required of the tenant of any
other description of propertj-^ ; nor can the difference
of the position of the occupant of the land and the
occupants of other property be accounted for, unless,
indeed, it be traceable to the origin tenancy
in this country, when the tenant was considered as
little better than the bailiff of the lord of the soil. The
landlord who should expect the manufacturer or the
commercial man to make an outlay in the permanent
improvement of his premises, without such an agree-
ment as would secure him compensation, should he be
ousted before he was enabled to obtain a return, would
be regarded as little less than a madman. The prac-
tice of other classes, therefore, warrants the compen-
sation contended for. In respect to compensation for
this class of improvements, a considerable advance
has been made ; and there can be no doubt but that,
a? the owner of the soil shall become better advised
of the advantages to himself from adopting such a
system, the progress will be more rapid. As regards
the second part of this head — namely, improvement
of the soil by extraordinary cultivation and the ap-

plication of extra manure, it is but common justice
and common honesty that the tenant who expends his
capital should either have the opportunity of reaping
the advantage by taking a sufficient number of crops,
or receive compensation for that which he leaves in
the soil for the benefit of his landlord— I say for the
benefit of his landlord, because if tliefiirm falls into his*
hands it will let for more money. In taking this view,
I do not seek to obtain any peculiar advantage for the
tenant, but merely to obtain for him a return for skill
and capital invested, and for which 1 think it will not
be denied he has a just claim. As regards the second
head— the improvement of buildings— the propriety
of making compensation for this species of outlay by
the tenant cannot be doubted. Upon the suitableness
and convenience of farm buildings, iu a very con-
siderable degree, depends the advantage of the tenant
from his occupation ; and yet in what a lamentably
deficient state, both as regards structure and extent,
will most fiirmsteads be found! A dogged adherence
to old maxims of ]a\y, in every point having regard to
the management of their estates, whether in reference
to the rules of cultivation, or the economy of the
buildings, has especially signalised the lords of the soil.
Privileges have been conceded to occupiers engaged in
trade, by which they are permitted to remove buildings
erected for the express purposes of trade, whilst the
landlords, themselves the legislators, have not sought a
similar privilege for their tenantry ; nay, with more of
law than justice, have frequently insisted upon build-
ings erected at the cost of the tenant being left for
their nse and benefit without the slightest compensa-
tion. Surely in farming, as in trade, if the tenant
chooses to incur the expense of erecting buildings for
his own accommodation, when the landlord is un-
willing to lay out his money, he should at least be
permitted to remove such buildings on his quitting
the farm. As regards compulsory compensation for
buildings erected by the tenant, I am aware that
considerable difficulty must occur, inasmuch as with-
out a perfect understanding between landlord and
tenant, the landlord might be involved in heavy,
inconvenient, and not unfrequently unnecessary
expense; this remark, however, would not apply if the
power of removal were granted to the tenant. It will
be readily admitted that but a small proportion of the
land of this kingdom is let under lease, or nnder
agreement, giving compensation to the tenant in the
event of unexpected removal. Now, T am willing to
give credit to the fullest extent to those noblemen
and gentlemen, owners of estates, who, not giving any
fixed tenure to their tenants, may be implicitly relied
upon as never turning out or taking undue advantage
of a well conducted tenant ; but then it must be borne
in mind that honour, any more than talent, is not
hereditary, and hence the estate of the most noble-
minded, honourable landlord may be destined to
undergo great changes when least expected. I do not
believe that, including leases and agreements giving
compensation, one-third of the tenantry enjoy this
protection in the investment of their cai)ital. According
to Macqueen, the capital of the tenantry in the United

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

57

Kingflom is estimated at 2,971,75G,G70/. If, tlici),
tlie opinion passed above is correct, two-thirds of the
tenantry, employing a capital of 1,98 1,0:5 7, 7 80/.,
engaged in an occupation in which a nnniber of years,
according to the system of cropping adopted,
is absolntely necessary to enable them to ob-
tain a return in the ordinary mode of cul-
tivation, have their property in jeopardy. What
man of common prudence will in such a state
of things embark his capital in improvement of the
soil ? On the other hand, how liberally and spiritedly
would extra cultivation be carried on, and extra manure
applied, if the tenant felt safe in obtaining compensation
provided he were suddenly and unexpectedly de-
prived of his farm ! Tf the position of the landlord
be referred to, it will be found that he will be
no less benefited by the establishment of a *' tenant
right." The confidence inspired in the tenant from the
knowledge that his capital is safe will stimulate him to
improve the soil, and of this improvement the landlord
must sooner or later obtain a proportionate part. As
the old system of farming is passing away, so must old
customs, antiquated modes of tenure, and "clogging"
covenants. "High," or what maybe termed a more
"artificial" mode of farming, must be pursued by the
tenantry, and the landlords must keep pace with the
tenants. They ought, indeed, to take the lead, and I
am convinced that they could not do so more beneficially
to their own interest than by establishing a "tenant
right." The cultivation of the soil cannot henceforth
be carried on to advantage without ample capital — tenants
with ample capital are becoming too much men of busi-
ness to invest their capital unless they see it secured.
Landlords will find it to their advantage to have tenants
possessing capital ; and hence I doubt not the time is
at hand when a knowledge of their own interest will
induce them to concede the establishment of what I
contend for, a "tenant right." There is one other
important point which it seems to me would be attained
by securing compensation to the tenant — the system of
scourging the land on the approach of the expiration of
a term would be avoided, inasmuch as the tenant would
be entitled to compensation for any outlay beyond that
which might be termed ordinary good cultivation of the
land he occupied. I am well aware of the difficulties
which are involved in any attempt to establish a "tenant
right" by legal enactment, an idea prevailing that the
question is one of contract between landlord and tenant.
Mr. Sharman Crawford has twice in the last ten years
brought bills into the House of Commons with a view to
the establishment of a " tenant I'ight" in Ireland, but
was obliged to withdraw his bill on both occasions. On
the last occasion, however. Sir Robert Peel expressed
himself favourably, and promised that the government
would take the subject into their consideration. Since
that time the Irish commission on the state of landlord
and tenant has made a report, and presses the necessity
of the adoption of some measure on the subject. Lord
Portman has twice introduced bills into the House of
Lords for the establishment of a "tenant right" in
England ; but as yet sound principles have not made
sufficient way to ensure its success. I look, however,

to the tenant farmers themselves to woi-k out this mea-
sure of good for themselves and their landlords, and I
trust that the opinion of the London Farmers' Club in
favour of "tenant right" will be put upon record this
evening, and that the example will be followed by all the
local farmers' clubs ; and if such be the case, so highly
do I estimate their collective influence, that I shall have
a confidence in the speedy adoption by the landlords of
a system eminently calculated more than any other to
improve the condition of the tenant, confer a benefit on
the landlord, afford aji increase of employment to the
labourer, and add vastly to the aggregate amount of our
native produce, and consequently to our national wealth.
Having thus raised the question, I will leave the discus-
sion of it in your hands, with this observation, that I
legi'ct the subject has not met with earlier consideration
by this club {cheers). I stated in the outsetof my remarks
that I thought all that was needful on my part was to
raise the discussion, inasmuch as you were better able
to grapple with the details, and suggest the mode of
carrying out your views. 1 now leave it in your hands,
only regretting that some one had not undertaken the
task who would have set the subject before you with
more clearness than I have done {loud cheers.)

The Chairman said, he should have some observa-
tions to address to them by-and-by ; but he should be
glad in the meantime to hear the remarks of any gen-
tleman present, who might be desirous of speaking
upon this important subject.

Mr. Browne said he wished to observe, that what
tenants' rights were was at present altogether unde-
fined, inasmuch as the customs of different parts of
England were so variable, that it was difficult to say
what were tenants' rights. It would be very desirable
if a code of regulations could be adopted, by which
tenants' rights all over the country might be assimilated
{Hear, hear). He hoped, however, that tenants had
become so intelligent, that henceforth they would pro-
tect themselves by the contracts that they might make
with their landlords (Hear). The tenants who had
no leases had no remedy of that sort, but in every
country there were customs which regulated matters
between tenants-at-will and their landlords. In his
county (Wilts) tenants-at-will were less protected by
custom than they were elsewhere. In Kent the te-
nants-at-will were entitled on leaving their farms to
" half dressings," and even to " quarter dressings."
The outgoing tenant always received compensation for
any improvements he had effected. In Wilts there
was no such custom. This was a great hindrance to
improvement. If, at the expiration of his lease, it was
found that the tenant exceeded what was called the
custom of the country, he received no compensation,
and therefore it was most desirable that some code of
regulations should be adopted that might be applica-
ble to the country at large. Whether that could be
effected by Parliament was a matter on which he was
rather sceptical. He thought Parliament would have
great difficulty in attempting any interference between
landlord and tenant. Lord Portman and others who
had attempted it had experienced this difficulty (//e«r,
hear). He hoped, however, as matters became better

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

understood, it might be eventually overcome. He
quite agreed with Mr. Shaw, in thinking that it would
be very desirable tliat some such general code of regu-
lations should be adopted {Hear, hear).

Mr. Charles Stokes next rose. lie was not a
member of the club, but was allowed to speak on the
question being put to a show of hands. He said he
should not have presumed to appear before them to-
night, if he had not taken part in a discussion on the
same subject in his own neighbourhood {Hear, hear).
He would first allude to leases, and hefore he did that
he begged to state that he quite agreed with the prin-
ciple laid down by Mr. Shaw, that all unexhausted
capital which the outgoing tenant leaves for the suc-
ceeding tenant or the landlord ought to be paid for
{Hear, hear) . In all poor soils, in particular, induce-
ments should be held out for the employment of skill
and capital in improving them. Of this, Mr. Coke, of
Norfolk — the late Lord Leicester, he meant — had set
a worthy example (Hear, hear). If the tenant knew
that at the expiration of his lease he should get no
compensation, he would not leave any of his capital in
the land if he could help it (Hear, and a laugh). If
there was no renewal of lease, or an admission of the
principle of tenant's rights, the tenant did not leave
the land in the condition in which it would be left
otherwise {Hear). In Lincolnshire, good and liberal
rights were allowed to the tenantry, and the conse-
quence was that the land was in fine condition {Hear),
He was quite satisfied that the adoption of such a
principle throughout the country would do more for
the introduction of good farming than anything else
{cheers). It would promote the interests of the tenant
and the interests of the landlord also; it would give
the former security for his capital, and it would give
the agent of the latter the opportunity of telling the
tenant that he mu^t farm his land well, or have notice
to quit {Hear, hear). But with regard to permanent
improvements : there was no doubt that when there
was no lease the landlord ought to do all the permanent
improvements {Hear, hear); and the tenant ought to
be secured for his actual outlay. Ho could not say
more than this if ho talked for half an hour {cheers).
He observed, in the last volume of the Agricultural
Journal, an improved form of agreement between
landlord and tenant, which was very well as far as it
was applicahlo. But it was quite impossible to frame
any form which would apply indiscriminately to all
parts of the country {Hear, hear).

Mr. BoDiNGTON said he could not but feel that the
subject before them was one of considerable difficulty
to discuss, and he inferred that this was felt generally,
from the backwardness which he perceived on the part
of gentlemen present, of great experience, in approach-
ing this question, which they did not manifest in
others {Hear, hear). Now it struck him that tenants
had scarcely any rights at all {Hear) ; at least he, as
a tenant, did not know what rights he had (" Hear,"
and a laugh). If he wanted new buildings, he could
not compel his landlord to put tliem up ; and he did
not see in wliat way they were to get tenants' rights
unless they made them matter of covenant when they

took the land {Hear, hear). Otherwise the tenant
had no rights ; he was at the mercy of the landlord.
The question he thought divided itself into two parts :
one was how far their rights were affected by acts of
Parliament, and the other how far they rested between
landlord and tenant. He had not a great deal to say
upon the subject; but there was one point which ho
should not like to pass over without alluding to. The
point to which he referred was the effect of the game
laws upon the tenant farmer {Hear), it had always
struck him as a great injustice, that the tenant far-
mer, who reared all the game, should be called upon
to pay a heavy tax before he could be allowed to
shoot a single head. He thought it unjust in the
Government to call on the tenant-farmer to pay Al.
o bl. for permission to kill the game he rears on
his own farm. If farmers thought proper to apply
for rights to the Legislature at all, they should ask
leave to kill the game they reared on their farms,
and sell it wherever they can find a purchaser.
Poachers could take the game by night off a man's
farm, and if he once got it into a lane he might
take it to the market for sale without any impedi-
ment; but the man who reared the game could not
touch it without paying a heavy fine {Hear, hear).

Mr. Bennett next rose to address the meeting, but
prefaced Ids speech by saying that he was not a mem-
ber of the club, and the question was again raised as
to the propriety of allowing non-members to take part
in the discussions.

The Chairman said that it was one of their rules
that although any member might introduce a friend
not being a member, the latter should not be allowed
to take part in discussions ; but svhen he saw such men
as Mr. Bennett among them, he could not help saying
that he should be happy to hear his observations,
trusting that the benefit which they should mutually
derive would induce that gentleman and others, who
were not at present members, to join the club {cheers
and laughter).

The question was then put to the vote, and it having
been decided that he should be heard,

Mr. Benn btt proceeded. He said he regretted that
he had not entered the room in time to liear Mr.
Shaw's ojiening of this question, as the subject was
one upon which he had thought a great deal for a
considerable length of time, and he had to the utmost
of his ability with his own pen endeavoured to advo-
cate the cause of the farmers in this respect {Hear,
hear). It was, therefore, with much jileasure
that he had heard that the question was to be
taken up to-night by so influential and highly
respectable a body as the Farmers' Club of London.
He thought the best mode of proceeding in the out-
set was to show what difficulties stood in the way of
obtairiing their just rights {Hear, hear), where they
were most vulnerable, and where lay the greatest diffi-
culties of obtaining Parliamentary redress. Tiie man
who had improved the soil by his industry and skill had
often been reduced to the alternative of enduring the
frowns and scowls of his landlord, or to leave his farm
without receiving any compensation whatever for the im-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

69

proveraents made upon it. If a man who has obtained
all the manure within his reach, drained all his heavy
land, and marled all his light land, yet if he or his son
happen to stumble over an old hare, he will have im-
mediate notice to quit, and leave all those improvements
behind him. That was a state of things which, all
would admit, ought not to exist. If a tenant gave at an
election an adverse vote, he would risk thereby the well-
being of his family and all the improvements he had
made on the land. Some important change was there-
fore requisite, but the difficulty of accomplishing it was
the question. He thought the Legislature ought to in-
terfere for the protection of the tenant. At present the
tenant might put down a pump, plant a beautiful and
thriving orchard, or add a number of buildings to his
homestead, at his own expense ; but if he attempted to
remove any of these, he would be regarded in the eye of
the law as affecting the fee-simple of the land and the
rights of the landlord. The law which would punish
him for dilapidation would not give him that protection
to which he was entitled in the enjoyment of those im-
provements. (Cheers.) It was absolutely necessary
that some change in this respect should take place, and
especially at a time when persons who knew nothing of
agriculture took on them to tell the public, through the
medium of the press, that the land was not half farmed,
that the manure was allowed to run down the fields and
nourish reeds and rushes, and a thousand other things.
Any one travelling in a stage coach or [railway carriage,
must have heard such persons saying, " You farmers ask
for protection, instead of adopting an improved system of
farming on your lands." It ought, therefore, to be
known that those improvements were not going on in the
way the country required, because the farmers had not
proper security for the outlay of their capital on agri-
culture. (Cheers.) It was his opinion that there
should be some legislative enactment on a broad princi-
ple, giving the tenant certain rights with regard to un-
exhausted improvements in the soil. Then came the
inconvenience of arbitration at the expiration of every
term of agreement — an inconvenience to which landlords
would not be inclined to subject themselves. And land-
lords who had only a life interest in this property, how-
ever much disposed they might be to assist the tenant,
could not be reasonably expected to encumber themselves
by allowing the tenant to improve to the extent of his
wishes. These were some of the difficulties of the case.
He had no doubt that every tenant should get com-
pensation, but the question was as to how far the land-
lord should control the tenant in the application of his
capital. He (Mr. Bennett) thought the tenant ought to
be allowed four years' notice at least, in order to enable
him to extract from the soil the capital he had expended.
Some noblemen, among whom was the Duke of Bedford,
had secured their tenants in expending their capital in
every kind of agricultural improvement ; others had let
their lands at a corn rent, which was the most just and
honest principle on which land could be held. He
thought there ought to be some decided enactment to
regulate this matter, for without that, any little arrange-
ment that might be made in some districts, would not be
productive of the desired effect. (Cheers.)

Mr. Thomas Pope said, as a young member of that
club, and a young farmer, he had come there that night
in order to endeavour to ascertain what every farmer
ought to know — namely, what were his rights (hear,
hear). He quite agreed with the generality of the ob-
servations which he had heard, but conceived that many
of the disadvantages of which the farmers had to com-
plain had arisen from their own fault in not taking pro-
per care of their own interests when they took their
farms (hear). About two years since he negotiated for
a farm under the Earl St. Germains ; he had to nego-
tiate with a solicitor, and felt that there were disadvan-
tages which he could not get over with regard to several
clauses inserted in the original lease. He took it, how-
ever, and met^the person who represented his lordship,
who was a practical man, and knew what clauses ought
to be inserted and what ought not. The farm was in a
bad state, and he (Mr. Pope) represented that, without
a good deal of capital, nothing could be done with it,
and that he must have it on a twenty-one years' lease
terminable at fourteen. This was agreed to, and allowed
him to go on spiritedly. The farm buildings also were in
a very bad state. Of course it could not be expected
that he (Mr. Pope) should repair them ; his lordship, [in
fact, did it. Now, the consequence of all this was, that
he felt that he had plenty of time to regain what he had
put into the soil (hear). Doubtless there must at all
times be a suitable arrangement between landlord and
tenant. It must be so in every case, with the farmer as
in the mercantile world, where, xmless you could show
mutual advantage, you could get no contract (hear,
hear). In Blackheath the Earl St. Germains granted
leases in almost every part of the estate. The Duke of
Bedford and Earl St. Germains both did it ; and if ex-
amples like these were held up for imitation, they would
be followed by other landlords. If this club and other
similar clubs came to resolutions that the rights of
tenant farmei's must be protected, the landlords must
give those rights, or farm their land for themselves
{hear).

Mr. Samuel Bennett remarked that the life estates
referred to by his brother could not be taken to mean
hereditary estates, for if a man were benefiting an estate
for his son he was benefiting it for himself. It was only
those estates that went out of the family at the expira-
tion of the life that should be regarded as an exception
to the general rule. > Mr. Pope thought it was the
tenant's own fault if he did not make a good bargain,
but it was easier to talk about making good bargains
tlien to make them. There were sure to be twenty or
thirty applicants for every good farm that was to be let.
The land agent would lay down his terms, and say — " If
you do not accept the land on these conditions, another
person will." The question with the tenant was not
whether he would make such a bargain, but whether he
would make that bargain or none at all. A legal enact-
ment was then necessary for the protection of the man
who, in order to provide sustenance for his family, was
obliged to make a bad bargain. Why should landlords
be unwilling to submit to valuations ? There was not a
tradesman who left his house that had not his improve-
ments or dilapidations valued, and compensation allowed

GO

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the proper party. A legislative enactment on broad
principles would do more good than codes of rules,
which were sure to meet witli objections from different
parties (hear).

Mr. Allan Ransome said that having had a some-
what large experience with reference to mailing bargains,
and the effect and character of bargains as at present
existing between landlord and tenant, he was very glad
to see their attention at length turned to the position in
which they stood, not "with" rights, but "without"
rights (hear). It would frequently be the case that an
individual who had a right in the soil would be consi-
dered to have an indefeasible right to do as he liked with
his own : it therefore behoved tliem, in making their
bargains, to see that those causes were removed which
prevented their being judiciously made. There were
laws in existence which had a great deal more to do with
this part of the question than was generally supposed ;
he alluded particularly to that one law by whicli the
landlord has at any time the right to enter upon the
farm and distrain, to the detriment and ruin of the
farmer, and to the great injustice of creditors. By the
powers which this law gives to tlie landlord, it becomes
as advantageous for him to deal with a man having no
capital as with a man of ca^jital ; and so long as it con-
tinued to exist, there remained one great element for the
introduction of over competition for farms, which pre-
vented tlieir making the fair bargain which they ought
to make (hear). He recommended to the members of
the club that in the discussion of this important subject
they should bring together as many facts as possible, as
the best mode of eliciting the truth and accomplishing
the object they had in view {hear).

Mr. CuTHBERT Johnson said it struck him that too
much stress had been laid upon the probability of deri-
ving any advantage to the cause of the tenant farmer by
means of legislative enactment {hear, and a laugh).
For he could not help saying that he did see so much
difficulty in the way of legislative interference, that he
most earnestly implored them to discard from their
minds the idea that any advantage could be obtained
from acts of parliament (hear, hear). He saw most
clearly, the most insuperable difficulties in the way of
any Legislative interference between the lessor and the
lessee {hear). He could not conceive any act of parlia-
ment that would over-ride a private bargain ; he did,
however, see the advantage of this discussion, and of the
knowledge being diffused among the landlords, of the
fact that benefit would accrue to themselves by a more
liberal mode of treating their tenantry {cheers) — a very
much more liberal principle of allowance for unexhausted
improvement to the out-going tenant than that by which
they had hitherto been actuated {renewed cheers), and
on this subject he could not do better than read an ex-
tract from a paper which had been read at a meeting of
the Loughborough Agricultural Association, as given in
the sixth volume of the Transactions of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, page 47. " These suggestions as to se-
curing to the outgoing tenant a claim on the unexhaus-
ted improvements originated in the committee of that
society. Finding the general state of the agriculture of
the midland counties inferior to the highly cultivated

farms of the counties of Norfolk and Lincolnshire, the
committee were led to inquire what was it that produced
the great improvement in the agriculture of those
counties, and they found that, in the former (Norfolk),
leases of twenty-one years were generally the system
under which farms were let, and in the latter county
(Lincolnshire) liberal agreements, or tenants' rights
were given, in each case giving security for the capital
expended in the various improvements on their farms."
As he said before, he believed the great advantage of this
discussion would arise in producing a liberal feeling
amongst the landlords of England by showing them that
it is to their interest to do these things ; and he wished
to lay great emphasis on the word "interest," for if
they did not feel it to be to their interest to encumber
themselves with greatly extended allowances to outgoing
tenants, it was in vain to hope that they would ever adopt
the system {hear, hear). He was glad to hear it stated
on several sides that there was an increasing feeling that
it would be to their " interest" to adopt this principle.
It was stated, for instance, in the same volume as that
to which he had already alluded, by Mr. Williams, of
Brocklesby Park, near Brigg, that some of the more
enlightened landlords of the great agricultural county
of Lincoln were, with great advantage to themselves,
going even so far as to allow compensation to the
outgoing tenant for all the oil-cake which he had con-
sumed on the farm for the last two years {cheers). He
concluded by repeating his opinion of the extreme diffi-
culty of proceeding in this matter by means of legislative
enactment, and resumed his seat amid cheers.

Mr. Cheffins (steward to Lord Maynard) bore tes-
timony to the disposition of the landlords to insert much
more liberal clauses in their leases than formerly, and
also to make allowances to good tenants.

Mr. Shaw (of Northampton) said he was of opinion
that, in spite of all the difficulties whicli presented them-
selves, they ought to endeavour to-night to come to
some sound practical conclusion {hear, Jiear) . Tliey were
often told, as farmers, that they ought to till the land,
that they ought to subsoil, and do tliis and do that— and
employ the labourer. Now, he was one of those who
certainly thought the labourers ought to be employed ;
and he endeavoured to do so as far as was within his
power. But suppose he expended his capital in this
way to any extent — he was sorry to make the remark —
how did he know what his landlord might do ? and then
what became of him if he were called upon to give up his
farm ? {Hear, hear.) It was, however, high time that
the tenant farmers of England should exert themselves,
in order that they might derive some benefit from what
they did {hear, hear). What they wanted must be
plain to everybody ; if they took farms, and improved the
condition of those farms so as to increase the quantity of
produce, nothing could be more fair and just than that
they should reap remuneration {hear, and cheers). The
justice of this must be evident to all. There were some
landlords who had land, but not money to make the
necessary improvements in it ; now if the tenant had the
capital and could do this, he had a right to enjoy the
profit (hear). An acknowledgment of this principle
would benefit the labourer as well as the tenant ; and

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61

the tenant farmer was not so blind but that he would do
what was right when his interests were properly pro-
tected {hear).

Mr. TouNER said he had listened with some interest
to what had fallen from the different gentlemen who
had addressed the meeting. The question appeared to
him to be summed up in this, that there was one of two
things to be done, either to enter into agreements by
leases, wherein certain conditions should be defined and
clearly laid down, or at once to apply to the Legislature
on the subject. Which was the right and proper mode
of proceeding remained perhaps to be proved, but if to
enter into leases for terms of years was the proper mode,
why it would be as fair on the one side as the other.
If, on the other hand, leases were not to be granted,
then the tenant must have legislative protection before
he could be expected to lay out his money on the estate
of his landlord (hear, hear). There was another part of
the subject which had been entered upon by Mr. Shaw,
and th at was the great loss which was sustained by the
community from the practice of exhausting the estate or
farm previously to quiting it ; that was a point of vital
importance. For if a person who was about to leave a
farm took out all he could get from it previously, he
would leave them to consider what would be the effect
upon that farm {hear, hear).

Mr. Samukl Bennett could not see any reason for
applying to the Legislature, vt-hich took matters relating
to the farmer quite enough into their own hands already
{hear, and a laugh). But if the law-makers could rob
them of what were their rights, they ought also to try and
assist them ; if on one side they could take away, it was
only right on the other that they should give them some-
thing {hear, hear). If there ever was a period when the
tenantry of this country had a proper opportunity to go
to Parliament to ask for their rights, it was perhaps
when Parliament had been doing everything it could to
rob the tenant {hear, hear).

Mr. Grove was of opinion that, before they went
to Parliament, they should be in a position to show
all the disadvantages under which they suffered. He
could state one or two things which operated very
prejudicially [in his county, and which showed that
certain clauses, which it was customary to insert,
ought to be removed from all leases. One was this,
that if a farmer became bankrupt, the landlord had
the power at present of coming in, and sweeping off
the whole of the produce and the whole of the benefit
which had been applied to that land for years before.
A case of this kind occurred recently on a farm which
some of them knew had been farmed uncommonly
well. The farmer became bankrupt, and the land-
lord— the liberal landlord — pounced upon the farm, to
the exclusion of every one else; and all the improve-
ments— draining to an immense extent, the fallows, the
crops upon the land, and every thing else, he swept
away as his own {Hear, hear). That was certainly
one clause which ought to be removed from leases
{Hear). The case which he had mentioned, he was
sorry to say, was by no means an isolated one {Hear).

Mr. Emery stood before them, perhaps, more in
the capacity of a landlord than a tenant, although he

was in the double capacity {Hear). But he had asso-
ciated so much with the tenantry of this country, that
he felt embodied with the members of this club, of
which he had been a member from its first formation
{Hear, hear). They had heard a great deal of ar-
gument on both sides of this question, and he had
yet to learn something fresh regarding the defini-
tion of tenant rights. The question seemed to be
so surrounded with difficulty, and various usages,
that he thought it utterly impossible for any
legislative enactment to meet all the different
customs of the country. He had this evening
heard one gentleman advocate the efficiency of a
corn rent, and state that the Duke of Bedford had
adopted the principle. He admired the principle him-
self, thoughtitwasa very good one, and adopted it more
than thirty years ago with one of his tenants, who
would be satisfied with nothing but a corn rent. Well,
lie -went on for he did not know how many years, cer-
tainly more than twenty, when his (Mr. Emery's)
son became of age, and certain farms passed into his
possession. The tenant then in possession actually
said, when the new leases were about to be prepared,
" What is the use of all this ? The difference is so
little that it is quite absurd, and I would rather have
a fixed rent" {Hear, hear). He mentioned this to show
what was tlie result of a corn rent in twenty years
{Hear). The difference was so little that it was more
imaginary than real. He did not mean to say that
the tenant farmer ought not to have protection; but
there were many parts of England where the farms
were principally grazing and dairy farms, and amongst
these he had never been asked for a lease in his life ;
and if he had offered a lease, the reply was " I would
much rather stay as I am." Tiie result of his obsei'-
vations was, that enactments were of no use: the best
thing was a reciprocal feeling between the landlord
and tenant. If this existed, we should never hear those
unfortunate and unpleasant remarks which were some-
times uttered against landlords {Hear, hear). It was
natural, however, that where the landlord was op-
pressive, the tenant should find fault, lie thought,
that the arguments which had been used to-night
would do great good when they went forth to the
world, as they unquestionably would, through the
instrumentality of the persons whom he saw taking
notes for the public press (Hear, hear).

Mr. Wood (Sussex^ quite agreed with Mr. C. John-
son, that there would be great difficulty in getting
anything by legislative enactment. He thouglit, how-
ever, that it was highly proper to lay down a general
principle for tenant's rights, leaving them to adopt it
or not as they should think proper {Hear, hear). He
dissented from tlie principle of Mr. Ransome's remarks
about competition, with regard to letting farms. Tlie
principle of competition was good in every thing
else, and why should it not be good in agriculture ?
{hear, hear).

Mr. A. Ransome explained that his object was only
to diminish undue competition.

Mr. Edward Aitcheson was of opinion that the
only mode of meeting the question before them was, by

62

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

forming a code of regulations for the outgoing tenant,
which he suggested shoukl be entrusted for formation to
some six of the most practical farm surveyors {hear,
hear). Let that code be widely published, and taken as
the basis upon which leases should be entered into, and
he thought great good might be effected. He was quite
of opmion that such a code as he had proposed might be
made, if the means suggested were adopted {hear, hear),
Mr. Shaw then rose to reply. He said he felt amply
rewarded for the very imperfect mode in which he had
laid the question before them in the satisfaction he
now experienced in the fact, that not a single word had
been offered, in all that had been said, in opposition to
the principle which he had laid down in starting {hear, and
cheers). Of every speakerwho hadgotup, fromnrst to last,
not one had uttered a single syllable in contradiction of
that which he hoped and trusted would one day form a
portion of the law of the land {cheers). He had stated
that his object was to adhere strictly to the principle,
and that principle adopted, an effect would be produced
on the public mind, and they would eventually obtain
their object {Hear, hear). He trusted, by the spirit
evinced to-night, that this would be one of the most im-
portant meetings which they had ever spent in this
club-house ; when they embarked in the discussion
of a question involving not only the interests of the
landlord and tenant and labourer individually, but
of the whole country collectively {loud cheers). He
entirely concurred in the observations of Mr. C. John-
son on one point, namely, when he said that his object
would be to convince the landlords that it was to their
interest to treat their tenants liberally (Hear) ; and if
the love of gratification did not outweigh their interest
they would doubtless pursue the latter (Hear, and a
lanrih). On the other hand, he did not agree with Mr.
Johnson when he said the question was so surrounded
v/ith difficulty that no legislative enactment could be
passed which would meet it. That, however, was leather
a matter of detail. The landlords could — they had the
power, if they pleased, to pass a measure which should by
legislative enactment enforce a system of tenants' rights.
As a striking exemplification of what they could do, when
their own interests were involved, he would refer them
to the act passed four years ago, and amended last
session, namely, the act empowering money to be bor-
rowed for the purpose of being expended in the drainage
and improvement of entailed estates, with power to
charge the estate with the same (Hear, hear). Ten
years ago such an idea would have been laughed to scorn,
especially in the House of Lords, where he regarded the
law lords as the obstacles to every improvement of this de-
scription (loud laughter and cheers). Nevertheless, the
day had begun to dawn when it was seen that it would be
to the advantage of the owner of the life estate that the
tenant should have power to make such a
charge for the improvement of the estate ; and
with much difficulty, and a great deal of wheedling,
a nobleman to whom they were all greatly indebted had
at length got the thin edge of the wedge in {Hear, hear).
He had got it in four years ago, and what had happened ?
Why he had got the powers of the act extended in a very
considerable degree (Hear). And why ? Because the

landlords were convinced that it was to their interest ;
and he was quite satisfied that all difficulties as to
legislative enactment would at once cease when the
landlords were convinced that it was to their interest to
adopt a system of " tenant right" (/oMfZ cheers). He
concluded by proposing the following resolution :
" That in the opinion of this meeting a system of
' tenant right' woidd promote the interest of both land
lord and tenant, and most materially conduce to the ad-
vancement of practical agriculture" {Hear, hear).

The Chairman thought there was one thing which
had been rather overlooked, and that was the question
as to what were tenant rights (ifm?-). He thought
they had not kept so closely to the point as to what
tenant rights were, and what the tenant had a right to
demand, as they ought to have done. He did not find
fault with this, because he thought the subject was one
of too large a nature to be disposed oi in one evening's
discussion ; and, for liis own part, ho hoped it would
be resumed on a future occasion (Hear). Having this
evening cleared away some of the rubbish (" Hear,"
and a laugh), they would find their way more clear in
their future discussions. Tenant's rights were easily
found by valuation, when it was necessary as between
landlord and tenant, on the part of the former ; and
he could not see why there should be any difiiculty in
the converse (" Hear," and cheers) ; the only differ-
ence being, that of the value of what would pass from
the landlord to the tenant, and that which would pass
from tenant to tenant. For whatever the tenant had
done in the way of draining, chalking, or liming, which
should be of prospective advantage to the estate, and
which could not be extracted from the land, for thatthe
outgoing tenant ought injustice to be paid. It was a
great hardship that the tenant, for some imagined of-
fence, or perhaps for taking a single head of the game
which he had reared, should suddenly find himself
served with a sLx months' notice to quit, and be dis-
turbed in the occupation of a farm, upon which he
might have expended an amount of capital equal in
some cases to one-third of the fee-simple {Hear.) It
was to give confidence to the tenant in investing his
capital, by the knowledge that he would get compensa-
tion if ousted, that the Legislature ought to interfere.
He (the Chairman) knew what mutual agreements were
with running leases. With a running lease, terminable
at four or seven years, in the event cf the landlord de-
termining to change his tenant, the tenant would al-
ways have four or seven years to extract from the land
that which he had put into it {Hear.) Why should
the landlord have the power to destroy the tenant ? Why
should he have a power which was not conceded to any
other class in the state ? {Hear, hear.) The tenant hadas
good a right to compensation for what he had done to
his farm, as a person who took a house and established a
business had to ask a sum of money for the good- will of
that house (Hear). He agreed in the opinion which
had been expressed, that the bankrupt clause, inserted
in tenants' leases, was a crying evil, and concluded by
saying, that he hoped that the subject would be taken
up by the Legislature (Hear, hear J.

Mr. Shaw objected to the adjournment of the dis-

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63

cussion, thinkiug it much better that it should go forth
to the country at once that they had adopted the princi-
ple involved in the resolution which he proposed ( Hear,
hear) .

Mr. Bennett said he was desirous, if there was no
objection, of engrafting the following resolution upon
Mr. Shaw's, viz., " That in the opinion of this meeting
the character of the tenure and covenants under which
tenant farmers, in too many mstances hold, is disadvan-
tageous both to the landlords, tenants, and labourers of
the country, and have a strong tendency to retard the
improvement of the soil and the increase of production ;
and that facts illustrative of the disadvantages arising
from the present usages be collected and diffused, and
that to this end the secretary be requested to communi-
cate with the local farmers' clubs, requesting them to
communicate the result of any discussion that may have
taken place, and that a committee be appointed to col-
lect from various places the usages iu respect of bargains
between landlords and tenants, and lease, contracts, and
usages ; such information to be reported to a future
meeting of this club."

The Chairman said he also had a short resolution
which he wished to submit to the meeting — " That the
Legislature should give to the tenant an extended time
to extract the capital he has invested in the soil, and

that the landlord should be compelled to pay a valua-
tion for such improvements."

Tlic sense of the meeting was, however, In favour of
the adoption of Mr. Shaw's resolution only ; and, after
a short conversation, the others were withdrawn.

The CuAiHJiAN then put Mr. Shaw's motion to the
vote, which was carried unanimously.

It was subsequently arranged that the discussion
of the details of the question should be taken at the
monthly meeting, on the first Monday in January.

Thanks were then voted to Mr. Shaw for the able
manner in which he brought forward the question for
discussion, and to Mr. Baker for his conduct in the
chair ; and the Meeting broke up.

On Thursday, Dec. 11, the Members of the Farmers'
Club had their annual dinner, at Radley's Hotel, New
Bridge Street, Blackfriars. There were about 90 gentlemen
present. The chair was taken by Mr. Robert Smith,
of Burley, Lincolnshire, who was supported on his
right by Mr. Henry Overman, of Norfolk, and on his
left by Mr. Samuel Bennet, of Berks. The vice-chair
was occupied by Mr. Hobbs. Amongst the company
we observed — the Rev. Charles Blair Warrene ; Mr.
John Hutley, Waltham ; Mr. B. Gibbs ; Mr. Shaw ;
Mr. A. Ransome ; Mr. Webb, &c., &c.

SMITHFIELD CLUB DINNER AT THE FREEMASONS' TAVERN.

The usual anniversary dinner of the members of the
Smithfield Cattle Club took place in the large hall of the
Freemasons' Tavern, on Friday, Dec. 12, at five o'clock.
His Grace the Duke of Richmond, the President of the
Society, was in the chair. There was a very full attend-
ance of members — the number who sat down to dinner
being from 160 to 170. Amongst the company we
noticed Mr. Pusey, M.P. ; Col. Wood, M.P. ; Col.
Sibthorp, M.P. ; Sir Charles Clarke; C. T. Towers,
Esq. ; B. Gibbs, Esq. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; W. Shaw,
Esq. ; W. F. Hobbs, Esq. ; T. Umbers, Esq. ; ~
Tattersall, Esq. ; Jonas Webb, Esq., &c., &c.

After the removal of the cloth.

The noble Chairman said : I rise to propose the first
toast: it is "the health of the illustrious Lady who
reigns over us." Long and jirosperous may her reign
be over a happy, contented, and religious people ; and I
hope and trust that Providence will bestow on her every
felicity that can make her reign long and happy
(cheers).

Drunk with three times three.

The Chairman. — The next toast I have to propose
is, "the health of the Queen Dowager, Prince Albert,
the Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family."
The Queen Dowager is known to you all for her exten-
sive charities ; and Prince Albert, as you arc aware, is a
member of this Club. He is a better farmer this year
than he wag last year, for he has tliis year obtained a

prize. With respect to the Prince of Wales, we all look
to him with interest ; and as we hope that he vrill in
due time become the sovereign of these realms, we are
anxious to see him educated iu those sound religious
principles which are calculated to make his reign pros-
perous. Of the other members of the Royal Family it is
enough to say, that they are the children of George IIL,
the farmers' friend. I beg leave to propose the " Queen
Dowager, Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the
rest of the Royal Family" (cheers).

Drunk with the usual honours.

The Chairman. — Gentlemen, I rise now, I can
assure you, labouring under no ordinary feelings, and in
no ordinary character. This Club has sustained a severe
loss by the melancholy and unexpected event wliich has
deprived us of the tried and valued services of our late
able president. You know that much of the prosperity
and beneficial eflfects of the Club, over which he presided
for a period of twenty years, was owing to his extensive
influence and personal exertions, which he used for the
society. Before his election the Club was for some years
without any president, and it was fast falling into decay.
But by his management, and his winning and affable
manner, he was enabled to restore it to prosperity, and
to place it on a basis which its increasing influence shows
to be good and sound. I beheve that the success of
the Club is to be attributed to the integrity of his
purpose, the urbanity of his manners, the kindness

64

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of his heart, the friendly feeling he always evinced,
his practical knowledge, and his desire to mix at all
times with the tenantry. I am one of those who
believe that his deep devotion and zealous perseverance
in the cause of agriculture will hand his name down
to posterity as a benefactor of the human race. But I
shall not tresi^ass any longer on your time on this
painful subject. I have been impelled by my own
person al feelings to say this much ; and I now call
upon you to drink to the memory of a just and upright
man, who carried with him to the grave the good
opinion of all, and the blessings of the poor whose
wants he relieved without ostentation. I give you
" The memory of John Charles Earl Spencer, a true
English country gentleman."
Drunk in solemn silence.

The Chairman. — Gentlemen: the next toast
which we are accustomed to drinlv on occasions like
the present, is, " Prosperity to the Smithficld Club."
It cannot be doubted, from the attendance that annu-
ally assemble at its meetings, that the Club has tended
greatly to the improvement of stock. I understand
from the Judges that there are many good beasts ex-
hibited this year, but the show on the whole has not
been equal to last year's show ; nor are there so many
Leasts exhibited as on former occasions. I myself ob-
served, although I do not pretend to know much about
cattle, but I will venture an opinion on sheep — I have
observed that in short wools the Show was no way
inferior to former ones. During the fifteen years that
I have regularly attended the exhibition of the Smith-
field Club, I must say that I never saw a better show
of short wools than on the present occasion. Perhaps
some may tliink that I say this because I carried a
second prize; but I assure you it is not so. Other
counties besides Sussex have been successful this
year. My Cambridge friend, Mr. Webb, and a Berk-
shire man also, have been successful competitors.
Those counties, if they exert themselves, M'ill get on
still better ; and their success must in part at least be
ascfibed to their frequent visits to the show-yard. But
1 will not occupy your time longer. I am happy to
say that the Club is getting on very well. It is a
most useful institution, and one of great merit ; one
in which party jtolitics are set aside, and where we
meet as friendly farmers. When we go back to our
counties, each pursues his own line of politics ; but
here we are united (cheers). I, therefore, now ask you
to drink to " The Prosperity of the Smithficld Club,
may we have a large meeting next year, and may the
Institution continue to increase in usefulness" (i7n-
meme cheering).

Drunk with all the honours.

The CiiAiKM AN.— Gentlemen: at this stage of our
proceedings, it is usual to read over the award of the
Judges, tliat we may know who have obtained prizes.
Althouo-h the reading of the list may be dry to the
unsuccessful competitors, I am pretty sure that it will
not annoy the successful ones {laughter^.

The noble Duke then read over the following list,
and called the fortunate competitors to receive the

prizes, which he accompanied with appropriate re-
marks, which were received with applause.

Judges. — For Beasts and Long-woolled Sheep: Mr. T.
Park inson, Mr. G. L. Franldiu, Mr. T. Harris. For Short-
wooUed Slieep and Pigs : Mr. Tanner, Mr. R. Boy, Mr. W.
Stace.

OXEN OR STEERS.

Class I. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under five years old,
witliout restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kiuds of
food must be certified.

His Royal Highness Prince Albert, of Windsor Castle, a
tliree years and ten months old short-horned ox, bred by the late
Lord Hnntingfield, and fed on cake, turnips, tares, hay, meal,
and potatoes. Tra\elled to the sliow by van 22 mUes. Second
prize, £10.

J\lr. John Davics, of Warden, near Biggleswade, Bedford-
shire, a three years and one and three-quarter montli old im-
proved short -horned steer, bred by liimself, and fed on grass,
hay, oil-cake, Swedisli turnips, and cabbages. Travelled to the
show by van 45 miles. Counuended.

Tlie jNIost Hon. the Marquess of Exeter, of Biurghley, near
Stamford, Northampton, a two years and eleven months old
Durham ox, bred by his lordship, and fed on grass, liay, Swedisli
turnips, oil-cake, beau meal, and linseed oil. Travelled to the
show by van 89 miles. Highly commended.

I\Ir. Robert Martin Layton, of Tliorney Abbey, near Peter-
borough, Cambridge, a four years and eight months old Here-
ford ox, bred by Mr. Paul Prosser, of Garway Court, near Jlon-
mouth, Hereford, and fed onhay, green clover, Swedish turnips,
carrots, and linseed-cake. Travelled to the show on foot tw
miles, by van' sixty miles, and by railway ninety-eiglit miles
First prize, £20, siher medal, and gold medal.

IMr. John Steeds, of Fromc Sclwood, near Frome, Somerset,
a four years and ten mouths old Hereford ox, lired by Mr.
Thomas Roberts, of Ivingtonbui7, near Leomhister, Hereford,
anil fed on grass, hay, bean and barley-meal, and roots. Tra-
velled to the show by van twelve miles, and by railway lOS
miles. Commended.

i\Ir. William AVoodward, of Bredons Norton, near Tewkes-
bury, Worcester, a three years and nme months old improved
short-horned steer, bred by himself, and fed on grass, hay,
Swedish turnips, bean, pea, barley, and mixed meal, and linseed
cake. Travelled to tlie show by van twenty-six miles, and liy
railway ninety-five miles. Second prize, £15.

Class II. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under six years old,
weight nuiety stone and upwards, tliat shall not have had
calie, com, meal, seeds, grains, or distUlers' wash, during nine
montlis previous to the 1st of May, 1845.

Mr. Henry Adams, of Calcut, near Cricklade, AVilts, a four
years and eight months old Hereford ox, bred by Mr. Cliarles
]Mason, of Tarrington, near Ledbinj', and fed on hay, grass,
tmuips, and 1,800 lbs. of cake. Travelled to the show by van
eighty-four miles. Second prize, £20.

His Grace the Duke of Bedford, of Woburn Abbey, Bedlbrd,
a four years and eight months old Hereford ox, bred by his
Grace, and fed on barley-meal, turnips, hay, chaff, and 2,0001bs.
of linseed. Travelled to the show by van forty-one miles. Third
prize, £10.

Mr. Thomas White Foiu-acre, of Dmston, near Taunton,
Somerset, a three years and eleven mouths old Devon steer,
bred by liimseh, and fed on hay, clover, vetches, roots, and about
twelve bushels or 720 lbs. of beau and bai-ley-meal. Travelled
to the show on foot sbi miles, and by railway 103 miles. First
prize, £30, and silver medal.

TME FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Go

I Class III. — Oxen or Sieers, of any bicctl, under five years old,
I under 100 stone and above 70 stone weight, that shall not have

t| had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains, or distillers' wash, during

nine months previous to the 1st of ^fay, 1845.

JMr. Henry Adams of Calcut, near Cricklade, Wilts, a four
years aiul eight months old Hereford ox, bred by Mr. Charles
Mason, of Tarrington, near Ledbury, Hereford, and fed on grass,
hay, turnips, and l,8001bs. of cake. Travelled to the show by
van 84 miles. Commended.

JMr. Thomas Umbers, of Wappenbury, near Koyal Leaming-
ton Spa, Warwick, a three years and nine months old North
Devon steer, bred by himself, and fed on grass, hay, tiurnips,
7601bs. of cake, and 20 bushels of barley and pea meal. Tra-
velled to show by van 5 miles and by railway 103 miles. First
prize, ,£15, and silver medal.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Warwick, of Warwick Castle,
AA'arwickshire, a three years and seven months old Hereford
steer, bred by the Right Hon. the Earl of Oxford and Mortimer,
of Eywood, near Kington, Hereford, and fed on grass, hay, tur-
nips, 7981bs. of cake, ISOlbs. of beau meal, and ISOlbs. of bar-
ley meal. Travelled to the show on foot 5 miles, aiul by rail-
way 100 miles. Second prize, £10.

Class IV. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, not exceeding four

years and three mouths old, under 85 stone weight, that shall

not havehad cake, corn, meal, seeds,grains,or distillers' wash,

during nine months previous to the 1st of May, 1845.

Jlr. Thomas AA'hite Fouracre, of Durston, near Taunton,

Somerset, a three years and ele\en months old Devon steer,

bred by himself, and fed on hay, clover, vetches, roots, and 720

lbs. of bean and barley meal mixed. Travelled to the show on

foot 6 miles, and by railway 163 miles. First prize, £10, and

silver medal.

Mr. Wallett Goodale, of Boroberry House, near Peterborough,
Northampton, a two years and eleven and three-quarter months
old Hereford steer, bred by ilr. John Bishop, of Aldon, near
JiUdlow, Salop, and fed on hay, grass, Swede turnips, and 300
lbs. of cake. Travelled to the show on foot 4 miles, and by rail-
way 110 miles. Second prize, £5.

Class V. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under four years and
six months old, and under 80 stone weight, without restric-
tions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be
specified.

His Royal Highness Prince Albert, of Windsor Castle, a four
years old West Highland ox, fed on cake, turnips, tares, hay,
meal, and potatoes. Tra\'elled to the show by van 22 miles.
Conimeuded.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester, of Holkham, Norfolk,
a four years and four months old North Devon steer, bred by
hi,s lordship, and fed on Swedish turnips, mangold-wurtzel, hay,
oil-cake, and bean-meal. Travelled to the show by van 40 miles,
and by railway 70 miles. Commended.

i\Ir. Thomas Umbers, of Wappenburj^, near Royal Leaming-
ton Spa, Warwickshire, a three years and six months old North
Devon steer, bred by himself, and fed on grass, hay, turnips,
barley and pea meal, and oil-cake. Travelled to the show on
foot five miles, and by railway 103 miles. The prize £10, and
siUer medal.

COWS AND HEIFERS.
Class VI.— Fattened Cows or Heifers, under five years old.
Freemartins and spayed heifers are not qualified.
IMr. William Bennett, of Lewsey Farm, near Dunstable, Bed-
fordshire, a four years and seven months old improved short-
horned heifer, bred by himself, and fed on grass, hay, turnips,
cabbage, and oil-cake. Travelled to the show by van 36 miles ;
has had one calf. Second prize, £10.

Mr. William Fiiih, of Kirkstall, near LcrdrA, Yorkshire, a
four years and eight months old short-h(n'ucd lieifer, bred by
Mr. Jonas Whitakcr, of Bnrley, near Otley, Yorkshire, and
fed on hay, cake, turnips, and bean meal. Travelled to the
show by van 3 miles, and by railway 234 miles. Commended.

Mr. Drinkwater Scott Hayward, of Frocester Court, near
Stroudwater, Gloucester, a four years and eleven months old
short-horned cow, bred by himself, and fed on oil-cake, barley,
bean and lentil-meal, hay, mangold-wurtzel, Swede turnips, and
cabbage. Travelled to the show by van 5 miles, and by railway
101 miles; has had one calf. Third prize, £5.

]Mr. W. Trinder, of Wantage, Berkshire, a three years and
ten months old Durham lieifer, by the Right lion. Lord Sher-
borne, of Sherborne, near Northleach, Gloucester, and fed on
hay, cabbage, Swedes, mangold-wurtzel, oat, pea, and barley
meal, and oil-cake. Travelled to the show on foot two miles,
by van 52 miles, and by railway 63 miles. First prize, £20, silver
medal and gold medal.

Class VII. — Fattened Cows, of five years old and upwards.

Free-martins and spayed heifers are not qualified.

INIr. IMorris Edward Lythall, of Hartshill, near Athcrstone,
Warwick, a five years and seven months old Durham cow, bred
by Mr. John Bowers, of Braunston, near Daventry, Northamp-
ton, and fed on grass, linseed-cake, and barley meal. Travelled
to the show by van 11 miles, and by railway 94 miles; has had
one calf. Second prize, £5.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Radnor, of ColesliiU House,
near Farringdon, Berkshire, a fl\e years and one month old
Hereford cow, bred by ]Mr. Thomas Y'eld, of the Broome, near
Ijeomuister, Hereford, and fed on hay, com, cake, Swedes,
and cabbages. Travelled to the show by van six miles, and by
railway 71 miles ; has had one calf. First prize, £20, and silver
medal.

Class VIII. — Fattened Cows of five years old and upwards,

that shall have had at least two live Calves at separate births.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester, of Holkham, Norfolk,
an ele^ en years and two months old North Devon cow, bred by
the late i\Ir. G. Talbot, of Temple Guiting, near Winchcomb,
Gloucester, and fed on Swedish turnips, mangold-wurtzel, hay,
oil-cake, and bean-meal. Travelled to the show by van 40 miles,
and by railway 70 miles ; has had four calves. First prize,
£15, and silver medal.

The Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higliham Grange, near
Hinckley, Leicester, a ten years and six mouths old pure Lei-
cester or long-horned cow, bred by Mr. Edward Thornton
Twycross, of Canley, near Coventry, Warwick, and fed on hay,
rape-cake, grass, and boiled barley. Travelled to the show on
foot 14 miles, by van 11 miles, and by railway 101 mile.s ; has
had five calves. Commended.

Mr. John Smith, of Weltoii-Garth, near South Cave, I'ork-
shire, a seven years and two months old short-horned sow, bred
by Mr. Samuel Beecroft, of Aniaby-road, near Hull, Y'orkshire,
and fed on linseed-cake, hay, turnips, grass, and greeu tares.
Travelled to the show on foot Ih mile, and by railway 232
miles — has had three calves. Commended,

Mr. James W. Walters, of Barnwood, near Gloucester, a
nine years old Hereford cow, bred by ilr. John AVaUver, of
Lulsley Court, near Worcester, mul fed on hay, oil-cake, carrots,
mangold-wurtzel, and barley meal. Travelled to the show on
foot three miles, and by railway 114 miles ; has had four calves.
Second prize, £5.

EXTRA STOCK.— CATTLE.
JNIr. Nathaniel Bland, of Randall's Park, near Lcatherliead,
Surrey, a three years and ten months old Durham short-horned
steer, bred by the late Mr, W. Calvert, of Ilunsdon, near

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ware, Herts, and fed on grass, oil-cake, hay, carrots, Swedes,
beaii-meal, and bruised liiiseed. Travelled to the show by van
20 miles. Silver medal.

NOT COMPETING.

The executors of the late Right Hon. Earl Spencer, of Al-
thorp Park, Northampton, a four years and ten months old
short-horned ox, bred Ijy tlie late Earl Spencer, and fed on
gras, ha)', turnips, mangold-wurtzel, and oil cake. Travelled to
the show by van 10 miles, and by railway 66 miles. Highly
commended.

The executors of the late Riglit Hon. Earl Spencer, of Wise-
ton, near Bawtry, Nottingham, a four years and two months
old short-horned ox, bred by the late Earl Spencer, and fed on oil-
cake, barley and bean-meal, turnips, cabbages, and hay. Tra-
velled to the show by van 21 miles, and by railway 172 miles.
Highly commended.

The executors of the late Right Hon. Earl Spencer, of Wise-
ton, near Bawtry, Nottingham, a nine years and four months
old short-horned cow, bred by the late Earl Spencer, and fed
on oil-cake, barley, and bean meal, turnips, cabbages, and hay.
Travelled to the show by van 21 miles, and by railway 172
miles. Highly commended.

SHEEP.

Class IX. — Long-woolled fat wether Sheep, one year old, thai
* have never bad cake, corn, meal, seeds, or pulse.

Mr. John Painter, of Burley, near Oakham, Rutland, a pen
of three twenty-months old new Leicester wethers, bred by
himself. First prize, £20, and silver medal.

Mr. Thomas Twitchell, of Willington, near St. Neot's, Beds,
a pen of three twenty-months old piu-e Leicester wethers, bred
by himself, irom rams hired of Mr. Samuel Bemiett, of Bicker-
ings Park, near Woburu, Beds. Second prize, £5,

Class X. — Long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, one year old,
under 8 stone weight, that have never had cake, corn, meal,
seeds, or pulse.

Sir. Thomas Umbers, of Wappenbuiy, near Royal Leaming-
ton Spa, Warwicksliire, a pen of three twenty-months old new
Leicester wethers, bred by himself. Prize £10, and silver
medal.

Class XI. — Long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, one year old,
without restrictions as to feeding.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Aylesford, of Packiugton, near
Coventry, Warwick, a pen of three twenty months old Leices-
ter wethers, bred by his lordship, from rams hired of Mr.
Pratt, of New Fields, Southam. Commended.

Mr. Richard Redgrave, of Bimker's Hill, near Bonghton,
Northampton, a pen of three twenty-one months old [Leicester
wethers, bred by himself, from rams hired of Mr. Manning, of
OrUngbury, near WelUngborough, Northampton. Second
prize, £5.

Mr. Thomas Twitchell, of Willington, near St. Neot's, Beds.,
a pen of three twenty months old pure Leicester wethers, bred
by himself, from rams hired of Mr. Samuel Bennett, of Bicker-
ings Park, near Woburn, Beds. First prize, £20, and silver
medal.

Class XII. — Long and Short-woolled cross-bred fat wether
Sheep, one year old, without restrictions as to feeding.

j\lr. James Hitchman, of Little Milton, near Wheatley, Ox-
ford, a pen of tlu:ee twenty-one mouths old Hampsliire and Ox-
fordshire cross wethers, bred by himself. First prize, £10,
and silver medal.

Mr. Charles Tomson, of Sundon, near Luton, Beds., a pen

of three tw enty-one months old Down and Gloucester cro ss
wethers, bred by himself Second prize, £5.

EXTRA STOCK.— LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP.

Mr. Charles Large, of Broadwell, Oxfordshire, a fifty-six
months old new Oxfordshire ewe, bred by himself Highly
commended.

Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierrepomt, Nottingham, a
fifty-seven months old Leicester ewe, bred by himself. Silver
medal.

Mr. Wm. Smith, of Gaydon, near Kineton, Warwick, a 116
montlis old improved Cotswold Ewe, bred by himself, from a
ram liired of Mr. Garner, of Aldsworth, Gloucestershire.
Highly commended.

Class XIII. — Short-woolled fat Wether Sheep, one year old,
without restrictions as to feeding.

Mr. David Barclay, M.P., of Great Bookham, near Leather-
head, Siurrey, a pen of tlu-ee twenty-one months old South-
down wethers, bred by himself Second prize, £5.

His Grace the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chi-
chester, Sussex, a pen of three twenty-months old Southdown
wethers, bred by his Grace, Commended.

Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a pen of
three twenty-months old Southdown wethers, bred by himself,
from rams hired of Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham. First
prize, £20, silver medal and gold medal.

Mr. John Williams, of Buckland, near Farringdou, Berks,
a pen of three twenty-one months old Southdown wethers,
bred by himself Commended.

Class XIV. — Short-woolled fat Wether Sheep, one year old,
under 8st. weight, without restrictions as to feeding.

Mr. John Harris, of Hinton, near Abingdon, Berks, a pen
of three eighteen months old Southdo\vii wethers, bred by
himself. The prize £10 and silver medal.

His Grace the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chi-
chester, Sussex, a pen of three twenty-mouths old Southdown
wethers, bred by his grace. Highly commended.

Class XV. — Short-woolled fat Wether Sheep, two years old,
without restrictions as to feeding.

His Grace the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chi-
chester, Sussex, a pen of three thirty-two montlis old South-
down wethers, bred by his grace. Second prize, £5.

Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a pen of
three thirty-two months old Southdown wethers, bred by Mr.
H. J. Adean, of Babraham, from rams hired of Mr. Jonas
Webb, of Babraham. First prize, £20, and silver medal.

EXTRA STOCK.— SHORT-WOOLLED SHEEP.

Mr. John Harris, of Hinton, near Abingdon, Berks, a
thirty-two months old Southdowni wether, bred by himself.
Highly commended.

Mr. W. B. Harris, of Hinton, near Abingdon, Berks, an
eighteen months old Southdown wether, bred by liimself. Silver
medal.

PIGS.

Class XVI. — Pigs of any breed, above thirteen and not ex-
ceeding twenty-six weeks old.

Mr. Charles Eley, of Heathfield Farm, near Hoimslow, Mid-
dlesex, a pen of three eigliteen weeks and two days old Berk-
shire and Yorkshire pigs, bred by Mr. C. Eley, sen., and fed on
buck wheat, barley, and pea meal, mid milk. First prize, £10,
and silver medal.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill House, near
Faningdon, Berkshire, a pen of three eighteen weeks and six

flays old Colcshill pigs, bred by his lordship, and fed on whoy,
skiiumed luilk, l)arley meal, and potatoes. Second prize, £5.

Class XVII. — Pigs of any breed, above twenty-six and under
fifty-two weeks old.

Mr. W. F. Hobbs, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex, a
pen of tlirce twenty-nine weeks and two days old improved
Essex pigs, bred by liimself, and fed on oats, peas, meal,
potatoes, mangold-wurzel, and nidk. Second prize, £5.

Mr. H. M. L. Whiting, of Heston, near Ilounslow, ^Nliddle-
sex, a pen of three thirty-two weeks and four days old improved
Buckinghamshire Pigs, bred by himself, and fed on barley and
pea meal, skimmed milk and linseed. First prize, £10, and
silver medal.

EXTRA STOCK.— PIGS.

Mr. H. M. "Wliiting, of Heston, near Ilounslow, Middlesex,
a thirty-two weeks and four days old improved Buckingham-
shire pig, bred by himself, and fed on barley and pea meal,
skimmed millc, and linseed. Silver medal.

The Ch.mrman then rose, and proposed the " Health
of the Successful Competitors," and said that those who
have been fortunate enough to obtain prizes should at-
tend personally to receive them.

Drunk with three times three.

Mr. Umbers being called upon, rose and said — My
Lord Duke and Gentlemen, I beg leave to return thanks
for myself and the other successful competitors. As
long as I am connected with the Club, I shall always
try for the gold medal, which is the object of my highest
ambition ; and every one else should do so also. Tlic
Duke himself has done so, and two years ago he received
a second prize, and he has also received a first prize, I
follow the same course, and I hope that ne.xt year I shall
be able to obtain greater merit than this year {cheers).

Mr. Head. — My Lord Duke, I am certainly very
glad that I have been successful this day, and I hope to
be still more so next year, and show superior animals in
the yard. These prizes are encouraging, and tenants
cannot do too much to obtain them. My friend Webb
has been at the top of the ladder, and I hope to be so
too. My Lord Duke and Gentlemen, I drink all your
very good healths (cheers).

Mr. Bennett. — My liOrd Duke and Gentlemen, in
conjunction with the other successful competitors, I beg
leave to return you my thanks for drinking our healths.
My object is to get to the top of the tree, and to keep
there as long as I can {cheers).

The Chairman. — I now propose the " Health of
the Successful Competitors in Long-woolled Sheep"
{cheers).

Drunk with applause.

Mr. PAYNTER,of Burleigh, being called on, said,— My
Lord Duke and Gentlemen, after three or four years
trial, I am not a little proud to be one of the successful
competitors this day, and shall try to gain another prize
next year — others should try too. I return you my best
thanks for drinking our healths {cheers).

Mr. PusEY. — My lord Duke and Gentlemen, it
has fallen to my lot to propose " The Health of your
noble President" {cheers). I sincerely congratulate the
Society on their new President ; but although new
as our President, his Grace is not a new acqualnt-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

07

ancc {cheers). It is not for me — 'a young member
— to Introduce him to you; for he Is well known to
you already. I anticipate the greatest advantages to
the Society from having the noble Duke at its
head. It is necessary to have one of high rank at
the head of such an Institution ; and the Duke's
character endears him to all. In my opinion, the
Duke of Richmond sets a bright example to his
compeers. It was an old saying of the monks,
" That they should work and pray ;" and I wish
the aristocracy would do so likewise, and follow the
example of the Duke. I have only one other ob-
servation to make. It is almost betraying private
confidence to make it, because it has been communi-
cated to me at the table. The noble Duke has told
me, that when he was in the Highlands, be passed his
time riding from seven o'clock in the morning to seven
o'clock in the evening visiting his tenantry ; not for
the purpose of discovering faults, but laying out money
on their farms and bettering their condition (cheers).
That, gentlemen, is a noble example, and should be
followed by every proprietor. Gentlemen, I propose
to you " The Health of the Duke of Richmond,"
who I am proud to call our President {immense
cheering).

Drunk with three times three.

The Chairman (who was received with great
cheering) said : Gentlemen, I can assure you that
there is nothing in life which affords me greater plea-
sure than to be of service to the farmers of the country,
and I shall always deserve that confidence which
heretofore, I am proud to say, they have reposed in
me. As a member of the Smithfield Club, I have
attended the annual exhibition ever since my election
fifteen years ago, with the exception of one year,
when I was prevented by domestic affiictiou. I
joined the Club, because I thought it an important
and beneficial institution for the country ; and I think
that importance must be manifest to every one ; and
I believe that to this room the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety owes its formation {cheers). Gentlemen, I have
been often an unsuccessful competitor; sometimes I
have obtained a first prize ; sometimes been com-
mended, and sometimes went unnoticed. I strongly
recommend every member to persevere. I appeal to
every one present whether they are not satisfied with
the decision of the Judges. I confess that I have this
year been fairly beaten. Mr. Webb and my Berk-
shire friend must do better next year; and if they do
not, I shall certainly get the gold medal {cheers). I
must say that I am extremely proud of the honour of
being President of the Smithfield Club, and I feel
grateful to the tenant farmers of the country for their
confidence, which I have no means of adequately
repaying. I am in the habit of meeting the tenant
farmers, not only because I think it my duty to do so
as a landlord, but also on account of the pleasure I
derive from conversing with them ; and I am much
gratified by the honour you have conferred on me in
electing me President of this Club {cheers). I may
not be of much use to you, but I shall at any rate
show an example to young men that as landlords it is

E 2

68

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

their Interest and their fluty to mix witli tlicir te-
iiaut.ry (cheers), that they should co-operute with their
tenants, and consider them as part of their family
(cheers) ; that they should attend every market and
every agri idtural meeting; and I am sure the te-
nantry will repay such conduct (clieers). It is of the
greatest importance that the landowner and the occu-
pier should be on good terms. You are all anxious for
agricultural imjjroveraent ; but the tenant cannot
do so unless he is backed by his landlord (cheers), I
thank you sincerely for the manner in which you have
received me ; and I hope 1 sliall always have at heart
the interests and welfare of the tenant and labourer ;
and although I am only this year a second class man,
I expect to beat my friends from Cambridge and
Berkshire next year (cheers).

Mr. S. Webb briefly returned thanks. He ob-
served that, pursuing the advice given by their noble
President, Avhen he first became an exhibitor at the
Smithfield Club, he expected on some occasions to be
successful; and believing that he possessed a breed of
sheep, quallned with constitution, form, and symme-
try, equal, if not superior, to any he had ever seen, he
should not have been satisfied with his own exertions
until he had obtained the highest point of honour and
encouragement offered by the Club. Finding himself
now in that proud position, he need not say it gave,
him great pleasure and satisfaction, and again begged
to thank them for the compliment paid him.

Mr. Harris. — My Lord Duke and Gentlemen, it is
an old Berkshire saymg to persevere, and although I
wont promise to obtain the prize next year, I shall try
to do so. Gentlemen, I drink all your good healths.

The Chairman. — Gentlemen, I propose the
" Healths of the Successful Competitors in Pigs."

Mr. HoBus. — My Lord Duke and Gentlemen, I return
youmy thanks, being a successful competitor forpigs. As
I am a Steward of ihe Club for three years, I shall not be
able, until the expiration of my term of oflSce, to be
again a successful competitor, in consequence of the
rules of the Club. But until that time I shall do all I
can to improve male and female swine of the
Essex breeds ; and I hope when I retire I shall show
some advancement, at least I will try hard (cheers).

The Chairman. — With respect to what has fallen
from Mr. Hobbs about the exclusion of the Steward
from competing for pigs, the reason which induced us
to adopt it is, that as pigs are more generally the food of
the poor rather than that of the rich, we thought it right
to make the exclusion, that the poor might have abetter
chance of competing themselves (cheers).

The Chairman. — Gentlemen, with respect to the
late Lord President's three beasts that were exhibited in
the Yard, I beg to observe that the present Lord Spen-
cer did not wish his cattle to enter into the competition,
but he permitted them to be shown in the Y'ard ; and
although this was contrary to the rules, I am highly
gratified that the exception has been made in favour of
the beasts of Earl Spencer (cheeis).

The Chairman. — I have to call on Mr. Slater, the
largest purchaser of beasts at the Smithfield Show, to
come forward and receive the gold medal.

Mr. Slater having done so.

The Chairman said — Gentlemen, I now rise to pro-
pose " the healths of the butchers of the metropolis ;"
and with that toast I shall couple the name of Mr. Slater,
as being the largest purchaser. I need not detain you to
show the great importance to the agriculturist having
liberal men to deal with (laughter). It is important
that the butchers should come to us and give us good
prices, and the butchers of the metropolis and Mr. Slater
are doing so (cheers). We have to thank Mr. Slater
for his right conduct, and I propose his health, and that
of the butchers of the metropolis.

Mr. Slater returned thanks.

The Chairman. — Gentlemen, I have now to propose
" The Unsuccessful Competitors," and to express my hope
that they will be more fortunate next year. It was my
lot for many years to return thanks for that class, and it
is the class always the most difficult to return thanks
for, I hardly know who to call upon to return thanks
on this occasion ; but I have always, when doing so,
said that the judges had given a fair decision. Com-
petitors must not be prejudiced about their own stock,
and by such prejudice put a false construction on the
award of the judges. 1 ask the unsuccessful competitors
as Englislimen, not to be faint hearted from their want
of success. Let them profit by what they see around
them, and if I occupy this chair long, I shall have the
pleasure, on a future occasion to give them prizes. The
health of the unsuccessfid competitors.

Mr, Beazly. — My lord duke and gentlemen, the
custom of returning thanks for the unsuccessful com-
petitors is more laudable "in the breach than the ob-
servance." I see my friends around laughing at me,
but I can afford to be laughed at ; I think I have been
successful as often as most others, and I hope next year
to be again successful. I have great satisfaction in say-
ing that the prizes have been awarded with great impar-
tiality. I am sorry that my unsuccessful neighbours
won't stand up with me, and I think it very shabby of
them {laughter).

The Chairman. — Gentlemen, I beg to propose " the
health of the vice-presidents," and to couple with it the
name of my friend on my left, Mr. Pusey (cheers),
ivhose name stands so high in the agricultural world,
and particularly in connexion with improvements in
agricultural implements. "Mr. Pusey and the Vice-Pre-
sidents."

Drunk with three times three.

Mr. Pusey. — My Lord Duke and Gentlemen; I
am exceedingly obliged to you for the toast, although
but an unworthy representative of the Vice-Presi-
dents. I was glad to see tliat tliat district with which
I am connected west of Berkshire had made so good a
show ; that district was once famed, and its fame is
again reviving. I am happy that my partner — but
he is not my partner, for he won the gold medal —
made so good an ajipearance in the yard. Mr. Harris
stands well in the sheep class, and Mr, Moore for
pigs ; so that at least we have shown that we know
sometliing, I am very glad to see so good a meeting
as the present, but although we have done much, we
have yet much to accomplish. And my opinion is that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

C9

the question is not as to what is or ought to be dono,
as the means wherewith to do it. We want the lielp
of tlie aristocracy (cheers). With respect to security
in tenure, tlie noble Duke in tlie chair did much last
session ; but there is more to be done ; and I say tliat
the tenant who lays out money on his land should
have a legal right to get it back (cheers). I shall not
enter into details, bnt I do say that nothing can be
more absurd than the present mode. We know that
ploughing and harrowing alone will not make turnips
grow ; and can it be expected that the tenant will pay
200Z. or 300/. for guano or anything else without
security or remuneration ? I am very glad that tlie
Farmers' Club have taken up this question. It is
certainly difficult to draw up the conditions, but I
have at this moment engaged a surveyor to consider
the matter (cheers). I beg to thank you for the
honour you have done the vice-presidents.

Mr. BfiAZLY proposed "The Health of the Judges
of the Show,"' who had so ably performed their ardu-
ous duties.

The Chairman. — I need rot say that I heartily
concur in the proposal. Gentlemen, something has
been said of the tenant right, and I have to say that
1 have always advocated, that where the tenant has
exjjended money in improving his farms, he should be
paid for its unexhausted value. I have never hesi-
tated, and never will, to give a lease to every tenant
who asks for one. If the tenant expends 100/. in
lime, he oua;ht to have remuneration to the utmost
extent. I said so last year in Parliament, and I in-
tended to have brought forward a measure on the
subject; but there is much delicacy in the matter.
The interests of the landlord and the tenant are one
and the same. I hope you will not adopt new the-
ories to the contrary. I am anxious that the rights
of both should be preserved (cheers).

Mr. Parkinson returned thanks on behalf of the
Judges.

The Chairman then proposed "The Health of the
Stewards," whose arrangements were deserving of all
praise.

Mr. Millwaud returned thanks.

The Chairman. — I rise to ])ropose " The Health
of Mr. Gibbs, our hon. Secretary" (cAee?-*), a gentle-
man who has ably conducted the business of the So-
ciety, and has always shown the greatest impartiality
in the discharge of his arduous duties (cheers).

Mr. Gibbs returned thanks, and expressed his great
regret at the event which had deprived the club of the
late president, on whose conduct and qualities he paid a
high eulogium ; but, although the club had been de-
prived of the services of one distinguished president,
there was cause for congratulation that they had been
fortunate to secure the services of another.

The Chairman : The next toast I have to propose
is, " Tlie health of the Father of the Club— the Sire of
the two Messrs. Gibbs"— to whom we owe so much
for their services. In the absence of the father of the
club, I am happy to see my friend Mr. Chapman filling
his place opposite to me (cheers).

Mr. H. Giiins returned thanks, and revievved the

history and progress of the club from its origin down to
the present time.

Mr. Chapman, who was loudly cheered, also spoke
to the toast.

The Chairman : The n°xt toast I have to propose
is, "The Royal Agricultural Society of England and
its President, Lord Portman ; the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland ; and the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society of Ireland." Of the first and last of these
the club may be said to be the parent ; but I believe
the Highland Society will claim to be the first. All of
them have, however, done extensive good : they have
extended agricultural knowledge, and promoted agricul-
tural improvement ; they foster farmers' clubs, and it
would be well that the landlords also fostered them. It
is a delusion to believe that the tenants alone can im-
prove without encouragement (cheers). Gentlemen,
let us drink prosperity to these great societies.

The Chairman : I give the next toast with the
greatest possible pleasure — it is, " Agriculture, Manu-
factures, and Commerce." Although we are more at
tached to agriculture, we are not unmindful of what is
due to the others ; and we always wish them prosperity
They are necessarily connected, and those who wish to
disunite them are enemies to all. I am sure that it is
the wish of the farmers throughout the count'-y that agri-
culture, manufactures, and commerce should be united in
one firm bond of union (cheers).

Drurfk with three times three.

The Chairman : The next toast is a standing toast
in all farmers' clubs — I mean, " Prosperity to the Agri-
cultural Labourer" (cheers)^. We are bound, as land-
owners and occupiers, not to forget the farm labourers
— an honest, industrious, and d -serving body ; and I
am happy to say that at present they are receiving a fai.
day's wage. It is to our advantage that the labourer
should be well employed — not only that we should pay
him well, but that we should treat him with considera-
tion and kindness. " Prosperity to the Agricultural
Labourers."

Drunk with three times three.

Sir H. D. Goring and Sir H. Verney were then an-
nounced as candidates for admission into the club.

The Chairman : As the last toast I have to propose,
I am sure you will give this one a hearty welcome.
" Live, and let live " (cheers). I am delighted with
the reception which you give it, and I am sure
you feel and act upon it (cheers). Landlords should
let live" to their te-.nuts, and tenants should " let
live" to their labourers. Gentlemen, I have to express
my thanks for the manner in which you have received
me. The duties of Chairman are at all times important,
and I have felt considerable difficulty in occupying it
after so able a president as our late lamented one. I
beg to return you my sincere thanks, and to propose the
toast (chfe7-s).

Drunk with three times three.

The noble Duke and the company then retired.

Since the last meeting the hall has been entirely rede-
corated, and presented on tins occasion a vei-y brilliant
appearance.

70

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE POTATO DISEASE.

Sir, — !My best thanks are due to you for your
kindness in so promptly inserting my letter in the
Herald, on the causes and prevention of jhe dis-
eases of the potato. There was a trifling oversight
at the commencement of that letter, which I wish
to correct ; it begins as if intended for the High-
land Society only. It was at one time my intention
to write four copies ; one I had forwarded, and the
others were to be laid before our national agricul-
tural societies, and the copy I sent to you was the
one I had intended for the Highland Society.
Hence the mistake.

A fortnight has now elapsed since my letter was
published, and no attempt has yet been made to
disprove the conclusions at which I had arrived.
In most of the practical suggestions respecting the
crop of next year I had the pleasure to anticipate
the commissioners' report ; but with regard to the
primary and immediate causes of the malady we
are at issue. It is, doubtless, highly desirable that
the nature of the causes which produce disease in
the potato should be discovered, if possible ; because
if they are dependent on circumstances under the
control of man, effectual measures may then be
devised for preventing or mitigating this and other
maladies which have caused so much loss and un-
certainty in the cultivation of this crop of late
years. Whether I am correct or not in my views
as to the primary and immediate causes of the
murrain, it must be evident to every unprejvidiced
mind acquainted with the subject, and willing to
apprehend truth, that the commissioners have cer-
tainly not discovered the cause.

The principal conclusions at which I had arrived
being opposed to those of Dr. Lindley, the only
botanist of the commission, and this being also
more of a botanical or physiological than a chemi-
cal question, I forwarded to that gentleman at
Dviblin a copy of the Herald containing my letter.
But I learn by the Gardeners' Chronicle oi the 15th
and 22nd inst. that Dr. Lindley still adheres to the
opinion that cold and wet, and not fungi, are the
cause of the malady. He, moreover, denies the
truth of Mr. Knight's theory, that plants propagated
by extension do wear out. This opinion, however,
is supported by a statement directly opposed, as it
seems to me, to well-ascertained facts. Believing
then, as I do, that the conclusions of the commis-
sioners on this point are inconclusive and unsatis-
factory, and still believing my views as to the pro-
gressive degeneracy of the plant considered as a

species are true, and that fungi are the immediate
cause of the destruction, I see no other means so
likely of speedily clearing away errors, and of ar-
riving at a more truthful view of the whole case,
than by stating additional facts, and by courting a
more searching inquiry.

I proved in my first letter, by, I believe, most
trustworthy eA-idence, that the potato for a long
time after it was first introduced into this coimtry
was not affected by any serious disease ; then from
about the middle of the last century up to 1832,
some varieties were affected by the curl ; and then
from that time to the present a more injurious
disease (dry-rot) had been experienced; and now
we have a disease previously unknown, and still
more fatal, the murrain. I showed that the ear-
liness of the attack and the rapidity of the destruc-
tion in these different diseases had been progres-
sive.

In the " curl " the diseased tubers vegetated,
and the young plants struggled as it were for ex-
istence ; in the dry-rot sets were destroyed before
they had time to vegetate ; and now the living
plant is attacked, and the tubers are destroyed be-
fore they have reached maturity. In the first and
second stages of disease I showed that the mala-
dies could not be accounted for without admitting
that there was a predisposition to disease in certain
varieties, owing mostly to the length of time they
had been in cultivation, and that the causes which
affected the destruction of the sets by dry-
rot afforded the best possible proof of diminished
vitality. The facts on which these conclusions are
based do not admit of doubt ; and if the conclu-
sions I have drawn from them are erroneous, then
it appears to me incumbent on those who object to
them, and who deny that varieties of plants propa-
gated by extension wear out, to show in what way I
have erred, and also to give a more satisfactory ex-
planation of these facts than I have been able to do.
I could hardly believe it possible that any man at the
present day would have been seriously called
upon to defend this theory of the late Mr. Knight,
but so it is. Dr. Lindley, in the Gardeners' Chro-
nicle of the 15th instant, says : — "In reality there is
no proof in any part of the vegetable kingdom that
races of i^lants wear out. Such an opinion was enter-
tained, indeed, by the late Mr. Knight and his
views have been adopted by some i^hysiologists.
Yet there is not only no jiroof of their correctness,
but the strongest presumption to the contrary. It

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

71

is superfluous to say that the golden pippin apple
is the instance on which this theory mainly turns.
It is said that it is worn out, and can be no longer
cultivated." And then, after stating that healthy
trees of it exist in England and elsewhere, he con-
cludes that the wearing-out theory, therefore, falls
to the ground. Dr. Lindley's opinion, in the
Gardeners^ Chronicle of Se])tember 6th, seems to
me amply sufficient, without any other aid to help
it up again. A correspondent had observed that
all varieties of the potato were not affected ahke by
the murrain ; and Dr. Lindley desired information
as to whether new varieties were not more free from
disease ; " for if it should be so," he observes,
" that will be a very powerful argument in favour
of raising seedling potatoes to a much greater ex-
tent than has hitherto been done : a jyractice tipon
the importance of which toe have frequently insisted,
without reference to the murrain. All old varieties
of those cultivated plants which are propagated by
division of the stem, and not by seed, seem to be-
come feeble as they grow old, there being in this
respect some analogy between plants and animals.
Feebleness of constitution is certainly the rjreat pre-
disposing cause in cases of murrain, and all such
maladies."

Many after reading this will consider, as I do,
that it is almost superfluous to say another word in
support of Mr. Knight's theory. In the paper on
this subject in the " Philosophical Transactions "
of l/'95 there is no mention of the golden pippin
apple ; but Mr. Knight states that he had been told
by the planters of Hereford that it was impossible
to obtain healthy trees of some of the old varieties
of apples and pears. Mr. Knight confesses that he
considered this opinion to be a vulgar error, and he
devised an extensive series of experiments, with the
express view of proving it to be so ; but he was
compelled by the results to arrive it a diflerent con-
clusion, and to confirm the accuracy of the
planters' observations ; and in addition to other
facts in support of this conclusion, he says, " Of the
apples mentioned and described by Parkinson the
names only remain, and those since applied to
other kinds, now also worn out ; but many of
Evelyn's are stiU well known, particularly the red-
streak, which was raised from seed by Lord Scu-
dam ore, probably about the year 1634. We have
many trees of it, but they appear to have been in a
state of decay during the last 40 years. Some
others mentioned by him are in a better state of
vegetation, but they have aU ceased to deserve the
attention of the planter." Then as to the degene-
racy of varieties of the potato, in a paper read be-
fore the Horticultural Society in 1833, Mr. Knight
observes ; — I have often witnessed the progressive
decay of vigour, and the diflferent effects of the in-

fluence of age, upon many different varieties."
And again^ in 1836 : — "Tliat varieties of potatoes
which have been long cultivated cease to be
equally i)roductive is placed beyond the reach of
controversy. I have, in several instances, tried to
renovate the vigour of old and excellent nearly ex-
pended varieties by change of soil and mode of cul-
ture; but I never in any degree succeeded. Many
of the sets of these varieties perished without vege-
tating, and aU became unproductive and worth-
less." This is the mature opinion, after GO years
at least of experiments and observations, of the
most distinguished interpreter of the laws of vege-
table life this country has produced, who made
more experiments on the potato, with a view to the
solution of various questions, than probably any
other man, and whose sole guiding motive in all
these his labours of love evidently was how best he
could discover and apply principles in cultivation
that would tend to promote the welfare of his
country and his fellow-men.

But some who are not acquainted with Mr.
Knight's labours may fancy I am exaggerating.
Let Dr. Lindley, then, bear Avitness to his great
merits as an experimentalist and as a faithful ob-
server and recorder of facts. In a brief memoir in
the Athenceum, with the initials J. L. appended, it
is said, " In all these researches the originality of
the experiments was very remarkable, and the care
with which the results were given was so great,
that the most captious of subsequent writers have
admitted the accuracy of the facts produced by
Mr. Knight, however much they may have differed
from him in the conclusions which they draw from

them No man living, now before the

world, can be said to rank with him in that par-
ticular branch of science to which his life was de-
voted." Yet on a question like this, the wearing
out or otherwise of varieties of potatoes, which re-
quires no refined or complicated experiments to
determine, but simply the application of means
known to have a beneficial influence on the health
of plants, and ordinary observation, J. L. now
wishes us to believe that there is not only no proof
of the correctness of Mr. Knight's views in this
matter, but the strongest presumption to the con-
trary.

A knowledge of this theory, or law of nature,
which I consider it to be, is, I conceive, of import-
ance to all who cultivate i:)lants, and possibly it
may not yet be perfectly understood or known by
some. The point in dispute then may be more
clearly seen generally if, before we proceed any
further, the nature of Mr, Knight's theory is
briefly stated. The apple and ])ear are two distinct
species of fruit. There are many sorts of apples
and pears, and these are caUed varieties. If apples

?2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and pears were propagated by seeds only, then
each tree would be a distinct variety ; but a favour-
ite ai^ple or pear is pi'opagated by cuttings or
grafts, and the trees so raised are still only so
many trees of one variety ; they are the extension
of one individual, and partake of the common hfe
qualities and tendencies of the original tree. A
variety of the pear may live 400 years, supposing
two plants were raised from a tree when 200 years
old, one from a seed, the other from a cutting or
graft. The seedling plant may live 400 years also ;
but, according to Mr. Knight's theor)', the plant
raised from the graft or cutting would continue in
a healthy state about 200 years only. The theory
is, that at whatever period cuttings or grafts are
taken from the original tree, or from trees raised
by cuttings of it, the plants so raised will exhibit a
sympathetic state of health, if we may so speak —
tliat is, the whole will dechne in vigour about the
same time as the parent tree, if that died from sheer
old age, making due allowance, of course, for the
effect of different soils and situations ; but that by
no means can plants so propagated be made to live
for ever. But as a cutting or graft of an old tree
is itself j'oung, some may not see why it should not
grow as long and continue as healthy as another
plant recently raised from seed, and the objection
has been made ; but they forget the existence and
influence of the vital principle, on the energy and
power of which the health and vigour of a plant or
animal mainly depends. It is the diminution of
the vitality of the young shoot from an old tree, as
compared with the seedling plant, which makes all
the difference.

In order, however, that there may no longer be
any loop-hole or I'oom for the most sceptical to
doubt, other observations than Mr. Knight's must
be cited. I have mentioned above that observing
practical men were the first to conclude that va-
rieties of apples and pears wear out ; and in the
case of potatoes I find a letter dated December,
1794, by Mr. Bartley, in the Bath papers, the year
before Mr. Knight's letter was read before the
Royal Societ}^ in which it is said " a notion pre-
vails in Lancashire and some other potato counties,
that after a certain period the cuttings or off-sets
are apt to degenerate in quality, as well as in
power of producing abundant crops ; whereas it is
thought that potatoes raised from seed continue to
improve in both respects for a considerable number
of years." More decisive proof of the truth of Mr.
Knight's theory may be found in the Quarterly
Journal of Agriculture, for March, 1837. Mr.
Gorrie, of Annal-gardens, says — "That old age
may have overtaken many of the varieties of
the ])otato long since cultivated in this country, is
proved by such varieties having disa])peared.

About the commencement of the present century A
flat white potato was in general field-culture, and pos-
sessing qualities not equalledbyits successor in this
country, the Perthshire red. The flat white potato in
the last yearof its culture, became sickly and in early
soils very liable to curl." In 1806, Mr. Gorrie
received a few tubers of the Perthshire red, which
for many years continued free from disease ; then
for a few years curl was manifested ; " ultimately,
rot appeared in the seed tubers of this and other
long cultivated varieties, and every method of pam-
pering their decayed constitution was and is re-
sorted to. Heating in pits is recommended to be
avoided ; but in days of yore, heating in masses in
close houses did not affect their health. Planting
without allowing the seed-tubers to come in con-
tact with unfermented dung has been resorted to ;
but erewhile this was reckoned wholesome prac-
tice. Planting when the soil is moderately moist
is tried; but new and vigorous varieties succeed
though planted when the soil is dry, whether
newly cut or cut a month before planting, whether
the dung be fresh or fermented, whether the tuber
has been moderately or well ripened, or whether
they may have been preserved in pits in the ordi-
nary way, or preserved with greater care. In fine,
to use the language of Mr. Simpson, of Killeen,
Ireland ' as to the potato degenerating, there can
be no doubt of it.'"

There is, indeed, no room to doubt ; I am so
satisfied of this from my own limited experience,
than I believe it is not more certain that two and
two make four than that varieties of potatoes do
wear out. Varieties of the fa^'ourite flower, the
ranunculus, are propagated like the potato, by
means of tubers ; and they obviously decline in
vigour also when cultivated. Mr. Lymburn
writes, " Having had a good deal of practice in
raising and seeing raised flowers from seed, es-
pecially the ranunculus, I have invariably found
that those most recently from the seed had so
much more vigorous growth, both in the foliage
and the flower, that it has become customary for
florists to point them out in each other's flower-beds
from their appearance."* Dr. Horner, in an article
on this flower, says : — " The friendly caution is
given to the young florist not to purchase any of
the older varieties of the ranunculus, with the ex-
ception of about a dozen sorts — the self-coloured
ones. They are uncertain, jioor, and meagre in the
extreme, when compared with the splendid varie-
ties more recently raised. "f Mr. Tyso observes
— " Last year was the most congenial to the ra-
nunculus I ever recollect. Indeed, so prosperous

* Highland Society's Transactions, 1837, p. 506.
t Gardeners' Chronicle, June 2.5^ 1844.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

73

was it, that many of the old varieties produced
seed." This gentleman has been an ardent culti-
vator of this flower forty years, and has raised hun-
dreds of seedUngs ; and he observes — "Some of the
finest seedlings are weak, and therefore die in a
few years, though for a short time they had great
renown. The names of several such are men-
tioned. But there are others of first-rate character
which are remarkably strong, and increase abun-
dantly."* And so it is with other plants. There
is a difference in the constitution of different varie-
ties ; but sooner or later they all decline in vigour,
become unfit for the purposes of the cultivator,
and are superseded by newer and more healthy va-
rieties.

The artisans of Lancashire and Nottingham find
amusement for their leisure hours by cultivating va-
rieties of the gooseberry for premiums ; and they
find, when varieties have been cultivated some time,
the weight of the fruit diminishes.

Having now given what I think will be con-
sidered sufficient proof that varieties of plants
propagated by extension do gradually wear out,
and having shown in my former letter that the po-
tato plant, considered as a species, has been gra-
dually becoming less hardy and more liable to se-
rious and fatal diseases, my object now will be to
offer some proof that the deterioration is a conse-
quence of not continuing the species by a succes-
sion of vigorous seedlings from" the most healthy
and hardy varieties only, and before they had
.shown any symptoms of declining vigour. It is
not absolutely requisite that I should be able to
prove this. The plant, as a species, has degene-
rated. And thic exjdanation of the cause must be
considered the true one, unless it can be success-
fully refuted, or a better found. There are, how-
ever, some observations on record which support
the conclusions I liaA'e arrived at on this point
also. In the first place, it may be well to show
that even varieties of plants annually raised from
seed may become more hardy and vigorous by a
judicious selection of seed-bearing plants, and de-
teriorate in consequence of not attending to this,
The hint, moreover, is of great value and of uni-
versal application, and I fear is not yet sufficiently
understood or acted upon by many. In the Gar-
dener's Ma(/azine for May, 1838, is an article by a
person who had visited Mr. Knight's garden, and
who observes — " In the brassica tribe Mr. Knight
has procured an exceedingly hardy variety of cab-
bage, and of a purple sprouting broccoli, by select-
ing, for a series of years, those plants for seed that
suffered least from severe weather. He believes
the sort sold by seedsmen under the name of

Gardeners' Chronicle, June 22, 1844.

Knight's cabbage, although originally true, to be
much inferior to his own ; that of the seedsmen
having greatly degenerated, owing to want of care
or skill in selecting seed-bearing plants, whilst Mr,
Knight's had yearly improved through attention to
that particular." If varieties of plants annually
raised from seed, and not j)ropagated by extension,
thus become less hardy by not sowing seeds from
the strongest plants only, we may be very well
assured that degeneracy will be much more certain
when, in addition to any original difference in the
constitution of different varieties of the potato,
there is superadded the feebleness or disease conse-
quent on old age.

In a report of the Board of Agriculture on the
potato, published about 50 years ago, a Mr, Holt
says — " The Manly and pink-eye are both delicious
potatoes and of excellent quahty, but were so af-
fected with the curl some years ago as to be totally
given up till renewed again from seed ; they are at
prevent in great estimation. One ounce of seed
may produce a hundred varieties, and not two
worth cultivating ; but a similar plant may be pro-
duced from the parent stock." Here is one proof
at least that seeds were saved from varieties known
to be not only delicate, but diseased. In the re-
port on dry-rot to the Highland Society, in 1837,
Mr. Bishop observes — " Those who recollect the
strong and vigorous stems, perfect flowers, and
abundant crop of seed-plums which the red potato
exhibited for a number of years after its first intro-
duction to Perthshire, compared with the puny
slippery stems and abortive organization of flowers
now visible in that A'ariety, must be convinced that
it is much deteriorated, and that it is only by pro-
curing new and valuable varieties from seed that
the productiveness of the potato can be ensured
and restored to its former worth." It is then said,
" Mr. Bishop had himself made the experiment on
this variety, and some of the seedlings had done
well." Here is another instance where seedlings
were raised from a variety where it had manifested
unequivocal symptoms of declining vigour, and
this will have been the case mostly. It is natural
that a man should wish to perpetuate the old fa-
vourite varieties if possible, or to obtain others like
them ; and no means would seem so likely to efl^ect
this, to a man unconscious'of any evil results likely
to follow, as by saving seed from the old varieties
themselves. Need we wonder, then, at the present
lamentable state of this crop, or be any longer in
doubt as to what is the primary cause of those dif-
ferent and progressively fatal diseases ? Every
man acquainted with the laws of vegetable or
animal life will be persuaded in his own mind that
so sure as night will follow day, so sure will suc-
cessive generations of plants, if raised from seeds

H

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of feeble or old parents, become progressively less
hardy, and more susceptible of disease. Some
practical men, I know, may be found who labour
under such an obliquity of mental vision that they
cannot see that varieties wear out ; the old age of
some, they say, could not be the cause of the sets
perishing by dry-rot, because some varieties re-
cently raised from seed perished hkewise. The ave-
rage duration of a variety of the potato was sup-
posed by Dr. Dickson to be about 15 years, and
one man finds a variety which has been in cultiva-
tion a much longer period than that, and stUl com-
paratively healthy, and he, too, concludes that
there is no truth in the doctrine that varieties wear
out, and that the old age of some could not be the
cause of the sets perishing. But what should we
say of a man who, knowing that three-score years
and ten was the limit assigned to mankind, beyond
which there shall be sorrow, should find a hale old
man who had seen five-score years, and, overlook-
ing the generations which had passed away, should
fix his attention solely upon him, and conclude
that there was no hmit to the earthly existence of
man, and that with due care he would never die r
Other practical men, however, view these matters
in a very difterent light. Mr. Stirhng, of Ken-
mure, for instance, at a discussion on the cause of
dry-rot, at a meeting of the Highland Society,
stated that the new varieties recently raised from
seed were decaying, but he concluded that it was a
natural consequence of the degenerate state of the
parents ; and he further observed that " under
these circumstances he saw no alternative but to
get a fresh supply of seed, and the sooner the
better, from its native country. Unless something
wei-e done," he added, " the potato might degene-
rate altogether." 'ITiis was the almost prophetic warn-
ing of a highly intelligent practical man in 1844, and
addressed to a body of practical men, and before
there was anything said or much known in this
country of the murrain. Must there not have been
something very unusual in the potato crop of late
years, then, to justify such a remark as this ?
Many of the northern farmers, I find, are of
opinion that the degeneracy of the plant is the
cause of this malady as well as all prcAious ones.
One or two extracts may be of use : — " Many agri-
culturists assert that the potato has been gradually
degenerating for the last ten years, land that udthin
the last three or four the rapidity of the decline has

been very perceptible."* " Many different opinions
are prevailing as to the nature and cause of this
disease, but it seems to some verj-^ glaringly to be
the same dreadfid epidemic that lately raged in
spring — the same visitor, onlj^ come at another
season. In consequence of the frequency of the
disease in spring, the potatoes have become so
much weakened, that now, as soon as ripe, the
disease appears, as it has been observed ; in late
situations it is longer in making its appearance than
in early soils and situations. The vitahty ofthe po-
tato seems lost ; and this useful esculent will, it is
the opinion of many, soon be unknown in our
isle."t

A Mid-Lothian farmer writes thus — " The true
value of the practical farmer's dictum, 'the rain
has done it all,' is apparent when we reflect that,
while the present season in North America has
been dry and warm, the ravages of this pest have
been as formidable there as here. On my own
farm the disease first showed itself in the driest
land. We have had quite as wet seasons as the
present. Several varieties raised from seed three
years ago are not free. It is now quite evident that
the potato is hereditarily diseased." X

And still there is not only no proof of the cor-
rectness of Mr. Knight's theoiy, but the strongest
presimi])tion to the contrary ! The opinion of the
6th September, believe me was the true one : —
" Varieties of i^lants propagated by stems, and not
by seeds, do v.'ear out. Feebleness of constitution
is certainly the great predisposing cause in cases of
murrain, and all such maladies."

With your kind permission, I must trouble you
with some further remarks on the immediate cause
of the present malady, whether it is caused l)y
fungi, or wet and cold, or any other atmospheric
influence. »

I am, Sir, your most obedient servant,

John Townley.

* Berwick Warder, Nov. 1.

t Edinburgh Weekly Register, Nov. 12.

X Scotsman, Nov. 12,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

76

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A monthly Council was held at the Society's house in
Hanover- square on Wednesday, the 3rd of December ;
present, the Right Hon. Lord Portmau, President,
in the chair ; his Grace the Duke of Richmond ; T. R.
Barker, Esq. ; S. Bennett, E?q. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ;
F. Burke, Esq. ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W. A. Cherry,
Esq.; J. W. Childers, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ;
B. T. B, Gibbs, Esq. ; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; W. Fisher
Hobbs, Esq. ; J. Kinder, Esq. ; J. Parkins, Esq. ; F.
Pym, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; J. V. Shelley, Esq.; W.
Shaw, Esq.; Prof. Solly; C. H. Turner, Esq.; T.
Turner, Esq. ; and II. Wilson, Esq,

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, laid before the Council the monthly
statement of the accounts of the Society, when it ap-
peared that the amount of invested capital stood at
8,200/., and the current cash balance in the hands of
the bankers at 242/. The Chairman also laid before the
Council a balance-sheet made up to that day of the
Shrewsbury meeting account, shewing the total receipts
(including the subscription of 1,000/. from the town of
Shrewsbury) as amounting to 3,G61/. 123. 2d., and the
total payments to 5,166/. 8s. 9d., leaving an ex-
cess of payments over receipts on that account of
1,504/. 16s. 7d. chargeable on the general funds of the
Society. The Chairman stated, that as there were still,
however, a few unsettled accounts connected with the
Shrewsbury meeting, the balance-sheet then presented
was incomplete accordingly, and not finally closed. Mr.
Barker also presented, on the part of the House Com-
mittee, thei; monthly report of proceedings, which,
along with that of the Finance Committee, was adopted
by the Council.

Prize Essay. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the
Journal Committee, reported to the Council the award
of the Society's Prize of 20/. for the best Essay on Catch-
meadows, to Mr. John Roals, of Brendon Farm, Wive-
liscombe, Somersetshire.

Selected Wheat. — Earl Spencer transmitted to the
Council his detailed Report on the Comparative Trial of
the Cultivation of the Wheat selected at the Southamp-
ton Meeting, along with other varieties grown in the
neighbourhood cf Northampton. The consideration of
this report was deferred until the other reports on this
subject have been received.

December Meeting. — The President reported that Dr.
Lyon Playfair had kindly consented to deliver two lec-
tures on the Potato Disease, before the members, on the
occasion of their ensuing General Meeting, at nine
o'clock in each of the evenings of Wednesday, the 10th,
and Thursday, the 11th inst. The President further re-
ported, that the Royal Institution of Great Britain had
liberally granted the use of their Theatre, in Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, for the delivery of these lectures ; the
members of the Society obtaining as formerly their free

tickets of admission on application to the Secretary, at
12, Hanover-square. A Report from Mr. Pusey, M.P.,
Chairman of the Journal Committee, was then read,
stating, that as Dr. Lyon Playfair had acceded to the
President's request to deliver lectures to the Society on
the Potato Disease, the communications from members
on that subject had been transferred to him for exami-
nation. The Council ordered the Rooms of the Society
in Hanover-square to be thrown open for the accommo-
dation of members from six to ten o'clock on the even-
ings of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday next : the
General Meeting being held on Saturday, the 13th inst.,
at eleven o'clock in the forenoon.

Committees. — The Council then proceeded agreeably
with the bye -laws to re -appoint the Standing Commit-
tees for the ensuing year, adding the names of Mr.
Pym and Mr. Jonas to the list of the Finance Com-
mittee, and those of the late and present Mayor of
Newcastle-on-Tyne to that of the General Newcastle
Committee.

Annual Prize-sheet. — On the motion of Mr. Raymond
Barker, seconded by Mr. Gibbs, it was resolved, " That
in future the Prize-sheet for the country meeting should
be finally settled at a Special Council to be held on the
Thursday of the Smithfield Club week in December, in-
stead of at one held as formerly in the month of June, in
the year preceding."

Auctioneer and Engineer. — On the motion of Mr.
Gibbs, the following resolutions were agreed to : —

1. That the auctioneer or his clerk shall be in attend-

ance in an office in the show-yard from 10 o'clock,
A.M., until 4 o'clock, p.m., on the Thursday of the
show-week, for the purpose of receiving instruc-
tions from such exhibitors as may have properly
entered stock or implements for sale at the auction.

2. That the auctioneer shall receive all the forfeit money

for the withdrawal of stock or implements from the
auction, and give the exhibitor the necessary coun-
tersigned order for the removal of such stock or
implements from the yard.

3. That the auctioneer shall take charge of, and sell the

catalogues of the sale, and that he shall deliver over
to the director for the Society's use the money
arising from the forfeits and the sale catalogues.

4. That the consulting engineer shall not act as one of

the judges of implements, but only act as mechani-
cal referee in case the judges may deem it necessary
to call in his aid.

5. That the consulting engineer shall be in attendance

in the yard, and during the trials, to examine the

implements.
Northumberland Prizes. — The President read to
the Council a letter addressed to him by the Duke of
Northumberland, in which His Grace expressed his

76

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

approval of the proposed arrangement by the Council for
the distribution of the premiums which he had placed at
their disposal.

The President laid before the Council numerous com-
munications he had received for the Journal Committee
on the Potato disease, and other subjects ; and the
Council ordered that a collector of subscriptions on the
part of the Society should be directed to attend, as usual,
at the office of the Smithfield Club, for the convenience
of those members who visited the Show during the ensu-
ing week; the appointment of an auctioneer for the
Country Meeting of next year being referred to the
General Newcastle Committee.

Implement Prizes. — His Grace the Duke of Rich-
mond, at the request of the President, then took the
chair, and the Council proceeded to a consideration of
the distribution of the 300^. voted in June last for im-
plement prizes at the Newcastle Meeting. On the motion
of Mr. Shelley, the following schedule was unanimously
agreed to : —

For the plough best adapted to heavy land . . j^*! 0

For the plough best adapted to light land. . . . 10

For the best drill for general purposes, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
•ompost or other manures in a moist or dry
state, quantity being especially considered. N.B.
— Other qualities being equal, the preference
will be given to the drill which may be best
adapted to cover the manure with soil before the
seed is deposited . . . . . . . . ..15

For the best turnip-drill on the flat, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
compost or other manures in a moist or dry
state, quantity being especially considered. N.B.
— Other qualities being equal, the preference
will be given to the drill which may be best
adapted to cover the manure with soil before the
seed is deposited .. .. .. .. ..10

For the best turnip-drill on the ridge, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
compost or other manures in a moist or dry
state, quantity being especially considered. N.B.
— Other qualities being equal, the preference
will be given to the drill which may be best
adapted to cover the manure with soil before the
seed is deposited . . . . , . . . . . 10

For the best scarifier .. .. .. ,.10

For the best chaff-cutter . . . . . . . . 10

For the best machine for making draining-tiles or
pipes for agricultural purposes. Specimens of
the tiles or pipes to be shown in the yard ; the
price at which they have been sold to be taken
into consideration, and proof of the working of the
machine to be given to the satisfaction of the
judges . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

For the best harrow 5

For the best drill-presser depositing manure and seed 10

For the best churn 5

For the best weighing machine for live cattle and

farm produce generally .- 10

For the best steaming apparatus for roots 5

For the best skim or paring plough 5

For the best subsoil pulverizer i?10

For the best horse-seed dibbler 15

For the best hand-seed dibbler 5

For the best linseed ^crusher 5

For the best one-horse cart 5

For the best thrashing-machine 25

For the best and most economical set of tools and

instruments for draining purposes 10

For the best steam-power, applicable to thrashing

or other agricultural purposes 25

For the best horse-power ditto ditto 25|

Miscellaneous awards 4C

The Council ordered that it should be distinctly!
stated, among the regulations of the implement prize-
sheet, that each exhibitor shall be bound to execute all!
orders given to him in the show-yard at the price stated]
in his certificate.

List of Members. — On the motion of Mr. Fishe
Hobbs, the Council ordered that the list of members ofl
the Society should be printed immediately after Christ-j
mas.

Notices of Motion : Financial Returns. — Mr. Hum-
phrey Gibbs gave notice that he should move at the!
next monthly Council —

" That the Finance Committee shall in future cause to]
be prepared a monthly account of the state of the So-
ciety's finances, showing on the Dr. side, first, the ordi-
nary payments that have been made, such as rent, taxes,!
salaries, printing of Journal, prizes annually given, ex-
penses of the annual show, &c. ; ami secondly, thai
amount of ordinary debts that may remain due from the]
Society. Thirdly, the extraordinary payments that]
have been made, such as the repairs of the house, pur-j
chase of printed books, furniture, &c. ; and fourthly, thej
amount of extraordinary debts that may remain due]
from the Society. On the Cr. side, first the amount off
arrears received of annual subscriptions for each pre-
vious year respectively. Secondly, the amount of an-
nual subscriptions for the current year. Thirdly, the
sums received for the sale of the Journal, money taken
at the annual shows, and other ordinary sources of in-
come. Fourthly, as extraordinary receipts, the amount
of such compositions as may have been received in lieu
of the annual subscriptions; and fifthly, any other
monies that may have been received and cannot be con-
sidered as ordinary sources of income.

" That the Finance Committee shall cause to be laid
fore the Council as ordinary debts due at the same
periods, a detailed account of the arrears due to the
Society^ for the annual subscriptions, showing the
amounts due from each year respectively, and also the
amount of the annual subscription due for the current
year ; also, as extraordinary debts due to the Society, an
account of the amounts due for compositions.

" Also a statement of the funded property, together
with a memorandum of the amount of monies received
as compositions, but which has not yet been funded.

" That the report above alluded to shall be for the
month previous to the one at the meeting in which the
statement is to be made ; for instance, the account to be
laid before the Council at its meeting in January nest

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

77

shall comprehead the month begmning the first Wednes-
day in November, and ending the first Wednesday
in December, so as to give the Committee full time
to collect and digest the materials for the report."

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the lOtli
of December.

A weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-s(juare, on Wednesday, the 10th Dec.,
present the Right Hon. Lord Portman, President, in
the Chair ; T. Raymond Barker, Esq, ; S. Bennett,
Esq. ; W. A. Browne, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq. ; Dr.
Calvert; F. C. Cherry, Esq.; J. W. Childers, Esq.,
M.P. ; J. Bell Crompton, Esq. ; W. Fisher Hcbbs,
Esq. ; W. H. Hyett, Esq. ; S. Jonas, Esq. ; J. Kinder,
Esq. ; G, Kimberley, Esq, ; W. Miles, Esq., M.P. ;
R. Milward, Esq. ; P. Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; Professor
Sewell ; W. Shaw, Esq, ; C. Stokes, Esq. ; H. S.
I'hompson, Esq. ; G. Turner, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ;
J. L. Wright Esq. ; J. Wood, Esq. ; and T. Tweed,
Esq.

Mr. Woodward, of Little Comberton, transmitted to
the Council a memorial from the city of Worcester, so-
liciting the Society to hold its Country Meeting of 1847
at that place ; and the various plans and points of infor-
mation required by the regulations of the Council being
at the same time duly forwarded, the whole of these
papers were referred to the monthly Council in April.

Earl Spencer and Mr. Miles, M.P., submitted to the
Council the various specimens of results obtained in
making the trial of the Southampton and other wheats
as judges selected for that purpose. Mr. Lister Maw
presented specimens of the Belgian carrot, grown on his
farm at Tetley, along with a statement of the circum-
stances under which they were cultivated. Mr. Cuth-
bert Johnson suggested, in a letter to the President, a
minute chemical examination into the cause of the failure
of the clover crop on certain soils, where formerly that
crop was grown with perfect success by their present
cultivators. The committee on the analyses of the
ashes of plants, were requested by the Council to
favour them with a report on the actual state of that in-
vestigation. Mr. W. Turner submitted various papers
and models to the inspection of the Council. The
Council then adjourned over the Christmas recess to the
first Wednesday in February.

A Special Council was held on Friday, the 12th of
December. Present : the Right Hon. Lord Portman,
President, in the chair : T. Raymond Barker, Esq. ; H.
Blanchard, Esq. ; W. A. Browne, Esq. ; F. Burke,
Esq. ; J. Bell Compton, Esq. ; G. Kimberley, Esq. ;
R. Milward, Esq. ; J. Morton, Esq. ; J. A. Ransome,
Esq. ; Professor Sewell ; and W. B. Wingate, Esq.
The Council took into consideration and unanimously
agreed to their Report to the General Meeting.

General Meeting.

The half-yearly meeting of the Society took place on

Saturday, at eleven o'clock, at the Society's House,

llarmver-square. There were present, Lord Portman,

President of the Society, in the Chair j the Duke of

Richmond ; Raymond Barker, Esq., Chairman of the
Finance Committee; French Burke, Esq.; W. F.
Hobbs, Esq.; Clarke Ilildyasd, Esq.; Professor
Sewell; R. W. Baker, Esq.; Rev. Blair Warren; W.
Shaw, Esq. ; Allen Ransome, Esq. ; T. Umbers, Esq. ;
S. Druce, Esq., &c.,&c., Members of the Council ; Mr.
Hudson, the Secretary, and a considerable number of
members.

Lord Portman said that the first duty they had
to perform was to have the Report of the Council read
by the Secretary.

Mr. Hudson, the Secretary, then read the foUowini,'
report : —

REPORT.

The Council have to report to the Members at their
present General Meeting the result of their considera-
tion on the three following principal subjects during the
past half-year, namely : —

1. The Annual Country Meetings ;

2. The Finances of the Society ; and

3. The Potato Disease.

Annual Country Meetings.
The following comparative statement of the entries
of stock and implements at each of the Country Meet-
ings already held, and of the amount of receipts and
expenditure on each occasion, will furnish, at a single
view, the requisite data for estimating the extejit of the
several meetings, and their respective charge on the
general funds of the Society : —

Entries. Excess

f,. , Iroiile- T. ■ . Expen- of Ex-

ture.

£ £ £

1839, Oxford ....249 23 2394 2688 294

1840, Cambridge . . 352 36 3416 3589 173

1841, Liverpool .. 319 312 4106 5052 946

1842, Bristol 510 455 4202 4775 573

1843, Derby 730 508 3390 5090 1700

1844, Southampton 575 948 4929 5736 807

1845, Shrewsbury . 437 942 3662 5166 1504

It will be seen by this statement that the last Country
Meeting of the Society, held at Shrewsbury, exceeded
the first Meeting, held at Oxford, by double the entries
of stock, and more than forty times the entries of im-
plements ; while the expenses required at the Shrews-
bury Meeting, to provide the increased amount of ac-
commodation, have been only double those of the Oxford
Meeting. But the number of persons who visited 'the
Show-yard at Shrewsbury being, from local causes,
much less than at Oxford, a heavy excess of expenditure
over the receipts at the Shrewsbury Meeting has be-
come chargeable on the funds of the Society. If how-
ever, the multitudes who had thronged the former
Country Meetings, in localities more accessible and
more thickly populated than that of the North Wales
District of the Society, in which Shrewsbury is situate,
were wanting at the Society's recent Country Meeting
in that town, the Council feel that a great principle of
the Society has been carried out, in having held one of
their Country Meetings in a district purely agricultural,

78

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

remote from opportunities of direct information as to
means of improvement, of personal inspection of the va-
rious breeds of stock, and of the peculiar character of the
implements of distant districts. While, however, the
assemblage that formed the Shrewsbury Meeting was less
than on previous occasions, it comprised within its
numbers a large proportion of the most eminent agri-
culturists from every part of the kingdom, including
distinguished foreign visitors, and a deputation from
the Duchy of Mecklenburg- Schwerin : the splendid
exhibition of Hereford cattle, and the quality of the
show generally, both of stock and implements, con-
stituted an exhibition fully equal in merit and intrinsic
excellence to the more numerously attended meetings of
previous years. The trial of Implements, both at
Shrewsbury, and subsequently at Pusey in Berkshire,
has proved highly satisfactory to the Stewards and
Judges of that department, who have, however, reported
to the Council that the trial made on the spot, and at the
time of the Meeting at Shrewsbury, was fully adequate to
the jjurpose, and might have spared the delay, expense,
and trouble occasioned by a subsequent trial. In acknow-
ledgment of the obligations which the Society owed to
the Mayor and Corporation of Shrewsbury; to Mr.
Isaac Taylor, of Moukmoor; to Mr. Pusey, M.P.; to
the Railway Companies, and to the Commissioners of
Police, the Council have transmitted to those parties
I'espectively a vote of their best thanks.

The Council have appointed Committees for taking
into consideration the following questions respectively
referred to them : —

1 . For recommending the best method of providing
for the personal accommodation of the Judges, and for
regulating the future rate of remuneration for their
services.

2. For reporting to the Council the most suitable
rotation of districts, to commence in 1848, for the
Annual Country Meetings of the Society, to be adopted
on the termination of the present schedule which ends
in 1847; and —

3. For ascertaining, in conjunction with the legal
advisers of the Society, the security to be provided in
future against alleged infringement of patent rights, in
making use of implements selected by the Judges for
trial.

The Cattle Prize Sheet for the Newcastle meeting, as
arranged in the month of June last according to the
bye -law, in wliich an increase is made in the amount of
the principal prizes, has been already published ; the
list of prizes to be offered for implements at Newcastle
has also been arranged. The Council are gratified to find,
from the numerous applications received from various
parls of the kingdom , soliciting the Society to hold its
country meeting in each of their respective districts, that
the effects resulting from the system of a succession of
districts adopted by the Council have not only proved to
be of a most practical and beneficial character, but that
they are duly estimated by the country at large. For the
accommodation of the exhibitors, they have decided on
further arrangements to be made with the auctioneer at
the sale of stock ; and in order to enable the consulting-

engineer to have increased facilities for drawing up his
report on the exhibition and trial of implements, they
have released him from the duties of acting as a judge,
for the purpose of allowing him to devote his attention
more exclusively to a detailed examination of the prin-
ciples, construction, and practical working of the imple-
meiits exhibited.

The Council have received from the Judges appointed
for the trial of wheat selected at the Southampton Meet-
ing, their respective i-eports on its cultivation, along
with other local varieties, which will appear at length in
the ensuing part of the Journal now on the eve of publi-
cation.

The Committee having reported to the Council that
unexpected difficulties had arisen in effecting the analyses
of the ashes of plants, for which the Council had voted a
sum of money, the Council have requested the Committee
to ascertain the actual state of the investigation, and
favour them with a report on the subject.

Finances.
The following statement of the amount of members,
income, and expenditure, from the year of the Oxford
meeting to that of the Southampton meeting inclusively,
will show the corresponding relation of each of these
particular heads of enquiry during the period of the
Society's past history : —

Members. Iiicome, Expciidituie.

1839 !".*.*.'.'.}2'^^2 ^^^''^''^ '^^''^^^

1840 4,262 5,001 4,040

1841 5,382 6,028 5,150

1842 6,500 6,236 5,699

1843 6,903 7,907 6,906

1844 6,827 9,291 9,070

The arrears of subscription at the present time are as
follows : —

£

1841 336

1842 636

1843 1,141

1844 1,702

1845 2,987

Total.. £6,802
The total number of members in arrear is 2,902.
£1,915 having been discharged from the arrear
account since the last general meeting in May. Since
that date 264 new members have been elected, 42 have
died, and 316 been struck off the List ; and the Society
now consists of the following members : —

Life Governors 94

Annual Governors 200

Life Members 527

Annual Members 6,003

Honorary Members 15

Total. . 6,839
The Council having ordered the list of the Society to
be printed for the use of the members, it is now in the
press, and will appear with the ensuing part of the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Journal. The members of the Society who receive the
List and Journal would render effective service to the
Society, if they would inform the secretary of any errors
in the List.

Potato Disease.

His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, one of the
vice-presidents of the Society, having placed at the dis-
posal of the Society the sum of £100, to be appropriated
to such purpose for promoting the objects of the Society
as the Council might decide ; the Council, with the
Duke of Northumberland's entire concurrence and ap-
proval, have resolved to divide this donation into three
prizes to be offered for the best essays on the potato
disease and its history, such essays to be sent in to the
secretary of the Society by the 1st of June, 1846. The
prize essays being reserved for announcement and read-
ing at the Newcastle meeting, namely : —
Prize of £50 for the best essay on the remedy for the

potato disease, and on its treatment in the various

stages of its planting, growth, and preservation.

Competitors for this prize will be required to furnish
information under the following heads : —

1. An account of the growth of the potato during
the last year, with reference to the nature of the
season.

2. The nature and cause of the disease.

3. The remedies for the disease ; explaining the prin-
ciples on which the remedy is founded.

4. The treatment of the potato in plantmg, both from
the tubers and from tlie seed, and in various stages
of its growth.

5. The mode of pitting and preserving potatoes in
ordinary seasons, with the principles upon which
any improved plans may be founded.

Prize of £'20 for the second-best essay on the same sub-
ject.

Prize of £30 for the best history of the disease at the
present time affecting the potato ; involving a con-
densed detail of facts developed by experiments.
Competitors for this prize will be required to furnish

information on the following points : —

1. The history of the disease in the potato in Great
Britain, with particular reference to authentic re-
turns regarding any peculiarity of season or seasonal
variations.

2. On the methods for retarding the progress of the
disease.

3. On the methods proposed for extracting the nutri-
tive ingredients of diseased potatoes.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, the Consulting- Chemist to the
Society, having kindly consented to deliver two Lectures
on the Potato Disease before the Members, on the occa-
sion of their present general meeting, the Council, at
the suggestion of the Journal Committee, directed all
papers on that subject to be submitted to Dr. Playfair's
inspection previously to their future consideration by
that Committee; and the Royal Institution of Great
Britain having liberally placed their Theatre at the dis-
posal of the CouncU, for the delivery of these Lectures,
the President, in the name of the Council, and on

79

behalf of the Society, has expressed to Dr. Lyon Play-
fair his best thanks for the important practical Lectures
delivered to the Members on that occasion ; and to the
Managers of the Royal Institution of Great Britain his
best thanks for the favour they have shown to the
Society, by the courtesy and liberality of the grant
of their Theatre, and their cordial co-operation in thus
aiding the Society in the prosecution of its objects of
public utility.

The Journal Committee, since the last General Meet-
ing, have reported the following awards of Prizes for
Essays : —

Mr. O. O. Roberts, of Bangor, North Wales ; Lord
Kenyon's Prize of £20, for the best Essay on
Gorse as the food of Cattle, Horses, and Sheep.

Mr. John Roals, of Brendon Farm, Wiveliscombe,
Somerset ; the Society's Prize of £20, for the best
Essay on Catch-Meadows.

The House Committee have reported the execution of
the various alterations and repairs required in the So-
ciety's House ; the progress of the plans for the arrange-
ment of the specimens of wheat, and of the models and
implements presented to the Society ; and the completion
of alphabetical and classed catalogues of the books in
the library.

A vacancy having occurred in the list of the Trustees
of the Society, by the lamented death of John Charles
Earl Spencer, the Council, in unanimously electing Fre-
derick Earl Spencer to fill that office, have availed
themselves of that opportunity of recording on their
minutes an expression of their sincere regret at his loss,
and their deep sense of his private virtues, and of the
valuable services he had so uniformly and unweariedly
rendered to the Society in promoting every practical
object connected with its welfare, and the general ad-
vancement of agricultural improvement. They have
elected Mr. Grey, of Dilston, a Member of the Council,
in the vacancy caused by the transfer of Frederick Earl
Spencer to the list of Trustees.

The Council beg, in conclusion, to congratulate the
members on the steady progress of the society in the
advancement of its various objects ; and on the distinct
evidences, throughout the country, of the impulse given
to the national cause of agricultural improvement by its
movements. They are more and more convinced, as
their labours proceed, that, in every attempt to esta-
blish sound principles of practical agriculture, the indis-
pensable necessity exists of combining the application of
abstract reasonings with a careful collection of facts,
aided by that discussion of the rich store of practical ex-
periment to which every member of the society, from
within the sphere of his own local observation, has it
in his power more or less to contribute, and especially
at the weekly Councils, which will be held as usual, du-
ring the session of the Society, from February to Au-
gust. By order of the Council,

James Hudson,
London, Dec. 12, 1845. Secretary.

The Rev. Mr. Warrew proposed that the report
which had been read should be adopted. It gave a

80

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

most gratifying account of the position of tlic Society;
and it was particuhirly satisfactory to know tlmt tliey
were increasing in numbers, tliat their funds were
also increasing, and that, with the exception of last
year, the expenditure was decreasing. That gave
them every encouragement to proceed. And as there
could be no doubt that the institution was an excel-
lent and useful one, they should persevere in tlieir
exertions to support it. He begged leave to propose
that the report be received and adopted.

Mr. Umbers had much pleasure in secondinuc the
motion. It would be a source of ple;isurc to the coun-
try at large to know that the Society was so flourish-
ing, and especially to the agricultural community.

Lord PoRTMAN said all the members would hear
■wich pleasure that the Society was progressing ; but
they required means to forward its usefulness. Every
member should endeavour to induce his neighbour to
join the Society, and avail themselves of every possible
opportunity to bring the Society, and the good that it
is capable of doing, before every farmer in the country,
and thereby increase the number of its members, and
of course its usefulness. Since the last meeting a great
number had joined its ranks, and he was sorry to say
that since then they had also suffered a serious
loss. He could not put the question to them
without expressing his deep grief for the loss they had
sustained by the lamented decease of Lord Spencer.
Individually it was a great loss to him (Lord Portman),
as it deprived him of the valuable assistance of such a
colleague ; and although he was still assisted by the ex-
perience and ability of the noble duke (Richmond) on
his right, he should have much wished that he had the
deceased nobleman on his left. He hojied, however,
that the removal of his lamented friend was a blessing to
himself, although it was an irreparable loss to him (Lord
Portman) and the Society.

The question was then put and carried unanimously.

Mr. Raymond Barker said, that as Chairman of
the Finance Committee, it was his duty to inform the
meeting that the auditors had met on the previous day,
and the accounts for the preceding six months had been
submitted to them. The statement of accounts was
then read, from which it appeared that the total receipts
during the first half of the present year (including the
Christmas balance) had been 7,086/. 18s. lid., and the
total expenditure during that period (including the pur-
chase of 500/. stock) 3,169/. 18s. 2d., leaving a current
cash balance of 3,917/. Os. 9d. He also read to the
meeting tlie Balance Sheet of the Shrewsbury meeting,
showing the receipts on that account (including the sub-
scription of 1,000/. from the town of Shrewsbury) to
have been 3,661/. 12s. 2d., and the payments up to that
date 5,166/. 8s. 9d., leaving an excess of expenditure
over the receipts on that occasion of 1,504/. 16s. 7d.,
which had been already paid out of the general funds of
the Society, in addition to the amount of Prizes awarded
at the Shrewsbury meeting.

Mr. Barker continued. — Those accounts had been
submitted to the auditors, and Mr. Blanchard and the
noble lord in the chair could vouch for their correctness;

the books M'ere before them, and every information was
given to test their accuracy. He could not refrain from
making same observations with respect to the large
amount of arrears due to the Society. Much had been
done to diminish that amount, and he was glad to say
that they had succeeded in doing so to the extent of
nearly 2,000/. One great cause of the large amount of
arrears was, that many members in the diffei'ent districts
in which the Society had held its annual shows, had
joined the Society for the year in which the show was to
take place in their own locality, and they did not con-
sider that being once merabers they were bound to con-
tinue their subscriptions. At Cambridge, for instance,
they had a very large additional number of members —
gentlemen connected with the University, who were pre-
sent at the Pavilion dinner, many of whom had never
intended to remain permanent paying members of the
Society. Another cause was, that application for pay-
ment was not promptly made, otherwise it would have
been ascertained that those gentlemen did not intend to
continue members, and then their names would have
been struck off the books of the Society, and the amount
of their subscription would no longer be put down to
swell the amount of the arrears. The same observation
would apply to Liverpool and Bristol, and the subscrip-
tions were not forwarded. When, liowever, application
was made, as the answers came in they disclosed the
real state of the case, and the names were struck off.
Some of them paid, and others had delayed to do so.
During that and the last year a very different system
was pursued, and it was gratifying to know that the
amount of arrears due for the year preceding January,
1845, was greatly less than for any previous year; and
on the current year the number was still less in propor-
tion. The Shrewsbury meeting had added to the deficit,
but that was not a very material point.

Mr. Blanchard said, that from the statement of the
Chairman of the Finance Committee, it appeared that a
larger revenue was returned than was actually received,
and that was occasioned by parties entering themselves
as members who did not intend to continue so per-
manently ; but now that the error was discovered it
would not occur again, and he (Mr. B.) trusted the
explanation given was satisfactory to the meeting.

Lord Portman said that one paragraph of the report
recommended that it should be inserted in the next
Journal that information should be given of any error in
the list of members ; but it should be borne in mind
that no member in arrears received the Journal, and that,
consequently, the insertion of the paragraph would not
have the desired effect ; and he (Lord P.) therefore
thought the members should endeavour to ascertain the
requisite information in their various localities, and
transmit it to the Secretary.

The Duke of Richmond said that he rose to pro-
pose that the thanks of the meeting shovdd be offered
to the gentlemen who acted as Judges at the Shrewsbury
meeting (hear, hear) ; and he hoped they would per-
mit him to express his concurrence in the report of
the Council. He was satisfied that the Society had done
great good, and that it was capable of doing much more.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

^1

It had been stated bj' some that they were expending too
luuch money ou the country shows, and that the district
in which the show was held shouUl pay all the expenses.
Now he difl'ered from those who said so ; and he was
sure that there was no more legitimate or beneficial
manner in which tiiey could expend their funds. {Hear,
hear.) If they were to confine their shows and their
operations to one locality they would do very little good
to the tenant farmer, who could not be present ; but by
slxifting their ground, the tenant farmer could attend the
meetings, and go into the Show Yard. He (the Noble
Duke) considered that there was no more legitimate
manner of sjiending their money. It was true that the
expenditure at .Shrewsbury was great, but that was
principally owing to the want of railway accommoda-
tion ; they were obliged to emjdoy omnibus proprietors
to convey the persons attending the show thirty miles to
and from the railway, and that necessaiily occasioned a
heavy additional expense ; and the want of railways also
kept a great number of persons from attending thesliow.
He thought, therefore, that tlie money was well spent.
Tiie object of the Society was to diffuse information,
ami he hoped that the members would not be so foolish
as to sacrifice the usefuhiess of the institution on account
of any additional expenditure. {Cheers.) He trusted
thev woidd excuse him for makirig these remarks ; and
he begged to propose a vole of thanks to the Judges of
the Shrewsbury show. His Grace further said that he
hoped they would pardon him for leaving the meeting,
as he had the command of Prince Albert to attend him
at the Cattle Yard, where the I'rincc was to call that
morning. {Cheers.)

Mr. HoBiis seconded the motion, and said that he
entirely agreed with what had fallen from the Noble
Duke.

The question was tiien put, and carried.

I\Ir. Brown proposed the thanks of the Society to
Professor Playfair, for his able and instructive lectures
on the " potato disease," and he recommended that the
Professor's opinions should be printed and circulated iu
a cheap pamphlet, for the benefit of tlic working classes.

Mr. Frunch Burke seconded the motion.

Lord PoRTMAN said, the suggestions of the Profes-
sor were exceedingly valuable, and would be fouvid most
useful for the poor.

The motion was then carried.

]Mr. H. PiAXsoME proposed a vote of thanks to the
Royal Institution of Great Britain for the use of the
theatre on that occasion.

Professor Sf.well seconded the motion, which was
carried unanimously.

Mr. DivETT, M.P., impressed on the meeting the
necessity of farmers keeping correct accounts, and urged
the consideration of the Society to the subject. He also
called their attention to the desirableness of holding one
of the annual shows at an early period in Exeter, where
it would be productive of great good.

Lord PoRT>fAx said, that it was a question whether
the wise men of the East should go to the wise men of
the West fii-st, or that the West should go to the East
(lauyhterj.

;\Ir. Wakrenk called the attention of the Society to
the importance of preserving fluid manures.

Lord PoRTMAN said that Mr. Warrene was irregular,
as the subject was before the meeting.

On the motion of Mr. Pusky, the auditors were re-
elected.

On the motion of Mr. Divett, the thanks of the
meeting were voted to the Chairman for his conduct itt
the chair", and the meeting adjourned.

NEW MEMBERS.

Allci!, J nines, Ilult Farm, Pilton, Shcptou-Mallet, Somerset

Anderso)), Joseph, 'VVliitley, Tyiiemouth, Northumberland

Anderson, AVilliam, jiui., Newcastle ou Tjiic

Biigot, Hon. "VVilliaiu, Blithetield, Kugcly, I?tairordshirc

l?atnrd, Thos. Matthias Bearda, Sydenham, Kent

Bell, Thomas, Newcastle ou Tv)ie

Bcil, C'liristophcr Seymour, Cum'jcrliuid Itoad, Newcastle ou

Tyuc
Beuiict, Philip, jmi., IM.P., Roughain Hall, Bur) St. Edmimds
Brown, Kc^•., K G.S., Aicar of Atwick, Ilorusea, Yorkshire
Bull, Humphrey, Aston-Clinton, Triug, Herts
Carr, ^^'illiam Cochrane, Blagdoii, Newcastle on T^iic
Carr, John, Roseworth, Newcastle ou Tync
Can'ol, HuteliLusoi), Tulla House, Nenagh, Co., Tipperavy
Cooksou, Isaac, Meldou Park, jMorpctli, Northumberland
Corucwall, Sir \'cllers, Bart., ^loccas Court, Hereford
Cotton, ^Michael George, The Terrace, AVhite Hart Lane, Tot-
tenham
CoMeu, Jo.5epli, Blagdcu Burn, Newcastle ou Tyuc
Crcs^vcll, A. J. Baker, .\LP., Creswell, Morpeth, Northuinb.
Drumuioud, Dr., IOj, (iloucester-place, Portmau-squarc
Dyke, Henry, Papadc, Jlomuouth
Dyke, J. D., Glo\ers, Sittingbourue, Kent
Elgar, James, "Winghaui, Kent
Fox, Robert, The Lodge, ^Veudo\cr, Bucks
Greenhow, Jolui, Kendal, "Westmoreland
Hcadlam, Thomas Emmersou, JIayor of Newcastle on Tyne
Heani, John Henry, Newport, Isle of Wight
Henderson, Edward, Lowick, 'Wooller, Northumberland
Howard, John, Breretou Hall, Saudbaeh, Cheshire
Ho^^■ard, Hon, James, Ilazelbj', Newbury, Berks
Iluchison, John, ^lonjTaj-, Peterhead, N.B.
James, Thomas, Braudon, Wooller, Northumberlaud
Layeoek, Robert, AVeulatou, Newcastle on T}iie
Laycock, Richard, Weulaton, Newcastle on Tyne
JIajcndie, Ashhm'st, F.R.S., Hechngham Castle, Halstead, Essex
Marshall, John, Aluham, Wliittingham, Aluwiek, Northumb.
]\Iartiuson, Edward, Hedgefield, Newcastle on Tyne
Masou, Thomas, Falhusburn Cottage, Ford, Wooller, North.
Merest, Charles Wilham, The Priory, Fornham, Biuj' St. Ed.

muuds
Jlihie, Oswald, juu., Prestwiek AVood, JIanchester
Naisb, W. B., Stoue-Aatou, Bath
Parker, Rev. Wilham, Rector of Little Comberton, Fershore,

Worcestershire
Parker, Harrington, Parbold Hall, Staudish, Wigan, Lane.
Phillott, Edward Pender, The Clevelands, Dawhsh, Devon
Pope, Thomas, Kidbrook, Blaekheath, Kent
Potter, Addison Langborn, late Mayor of Newcastle ou Tj'ue
Potts, Timothy, Rising Smi, Long Beutou, Newcastle ou T)ne
PuUeinc, James, Crakehall, Bedale, Yorkshire
Rathbone, Basil, Woodcroft, Liveiiiool
Reed, Nicholas Ridley, BjTmess, Redesdale, Jedbmgb, N.B.

82

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Kees, Rees Edwai-d, Packingosli, Newport, Monmouthshire

Spoor, Richard, Whitbuni, Siiuderland, Durham

Stagg, Thomas, Great Bcdwin, Wiltshire

Stent, Bridger, Hastings, Sussex

Swaine, Thomas, Buckingham

Thorp, Thomas, Alnwick, Northumberland

Twining, F., Parbold Hall, Staudish

Yeve, John, Carlton ou Trent, Newark, Notts.

AV^alker, George, Eastwood, Nottingham

AVatts, James, Hythe, Kent

Wells, John, Woodborough. Nottingham

West, Captain, R.N., Jesmoud, Newcastle on Tyue

Wickham, John, Butcombe, Bruton, Somerset

Wilkinson, William, Stainton Vale, Richmond, Yorkshiie.

INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.
By John Towers.

It is alwaj's dangerous to attempt to pro^'e too
much. Since Liebig published his estimable or-
ganic chemistry, it has become a sort of passion to
ascribe every thing — so far as refers to nutriment
derived by roots from the soil — to the inorganic
matters which it supplies to the sap.

A great many facts, one of which I shall shortly
recite, have proved that the earth is the medium
whence plants derive their silex, lime, metalhc ox-
ides, and salts with mineral bases : but what proof
is there that organic gases are not furnished ? and
can any one get rid of the irrefragable truth, that,
just as bulk of food is indispensable to the animal
digestive organs, so bulk of decomposable manures
is of the last importance to the health and luxuriant
growth of every vegetable ?

Of the importance and universal distribution of
inorganic substances throughout nature, it would
not, however, be difficult to furnish decisive proof,
and of this the following experiment may be taken
in evidence.

Every one is acquainted with the simple process
of burning weeds in field and garden ; but few re-
flect upon the conditions which it involves, so apt
are we to pass by the common occurrences of hfe,
though they include phenomena of stupendous
grandeur. Last October I burned the refuse of
the garden, in order to bring its active principles
within the smallest compass: the heap included
raspberiy canes, lettuce stalks that had borne seed,
cabbage and broccoh stems, and weeds, as they
came to hand. A small parcel of the best and
cleanest of the ashes was taken ; and for the sake of
chemical investigation, I submitted three portions
of from 30 to 60 grains to a series of tests (not suf-
ficiently comprehensive doubtless) but which fur-
nished the following results : —

The ashes were first heated in pure water in a
flask for an hour or more, and the hquid was strained
through filtering paper : evaporated to dryness, two
grains of salts were obtained from every 20 grains
of the ashes ; and these salts yielded muriatic acid
in abundance to nitrate of silver, some .(but not so
much) sulphuric acid to nitrate of baryta, and platina

chloride oi iiotassium to perchloride of platina. The
fluid also showed an alkaline reaction to turmeric
paper ; and thus we have ample evidence of the
presence of chloride of sodium, sulphate of soda or
potassa, and of some free potassa, in the soluble
salts obtainable by lixi^'iation of these ashes. The
insoluble ash remaining in the filter, being dried,
and treated with diluted hydrochloric acid, boiled,
filtrated and washed, till free from taste, lost 1 1
grains of 40, and the 29 remaining were fused at a
red heat with about one drachm of carbonate of po-
tassa, by which process they lost 9 grains more.
The first filtrated muriatic solution yielded to caus-
tic ammonia a copious precipitate of oxide of iro?i,
but no phosphate. After filtration and washing, the
hquid which passed was tested by oxalate of ammo-
nia, and deposited much oxalate of lime. The portion
fused with potassawas treated with hydrochloric acid,
and then with water ; and by being passed to a fil-
ter, washed, dried, and weighed, above IG grains of
l)ure silica were obtained, and the clear filtrate
yielded a most copious deposit of Prussian-blue to
the test of prussiate of potash, also one grain of
aluminia to caustic ammonia. These results, which
were essentially "quaUtative," were, nevertheless,
estabUshed by a collateral analysis with nitric acid
to the extent of about three grains, and this defi-
ciency arose chiefly by an accident.

The experiment in itself is specifically worthless,
because it determines no one definite point : still it
leads to the general inference that salts of great con-
sequence exist in all vegetable matter, and become
revealed by combustion ; therefore, that any man
or body of men who can demonstrate the components
of each indiA'idual farm or garden plant, and prove
by accurate tests the constituents of the soil prior
to cropping, and its definite loss or change after a
given crop, must and will be esteemed a benefactor
to the countr)-.

It belongs to our colleges of agriculture and of
chemistrj' to carry out, and faithfully report similar
experiments and results ; and if they succeed, agri-
culture and the sister art, will be exalted in character,
by being established upon abase of i)hilosophic tnith.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

83

REVIEWS.

A Treatise on Sheep; by Ambrose Black-
lock, London ( Groombridge and Sons, Paternoster
RowJ . — To recommend a useful work to the atten-
tion of those for whom it is written ought to be the
duty of the editor of any periodical; but where that
periodical is confined to a particular class of readers,
as is the case with us, and when that class require
eveiy assistance that research and science can give
to enable them to keep their ground M'ith these
changing times, we take it to be an admitted truth
that it is doubly our diity to select only such works
for approval as upon the face of them bear out their
own testimony. The farmer of the present day
finds the most difficult branch of his business to be
the profitable management of hve stock. Disease
for these last seven years has assumed a more for-
midable appearance amongst cattle than hitherto ;
indeed, so much so, as to induce some well minded
and spirited individuals, amongst whom are to be
foimd as patrons the names of His Grace the Duke
of Richmond, Lord Torrington, Lord Abcrcrombie,
Lord Kenyon, and the Hon. Wm. Gage, to associ-
ate themselves into a mutual insurance society,
called the " Farmers' and Graziers' Mutual Cattle
Association," for the purpose of protecting the
farmer by insurance of cattle, as he was hitherto
been enabled to do by insurance against fire. Yet, as
the general treatment of cattle for profit is as neces-
sary to know, as it is prudent by insurance to pro-
tect them from total loss, the perusal and study of
" Blacklock's Treatise on Sheep," which only em-
braces points of importance, and rejects those
which cannot admit of practical application, will be
to the farmer of the first advantage. This work
omits all allusion to foreign varieties of sheep,
thereby stri]3ping away superfluous matter, and
laying only before the reader what directly concerns
himself, viz., those belonging to this country. He
treats on the improvements of their breed in a busi-
ness-like manner, quite intelligible to the plainest
understanding; the remarks on their profitaljle
management — though a difficult business — is na-
turally arranged and classified : the clearest
and most concise terms are used in the direc-
tion for operations, and the means ai-e pointed
out which art affords for the remedy of accidents
to which they are sometimes liable ; and the clear-
ness with which he treats of their diseases, which
are illustrated by engravings, both coloured and
plain, make it a work of reference, not only for the
well educated farmer, but also those who practise

sheep management without previous training. The
whole is wound up with an interesting account, and
remarks on the management, of sheep in Australia.
The Sporting Magazine, from September
to December (M. A. Pitman, Warwick Square.) —
This useful and amusing work continues to be con-
ducted on that same principle which has so long
procured for it the attention and patronage of
sportsmen. In illustration and hterary matter we
find the editor still keeps his team "well coupled up
together ;" Hariy Hie-over, as usual, taking about
the most prominent place amongst them. In all
concerning the chace, the experience of this gentle-
man is well applied. Though, as we recommend Harry
Hie- over for a guide across country, we take some
other of the many good correspondents of this
magazine as authority on the more intricate business
of riding, training, and running the race-horse.

The Sporting Review^, from September to
December (J. Rogerson, 'Norfolk-street, Strand). —
The high abihty \vith which Nimrod and Craven,
by long odds the first men in their line, set the
Sporting Review on its legs, has, within the last
year or so, rather increased than diminished the
excellence of its form and action. Gi'ave and gay,
home and foreign inteUigence, now bring it out with
an effect that nothing but the veiy best hands in
the market being regularly on it could hope of
realizing. Tlie illustration department of the
Sporting Review, more particularly, we have no
hesitation in saying, is scarcely equalled by any
publication of the present day; and the letterpress,
we can add as surely, is rounded off %vith a true
knowledge and elegance of expression (in most
cases), that many more presuming periodicals
might well take a copy from.

The Veterinarian, from September to De-
cember {Longmans, Paternoste7--row). — There are
few professions — not one, indeed — that have ad-
vanced so much of late years as the veterinary art ;
and not a little of this imj)rovement, we are inclined
to think, is due to the periodical which so ably re-
cords its transactions and diffuses its successes.
The four numbers we have now before us are quite
up to its established wortli in every indi\-idual
paper, and as capitally combined as usual by the
able and well-known editors, Messrs. Youatt and
Perci\'all. The continued article on rheumatic
lameness in the horse, by the latter of these gentle-
men ; an extraordinary idea, ^vell worked out, on
the practicability of using horses without shoes, by

F 2

Si

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. Mogford, of Jersey ; and some observatioiiH
on inflammatorj' fever in cattle, by Mr. Barlow, are
amongst the many other clearly expounded contri-
butions which haA'e caught our attention. The
cases, anecdotes, and suggestions from members of
the profession generally, are as abundant and use-
ful as the matter furnished to this department has al-
ways been remarkaljle for.

The DOiMESTICATED AxiMALS OF THE

British Islands; by Professor Low {Longman,
Broun, Green, and Loni/mans). — '• In the rural
economy of this country, a high degree of import-
'ance is to be ascribed to a knowledge of the dis-
tinctive characters of races or breeds. Much of the
profits of the owners depends upon adapting the
breed of any animal to the circumstances in which
it is to be placed." So says Professor Low in the
preface to the present edition of his veiy able and
comprehensive work, and so we beg leave most
cordially to echo. The observation as to the bene-
fit derivable might indeed, we think, be made al-
most equally applicable to any country, though in
none are these said circumstances so carefully or
profitably attended to as in our own. llie Arab
may mess mth his horse, the Brahmin worship his
bull, the Spaniard boast of his sheep, or the Esqui-
maux his dog, while the Enghshman could com-
pete with all four, and with every chance of suc-
cess, mainiy from that greater spirit of enterprise
and improvement which a high state of civilization
so rarely fails to produce. The domesticated ani-
mals of the British Islands are then, in fact, one of
the greatest triumphs we have, and to which nearly
all the rest of the world are wont to look for breeds
of standard excellence. Any book, consequently,
of so very general a nature as professing to include
the whole of them and their varieties, must be sup-
ported by an immense amount of not only i)ersonal
experience and thorough acquaintance with each
individual subject, but also of hard study in col-
lating the opinions of others, to secure it that high
standing amongst publications of itg class we may
natui'aUy expect it aspires to. This work, though,
as we have already stated, does not come before us
in an entirely new form ; a much larger and more

horse, and the dog, preceded by a very elaborate
introduction on the divisions of the animal king-
dom, and an anatomical consideration of external
form ; in all, eight hundred and eighty pages of
matter, which, it is about the greatest recommenda-
tion to say, as we very safely can, comprises the
cream of the Professor's original work. If there
be anything to cavil at, it is the paucity and poor-
ness of the engravings — a point in which the first
edition has a superiority that we should hardly
have expected, from the subsequent advance in
wood-engraving. Perhaps, howe\'er, any equal im-
provement in this line would have been incom-
patible with the cheap character the book now
assumes.

The extract we gi\'e will show that in all the
British islands the improvement in, and the method
of managing some of the so-by-custom called do-
mesticated animals, are not exactly in accordance
^^'ith that national ci\'ilization on which we have just
been compHmenting om'selves. It is an exception,
however, that we transfer to our pages more from
its very singularity than anytliing else. " Tlie
sheep, over a great part of these islands (the Ork-
neys) are pastured in common; and the general
treatment of them is rude in a remarkable degree.
The animals are often left entirely to their own re-
sources in the bleak and desolate islands in which
they are imprisoned. They are collected by being
hunted together, once a year, stripped of their
fleeces, marked by their respective owners, and then
turned adrift, until such as survive are caught
again in the following year, and subjected to the
same treatment. In all cases the number of I'amg
is allowed to be disproportioned to that of the ewes ;
and in many cases the number of sexes are nearly
equal. When sheep are wanted from the pastures,
they are run down by dogs ; and hence these poor
creatures acquire as great a terror for the dog as in
other countries they do for the wolf, or other beasts
of prej'. The dogs, termed Had or sheep dogs,
are taught to select a particular sheeji, and run
him down ; and curious old laws existed regarding
the property and control of these animals. Under
the whole of this barbarous system, the mortality
is excessive ; all the property to be derived from a

expensive edition in two volumes, by the same proper management of a flock of sheep is lost ; and

hand, on the same subjects, having for many years
established itself; subsequent alterations and im-
provements, together with a desire for cheapness
and condensation, alone requiring it to be re-
written. An addition, moreover, we should say, is
very properly made in the article on the Dog ; and
the single volume now contains the history and the
description of six distinct animals, with every
known variety ever introduced into this country.
These are the goat, the sheep, the ox, the hog, the

cill the means are foregone of improA'ing the breed,
by the selection of the male and female parents,"

The Duke of Richmond has been unanimously
elected President of the Smithfield Club. By this
appointment his Grace udll have filled the high
ofiice of President of the four most leading societiea
in Great Britain connected ^vith Agriculture.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

8&

llllCI l',J j,-,)>

M E T E O R 0 LOCI C A L D I A R Y

Barometer.

Thermometer.

1 Wind and

State.

Atmosphere.

Day.

1
8 a.m.j 10p.m.

1

Min.

Max.

1 ^

10p.m.

1

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 ]). in.

10 p. m.

Xov. 2 -2

in. ots. j in. c(s.
29,60 1 29.68

35

45

34

N. West.

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

2.3

29.81 1 29.9S

31

41

32

N. by ^N'est

gentle

fine

sun

fine

24

.30.00 ; 30.11

30

40

32

N. by East

br.,gen.

fine

sun

cloudy

2.5

30.02 29.98

32

46

38

S. West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

26

29.84 i 29.84

38

52

51

S. West

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

27

29.98 ' 29.88

48

52

48

W., S. West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

28

29.69 1 29.57

46

51

50

W., S. West

strong-

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

29

29.73 1 29.70

41

50

40

S. E., N, East

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

30

29.85 j 29.95

35

46

39

N.W., S. W.

brisk

fine

sun

fine

Dec. 1

29.95 : 29.97

39

47

40

\^^ by South

brisk

fine

sun

cloudv

2

29.96 ! 29.64

40

47

42

W. by South

brisk

fine

sun

cloudy

.'} 29.47 ; 29.54 |

34

44

33

West

brisk

fine

cloudy

fine

4

29.70 29.50

31

43

43

W.byN..S.W.

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

.'i

29.48 ' 29.50

42

48

38

W.toW.byN.

bi'isk

fine

sun

fine

6

29.50 i 29.48

33

46

33

j S. W., South

gentle

fine

sun

fine

- • 7

29.63 1 29.96

31

42

32

! N. by West

gentle

fine

sun

fine

8

30.10 j .30.00

26

45

45

S. by East

\ar. calm

fine

cloudy

cloudy

9

30.10 1 30.17 i

40

47

37

N. West

gentle

fine

sun

fine

10 30.28 30.28 !

34

43

35

N.N.E.,N.W.

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

U\ 29.97 30.00

35

50

39

N. Northerly

V. strong

fine

sun

cloudy

12| 30.20 ' 30.38

33

40

32

N.,N.byW.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

131 .30.41 1 30.40

28

36

33

N., N, by W.

lively

cloudy

sun

fine

14| 30.33 i .30.01

32

45

45

West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

15 29.77

29.80

38

50

40

W. byX., W.

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

16! 29.80

29.80 i

40

48

46

: ^\^ by North

l)risk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

171 29.80 1 29.63

42

45

42

various, S. E.

gentle

haze

cloudy

cloudy

IS 29.80 1 29.GO

40

46

39

I S. E. to N. E.

brisk

haze

cloudy

cloudy

19 29.35 i 28.98

33

4 5

35

i S.W.,W.byN.

variable

cloudy

cloudy

fine

20

28.81

29.00 !

34

41

35

1 N. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

fine

Barometer.

High. I Low.

30.320

29.120

estimated averages
Thermometer. !

OF DECEMBER.

High. I Low. I Mean.

55

17

39.3

Real Average Temperature of the period.

High.
45.55

Low.
36

Mean.

40.775

Weather and Phenomena.— November 22,
cold, tending to frost. 23, fine frosty day. 24, fine
day, changeable evening. 25, much rain early ; clear
damp evening. 26, much rain in the past night; high
mnd. 27, pleasant, tranquil, and warm day. 28,
same, though quite overcast. 29, much rain from
before noon. 30, beautiful and drying day. Si.x-
teen days in November wherein it has rained more
or less ; very little frost at any time, none through-

North and N. East Winds.. 3^:

East and to South .... 4 7^

South and South West 10^

West and to North 10

days.

out an entire day, December 1, rain in the night,
and again early, but fine mid-day. 2, fine forenoon ;
windy, wet evening. 3, fine early and late; day
changeable, with sleet ; aurora borealis in the north.
4, fine day ; wet evening, 5 lively, cool day. 6, frost
rime remains on shady spots. 7, clear, with frosty
air. 8, thaw after white frost ; compound clouds
and rain at night. 9, another fine change ; high
state of barometer established. 10, very fine day;

86

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

\'ariable at night; and tlie same throughout the
11th, with strong wind. 12, frosty air. 13, strong
rime ; the coldest day. 14, a decided change, and
the end of the fine sunny days, 15, broken clouds;
no sun, but pleasant. 16, the same. 17, foggy;
drizzhng rain. 18 hazy; exceedingly wet. 19, sleet
showers, and furious gusts; ground soaked. 20,
brisk showers, othermse improved ; wnd keen ;
and evening fine.

The chief phenomena are found in the singular
and beautiful hne or arch formed by all the visible |
planets; the whole autumn has been thus enriched.
Rain on eleven days. I

Lunations. Nov. 22, last quarter, 4h. 26m.
morning. 29th, new moon, llh. 41m. forenoon.
Dec. first quarter, 6th day, 2h. 52m. morning; ftdl
moon, 13th day, 6h. 43m. evening.

Remarks Referring to Agriculture.— The
weather has been favoiu-able to the plough — in
Berkshire at least — and everything is looking well :
more we cannot report. The wheat is healthy and
green, for the few frosts we have had have been
sufficient to check luxuriance, and a mild mnter,
as a whole, is propitious, and offers a good prog-
nostic.

Maidenhead Thicket, J. Towers.

CALENDAR OP HORTICULTURE— JANUARY.

We defer our retrospective remarks to the latest
period at command, and therefore postpone them
till the end of this article. With the new year we
propose to commence our observations in those
departments in which activity must prevail, since it
is also evident that aU external work must be con-
tingent. Another motive also offers itself, because
on the very day when the manuscript of the present
calendar was commenced, a casual call at a neigh-
bouring nursery presented to view a furnace for
the propulsion of hot water through forcing houses,
that promises to effect all the objects for which we
have upon several occasions contended. It had
just come to hand ; therefore another opportunity
must be embraced to describe the mode in which
it will be set up, and the arrangement of the hot
water channels, so as to obtain regular bottom heat
in a propagation tank, and a temperate or warm
atmosphere equally throughout the whole house-
Suffice it to say, that the ])oiler is the furnace,
which, from its structure, is called " the saddle
boiler;" that the fire acts horizontallj% as in the
common brick oven-furnace, reposing upon bars,
and prepared to burn any kind of fuel, of the
cheapest description, with a slow or rapid draught,
leaving nothing whatever unconsumed, save the
merest incombustible ashes, that fuel of eveiy de-
scription must ultimately yield. After these pre-
liminary remarks, we commence with

The Forcing Department.
Early Vinery. — Many persons begin forcing the
vine with the new year ; but as grapes require at
least five months to become properly ripe, the first
vine ought to be now green, and the temperature
raisedbydayto68°,and by night to 58—60°. If the
fire is not yet lighted, the house should be warmed

I by degrees, beginning at 50, and increasing
moisture in proportion to the advance of tempera-
ture. They who argue for vapour, and the con-
dition of the bagnio, direct to wash the stems of
the trees, to syringe till the branches drip with
water, and the floors become flooded. Others
there are who repudiate moisture and steam. The
red spider maj' be kejit down by steam, and
sometimes by sulphur; but there ai'e houses in
which it never has infested the vines. Every one
must act according to his own object. If large
fruit be aimed at, rigid thinning and very great
moisture will be required ; but if richness of flavour
be sought, judicious thinning, and high tempera-
ture by day, with little moisture at any time, must
be adopted.

The fruiting pine-stove must be kept regularly
at 70 to 75°, and much higher with sun and air ;
the succession pits pretty warm, moist, and with
little air ; nothing can support a close vaporous at-
mosphere better than the growing pine; and the
steam of fermenting stable manure, moving
through hned flues, as in M'Phael's pits, is most
congenial.

The earth for pines is an open, silky loam-turf,
with no artificial manure ; the inorganic constitu-
ents of the pine ought, in fact, to be correctly
determuied, and perhaps it may be found, that bone
earth, or super-phosphate of lime, will be useful —
we must make this a matter of research.

The peach-pit and house must be excited with
great caution, for the least excess of fire in the
blooming season wiH cause the loss of the germs of
all the varieties, unless we may except the Royal
George and Noblesse. 40 to 48° by fire may be
the limits, and air is of great consequence.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

87

Flowrr House.

The water and tank system answers perfectly,
and, with the furnace just described, ought to su-
persede every mode of warming flower houses, be-
cause of the sweet genial temperature and the
perfect cleanness of foliage which are maintained.
Even in the dark winter months of 1844-5 it was
interesting to behold the beautiful floral specimens
that were produced in January and Fe])ruary, and
the immense number of lovely flowers devoted to
form the bouquets of fashion, all produced by hot
water forcing. The only defects are in the tanks,
where it should seem that nothing can supersede
tan, leaves, or manure, as the plunging mediiun.
Heat, radiated merely through a substance, like
sand, &c., that has none in itself, cannot produce
the same results as that which is developed within
the mass of substances in a state of chemical de-
composition.

Keep np 55 to 60° in flower and propagation
houses, and 40 to 45" in the geranium and succu-
lent departments. The hard wooded tribes will
generally do well in pits, sunk and protected, with
free air and little, if anj', heat.

In frames, and with gentle hot-beds, radishes,
lettuce, a few carrots, and saladings are raised;
and so may be the cabbage tribes that have suftered
by intense frost. Such accidents occur now and
then, but frame-culture finds a remedy. Here,
too, we recommend the oiled screens, formerly de-
scribed, to be secured by fillets ; straw mats, also,
properly woven, become a most effectual defence.

Hot beds for cucumbers and melons may be
forwarded ; but the safest of all erections are the
fluid brick pits, heated all round by masses of dung
and leaves placed between it and four walls that
form the facings to spaces excavated for the pur-
pose. In aid of the linings, a small hot water
apparatus is very advantageous.

Potatoes will be in requisition very early ; and it
is probable that many persons who never thought
of a potato raised by artificial heat, will have recourse
to fluid pits or vacant spaces in vineries and else-
where, to produce an early supply. The plan ap-
pears very feasible, especially as a trifling degree of
heat will stimulate the tubers.

Sow kidney beans in the hot-house, and intro-
duce to gentle heat a few pots of Keene's straw-
berry',

r Vegetable Garden.

First week, sow peas of any early kind : Mazagan
and long-pod beans ; a fair crop of each, three or
four inches deep.

In the last week, sow second early ])eas, Dutch
and Cilicia lettuce, and radish seed.

Protect early-sown cropsj by litter, also celery

I rows by boards or lines of bean-stalks j)laced
closely on each side.

A new mode of hardening asparagus, and render-
ing it highly prolific, has been suggested. Instead
of throwing earth out of the alleys or intermediate
spaces between single rows, and therewith covering
the plants, we are told to fork off the soil from the
plants, ])artially exposing the crowns, and, as spring
approaches, to dig the alleys, making the earth fine,
and thro^^^ng it over the crowns to a full depth.
The trench thus formed on each side is to be filled
with good manure. We would try a portion, for it
is quite certain that asparagus is perfectly hardy ;
and, again, that manure applied at the season of
growth is in its proper place, and more likely to
stimulate and feed the plants than when it lies inert
OA'er their crowns, or even in trenches during the
season of torjjidity.

To force asparagus and sea-kale, attend to former
directions.

Trench and ridge open plots, remove litter, and
prepare compost manures. These ought to be
compounded for specific objects, and we shall
never be gardeners in the full sense of the term
until we know the elements of soils as appropriate
to every individual vegetable,' But to this know-
ledge the mind aspires ; and when organic chemis-
try shall have discovered those constituents which
are jjeculiar to a plant, and analytic chemistry shall
have detected the presence or absence, after crop,
of the given element, then we may feel assured that
we act upon principle in preparing a compost for
asparagus, for potatoes, broccoli, cal)bage, and so
on to the end of the catalogue. "We are sure of
the presence of oxj'gen, hydrogen, and carbon, in
all vegetables and animal refuse, therefore jiretty safe
in as much as refers to the organic elements ; but at
present we remain subjects of conjecture only when
applying manures on the general system of enrich-
ment.

Fruit Department.

Neither plant nor prune any superior tree, and
continue the defences of the fig and others that have
been covered. At the close, it may be well to regu-
late the berry-bearing shrubs ; for, if the weather
be open, their buds will enlarge. Begin with goose-
berry-bushes, and, as a system, prefer to cut away
so many of the oldest bearing branches as to leave
a regular supply of the best situated shoots of last
year. But some gooseberry trees produce close-
set spurs the entire length of even old branches,
and also have a handsome fruit-spur at the base of
worthless twigs. In such a case, leave the fruitful
branch, and cut back the twigs everywhere — most
of them entirely away, but others to the spur at
their base.

S8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Spur boldly the eurranth-, al\vay.s excepting the
black-fruited, leaving the bearing-shoots bristled
IVom top to bottom with clustering, short spurs ;
then cut back all the leading young wood to an
inch or two of its origin, and also retain any fine
new shoot that will advantageously supply a fresh
bearer.

Raspberries : cut out all the weakly canes, re-
taining four to sLx good ones ; prune these to a bud
below the curve, then tie the shoots to a stake, or
open, against a trellis. Some gardeners confine
them to a row of stakes, set in sloping from the
south towards the north, at an angle of about 30
degrees from the perpendicular. In that way, the
young wood of the following season will grow up-
right without interfering -with the bearing-shoots.
Keep the rows orderly by grubbing up all the ramb-
ling suckers.

As the plot of these shrubs are pruned, lightly
fork the soil an inch or two to remove weeds, and
dress the surface with manure. Never dig with the
spade, especially among raspberries, because the
roots are thereby injured.

Shrubbery and Ornamextal Ground.

At the end of the month, if the weather prove
open, fork and turn over the soil, burjnng the dead
leaves J trim off supernumerary shoots and mis-
placed branches. If snow fall, let it be speedily
shaken off the exposed evergreens^ to prevent sun-
scalding.

Keep the edges of lawns neat ; weed gravel walks ;
and suffer no filth to accumulate.

The flower-garden should not be distm-bed at
this season of the year. January is often mild and
delusive, by which persons are too apt to be misled.

Retrospect : So far, we have a mild, earlj' winter
— the very contrast of December, 1844. Then,
gloom, fog, and intense frost prevailed; now, we
have just perceived two or three rimy frosts, have
enjoyed a very fair proportion of sun, and an ample
supply of penetrating rain. Vegetables have been
plentiful and good, and every kind of "greens"
remains rich and in excellent condition. Turnips,
carrots, parsnips, and beets, were never better ;
and celery, though a good deal of it is small, can-
not be complained of.

Of potatoes — so contradictory are reports, many
of which have an interested motive — that we can
offer no decided opinion. At all events, our own
are, and have been, excellent, and keep well, though
perhaps one-fifth part was sacrificed, hanng some
taint. All the preser^-ative and restorative pro-
cesses recommended are just so many words
wasted ; bad potatoes cannot be cured, and good
ones require only perfectly dry treatment, and this
they ought always to enjoy, There wU be no lack,

if our own vicinity be taken as a guide to an opi
nion ; for if half a sack can be bought for 3s., or
even a single bushel for 28., in the face of all the
denunciations of famine, what is to be said ? Pota-
toes are dear in comparison, but so are bread, meat,
and other recjuisites ; yet none of these articles are
so high in price as they have been within the short
period of twelve years.

As to tubers for seed, we are keeping a sack or
two of those which are discoloured in the rind ex-
pressly for the purpose, and have already planted
seven rows. If we can keep the others safe from
frost we fear not the disease, having already pre-
served infected tubers from September last without
perceiving any deterioration. — December 20.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — " A Subscriber" wishes to get a plan of
an eflicient kiln for charring peat, at a moderate
cost, on Mr. Smith's (of Deanston) plan.

Sir, — Having a large quantity of a mixture of
road scrapings, ditch cleanings, and rubbish from
old buildings, I shall feel greatly obliged if any of
your correspondents will inform me of the best and
cheapest mode of improving its fertihzing proper-
ties. I am, yom's respectfully,

iNaUIRER.

Sir, — In your magazine for September there is
a \'ery useful and ably ^nntten article, by James
Anderson, Esq., '• On the indications which are
practical guides forjudging of the fertility or bar-
renness of the soil." In the above article the
principal guides to an observer of the natural state
of the soil are the various j^lants, &;c., therein
stated ; these plants, to me, and I have no doubt to
a great many others, are unknown by their ])roper
names ; I should therefore feel obhged by j'oiu- in-
forming me, in your next month's pubhcation,
■\\'hether you are aware of there being any agricul-
tural botanical work, wherein the plants, 8<c., ai"e
not only descril)ed by their respective names, &c.,
but are shown by coloured engravings, so that the
same might be easily observed and recognized by a
person unacquainted with the botanical name. By
informing me of the above, and the name of such
work, )'ou will confer a favour on.

Sir, your obedient servant,

Waltham Abbey, Essex. Delta.

[The late Mr. Loudon's, and Dr. Parnell's, are
the best works on grasses. Loudon's Encyclo-
paedia of British Plants is considered to rank the
foremost of all such works.— Ed. F. M.]

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

80

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR DECEMUER,

Notwithstanding we liavo now arrived at the
close of 1845, the atmosphere during the whole of
the past month has heen extremely mild and ve-
getative. In all parts of England, as well, indeed,
as throughout the United Kingdom, farm labours
have progressed remarkably well, and it aftbrds us
great pleasure to be ena})led to assert that the wn-
ter wheat i)lants are everywliere represented as
looking strong and healthy, although they stand
much in need of a few sharp frosts to check pre-
mature exuberance.

Tlie events which have taken place in political
circles, since the date of our last report, ha^•e been
of a character calculated to arouse the energies of
the agricultural body, in support of their just
rights and privileges. As these events are of the
liighest possible interest at this moment, we shall
here, take a cursory glance at them, in order that
our numerous readers may have an o^jpoi'tunit}' of
preparing themselves for any future legislative
enactments that may be passed having refer-
ence to the import of the staft' of life. The deci-
ded change which has taken ])lace in the views of
Lord John Russell, his Lordship now asserting
that a total free-trade is inevitable ; the disunity in
Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet, on the corn question ;
and the various changes in the ministry, have
produced a degree of excitement, seldom or never,
equalled. The strenuous etforts of the Anti-corn-
law League — the immense amoimt of subscrip-
tions obtained by that bodj', to cany, as they term
it, " war into the enemy's camp " — appear to im-
press many with the belief, that the days of protec-
tion to the agriculturists are numbered. The re-
sult, therefore, has been, that great activity
prevailed in o\u- principal corn markets in the
month's early part, and the quotations of wheat
and all other articles of grain, from the nnwilling-
nes3 on the ))art of dealers to purchase, on, as they
conceived, the eve of a repeal of the corn \&v,-h, be-
yond what they require for innnediate use. Under
those circumstances, it was but natural that the
growers should forward limited supplies of wheat
for sale; hence, from the 2'2nd till the close of the
month, the demand for that article ruled steady,
and prices improved from 2s, to 3s. per quarter.

.ud'

Looking at these fluctuations in value, we are
somewhat struckwith thefi)llyofpartise anticipating
extremely low[prices from the publication of rumours
— nothing more — respecting the fate of our import
laws.

That some change in the existing laws is in con-
templation, not a doubt can exist. What its exact
nature may be, it would be nnpossible at this mo-
ment to state ; still we will endeavour to reply to
the question put to us by many of the leading far-
mers : " Will Sir Robert Peel propose a total re-
peal of the corn laws in the ensuing session ? "
\\e have careftiUy watched the progress of events
for a long time past, and made the most extensive
inquiries as to the stocks of wheat, and other arti-
cles of grain, in the hands of the growers : we have
not failed to take into the account the partial failure
of the potato crop — the stocks of foreign grain and
Hoiu- in ^\'arehouse here — the supplies now on their
passage hither from dift'erent parts of the world —
the quantities that will be received here during the
new year — and above all, the consuming powers of
our popidation. All these lead us to the inference
(we tiiay be mistaken in our impressions), that all

PROTECTION WILL NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE
HOME GROWERS IN THE NEXT SESSION. Still,

it is clearly evident that the produce of our colonies
will 1)6 placed on the same footing as that of
Canada ; and we should in no way be surprised to
find Sir Robert Peel proposing a fixed duty — say of
4s. or 5s. on wheat, and a nominal one on barley
and other articles of foreign growth.

Tlie mildness of the weather has l)een productiv-
of a good supply of pasture herbage. This togee
ther with the superabundance of turnips and other
food, has afforded a most plentiful supply of food for
depastured and other cattle stock, which is now suf-
fering but little, if anything, from the epidemic.
This subject we have more fully enlarged upon in
our " Review of the Cattle Trade," which will be
found in another column.

From Scotland, our advices are of a favourable
character. The wheats above ground are described
as luxuriant, though not to say winter proud :
while the land is, generally speaking, in fine work-
ing order.

90

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

In taking a re^'iew of the cattle trade during the
month just concluded, we may observe that several
features of somewhat peculiar interest have again
presented themselves to our notice. The most im-
jjortant may, perhaps, be considered the importa-
tion of hve stock from abroad under the new tariff.
Notwithstanding the present advanced season, not
less than -2,210 beasts, 3,329 sheep, 2 calves, and
89 pigs, have come to hand in the port of London
direct from Rotterdam, Hamburgh, and Harlingen,
in, generally .speaking, good condition. At the
outports, the arrivals have been good — namely, 397
l)easts and 510 sheep, wholly from Holland. To
show the increasing importance of this trade, we
may observe that, at the corresponding period in
1 844, only about 400 oxen and cows, together with
about 90 shee]), were imported fiom the continent.
Respecting the condition of the foreign beasts, we
may observe that they carry a very large quantity
of internal fat, but that the eatable quality of the
flesh is by no means first-rate. From the exertions
still making by the Dutch and German graziers to
forward large additional supplies of fat stock to
our markets, it is quite evident they have been ob-
taining a remunerative profit by their late ship-
ments. As has been the case for some months
past, immense numbers of beasts are now being fed
in the principal distilleries in various parts of Hol-
land ; hence it is reasonable to suppose that every
opportunity will be taken advantage of to supply
our markets freely in future. The prices obtained
for the foreign beasts lately arrived in the metro-
polis have varied from £14 to £22 ; the sheep, 36s.
to 47s. per head. The last official returns, made up
to the 5th of November, give the following as the
total imports during the last three years, ending on
that date : —

As a matter of course, the holding of the various
local cattle shows has attracted much of the atten-
tion of our agriculturists and others. As we pre-
dicted some time since, the stock brought together
for competition, taking the country generally —
though we confess a large number of the beasts
has not come up to the weight of some former
seasons — has been more even in quality than we
have had to report for a series of years past. This,
of course, must be chiefly attributed to the ex-
cellent green crops gathered in the course of the
)'ear. The proceedings in Smithfield ha\dng been
the centre of attraction, we may observe that the
supplies of beasts have exceeded those of most
past years, both as respects number and quality ;
indeed, we never recollect to have seen a more even
collection than that exhibited on the " great day."
The numbers of sheep haA'e, however, been small,
though of first-rate quality. In this particular, the
supplies have never been equalled. Those during
the last four years have been as under ; —
December.

Oxen and bulls - -
Cows - - - - -
Calves - - - _

1843.
1,019
348
36

1S44.

2,889

836

53

1845.

8,118

4,600

565

Sheep - - - .
Lambs . . . .
Swine and hogs

190

6

319

1,272

16

237

8,263
812
656

1842. 1843. 1844.

Beasts., 14,820.. 13,290.. 13,290

Sheep ..129,400 .. 110,362 .. 113,290

Calves .. 1,182 .. 980 .. 964

Pigs 2,412.. 1,260.. 1,340

The comparison of prices stands thus ;•
Per 8lbs. to sink the offal.
December.

1843. I 1844.
fl. s. d. !S. d. s.
6to4 6 12 8to4

Beef !3
:Muttou [3
Veal j3
Pork l2

1842.
A. s.
2to4
4 4
8 4
8 4

d. s.

6 12

2 10

3 0

2 10
13 0
12 10

1845.

17,712

98,660

862

2,671

1845.

d. s.

10to4
4 5
0 5
6 5

The steadiness observed for some months past in
the demand for sheep in the whole of our principal
markets, but more especially in Smithfield, has
formed powerful inducements for the foreigner to
ship that description of stock, M'hich has, we hear,
paid remarkably well.

Owing to the superabundance of food, the stock
on most of our large farms has fared extremely well,
during the whole of the month ; and it aflfords us
great pleasure to state that but few cases of epidemic,
or foot rot, have come under our observation.

The numbers of beasts shown on the great
Christmas market days, in the undermentioned
years, were as follows : —

Years. Head.

1839 . . . 5,074

1840 . . . 3,528

1841 . . . 4,500

1842 . . . 4,541

1843 . . . 4,510

1844 . . . 5.713

1845 . . . 5,326

The past month's supplies of beasts have l)een
chiefly drawn from the following districts : —

Northern counties 6,500 head.

Western and Midland 3,900

Eastei-n do 1,000

Other parts of England 2,400

Scotland 400

Ireland 900

The remainder has been derived from abroad
and the neighbourhood of the Metropolis.

On the whole, the beef trade has ruled less active
than on some former occasions ; yet good clearances

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

91

have been eifected by the salesmen at oiir quota-
tions. Up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets
the arri\'als of slaughtered meat, from \'arious
distant parts, have been moderately good, but by no
means extensive. Generally speaking, the trade has
ruled steady, and prices have been well supported.
Beef has sold at from 2s, 8d. to 3s, lOd, ; mut-
ton, 3s. 4td. to 4s, 8d. ; veal, 4s, to 5s, ; and
pork, 3s. 4d. to 5s. 4d, per Slbs., by the carcass,

nie Coventry supplies have been derived as
under : —

Carcasses.

Beasts. Sheep, Calves. Pigs.

Scotland 195 1330 — 1490

Yorkshire 210 1590 — 1900

Lincolnshire 237 990 — 270

Norfolk 120 280 — 320

Suffolk 120 340 — 360

Cambridgeshire.. 210 320 — 320

Essex... 170 450 367 720

Surrey 280 890 310 940

Devonshire .... — — — 266

Wiltshire 215 460 264 380

Other parts .... 350 750 320 700

BERKSHIRE.

They who I'ecollect, or can refer to, the Meteorological
Diary of December, 1844, must be surprised at the re-
markable difference of the weather which characterizes
the present season. The whole month was dry, the
frost very severe, the wind from east and north-east
piercing in the extreme ; Christmas-day was cold,
foggy, and cheerless, to the last degree ; the grass
brown as the soil in which it was rooted. Now, i
December instant, we count fourteen or fifteen days
more or less rainy, three or four days with morning
frosty rime, and many (to cite the 24th as a splendid
example) whereon the sun has been briUiant as in March,
This season has been most favourable to the turnip
crop, to clover, to tlie labours of the plough, and to
the early progress of wheat. The grass has been, and
is, so abundant and green, that food for cattle is rich,
and in every respect favourable. So far our report is most
encouraging ; because no time has been lost, nothing
has been injured, and, if provisions are too dear, the
poor labourers have not been tried and brought into
jeopardy by bitter weather. It is impossible to prog-
nosticate the future condition of the crops and of live
stock ; but we can assert that the rick-yards abound with
plenty, and the potatoes appear to keep very well, and to
fall in price. We are not by any means satisfied of the
worth of this vegetable, to which we seem to attach so
much importance as to raise the famine cry, because —
like a crop of apples which promised to be heavy beyond
wont — it happens to have been visited with an epidemic
which perhaps has removed one-sLxth of its entire pi-o-
duct. The tuber of the potato yields about one-seventh
of starch or arrow-root, capable of being mixed with
flour as a pudding, or of being reduced to a spoon-meat,
that loses its consistency in a very short time, and be-
comes fluid like water. It also contains a certain pro-

portion of fibre-cellular pulp, which, by adding bulk,
may in some degree fill the stomach, and so far call forth
its digestive powers. With a due proportion of farina-
ceous flour, as oatmeal, and taken with a little animal
food, the potato is worthy of care and attentive cultiva-
tion ; but its excellence is not paramount, nor does it
claim the dole that has been bestowed upon the partial
and perhaps salutary check that it has received. To
recur to the subject of wheat, it should seem — in our
vicinity, at least— that the plant, though healthy, is not
so rank or close upon the ground as usual ; and this
seems to afi"ord evidence of a more general economy of
seed. It is quite certain that much seed has long ^been
wasted ; but again, experience warrants the fact that
dibbled or thin-sown seed, which always tillers most
freely, is later at harvest, and ripens irregularly ; hence
it should be in the ground some weeks earlier than
broad-cast ori_thickly-sown seeds. It is highly probable
that, were all land deeply and effectively drained by
means of tiles, soles, and broken or pebble-stones, so
deep as to allow fourteen inches of staple soil for the
plough, such land, ploughed and finely pulverized,
would yield vastly abundant crops from seeds dotted
singly (or nearly so, as might be) into drills, pressed
by the wheel-presser ; and that in preference to sowing
in holes by dibble, because of the equality of depth
and firmness of bottom thus obtained. Our societies,
which appear to flourish, ought to determine such facts,
with all their exceptions and peculiarities, so as to leave
no doubt on the subject. The husbandry of the empire
is susceptible of improvement beyond conception, and it
merits all the attention that the good and skilful can be-
stow upon it, — Dec. 25,

EAST CUMBERLAND.
The time has now arrived when something like a
probable estimate can be made of the result of the har-
vest. It is worse than useless at any time to merely
guess, and that incorrectly, upon a subject of so much
importance. But, at a time like the present, fraught
with more than usual interest, it behoves every one to
speak with care and caution, and after obtaining the
best information within their reach. Before proceeding
to notice the state and produce of the grain crops, &c.,
it may not be amiss to take a cursory review of the
whole season. The months of February and March not
only being favourable as to weather for the progress of
farming operations, but being preceded by an unusually
dry winter, accompanied by a long succession of frost,
farm labovu- proceeded quickly, and the spring grain
was got in under favourable circumstances, and the
opportunity was good for getting the land intended for
green crops into good order for the reception of the
seed. Potatoes were got in under more than commonly
favourable circumstances, and came better, with fewer
complaints of dry-rot, than for several years preceding.
During a considerable part of the month of May, the
weather was cloudy and cold, with slight showers from
the east ; but the rain was never in such quantity as to
saturate the land, and, consequently, the turnip crop
was got favourably in, and was finished rather earlier

92

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

than usual. A considerable part of the month of June
being veij hot, crops of every description progressed
rapidly ; and although the weather l)ecanie unsettled
about the beginning of July, the rain that fell was never
in such quantities as even to fill the ditches until the
month of August ; and the watering ponds in many
fields were without water until that time. Consequently
the summer, although cloudy and cold, attended by
showery weather, could not be said to be a wet one.
The hay crop, both lea and meadow, was generally
well got in. There were exceptions to this ; but where
this was the case, it was generally in those parts where
they were late in cutting; and, if the crop suffered
greatly, it was owing, in a considerable degree, to the
want of activity in the parties themselves ; so the crop,
generally speaking, might be said to be well got in.
Owing to the long continued frost, the spring was not a
favourable one for wheat, particularly late sown, some
of which was much afi'ected by wire-worm, was conse-
quently late, ripened unevenly, and was defective both
in quality and yield. Fortimately this was only par-
tially the case ; and the crop of wheat taken altogether
will be equal, if not supeiior, to the crop of 1814.
On the cold lands in the high-lying districts the crop
of wheat will be most defective, owing to the cold
weather and consequent late harvest ; but this will be
quite compensated for by the earlier and more favour-
able districts, where the wheat will yield better, and is
of better quality than lust year. The market is the best
place to judge of the general quality ; and although many
inferior samples appear at market, and much of it in
bad condition, yet millers have mucli less difficulty in
getting choice samples for the liner qualities of flour
than they had last year ; and it is generally sound,
very little of it having sprouted before being taken
from the iield. It was generally got in good condition ;
when not so, it was mostly ov.-ing to the impatience of
parties causing them to hurry it in before its proper
time. It cannot fail to be observed that in a late cold
harvest, although attended with a considerable quantity
of rain, the risk of the crop being materially injured by
the weather is much less than generally supposed, owing
to the low temperature, aided by winds common at that
late season, preserving it from harm. Barley was,
generally speaking, a full crop as to bulk on dry land ;
on cold late land indifferent ; but as only a small por-
tion is sown on that kind of land, it would not affect
the general produce much. On suitable soils it was
bulky, and yields well, and is of better quality than
last year, and weiglis well, some of it exceeding .'iC lbs.
the imperial bushel. Oats were a full average in bulk,
yield well, and are fully^f better quality than last year.
Altogether, the stack-yards are better filled, and the
produce from the flail will exceed that of 1844. Tur-
nips are a good crop, and are now selling cheaper than
at the commencement of the season, owing partly to the
high price of mutton inducing the feeders to send their
sheep earlier than they would otherwise have done.
Potatoes came well after planting, being less aflected by
dry-rot than for several years back, and promised well
during the principal part of the season, until the blight

affected the tops. All kinds seem to be more or less
affected ; but some sorts are very much more so than
others. The species known by the name of Highland
earlies appear worst ; and [altogether there will be fully
a third gone ; but a part of them are useful for pigs and
cattle. They have been selling from 3jd. to 6d. per
stone of 141bs. Fat, both beef and mutton, has main-
tained its price, and appears likely to do so. Pork for
curing has been in considerable demaad, at fi'om 5s. 3d.
to 5s. Gd. per stone of 141bs. The markets for leau
stock are about at a close for the season, and have con-
tinued pretty good to the last. Employment for
labourers has been plentiful, and those willing to work
have had no need to be idle. Tile-draining is going
forward to a considerable extent, quite equal to former
years. — Dec. 22.

VALE OF EVESHAM.
The weather throughout the whole of the month has
been extremely favourable for all farming operations.
Until the 22nd inst. scarcely a flake of snow had fallen
on the earth to remind us of winter : the flocks and
herds are still browsing in the pastures, and all are in a
healthy and thriving condition. There is a great abun-
dance of fodder, and the barley-straw, which is very
sweet and full of clover, is exceedingly relished by the
store cattle and breeding ewes. The feeding sheep at
turnips are doing very well, although there are a few
decayed sorts amongst the Swedish turnips similarly
affected to the potatoes : the crops are magnificent, and
superior in quality to any we have had for many years.
They should be immediately takeir up, put in small
heaps, and covered with a little soil, as frost would injure
the larger sized ones. The young wheats are exceedingly
strong and vigorous : never were they freer from slug
and wire-worm. Experience has taught many the ex-
pediency of pressing, sheep-treading, and hai'dening the
land, which is a great preventive to the ravages of these
miscliievous little creatures. Rye, winter oats, and
barley are up, and promise abundance of early spring
keep. The turnip fallows are turning up well and
healthy : many are subsoiling the same, a system quite
up to the spirit of the times. The plashing of hedges
is proceeding : it cannot be too generally adopted, as it
opens the fields to a free ventilation of air, and is ad-
vantageous in many respects. Every ditch should be
scoured out : the refuse burnt into ashes makes excellent
manure for drilling with Swedes. The cattle markets
have been rather dull the last month. The wool mar-
ket has experienced a decline, the Leeds merchants pre-
ferring to lose a fortune in scrip to gaining one by wool.
The corn markets have also declined from causes too
well known to the majority of our readers. Wheat has
fallen about Gs. per qr., and barley 8s., and all other
grain, with the exception of peas, very considerably.
It is rather an enigma that, in prospect of famine, prices
should recede : I trust there will be a great abundance . ,
for all, and that the dishonest knaves that have aU .-
tempted to alarm and frighten the nation by evil re- , >
ports will be disappointed.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

93

SOUTH OF THE STEWARTRY.

The weather daring the present week has been un-
commonly wet, ami sometimes boisterous. Wednesday
was extremely cold ; in the evening the aurora borealis
was particularly brilliant and attractive ; and next
morning the mountains had a pretty close covering, and
the lowlands, even to the salt-water's edge, a drizzling
of snow. The frost had also been rather severe ; but
before noon the air softened, the wind went lower, there
were murky clouds in the west and south-west, and by
sunset it began to rain. This morning the frost and
snow had disappeared ; throughout the day there has
been a strong wind from the west, and there are now no
symptoms of settled weather. Owing to the storms,
most of the farmers and graziers have commenced the
foddering of outlier cattle. The sheep on turnips are
doing better than was commonly expected, and very few
deaths have thus far occurred. There are some reports
about disease among turnips, and here and there, per-
haps, rather more Swedes arc rotten than oi'dinary.
Yellow bullocks and other kinds, considering the unpro-
pitious summer and autumn, are a pretty fair crop, and
the proportion lost by rotting is not greater than usual.
" There is nothing new under the sun ;" but surely it is
a novelty for potato starch to be exported from Kirk-
cudbright. Several tons have already been sent oft", and
in a little time large quantities will be transmitted to
Liverpool, &c. Prices are recently advanced, and if the
potatoes do not decay more rapidly than they have here-
tofore done, it is supposed that the owners of starch
mills will not realize living protits. It is worthy of
remark that cattle are very fond of the refuse of the
potatoes. It is perfectly clean, and milch cows
consume it greedily. Considerable quantities are daily
scattered in the fields among young and also outlier cat-
tle ; and it is supposed to be nutritive. The 2)otato
disease is still the all-engrossing subject of conversation.
Hand-picking is as necessary as it was at first ; but the
loss, as was formerly stated, is greatest where the tubers
were housed or pitted in a damp state, when speedy
heating ensued, and decomposition necessarily followed.
Those who have convenient out-houses are still endea-
vouring to separate the apparently sound from those
that are either rotten or evidently tainted ; and the
writer knows of several instances where, by careful
waling and drying, the loss is diminishing. He has
also seen some pits which contain small quantities
examined ; and the damage, thus far, is less than was
expected ; while in others, even where precautions had
been used, it is greater. Here and there small breadths
have been planted whole, in the hope that they will
germinate next spring ; but as the experiment is sus-
pected, it is not likely to become general this winter.
The writer has seen some that are planted in beds, and
without any manure, lest it should superinduce moul-
diness and decay ; and if they sprout regulai-ly in spring,
an unusually large portion of guano will be applied. It
is somewhat singular, at this season of the year, that
one farmer at least, about six miles west of Kirkcud-
bright, has now about forty bolls of 16 bushels each

to raise. Some others finished only a few days ago.
They contend that the delay was useful, because it was
easier to distinguish the apparently sound from the
diseased. It is still generally allowed that none of the al-
leged discoveries have completely arrested the progress*
of the taint ; and when the investigations of learned
men, the most of whom are but inexperienced agricul-
turists, have thus proved abortive, the farmers are slow
to believe in the infallibility of any recipe, however
highly recommended by those who are skilled in che-
mistry.— Dec. 5. — Dumfries Courier.

CORNWALL.

Potatoes are gettuig dearer, and more scarce. Many
people, instead of carefully sorting out all the tubers
that exhibit the least blemish when taken up, frequently
put them all together in caves, without any dry sand or
dry earth mixed with them ; and in almost all these
cases, where the disease existed at all, the whole heap is
very much decayed. Some farmers, who had planted
early, were alert enough, when they saw failure coming
on, to get tl)e crop taken up sooner than usual ; and
they who were fortunate enough to take this step, and
store the potatoes before the 13th of September, with a
mixture of dry earth, of which at that period there was
plenty on the surface of every field, will sutter but very
slightly. We are of ophiion that no material is so good
as very dry, powdery earth ; which has been thoroughly
successful in every case that has come under our notice.
Some persons put as much dry earth as potatoes, and
some more ; and after mixing with them that proportion,
and covering them all over six inches thick, they lay on
a coating of the commoa earth that surrounds them,
and thatch with reed or straw to keep off the rain. We
conjure Cornish farmers to plant early, if they do not
plant in autumn ; the sets are then less exhausted, and
sooner ready to take up.

DERBYSHIRE.

The month of December furnishes but little matter
for an agricultural report, save a relation of results.
Our harvest was secured, on the whole, in good order as
regards condition ; but the bulk of most varieties of
grain was more or less damaged with the long con-
tinued rains, which fell during the first and two succeed-
ing weeks of harvest; after that period we had fine
conthiued weather, and the crops were gathered well
seasoned. Touching the yield, we have some reason to
complain. Thrashing has been very general, and the de-
ficiency at least one fifth in comparison with last year,
and the quality extremely coarse. We have now, as a
proof, wheat offering in our market from five shillings to
eight shillings per bushel. The young wheat plants arc
at present promising, and an average breadth has been
sown hi a tolerable tiltli. The pastures are well sup.
plied with aftermath (eddish), and feed extremely
plentiful. Tlic complaint as regards potatoes begins to
subside ; and as a proof that we are not likely to have a
famine through the deficiency of bread and potatoes,

94

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

they are much more plentiful than money, and prices
low. Most kinds of stock are doing well, and prices
ranging high ; but the farmer is very little benefited by
it, for in consequence of the dryness of the summer of
1844, cattle is scarce, and they have but little to sell.
Our com markets are now political ones, and buyer
and seller both afraid of being outwitted by Sir Robert.
His days are numbered, if not ended, as a guide to this
country ; thousands of poor tenants are on the rack
of poverty, as a consequence of his rash legislation.
As we might naturally expect, the poor labourer is the
first to feel the evil inflicted. Many farmers have dis-
charged a portion of their men, from an incapability to
pay them ; and where must they retire ? To the work-
house. The next cry will be the farmer following in the
same track, impelled by necessity ; and what next ?
The landlord must maintain both, and himself be a poor
man. We hope many will, with what little they have,
help themselves as timely as they can while able. Thus
ends the year 1815, full of mourning, lamentation, and
woe to the farmer. What lies in the womb of futurity
we know not. May He, who sits supreme, direct our
legislators aright ; so that every successive change may
be for general good, and that as members of one great
family, we may live in peace, not envying one another.
—Dec. 19.

ESSEX.
The extreme mildness which lias prevailed since harvest has
been most suitable in affording one of the finest opportunities
ever remembered for getting in the seed wheat, and in every di'
rection we observe some of the most perfect plants we ever re'
member ; consequently we have one of the very best prospects
for the ensuing crop. Tares do not plant quite so well, the
tlryness of the land tvheu they were put in being against their
germhiation. Pastures contuuie to give, for time of year, good
supply of food for stock yet left out ; but the greater part of
them arc now on tm-nips, of which, as well as mangel, the sup-
ply is most atjunslant, and having been housed in most excel-
lent condition, appears to keep well. Potatoes do better than
at one time was expected, and when laid dry in barns or store-
houses continue in excellent condition, and appear hkely to do
so. A gentleman who has a large quantity so laid by in a
barn, tells us for the last month lie has not found a single po-
tato rotten, although, previous to being laid there he had sorted
out full one fourth bad, and so satisfied is he the disease is
stopped, he is selling for delivery next April. As regards the
yield of wheat we cannot report very favourably ; our opinion
is that we are less by a sack per acre generally, than we were
last season ; but the crop of forty-four was greater by a sack
than the preceding year ; conseq\iently we think we are not far
out of the way in esthnating it somewhere an average crop.
Its condition and quality are'certainly very inferior to that of
last year. The yield of barley is spoken of as a full a\erage,
although its quality is inferior. Oats are certauily good in
quality, but short ui quantity. Beans a fair crop, but peas
much under. The general operations of the farm are in an ad-
vanced stage, and the present prices we obtain for our produce
are about remunerative. We are sorry to find the pleuropneumo-
nia still lingers among our stock, and many continue to fall
victims to that disease. Sheep contiinie to thrive, and little or
no disease araonor them.

HEDGEROW TIMBER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE CHELMSFORD
CHRONICLE.

Witham, 2nd Dec, 1845.

Sir, — Now that the press of railway matter is
over, I forward to you a letter which I recently re-
ceived from Mr. Isaac Foster, of Great Totham, on
the subject of " Hedgerow Timber." I am particu-
larly partial to timber of all kinds, but, at the same
time, Mr. Foster makes out such a strong irrimd
facie case against hedgerow timber in a pecuniary
point of view, and is a gentleman of so much ex-
perience, that I join in his wish that his calculations
should be made public, and I would desire that
they should be investigated by other practical and
experienced men. For my own part, I think that
Mr, Foster has set the annual improvement in the
value of the timber at too low a sum.

As I beheve your colmnns are always open for
the investigation and discussion within reasonable
limits of subjects affecting this locality, I make no
apology for this communication,

I remain, sir, yours truly,
Jacob H. Pattisson.

Dear Sir, — My calculations upon growing
timber in hedgerows are as under : —

£ s. d.
1st, The average value of timber on

100 acres of land in the county . 100 0 0
2nd, Let it stand 28 years, and the

improvement in value will not

exceed 50s, per year .... 70 0 0

170 0 0

3rd. Sell the same now .... 100 0 0
Interest and compound ditto . . 300 0 0

4th, Tenant paying 2s. more per acre,
with the interest and compound
ditto upon the same .... 377 12 0

717 12 0
170 0 0

607 12 0

So that the proprietor of 1 ,000 acres loses more
than six thousand pounds by letting it stand. Per-
haps, .Sir, you \vill have the goodness to test this
by your own figures, and give it publicity for the
good of the community.

I remain, dear Sir,
Your obedient humble servant,

Great Totham. I. FostEK*

To J. H. Pattisson, Esq., Witham.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

96

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF DECEMBER.

Since our last monthly article, some startling
occurrences have taken place in the political \\'orld.
As early as the 4th instant, the Times newspaper
put forth the bold assertion, that the ministry had
come to a determination totally to abolish the corn
laws. "Whether or not any such agreement was
ever come to by the Peel cabinet, has not hitherto
transpired ; but that some great alteration was con-
templated by one portion, and strangly opposed by
another, seems tolerably certain, from the fact of
the whole having tendered their resignation to Her
Majesty, After this took place. Lord John Russell
received the Royal commands to form an adminis-
tration; but in consequence of the substance of
his recent letter to the electors of London, wherein
he pledges himself to repeal the corn laws, his
former colleagues do not appear to have been
wiUing to accept office under his leadership ; and
it is now settled that Sir Robert Peel is to re-
sume power. This uncertain state of things has,
it may easily be conceived, created great un-
easiness amongst all classes of society; and the
fear that a sweeping change will be made in the
laws which regulate the importation of corn,
lias reduced the A'alue of all kinds of agri-
cultural produce materially. The Anti-Corn-law
League have, unquestionabl)', been the primary
cause of all this confusion. The exaggerated state-j
ments they have circulated of the deficiency of the
last hai'vest, first gave rise to the clamour. The
potato disease afterwards afforded them a fresh
opportunity to predict famine and starvation ; and
so industriously did they fulfil their calling, that
very general credit was given to the assertion that
absolute want must prevail in Ireland, and great
scarcity in England, during the winter months.
Knowing ho^\' easy it is to create apprehension on
a subject of such vital importance as that involved
in the question, whether there was, or was not, a
sufficiency of food in the kingdom for the support
of its inhabitants, they put forth the most startling
assertions with the utmost impudence. By these
means, theysucceeded in magnifying a comparatively
small deficiency in the wheat hanxst into some-
thing like a total failure ; the potato rot was ex-
aggerated in the same way ; and uneasiness having
thus been created, petitions were got up, praying of
the Legislature to throw open the ports for the
admission of foreign grain. The Premier, it would

seem, gave more credit to these statements of
scarcity than they, in realitj', deserved; and, ac-
cording to common report, proposed such measures
to his colleagues as they could not agree to, and
resignation was the consequence.

Thus much for the i)ast : we have now to consider
the future. That a further reduction will be at-
tempted to be made in the remnant of protection
affiarded to the British farmer, before the close of
another session, there is too much reason to fear ;
and it behoves all, interested in the cultivation of
the soil, to bestir themselves, and be prepared to
meet the crisis. The Protection Societies have, at
length, begun to take the alann ; but ^^'hat has been
hitherto done falls far short of what is required.
Let us take a lesson from our enemies ; to grapple
with the Anti-Corn-law League successfully, we
must imitate their perseverance and activity. Meet-
ings should be held in all parts of the country, and
the necessary steps taken to lay before the Legisla-
ture counter-petitions to those so industriously got
up by the League. The county members should be
called upon for a definite pledge as to the course
they intend to adopt in the forthcoming struggle ;
so as to learn who is to be trusted, in case of a
general election. Above all, let there be union and
co-operation among all classes of agriculturists,
and, black as is the imjiending cloud, the threatened
calamity may yet be overcome.

Sliortly after the harvest was concluded, in
pursuing our usual custom, we made some remarks
on the result ; the outcry which has since been
raised, has induced us to reconsider what we then
wrote, in order to ascertain whether we had fallen
into the error of over-estimating the yield. With
this object in view, we have instituted the most
careful inquiries ; the residt of which has been to
lead to the conviction that, so far from having taken
too fa\'ouraljle a Aiew, we believe we have erred on
the other side. Wheat, though certainly short of
an average crop, has yielded much better in some
of the southern and western counties than, from
appearances at harvest time, we believed would be
the case; and, allowing for the great falling-ofi' in
the produce of the north and east, still, taking the
kingdom collectively, the deficiency is not im-
portant. It must also be recollected that there was
a considerable stock of old ^^'heat remaining in the
hands of the growers after the new crop A\'as

9G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

secured, and that we have at present neaily one
million quarters of foreign (in wheat and flour) in
bond in the kingdom. This, and the fact that
owing to the lateness of the harvest the cro]) of 1845
will probalily be required to furnish food for only
eleven instead of twelve months, satisfies us that
no real grounds for apprehension as to scarcity
exist; and tliat the famine-cry has been got iip
altogether without foundation. At the same time
we must confess, that there is not so great an
abundance as to warrant us in expecting A"ery low
prices ; and we look upon the recent important fall
as having been brought aljout by the jjanic created
by political events. Had there been no talk of an
oi'der in council, and the re])eal of tlie corn laws,
the value of wheat A\-ould, in all ])robability, have
ranged between OOs. and 7-)s. per qr. : and the duty
would, in the regular course of things, have re-
ceded to a sufiiciently lov/ point to ejicourage im-
portations to an extent quite commensurate to our
wants, without, on the one hand, pressing hard on the
consumer, or debarring the farmer from obtaining
a just and remunerating price for his produce.

Even under the present circumstances we ques-
tion whether it is ^vise to press forward supplies at
a period hke the present, M-lien all parties arc so
decidedly averse to adding to their stocks. In
whichever M-ay the corn law question may be dis-
posed of, we feel satisfied that after it shall have
been settled a better opportunity will be afforded
for realizing than can be found in the present dis-
turbed state of the market.

The decline in wheat from the highest point
cannot be estimated at less than 7s. or 8s. per qr. ;
indeed, in some of the agricultural districts the fall
has been even greater. That the reduction has in
a great measure been brought about by farmers
themselves there can be no doubt, and so Ion g as
they press supplies forward at a time when there is
no disposition to buy, the downward movement
must continue. It may, tlierefore, not be altoge-
ther without its uses, to consider whether it would
not be better to pause for awhile and watch
events.

Whoever may attemi)tto bring forward a measure
for the total repeal of the corn laws, can scarcely
expect to walk quietly o^•er the course. We are
disposed to think that recent events may, in one
respect, be considered fortunate, inasmuch as they
have thoroughly awoke the landed interest. There
was more real danger when all appeared calm than
now when the worst is known.

There are still good men and true to be found,
and we by no means despair of seeing the present
amount of protection continued. The threat of
free trade ought not therefore to frighten fanners in-
to sacrificing their property at an unfavourable junc-

ture ; for though, as we have flatly contradicted the
assertion made by the writers for the League, that
our cro])s have turned out so badly as to gi^■e
grounds for fears of scarcity ; still, on the other
hand, we are sorry to .say the return of \\'lieat has
not been so abundant that growers can afford to
sell at the present depreciated prices ^nthout injury
to themselves.

Whilst on this subject we may as well take occa-
sion to remark, that the rumoured probability of a
free trade is by no means likely in the first instance
to increase the supplies of foreign grain; simply
from this reason, that our continental neighbours
will, in all probability, be thereby induced to raise
their i)retensions, whilst the fall which prices have
undergone here must check our speculators,
and pre\-ent them sending out such large orders
as they otherwise might have done. The only
quarter from which large arrivals can be expected
to reach us before the spring or summer months
is America, and even from thence the receipts
of Hour will not, we think, be nearly so great
as estimated by common report. Under these
circumstances, we cannot see sufficient cause
for the prevailing panic, and have no hesitation in
saying that farmers have it, in a great measure, in
their omi power to ])ut a stop to the retrograde
movement.

The transactions at Mark -lane have during the
month been on a more restricted scale than at al-
most any previous period of the same duration
within our memory.

The greater jirojiortion of the wheat required by
the millers has been derived by them from Lincoln-
!shire, C!ambridgeshire, and Norfolk. The cargoes
shipped at the ^•arious ports on the east coast have
gone direct to the manufacturer without appealing
at market. Moderate, therefore, as have been the
supplies from the near counties, the quantity exhi-
bited at Mark-lane has proved more than equal to
the demand ; and from week to week prices have
receded. To give a more accurate notion of the
total fall, we shall quote the reduction as it oc-
curred ; beginning, then, \vit\i Monday the 6th.
The article in the Times, to which we have above
alluded, had a decidedly depressing influence on
the trade ; and though many doubted the assertion
that the Peel Cabinet were, about to undo their o^;^
work, still a fall of quite 2s. per qr. took place be-
fore buyers could be induced to purchase wheat.
On that day week a further abatement of 28. to 38.
per fjr. had to be acceded to ; and even at the de-
cline, it was found impossible to clear the Kent and
Essex stands. Confidence has since in some de-
gree been restored ; still, the downward movement
continued up to the 22nd inst. Tlie reported re-
turn of Sir Robert Peel to office was looked upon

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

97

as in some degree favoui'able, it being the general
opinion that he would not be disposed to go so far
as to sanction a total repeal of the existing corn
laws. On the strength of this supi)osition, the
millers manifested rather more disposition to pur-
chase ; and a moderate extent of business was done,
at prices Is. to 2s. per qr. above those previously
accepted. This advance has since been main-
tained, and it is to be hoped that the turn in the
trade at the metropolitan market may haA'c the
effect of restoring confidence in the provinces.

In free foreign wheat the operations have ])een
on even a more restricted scale than those which
have taken place in that of home growth. It is
perfectly true that it has been almost impossible to
grind the new EngUsh without a mixture of old
foreign ; but most of the leading millers had to-
lerable stocks of the latter on hand, and have
therefore had little occasion to come into the mar-
ket to buy. The transactions have been further re-
stricted in conseqiience of the fii'mness which
holders have displayed, few of the latter having at
any period been willing to accede to a correspond-
ing reduction to that which has taken place in the
value of English.

During the first fortnight in December bonded
wheat was wholly neglected ; subsequently, some
slight inquiry sprimg up, but speculators expected
to buy at much lower terms than importers were
inclined to accept; hence, few bargains were closed.

'ITie highest price bid for fine Danzig wheat in
bond has not, we believe, exceeded 56s. per qr.,
whilst the article has been held at least 2s. per qr.
above that rate.

During the month of November the bakers
bought flour rather freely, and the fall which after-
wards occurred in prices of wheat caused them to
regret having purchased so largely. For the last
two or three weeks the millers have experienced
the utmost difficulty in eflfecting sales ; and though
they have reduced the top price from 60s. to 56s.
per sack, this has failed to revive the demand.
Ship flour has fallen in the same proportion ; good
Norfolk household having latterly l^een sold at 41s.
to 42s. per sack in the river.

Hitherto the arrivals of flour from Canada and
the United States into London have not been parti-
cularly large ; but the decline in the value of that
of home manufacture has influenced the prices of
all other descriptions.

The market has been rather lai'gely supplied \vith
barley ; a considerable proportion of the same has,
however, gone direct to the distillers ; and the
quantity exliibited at Mai'k Lane has, therefore,
been only moderate. Really fine malting samples
have been actually scarce, and have rather risen
than fallen in value ; the best sorts having CQptx-

manded 40s. per qr. The common kinds of malt-
ing, as well as distilling and grinding qualities, have,
on the other hand, moved ofF tardily at gradually
decUning rates ; a circumstance which has influenced
the averages ; and instead of the duty falling as
many supposed would be the case, a rise of is.
per qr. took place on the 18th December; and at
present there is more chance of a further advance
in the rate of duty than of a fall. Most of the tri-
fling quantity (about 65,000 qrs. in the kingdom)
was entered for home consumption at 4s. per qr.
duty.

The malt trade has, on the whole, been languid ;
we cannot, however, note any alteration in quota-
tions of the finer kinds ; and even on the inferior
sorts the abatement from the rates current last
month has not been of much importance.

In our last number we had to notice a fall of
from 5s. to 6s. per, qr. on oats. We were then of
opinion that the lowest point had been reached ;
Init in this supposition we were not correct, the
downward movement having continued up to the
present time. The dealers who bought largely in
November have since confined their operations to a
veiy narrow compass ; and as the supplies have on
the whole been much more lil)eral than had been
calculated on, factors have had no alternative ; and
have been obliged to give way where anxious to clear
vessels whose lay days had expired.

Recentl)', very good Irish oats have been cm'-
rently selling in the London market at 25s. per
qr. ; and foreign feed at from 23s. to 26s., accord-
ing to quality. On English and Scotch oats the de-
cUne has been equally great ; notwithstanding
which purchasers have refused to take more
than they deemed sufficient for immediate use. On
the oats recently imported from abroad, there must
be a very serious loss ; indeed many of the cargoes
have cost as much free on board at the port of ship-
ment as they have realized here in bond; freight and
other expenses having been wholly lost.

Though a considerable fall had occurred in quo-
tations of beans jirevious to our last montlily report,
the article was then still comparatively high ; a
further abatement of at least 3s. to 4s. per qr. having
taken place.

The export demand tor peas having almost wholly
ceased, whilst the supplies have increased, prices
have fallen materially. White and blue boihng
peas have given way very nearly 10s. per qr., and
maple and grey 5s. to 6s. per qr. since the close of
last month. Latterly a few cargoes of white peas
have arrived from the continent; these were bought
at extravagantly high prices, and importers must be
severe sufferers.

Before concluding our article we shall take a short
retrospective view of the Foreign markets. By the

98

THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE,

most recent accounts from the Baltic we learn that
winter was apparently about to set in, and that most
of the vessels, grain laden, had taken their departure
from that quarter ; therefore, no further shipments
can be reckoned on till spring.

At Danzig there were about 200,000 qrs. of
wheat in granary, a large proportion of which
consisted of very ordinary quality. Siq^plies by
water from the interior had ceased, and as in con-
sequence of the very high prices of rye, a greater
local consumption of wheat than in ordinary
seasons was expected, considerable inroads would
it was thought be made on the stock in hand during
the winter months. The total shipments of wheat
up to the end of November, had consisted of 33,780
lasts, whereof 24,000 lasts had been sent to Great
Britain, Holders of really fine old wheat had not
shown much disposition to submit to a correspond-
ing reduction to that which the value of the article
has undergone, in the English markets, and superior
high mixed samples had at no period been sold be-
low 55s. per qr., at which price they continued to be
then still held. Rather an important abatement had
however, taken place in quotations of ordinary sorts
' of new, mixed having been sold at 48s., fine mixed
at 49s., and good high mixed at 50s. to 51s. per qr.
free on board ; the weight of these sorts was given
as ranging between 58 to 60 lbs. per bush. The last
freights paid for England had been 7s. and 7s. 6d.
per qr. for wheat, which, with a very high premium
for insurance, must make the cost here much above
what the article would sell for at Mark Lane.

At the lower Baltic ports there are no old stocks
of wheat, and the supplies of new ha\dng been only
moderate, comparatively little business had taken
place.

The shipments from Rostock have for the last
month or two been comparatively unimportant, and
at Stettin higher rates appear to have been paid by
buyers from the interior than were pennitted to be
given by the hmits of the Enghsh orders. The prices
asked at these and neighbouring ports for spring
shipment varied from 16s. to 50s. per qr. : imless,
therefore, a material rise occurs with us, quotations
must fall considerably on the other side before pro-
fitable business can be done.

There has been some talk of the Prassian
Government prohibiting the export of rye and
spring corn, and shipments of the inferior kinds of
grain have actually been forbidden from Poland.

From Hamburg we learn that the wheat trade
had become dull ; moderately good qualities of red
weighing 60lbs. per bush, had been sold for home
use at equal to 48s. 6d., but there were no sellers of
fine Waren, either for immediate or spring delivery,
below 54s. per qr.

During the months of October and November,

prices of wheat rose rapidly all over the southern
and south-eastern parts of Europe, partly in con-
sequence of a great deficiency in the yield of that
grain in several of the principal states, and partly
in anticipation of an extensive demand from Great
Britain, Holland, and Belgium, Latterly, however,
a reaction has taken place at the principal Medi'
terranean ports ; still, prices are much too high to
admit of purchases being made there with much
chance of paying a profit on being shipped to Eng-
land. The last quotations from Marseilles for
good Pohsh Odessa wheat were 42s. to 44s. per
qr. free on board, and other descriptions were held
at corresponding rates. The freight from Mar-
seilles to London would probably be 7s. or 8s. per
qr., which, with insurance, would bring the cost
here to at least 53s. to 54s., whilst this quality of
wheat may at present be bought in bond on the
spot at 50s. per qr.

At Leghorn, Trieste, Genoa, &c., quotations are
equally high ; except, therefore, such purchases as
were made when the trade here wore a more pro-
mising aspect than at present, there is not mvich
chance of anything being bought in that quarter
— nearly the only one from which shipments could
be made during the winter months.

From the ports further east, viz., Odessa and
the Danube, the advices state that of the large ex-
ports of wheat made during the summer and au-
tumn, comparatively little had been shipped to
Great Britain, the principal part having gone to
different jjlaces in the Mediterranean, and to Hol-
land and Belgium.

We must now direct attention to the countries
on the other side of the Atlantic. Of the quantity
of flour shipped from Canada we have no oflScial
return, though the season had closed at the date of
our last advices.

That the last crop of wheat grown in the United
States has been a very productive one, admits of
no doubt; and it is equally sure that the arrivals
from thence will be on a much larger scale than in
ordinal y seasons. During the month of Novem-
ber upwards of 55,000 barrels were shipped from
New York alone : but it is fair to infer that a pro-
portion of the same was intended for the West
Indies, and perhaps a small part for Holland and
Belgium. That the late accounts from hence
wiU have the eflfect of putting a sto]5 to the export
of the article is certain, as prices are now actually
lower here than in some of the markets of the
United States. The latest quotations from New
York were for Genessee and other good western
sorts G| d. : freight to England by the regular
liners was 4s. 6d. per barrel. At present, similar
flour may be bought in bond in Mark Lane at 29s.
per barrel. When this becomes known on the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

99

other side, shipments can scarcely we conceive be
proceeded with. By a statement of the arrivals at
New York down the Hudson we learn that against
1,400,000 barrels received in 1844, 1,500,000 bar-
rels had come to hand in 1845.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

December 29.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 52 58 White 5li 63 —

Old, red 56 65 Do. ..64 CO —

RTe, old 84 88 New.... S8 40

Barley, Grinding, 28 31 Malting 36 — Chevalier 86 88

Irish 27 28 Here... 2C 27

Malt, SuflTolk and Norfolk 58 63 Brown.. 56 60

Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 —

OAr8,Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 22 — Potato.. 26 —

Youghall and Cork, black.. 20 22 Cork,wlrite28 24

Dublin 53 24 Westport 24 —

Waterford, white 21 23 Black.. 20 22

Newry 85 26

Galway 20 22

Scotch, feed 24 — Potato.. 27 30

Clonmel 24 — Limerick 27 30

Londonderry 25 — Sligo,...26 27

Beans, Tick, new 34 38 Old, small 52 —

Peas, Grey 36 — Maple.. ;16 —

White 48 60 Boilers.. 60 —

Flour, Town-made 55 60 Suffolk 50 — per sk. of 280 lbs.
Stockton and Norfolk 48 Irish 50 52

FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic 52 56 fine — 60

Hamburg 50 52

Rostock 52 54

BARLEY 23 26

Oats, Brew 24 28 Feed ... 19 22

Beans 44 —

Pbas 50 —

Flour, American, per brl 30 32 Baltic..— |

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ending

Wh

eat.
6

Barley.
33 0

Oats.

Rye.

Bea

IS.

5

Peas.

Nov, 15th

58

26

3

38

2

44

46 7

22nd

57

11

34 1

25

5

37

I

43

4

45 4

29th .......

58

2

33 2

25

0

35

4

41

9

45 10

Dec. 6th

59

0

32 10

24

7

.15

0

41

8

43 4

13th

59

4

82 9

24

6

36

8

40

8

43 6

20th

57

11

32 7

23

4

34

5

39

6

42 5

AggreRate average of

regulates the duty.

68

6

33 5

24

10

36

1

41

11

44 4

Duties payable in

London till Wed-

nesday next inclu-

«ive, and at tlie Out-

ports till the arrival

of the mail of that

day from London . .

14

0

5 0

4

0

6

6

1

6

1 0

Do. on grain from

British possessions

out of Europe ...

1

0 0 6

0

ti

0

6

0

6

0 6

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Imp. Quarter, from the
Gazette, of Friday last,
Dec. 26lh, 1845.

8. d.

Wheat 57 11

Baklby 32 7

Oats £3 4

Kye 34 5

Beans 39 6

Peas 42 5

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the lasi
year, Friday, Dec. 27th,
1844.

s. '1.

Wheat 45 3

Barley 34 9

Oats 21 10

Rye 82 0

Beans 85 11

Peas 35 4

STOCK OF GRAIN IN BOND IN LONDON
DEC. 5.

Wheat, Barley.

qis. qrs.

322,869 ?,421

PRICES OF SEEDS.

December V9.
The transactions in the seed market afford little scope
for remark, and the only change in prices we have to
notice is a further small decline in Canary-seed.

Seed, Rape 271. 281. Irish .. 22i. 36/. per last.

Uitio, new 25£. —/. per last.

Linseed, Baltic. 40 44 Odessa 45 47

Mustard, while 10 12 brown— - per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English.. — 12/. Os.io -18'. Os.per tOOO
Do. Foreign.. — /. 0. to — /. Os. per ton.

Mcditer. & Odessa 44 45

Tares, Winter 7s. 9d. to 83. 8d.

Baltic — -

Linseed, English, sowing 54 60 crushing 45 *"} p«r qr

Carraway 44 46 new .. 48 SOpercwt.

Coriander 11 14 per cwt.

Mustard, brown, new.... 10 14 white. .10 12 p. bush

Hempseed 35 88 per qr.

Trefoil 17 24 old..— new —

Rye Grass, English — — Scotch— — nominal.

Canary, 52 54 per qr. fine 563.

Tares, old ... . — — new— — per qr.

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, Dec. 29.

The demand for best new Kent bags has been mode-
rate, and the quotations have been fully supported. In
other descriptions the transactions have been very
limited, but we do not note any change in prices.
Sussex pockets are about 6/. 10s. to 71. per cwt ; Weald
of Kent do., 6/. 10s. to 71. 10s. ; Mid-Kent do., 71. 7s.
to 9/. 10s.; and East Kent do., 8/. 5s. to 10/. 10s.

POTATO MARKET.
SOUTHWARK, Waterside, Dec. 29.

The supply to this market during the past week was
very limited by the usual conveyance, yet some sailing
vessels arrived both from Yorkshire and Scotland, and
fortunately they had a quick passage, for the best of the
reds would not stand a long one ; for the disease was
very evident in the last arrivals, and it would have de-
stroyed the cargoes if they had had a long passage.
There was a number of tons arrived from Scotland by
the steam-boats, and from Yorkshire by the steam -boats
and by the railways, which kept this market sufficiently
supplied for the very limited demand.

The prices ranged as follows : — York reds from 50s.
to 130s. ; York Regents from 100s. to 130s. ; Scotch
reds from 90s. to 100s.

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.
WAKEFIELD, Dec. 26.— Christmas week is usually
a duU one for sales of wool ; this week has been more
than ordinarily so, and transactions have been on a most
limited scale. Indeed, the seller and buyer seem both
disposed to hold off till the new year sets in, and the
market may be said to be in abeyance.

Oats.

Beans.

Pea.s.

Rye.

Flour.

qrs.

qrs.

qrs.

qrs.

cwts.

63,791

—

—

—

57,362

LIVERPOOL, Dec. 27.
Scotch. — As usual at this season of the year, the de»
niand for Laid Highland Wool is limited. The same
remark will apply to all kinds of Scotch Wools ; and
prices nominally the same as for the last few weeks.

s. d. s. d.
la'd Highland Wool, per 211bs .... 9 3 lo 9 9

White Highland do 12 3 18 .<(

Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 11 6 13 0

Do. do..waslied 12 6 14 0

Do. Cheviot do. unwas'.itd .... 12 0 14 6

Do. do.. washed 15 0 IS 0

White Do. do 24 0 2S 6 !

100

THE I'ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRICES OF SHARES.

Shaies,

Div. lusl
jlialf year

RAILWAYS.

■it psli

Prioe per
Share.
5i a J

Aberderii .5/ pel

VrmaKh,CoIerinne,I'oi'lrusli'.J.5/slilii/ii(l
Aylesbury and Thame.. 25/ sh l^l pd
Belfest and County Down ...-2^ pd

Bideford and Tavistock IJi pd

Birmingham and GloucesterlOOi sh pd 127 a H^
Do. New, !ss. 7J dis. .. 251 sh \7il pd
Birmingham and Oxford Junction,
20Z sh 21 pd
Boston, Stamford, and Birniingh. 22spd
Brighton, Lev. es,icHastings,50/sh20ipd
U8sp »li Bristol and Exeter .... 1001 sh 701 pd 82J a 3

Ditto New 38g; sh 21 pd^i a 8

p sh Bristol and Gloucester ..50/ sh 3(»/ pdj
Bristol and Liverjiool Junction 2^1 pd!

Caledonian 50/ sh lOipd'lS a H.J

Do. Extension 50/ sh 2ji pd 3J a 4

jCambridge and Lincoln. .25/>h l|/pd3.J a 4

Do New 25/ sh ip pd,2J

Canterbury and Dover l|/ jid

Cheltenham and 0.\ford .2/ pd 25

IChelmsford and Bury Ig/ pd

jChester and Holyhead... 50/ sh l5/pd|14| a 16

Chester and Manchester 42s pd

Clydesdfile Junction 5/ pd!

Cork, Blackrock, and Passages . 22s

sh 22s pd,

Cork and Killarney .... 50/ sh '<!j/ pd!

Cork and Waterford....25/ sh l|/ pdj

Cornwall 50/ sh 5/ pd

Coventry, Nuneaton, Bir. & Leicester,

2.')/sh IJ/ pdj

[Derby, Uttoxeter, and Stafford 2g/ pd

iDirect Manchester( Remington's) 20/sli|

23/ pd 13 a 2
IDo. Do. (Rastrick's).... 5j/pdS5 a -Is

Direct Northern 50/ sh 2^/ pd l| a 2

Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd

Dublin and Armagh ...Ig/pd

Dublin &: Belfast Junction. .50/sh 5/pd
)Dublin,Belfast,&Coleraine,50;sh2J'pd

jDublinand Galway 50/sh 4/ pd

'Dundalk and Enniskillen 50/sh 2,y pd
3s p sli Eastern Counties .. 25/ sh 14/ 16s pd 20J a 1^

I Do. New 25/ >li 6/ 16s pd 7 J pm

{Do Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 1.3s 4dsh pd
Ditto ditto. No. a ..6/13s4d 4/13s4d i pni
'East Dereham and Norwich ... 1/ pd

■Eastern Union 50/sh 25/ pd 34 a J

jDitto Quarter Shares... 12.ysh 3^/ pd

I East Lincolnshire ij/ pd 2 J

East and West of England .... Ig/ pd
U 10s ps Edinburgh & Glasgow .... 50/s:ipd71i

78 6d p S|Ditto Quarter Shares 12^/ sh pd IS

Ditto New i Shares 12^/ sh 7^/ pdllj

Edinburgh and Northcrn,2o/sh 14/ pd

Edinburgh and Perth l|/ )>d

Ely and Huntingdon . . . 25/ sh 5/ pd 5

Enniskillen and Sligo 2^/ pdi

Exeter, Yeovil, & Dorclicst.,50/sh2j/ pd'
Glouc, Aberystwith, and Central of!

Wales 85/ sh 11/ pd

Goolc Doncast.&Sheil]d.,20/sh 42s pd \ pm

3/ per ct Grand Junction 100/ sh pd

51 perctjDitto Half Shares 50/sh pd

5/ per ct'Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh ])d

Grand Union (Xottingh.&;Lynn)l|/ i)dl^ a J
Great Eastern and Western. . . 2^/ pd
Great Grimsby Ac Sheffield, 50/sh 5/ pd
Great Southern & Western (Ireland)

50/ sh 15/ pd 19ia20|

Ditto Extension 50/ sh 12^/ pd

Great Miinster 2|/ pd'

Great North of England 100/ sh pd 212

Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd 48

Ditto New 30/ sh 2/ pd

Great North of Scotland 2|/ pd 3

Great Western 100/ sh 80/pd 165 a 3

4/ per ct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd &5 a 4

Diito Quarter Shares 2.J/ pd 16<al8j

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 20/ pd,S7i a 7

Guildfonl, Farnham, and Portsmouth,!
.■iO/shS'pdi

Harwich 20/ sh 1/ pd,

HullandS«lby SO/sh pd IDS a 2.}

92 p sh
lOi p sh

4/ per ct

U per ct

I/15spt.
is9d p b1i

Do. Quarter Shares 12^/ sh pd 21 J a 1

Do. Half Shares 26/ sh 2/ pd

Inverness and Elgin . . . 20/ sh 1/ pd

Irish North Midland 18/ pd

Isle of Axholmc 2| / pdi2|i

5,000
16,000

.5,100
7,968
11,475

41250001
41,250
54,450

43,000

36,000

4,5(10

33,000
33,000

43,077
11,136

46,200

'jO.OOO
20,000

10,000
10,000
8,000

13,000
I3,0li0
18,000

30,000
80,000

0 a 48^

i pm
i pm

4155400/
12,500

978500/
15,000

20,000

20,000

24,060
86,000

10,266
3,136
12,208

1'3,000
19,000
19,000

Kendal and Windermere 25/ sh IJ/ pd

Killarney Juncrions

Lancaster and Carlisle... 50/ sh 30/ pd
Leeds & West Riding Junct.. Ip pd
Leicester and Birmingliani20/vli 22spd
Leicester and Bedford.. 20/ >h 22s pd
Leicester and Tamwortli, 20/ sh 42s pd
Limerick and Waterfurd 50/ sh 7/ pd
4j/percl Liverpool & Manchester.. ..100/sh pd

4|/perctiDitto Half Shares 50/sh pd

4|/perct Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ .sh pd

Liverpool ic Leeds Direct 50/sh 2j/pd
Lpool., Manch., and Newcastle Junc-
tion 2^/ pd

5/ per ct London & Birmingham. . ..... Stock

5/ per ct Ditto Thirds 32/ sh 10/ pd

5/ per ct' Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/sh2/ pd

!, Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd

3s London and Birmingham Extension

25/ sh Ip pd

London & Blackwall . . Av. 16/ 13s 4d

Ditto New U'pd!3

Ditto Extension 3/ pd!4

30s p sh London and Brighton 50/ sh pd Olj a 5^

Ditto Consolidated Eigliths50/sh .35/pd

Ditto Sixths i/ pd

SsOdpsh London & Croydon .... Av. 18/ 1.58 9d 22J a J

Do. Guaranteed 5 per Ct. . 9/ sh 8/ pd

Lon., Clielt., Oxf., Glouc, and Hrfd.,

25/ sh IJ/ pd

jLondon & Greenwich . . Av. 12/ 15s 4d

10s Preference or Privilege. .Av. 18/ 178 2d

London, Hounslow, & Western. .2/ pd

2/ Ospsh London ,^ South West.. .Av. 41/ 6s lOd '

DittoConsolidatedEighths,4fl/psli20/pd

Ditto New 50/sh7i/pd

Ditto New 40/ sh 6/ pd;

London and York 50/ sh 2ji pd'4i a i

London and Windsor.. . . 25/ sh 1/ pd
London, Warwick, &Kidder.5ii/sh2.}/pd;
London, Salisbury, &Yeovil50/sh2i/ pdj
Londonderry &;Coleraine, r>Ol sh 2^1 pd 51
Londonderry&EnniskillenlO/sh 2J/ pd

Lynn ami Ely 25/ sh 5/ pd

Lynn and Dereham .... 25/ sh 5/ pd
2/18s5ps. Manchester & Leeds .. 100/ sh 70/ pd

i5s8dps Ditto HalfShares 50/sh 84/ pdi

2s JDitto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 2/ pdj

Ditto Fifths l/pd'l3a 14

1/ p sh Manchester &: Birminsr.. 40/sh40/pd 79 a 7

[Do. 1 Shares 10/ sh 4/ pd lij

I Do. New J Shares 10/ sh 2/ pd

'Do. Continuation and Welsh Junc-
tion 'I' pd

Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock,

20/ sh 42s pd 2J pm
Manchester, Bir., &; Mould Junction
Manchester to Southampton... 2/ pd 2^ a 3

91 per cl Midland .StocklloS a 4

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd,

Ditto New 40/ sh 12/ pd 31 a 2

46s3diic Ditto Birminghai!! & Derby .. .. Stock! 122J a 2
MidlandGrl,.West.( Irish) 59/ sh 2?/ pdj

Do. Extension to Sligo 2J/ pdj

Newcastle ■& Berwick ... 25/ sh 5/ pd|15|a't4J

2/ p sh Newcastle and Carlisle 100/ sh pd

Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire

I Junction l^^pd

19s6dpN;Newcstl&DarlingtJunc...25/sh25/pd56 a 60
lOs p sh Ditto New (Brandliijg).. 25/ sh 20/pd 5". a J
I 'Newport and Abergavenny.... 2^/ pd

Sew Ross and Carlow 22s pd

I Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 2A/ pd

I |Newark,Slieffield,&Boston25/sh2S/ pd 2J

North British 25/ sh 17^/ pd 23^ a 5j

Ditto i Shares 12j/sh 3.i/pJ 7 a |

Ditto Carlisle Extension. 12^/sh li/pd:2g a 3

Ditto Dalkeith 5/ sh pdj6

North Devon..... 2/ pd

1/ 10s Northern & Eastern .... 50/sh 45/ pd
22s 6d (Do. Scrip .. iss. 5 dis. ..60/ sh 35/ pd

l7s ad IDo. i Shares 12/ lOs sh pd

I IDo. New 1/ pd

I (NorthKent&Direct Dover, 50/sh 2i/pd 2J a 3|

North Staflbrdshire.... 20/ sh 42s. pd 4| pm

North Wales 25/sh SjJ/ pdj3J

Norwich and Brandon . .20/ sh 16/ pdi24
Ditto New 10/ sh 3/ pd 6J

lOi a 10

74^ a 6
16J a 18

a G

181

58JaC0.J

Northampton, Banbury, & Chclt.,2/ pd 2.J
Nottingham and Boston . SO/sh 1^ pd If
Nottingham, Ercwash Valley, & Man-
chester If'Tdj

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London.

■>- m *'?K>: .

THE FAKMEK'S MAGAZH^TE.

FEBRUARY, 1846.

No. 2.— Vol. XIII.]

[Second Series.

PLATE I.
A HEREFORD BULL.

The subject of our first plate is a Hereford Bull, five years and six months old, the property of, and
bred by Tliomas SherriflT, Esq., of Coxall, Herefordshire. The prize of Thirty Sovereigns was awarded
to this animal at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, held at Shrewsbury, in July last.

PLATE II.
PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS, AT WESTER-FINTRAY, ABERDEENSHIRE.

(For description see page 117 -J

THE COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MANURES.

Their Gases. — Hydrogen.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESO., F.K.S.

(Continued.)

We have seen what an important constituent, of
organic fertilizers, is nitrogen — a gas which exists,
however, in vegetable substances, in the least pro-
portions of any of the gases. In the next smallest
proportion of gaseous substances forming an es-
sential portion of all vegetable substances is hydro-
gen— the lightest, and j)erhaps the most universally
present, in some combination or other, of all the
gases . In the vegetable structure we find it in every
place : thus, as I have elesewhere had occasion to

ob serve-

Parts.

100 parts

of gluten from wheat cont

ain of

hydrogen

. 14-5

starch from wheat .

. 677

sugar .

. 6-90

100 parts

of gum

. 6-93

bees' wax

. 12-67

wood of the oak

. 5-69

wood of the beech .

. 5-82

5>

acetic acid (vinegar)

. 6-35

>J

oxalic acid

. 0-224

„

tartaric acid .

. 3-95

„

citric acid

. 3-80

,.

benzoic acid .

. 5-16

»

gallic acid

. 5-

»

camphor

. 14-49

„

rosin . , ,

. 10-71

OLD SERIES.}

The sources whence plants derive their hydrogen
are either from the decomposition of water, or from
the putrefaction of organic matters. Liebig apjjears
rather to incline to the opinion that water is the
chief source ; he observes, " From their generating
caoutchouc, wax, fats, and volatile oils, containing
hydrogen in large quantity, and no oxygen, we may
be certain that plants possess the property of de-
composing water, because from no other body
could they obtain the hydrogen of those matters.
It has also been proved, by the ol)servations of
Humboldt on the fungi, that water may be decom-
posed without the assimilation of hydrogen. Most
vegetable structures contain hydrogen in the form
of water, which can be separated as such, and re-
placed by other bodies; but the hydrogen which is
essential to their constitution cannot possibly ex-
ist in the state of water. The solid parts of i)lants
(woody fibre) contain carbon and the constituents
of water, or the elements of caibonic acid gas
together with a certain quantity of hydrogen. We
can conceive the wood to arise from a combination
of the carbon of the carbonic acid with the
elements of water under the influence of solar
light. In this case 72*35 parts of oxygen, by
H [No. 2.— VOL. XXIV,

102

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

weight, must be separated as a gas for every 27*65
parts of carbon which are assimilated by a plant ; or,
what is much more probable, plants imder the same
circumstances may decompose water, the hydrogen
of which is assimilated along with carbonic acid
whilst its oxygen is separated." — {Org. Chem.,
p. 65.)

That hydrogen gas exerts a considerable in-
fluence upon the leaves of plants was first noticed
by Dr. Priestley. Sennebier found that plants
which lose their green colour in the dark preseiTe
it under that circumstance, if a small portion of
hydrogen gas is present in the atmosphere in which
they are placed ; and Dr. Ingenhouz noticed that
its presence when they are growing in the light
renders their colour of a deeper green. — {Ann. de
Chim. vol. iii., p. 57.) And again, Mr. Humboldt
has noticed that the j)oa annua, trifoUum arvense,
and other plants growing in the galleries of coal
mines, preserve their green colour, although vege-
tating in the dark ; and that in such situations the
atmosphere contains a proportion of hydrogen gas.

And with regard to the carburetted and siUphu-
retted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases evolved
during the putrefaction of animal and vegetable
manures, the discoveries of the chemist are equally
instructive and confiimatory of the observations of
the intelligent farmer : the one finds that these
gases, so grateful to the farmer's crops, are the most
copiously emitted in the early stages of putrefaction ;
that these gradually decrease in volume as the
fermentation proceeds ; and, finally, when the mass
is reduced to the state of vegetable mould, cease
altogether. Now, the farmer is well aware that the
manure of the farm-yard, in common with all organic
decomposing fertilizers, is by far the most advan-
tageously applied, and produces the most perma-
nently good effect, when it is used in the freshest
state that is at all compatible with the destruction
of the seeds of weeds, with which such collections
usually abound. He is also aware that in all situa-
tions where the gases of putrefaction are emitted,
such as near to stables, marsh ditches, covered
drains, &c., there vegetation of all kinds indi-
cates, by its rank luxuriance, that some unusual
supply of nutriment is afforded. The gardener in
his best arranged hot-beds notices that the gases
which ascend from his piles of Utter through the
earth (which earth is not in immediate contact with
the dung) produce the same effect long after all the
warmth of putrefaction has subsided. The growth
of some of his plants is in this way stimulated, he
says, in an extraordinary manner. These facts,
these observations, are entirely confirmed by those
of the chemist: he notices that all the gases of
putrefaction are exactly those which are the most
grateful to the growth of plants ; that air which has

been spoiled by the presence of the gases evolved
in putrefaction, or by the breathing of animals, is
exactly that which is the most grateful to vegetation ;
and that where those gases are applied to the roots
of plants in the most skilful manner, so as to ensure
a regular, steady supply, then the plant is en-
abled to vegetate in a most vigorous and unusual
manner. Tlius, when green manures, such as sea-
weed, buck-wheat, leaves of fern, &c., the most
slowly decomposing of all vegetable manures, are
applied to the roots of plants, the effects, according
to chemical experiments, are excellent; and, as 1
have elsewhere obsen^ed, the farmer assures us that
they are so. He tells us that all green manures
cannot be applied in too green a state ; that the best
corn is grown where the richest turf has preceded
it ; and that where the roots, stalks, and other re-
mains of a good crop of clover are ploughed in,
there an excellent croj) of wheat may be ex-
pected ; and that when a crop of buck-wheat is
ploughed into the soil, this is most advan-
tageously done when the crop is coming into
flower. The chemist, again, explains this without
any difficulty. Davy and other chemists have
shown that when the flower is beginning to appear,
the plant then contains the largest proportion of
easily soluble and decomposable matters ; and that
when these green plants are in this state buried in
the soil, their fermentation is checked and gradual,
so that their soluble or elastic matters are readily ab-
sorbed by the succeding plants, and every portion
of it becomes subservient to the demands of other
crops.

No scientific cidtivator ever examined this ques-
tion more accurately, or tried his experiments with
more neatness, than the late excellent President
of the London Horticultural Society, the lamented
T. A. Knight ; and these were the more valuable
from being instituted to ascertain the state of de-
composition in v/hich decaying vegetable substances
could be employed most advantageously to afford
food to living plants. This he clearly proved,
however erroneous his explanations of his own ob-
servations and discoveries. One of his experiments
with a seedUng plum-tree was very remarkable. He
placed it in a garden-pot, having previously filled
the bottom of it with a mixture of the living leaves
and roots of various grasses covered over with a
stratum of mould. The plant apjieared above the
surface of the ground in April, and, diu-ing its
growth in the summer, was three times removed to
a larger pot in the green-house (in every case, the
bottom of them being filled as at first with living-
grasses, covered over with a layer of mo-uld) ; and
by the end of October its roots occupied a space of
about one-third of a square foot, it having then
attained the extraordinary height of nine feet seven

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

103

inches. This experiment was varied by Mr. Knight
in several ways ; he drilled turnip-seed over rows
manured with green fern-leaves, and compared the
l)roduce with other rows of turnijis by their side,
manured with rich vegetable mould; and in all
cases those which grew over the gradually ferment-
ing green fern not only grew more rapidly than
those treated in any other manner, but they were
distinguished from all others in the same field by
their deep green colour. Now, when the gases of
putrefaction are mixed with the roots of all growing
crops, this is exactly the effect produced. The
most foul, stinking water, even when transparent,
is ever the most grateful to plants ; that from stag-
nant waters, which has always a peculiar taste, from
the carburetted hydrogen it contains, is excellent.
Every gardener prefers that from ])Ools, however
clear, for watering : the purer water from wells, he
tells you, is very inferior — it is too cold ; but then,
he confesses that even warming it does not render
it equal to that from stagnant places, in its effects
ui)on his plants ; so that, in whichever way the ex-
periment is made, there is no doubt of the value of
these gases to the cultivators' crops ; and he will
therefore readily agree with Knight in the conclu-
sion, that any given quantity of vegetable matter
can generally be employed, in its recent and orga-
nized state, with much more advantage than where
it has been decomposed, " and no inconsiderable
portion of its component parts have been dissi])ated
and lost during the progress of the putrefactive
fermentation." — (Trans. Hort. Soc, vol. i., p. 248).

Theie is no doid)t of the highly important value
of the hydrogen evolved from the manmx'S applied
to the roots of plants. Those fertilizers, such as
train oil (which'contains IG.I per cent, of hydrogen),
fat (which contains about 12 per cent.), and many
others in which it is found, exert a powerful eff"ect
on the farmers' crops. And as I have had occasion
to remark in another place, when applied to the
roots of plants in moderate proportions, the in-
fluence of the compounds of hydrogen gas is evi-
dently beneficial. In many situations this gas is
copiously evolved in combination \vith carbon
(fonning carburetted hydrogen), or with sulphur
(forming suli)huretted hydrogen), as over drains,
stagnant waters, dung-hills, &c. Now, it is well
known that the plants growing over such places
are commonly very rank and luxuriant. A small
portion, therefore, of carburetted hydrogen gas in
the atmosphere, or in the soil in which plants are
placed, certainly promotes their vegetation ; and
hence one advantage derived from the application
of decomposing organic fertihzers.

The effects produced by these magic assimila-
tions of hydrogen with the constituents of vege-
tation are full of subjects of the greatest in-
terest and instruction to the farmer, who, when he
regards the transmutation of these stinking com-
pounds of hydrogen gas into such widely different
forms of vegetable fragrance, sweetness, and use-
fulness, cannot hardly fail to feel fresh incentives
for the chemical examination of the works of their
Divine Author.

FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.

BY J. TOWERS, M.R.AG.S., HORT. SOC, &C,

As the year is now decidedly on the advance,
and, so far as respects the winter generally, with a
character entirely dissimilar to that of 1844-5, we
return to the present subject.

The removal of trees, deciduous, not evergreen,
requires mature consideration ; for although writers
in general treat the subject with regard to time with
some indifference, yet much depends upon local pe-
cuharities. It cannot be questioned that every
plant, as it approaches the period of its own growth,
is removed with the greatest certainty of success,
all conditions being favourable; because atmo-
sphere, meteorology, and temperament of soil being
propitious, the roots, and with them the buds, are
in a fitting state to expand and grow with little
loss of time.

But there are several contingencies which ought

to govern the proceedings of the planter. If the
spring season be locally and early dry (as we find it
six times of seven in the east of Berkshire), and
any deciduous tree or shrub be removed from a
distant situation which may require some hours' or
a day's delay, the rootlets must become dry ; and
though a nicely pulverized soil, which can be
trickled among them, and made to touch even the
smallest fibres, is a most favourable circumstance,
yet it cannot be all-sufficient ; and rain failing, as
it frequently does in this part of the country during
six or more weeks, the subject has to depend upon
artificial waterings — a poor substitute at the best
for the genial spring showers, and especially when
these aids are more than neutralized by a imrching
atmosjihere, and the burning sun of April and May.
Autiunnal planting, therefore, is the more safe,

H 2

104

THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE;

provided it be completed by the end of October ;
but if delayed till tlie end of November, and thence
onward till mid-January, the roots cannot stir at
all, and thus they remain torpid during the chills
and swampings of cold rain, snow, sleet, and ice.
With these cautionary remarks the gardener must
be left to adapt his operations to existing conditions.
The Ash (Fraxinus) is essentially a forest tree.
The genus abounds in species, nearly thirty of
which are natives of North America. These are
not very well known here according to Loudon ;
but those of Britain, of which Fraxinus excelsior is
first and chief, is one of the finest trees that adorns
the forest. Botanically, it stands in the Linnaean
class Poh/f/amia, order DicBcia j the flowers being
hermaphrodite and female on the same tree. Lately
the tree has been referred to the 129th Order of the
Natural Classification, Jasmince, and to its second
tribe Oleince, or 'the Olives. There are four va-
rieties of this tree : the first, '.the tall forest ash just
named, which attains the height of 80 feet; the
second is /3 (beta), Fraxinus pendula, the weeping
ash ; and these alone will form the subjects of the
present ai'ticle.

The Common Ash is easily raised from seed, and
grows rapidly. Seedlings are observed where^'er
there are trees which produce the " keys," as
the seed-vessels are called ; but in the nurseries
they are sown in drills, and with common at-
tention yield a great number of young plants,
which being once transplanted become, in a few
seasons, fitted for final removal to plantation. The
soil most suitable is a sound, unctuous loam ; but
the ash is not difficult in its choice. The full-
grown tree is not very suitable to ornamental
grounds ; though, as Gilpin remarked, as to pic-
turesque " nothing can have a better effect than
an old ash hanging from the corner of a wood, and
bringing off the heaA-iness of the other fohage with
its loose pendent branches." Its greatest defects
are the tenderness of this foliage, as the leaves are
developed very late in the spring, and fall under
the influence of a very slight early frost, its honours
therefore soon pass away.

But the uses to which the tree at all ages are
apphed are great and exceedingly numerous. " In
the arts of peace as well as of war, in architecture,
tillage, and manufactures, the ash objects to busi-
ness of no kind ; while even its refuse spars (and
we may add the grubbed roots if dried) are ac-
counted the best fuel in the forest."

Straight young ashen plants furnish exceUent
hop-poles, and are abundantly used as such, though

poles of oak may in the end be more durable.
Cobbett, with his customary predilection for every-
thing American, has dwelt upon seven or eight of the
trans-atlantic ashes. He however recommends the
American White Ash as the only one which can
rival the English species already described. It has,
he observes, more beautiful foliage, grows faster,
and produces a timber vastly superior ; adding, a
great deal of it is brought to England in plank.
Michaux, in his " North American Silva" says, that
Mr. Oddy, in his treatise on European Commerce
" acknowledges it to be superior, for many pur-
poses, to the common European ash."

The Weeping Ash {Fraxinus pendula) is
purely ornamental, and suitable to laAvns and insu-
lated grass-plots, among those discursive mean-
derings — if this expression be allowed — which Ave
now and then meet with in the extensive shrubberies
of a large property. The finest and most perfect
model of a single tree may perhaps be found in the
lawn of an ornamental piece of ground opposite to
what was the Sun hotel, ere railroads had a name :
it forms a complete arbor, capable of accommo-
dating a large party about a round table, perfectly
screened and sheltered.

Any tree planted in deeply worked suitable loam
could be made equal to this specimen by judicious
formal training ;j to stakes and hoops, or, what
would be far better, to an iron trelhs, with per-
fectly circular horizontal rails, leaving one opening
as an entrance on the side exposed to view. Tire
tree suits the lawn, as has been said; but being
very formal in figure, it perhaps would be most
completely in its proper ])lace in some small green-
plot amidst shrubs, concealed from view, to which
a party might retire with perfect privacy and cool
shade.

The height of tlie perpendicular main stem
should he. twelve feet at the least, and such trees
may be found in a good nursery ; but the adroit
amateur, by raising and training common ash seed-
hngs, might form his own plants, by grafting a
certain number of well-placed young branches (cut
back in March or April), arranged in circle at the
summit of the main stem, so as to furnish the
skeleton of the future pendent branches ; or better
stiU, by budding in the moist weather of July, in
two-year old wood, the full, bold eyes of some
younger shoots of the genuine weeping variety.
AH must depend upon truth of character and skil-
ful manipulation in the first operation, and subse-
quently upon judicious training.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

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1 1 '/ '[' Ij

106

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

COLEMAN'S PATENT EXPANDING LEVER HARROW.

Next to the plough, the harrow may be regarded
as the most important implement used in the culti-
vation of the soil, but which has not received that
consideration to which it is entitled. With many it
would seem a matter of perfect indifference what
kind of harrow is to be used ; hence the practice of
making one or two inferior implements, constructed
in the rudest manner, serve for all the purposes of
harrowing, whether the land be light or hea-\y,
dry or moist ; whether a light or heavy, a coarse or
fine harrow is requii-ed; whether for cleaning
lands, pulverizing the soil, or harrowing in the
seed, the same implements are in request. To
every scientific agriculturist it is clear that, for all
the purposes of harrowing either a great variety of
harrows constructed on the old system is necessary,
or a harrow that will adapt itself to the variety of
purposes above referred to must be invented ; this
desideratum is, to a great extent, supphed by the
implement represented in our engraving, which
embraces in one a \vide or narrow, "a coarse or fine,
a light or heavy implement, and is easily changed
from one to the other. These harrows are made in
four compartments, each about 3 feet, making to-
gether 4 yards in the whole width. This imple-
ment is drawn by five chains attached to the long
whippletree by double hooks ; when an alteration
is required to be made either in its width or fine-
ness, all that is necessary to be done is to lengthen
or shorten the two longest chains ; for example, if
a narrow or fine harrow is required, by letting out
these chains the angles become more acute, and the
teeth travel in closer hues ; on the other hand, if a
coarse or wide harrow is wanted, the two chains
above referred to must be shortened, and by this
means any ^\^dth between 6 and 12 feet maybe ob-
tained. Again, when a hght harrow is required,
the levers must be pressed down and secured by the
pins, which fasten them to the guard, when the
weight of the implement will be thrown upon the
wheels, and thus made to pass lightly over the
land; but when a heavy harrow is wanted the
levers before mentioned must be raised, when the
wheels will serve as weights to press the tines into
the soil ; thus when the whole weight of the imple-
ment, including the wheels, is thrown upon the
tines— they will be so pressed into the land as to
require the power of four horses to draw it ; yet,
by pressing down the levers as before referred to,
it may be made easy work for two horses. In the
arrangement of the tines care has been taken that

each should cut a separate piece of land, and, the
joints being constructed on the principle of a
parallel ruler, the relative distances of the tines is
uniformly maintained at whate\'er width the har-
row may be set. It is also suitable either for level
or for ridge land ; the flexibility of the joints allow-
ing it to adapt itself to the most abrupt ine-
qualities.

The wheels are so shaped as to present a smooth
surface to the soil, thereby preventing adhesion
when wet ; the bars also into which the tines are
inserted being placed diagonally, enables it more
readily to pass over obstructions. The same wheels
which regulate the pressure of the implements are
also used to convey it from one part of the farm to
another, thus rendering a cart or slade unnecessaiy.

We cannot conclude this description without
congratulating Mr. Coleman on the success of his
exertions to improve this most important imple-
ment, and trust that his labours to make it efficient
under every variety of circumstances will be duly
appreciated and rewarded by our farming friends.

EXTRACT FROM A REPORT ON THE IMPLE-
MENTS AND MACHINES EXHIBITED AT THE
HIGHLAND SOCIETY'S SHOW, 1845.

Class II. — For any new and useful Agricultural
Implement or Machine that has been satisfac-
torily tested in actual work, not previously exhi-
bited in competition, a premium of £5.
Entry 1st. — Richard Coleman, of Colchester,
Essex, exhibited his patent expanding lever har-
rows, in two sizes, his own invention. These
harrows embody two essential points — 1st,
the princii^le of their expansion, which is based
on a strictly geometrical principle, that a pa-
rallelogram divided into any number of lesser paral-
elograms, by lines drawn parallel to two of its conti-
guous sides, will have these smaller, each exactly
similar to the original figure, and whatever degree
of obliquity may be given to the greater, each of
the lesser will undergo the same change, preserv-
ing the exact similarity of figure ; 2nd, the harrows
being supported on small wheels attached to levers,
whereby any degree in depth of penetration by the
tines is readily obtained at pleasure, by changing
the position of the levers.

The first property is an important one as applied
to the harrow, and the changeable nature of the pa-
rallelogram, when not tied by a diagonal, as well
as the constant similarity of its integral divisions

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

107

are very beriutifully bronght to bear in this im-
provement. Hy their means this harrow is capable
not only of making every tine form a distinct line
in the soil, like the best kinds of common harrow,
but the distance between the whole of these hnes
can be varied with mathematical exactness, both as
to equality one with another and to extent of valu-
ation ; thus they will draw lines that shall be all
four inches or all one inch apart, or at any frac-
tional part of the distance between these ; and the
construction being effected, the changes are pro-
duced l}y simply changing the place of a hook in a
chain. We have few examples in agricultural ma-
chinery where a geometrical principle has been so

hapjiily applied, and applied too to one of the rudest
of implements.

The variation in depth of penetration seems also
a considerable step in the ])crfection of this harrow,
that being a point in whicli all others are defective.
An objection was made to the use of cast iron in
these harrows, but the inventor stated that he also
makes them entirely of malleable iron. As these
harroios ivere not tested in the field, it would he iwe-
mature to pronounce upon their practical efficiency*,
though in principle they are in advance of all others.
Under the circumstance also of these harrows being
patented, the judges, though approving, could not
do more than award to Mr . Coleman a premium of 3 /.

LECTURE ON THE TREATMENT OF DECAYED POTATOES,
AND ON SEED FOR A FUTURE YEAR.

By Dr. Lyon Playfair, Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society.

In the last lecture the nature of the so-called dis-
ease in the potato was considered, and shown to be
a decay of the cellular tissue, which was unable to
resist the action of external influences. The pro-
bable cause was considered to be the unusual sun-
less nature of the season at that period of the year
when both the plant and the tuber required most
direct solar action.

If the nature of the disease be admitted, then a
most important practical consideration arises. The
constitutional weakness in the cell walls must exist
in all those potatoes which, as yet, have shown no
symptom of decay. This being the case, every po-
tato is liable to yield to external influences, and will
certainly decay unless it be placed under such con-
ditions as to render the progress of decay impossi-
ble. We know what these conditions are, and
therefore the further progress of the malady must
lie entirely the result of negligence and ignorance.
With the complete conviction that potatoes will
still progress in decay unless cared for and properly
treated — with a full knowledge that even the extent
of the calamity mil not induce the peasant at once
to depart from his former coarse mode of treating
the tubers, it becomes a most important question
for intelligent farmers, where they are to look for
seed for a future year. Under ordinary circum-
stances I would have refrained from lecturing on
this practical point, but the conditions are peculiar,
and science can be our only guide ; for experience
does not exist to point out a well-trodden path upon
which Practice herself may walk without scientific
aid. The question becomes of great importance.

when we consider the state of the crop. Whatever
may have been the case in favoured localities, aU
those who have had access to the most extensive
information agree that the potato crop this year was
not much, if at all, above the average. This being
the case, we must have had in this country only a
sufficient supply of seed and for domestic consump-
tion. A considerable part, no matter what propor-
tion, of the crop is destroyed ; and, therefore, sup-
posing the home consumption to be as great as for-
merly, there must be a deficiency of seed for spring
planting, if we continue to follow the old methods.
But these methods are not indispensable ; and
therefore, it is of importance to know how far we
may relax them, so as to suit the exigencies of the
present case.

The anatomical structure of a plant is very com-
plex, but its organization, so far as it is necessary
to view it with relation to agriculture, is remarkably
simple. It is well known that one part of a plant
may be transformed into or be made to produce
another. The leaf of an orange or fig-tree, when
planted, produces a new orange or new fig-tree :
the branch of a tree stuck in the ground is changed
into a tree similar to that which produced it ; the
tuber, or fleshy enlargement of the stem of the po-
tato plant, occasions a new plant to arise : and the
transformation or production has been so far car-
ried on, that Woodward turned a willow tree upside

* This is a mistake ; they were thoroughly tested
the day before the meeting at Dmnfries, much to
the satisfaction of the judges. — R. C.

108

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

doMn, and the branches put in the earth a fibrous
structure bke roots, and the roots themselves soon
became covered with leaves like branches. It is not
necessary for the production of a ])lant to use the
seed itself, and on this account we may grow the po-
tato in several different ways. We may produce
it from the seed, ^vhich contains the true embryo ;
we may raise it from the tuber, or whole potato ; or
we may grow it by jilanting only part of the tu1)er.
Let us consider the mode of growth in each of these
three cases, in order that we may be satisfied as to
the course which should be adopted in the present
exigency.

The seed of the potato is contained in the green
apple or capsvde, which becomes black when ripe.
The seed is removed from this capsule, and spread
out in the sun to dry. As an agricultural opera-
tion, the seed is occasionally planted in spring by
sowing it broadcast, and the tubers taken up in
0<?lober. By that time they have acquired the
size of 'small plums, and are presen'ed and sown
again next April.

Before gathering this second year's crop it is ne-
cessary to bear in mind a peculiar circumstance
connected with the produce of the seed. When
potatoes are grown from the tuber, any peculiarity
which this may have exhibited, such as early
growth, colour, or tenderness, is exhibited and
perpetuated in its descent. Thus, a York red pro-
duces invariably a York red, and not a kidney ; but
this is not the case with the jjroduce of the seed.
In the crop grown from seed, we do not find the
peculiarities of the plant on which it grew, but find
mixed together, white, red, and dai'k-coloured po-
tatoes, some being round, some oval, some kidney-
shaped. Their habits also are very different : thus,
we have some coming to an early, others to a late
maturity ; some are coarse, others tender, in their
growth. In reaping, thei'efore, the second year's
crop we must recollect to watch the plants, and se-
parate them according to their peculiarities. Those
which ripen early, as shown by the dying away of
the .stem, must be first gathered, in order to per-
petuate this ])eculiarity in their descendants. Tlie
kidney-shaped tubers are to be separated from the
others, and like attention must be paid to select and
keep those varieties which show any peculiar merits.
As a horticultural operation, the return from the
seed can be accelerated. They may be grown in
hot-beds, and by transplanting into other pots the
plants may be ready for border or field culture in
the spring, and thus produce tubers of a larger
size than those obtained by sowing the seed broad-
cast, But all this must suffice to show you that
the growth from seed is not that to which we must
look as calculated to reheve the scarcity of seed po-
tatoes for the year now approaching.

The second jjlan of growing potatoes is from the
whole tuber. The tuber being merely a continua-
tion of the stem, is furnished like it with buds, or
eyes, symmetrically arranged on each side. These
buds are capable of growing plants, but when the
whole tuber is planted it is usual for them to yield
to the upper buds or crown, either by not putting
forth shoots at all, or by giving very feeble ones.
There are two periods at which the tubers are
planted ; usually the spring is selected, but autumn
or winter has been found to answer equally well,
if they are planted deep enough to prevent the at-
tacks of frost. The advantage of planting them
now consists in the earlier return which is obtained,
the increased chance of safety which it gives to the
tender tubers to survive the season, and to yield a
produce which may escape the scourge next year.
In planting potatoes now, it is indis])ensable to dry
them in the sun, and even to green them so as to
enable the tubers to resist decay. The practice is
not a new one, having been followed for many years
in the district of Fingal for the purpose of supply-
ing the Dubhn market at an early season. It has
received the sanction of Professor Lindley, whose
authority in such matters is very great ; and it has
been practically tested and approved of by eminent
agriculturists, among whom it may be sufficient
to mention Mr. Grey, of Dilston, who has found
that there is an actual increase of one-third in the
produce of autumn-planted potatoes over those
which are planted in spring. It is a matter of com-
mon observation, that potatoes which have remained
in the earth during the winter, are found to be in a
sound state when the land is ploughed up for other
crops in the spring. The advantages of early
planting are certainly due to a considerable extent
to the careless mode of preserving our stored-ujj
tubers till spring. We have been accustomed to
view the potato as a plant which will grow any-
where, and keep under any circumstances. We
have treated it in the most rude way, both in its cul-
tivation and preservation — in a manner much more
rude than we have dared to employ towards any
other field crops. During the last few years the
potato has begun to rebel against this cruel treat-
ment ; its sets have rotted in the ground and re-
fused to grow as usual, and it has alarmed growers
with the apprehension that it is about to forsake
them altogether. Undoubtedly it will do so in
course of time, unless it receives more tender treat-
ment at their hands, unless it is stored with the same
care as to ventilation and dryness which we give
to our other crops, and receive somewhat more of
attention in its cultivation. Our old mode of pitting
potatoes is in every way reprehensil)le ; and it is
only wonderful — shut out as they have been from
air, exposed to moisture and decaying emanations.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

109

covered over mth damp coverings of clay, through
which no air could penetrate — that their vital vigour
lias lasted so long as, year after year, still to supply
us with food. It is hecause the conditions in which
they are placed under ground are more favourable
to their after-develoiiment than that to which they
have been exposed in pits, that autumn-planted
potatoes have yielded a grateful return for their
kinder treatment. Now, when we consider that it
is impossible at once to ascertain whether those
who have been accustomed to behave to their po-
tatoes thus roughly will at once follow more kindly
modes of treatment, it is certainly advisable to en-
courage the planting of potatoes now if the weather
prove fa^'ourable for doing so, rather than allow
the weak tubers of the present year to perish under
the rough usage which their hardy ancestors were
unable to bear.

AVhole tubers planted now will certainly have a
better chance than cut sets to struggle against the
dangers which still beset them. But, at the same
time, it must not be forgotten, that in planting the
whole tubers we are sacrificing much which
might be useful for seed in a time of scarcity. The
buds or eyes have each of them the power of pro-
ducing new plants, some more quickly and vigorous
than others. It is an acknowledged fact in prac-
tice, that tubers imperfectly matured grow jilants
more vigorous than those produced from the fully
ripe potato. Owing to this circumstance, the upper
or youngest eyes of the potato yield a crop nearly a
fortnight sooner than that grown from the under
eyes. The middle eyes, in the same way, may be
made to produce an intermediate crop. The sepa-
ration of these are niceties not usually introduced
into practice, but which may become necessary
on occasions like the present. Any scarcity of food
may be met to a considerable extent by forwarding
the growth of our crops next year. Suppose, then,
that we select early varieties for planting, and that
we use the top eyes for our earliest crop, or plant
the small tubers whole noiv (in which case the
crown eyes will grow to the exclusion of the rest)
we may obtain early crops to come in aid of any ex-
pected scarcity. An opinion some time since pre-
vailed that we were to look to foreign countries for
our seed potatoes. But consular returns have shown
us, although commercial enterprise may furnish a
good supply from Galicia and Bordeaux, still that
when we consider the immense amount which
would be required for new seed — 800,000 tons for
Ireland alone — it is obvious that this importation
would only very partially relieve our exigencies,
and that to a great extent we must depend upon
our own resources. Now it very fortunately hap-
pens that we may obtain a very large provision of
seed from potatoes used for domestic consumption.

without to any serious extent diminishing our sup-
ply for that purpose. If the eyes be preserved
along with a small ])art of the jiotato to serve as nu-
triment for the young plant, they may be planted
in spring and will i)roduce plants as well as the
tulier. This is no mere theoretical opinion : it is a
practice constantly followed out in Canada and
Brussels, and has been exiierimentally tested by
various persons in this country. The mode of ex-
tracting the buds is exceedingly simple : the crown
may be cut otFto the depth of a quarter of an inch ;
and the single eyes may be removed by a scoop, of
which a drawing is presented in Fig. V. A very

Fia

V. Kepreseuting the scoop for removing the huds or
eyes of potatoes.

Actual size.

httle practice with the scoop makes the operator
expert : it is first pressed down firmly over the eye,
and then gradually turned round so as to scoop out
all the ring marked liy the pressure. The eyes
thus removed should be shaken in a bag with a little
lime so as to dust them over %vith this substance ;
and, after lying exposed to the air for twelve hours
until a skin forms upon them, should be packed up
in perfectly dry wood ashes, peat ashes, or other
very dry materials ; when spring arrives they may
be planted. By this simple operation a prodigious
quantity of seed may be preserved for next season

110

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

\vithoiit diminishing to any material extent the daily
amount of food. Of course it is intended that the
operation should be performed just as the potatoes
are about to be used for the domestic supply.

It becomes an important question as to how far
it would be safe to plant diseased potatoes. In the
first place, it is undoubted that they will germinate
and produce apparently healthy plants ; but it is
equally certain that there is a risk of their rotting in
the ground before the formation of the young plant.
It would be highly imprudent to plant diseased
potatoes when sound ones can be procured ; but,
in the absence of these the farmer may be inclined
to run the hazard. If the young plants be pro-
duced, I have httle apprehension for the communi-
cation of the disease ; for even on the fungous view
of the malady, it does not follow because germs of
fungi are present that they should be developed.
However, it must be recollected that very eminent
authorities are of a contrary opinion, and believe
the experiment to be in the highest degree danger-
ous, and therefore the practice must not be raslily
entered upon.

Connected Math this subject, it is worthy of con-
sideration how far land which has grown potatoes
this year is likely to be dangerous for crops in the
succeeding seasons. On this point also, there are
various opinions ; but, for my own part, believing
fungi to be the consequence and not the cause of
the decay, I do not apprehend any serious result.
It is quite true that seed immediately sown upon
land abounding in the decaying matter might be-
come affected, and afford a soil upon which fungi
might vegetate ; but exposure to the air by plough-
ing that land would destroy the decaying matter,
and fit the soil for future crops. Any apprehended
danger might also be entirely guarded against by
treating the land with lime, which would not only
aid in destroying the decaying matter, but also pre-
vent the germs of fungi from vegetating. We
must recollect that this scourge has appeared for
three successive years in America, and an excess
of caution is not reprehensiljle to prevent a similar
calamity to this country.

I trust these considerations will be sufficient to
aid you in the treatment of sound tubers both for
storing and for seed, and I now proceed to another
part of the subject.

The manner of treating diseased potatoes des-
cribed in the last lecture applied only to those which
were still fit for human food. Those which are
not fit for domestic use must be treated in a difierent
manner.

Much alarm has been created by persons igno-
rant of the action of organic poisons as to the inju-
rious effects which may arise from giving diseased po-
tatoesto animals. Thediseaseproducesnospecificpoi-

son, and the only possibility of injurious effects from
their use is that they might act in the same way as
other decayed matter. Well attested instances are
certainly on record of the communication of loath-
some disease to persons who have partaken of de-
cayed sausages or putrid bacon. But in every
such instance of disease the decayed ahment has
been partaken of in a cold state, and long after the
substance has been exposed to the action of heat.
As the injurious quahties of such organic substances
are not due to any specific compound, but merely
to their state of decay, we know with certainty that
the progress of decay is stopped by exposure to the
heat of boiUng water. If, therefore, the diseased
potatoes be given to an animal shortly after being
boiled, there need not be the shghtest apprehension
of danger. In fact, M. Bonjean, of Chambery,
has completely set this at rest — had any doubt ever
existed. He hved for several days on boiled pota-
toes, which had been thro'ivn away as refuse, and
drunk 3 oz. of the water in which they had been
boiled — water sufficiently bad, for he describes it
" of a yellowish brown colour, turbid and thick, of
a slightly disagreeable smell and nauseous taste,
leaving a bitter impression on the ])alate which
lasted for several hours." With the boiled pota-
toes, M. Bonjean perceived no unusual effect : the
water, however, produced " a disagreeable burning
sensation in his chest which lasted for a few
hours;" but this experiment was altogether im-
necessary, and there is no such risk in ordinary
cases. Although the Irish Commissioners never
doubted the safety of giving diseased potatoes to
animals, after the tubers had been boiled, they fed
pigs and a cow on tubers in a very advanced stage
of decomposition without obser^dng the slightest
prejudicial result from doing so. It is quite trae
that potatoes actually putrid have produced disease
in the lower animals ; and I have received docu-
ments from Dr. Buckland referring to a case in
which pigs were thus poisoned, but in all these
cases the potatoes were given raw and not boiled.
The diseased part of the potato contains an acrid
bitter principle, which renders it of a disagreeable
taste, and when it is intended for domestic use the
affected portions should be excised, and the remain-
der, after being boiled, is still as good as before the
tuber became tainted.

With the cut-out portions of potatoes used for
human- food, and with those diseased potatoes
which are not converted into money by fattening
cattle, we are enabled to save a great proportion of
the nutritious matter which remains.

Staich is the principal ingredient characteristic
of the potato, but the quantity present in the tuber
depends upon the variety. Payen has examined
this subject, and the following tabular statement

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ill

of his results shows not only the proportion of
starch, l)iit also the produce of varieties grown on
the same kind of land : —

t3

CO 2

O tJ

100 parts contained

Varieties.

Starch.

Cwt.

Tons.

Rohan

58

H.^

75-2

lG-6

8-2

Large yellow . .

37

^■i

68-7

23-3

8-0

Scotch

32

8

69-8

22-0

8-3

Slow Island . .

56

14

79-4

12-3

8-3

Legonzac . . . .

32

S

71-2

20-5

8-3

Siberian . . . .

40

10

77-8

14-0

S-2

Durillers • . . .

40

10

78-3

13-G

8-1

All of you are familiar mth the process of procu-
ring starch from the potato. It consists simply in
grating down the tuber and washing it with water,
llie starch as shown in the previous lecture, is im-
prisoned within cells ; and in grating down the po-
tato we tear down the walls of the cells and liberate
the little granules of starch. These are insoluble
in cold water, and generally are not larger than the
5^th of an inch in diameter; consequently,
when we pour upon coarse cloth the grated mass
stirred up and suspended in water, these small
globules will pass through while the woody fibre
and other constituents of the cell walls are retained
on the cloth. The starch which has jjassed
through still continues coloured by a little of the
diseased matter, bvit this may be removed by three
or four washings and depositions. This starch,
after having been dried, may be preserved for any
length of time.* The residual pulp remaining on
the cloth contains still a large proportion of nutri-
tious matter, which becomes easily putrid and oc-
casions a considerable nuisance in the neighbour-
hood of large starch manufactories. In Paris the
nuisance of this was so great, that endeavours
were made to convert it into some practical use,
and it was fovind that in this advanced stage of de-
composition, it formed an admirable manure for
land, especially when applied in the liquid form by
irrigation. More lately it has been used for feed-
ing cattle with good results ; nor will this be sur-
prising, when we remember that it contains all the
insoluble gluten of the potato. An analysis of the
dried pidp thus procured showed that it contains
6 per cent, of gluten, which gives it about

* I have thought it unnecessary to enter into any
detailed account of the manufacture of starch, as
this is now practically carried into execution in
every part of the country.

half the nutritious value of oats. Of course
our great care should be to economise
the greatest quantity of the valuable ingredients
of the diseased potato. Now if the pulp can
be freed from the disease in an easy manner, it
would be in the highest degree culpable not to pre-
serve it. It happens fortunately that the diseased
part of the potato, when the tuber has not become
much dried, is almost wholly soluble in water; or at
least, which practically amounts to the same thing,
that the parts which do not dissolve are so light that
they may easily be removed from the sound matter
by pouring ofF the water. This being the case, we can
obtain almost all the really valuable portion of a
diseased potato by simply grating it down and stir-
ring it up with water. The diseased portions dis-
solve in the water, and the jiulp and starch fall down
together. The red-coloured water must now be
drawn off, and fresh water again put on : this wash-
ing repeated twice or at most three times, gives a
mixture of pulp and starch, which when dried and
ground offers a meal similar in colour to oatmeal.
Professor Liebig recommends a very good plan when
oil of vitriol can easily be obtained : it consists in
slicing the potato and immersing the slices in water
containing enough sulphuric acid to render it very
distinctly sour to the taste. Tlie sHces must after-
wards be washed wth frequent water, as the acid
adheres very obstinately. The addition of acid to
water is useful, especially when the disease has been
much dried in. In most instances, even when water
alone is used, it is not necessary to grate down the
potato as we do in makhig starch : it suffices to cut
it into pieces, in the same way as we slice turnips or
potatoes for gi\ang to cattle. The only evil attend-
ing the process now described is the removal of the
soluble albumen. As the albumen is carried offin
the water employedin washing, one ^flZ/" of the really
nutritious matter of the potato thus disappears; but
when we pursue the common method of making
starch and neglecting the pulp, the whole of the nu-
tritious matter is removed, and we obtain only
starch, which by itself is not fitted to support ani-
mal life.

Other processes for converting diseased potatoes
into wholesome food have been reconunended ; and
as one of them, viz., steaming has received the
powerful support of Dr. Buckland, I shall allude to
it in the first place. It consists in passing steam
through a vessel containing potatoes until they are
melted soft, after which the softened mass is to be
rammed down into air-tight casks, which are to be
covered with melted fat. The potatoes must pre-
\'iously be pared, the diseased ])arts being cut out,
and these are to be preserved separately. A plan
very similar to this is that proposed originally by
Parmentier, of boiling potatoes after being peeled.

112

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

crushing down the boiled potatoes and drying the
mass.

It is quite undoubted that these plans yield a very
excellent article of food, and they ought to be fol-
lowed when circumstances admit of their being car-
ried into execution; but I apprehend that they are
not sufficient to meet the exigencies of the case, as
far as regards the peasant. Every person knows
how easily a boiled potato becomes bad and suffers
decay. The housewife is so sensible of its liabihty
to do so, that she often uses it as a kind of yeast.
It is this tendency to decay which renders it neces-
sary to preserve them in air-tight casks, and not
only to pour melted fat on the top, but also ever all
the joints. If we had to deal with bushels of pota-
toes, this might be effected, but when we have to
treat a considerable fraction of the produce of a whole
country, such processes assume an aspect altogether
different. At all events I know that the Irish pea-
sant will not purchase casks and fat even if he had
the money to do so. Parmentier's process also re-
quires good casks, and is still more unsuited for the
circumstances of the case, because in addition to the
extraction of the diseased parts, and removing the
skin of the potato, additional labour and expense is
employed in the two fuels and apparatus necessary
for boiling, and for drying — the latter of which ope-
rations is no easy task, from the glutinous nature of
the material.

Another plan, attended wth perhaps as little trou-
ble as any, consists in cutting the potato into thin
slices and drying them upon corn or malt kilns. In
doing this, several precautions must be followed to
secure success. The heat must be applied very
slowly indeed, and should not be raised much above
100' until the end of the operation, because a hard
skin is apt to form on the exposed parts of the slices
and prevent the escape of water. It has been pro-
posed, and the proposal seems to me to be a good
one, that the slices should be allowed to dry in the
air for some time, by being hung up Uke onions and
afterwards kiln-dried. However, the latter must
be carried to the point of thorough dryness, for par-
tial dryness only increases the evil, because the heat
destroys the vitality of the tuberand renders it more
hable to decay. If the whole potatoes be partially
dried by artificial heat so as not to raise the tempe-
rature sufficiently to injure the vitality of the tuber,
I am assured by Mr. Warrington that they are ca-
pable of preservation. His experiments, however,
have not been made on a large scale. Of course in
all operations for economising decayed potatoes, that
method is to be preferred which yields the greatest
return Avith the least labour and expense. It is for
this reason that I have coincided in the recommen-
dation of the Irish Commissioners, that simjjle
washing of the grated mass is the process best

adapted for the cottage. After the three washings
described, the water may be poured off, and the
mass collected in a coarse canvass cloth or towel,
which is then put on a box or stool and the water
removed by pressure. Very considerable pressure
may be given by placing the end of a spade in
the bar of a grate or in a nick of a tree, and the
stool, upon which the towel containing the pulp is
placed, below the broad part of the spade : the
handle of the spade is then pressed downwards, and
by this means a powerful lever is obtained, and the
water flows out freely from the pulpy mass. It may
then be mixed with half its weight of oatmeal and
a little salt, and be at once converted into good palat-
able cakes on the griddle. The moist mass may also
be dried and ground into meal. This substance,
which may be called potato whole meal, can be
used in making bread, soup, or pottage. It must
be borne in mind that cold cakes or bread would be
a miserable substitute to the peasant for hot pota-
toes : on this account soup or pottage ought to be
given along with the bread, and this whole meal
makes a very agreeable and economical soup, when
mixed with some bacon or herring. At all events
I can testify that I partook of an agreeable soup
without knowing from what it had been made, and
found on enquiry that it was made of this potato
whole meal, a little bacon, salt, and pepper, and
that the total cost of its production was Ijd. for
five pints.

This leads me* to the consideration of an im-
portant point connected with any expected scarcity.
Should any such misfortune assail us, it is of the
first importance that we should act advisedly and
not ignorantly in our endeavours to alleviate it ;
and we can only do so by a thorough knowledge
of the nature of different ahments.

In setting a steam-engine to perform daily work,
we are well aware that there are two conditions
to enable it to perform its duties. In the first place
we must supply fuel to convert water into steam,
and we must keep the engine itself in thorough re-
pair, immediately repairing any failures in its
piston, its cranks, or wheels, and seeing that all
the parts are kept proportionally strong for the
work to be performed. We know that the coal,
which answers admirably for fuel, would be most
inappropriate for the repairs of any damaged parts
of the engine itself. Just so is it with the ma-
chinery of the animal frame. It requires fuel to
keep it in action, and it requires material of a dif-
ferent kind to repair the damaged parts of the
frame. The conditions of sustenance are therefore
very different, and the kind of ahment depends upon
the want to be supplied. For example, the hard-
working man requires to be supplied freely with
those materials necessary to build up his muscles,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE:.

113

for these are partially destroyed with each exertion.
The labourer, who has much hard work to per-
form, must eat a very large quantity* of potatoes
to get through that work, while a much smaller
quantity by weight of oatmeal would suffice — the
amount of true nutriment in each being in the pro-
portion of 1'6. All food then has two distinct
purposes — the formation of flesh, and the suste-
nance of animal heat. The substances in vege-
tables destined for the formation of flesh are
perfectly identical with it in composition, and are
known by the names of gluten, albumen, fibrin or
casein ; those which are suited for the suppoi't of
animal heat are not at all similarly composed to
flesh, and consists of starch ,t gum, sugar, &c.
Knowing these facts, it becomes a money question
as to the value of particular kinds of food for the
support of the frame. We know how mvich of
flesh-giving princijile each variety of food contains,
and therefore we can at once estimate how much of
each it will be necessary to consume to obtain one
pound of real nutriment, and what the cost of that
pound will be to the consumer. The follo^^dng
table is constructed on this principle, but as prices
vary in diflierent localities, these may be altered to
suit the ])ecuhar case : in the table, they are given
at the rate at which the respective substances might
be purchased in London under favourable circum-
stances.J

Quantity of Food necessary to produce 1 lb. of
Flesh, and the Money-Cost of its production.

s. d.
25 lbs. of milk furnish lib. flesh, and cost 3 1
100 „ turnips „ 2 9

50 „ ])otatoes „ 2 1

50 „ carrots „ 2 1

4 „ butcher's meat, free from fat
and bone, furnish 1 lb. of
flesh, and cost. . , .20
9 „ oatmeal „ 1 10

710 „ barleymeal „ 12

7ra „ bread „ 12

y-re „ flour „ 12

3i „ peas „ 0 7

3^1 „ beans „ 0 6^

* An adult labourer must eat 14 lbs. of potatoes
per day to get through a good day's work.

t When so much starch is being made from dis-
eased potatoes, it must always be borne in mind that
it is not nutritious, properly so to speak ; that an
animal fed upon it alone would die nearly as soon
as if deprived of food altogether. It is fuel for
supporting animal heat, and therefore forms an ex-
cellent addition to meal, flour, or peas.

X Of course each person will find some errors
in the prices attached to the articles shown by his
own experience, and he may correct them by the
data given in the first column ; the difference mil,
however, be merely relative, and not affect the gene-

The extremes 'shown by this table are very re-
markable : for while it would require only 3 lbs. of
beans to furnish lib. of flesh-giving principle, it
would require 50 lbs. of potatoesor lOOlbs. of tur-
nips to yield the same amount, at a cost four times
as great. For supporting the animal frame^ pota-
toes CANNOT BE A CHEAP FOOD. In Order to ob-
tain from them the requisite quantity of nutritious
princii^le, an enormous quantity must be consumed,
and this to the loss of a considerable quantity of the
other useful ingredients of the food. The excre-
ments of Irish peasants contain an abundance of
unaltered starch granules, which have passed
through the body unchanged, without exercising
their peculiar function in the support of animal
heat.

The potato is a food well destined to support the
heat of the frame, and admirably fitted as an asso-
ciate of other aliments. It is with this view that
the rich use it with meat, trusting to the latter for
the formation of muscular tissue, and to the potato
for fuel to keep up the heat of the body ; and in
such a mixture there is absolute economy. Let us
look at the various kinds of food with reference to
their value as fuel, and we shall percei^'e that the
potato takes its proper rank. Such a table as the
following is, however, a mere rough approximation,
for the carbonaceous matter or fuel is of very va-
rious kinds, and some of them give more heat than
others by their combustion. The table, therefore,
must only be taken for as much as it is worth — a
rough approximation to truth.

Table showing the Approximative Value of various
kinds of Food as Fuel to sustain Animal Heat.

s. d.

4 lbs. of potatoes contain lib. of car-
bonaceous fuel, and cost . .02
10 „ carrots, ditto . . . .02

U „ flour, ditto . . . . 0 2io

l| „ barley-meal, ditto . . .03

lljij „ turnips, ditto . . . . 0 3|

li „ oatmeal, ditto . . . . 0 3j

Ijij „ beans, ditto

^?n ss peas, ditto

2 „ bread, ditto
lltB „ milk, ditto

0 31

0 3/5

0 4

1 5

It will be seen by this table that potatoes have
now mounted to the head of the table as the least
expensive material for furnishing fuel to keep up
the heat of the body ; although it was about the
most costly for building up the frame, or support-
ing strength. Surely no further arguments are ne-
cessary to condemn the use of the potato as the sole
food of a people, when it was obviously destined as

ral result. A very useful lecture on the money-cost
of food has been given by Mr. Ransome at Man'
Chester.

114

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an accessory to other food. We must then admit
the following conclusion ;

The Potato used by itself is one of
the most expensive means of supporting
the animal frame; but it forms a cheap
addition to other nutritious aliments in
sustaining animal heat.

This is a conclusion that cannot be controverted ;
and therefore we must consider — What is the cheap-
est mode of furnishing the greatest amount of sus-
tenance in a time of scarcity. Let us look to the
leguminous plants, peas and beans. Dr. Buck-
land has shown that peas formerly constituted an
important part of the diet of the people of this
country — at a time, too, when our forefathers were
more hardy than ourselves — and he has written
strongly virging their more general cultivation for
the sustenance of the poorer classes. He has been
attacked by a portion of the press for this opinion
— who have acted in this matter not less ignorantly
or unjustly than the peasants in France, who pelted
with potatoes the first man who endeavoured to
bring them into cultivation in that country. Peas,
beans, or lentils, are undoubtedly the cheapest
means of supplying nutritious matter, which they
furnish at one-fourth the cost of the potato. Their
value has been known from the very earliest time :*
and before the introduction of potatoes they formed
a staple article of food among our soldiers and la-
bourers, and were not then banished from the tables
of the wealthy.f It is true that, when used alone,
they are apt to cause flatulence, from the simple
reason that they contain a superabundance of flesh-
giving principle, which, not being wholly assimi-
lated, enters into putresence, and gives rise to the
gasses productive of flatulence ; but I am arguing
against the exhibition of any one variety of food.
Peas mixed with a proper quantity of potatoes
would not produce flatulence, and the mixture
would yield about the cheapest possible nutriment.
Even the cereal crops — oats, wheat, and barley —
offer a nutriment cheaper than potatoes ; and if
mixed with the latter jin a dietary would afford a
cheap means of sustenance.

If these views be just it becomes a matter for
A^ery grave consideration, whether we should ever
again devote so much land to the cultivation of po-
tatoes as we have hitherto done. It has been
proved that it is not a cheap mode of sustaining a
population ; physiology and experience both point
to a variety of food as best suited for the mainte-
nance of health and strength ; and the history of

* The pottage for which Esau sold his birthright
was made of lentils.

t In Holinshed's Chronicle is the passage — " A
large mouth, in mine opinion, and not to eat peasen
with ladies of my time,"

the past teaches us that variety of ahment is im-
portant in relieving the community from the de-
pendence on two or three sorts of food, and the ca-
sualties attending their growth. In this last —
the economical point of view — the question is of
the highest importance ; for whatever agricul-
tural science may do to mitigate the effects of
seasons or casualties on our crops, there are
always evils attending the dependence on one
or two kinds of food. Thus, it causes an
unusual demand for labour at a particular
period of the year, as in the case of harvesting the
cereal crops, and leaves the labovirers unemployed
in the intervals. This, in the case of the Irish
peasants, whose skill and industry is applied to
the cultivation of one root, has the effect of re-
ducing the value of both. There is not sufficient
use for the intellect in its direction to practical and
industrial skill, and there is no motive for ac-
quiring habits of steady labour. The more exten-
sively that we cultivate a variety of vegetables, the
more that the various capabilities of our soils are
developed in their proj^er direction, the more will
labour be steadied and equalized, our markets be
freed from those shocks attending the casualties of
a single crop, and our population relieved from the
dread consequences of famine. Why is it that in
England we do not -win those favours from nature
in the variety of produce that afford such grateful
food to other countries ? Lentils contain the great-
est amount of nutrition of any of the leguminous
plants ; they form one of the staple articles of the
food of the labouring classes in other lands, and
yet they are scarcely known in this. Rye is well
suited to poor lands ; it forms a nutritious bread,
universally used in Germany and Hungary, better
far than potatoes ; and if it has not met the success
in this country which it deserves, depend upon it
the miller and baker are more to be blamed for the
failure than bountiful nature. If, from their bulky
nature, tubers are preferred by the poor, why is
the Jerusalem artichoke forgotten, which of all
plants yields the greatest return for the least
amount of manure and labour. Frost does not in-
jure the tubers of this plant ; they may be left in
the ground all winter, and just taken out as they
are to be used. If a little piece of ground be de-
voted to them, they are so grateful for this privi-
lege that year after year they will spring up ^vitli-
out planting, because, however diligently we try to
remove them, enough remains in the ground for
next year's crop. This makes them inconvenient
for rotation, but is an advantage in the cottage al-
lotment. In fact, the Jerusalem artichoke is a
most grateful plant, and will fully recomjiense us
for any habitation, provided we do not give it a wet
bed to lie in, We have also the parsnep, which

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

11^

formerly was cultivated to a greater extent in Ire-
land than it is now. However, all these bulky
plants should never supersede the cultivation of the
cereals and the leguminous crops.

I am firmly convinced that the intelligent por-
tion of this community have now the opportunity
of converting the apparent evil of a failure into a
great real and national blessing. They h'ave the
power to introduce the cultivation of more econo-
mical and useful crops, and in so doing to effect
the social and moral improvement of the people.
Should a scarcity unhappily arise, they have in
their power to improve greatly our miserable cot-
tage cookery by introducing a greater variety of
viands, more palatable, healthier, and cheaper, be-
cause more substantial, though seemingly dearer
than those now in use. We have thus the power
of creating a jjermanent desire for better food, and
this would give the greatest impulse to labour in
Ireland. It is the absence of wants which in the
first place so depresses a peasantry, and brings
with it a train of e\ils arising from the non-appli-
cation of skill and industry to gratify them.

Finally, if I have convinced you that it is most
desirable, on economical grounds, to introduce a
greater variety in the crops cultivated for the sup-
port of the labouring classes, and to diminish in
extent the cultivation of potatoes, I would still
further impress upon you the prudence of doing
this in the present year. This is not the first ma-
lady to which the potato has been subjected. In
Hanover, and in other parts of Germany, a disease
broke out in 1770, and remained there till 1779,
making its re-appearance in 1790. The dry-rot
which attacked the potato in this country in 1832
rlid not disappear till 1840, luckily making but
little ravages with us, but acting as a scourge in
various German provinces. In America the same
disease that now afflicts us has lasted for three
years, and this year has again committed most for-
midable e^^.l. There is nothing at all improbable
in the belief that it may remain in this country for
several successive years. We know that potatoes
grown from the tubers inherit any peculiarities
shown by their ancestors. This year circumstances
have caused a feeble cellular tissue in all the pota-
toes throughout the country, similar, in fact, to
what always exists in some of the tender early va-
rieties. How do we know that, unless we have an
exceedingly favourable season, this weakness of
cellular tissue, which renders it unable to resist ex-
ternal influences, may not be imparted to the de-
scendants of the present race, so that several years
must elapse before it is again built up in its proper
strength ? And, in our ignorance of meteorology,
who ean say that such seasons as the last may not
possibly be in store for us ? I affirm none of these

things, because I am deeply ignorant of any laws
of nature which would enable me to read these
l)henomena aright ; but from the very conviction of
this ignorance, I feel it would be presum])tuous not
to admit that such circumstances might ])ossil)ly
happen. I have confidence in the mercy of the
Creator, but I know also that such afflictions arise
often for our good. With this doubt and ignor-
ance on a subject so hidden, I think it would be
highly desirable to devote part of the land which
hitherto has been under potato cultivation for the
growth of leguminous plants, so that, should we be
afflicted with this scourge in another year, we may
lessen the force of the blow by a wise provision
against its consequences.

I have now completed my task, very imperfectly
I admit, but as far as I think 1 am Avarranted by
the circumstances in endeavouring to lead you. I
might ha\-e indulged theories and speculations, but
this wovdd have been worse than useless when we
have to combat Avith a great practical evA. I have
endeavovired to show you what is best to do at
present, and what prudence points out as the
proper course for the future ; and, above all, I have
been anxious to convince you that it now lies in
your power to convert this national curse into a
national blessing, and to make great good spring
out of great evil.

HEART'S PATENT IMPROVED PIPE AND
TILE MAKING MACHINE.

This gentleman, who is well ' kno\vn in the
mechanical world for his many ingenious inventions
and improvements, claims, and we believe right-
fully, the credit of being the first to apply ma-
chinery to the manufacture of draining tiles. It is
now nearly fourteen years since his first successful
experiment was made, and the result is too apparent
in the reduced prices, and consequent increased
consumption, to require any illustrative remarks
from us. If the honour of the first idea, or the
practical development of it, belongs to him, we
shall offer no apology to our readers for introduc-
ing the accompanying engraving of his machine as
seen when at work, not because it possesses the
charm of novelty so much perhaps as many others
now in the field, but because it has maintained its
reputation uninjured in the midst of a host of most
respectable competitors, as an efficient and econo-
mical implement.

The construction and operation of this machine
may l)e briefly stated thus : — It is about the size,
and somewhat resembles in form an ordinary chaiF-
cutter ; it is of iron, and of such strength as to

116

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

admit, without risk of derangement, any amount of
power that it may be found requisite to employ in
working the most tenacious, as well as washed or

lects the stones or other impediments so as to pre-
vent the dies or grate from becoming choked. It
can be filled with clay without removing any part

other clay, in a very much more solid or stifF state of the mould, and is so portable that one man can
than could be moulded by hand ; and which being ' move it wherever its sendees are required. With
less hable to shrink, make sounder and better tiles , it, one man and two boys will make from 4,000 to
than those manufactured of soft clay. It also col- ; 8,000 pipes or tiles per day of 10 hours.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZLYE.

117

DESCRIPTION OF THE FARM-BUILDINGS,

AT WESTER-FINTRAY, ABERDEENSHIllE.
BY THOMAS SULLIVAN.

Much has, of late, been ably said and written with
tlie view of drawing the serious attention of landed
proprietors and agriculturists to the wretchedly de-
fective condition and arrangement of the vast ma-
jority of tlie existing farm-steadings throughout the
kingdom, and the absolute necessity of their im-
mediate improvement. It is almost needless to
observe that the constmction of suitable and suffi-
cierrtly commodious farm-buildings is a depart-
ment of rural economy which has hitherto l)een sadly
neglected in most parts of the country ; indeed, in
comparatively few districts has it received that de-
gree of attention either from landlord or tenant, to
which, from its great importance, it is so emi-
nently entitled. There are, no doubt, several ex-
ceptions to this statement, as there is hardly any
district that cannot boast of a few respectable
homesteads ; but even in those localities which are
commonly regarded as the most advanced in the
path of agricultural improvement, it must be admit-
ted that, there still exists very ample room for
amendment in this particular. As all parties now
appear to be unanimous in regard to the advantage
and necessity of furnishing every farm mth a com-
modious, substantial, and conveniently arranged
set of buildings, it is hoped that the following
obser\'ations, principally descriptive of an exist-
ing steading of approved construction, may not
prove uninteresting to the readers of this Maga-
zine.

When we consider the rapid and lengthened
strides that have been making for some time past
towards perfection in most branche's of husbandry,
it must appear somewhat singular that agricvdtural
architecture should have remained in so backward
a condition as it unquestionably is, or that irregular,
inadequate, and defectively arranged farm-steadings
should be so numerous in aU parts of the kingdom
as they confessedly are. Agricultural implements
and machinery have been brought to an unexpected
degree of perfection ; the different breeds of live-
stock have also been wonderfully improved ; while
thorough drainage, subsoil-ploughing, manuring,
and other important means of cultivating the soil
and augmenting its productive powers, have been
more or less generally adopted throughout the
country; but it is api)arent that the erection of
farm-steadings, corresponding and essential to an
improved system of husbandry, has not received
similar attention, nor advanced in a proportionate

degree. This statement has been fully attested by
many obsei"vant tourists. It is abundantly obvious,
however, that properly constructed buildings are
scarcely less essential to the profitable occupation
of a farm, imder a mixed system of husbandry, than
ingeniously contrived labour-economising imple-
ments and machinery, or even the adoption of the
most approved modes of tillage. In fact, the exten-
sion of improvements in agriculture, coupled ^vith the
increased area of cultivated land consec^uent on the
breaking up of permanent pastures, renders abetter
order of homesteads absolutely indispensable, in-
asmuch as the augmented productiveness of the
land furnishes the means of subsistence for an
increased nvmiber of animals, which of course re-
quire enlarged accommodation. It is, moreover,
incontestible that the high feeding and fine breed-
ing of our live-stock, which are now so much at-
tended to, have already rendered them more liable
to diseases of a certain character, arising in a great
degree from confinement, during several months of
the year, in inadequate houses imperfectly ventilated,
and subject to the pestilential effluvia generated by
the decomposition of the excrements, which are
too frequently permitted to accumulate to such an
extent as to prove highly deleterious to the animals.
Abundance of nutritious food is by no means the
only requisite towards insuring the speedy fattening
of stock, or their maintenance in a healthy, thriv-'
ing condition dvuing the period in which they oc-
cupy the houses ; a sufficiency of pure, uncontami-
nated aii', and clean, well-ventilated apartments are
likewise absolutely essential. But the proper ac-
commodation of the domestic animals, though cer-
tainly the primary ol)ject, is not the only advantage
accniing from sufficiently commodious and con-
veniently arranged farm-buildings ; as there are
various other purposes to be served by a set of
offices where the mixed system of husbandry is
pursued, as I shall have occasion to notice in
a subsequent part of this paper ; and economy of
labour in supplying the stock with food and litter,
with other obvious particulars, must Ukewise be
duly studied in determining the most proper and
convenient disposition of the several apartments of
the homestead.

The vast importance of providing suitable farm-
buildings to enable the tenant to presence, prepare,
and consume the produce of his land with the
greatest advantage, as well as to maintain his live-

118

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

stock with comfort to the animals and i)iolit to
himself, is so self-evident, and indeed so uni-
versally admitted, that it would be quite superfluous
to enter further into details in order to illustrate
the many benefits and conveniences that accrue to
the farmer from the i^ossession of a judiciously ar-
ranged and sufficiently commodious steading. There
cannot, in fact, be a better criterion of the state of
agriculture in any district or country, than the cha-
racter and condition of the farm-buildings. Still,
however, as it is hardly necessary to remark,well con-
structed steadings are, from various causes, comjjara-
tively rare throughout the country. This great deside-
ratum is certainly attributable in not a few instances
to the parsimony or negligence of non-imjn-oving,
non-encouraging landlords, whose duty it unquestion-
ably is, to furnish every farm with suitable and sid)-
stantial offices, especially where tenancy-at-will still
prevails, notwithstanding its numerous palpable and
oft-exposed disadvantages. When the task of erect-
ing the steading devolves on the tenant, the want
of sufficient funds in many cases, and the com-
paratively temporary interest which he has in the
farm, even under the longest tenure commonly
granted, generally and very naturally— I had al-
most said, properly— prompt him to sacrifice per-
manency and commodiousness in the buildings, in
order to diminish the immediate expenditure. But
it is certainly, I think, an exceedingly mistaken
economy, and so it must eventually prove, to erect
a homestead in any other than a substantial, com-
modious, and convenient manner at the outset.
Hence it becomes incumbent on the ])roprietor in
almost every case to defray the expense incurred in
the construction of farm-buildings; and we find
this to be the uniform custom in the more advanced
parts of the country, and those, too, in which the
tenant enjoys the security of a lease of moderate
duration, namely for nineteen or twenty-one years,
according to agreement. The fanner undoubtedly
derives incalculable benefit from the possession of a
suitable and convenient homestead; but still his
interest in it is merely temporary; whereas sub-
stantial buildings of approved construction, such
as none ])ut the landlord could be expected to erect,
not only enhance the immediate value of the farm
to which they are attached, but unquestionably
constitute a permanent imjirovement, and reahze a
permanent increase of rent.

But even when neither of the causes referred to
can be said to exist or operate— when the proprietor,
or the tenant, or both conjointly, cheerfully and
liberally expend an adequate sum in erecting what
is expected to constitute a suitable and substantial
steading, the intention sought to be carried out is
not unfrequently frustrated by adopting an in-
judicious arrangement or disposition of the several

offices. This is, no doubt, in very many instances
owing to the reprehensible practice of entrusting
the designing of farm-steadings exclusively to ar-
chitects, who, however eminent they may be in their
own profession, cannot be expected to be competent
to the important task of planning buildings for the
accommodation of live-stock, and various other
purposes, in the most judicious and convenient
manner. The proper disposition and construction
of a steading obviously require an amount of prac-
tical knowledge and experience in the designer,
which none except those thorouglily acquainted
with the minuticC of farm-management, and the re-
quirements of the different species of live-stock,
can be expected to possess ; and hence the many
serious blunders that are sometimes committed by
even eminent and skilful architects in planning and
erecting homesteads. Tliere are no doubt several
exceptions, and far be it from me to intend this
passing remark as a sweeping condemnation of so
respectable and intelligent a class of men ; but
nevertheless, I believe it may be regarded as incon-
trovertible that the vast majority of the steadings
designed solely by architects unacquainted with the
various purposes for which farm offices are re-
quired, or the details of practical agriculture, are
defective in some important particulars ; conveni-
ence and adequate accommodation being too fre-
quently sacrificed for the sake of external appear-
ance, compactness, and sometimes for what I am
inchned to regard as mistaken economy. Symmetry
and neatness of design are, however, perfectly com-
patible with such a disposition and construction of
the several apartments as will afford ample accommo-
dation, conduce to the comfort and health of the
animals, which ought to be the primary considera-
tion, and economise labour jn siipplying them with
food and litter. It would not be a very difficult
task to advert here to some of the defects ob-
servable in many of the existing and even recently
erected and proposed steadings ; but no great ad-
A^antage would perhaps be gained by adopting such
a course ; and my remarks will, I think, be more
likely to serve a useful purpose by being restricted,
as they chiefly will, to a description of a farm-
steading whose general arrangement accords Avith
the most a])proved principles, and which has been
found most advantageous in connection with the
system of husbandry pursued — one, in short, that
affords ample accommodation for a very large num-
ber of excellent stock of every description, and has
been found well adajjted to the various purposes
for which farm buildings are commonly required
and erected.

The newly-erected farm- steading, at Wester-Fin-
tray, Aberdeenshire, a ground plan of which is
attached to this Magazine, was designed by the en-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

119

telligent and enterprising tenant, Mr. James Walker,
who, I maj' observe, is among the best agriculturists^
and most successful breeders of black cattle in the
North of Scotland ; particularly the polled Aber-
deenshire breed, for which he has acquired much
and well-merited celebrity. The buildings were
not only planned by himself, who best knew what
offices and accommodation he required, but entirely
completed under his own superintendence, wthout
the aid of any professional architect. Although this
steading is not, perhaps, altogether free from de-
fects, yet it will, I think, be admitted to possess
comparatively few. The offices are all well ven-
tilated, and afford ample accommodation for the
numerous stock maintained on the farm; and it is
not too much to say that the whole constitutes one
of the most extensive, substantial, and complete
farmeries to be met with, not merely in Aberdeen-
shire, but in the North of Scotland ; which, it is
well known, abounds with good steadings. The
suitableness or unsuitableness of the buildings which
I am now about to describe must evidently, how-
ever, be judged of in connection with the extent of
the farm on which they are erected, as also with the
system of cultivation and the general management
of live-stock adopted thereon. A very few remarks
on these points will not, therefore, be irrelevant in
this place.

AVester-Fintray, on the property of the Earl of
Fife, is situated on the north or left bank of the
river Don, twelve miles from the city of Aberdeen,
and consists of upwards of three hundred Scotch
acres, or about three hundred and seventy-five
English statute measure. The land is of superior
quahty, all arable, and cultivated according to the
six-course rotation of cropping, viz : —

First year : Turnips, potatoes, and other green
crops.

Second year : Oats and barley or beare, sown
down with clover and rye-grass seeds.

ITiird year : Grass, occasionally cut for hay, but
most generally depastured.

Fourth year : Grass depastured by cattle.

Fifth year : do. do. do.

Sixth year : Oats after lea.

I give this rotation here merely to enable the
reader at once to understand the system of husban-
dry, pursued wthout which he could not rightly esti-
mate the number of live-stock which the famm is
capable of maintaining, or the size of a steading
calculated to afford them adequate accommodation.
The number of black cattle which the buildings are
capable of accommodating is about a hundred, ex-
clusive of calves ; but upwards of a hundred and
twenty head are usually maintained on the farm
during the summer months, the additional stock
being purchased to consume part of the grass, and

again disposed of before autumn. Tliere is also
stal)ling for five pairs of work-horses, which are the
number required for cultivating the farm, Ijesides
stables for young horses, &c., to be afterwards ad-
verted to ; and there are likewise, it will be observed,
houses for calves, swine, poultry, &c., &c.

Before proceeding to notice the construction and
dimensions of each of the offices separately, it \vill
be proper to advert briefly to their relative disposi-
tion in the steading, and the conveniences and ad-
vantages that accrue from such an arrangement ;
l)ut here I wish it to be understood that I am l)y
no means desirous of liolding up or representing
the steading iinder consideration as a perfect model
e^-en for the farm to which it is attached, much
less for general imitation ; and in the course of the
foUowng observations I shall venture to point out
what, in my humble opinion, appears defective in
its arrangement ; I feel confident, however, that it
exhibits the general leading characteristics which
ought to be attended to in planning and construct-
ing every complete homestead, suited to the mixed
system of husbandry, though, of covu"se, different
circumstances require various modifications. The
buildings, it will be perceived by reference to the
plan, stand nearly due north and south, a position
which of course is always, if possible, to be secured
in the erection of a farm-steading, and the ad-
vantage of which is too apparent to require any
illustration.

The stack-yard, it will be observed, lies to the
north of the steading, and is quite contiguous to the
thrashing machine — a position which secures two
important advantages : first, the stacks being well
exposed to the influence of drying winds, the grain
and straw are preserved in the best condition
during the winter and spring months ; and secondly,
from its proximity to the barn, both time and
labour are considerably economised in removing
the corn to be thrashed. It may not be iminterest-
ing to remark, that the stacks are arranged in regu-
lar equidistant lines, and built upon raised stands,
supported by stone piUars. Tlie frame-work is octa-
gonal, and formed of timber, and the nine stone
(granite) pillars — eight supporting the circumfe-
rence, and one the middle — are each one foot nine
inches in neight, including the projecting cap on the
upper extremity. These raised stands, or, as they
are provincially designated, " stathels," are found of
incalculable benefit in preser\dng the grain from
the depredations of vermin, and the bottom of the
stacks from sustaining any injury by the dampness
of the ground. The corn-stands with stone pillars,
at Wester Fintray, are fifteen feet in diameter,
and their construction has cost the tenant £1 5s.
each, including workmanship and materials — a smn
which their usefulness has amply repaid. I may

I 2

120

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

oljserve further, that the stack-yard is enclosed
by a sunk fence, three-and-a-half feet in height, in
order that the com may receive the benefit of a free and
uninterrupted circulation of air among the stacks.
Straw being the bulkiest article of food used in
Scotland by live-stock of every description, and
the only material employed as litter, it is obviously
an important matter to have the building appro-
priated for it situated centrically in relation to the
several apartments occupied by the stock. Ac-
cordingly it will be perceived that the strmv-barn,
B (see plate), occupies a central position in the
range of buildings forming the north side of the
steading, and has the cattle-houses On each side, an
arrangement, the propriety of M'hich M'ill be at once
observed and admitted as facilitating the removal
of the straw for the purposes of litter and fodder.
Ready access from the cattle-houses to the straw-
barn is a principle which ought never to be neg-
lected or overlooked in the disposition of the various
offices of the farm.

The farm-steading, at Wester Fintray, including
road-ways, dung-yards, &c., occupies an area of a
little more than two-and-a-half imperial roods, or
rather above half a scotch acre. The stone em-
ployed in the mason-work is granite, a beautiful
and very durable variety of which, it is well
known, abounds in almost all parts of Aberdeen-
shire. The side walls of the stables S, and the
whole of the south range of buildings, as well as
those of the granary range included between the
barn and stables, are twelve feet in height, while the
walls of the byres and cattle-houses are eight-and-
a-half feet from the pavement to the eaves. The
thickness of the walls is in general one foot and a-
half, but in a few parts it is one foot nine inches.
The partition-walls are mostly one foot three inches
in thickness. The roofs of all the buildings are
exclusively covered with slates, which were obtained
at Foudland-hills, Aberdeenshire. It will, therefore,
be perceived, that the steading under consideration,
unites permanency and commodiousness with con-
siderable elegance of appearance.

It may, perhaps, be objected, that the stables and
other buildings forming the sovith or front range
of the steading are injudiciously situated, as
tending in a great degree to intercept the solar
raj'S in winter, v/hen warmth is so much to be
desired for the comfort of the stock in the yards ;
indeed, it is generally, and, as I think, very pro-
perly, recommended in the construction of farm-
steadings to have the several offices so disposed as
to form three sides of a square or quadradgle, open
to the south for the purpose of admitting the sun's
rays into the courts, which is an important matter
during the winter and spring months. This is
imquestionably the most judicious arrangement,

and it secures a very iini)ortant advantage where
cattle are principally fed in sheds and open yards ;
but by an inspection of the Plan, it will be perceived
that in the establishment under consideration the
stock are maintained in houses, and not in hammels
or court-yards, as is the practice in some other
parts of the country, particularly in the Lothians
and south-eastern counties of Scotland, the only
yard and shed being one at F, appropriated for
young cattle ; but this, owing to its position and
distance from the stables (a dung-yard, K, inter-
vening) is not excluded from the benefit of the
solar influence even in winter, while being at the
same time well sheltered from the north and east,
which are the directions of cold, biting winds,
snow, and drizzling rains.

It still remains a sulyect of controversy whether
cattle fatten quicker or thrive better in open sheds
with attached court-yards in which they enjoy per-
fect freedom of action, than in houses where they
are tied vip by the neck to iipright posts ; but it
would be rather foreign to our present subject to
refer in this place to the arguments that have been
advanced on both sides of the question. When the
yards or " hammels," as they are indiscriminately
termed, are of a small size, aftbrding accommoda-
tion to two or three beasts only, enclosed by high
walls, so as to prevent the inmates of adjoining courts
seeing or annoying each other, and well supplied at
all times Avith dry litter, there cannot, I think, be
any question that this system of feeding is more
conducive than the other at least to the health of the
animals ; and experience, which, it will be allowed,
is a safer and svu'er guide in this matter than the
most plausible theory, has abundantly proved that
the shed and open yard method, as above described,
is the most beneficial as well as the most humane way
of fattening cattle, especially in localities where straw
is generally an abundant commodity; the shed system
of feeding Ijeing peculiarly calculated to effect its con-
version into dung. Still, however, the universal prac-
tice in Aberdeenshire, where, as is well known, avery
considerable number of excellent oxen are annually
fattened for exj)ortation to the London market, is
to tie up the animals in stalls during the feeding
season. Young stock are likewise; in the majority
of instances, maintained in a similar manner during
the \vinter and spring months, though it is generally
admitted that the latter at least may be very ad-
vantageously reared in open yards provided with
covered sheds, to which the animals are at liberty
to retire for shelter in unpropitious weather. Young
horses and calves, especially the latter, ought also,
perhaps, to be allowed the ])rivilege of a yai'd ; and
if the farm-steading under consideration is defec-
tive cr deficient in any particular, it is, I think, in
consequence of not having sufficient court room

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

121

provided for young stock; but, as already re-
marked, this is a point in reference to which some
diversity of opinion still exists amonj? i)ractical
agriculturists ; and the rigorous nature of the cli-
mate may in a great degree justify the exclusive
adherence to house-feeding. Nevertheless, the al-
most entire absence of court yards for young cattle
is, in my opinion, a great defect in the Aberdeen-
shire farm-steadings, however well arranged and
constructed they may be in other respects.

Having thus adverted to the general arrangement
of the farm-steading at Wester-Fintray, we now
jiroceed to consider in detail the several offices
of which it consists, their dimensions, construction,
and adaptation or suitableness to the purposes
which they are respectively intended to serve. In
noticing the different apartments, I shall take all
those of a similar kind in succession, and we may
with propriety begin with the description of the

Barn. — In Scotland, as most of the readers of this
Magazine are aware, corn of every description is
stored after harvest in a stack-yard appropriated to
the purpose, whence it is readily carried to the barn
when required for threshing; and hence in the
erection of steadings, neither the proprietor nor the
tenant is obliged to incur the additional expense of
constructing extensive and costly edifices for hous-
ing corn in the sheaf; and I would venture to say,
that it would be well for English agriculturists, who
still adhere to the antiquated custom of storing the
greater portion of their grain crops in large houses
or barns, to adopt the practice universally pursued
north of the Tweed. The propriety of doing so,
must appear obvious to e\'ery candid and unpre-
judiced inquirer, whether he consider the great ex-
pense incurred in erecting barns sufficiently com-
modious to contain any considerable proportian of
the corn annually grown on even a medium sized
farm, or the damage which the grain and straw very
frequently and necessarily sustain in such houses.

The barn consists of three distinct and separate
apartments, each of which is designed for a par-
ticular purpose. There is, first, the apartment for
containing corn in the sheaf as it is brought from
the stack-yard to be threshed ; secondly, the dress-
ing-barn, situated immediately under the former, in
which the grain is received from the threshing ma-
chine, and where it is dressed and prepared for the
market or otherwise ; and thirdly, the straw-barn,
in which the sti'aw is received and stored for some
time after it has been passed through the machine.
-' The upper-barn,besides containing the unthreshed
corn as it is brought from the stacks, contains also
the machinery for threshing. It extends over both
the corn and straw-barns, and is entered at the end
next the stack-yard by a door ten feet in width, the
opposite gro-und being elevated to nearly the level

of the floor, in order to admit of the sheaves being
readily conveyed to the threshing machine. As
the floor is necessarily subjected to considerable
pressure, the boards and joists are formed of the
strongest and most durable wood. The breadth of
this apartment is the same as that of the corn-barn
underneath, to be presently noticed; and it is
lighted by two Ivffer-boarded windows in the east
side wall.

Tlie corn or dressing-barn A contains two pairs
of fanners, the one at c being permanent, and
worked by means of a belt, by the same power that
propels the thrashing apparatus ; the other is mov-
able, and driven either by means of a belt from a
part of the machinery, or by the hand, as maybe
found most expedient.

The chaff-house (B) is merely a portion of the
under barn separated from the rest by a wooder
partition. The corn-bam including the space oc-
cupied by the fixed winnowing apparatus, and that
portioned off for the chaff-house is forty-five feet
in length and nineteen feet in breadth. The roof
is formed of the floor of the upper barn, and the
height is nine feet two inches. This apartment is
divided from the adjoining straw barn by a wooden
partition, in which are two doors. It is lighted by
two glazed windows in the east side wall, each
three and a half feet square, between which is the
door four feet in width, opening to the outside.
The stairs represented in the Plan lead from the
corn-barn to the upper barn, and from the»ce to
the granary, which extends from the loft over the
straw-barn to that of the work-horse stable S
over the cart-shed (I,) and other intermediate of-
fices. Underneath the stairs, on the floor of the
corn-barn, is a small apartment enclosed by a
wooden partition, in which the operation of churn-
ing is performed ; motion being communicated to
the apparatus by means of a belt passing from the
other machinery. The threshing machine, fan-
ners, &c., &c., are propelled by water-power, an
adequate supply of which for this purpose is found
to be of immense advantage and convenience to the
tenant. There are two large dams at a short dis-
tance from the steading, for the purpose of collect-
ing the requisite quantity of water, which is con-
veyed through the stack-yard in a covered conduit,
and, after imparting motion to the mill-wheel, is
carried off imderneath the buildings and the sur-
face of the yards, &c., to a convenient outlet at
some distance from the steading. The water-
wheel A, by which motion is communicated to the
thrashing-mill, and all the other attached mat
chinery, is sixteen feet in diameter, and is covered
by a slated shed, in order to protect it from the
influence of the weather.

Before leaving the corn-barn it will be proper to

12-2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

advert briefly to the tlireshing-machine, and some
of its appendages. I shall not, however, attempt
any detailed description in this place, as Ijy doing
so this article would be extended beyond all
due limits. The machine requires the force of
eight horses, bemg what is called an eight -horse
power, and at the ordinaiy rate of working, when
a sufficiency of water is available, about ten quar-
ters of oats of average quality are threshed and
dressed per hour. In connection with the ma-
chine is a hummeller, for remoA'ing the awns of
barley and beare ; an apparatus for crusliing oats or
other grain for the work-horses; and the churn,
which has been already referred to. Motion is
communicated to all these by means of belts and
"journals," water being the original motive-power of
all. The threshing-machine was constructed en-
tirely new, simultaneously vni\\ the erection of the
farm-buildings; and when finally completed with
all its necessary appendages, cost the tenant no
less than £180; but it is to be observed, that a
considerable proportion of this sum was incurred
in cutting and foraiing water-com-ses to and from
the mill-wheel.

B is the strcnv-harn, which, as its name implies,
receives the straw as it shdes from the threshing-
machme do^\'n the straw-screen, and in which it is
stored for some time for the use of the stock.
Tliere are two doors four feet in width, communi-
cating mth the cows' byre C on one side, and the
fattening houses on the other. This arrangement
is exceedingly convenient, as allo^ving the straw
used as fodder to be carried \rith facility along the
passages before the animals' heads, and placed in
the mangers as required for consumption. Tlie
straw required for fodder and litter in the court-
yard H, and the other apartments occupied by live
stock, is carried through the two doors opening
to\\'ards the roadway. The straw-barn is di\'ided
from the cattle-houses on both sides by stone-and-
lime partition walls, and from the corn-barn by a
wooden partition. It is forty feet in length by
eighteen feet in breadth, \vith a loft o\'erhead ten
feet in height, it being ten inches higher than the
corn-barn. This apartment is certainly too limited
for the large quantity of straw required for the
stock maintained on the farm, which is often a
source of much inconvemence. It is found of
very considerable advantage to have this barn suf-
ficiently commodious to contain two different kinds
of straw simultaneously ; namelj', one sort for fod-
der and the other for htter; but the apartment
under consideration is quite inadequate to this pur-
pose, and under this impression the tenant is
anxious to erect a supplementary shed for straw,
which is to be an off-shot from the barn, and to
Stand parallel with the cows' Ijyre C on tlxe north

side. The floors of the last-named apartments,
namely, the corn and straw-barns, consist of sub-
stantial boarding, supported by sti'ong joists or
sleepers, and is secured in the most effectual man-
ner to prevent the entrance of vermin, and to pre-
ser\-e the wood from diy-rot and other injm-ies to
whicli it is commonly liable in similar situations.

The arrangement of the granary and of the upper
barn will, perhaps, be more distinctly understood
by the annexed illustration — Fig. 1 . The former, in
which the dressed grain is stored, extends over the
archway, cart-shed, young horse stable N, and
gig-house 0, to the loft of the work-horse stable.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

123

The granary is eighty-two feet in length by eighteen
feet in mdth, and the roof ascends to the slates ;
the floor is formed of the requisite strength to
sustain a large quantity of grain, and there is a
neat " skifting-board" all round the walls, as also
in each of the barns. The granary is lighted and
A^entilated by sixteen \vindows, eight in front, and
eight in the back side wall, which are furnished
with luffer-boards, so as to admit light and air to
any extent that may be required. The grain is
brought from the corn-l)arn by the wooden stairs
at a; and when its removal from the granaiy for
marketing or otherwise becomes necessary, it is
conveyed to the carts by the stone stairs /;, at the
extremity adjoining the work-horse stable. A and
B are the lofts above the corn and straw barns
respectively, which are appropriated to the storing
of the sheaf-corn immediately previous to its being
threshed. The situation of the threshing machine
is shown at d in the figure, the opening c in the
left being for allowing the straw to slide down the
screen to the barn underneath. The upper-barn
is entered from the stack-yard by a door in the
gable ten feet in M'idth, and is lighted and aired
by lufFer-boarded windows, similar in size and con-
struction to those of the granary.

Stables. — ^The work-horse stable S occupies a
portion of the range forming the front or south-
side of the steading; it is forty-eight feet in length,
and contains eight stalls, thus affording a clear
space of about five feet ten inches for each animal.
The width of the stable is seventeen feet six inches
inside measurement, which affords ample room for
the manger, horses, passage, and harness, the latter
being mostly hung against the front side wall. It
is obviously a mischievous erroi% though one very
commonly committed, to make stables for work-
horses too narrow and hampered, the ordinary
width seldom exceeding fifteen or sixteen feet, a
space which is entirely inadequate to the purpose.
Another equally prevalent and objectionable prac-
tice consists in forming the stalls over-narrow, it
being rarely that even a wdth of five-and-a-half
feet is allowed for each in work-horse stables.
Many evils and inconveniences arise to both ani-
mals and ploughmen from the narrowness of stalls
in farm stables. Tliey should never, in my opinion,
be less than the width given above, though six
feet may be occasionally allowed with advantage.
The side-walls of the stable, as well as those of the
whole range of which it forms apart, are twelve feet in
.height from thepavement to the eaves; and the stable
J is furnished with a loft, eight feet ten inches from the
I floor, for containing the hayand straw used as fodder
by the horses. A loft is commonly objected to in
; farm stables, and, as I think, xexy properly when
the walls are low ; but in the present instance, the

altitude of the building admits of abundance of room
between the floor and loft for the purpose of venti-
lation. The manger and hay-rack, as well as the
manner of binding the animals, being of the ordi-
nary construction, need not be further adverted to
in this place. The partitions of the stalls are
formed of wood, and are eight feet in length ; each
horse has the privilege of a separate stall about five
feet ten inches in width. The floor of the stable is
paved or " causewayed" with small round stones,
embedded in sand, which are found to answer the
purpose exceedmgly well, such a flooring being
very permanent and easily kept clean, besides being
comparatively inexpensive. There is a gutter M
behind the horses' heels, for the purpose of con-
veying the urine to the liquid manure tank k in
the dung-yard at the rear of the stables, which
obviously is a much better plan than the usual one
of having gratings in the centres of the stalls for
allowing the escape of urine, such openings as the
latter being always lial)le to be obstructed by the
litter. The gutter is furnished with gratings at
different parts, to admit the descent of the urine
into the channel, and to prevent the entrance of any
solid portions of dung. The floor of the stalls has
a fall of three inches from the manger to the gutter,
in order to facilitate the escape of the urine into the
latter. The advantages accruing from this arrange-
ment of the stables must at once be perceived.
Not only is the urine thus preserved and employed
as a most valuable fertilizer, but it is prevented
from inflicting by its decomposition the most seri-
ous injury on the animals. The ammoniacal fumes
generated by the decomposition of urine in stables
are well-known to prove highly detrimental to the
health of the horses, as affecting their lungs and
eyes : indeed many fatal pulmonary complaints both
in the horse and cow are ascertained to be directly
traceable to confinement in filthy ill-ventilated
houses, and the pestilential effluvia emanating from
the decomposition of the dung and urine which are
too frequently permitted to accumulate in stables
and cattle-houses. The work-horse stable is en-
tered by two doors, each four feet in width (one
being at the gable, and the other at the front side
wall), and hghted by two windows, the upper
halves of which are glazed, and the lower provided
with small shutters to admit an increased supply of
air when necessary. The loft is likewise lighted
by low windows in the front side wall, and there is
a door in the gable for the admission of hay and
straw, besides one communicating with the granary.
In this stable are two corn-chests or " binns" for
containing the oats used by the horses ; and each
chest is divided into two compartments, provided
with lock and key, so that every ploughman has
access only to the corn allowed for his own pair.

IQ4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Tlie stables are i)lentifull)' supplied with water
brought in lead-pipes from a fountain at a short
distance from the steading. The walls as well as
the ceihng of the loft are neatly plastered and
white-washed; and, in short, there is nothing
a-^vanting that could contribute to the health or
comfort of the animals, which, of all others em-
plo}'ed or maintained on the farm, are so eminently
entitled by their usefulness to the most careful
treatment and attention. But how very frequently
do we witness the humble farm-horse subjected to
the worst usage, not so much arising from severe
labour or even insufficient food, as confinement in
low, narrow stables, in which the dung and urine
are often allowed to accumulate for several succes-
si^,e days, the decomposition of which generates
large quantities of ammoniacal fumes, which even-
tually must prove most destructive to the health of
the animals ! The expired carbonic acid gas also is
seldom enabled to escape from the stable by means
of adequate ventilation, or to be displaced by pure
uncontaminated air. And how, it may be asked,
can it be expected that horses will thrive or main-
tain their health unimpaired for any length of tune
in such a ^'itiated atmosphere as that contained in
stables so constructed and circumstanced ?

P is a small stable, eleven feet in length, and
containing two stalls, one being occupied by a stal-
hon kept on the farm, and the other by the horse
that ploughs in the same team \vith him during
the winter and spring months. It is entered by a
door in the gable, four feet in width, and hghted by
a Avindow in the front side wall. Tlie adjoining
apartment, Q, is a small stable containing two stalls
for saddle horses ; it is ten feet in length, each
stall being nearly five feet in width, and has also a
window two-and-a-half feet wide by three feet high,
besides an entrance door : the stalls, floors, and
roofs of the last two offices being exactly similar to
those of the work-horse stable already described,
need not be further adverted to in this place. The
hay loft extends uninterruptedly over the entire
building.

R is the room appropriated as the sleejjing apart-
ment of the unmarried male servants employed on
the farm ; it is twelve feet in length by eighteen
feet in wdth, and communicates with the stables
on both sides by means of two doors. There is
also a door opening towards the road way in front,
and a glazed window in the side wall for the admis-
sion of light and fresh air. Tire floor is neatly
boarded, and the walls and roof properly plastered,
so that upon the whole this apartment forms a A'erj-
comfortable and convenient dormitory for the farm
servants : its close proximity to the stables may
perhaps be objected to, on account of the noxious
effluvia which so commonly emanates from houses

of this class, and which may be supposed to find
its way and extend its contaminating influence to
the adjoining a})artments; but, as already remarked,
the stables are so arranged and constructed as to
prevent the accumulation of any vitiated air, and,
indeed, in the present instance, very little, if any,
inconvenience is experienced by the farm servants
from this cause ; while, on the other hand, there
are seA-eral ad\'antages attendant on this position of
their sleeping-room. Being in the immediate
vicinity of the stables, the horses are conveniently
gi'oomed and fed both in the morning angl at
night, and any accidents that may occur are
at once observed and attended to. There are
several comfortable houses at a short distance from
the steading occupied by the married labourers
employed on the farm, to which are attached small
gardens for the production of potatoes and vege-
tables. The unmarried servants have also another
house, contiguous to the farm- steading, in which
to cook their food; this latter apartment being what
is provincially designated the "bothy."

N N are two stables for young horses, the one
containing six, and the other three stalls. The
former is 17 feet in length by 18 feet in width, the
stalls being arranged transversely in the stable,
with a passage 3 feet 9 inches wide behind the
animals. The roof ascends to the slates, and the
floor is paved with small round stones, in the same
manner as that of the work-horse stable. The
stable situated between the cart-shed, I, and the
gig-house, O, contains three stalls, and is 14 feet
in length by 18 feet in width. The roof is formed
by the granary loft above, and there is a glazed
window in the back side wall, 2h feet wide by 4
feet high.

The adjoining apartment, O, is the gig-house,
which is 10 feet in length by 18 feet in mdth. The
floor is formed of flag-stones, neatly jointed toge-
ther. The large door in front is 7 feet in width,
and the window in the rear, for the admission of
light, is 3 feet square.

Byres. — The next offices to which I shall advert
are the cow-hoiises or byres, C C, one of which
adjoins the straw-barn, B, and forms part of the
north range of the steading, while the other consti-
tutes the east side. The former is GO feet in length,
and 18 feet in width. It contains eight stalls, each
of which accommodates two cows. The stalls are
8 feet in width between the partitions, thus afford-
ing 4 feet of clear space for each animal. There is
a passage 3 feet 9 inches in width between the
mangers and the back side wall, for conveying straw
and turnips to the cows from the straw-barn and
the root-house, D, at the junction of both byres.
The mangers are placed nearly in the same level
with the floor of the stalls, and are 1 foot 6 inches

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

125

Made at the bottom, and 2 feet at the top. They
are formed of Caithness flag-stones, which are pe-
culiarly adapted to such purposes ; a strong curl)-
stone of granite, G inches in height, being placed
in front, next the ])assage, and an erect flag of the
same height next the stall, both being designed to
keep in the straw and turnips used as food by the
cattle. The partitions of the stalls are formed of
strong Caithness flag-stones, 3 feet 9 inches in
height, and extending the same length backwards
from the manger. Between the stalls and the pas-
sage in front of the animals' heads are placed
strong horizontal rails of wood, firmly attached to
the upright partitions that divide the mangers. The
floor and passages are paved with small round
stones, imbedded in sand, in the same manner as
the work-horse and other stables. There is a
gutter, M, behind the animals' heels, furnished
with gratings at ])roper intervals, for carrying oflf
the urine to the liquid manure-tank, k, excavated
in the dung-yard at the rear of the cah-es'-house,
U. The floor of the stalls has a fall of 3 inches
from the manger to the gutter, for the purpose of
facilitating the escape of the urine into the drain,
and thus preserxdng the litter comparatively dry.
The passage between the gutter and the front side
wall is 3 feet 9 inches in width, which affords
ample room for the milking utensils, as well as for
the byre-man in remoAdng the dung and soiled
litter. The gutter itself occupies a space of a foot
in width, and has a gradual fall towards one end,
in order to aflford the urine ready access to the
liquid manure drain through the gratings on the
top. The entire breadth of the byre is thus di-
vided into a passage of 3 feet 9 inches in front of
the mangers, which latter occupy 2 feet ; the stalls,
7 feet 6 inches in length ; a gutter, 1 foot wide ;
and a passage behind the cows of 3 feet 9 inches in
width. All the urine of this and the adjoining
byre is conveyed to the tank, k, at the rear of the
calves'-house,by the liquid manure drain, wi m. As
proper arrangements in byres and cattle-houses,
for the preservation of urine, are much less at-
tended to in all parts of the kingdom than the
great importance of that valuable fertihzer de-
mands, it may be useful to mention that the liquid
manure drain is formed in a very simple and effi-
cient manner by means of " cheeks" or flag-stones,
placed about a foot apart at the top, and the oppo-
site ones meeting at the bottom. Strong flag-
stones, or " covers," are then laid across these,
apertures being left at proper intervals for iron
gi-atings. The " cheeks" meet so closely, both la-
terally and at the bottom, that a little Roman ce
ment laid along the joinings most eflfectually pre
vents the escape of any of the urine. The drain is
thus constructed in the form of an equilateral tri

angle, having the apex undermost and the base up-
permost. The space al)ove the covers, or top of
the drain, is paved with small stones, in the same
manner as the rest of the floor, and formed into a
conca\'e channel or gutter, along which the urine
flows to the next lower grating, where it descends
into the drain.

The ceiling of the byre is, as it invariably should
be, quite open to the slates, and furnished ^ith venti-
lators at i)roper intervals along the summit, for the
purpose of allowing the ready escape of the car-
bonic acid gas expired by the animals, while at
the same time admitting an adequate supply of
pure air. There are likewise, as a further means
of insuring the same desirable object, several ver-
tical apertures in the wall, directly fronting the
animals' lieads ; but in very cold weather, or when
the wind blows hard from the north and north-
east, these narrow slits or openings are shut up.
The side-walls of the byres and feeding-houses are
8i feet in height, from the pavement to the eaves.
In the inside they are neatly plastered; and the
rafters and sarking* of the roof are carefully
washed annually ^vith lime-water, which is sup-
posed not only to render the byres, &c., more sa-
lubrious for the stock, by the absorption of car-
bonic acid gas, but also the timber less liable to
injury from various causes, such as dry-rot.

The manner in which the cattle are bound in the
stalls seems deserving of some notice, as present-
ing a pecuharity not to be met with, so far as I am
aware, in any other steading in the country. The
binder consists of a bent piece of iron rod, fur-
nished with a clasp, which admits of being very
readily loosened and fastened by the bjTC-man, but
cannot be opened by the animals themselves. This
device, which I have endeavoured to represent at
a, fig. 2, is 1 foot 3 inches in length by 10 inches
in width, and formed exactly to fit the neck of the
animal. The manner of attaching the binder, by
means of a short chain, to the flags foiTtiing the
partition of the stalls, will be better understood
from thd' annexed sketch than from any verbal de-
scription. This sort of binder is much preferable
to the iron chain which is commonly employed for
the pui'pose, as being safer, more substantial, and
less irksome to the animals. In the figure, b is
the partition of the stalls, c the manger for turnips
or other food, and d the gutter for the passage of
urine.

The arrangement and constraction of both the
byres, C C, being similar in eveiy i*espect except
the dimensions, the foregoing description will suf-

* " Sarking" is the Scotch term for the board-
ing on the roof of a building, to which the slates
are fastened.

126

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

fice for both. The hyve which forms the east side
of the steading is eighty-three feet in length, and
contains ten stalls, each eight feet in width. This
byre accommodates twenty cows, two in each stall,
and the other sixteen. Each house has two doors
four feet in width, opening to the roadway in front,
besides the doors in the interior communicating
with the straw barn and turnip-store ; and there
are two windows in the side wall three feet square.
The cattle are supplied with turnips in winter and
spring, and with green clover in summer, from the
root-house D, which is common to both byres, as
will be perceived by an inspection of the Plan.

I^r^.2

The feeding-house, E, appropriated to the fatten-
ing of oxen for the butcher, differs but very little
m construction from the cow.s'-byre C, situated in
the same range of building ; it immediately adjoins
the straw-barn on the west side, being divided from
it by a partition wall, in which is a door for carrying
the straw used as fodder along the passage I. This
apartment is of precisely the same length as that on
the opposite side of the straw-barn, and accommo-
dates the same number of animals, namely sixteen.
The floor, roof, stalls, &c., being in every respect
similar to those of the cows' byres, need not further
adverted to in this place. The cattle in this house
are supplied mth turnips from the adjoining apart-
ment D, at the west angle of the north range, con-
veyed in a wheel-barrow along the passage before
the mangers. This feeding-house and one of the
byres are, therefore, very conveniently situated be-
tween the turnip store at one extremity, and the
straw-barn at the other, the ad\'antages of which
arrangement must be at once perceived.

F is a shed with an open court-yard for young
Btock, the roadway intervening between it and the

feeding-house being nine feet in width ; it has six
arched entrances from the yard for permitting the
entrance and egress of the animals at pleasure. The
stone pillars are two feet square, and the intervals
are each five feet ; there ai'e besides, tAvo doors open-
ing towards the roadway, by which straw and chaff
are supplied, the latter being the principal article of
fodder used by the young cattle during the winter
months ; and the proximity of the yard to the barn
admits of its being readily removed thither from
the chaff-house. There are a few moveable racks
placed in the open court, for containing the fodder;
and pennanent ones fixed to the walls in the interior
of the shed. At both ends of the shed are troughs
for turnips, fitted up against the walls; there is also
a water-trough d, supplied with fresh water at all
times by a lead-pipe from the fountain. The open
court-yard is thirty-seven in length by twenty feet
in width, and is divided from the dung-yard, K, by
a stone and hme wall, one foot two inches in thick-
ness, and four feet in height ; this shed and yard are
capable of accommodating from ten to fourteen
head of young cattle in a comfortable manner.
There is a gateway nine feet in width, for the en-
trance of carts to remove the dung when it has ac-
cumulated in the court or shed to an inconvenient
height.

H is another small shed, with a corresponding
court-yard for a bull ; the shed being eleven feet in
width by nine feet in length, and the yard nine feet
square, enclosed by a wall of stone and lime four
feet in height. There is a small door in the wall
facing the roadway, for supplying turnips ; and a
gateway four and a half feet wide, opening into the
yard, for removing the dung and adding fresh litter
from time to time. A small shed, such as this, ex-
clusively for a bull, may be regarded as an indis-
pensable part of every extensive farm steading,
though many are destitute of this convenience,

L is an auxihary feeding-house for oxen, and is
twenty-two feet in length by eighteen feet in width.
It contains four double stalls arranged transversely
in the house, and each accommodating two animals.
The partitions of the stalls are formed of wood in the
usual manner, and need not therefore be described
in this jjlace. The floor is paved with small round
stones, and the roof ascends to the slates, as in the
other cattle houses. There are two gutters for con-
veying the urine, as soon as it is voided, into the
liquid manure drain, which passes to the tank ex-
terior to the front side wall. The space intei-vening be-
tween the gutters is three feet nine inches in width.

M M are two houses, in the same range as the
last for young cattle ; l)ut that immediately adjoin-
ing the feeding-house L, which is of similar size and
construction, may be, and indeed often is, occupied
partly by working, and partly by fattening oxen,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

127

as may be found most expedient, the size and ar-
rangement of the stalls admitting of either purpose.
In the apartment adjoining the young horse stable
N, there are six stalls placed transversely, with
mangers in front on the same leA'el as the Hoor.
The length of this house is nineteen feet; audit ac-
commodates twelve animals. Both those offices are
exactly similar, in the Hoor, roof, and stalls, to the
feeding-house L, already referred to.

The piggeries, G G, are situated between the
young-cattle shed H,and the cart-shed I. Each con-
sists of two apartments, the one adjoining the road-
way being a roofed shed supplied with litter for the
swine to sleep in, and the other an open court with
a flagged floor, in which are placed troughs for con-
taining the food. The shed, or " stj'," as it is more
frequently tenned, is eleven feet in length, by seven
feet in width, and has a door ojjening to the road-
way for supplying litter when required. The open
court is exactly of the same dimensions and area,
and has also a door for supplying food to the pigs.
There is a door, four feet in width, from the cart-shed
into the open area in front of the piggeries, for con-
veying food from the kitchen ; and another larger
door opening into the young cattle's court for re-
moving the htter that has been imjiregnated with
the excrements of the swine ; there is likewise, it
will be perceived, a liquid manure drain for convey-
ing all the urine, not absorbed by the litter, to the
tank k, in the adjoining dung-yard, as denoted by
the dotted line?», passing beneath the surface of the
intermediate yards.

The Cart-Shed, I, is forty-two feet in length and
eighteen feet in breadth, within the pillars. The
roof is formed by the floor of the granaiy over head,
lliere are three stone-and-lime pillars, and four
arched entrances : the former are each two feet
square, somewhat rounded at the corners, to prevent
accidents by the contact of cart-wheels ; and the
latter are eight feet in width. This shed is obvi-
ously of very considerable utihty in preserving the
carts from the action of the sun and rain ; and no
farm-steading can be considered complete without
one of sufficient capacity, however commodious
and conveniently arranged the several offices may
otherwise be. The shed under consideration is
capable of containing eight carts, together with some
of the smaller implements and tools in daily em-
ployment. In the wall, immediately over the centre
of the archways, are fastened hooks, to which one of
the chains of each cart is attached, whereby the
shafts are elevated above the floor, when not in use.
There are several other purposes which a commo-
dious cart-shed may occasionally be made to serve,
such as steeping or pickling wheat ])reparatory to
sowing, cutting potatoes for seed, &c., &c. ; and a
necessary precaution is to have the shed directed

from the south, so as not to have the carts exposed
to the drying and shrinking effects of the sun's
rays. An oj)ening towards the north or the east
is therefore to be secured, if possible.

K K are the manure yards, in which are preserved
and acciunulated the soiled litter and the excrements
of the various animals fed in the houses. Each
is separated from the adjoining roadway by a stone-
and-lime wall four feet in height, and one foot two
inches in thickness. There are gateways, nine feet
in width, in convenient positions for carting out the
dung to the fields when necessary, and narrower
entrances for admitting the litter and the solid ex-
crements by a wheel-])arrow from the stal)les and
cattle-houses. The bottom of the dung-yards is so
contriA'ed as to prevent the escape of any liquid
drainings from the manure.

In the corner of the dung-yard opposite the
cart-shed is situated the necessary or privy for
the labourers and servants employed about the es-
tablishment. The valuable contents of this " ne-
cessary" apartment are turned to good account as
manure, by being mixed occasionally Avith absorb-
ent matters.

In each dung-yard, and contiguous to the road-
way, is a liquid manure-tank k, in which are col-
lected and preserved all the urine and other liquid
matters of the farm-steading ; none being permitted
to run to waste, as is too frequently done in most
parts of the kingdom, notwithstanding the powerful
efficacy of this now well-known and most valuable
fertilizer. These tanks are each twelve feet in
length, six feet in width, and eight feet in depth ;
and, consequently, contain about 3,580 gallons of
urine, or, both together, 7,lG0 gallons. In conse-
quence of the subsoil being of a very tenacious cha-
racter, it was deemed unnecessary, in the fonnation
of these tanks, to build the sides with stone and
lime, or with bricks, as is generally done in the
construction of similar receptacles, the sides of the
excavation having been considered sufliciently ad-
hesive and retentive to prevent the escape of any
of the liquid. The tanks are of a rectangular form,
and covered with an arched roof of masonry, in
which are inserted cast iron pumps for the purpose
of transferring the contents, from time to time, to
the liquid manure cart, Ijy which the urine is con-
veyed to the grass fields or other place for applica-
tion. The liquid manure drains, by which the urine
from the stables, byres, cattle-houses, piggeries,
calves' house, &c., passes to the tanks, as well as
those through the dung-yard for collecting the
surplus drainings, are represented in the Plan by
dotted lines.

The greatest advantage has accrued at Wester-
Fintray from the use of liquid manure, which
abundantly confirms the highly fertilizing proper-

128

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ties wliicli this valuable substance is now ascer-
tained to possess. It is generally applied to the
pasture fields during the winter and spring months,
when it is produced in great abundance by the nu-
merous animals maintained on turnips and other
food in the houses ; and the effect has been already
truly astonishing, the herbage being therebyrendered
surprisingly luxuriant and verdant. The barest
spots of the fields are selected for the application of
the urine ; and so immediate and i^owerful is its
effect, that, in a comparatively brief period there-
after, those patches that had previously been the
poorest and barest become by far the most jiroduc-
tive. The liquid manure-cart employed consists
of a puncheon mounted on the frame-work of an
ordinary cart, and is fuimished with a long, narrow,
wooden box, affixed to the hindermost part of the
frame, and perforated in the bottom to insure the
equal distribution of the liquid over the surface of
the ground. This very simple but effective appa-
ratus can be readily detached from the cart, and
allowed to remain in the field to which the urine is
being applied.

T is the Implement-house, in which are kept the
machines and larger tools not in constant employ-
ment, such as the turnip-sowing machine, &c.
This apartment is likewise used as a repository for
coals. It is entered from the roadway by a door
four feet in width, and is lighted by a glazed window,
three-and-a-half feet square.

The Calves' -house, U, it will be perceived, is
very conveniently situated in relation to the i^osition
of the cows'-byre C, it being always desirable to
have both these apartments as contiguous to one
another as possible, for convenience in supplying
the calves with milk. The calves'-house is thirty-
one feet in length, and 18 feet in M'idth. Along the
middle of the apartment is placed a row of cribs,
each four feet square, in which are placed the yoimg
calves immediately after birth, and in which they
are afterwards regularly su]:) plied with milk. The
cribs are formed with wooden ]50sts and rails,
four feet in height ; and the floor is paved
with small stones, and furnished with a gut-
ter and gratings for conveying the mine to the
tank, and preserving the litter dry. Against the front
and back side walls are arranged a series of small
stalls, in which the calves are placed after they ha^-e
attained the age of three or four weeks, they being
then removed out of the cribs, and tied up in sepa-
rate stalls, pro^'ided with a low rack for hay, and a
small manger for cut-turnips. The passages be-
tween the cril)s and stalls on each side, as well as
the rest of the floor, are pa\'ed with small roimd
stones, in the same manner as the floor of most of
the offices already described, and furnished with
underground drains and gratings for carrj^ing off

the urine to the liquid manure tank. The stalls are
divided by wooden partitions, and are each three
and a half feet in width, there being fifteen in the
house, exclusive of the cribs. The side walls are of
the same height as those of the stables and other
apartments in the south range, and the roof ascends
to the slates, -with the ^-iew of affording abundance
of fresh air, which, it is needless to observe, is an
important requisite in the calves' house. There is
a window in the front wall three and a half feet
square, besides two entrance doors, for the admis-
sion of light, which is also an essential requisite.
The great advantage of a house thus fitted up with
cribs and small stalls over loose boxes for calves, I
is that the latter are thus prevented from sucking
each other, as they are frequently known to do, if]
permitted, after getting their allowance of milk — a [
practice which, if not timely observed and prevented I
would undoubtedly engender disease in the young j
animals.

The Poultry-house V will be perceived to be si- j
tuated by itself a little to the east of the cow-byre,
and apart from the rest of the steading. It affords
all the accommodation and conveniences required
in a house appropriated for domestic fowls. The
several compartments are divided from each other
by partitions of mason work ; and the floors are
formed by flag-stones neatly jointed together. The
poultry-house has a southern exposure, which is
an important advantage, as a considerable degree
of warmth is known to be essential to the proper
maintenance of domestic fowls, and there is a com-
modious yard in front enclosed by a stone wall four
and a half feet in height. The houses are secured
internally in the most effectual manner against the
depredations of vermin.

I may here observe that work-shops for a smith
and a carpenter are not i:>rovided in this steading,
such work being always performed, when required,
at some distance from the farm. There are like-
wise a few other offices occasionally needed in home-
steads, not found in this ; but the system of hus-
bandry and general economy in Aberdeenshire may
account for the circumstance of no other apartments
being indispensably required than those that have
already been described.

Roadways. — There is a I'oadway twenty feet in
mdth between the poultry-house and the cows'
byre, which extends to the stack-yard, and another
road of similar width on the west side of the stead-
ing, also leading to the stack-yard. These, as well
as the roadway between the stal)les and the dwelling
house, are formed with broken stones in the usual
iTianner. It may be proper to mention that the lat-
ter appears much narrower in the plan than it ac-
tually is, in order to suit the size of this Magazine,
the distance of the front range of offices from the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

129

kitchen X and dairy Y 1)eing forty-two feet in-
-slead of twenty-two, as indicated l)y the frroimd-
plan. The other roadways leading to the several
ai)artments are of diflerent widths, according to si-
tuation, that in front of the north range being nine
feet wide. These latter roads are causwayed, /'. e.,
paved with round stones of a medinm size, some-
what larger than those employed in paving the floors
of the stables and cow -houses. Roadways of this
kind are very durable, easily kept clean, and seldom
need any repairs.

Water. — Tlie buildings are all abundantly sup-
plied with water brought in lead-pipes from a spring
in one of the adjoining fields. The stables, it has
been already remarked, are well provided in this
way ; and there is a water-trough formed of wood
in the shed F for the use of the young stock oc-
cupying that division of the steading. Two other
water-troughs, formed of the same material, are
placed contiguous to the byre C for the use of the
cows, and in all the troughs a constant supply of
fresh water is maintained.

Drainage. — The propriety of thoroughly draining
the site of the steading has not been overlooked ;
indeed this was deemed an indispensable preUmi-
nary operation. Tliere are properly constructed
under-ground drains through aU the buildings, for
carrying oif the natural moisture of the ground, and
which effectually prevent any dampness in the floors
arising from imder wetness. Tliorough drainage,
as well as the means of providing at aU times an
adequate supply of good water, are most essential
requisites in the arrangement of every farm-stead-
ing, though both, especially the former, are often
sadly neglected.

DivelUng-House, ^-c. — Hanng now described the
diflerent offices in detail, it will be necessary to ad-
vert very briefly to the farmer's dwelling-house, a
ground-plan of which is given in the Plate. It was,
however, built several years prior to the erection of
the existing set of farm offices, and consists of two
stories with garrets. In front are two good par-
lours W W, each sixteen feet in length by twenty-
three feet in length, with a lobby and stairs between
them, and a drawing-room and bed-rooms over
head. The kitchen X is twenty-four feet in length
and sixteen feet in width, and the dairy Y, form-
ing the opposite wing, is of similar dimensions.
The floors of both are neatly flagged. The house
contcuns all the other apartments and conveniences
usually found in the dwellings of Scottish farmers,
but which it will not be necessary to particularize
in the place. On the ground floor are the ale-
cellar (f), milk-cellar (g), and cheese-store (A),
besides the small apartments {i i) for storing butter
and other miscellaneous articles. The front faces

the garden, 1)ut the back windows command a view
of the steading.

Contiguous to the dwelling-house is an apart-
ment Z which is employed in the double capacity
of a wash-house and a Ijoiling-house, boiled food
being prepared in it for the horses occasionally
during the winter ; there are two doors, one open-
ing to the garden and the other leading to the offices.
Fronting the dwelling-house is a very neat and taste-
fully-kept garden, chiefly for raising fruit and ve-
getables; but the culture of flowers is not forgotten.

Expenses. — I shall now conclude this somewhat
lengthened description of the farm-buildings at
"Wester Fintray by a brief statement of the expense
incurred in erecting them. The whole of the stead-
ing was erected at the joint expense of the proprie-
etor (the Earl of Fife) and of the tenant — the latter,
however, ha\'ing to defray only the cost of carrying
the materials, digging and clearing out foundations,
&c., while the former paid for the remainder of the
work. The tenant's share of the expense, including
the cost of cutting and forming the water-course to
and from the thrashing-machine, leveUing the sur-
face of the stack-yard, &c., amounted to £'362. The
tenant has further to keep the several offices in re-
pair till the expiration of his lease ; but the duty of
doing so will not involve much expenditure, owing
to the substantial natiu'e of the materials and work-
manship. The landlord's proportion of the expense
amounted to nearly £1,600, thus making the whole
cost about £1,962 for erecting the farm offices
alone, the dwelling-house having been built several
years preAiously. This is unquestionably a very
considerable sum; but the expense would now have
been much greater, and it will, I think, be ad-
mitted that the buildings which I have attempted
to describe in the preceding pages are of a very su-
perior and substantial order, possessing every con-
venience essentially requisite in a steading for such
a farm, and the particular system of husbandry
pursued; and though true economy ought never to
be neglected in any department of agriculture, es-
pecially in one so costly as the erection of farm-
buildings, yet I am decidedly of opinion that mere
economy of construction ought to be regarded as a
secondary consideration compared with the proper
accommodation of the live stock, and such a dispo-
sition and arrangement of the several ofiices as will
be most conducive to the preservation of the health
of the animals. It is certainly a most mistaken
economy to erect inadequate ill-ventilated houses
for the accommodation of horses and cattle, in
wliich they can neither thrive for the advantage of
the farmer, nor live comfortably for themselves.

December, 1845.

130

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A SIMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE FREE AND COMBINED
AMMONIA AND WATER IN GUANO AND OTHER MANURES.

1 he want of a simple, accurate, and at the same j which it is found that the tube containing the
time expeditious method for determining the copper salt has suffered, whilst the quantity of
amount ot ammonia in guano has, I think, been t water is shown Ijy the increase of weight in
leJt by most chemists who have been engaged in ; the tube containing the potash and lime. The
the analysis of that manure for commercial pur- quantity of combined ammonia has now to be
poses, where time necessarily becomes a matter of i ascertained, which is done by adding to the

■?

guano are daily in progress under my direction,
seems to me to possess these advantages, I beg
leave to place it before the notice of chemists who
may be similarly circumstanced.
The quantity of free ammonia in
the guano is first determined,
along ^v^th that of the water, by the
following process : — A common
test-tube (about 5 inches long and
2 wide), is taken, and in it a deter-
minate quantity of the guano under
examination is placed ; from 25 to
50 grs. mil be found most conve-
nient. To the test-tube is then
joined, by means of a cork, a tube
of the same diameter, but only
about 4 inches long, having one of
its ends contracted and drawn out,
so as to pass through the cork, and
leave a small communicating aper-
ture for the escape of gas from the
test-tube. A few fragments of as-
bestos are then placed in the con-
tracted end of the tube, to prevent
the aperture being choked up dur-
ing the jjrogress ; and the tube is
then filled with fragments of caustic
potash, either alone or mixed with
fragments of lime, which I prefer.
To the top of this tube is then
joined another tube of precisely
similar construction, but being only
about 3 inches long, and which, the
asbestos being placed as before, is
filled with coarsely-pounded sul-
phate, nitrate, or chloride of cop-
per, previously well dried. A few
fragments of asbestos are now
placed on the top of each of these
tubes, so as to prevent any of their
contents from falling out. The
tubes are then weighed separately.
lire three tubes are then connected;
and the test-tube which contains
the guano is placed in a water-bath
until all moisture has been expelled.
The tubes are now disconnected,
and again weighed, when the quan-
tity of ammonia contained in the
guano in a free state is directly de-
termined by the increase of weight

paratus as before, and exposing the test-tube to a
low red heat, all the ammonia is expelled and
combines with the copper salt contained in the
upper tube, and, as before, it is determined by
direct weighing. It is very easy to judge when all
the ammonia is exjielled and when the operation
should be concluded, as the ammonia, in combin-
ing with the copper salt, gives it, as it proceeds up
the tube, a magnificent blue colour, which, when it
does not extend any higher up the tube, indicates
the conclusion of the operation. In the case of
any other manure, where the ammonia has to be
found, the operation is precisely similar to the
example of guano which I have here taken. I
have no doubt that, with some modifications, the
condensation of ammonia by a salt of copper
would be found of use in organic analysis for the
determination of the nitrogen ; and in one or two
cases where I ha^'e tried it, the results closely ap-
proximated to those obtained by calculated. — D.
Forbes, Esq., in the Chemical Gazette.

PLANTATIONS IN THE NORTH.

We alluded lately to the profitable nature of plan-
tations in the Highlands, and our views have since
been confirmed from various quarters. One gentle-
man, who has had the benefit of forty years' obser-
vation, writes as follows : —

" There is no doubt that there are many bare
hills and sandy soils that by judicious planting
could be made as valuable as arable land. A few
years since, some acres of planted timber were sold
on the Belladrum property at above £100 per acre.
On the same estate in 1839, forty-two acres sold
for £50 per acre, though there were only about 200
trees per acre left on the land, the former cutting
being supposed to be of equal value. I have known
properties in the north on which the forester dou-
bled the amount received by the factor for land,
and this, be it recollected, from ground which sixty
years ago was not worth a shilUng per acre. Any
extent of surface may be enclosed and planted, for
about 20s. per acre, with Scotch fir and larch ; and if
properly managed, the plantation, in forty years,
will be equal to £20 per acre, and the same sum

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

131

every succeeding twenty years, if the planting is
well attended to. Some forests might 1)6 made to
yield even double the sura. It is a well known
fact that there are plantations which yield £3 jier
acre, and will continue to do so as long as their
owners choose, without trouble or expense."

"With respect to the cost here stated, we considted
another party versant in woodcraft, and he con-
firms the remark of our correspondent. " The
ex})ense of enclosing," he says, " is much lessened
as tlie extent of ground is enlarged. One square
acre, for example, enclosed separately, will cost at
least £5 ; whereas, a hundred acres, taken in at
once, will not cost more than nine or ten shillings
an acre. In this manner, when a considerable ex-
tent of ground is jiut under wood, the entire cost
of planting and enclosing fir and larch will not be
more than 18s. per acre. In districts where birch
or hazel is plentiful, a wattled fence could be made
for 2 id. per yard, and it is more effectual for keep-
ing out game and sheep than a feal-dyke."

In some exposed localities by the sea-coast, plan-
tations have been often tried without effect. Not-
withstanding the repeated failures on similar situa-
tions, we understand Macleod of Macleod has been
planting largely with complete success. The sea
breeze generally cuts off vegetation on a level with
the outer fence or dyke ; but if the latter is made
to slope at the top, the wind is thro'wn up, and
though the first row may suffer, the second attains
a greater height, and so on through the successive
rows, each rising above the other as sheltered and
removed from the cutting breeze. On conversing
lately with Mr. Smith, the intelligent partner of the
firm of Lawson and Smith, nurserymen here, we
were assured that on the most exposed coasts this
plan will be found to answer, and we hope our
Caithness friends will make the experiment. First,
construct a good dyke, sloping at the top, and then
plant thick behind it ! On the estate of Lochiel
wire fences have been carried to the highest hills,
to secure the young plantations ; and, we believe,
there are no finer specimens of Avire fences in the
north — strong with cast-iron uprights — than may
be seen on Lochiel's estate. On other proper-
ties in the west — at Invergarry, Glenquoich, Lord
Abinger's and Mr. Walker's — planting is also
i going forward. At Ardintoul, Applecross, Dun-
j donald, and Gairloch, the same may be said ; and
in our more immediate neighbourhood there is
scarcely an estate where planting is not in progress.
In the famous forest of Rothieraurchus we observed
lately that a good deal of larch and hard-wood has
been put down. No Scots fir was ever planted
there, as new seedlings rise from the old plantations
so celebrated in former days. In the comparatively
secluded district of Strathconnon about 400 acres
are in course of plantation. We shall not attempt
to enumerate all the places around Inverness or in
Ross-sliire, where similar improvements are going
on ; but, extensive as these are, there is still rt)om
for further increase, and the subject is one of na-
tional importance. — Inverness Courier.

DISEASES IN CATTLE.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir — Havii).^ read several letters on the fatal diseases in
cattle, in Farmers' Journal, Bell's Messcmjcr, Essex Herald, &c.,
&c., from Dr. Armstrong, of Moat, Mr. Sntton, of Sawtry, Mr.
^^^aters, of I'utncy, and from several others, I find they all dif-
fer in opinion as to the nature and eausc of the disease, and the
appearances after death. I find ;\Ir. Waters states he has taken
many post mortem examinations of cattle that have died from
the disease, and he found the left lobe of the lungs heptatized,
and of enormous size and weight. In one case, 1813, he says
he found the left lobe weighed 781bs., and had the appearance
of roinid-jointcd brick work, and not tainted by \uiplcasant smell
as in acute cases of inflamed lungs ; for in that case they would
be as described by Dr. Armstrong, congested and gorged with
venous black blood, gangrene, and mortification, with a horrid
stench. He considers the epidemics of 1810 and 1841 were
produced from atmospherical influence, and close and badly-ven-
tilated cow-sheds, &c. ; and that the present and fatal diseases
are from hereditary predisposing causes ; and no doubt many
cattle that sunived the shock of epidemics in 1840 and 1811
had a slight attack of inflammation, of an insidious form, on
the lung, which has been succeeded by the escape of serous ef-
fusion into their cellular tissue and chest. From the debility
consequent on the epidemic, which has been making a secret
progress, and in some instances many months, even years, it has
been thus progressing in size and weight, unnoticed by the
owner ; but it would have been recognised by a practical vete-
rinary surgeon. But when this disease arrives at a certain crisis,
the milky secretions are suspended (consequently no supply of
milk), the cow leaves off chewing the cud, wastes in flesh, and
dies from suffocation, sometimes in a short time. Now, to prove
the disease hereditary, ]Mr. W. states he has examined many
foetuses, dropped before the regular time of parturition, and which
of course never drew breath ; also many calves from 3 to 12
months old, and he found their lungs slightly diseased and hep-
tatized, which no doubt were transmitted from the mother in
embryo ; for during gestation the foetus is nourished by the blood
from the foetal artery of the mother, and if that be impure, it is
unfit for the nourishment of, and communicates disease to, the
foetus.

I beg to say I have read Mr. Waters's remarks with care and
mxich interest, and I consider he has minutely described the
cause of this most alarming disease, and has pointed out the
stepping-stone for its removal, which is a great object to be ob-
tained in putting a stop to one of the greatest calamities to the
owners of stock, and is of the highest importance to breeders
that can be suggested or offered. I therefore thhik, from the
pains he has taken in searching out the causes and pointing out
the remedy, he is deserving of the thanks and support of the
public.

Being myself a practical man among stock for many years, I
have, by examination, in many eases found sjonptoms exactly
corresponding with those of Jlr. W., and I am strongly of opi-
nion, unless more caution is used in breeding and rearing calves
for the dairy, we shall be a long time before the diseases become
extinct. I therefore recommend persons who wean calves to
select sound ones, the progeny of perfectly sound parents ; if
with coughs, &c., they should not be weaned for becoming mo-
thers, for if unsound when first dropped, it is impossible they
can ever become sound mothers, but may live and bear yoimg,
although diseased on the lungs. I am satisfied if the above
method be adopted with care, it will sooner work a cure than
any other, and the public will have good reason to appreciate the
merits of Mr. Waters. I am, &c., G. W,

133

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE EARL OF STAIR'S PRIZES FOR TURNIP CROPS, 1845.

We have much i:)leasure in announcing the re-
sult of the com])etition for the very handsome prizes
offered hy Lord Stair to his tenants to encourage
the growing of turnips, and the proper cleaning,
manuring, and general management of green crops.

The judges tliis year were, Mr. Alexander
M'Clean, Auchneel ; Mr. Cochrane, Craigcaffie ;
and Mr. M'Credie, Drummuckloch ; and after
several hard days' work in the inspection, from the
points of Corswall and Kirkmaiden to near the
Burgh-head, they awarded the prizes as follows : —
Prize of £20, for the best twenty acres of turnips ;

to Mr. John M'Bryde, Balker.
Prize of £15, for the best fifteen acres ; no compe-
tition.
Prize of £10, for the best ten acres ; to Mr. Donnan,

High Ersick.
Three prizes of £5, for the best five acres of turnips ;

Mr. Fraser, in Portyerrock ; Messrs. Donnan

and M'Millan, Mains of Whithoni ; and Mr.

Alexander M'Meikan, Boreland.

The intelligent judges state generally that the
crops of turnips exhibited are not so heavy as they
were in some former years, but that they obsen-e
turnips are grown much more extensively over the
country than formerly, and are generally much
better managed. Tliree of the prizes are gained
upon the estates purchased by Lord Stair five years
ago, near Whithorn, where few turnips used to be
grown, and where a marked improvement in general
management is observable.

The judges regretted to obser\'e one or two very
excellent crops of turnips considerably damaged
by the rot — caused probably by the cold damp sea-
son ; but this was not general among the crops exa-
mined. It appeared worst in heavy lands richly
manured ; and it is believed the only cure is to lift
the sound ones, and put them into naiTOw pits,
covered slightly with straw. Tliis was done last
year at Culhorn, with some turnips grown on moss,
where the disease appeared very extensively ; and
those so put into the pits kept quite well, and were
fresh and good far into the spring.

We cannot close this notice ^vithout acknow-
ledging the debt of gratitude which this county
owes to the noble Earl for the judgment and energy
with which he has persevered in pressing upon his
tenants in Wigtownshire the cultivation of the tur-
nip crop, so suited for our soil, and, in fact, so es-
sential a point of good husbandry, that no farm
can be profitably cultivated, manured, and improved
without it. When his Lordshij) first offered prizes

for turnips, five years ago, few were grown, and
few particularly by the small farmers ; but now it
is a farm far behind indeed, where some breadth
of turnips is not sown. The stimulant which Lord
Stair's handsome prizes afforded, unquestionably
greatly aided the advancing agricultural intelligence
of the district ; and we trust that, now that the
farmers have touched the immediate profits, and
have also seen the effects of a well-managed turnip
crop on the subsequent pastures, it would take a
very high prize indeed to induce them to give it ujs
as a regular and important part of their rotation.
The great profits from feeding, last season, and the
melancholy failure of the potatoes this season, will
also weigh with many to adopt a crop less exhaust-
ing in itself — better suited for cleaning the land —
and which in its consumption gives the means of
raising future crops. Tenants should ever remem-
ber, in spite of guano, bones, &c., the old adage,
that " Muck is the mither o' the meal kist." — Wig-
to^vn Free Press.

TURNIPS versus HAY.

Tlie following is part of a speech delivered by
the Rev. Mr. Huxtable, at the late meeting of the
Sturminster Agricultural Society : —

" I am more and more convinced, that of all
mistakes that can be committed, that of growing
hay is the greatest. Pasture land is let in this
country of a poor kind ; I am not speaking of
watering meadows, or of those rich meadows
watered by the Stour, and let at 2/. or 3/. per acre :
but, speaking of the average of lands, I say that a
greater robbery never was committed on a nation
than that of keeping these lands in pasture. An
acre will cut one and a-half tons of hay : now, what
■will three acres do ? They will keep a cow
summer and winter. I am prepared to say, that
two and a-half acres keep a "cow; but then the cows
are kept in the straw-yard for three months, and to
produce the food for them during this time, I
allot the other half acre Let it be broken up.
First of all it is thoroughly drained, and then if
you have Swedes, he must be a bungler who can-
not grow twenty-five tons an acre ; and what is the
worth of Swedes an acre ? Let that be reserved
for the present, and be pleased now to allow me
to suppose that they are worth 15s. a ton, exclu-
sive of the dung. Now you have got 25 tons at
15s.; exclusive of this come the tops. If a cow

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

13;}

gets hold of the tops, the butter will taste ; but the
great quantity of phosphates they produce will
render milk abundant. You have got, then, the
first year, 25 tons of Swedes, the gross proceeds of
which will be IS/. : I presume that you eat off this;
and that you will have produced sufficient manure
for that land. Then the next year you grow
wheat ; you will grow, at least, on that land nine
sacks of wheat per acre; or you'll grow fifteen tons
of green clover an acre, and in the next year nine
quarters of oats. I pledge my word that you can
grow these crops, because I have done it myself.
Now, look at the nation's benefit from this : you
have grown nine sacks of wheat an acre, twenty-
five tons of Swedes, and nine quarters of oats.
And now I ask you, what has the cow been doing ?
She has made 200 lbs. of butter, and 212lbs. of
cheese, and the nation can feed from the arable
land 240 more mouths than the cow can feed. I
say it will not do to depend upon protection, to
keep foreign corn out. AVe ought to come before
the country and say, ' We are doing all we can to
feed you, but we cannot give you English corn at
foreign prices, ^vith English biu'thens.' But are
we'doing that ? Do we come with clean hands to
ask for protection ? I think we have a claim to
protection. I love farming, and think that apart
from my sacred profession, which visits the sick,
there is no occupation so useful as that of endea-
vouring to amend the habits of agriculture amongus.
" Now, about poor lands. It is poor land that I
love; I don't want your 50s. an acre land. I had
some miserably poor land called Boys Knap, at
Sutton ; the value of it was merely nominal — Is. an
acre ; I've broken it up, and in this way : — Last
July, some fifteen poor men from Shaftesbury
came to me and begged for employment, so I told
them to go and break up this land ; they were to
have 2d. a lug for digging it, but they could not
dig it, so they were obhged to get their pickaxes
and break it up. It was very hard ground, and
excepting two or three thistles which got into the
rabbits' dung, there was nothing to be seen. Now,
here was a ftur place to try whether I could make
any thing grow. The principle I proceeded on
was not guess work, but certainty. If you take
Swedes and burn them, they will leave a certain
quantity. ITie portion that is left is what we call
earthy element ; that which is burnt the air ele-
ment. Now, chemistry says to us that if we will
give to certain plants their earth element, and a
certain poition of air element, then it matters not
about the soil; I beheve and know that to be true.
I determined that I would grow twenty tons of
Swedes an acre, and five tons of tops. If you
burn twenty tons, the result would be 500 lbs. of
ashes. Now, these ashes consist of more than

one-half of potash, one-third of soda, one-eighth of
I)hos])horic acid (what we get in bones), and the
other one-eighth of sulphuric acid, with a little
magnesia. I then got a lot of saw-dust, and put it
under pigs, and decayed it with phosphoric acid ;
for I must tell you that when once saw-dust takes
it into its head to decay, nothing on earth will stop
it. Now, how was I to get more potash ? I got
wood ashes, and found that these wood ashes con-
tained about 2lbs. of potash a bushel, and 2lbs. of
soda. Next, I wanted to get the phosphates ; those
I got from 2000lbs. of Ichaboe guano. The next
thing was, how was I to put in the manure ? My
theory was to make holes about two feet apart ; but
there was one serious objection which kept me
awake all night — how was the manure to be ajjplied
without destroying the seed, for it is so powerful it
wU grow no weeds between. I got some good
garden mould, in which I mixed the seed and ma-
nure. The crop began to grow, but the fly got
very busy, and I was afraid that after all I was
what they call ' diddled.' You know, white seed
will germinate three or four days before Swedes ;
I got some white seed, and when the plant appeared
the fly left my Swedes to go upon the white tu-
nips, and I wished them good morning. Where
the children neglected to drop the seeds upon the
manure, the roots were not half as big as a marble.
Then, about three weeks ago, we took up these
turnips. We weighed 19 tons and three-quarters
upon the lightest portions of the land, and upon
the heaviest 23 tons and three-quarters. Tlie
aggregate average was 22 tons an acre, the value of
which we will now discuss. What was the cost ?
30 bushels of wood ashes, 15s.; 2 cwt. of guano,
17s. — 32s. For manual labour, 19s. 6d. Tlie
rent I've placed at 5s. an acre, rates and tithes at
2s. — in all, in round numbers,4Z. Now let us see
what the Swedes were worth. I find that 112lbs.
of Swedes, will, upon the average, put on 2lbs. of
hve flesh. Then the value of that at 7d. a pound,
dead weight, reckoning that the hve weight is to
dead weight as 4 to 3, brings my Swedes to 1 7s.
Id. a ton. Now, what's the value of the dung ? I
bring it to 4s. id., which makes it equal to 21s.
2d. But I will take the popular value of 15s. a
ton. Nov^, for £4 an acre I have a return of 300
per cent.; and if that is not a sufficient return I don't
know what is. You see I want you to be enthusi-
astic. If you will only be as enthusiastic as I am,
you may laugh at these free-traders. AVe agricul-
turists support 27 millions of people, and our pro-
duce amounts to the enormous sum of 540 millions
sterling, whilst the exported manufactured goods
amount, on the average of 6 years, to not quite 47
milhons. Then I tell you, you must become en-
thusiastic."

131

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE POTATO FAILURE.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir, — The failure of the potato crop this season
is, in my opinion, omng to the cold and wet, and
the defective drainage of the land, they being too
shallow to absorb the immense quantity of wet of
the present year; and as a proof of this, I have found
that, wherever the potato was planted on dry land,
and had the full benefit of the sun and air, it is free
from the disease. And for further proof, on Nateby,
Winmarley, and other mosses in Lancashire, the
fields are not parted from each other by fences, but
by ditches and water courses : the surface of the
ground, by this means is dry, being from three to
five feet above the cold water and clay ; and here
the potatoes are free from the disease, but not those
grown on what is here called the under-ground,
that is, where the moss has been cut away for turf as
fuel, so that there are only about eighteen inches
of .the peat earth from the clay and water. I may
here observe of the top and bottom of these
mosses, before they are cultivated, and in their wild
state, that the top surface for about two feet is of
so bright a nature, that it is not fit for turf ; and it
is the same in the bottom of these mosses ; and I
have seen from four to seven feet of fine peat earth
betwixt the light top and bottom, as above stated,
and converted into turf for fuel, and sold in large
quantities, and also made into draining covers;
and the Duke of Hamilton as had, the last summer,
made upon Nateby Moss 160,000 of those draining
covers, for his estates in that neighbourhood,
which win cover about twenty miles long of drains.
The time of making them is April, May, and June;
but before this is done, the moss is cultivated for
corn, and potatoes and turnips, and answers well
for that purpose, and when cut away, it is then called
the underground ; and some years ago it was sup-
jiosed that it would be better land for produce, but
which now proves otherwise. The mode of culti-
vating it is this: It is ploughed in March, April, or
May, and sometimes as late as June, if the
season is wet; is dried by the sun and wind;
made into heaps and burnt ; and then spread
abroad, and the ground ploughed, andthe corn sown.
The following year the same thing is done, planted
wth potatoes or turnips, in ric'iges about thirty
inches apart, and raised from ten to twelve inches
high, and manured along with the burnt ashes.
By this plan abundant crops are produced, and
this year as much as 120 loads per acre. The load
here so called is 240lbs. weight; this is not the

case in the under-grounds, but they are affected,
notwithstanding that the ground was burnt, in the
same way as the others. It is well kno^vn to the
agriculturists of the mountainous districts, that the
potatoes there grown on the sides of the dry hills
above the sea are always the soundest, and best
flavoured, and the most nutritious ; and the turnip
has also been found, of late years, to answer the same
thing on high grounds. This is, no doubt, OAving
to their having the sun and the refreshing air, and
being free from all obstructions from the trees, the
same as those grown on the mosses ; and again,
those grown in confined gardens, under or near
trees and hedges, have this year been destroyed by
the disease, for want of free sun and air. It has
been said by some writers, that the disease has been
caused by frost ; but I believe that not to be the
cause, as the tops of the potatoes on the above
named mosses were cut down by the frost in Sep-
tember last : now, these potatoes have been taken
up, and prove free from the disease, and are an
abundant crop, with the exception of those on the
under grounds. It is, therefoi'e, quite clear that
drainage is the vital part, and of the most import-
ance, both in agriculture and gardening ; and as
Mr. Parkes as well and truly observed, a great
part of the draining which has been done will have
to be done over again, owing to their having been
done too shallow. I consider a drain thirty inches
deep a mere nothing, compared to one forty-eight
inches; and, where this is impracticable, Mr. Parkes
has clearly pointed out a remedy by making aper-
tures in the earth, varying from sLx to fifteen feet
deep according to the strata ; and they are made
about six feet in diameter, and filled up with small
stones : six of those have been found suflScient for
sixty acres. This plan is also well calculated for
lands reclaimed from the sea. The above are my
views of the first and great cause of the failure.

The second cause is in pitting them, as in former
years, before they were sufficiently dry, and which
ought not to have been done till the mould which
stuck to them was like dry dust ; and where this
was not the case, there has been a very great
destruction in those pits, although, when put therein,
they were free from disease; and it is to be regretted
that the customary directions were not more attended
to : if they had been, there would have l)een a great
abundance saved in England. I am glad to observe
in the Irish Farmers' Gazette of Dec. 6, j>age 519, that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

135

great care has been taken, as pointed out by the
commissioners, and it is thus stated in the above
named page 519.

With thankfulness I can now confidently state,
that I have not the slightest apprehension of want
in Ireland ; but on the contrary, by care and atten-
tion, there ^vill be a superabundance, which will,
the ensuing spring, bring a high price for exporta-

tion to those countries which have nearly lost aU.
These remarks and observations fully coincide
with what is stated in page 503 — 5—6 and
553_4_5 of the " Farmers' Magazine " of
December last ; therefore, if you think these remarks
worthy of recording in your magazine, they are
at your service. I am, yours, &c., M. Saul.
Nateby Lodge, near Garstang, Dec. 13, 1845.

In the other set they were

3. Soot

4. Saltpetre

5. Nothing

6. Nitrate and Sul-

phate of soda

7. Common salt

8. Guano

9. Nitrate of soda.

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS WITH DIFFERENT MANURES ON HAY, POTATOES,
CORN, AND TURNIPS, IN 1844; WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR CONTINUED
EFFECTS ON THE SUCCEEDING CROPS.

BY MR. JOHN WILSON, JUNIOR, EASTFIELD, PENICUIK, MID-LOTHIAN.

Hay> — The ground consisted of four acres, which
were divided into sixteen portions of a rood each.
Nine different manures were used, seven of which
were apphed at two different places, and the other
two, for want of sufficient room in the field, were
applied to only one portion each.

The field has a gentle declivity, with a southern
exposure ; the soil is what is termed a thin upland
clay, resting on a clay subsoil, and was drained
about four years ago at thirty feet apart ; but, to
render it thoroughly dry, it would require interme-
diate drains. To have the ground as nearly as
possible of the same quality, the field was divided
into oblong portions in the same direction, and of
the same breadth as the distances between the
drains, so that each portion had the benefit of one
drain.

It maj be proper to state that, although the
ground is as nearly as possible of the same quality,
and its previous management in regard to manur-
ing and cropping the same, yet it will be observed,
on perusing the following table, that the crop on
the west side of the field was better than that on the
east. The only reason I can adduce for this is,
that, previous to the sowing of the grass-seeds, the
east side was ploughed in February, and the west
not until March, immediately before the seeds were
sown ; but, as this difi'erence in the time of plough-
ing, and the results arising from it in the weight of
the crop, took place exactly between the two sets
of experiments, no error will be made from con-
sidering both portions of land of the same quahty ;
and although the crop of one-half of the field was
superior to the other, the substances employed
acted nearly in an equal degree in each.

The substances employed in ort« set of experi-
ments were —

1. Urine

2. Rag- Ley*

3. Soot

4. Saltpetre

5. Nothing

9.

Nitrate and sulphate

of soda
Common salt
Guano
Nitrate of soda.

With the exception of the urine and rag-ley, the
substances were applied on the second of April. It
had rained two hours before they were begun to be
applied, and continued to rain sometime after they
were put on, which immediately washed the sub-
stances into the roots of the plants, and in the short
period of four days the effects of the nitrate of soda,
soot, and guano, were quite discernible. Tlie rag-
ley and urine were not applied until the last week
of April, when the ground was very dry and the
weather rather cold. An inspection of the crop
was taken at intervals during its progress, but it
wUl be sufficient to state that No. 9 took the lead
in point of strength and dark green colour. About
the end of May it was very superior to any of the
others, both clover and rye-grass being very luxu-
riant. Nos. 3, 4, 6, and 8, were much improved at
that period, but not equal to No. 9. No, 7 was in
no respect improved. No. 2 a httle. No. I grow-
ing luxuriantly. Previous to this the whole field
had a good appearance, and nothing could exceed
the luxuriance of Nos. 1, 4, 3, 8, and 9 ; but the
drought at this time was becoming very severe, and
the wind being from the east, the field was much
exposed to it. In the middle of June, the whole
field was suffering severely from the continued
drought, but No. 9 was still keeping the lead, and,
with the exception of Nos. 2 and 7, the rest of the
dressed portions had a good appearance.

The hay was cut on the 13th and 14th of July,
and when win, each experiment was put into a rick
in the field, where it stood until the 28th of August,
when the whole was weighed at a pubhc weighing-
machine, and stacked.

* The water in which the rags are boiled at the
paper-mills.

K 2

136

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE FOLLOWING TABLE

SHEWS

THE RESULTS : —

i

2

Sj2

CO

O

Value of

Ph

<

o

<

Hay, after

<

<

.^i

;-l

!h

^■^

CO

deducting

b.

u

No.

Description of Manures.

1<

eu

P-

1 s

a

a.

cost of

SL,

Ph

O

O

O

11
1^

3

a;

Applica-
tion.

CO
TO
O

gaUs.

s.

s.

d.

f. s.

£. s.

£. s.

s.

1.

Urine

1920

, ,

32

240

6

6 0

4 8

0 16

2.

Rag-ley .

1920
bolls.

••

7

160

6

4 0

3 13

0 1

••

3.

Soot ,

20
cwt.

••

20

216

6

5 8

4 8

0 16

••

4.

Saltpetre .

U

24

36

240

6

6 0

4 4

0 12

5.

Nothing .

, ,

144

6

3 12

, ,

, .

M

Nitrate and sulphate }
of soda . . S

1

2

1}

37

216

6

5 8

3 11

• •

1

7.

Common salt .

5

3

15

144

6

3 12

2 17

, ,

15

8.

African guano .

4

10

40

228

6

5 14

3 14

0 2

. .

9.

Nitrate of soda .

2

19

38

268

6

6 14

4 16

1 4

••

boUs.

3.

Soot

20
cwt.

••

20

184

6

4 12

3 12

1 4

••

4,

Saltpetre .

U

24

36

192

6

4 16

3 0

0 12

5.

Nothing .

96

6

2 8

. .

a.{

Nitrate and sulphate }
of soda . . S

1

2

19^
OS

37

176

6

4 8

2 11

0 3

7.

Common salt .

5

3

15

96

6

2 8

1 13

. .

15

8.

African guano .

4

10

40

176

6

4 8

2 8

, ,

9.

Nitrate of soda .

2

19

38

208

6

5 4

3 6

0 18

••

THE FOLLOWING IS THE AVERAGE OF THE TWO EXPERIMENTS: —

Urine
Rag-ley .

Soot .

Saltpetre .
Nothing .
Nitrate and sulphate I

of soda
Common salt ,
African guano ,
Nitrate of soda .

galls.

1920

, .

32

240

6

6 0

1920

, ,

7

160

6

4 0

bolls.

20

20

200

6

5 0

cwt.

n

^ ^

36

216
120

6
6

5 8
3 0

.S

3

..

37

196

6

4 18

5

, ,

15

120

6

3 0

4

, ,

40

202

6

5 1

2

••

38

238

6

5 19

4 8

3 13

4 0
3 12

3 1

2 5

3 1

4 1

0 16

0 1

1 0

!

0 12

0 1

, ^

15

0 1

I 1

All the substances employed, with the exception
of common salt, gave at least a small profit : but I
am inclined to think, had the drought been less
severe in May and June, that the increase over the
undressed portions would have been much greater.
I may state, in regard to common salt, that al-
though it has failed this season, 1844, I had pre-
viously used it to great advantage. In 1843 it
increased the hay crop nearly one-third ; and I
presume that it was owing to the dryness of this
season that it had no beneficial effect on the first

crop, as the grasses appeared stunted in their growth
after it was applied, from which they only partially
recovered ; but, as the second crop was evidently
benefited by it, and as the expense of applying it
is trifling compared to some of the other substances,
I think, in inland districts, or where the ground is
not exposed to the action of prevaihng sea-winds,
it may generally be used to advantage.

The rag-ley gave only a small increase; but I am
led to infer, from the above result, and from the ap-
pearance of the second crop, that, in localities where

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

137

it can be obtained, it might be employed to advan-
tage. In this experiment, the ground was exceed-
ingly dry when it was put on, and did not get th?
advantage of a single shower till the crop was far
advanced, which might prevent it from producing
the effects it might otherwise have done ; but when
we bear in mind that a great quantity of it is daily
running from the paper manufactories, without, as
far as I know, being put to any useful purpose, I
think it ought to be experimented upon, to see if it
has any effect in promoting vegetation, I am not
aware of the ingredients of which it is composed.

Being convinced of the great utility of applying
urine as a top-dressing, I think it is always entitled
to a place in experiments made for the purpose of
testing different manures. In this experiment it
was applied after the ground was very dry, yet it
increased the crop ninety-six stones per acre, and
the increase would probably have been much greater
had there been more rain. Although the soot in-
creased the crop nearly as much as any of the other
mamu-es, the hay was rather inferior in quality, as
the clover did not succeed so well where it was ap-
plied.

Although the hay is all valued in the table at the
same rate per stone, it may be proper to state that
the quality of the hay was much improved on the
portions dressed with nitrate of soda, guano, salt-
petre, mixture of nitrate and sulphate of soda, and
urine ; which, of course, makes the gain from their

application considerably greater than what appears
in the table.

The remainder of the hay crop on the farm was
dressed with soot and urine, and the increase was
rmKJh the same as in the above results.

'rhe second crop was only allowed to grow about
four we"eks, until the cattle were put into the fields
to pasture, so that the value of it could not be so
accurately ascertained : but, with the exception of
theportion to which the soot was applied, all the others
were decidedly superior to the undressed portion.

Potatoes. — The quantity of land experimented
upon amounted to three acres — nearly level, with a
northern exposure : the soil is earthy loam, super-
incumbent on clay, partially drained with stones,
but not thoroughly dry. In the autumn of 1842
the field was ploughed out of lea, and sown with
oats in 1843, which was but a middling crop.
After oats, it was ploughed deep in autumn, and
cross ploughed and well cleaned in the spring of
1844. The drills were drawn thirty-four inches
apart, and forty cubic yards of farm-yard dung
were spi'ead in the drills ; the potatoes planted on
the last day of April and first of May, and covered
in with the double mould-board plough. The wea-
ther was very droughty at the time of planting, and
the ground, of course, very dry ; but the potatoes
brairded regularly ; and the dressings were applied
during May and June, and the crop lifted and
weighed on the 8th, 9th, and 10th of October.

THE FOLLOWING TABLE

SHEWS THE

results:-

—

<1

^

g

d

Kinds of Manure and

§3

P4

O
Is

<

Quantity in

Increase in

^

when applied.

>>

n.

Tons, &c.

Value per

Tons per

Value of

CO

per Acre.

Acre

Acre.

Increase.

O

O

a

Cwt.

s. d.

s. d.

tons.cwt.qr.

£. s.

d.

tons.cwt.qr.

£. s. d.

1.

Guano apphed on the"
30th of April in the

drill with the dung >

2

10 0

20 0

9 1 0

18 2

0

0 15 0

1 10 0

previous to planting

the potatoes.

z.

Rape-dust put in at the'

root ofthe stem about •

5

6 3

31 3

10 ] 1

20 2

6

1 15 1

3 10 6

the middle of June, .

3.

Guano apphed on the "

top of the drill on ■

2

10 0

20 0

14 5 1

28 10

6

5 19 1

11 18 6

the 30th of May,

4.

Nothing, .

—

—

—

8 6 0

10 12

0

—

—

5.

Guano put in at the"

rootofthestemabout ■

2

10 0

20 0

10 3 1

20 G

G

1 17 1

3 14 6

6.

the middle of June, .
Urine apphed between"

Gallons

diluted.

1920

the drills, as collected
during the months "

—

32 0

11 11 3

23 3

G

3 5 3

6 11 6

of May and June, ,

138

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1. Guano.

2. Common salt.

3. Nothing,

It will be obsen'ed that, in No. 1, where the
guano was ap])lied in connexion with the dung,
and in No. 5, where it was put on as a top-dressing
after the plants had made their appearance, its ef-
fects were small in comparison to No. 3, where it
was ajjphed on the top of the drill before the plants
came up. Before appljdng it in this manner, the
drUls were well harrowed down with the common
driU-harrow, and the guano carefully sown on the
top of the drill, and then covered up with the
plough, and rolled.

From the effects produced, I am inchned to in-
fer that this is the most judicious method of apply-
ing guano to the potato crop. Throughout the
season, this portion far exceeded any of the others
both in point of strength and colour.*

Oats — The field has a gentle dechvity with a
northern exposure. The soil, a sandy earth upon
subsoil of sandy clay. Not drained. The quantity
of land experimented upon was five roods, and
ploughed from clover lea in \vinter; sown on
March 29th with Hopetoun oats, and the manures
were applied the same day, and harrowed in with
the seed. The ground was divided into oblong
portions across the field of a rood each,t and these
were the substances apphed : —

4. Nitrate and sul-
phate of soda.

5. Saltpetre.
[The subjoined table shows the results.]

An inspection of the crop was taken at intervals
throughout the season. On May 10th the portions
to which the mixture of salt and saltpetre, and a
httle improved guano, were applied, was decidedly
superior. On June 6th the guano portion was
excellent, and the others still a shade better than
the undressed portion. On July 1st the guano
portion was again excellent, the salt gi\dng no
visible difference from the vmdressed portion, and
both the mixture and saltpetre portions improving
rapidly since the rains.

In these experiments the common salt and salt-
petre failed to give an increase sufficient to defray
the expense of application, and the mixture of ni-
trate and sulphate of soda gave but a small profit j

* An experiment was made with the ammoniacal
liquor of the gas-works as a top dressing both on
hay and potatoes, and its effects were such as to
encoiu-age another trial, as both the portions were
considerably improved ; but as I could not depend
on the accuracy of the results, I have not given
them a place in the tables.

t It will be observed that these experiments
were made on only one portion of land each. The
farm not being of large extent, and a considerable
portion of the hay and turnips being experimented
upon with different manures last season, a sufficient
quantity of land, and in the same state, could not
be obtained to make the experiments twofold.

1 "

rf^

W to H-

No.

Guano

Salt

Nothing .
/ Nitrate of soda
L Sulph. of soda

Saltpetre .

CO

O
%

1

Ml-

to 1-

oi i(^ 3

Quantity per Acre.

rfi ^O «3

wo"

Cost per Cwt.

05

1 >-' tf^ a,
1 tn o-

Cost per Acre.

w

w

o»-o1

Produce of Grain
per Acre.

to

o

o
to

4^

w

1—1

o

^ 1- to "

oo to to 3
w 1— wr
o o o ?

Produce of Straw
per Acre,

"M

c»

o*

Quantity of light
Grain.

p

p

p p oS^

Weight of Grain
per Bushel,

o

p

&. Oj o ■
O O a.

• • w •

Rate per Quarter.

o

p

p p 00°

Value per Quarter
of fight Grain.

o
o

*.l-

O W-vt ?
Wt ^J O e.

Oct) p

^11

p

9

o, o.

Value of Straw per
C^vt,

o
<J1

w
to

^►-to^
•<r 00 to ?"

to C> C5 a

Value of the Straw
Crop.

o
to

o

■f-lw

HJ 00 g"

Excess of Produce
in Grain.

W

>(^

o tog"'!

I-"

to

to

t-1

to ©■?

o o S'

Excess of Produce
in Straw.

o
to

KlH

h-i

t3

HJ to ?>

C« o as

• 5-S,

lO

o

to
m

CO

tf>- to ?

*-|M*.|H-

3 g 3 S f

5 ►*!

I

oo

00

to-

Gain from AppU-
cation.

w

MM

o "

o p-

Loss from Appli-
cation.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

139

but I would partly attribute this to the land having
been in good condition, as the crop on the un-
dressed j)ortion was good, and the oats on the
dressed portions were all lodged before they came
to maturity.

The nitrates generally add more to the bulk of
the straw than to the weight of the grain per bushel;
and in this case, though the grain was winnowed
to the same weight as that from the undressed por-
tion, the quantity of hght grain was greater. Tliere
Avas very little difference in the appearance of the
samples after being dressed for the market, except
that from the portion dressed with salt had the
best colour.

Turnips. — The turnips occupied 13^ acres; the
ground was nearly level ; bounded on the north by
a plantation, the other sides being exposed. The
soil was a light gravelly earth, resting upon a
gravelly subsoil. The field was ploughed out of
lea in the autumn of 1842, and a crop of oats taken
in 1843, which was a poor one, being only twenty-
two bushels per acre. After the oats, the land was
deep ploughed in autumn, and weU cleaned in
spring, previous to sowing the turnips.

Ten acres were manured with twelve culjic yards
of farm-yard dung, one cwt. of guano, and eight
bushels of bones per acre ; these were sown be-
tween the 31st of May and the 10th of June. The
crop averaged twenty- five tons per acre.

In order to ascertain the comparative effects of a
few special manures, a portion of land of equal
quality was reserved, upon which the following ex-
periments were made. The drills were drawn at
twenty-eight inches apart, and, in connexion A\dth
twelve cubic yards per acre of farm-yard dung,
which were spread in the drills, the following
substances were applied : — 1st, a mixture of bone-
dust and guano; 2nd, guano; 3rd, bone-dust.
The experiments were made two-fold, on half an
acre each ; and a portion was left between the two
sets of experiments \vith nothing but the dung, to
prove their comparative effects. Immediately ad-
joining these, two single portions were manured
with saltpetre and gypsum, and the results of the
whole are given in the following tables.

The turnips were the Gordon yellow variety,
sown on the 6th of June, and the crop was weighed
on the 31st of October.

<

u

Cost

Produce in

Value at

Increase

Value

Gain from

So <u

i

Kinds

PL.

per

S-i

Tons, &c..

10s.

from

of

specific

i§

of Manure.

>-.

Cwt.

QJ

&,

per Acre.

per Ton.

Apphcation.

Increase.

Manure.

^1

1

3

O

O

cwt.

s. d.

s. d.

tons.cwt.qr.

£. s.

d.

tons.cwt.qr.

£. s.

d.

£. s. d.

£. s.

TGuano and

li

12 61

1.

I^Bone-dust,

bush.

8
cwt.

16 oj

28 6

25 10 0

12 15

0

8 16 0

4 8

0

2 19 6

0 0

2.

Guano,

2i
bush.

10 0

25 0

24 2 0

12 1

0

7 8 0

3 14

0

2 9 0

0 0

3.

Bone-dust,

16
cub.y

2 0

32 0

21 19 0

10 19

6

5 5 0

2 12

6

1 0 6

0 0

4.

Dung only.

12

0 0

0 0

16 14 0

8 7

0

0 0 0

0 0

0

0 0 0

0 0

cwt.

fGuano and

li

12 61

1,

[_Bone-dust,

bush.

8
cwt.

16 Oj

28 6

26 13 0

13 6

6

9 19 0

4 19

G

3 11 0

0 0

2.

Guano,

2h
bush.

10 0

25 0

23 14 0

11 17

0

7 0 0

3 10

0

2 5 0

0 0

3.

Bone-dust,

16

2 0

32 0

21 11 0

10 15

6

4 17 0

2 8

6

0 16 6

0 0

4.

Saltpetre, .

li

24 0

30 0

17 10 0

8 15

0

0 8 0

0 4

0

0 0 0

1 6

5.

Gypsum, .

5

3 6

17 6

19 19 0

9 19

6

3 5 0

1 12

C

0 15 0

0 0

1^0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE FOLLOWING IS THE AVERAGE OF THE TWO EXPERIMENTS: —

Guano and (
Bone-dust, i

1.

% •

28 b

26 1 14

13 0 9

9 7

2

4 13 9

3 5 3

0 0

2.

Guano, . .

, ,

25 0

23 18 0

11 19 0

7 4

0

3 12 0

3 7 0

0 0

3.

Bone-dust, .

32 0

21 15 0

10 17 -0

5 1

0

2 10 6

0 18 6 0 0

4.

Dung only, .

0 0

16 14 0

8 7 0

0 0

0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0

5.

Saltpetre,

30 0

17 10 0

8 15 0

0 8

0

0 4 0

0 0 0

1 6

(i.

Gypsum,

17 6

19 19 0

9 19 0

3 5

0

1 12 6

0 15 0

0 0

A few experiments were made on another part of
the same field ; and, although the portions of land
were small, amounting to only one twentieth of an
acre each, yet the results are not uninteresting.

Tlie substances were applied in connexion with
twelve cubic yards per acre of farm-yard dung, the
turnips sown on the 2Sth of June, and the crop
weighed on the 31st of October.

.

Value per

Wo.

Description of Manure.

•^ o

<i>

Cost per

Weight per

Acre at 10s.

g^

Acre.

Acre.

per Ton.

a

o
O

bush.

s. d.
bush.

£. s. d.

tons. cwt. qrs.

£. s. d.

1.

Bone-dust, ....

12
cwt.

2 0
cwt.

1 4 0

14 0 3

7 0 44

2.

Guano, .....

2

10 0

2 0 0

14 6 1

7 3 U

3.

Sulphale of soda.

3

9 0

1 7 0

11 17 2

5 18 9

4.

Dung only, . . . ;

, .

, .

....

8 2 0

4 10

5.

Rape-dust, ....

5
lbs.

6 3
lbs.

1 11 3

12 19 1

6 9 7^

6.

Sulphate of ammonia.

100

0 4
c\\i;.

1 13 4

8 2 0

4 1 0

7.

Salt])etre,

125

24 0

1 G 9i

9 19 3

4 19 104

In these last experiments the land is nearly of
the same quality Math the portions upon which the
other experiments were made, but the crop was
much inferior throughout, which may partly be as-
cribed to the farm-yard dung being inferior and
partly to the season having been too far advanced
when the turnips were sown, all the late sowti tur-
nips in this district being deficient this season (1844).

From these results, and the experience of former
years, I am led to conclude that, when guano and
bone-dust can be obtained at a moderate price, they
may, in all cases, be applied with the farm-yard
dung to turnips with advantage. In these experi-
ments the crop was greater when these two sub-
stances were applied together than Avhen applied
separately ; and, when we consider the nature of
bone-dust and guano, it is evident that a mixture
of the two will always have a good effect ; for where
guano is applied alone, it causes a rapid growth, and
the turnips have a tendency to ripen prematurely ;
while, on the other hand, the bone-dust causes
them to come away slowly, but continues to grow

them till the season is far advanced. Now, when
both are conjoined, the guano secures a regular
braird, while the bones keep the turnips in a grow-
ing state during autumn. In the above experi-
ments the turnips with guano kept the lead till
about the middle of September, when they began
to fade a little in the tops ; and where the mixture
was apj)lied they continued so luxuriantly for a
month afterwards, but, when weighed, were be-
ginning to fade, while the bones kept them still
green and improving daily. Seeing this to be the
result when applied in connexion with farm-yard
dung, the inducement to apply them conjointly is
considerably greater when no fai'm-yai'd dung is
allowed. I have not unfrequently seen turnips
with bones comparatively useless from being tardy
in brairding, and I have likewise seen them with
guano very deficient on accovmt of ripening pre-
maturely, but I have always found them excellent
when these two substances were apjilied together.

The turnips on the gypsum portion brairded
rather irregularly, but improved much during Sep-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

141

tember aud October. Those on the saltpetre por-
tion Hkewise brairded rather irregularly, and failed
to increase the crop so much as to defray the ex-
pense of the application. The sulphate of soda,
though not equal to bone-dust and guano, appeared
throughout the season to have a consideral)le effect.
The rape-dust portion had always a healthy ap-
pearance. The sulphate of ammonia seemed to
have very little effect.

Having been in the habit, for a number of years,
of making experiments with different manures, I
have not been inattentive to the effects which they
produce on the succeeding crojjs of the rotation.

In applying bone-dust to turnips, I have fre-
quently found that, at the rate of from twenty-five
to thirty bushels per acre, the crop was as good as
when thirty cubic yards of farm-yard dung were
appUed ; but the succeeding crops in the rotation,
particularly the hay, were generally deficient ; but,
by consuming the half of the turnips on the ground
by sheep, the crops throughout the rotation were
as good, and often superior to those manured with
farm-yard dung.

Nitrate and sulphate of soda have an excellent
effect when applied as a top-dressing to the potato
crop ; but I never could discern any difference on
the succeeding crops. Soot, when used as a top-
dressing on hay, seems to exert the most of its
influence on the crop to which- it is applied. Guano
appears to benefit every kind of crop without ex-
ception, and although it is of an active nature, and
brings fehe crops early to maturity, its effects are
not confined to the first year. Last year, 1843, I
used it to a considerable extent as a manure to the

hay, turnips, and potatoes. Where it was applied
to the hay there was no remarkable difference in
the oats of this season; but its effects in the second
year could not be expected to be great, as it was
used only at the rate of one and a-half and two cwt.
per acre : but where it was used in the drill at four
cwt. per acre for potatoes, the oats were superior
this season to those manured with farm-yard dung
at the rate of thirty cubic yards per acre.

A field, which is rather steep, and to which it is
difficult to api^ly farm-yard dung, was manured
with bone-dust in 1S39 for turnips, the whole of
which were carted off" the field, and only a small
allowance of lime compost applied the following
spring. The crops were good throughout the ro-
tation, and it was again manured for turnips in
184.3 with guano at four cwt. per acre, which raised
a good crop, the half of which was consumed on
the ground by sheep. The oats which followed
were excellent, and the seedhng grasses on the field
at present are beautiful; thus shewing that the
land may be kept in a high state of fertility without
the use of farm-yard dung. But I would consider
it the most judicious practice to apply either guano
or bone-dust as an auxiliary to farm-yard dung
rather than as a substitute.

In situations where the dung made on the farm
is all the putrescent manure that can be obtained,
it is, no doubt, a great ad^'antage to the cultivator
to obtain these fertilizing ingredients at a moderate
cost, as, by applying the dung made on the farm in
connexion with these substances, to the whole tur-
nips and potatoes, almost any farm may be brought
into a high state of fertility. — Journal of Agriculture.

REPORT OF THE FRAMLINGHAM FARMERS' CLUB,

PRESENTED AT THE GENERAL MEETING, 18TH NOVEMBER, 1845.

Upon the sixth anniversary of the Framlingham
Farmers' Club, we beg to present the following re-
port of the discussions at the monthly meetings of
the past year, trusting it will be found to compre-
hend some useful matter, worthy the attention of
the practical farmer.
31st December, 1844. — "On the utility of

Farmers' Clubs for the discussion of agricultural

subjects."

mode was useful on all general questions, urged
that it was peculiarly so in questions relating to the
theory and practice of agriculture : that the ideas
entertained and the systems pursued by different
farmers are so various, that farmers' clubs are the
best possible test to which these diversities of opi-
nion and practice can be brought : that so, if bene-
ficial, the knowledge and practice of their neigh-
bours, may be improved ; and, if otherwise, errors

The member who introduced this subject, took I of practice may be corrected, and those of opinion
a cursory view of the various modes of obtaining j dissipated. After stating the most popular ob-
information, viz.: reading, hearing lectures, jections to farmers' clubs, [and showing that they
obsen'ation, and conversationally debating any i had no rational foundation, he proceeded to men-
given subject : — and having held that the latter I tion their many advantages, and concluded by pro-

143

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

posing the following resolutions, which, after sepa-
rate, animated, and interesting, discussions, were
unanimously adopted, viz. :

"That this mode is applicable to agricultural
questions."

"That the alleged objections to farmers' clubs
are groundless,"

" That farmers' clubs are useful institutions :
beneficial to those who attend, and consequently
to the neighbourhood in which they are held."
28th January, 1845. — " On the several kinds,

and cultivation of spring corn."

In introducing this subject, the gentleman con-
fined his observations to the previous preparation
of the land for barle)'-, beans, peas, and oats to the
time of sowing ; and the best kinds for this neigh-
bourhood. As it would be impossible in a sum-
mary of this kind, to enter into the many observa-
tions made, and arguments used, in such a mde
field of discussion, we must content ourselves by
giving the resolutions agreed to. — First with re-
spect to barley —

" That the long fallows should be finished
ploughing in October or November."

" That beet and turnip land generally required
ploughing only once ; but for sheep folded turnips,
twice or thrice was necessary."

" That drilling was the best manner of putting
in barley."

The club was nearly divided in opinion with re-
spect to the time of sowing : — some thinking the
first of March quite early enough, whilst others
thought that any time after the first of February,
when the land would work well, the sooner, the
better. — The club was also equally divided in opi-
nion as to which should have the preference Che-
valier, or Nottingham barley.

For beans it was decided : —

" That it would be better, if possible, to muck
and plough before Christmas." " To drill them in
the month of February."

Several members were in favour of dibbling. — It
was determined by the members present, to make
a thorough trial as to the merits of rolhng when
about three inches high, to make them blossom
from the lower part of the stem. One member who
had tried this plan, spoke greatly in favor of it ;
and the Norfolk prize essay speaking so decidedly
in favor of it, renders it very desirable to be tried.
In general it is right to begin harvesting beans
early — as soon as they begin to turn in colour.
French tick white eyes were considered the best.

For peas, it was thought better not to manure
previously, but to plough early, in October or No-
vember.— To drill the first week in February, and
that the dirty white were the best. Many mem-
bers were in favour of maple peas. It was deci-

ded, " that it was not generally desirable to mbc
peas and beans." Some members mixed tares and
beans, but to this many objections were raised.

Oate. — The club came to a resolution, " that it
may sometimes be desirable to grow a crop of oats
instead of barley." The club was equally divided
in opinion, as to whether the drill or dibble was
best : but determined, " that the sooner they were
put in after Christmas, the better." The common
white oat was considered the best ; but the \vinter
oat, which should be planted soon after han'est, or
at Michaelmas, was highly recommended, as it may
be twice fed off, and then stand for a crop.

The foregoing opinions were recorded without
any reference being made to the former opinions
of the club, as it was thought desirable to obtain
the present feehngs of the members upon these
matters. Several extracts were read during the eve-
ning from the Norfolk prize essay, on these points,
that the members might compare their own prac-
tice, with the systems pursued in that coimty.
February, 25th. — " Is the principle of thin sow-
ing applicable to this district ; and on the merits

of horse-hoeing our corn crops."

The member who introduced this subject, com-
menced by reading extracts from a pamphlet, by
Mr. H. Davis, who strongly advocated the use of a
much smaller quantity of seed, than is the general
practice, viz., three pecks of wheat, and six pecks
of barley per acre ; alleging that independently of
the saving in seed, the crop will be much more pro-
ductive.

It was acknowledged by the members that after
so favourable an account had been given of the
success which had attended Mr. Davis in his prac-
tice, that it was a subject deserving their most se-
rious consideration ; but it appeared to them that
the nature of the soil, and the time of sowing
(more particularly of wheat), should be duly con-
sidered.

Several questions naturally arose for discussion,
before attempting to deliver an opinion upon this
subject ; viz., Whether the nature of the soil
should be the guide to the farmer in forming his
opinion of the quantity of seed to be used?
Whether or not, " thin sowing " be more applicable
to light, and thick so^ving to heavy soil ? Whether
less seed is required when put in early, and a
greater quantity later in the season ? Whether by
much thinner sowing, there is as great a security
from danger by wire-worm, effects of weather, and
vermin?

One member, an advocate of thin sowing, stated
that five pecks of wheat, and seven or eight pecks
of barley per acre, wovdd be suflicient seed, and
more productive than eight pecks and twelve pecks
respectively.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

143

Another member said, that he always en-
deavoured to obtain a full plant of wheat, as a thin
plant was more subject to mildew.

Another said, that in a field of wheat his driU-
man made a mistake on the first part of the field,
and put in httle more than half of the seed in-
tended, the remainder was put in at his xisual
rate, and on the first part he had much the better
crop.

A member said, that five pecks of tick beans was
a good seed, and that from this quantity he had
been very successful.

On the other side, another member stated, that
he thought four bushels was not too much, and
instanced his cottage allotters who always put
their beans in much thicker than he did, with de-
cided success.

Another said, that he now used more beans for
eeed than formerly, and was satisfied that he had a
larger produce from doing so.

With regard to soils, one member said, the
better the land the less seed was required, for it
would tiller out and soon fill itself up well ; and
that more seed was required on light poor soils, for
the stem would be single.

Another member immediately gave his opinion,
that the better the land, the more seed was propei',
for in really good land, there was strength to bring
a greater number of plants to perfection.

Many spoke supporting either side of the ques-
tion. With such conflicting opinions it was im-
possible to arrive at any definite result : and many
members promised to test a thinner seed than they
had been used to, and report the result.

The discussion of the question was concluded
by the club agreeing to the following resolution,
viz. : —

"That the principle of thin sowing as recom-
mended by Mr. Davis is well worthy of attention,
and in support of it, it is right to state that much
less seed is used in this neighbourhood than for-
merly J the reduction in some instances nearly ap-
proaching to the diminished quantity used by that
gentleman : that due regard should be paid to the
quality and condition of the land, and to the time
of seeding : that no stated quantity can with safety
be relied on as suitable to all circumstances : and
that it is thought right to mention the quantity of
seed most generally used in this district, viz. : —
Wheat, 6 pecks per acre.
Barley, 10 „

Peas, 12 „

Beans, 10 „

Oats, 12 „

Tares, 10 „

With the understanding that when put in early
a less, and when late, a larger quantity is used."

On horse-hoeing corn crops, it was resolved, —

" That if confined to the pea and bean crops, it
is deserving great attention, particularly as a pre-
paration for the wheat crop which follows. The
system has been extensively used in this county
for more than half a century, but has been par-
tially discontinued on account of a superabundant
supply of labour, and it ought never to entirely su-
persede hand-hoeing and weeding."
March, 25th. — " On the injury produced by

heavy fences, and hedge-row trees to arable

land."

The importance of this subject was manifested
by the interest which the members of the club took
in the discussion. Tlie questions which came
under review in connection ^vith this subject, are as
follows, with the resolutions attached.

1. "The object of fences."

"To prevent cattle trespassing from one field to
another — being the cheapest boundary — they supply
bushes for making faggots for cattle-yards — firing
for farm house and labovu'crs — assist in draining,
and add to the beauty of the country."

2. The advantages of hedge-row trees."

" To supply the materials for repairs — the pol-
lards supply some wood for occupiers — the timber
adds yearly to the value of the estate to the
owner."

3. The injury occasioned by fences, hedge-row
timber, and pollards."

" The corn growing near is not so good — does
not ripen at the same time, and therefore injures
the sample — a nursery for weeds — a shelter for
birds, who often strip nearly the crop from the
headlands adjoining — the roots of the timbers and
pollards spreading so far under the surface, renders
the land less productive of corn."

4. " The amount of loss occasioned by excess
of heavy fences, and hedge-row trees."

" The waste of land by hedges and ditches in
the Framlingham district, is 6 per cent. — additional
injury done by heavy fences, hedge-row timber,
and poUards, between 3 and 4 per cent, in the pro-
duce ; besides the annual expenditure to the occu-
pier in scouring out the ditches, repairing drains,
choked by roots gro\ving into them, &c."

5. " The best mode of lessening this damage."
" By throwing down every unnecessary fence,

where a good inclosed main drain will answer the
purpose of taking off the water— by straightening
and renewing irregular fences — by cutting down
close every eight or ten years (or perhaps six)
young fences, buckheading alternately — by trim-
ming up fences, both in width and height, when
on the south side of a field — by keeping the
ditches and backs of banks well plashed, and so
free from brambles or rubbish of any kind. And

144

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

on the jiart of the proprietor, not to let any except
oak timber, or oak pollards remain between ara-
ble fields : and if thought desirable, not alone for
the beauty of our country, but for the maintenance
of its power, to plant, say one acre in every hun-
dred, with proper timber ; as by this means, the
landlord would be at the expense of rearing that
for which he alone receives the benefit, and not as
we fear is too often the case, at the expense of the
crop of the occupier. We think by following this
plan, a saving to this district might be effected of
li per cent.

April, 22nd. — " On the management of heavy
land, and the advantages of having field work in
a forward condition."

After considerable discussion, the following
general principle was unanimously voted :

" The good management of heavy land requires
it to be well drained, kept clean, and in a fine tilth
for depositing the seed. As these cannot be ac-
compUshed in our district but in dry weather,
never stir horse, man, woman, or child upon the
land, if possible to be prevented, except when it is
dry. The great advantage of having all field work
in a forward condition is, that it prevents the ne-
cessity of working the land in a wet state, and ena-
bles the farmer to take all advantages of suitable
weather."

One of the chief points of discussion during the
evening, arose on the question, " how can we pro-
ceed upon this opinion in carting our turnips off
for cattle during the winter ?" To this question, two
answers were given, and on the merits of which the
members present were equally divided. One party
contended that all our turnips should be carted off
our heavy land by the latter part of November (be-
fore frost if possible), and carefully stored. The
others recommended about two thirds only by that
time, and to leave the remainder standing in the
field till February, taking the advantage and chance
of frosty weather to get them off.

A considerable difference of opinion existed, as
to whether it was better to cut the leaves off in the
field, and plough them in ; storing the turnips in
very small clamps, earthed up ; or carting them off
with their tops on, and placing them together in a
wheat stubble, or stack-yard, leaving the tops
and leaves as their protection, or at most, adding a
slight covering of straw. The majority were deci-
dedly in favour of the latter mode, for the follow-
ing reasons ; that there was less danger of heating
and decaying, and a far better chance of preserving
the quahty of the turnip ; and this would more
than compensate for the advantage to the land
from ploughing in the tops. Another mode was
also advocated, viz., carting off the tops and small
turnips to the pastures, for sheep and lean stock ;

and laying the turnips in heaps, covering them with
straw only.

May 27th. — " The kind of education best suited
for young farmers."

This evening's subject was introduced by W.
Edwards, Esq., reading a very interesting and
valuable paper to the club, upon the importance of
a general and more comprehensive system of edu-
cation for young farmers, showing its practicabilitj',
and pointing out its many and great advantages ;
which gave the greatest satisfaction to the mem-
bers.

After an interesting discussion, the following re-
solutions were unanimously agreed to : —

That the best thanks of the club be given to Mr.
Edwards, for his very valuable address on the
kind of education best suited for young farmers.

That Mr. Edwards, having, at the particular de-
sire of the club, placed the MS. of his address at
their disposal, the 2)resident be requested to for-
ward it to Mr. Shaw,* offering it to him for publi-
cation."

"That the club highly approving of Mr. Ed-
wards' suggestions, and in accordance with them,
is of opinion that it is most desirable that young
farmers should have the means of better education
placed within their reach."

" That having recognized the necessity of better
education for young farmers, the club most re-
spectfully calls the attention of the pubhc gene-
rally, and of landowners in particular, to the pro-
priety of establishing in this county, an institu-
tion similar to the Royal Agricultural College at
Cirencester,"

June 24th. — "The points possessed by domes-
ticated animals most desirable for the farmer to
cultivate."

In defining the points most desirable in domes-
ticated animals, we must look to the respective
purposes for which they are designed, and seek for
those points in each particular species which most
fits the animal for the performance of the object to
be obtained.

W e require of the different portions of the brute
creation different excellencies, and even in the
same species different powers. Some horses are
bred for strength, others for speed. Some cattle
for their profit to the dairy farmer, others for the
grazier. The object for which the animal is intend-
ed must therefore be given, before a useful expo-
sition of its necessary points can be attempted.
In the saddle horse, we should look that he be

* The offer was accepted by Mr. Shaw, who
published the address in the Farmer's Magazine,
and subsequently sent seventy copies for the mem-
bers of the society.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

145

well up in the fin'e-hand, with the shoulders stand-
ing backward, and well tapered oft'; a good bosom
and girthjWith good loins and round hindquarters,
with plenty of length from the hip to the haunch
and stifle; the tail high seated. We should look
particularly to his fore-legs ; that they were clean
and fine, with a long good arm and flat below :
the pasterns not too long, but plenty of room for
action ; not too high in his trot, and that he had a
preparatory action of dropping his heel in placing
his foot upon the ground ; that his legs were not
too long, as he would not in that case stand his
work so well upon the road. That his feet were
sound and hardy, and had not been contracted by
narrow shoeing. That his eye be brilliant and promi-
nent, with a full round socket for the eyeball ; and
that the expression of the eye be mild and intelli-
gent. That the ears be wide apart, rather than
narrow; that his muzzle be fine, and his nostril
full ; and that in his action he be perfectly free and
easy throughout his entire figure.

In the plough horse, we require that he be what
is called toell coupled, with roundness and thick-
ness in every part of the frame ; with short legs,
and great substance of both bone and muscle;
great depth in girth and backward rib ; and short
in the flank in its adjunction to the thigh. We do
not think it a fault if he be a little longer in the
barrel, than the strict line of beauty will allow, pro-
vided he has a good back and loin, and is well
ribbed up, with plenty of depth in the carcass ; an
inch or two in length adds greatly to the weight of
the horse. He should be fine in the coat and skin,
he cools better after a day's work ; and it is a sign
of greater purity of stock. Some Avill tell you,
that a small horse, well made, is as good as a large
one ; but we must have jjlenty of weight for our
heavy land district.

Of grazing beasts, beginning with a kind, of
which a great many are now brought to this neigh-
boiirhood, viz., half-bred Irish and shorthorn ; it
is desirable that an animal of this description ex-
hibits as little of the dam, and as much of the sire
as possible ; that his head be fine and long, and if
his coat be hairy, that it be soft and silky ; that his
horn be as near like the true shorthorn as can be
selected. In colour, if not quite white, as much
like the best shorthorn colours as possible ; blood-
red and white, rather than the pale yellow, red, and
white ; or with black mixed in ; if mottled, that the
colours be mingled like the shorthorn roans, and
not in the wry streaks of the Irish, In the touch,
we should be'particular that his skin is loose upon
his sides, it being of more importance than the
touch upon the rump's end. An Irish beast may
touch pretty well there, and be confined and hard
upon his ribs ; such will never be thick of meat.

The forehead and brow should be mild and smooth
in aspect ; the eye gentle and intelligent. There is
a hard-favoured, sour, crusty, frosty look in low
bred Irish beasts which should be avoided ; this is
not peculiar to Irish beasts, for wc see occasionally
a face of the same kind, with small sleepy eyes, in
low-bred Scots, such are equally obiectional)le.

As the points to be looked for will be better de-
scribed in the true short horns, we proceed at once
to that breed. In colour, the white, the roan, and
the blood-red and white, are the favorites ; the coat
in preference, thick and furry, soft and silky. The
head should be long; the horn, neck, and bone
fine ; the back straight and broad to the neck ; hips
wide, and loin well spread out to the hip ; deep in
the flank, and under the arm well rounded to the
fore leg. With this shape, the longer the barrel,
the greater the weight ; but extra length is objec-
tionable, if you take with it a loose loin, small girth,
fleet carcass, and long legs. The bosom should be
broad and full, the buttocks and thighs broad and
roomy, the skin fine ; the touch, soft, yielding, and
pleasant to the hand ; if too loose, the beast may
not be so hardy. The best possible touch will not
compensate for want of constitution.

The best bred runts are doubtless better than
Galloways, but the Scotch keep them at home,
now that they also graze for the London market.
The head, frame, and family character of the runts
and shorthorns are yeiy similar.

The Galloways are thicker and squarer in the
head, and have a fulness about the chaps and lips.
They are thicker and deeper in the thigh, than the
runt and shorthorn.

There are cross bred scots, nearly Galloways, but
larger and finer bred. If we can select such, thick
and deep in the frame, we may consider them the
best description of Scotch beasts.

The Highland Scot should be thick, broad, and
deep in the frame : have a thick, fine, long, furry
coat ; be fine in the horn, with an appearance of
gro\vth in it at any age ; not looking sear and sap-
less; and he should be much stronger in the
hocks in proportion to his frame than any other
breed.

The milch cow should be fine in the head and
neck, deep in the fore quarter, straight on the back ;
wide spread hips ; bag large, thin, and soft ; with
the teats well formed and well placed.

As " sheep and swine " are to be discussed at a
future meeting, the consideration of them was al-
together postponed.

July, 22nd.—" Wheat, its kinds, and manage-
ment."

A very pleasing discussion on this important
subject occupied the evening. It was gratifying to
find that lengthened experience only tended to con-

146

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

firm the opinions recorded at former meetings of
the club/ when this subject was discussed in detail;
see report, 2nd July, 1841, " on hoeing or weeding,
and harvesting ; " also 17th January, 1843, "on the
best method of filling up a deficient plant of
wheat; "and 5th December, 1843, "on the cir-
cumstances which ought to guide the farmer in his
selection of the different varieties of wheat for
seed."

Of the kinds of wheat at this time used, Tunstall
(white), and Spalding's (red) were generally advo-
cated. But little progress has been made in re-
gard to mowing of wheat, and the general feeling
seemed to be that it was better adapted to the hght
soils with their short straw, than to our longer
straw in this heavy land district.

A strong opinion was given that many persons did
not take sufficient care of preserving and spending
the colder, &c., arising from threshing and dress-
ing their wheat.

September, l6th, — "On the care and manage-
ment of agricultural implements."

In commencing the discussion of this interesting
and important subject, it was agreed by the meet-
ing, that it would be useful at some future time to
consider the respective merits of the various imple-
ments recently introduced to facilitate the opera-
tions of agriculture ; it being highly desirable that
each farmer (at least in the beginning of business)
should select such implements as are best adapted
for the work intended. Having selected them, the
farmer should next see tliat he has plenty of shed
room for storing them when not in use; such
sheds are best open only on one side, as a thorough
draft carries in the snow and rain in winter, and
dries them in summer. Low sheds, covered with
haulm, are sufficient for the smaller articles, such
as roUs, harrows, ploughs, &c.

All farming implements should be kept in
thorough repair — painted from time to time ; and
the carriages frequently greased to prevent friction,
and unnecessary labour to the horses. Harness,
not in use, should at all times be kept in a place
perfectly free from damp ; much attention is re-
quired to keep it in good working order, and it
ought at regular intervals to be washed, oiled, and
thoroughly repaired, for in nothing is the old
adage more true, than this, " a stitch in time saves
nine." How often implements should be painted,
and the kind of paint best adapted for the
purpose, gave rise to some discussion. The anti-
corrosive paint was spoken well of, as being dura-
ble, perfectly waterproof, and easy of application ;
and as being used under the sanction of Govern-
ment in the Ordnance dei)artment.

There being no diversity of opinion to call for a

division, the meeting closed the subject by the fol-
lowing resolutions :—

" That great care is required in the selection and
preservation of agricultural implements ; that to
effect the latter, they should always be secured
from weather, when not in use ; they should, inde-
pendently of incidental repairs, be periodically
washed, painted, and mended, and the carriages
greased. Harness also at regular intervals, should
be taken to pieces, washed, oiled, and thoroughly
repaired."

" The anti-corrosive paint is also recommended
to the attention of the farmer."

October, 2l8t. — " Sheep and swine."

Both of these are worthy every attention of the
farmer, being profitable kinds of stock ; directly, in
the repayment of money ; and, indirectly, in im-
proving the productive state of the farm. The
hogs more particularly by their manure, and the
sheep by their teathe, and by their clearing the
land of weeds, which no other stock will con-
sume.

As our district is too heavy for a breeding flock,
it is recommended to buy lambs as young and
early as possible; they come in at a reasonable
price; and upon the better land than they have
been accustomed to, thrive rapidly and are in good
condition and strong, when wet and wintry weather
arrives.

As southdowns are not so universal in this
neighbourhood, the half-bred Leicesters are to be
preferred, being more ready sale.

As the shape of domesticated animals was so
lately discussed, and as so many points are
common to all well-shaped animals, it will suffice
to say, that lambs should be broad in the shoulder,
neck, and head ; they should carry their heads well
up, and be lively and strong ; be good in the loin,
the eyes full and mild ; the fleece of good quaUty
down the flanks and thighs ; the wool continued to
the shanks, and on to the edge of the face.
Great care is required to prevent injury from the
fly.

It was resolved :—

"That half-bred down and Leicester are the pre-
ferable kind."

" That sheep should be kept as much as possi-
ble on the arable lands, by a succession of rye,
tares, clover, stubbles, and turnips."

" That one to three acres be considered a good
proportion for a heavy land district."

"That they increase the fertility of the soil, and
are generally more remunerative than neat stock."

" That it is desirable to increase the number of
sheep upon our farms ; to effect which, the land
must be thoroughly drained."

The discussion on swine was postponed,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

147

The prizes for the sweepstakes were adjudged as
follows : —

Long red beet, yellow globe ditto, Swedes tur-
nips, and common ditto, to J. Pierson, Esq., of
Framlingham.

Long yellow beet, pudding turnips, and white
wheat, to Mr. James Read, of Laxfield,

Red wheat, and barley, to Mr. Alfred Borrett, of
Framhngham.

AGRICULTURE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

The state of ciUtivation may be inferred from the following
transcript of official and duly-accredited statements : —

In 1840 the number of acres cultivated was 2,403 ; in 1844
the number in cultivation was 26,918. Tlie following, esti-
mates in reference to wheat cultivation have been made by one
of the leading corn-factors, whose correctness may l)e vouched
for: —

The quantity of land producing wheat crops during the last

three j'ears appears from the Government returns to have been —

Acres. Bushels.

1842 14,000-1 T, J • iiK, , , . *!. r210,000

1843 23;000 [P'-oduemg, at 15 bushels to the I 3^5 ^q,,

1844 18,980j ""^' [284,700

Total 839,700

The quantity required for home consumptiou
in the three years of 1843, 1844, and 1845,
would be 420,000

For seed during the same period 60,000

480,000

Total 359,700

The quantity exported up to the end of June, 1845 203,342

Leaving a gross available overplus of bushels , 156,357

The estimate of the produce is low, and allows for every
kind of waste, crops cut green, fires, and other casualties ; and
the quantity stated as surplus will, it is believed, be fully
borne out.

The cultivation of wheat has rather fallen off, in consequence
of the low price obtained. The highest prices for wheat dur-
ing the last two years have been from 23. 9d. to 33. per bushel,
though the quality is such as to have produced for it the highest
prices in Mark Lane, and in the neighbournig Colonies. A
considerable increase has, however, taken place in the cultiva-
tion of barley and oats, the former being extejisively used in
brewing.

The flour mills and manufactories are annually increasing
in nimiber, and eidarging their operations. In 1844, such es-
tablishments counted 56 ui all, which comprise 21 flour-mills,
of which eight are driven by steam.

The increase of stock has been such that the following autho-
rised data for 1844 have been considered by all Mcll-informed
persons much below the real aggregates, namely : —

Sheep 450,000

Cattle 30,000

Horses 2,000

Goats and pigs 12,000

HIGHLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

BEST MODE OF REARING POTATO SEED.

Mr. Stephens here obtained leave from the noble
chairman to read a communication from Mr. Alex. Tod,
market gardener, Easter Road, near Edinburgh, on a
successful mode which he had practised for several
years past of raising potatoes for seed, and which Mr.
Tod considered'might also be practised by farmers who
wished to raise good seed potatoes. After referring to
the observation he had frequently made of potatoes
which had grown deep in the soil being mealy and fit for
the table, while those which were formed near the sur-
face of the ground were waxy, and consequently unfit
for the table, yet made good seed — he alluded to the
conviction which this circumstance brought to his mind
of the propriety of always raising potatoes for seed and
those for food in different ways ; and he was the more
anxious to treat the potato differently for these different
purposes, that he had suffered largely by failures in his
early potatoes. His suggestions for raising seed pota-
toes are therefore derived from his own experience, and
we believe they will be best understood in his own
words. " The remedy I venture to suggest," says Mr.
Tod, '* is simple and practical, and within the reach of
almost every farmer, and of a character that it may-
be easily tried to a greater or less extent, according to
circumstances. I propose that a portion of land most
suitable for the raising of seed potatoes should be se-
lected, and if it require manure, let it be applied and
ploughed in during the autumn or winter months. In
the spring, let the ground be wrought into a fine friable
state, and plant the seed to the depth of two inches,
and no more. During the summer, let the ground be
kept loose and free of weeds, but do not earth up the
plants. In autumn, lift the crop as soon as the stems
begin to lose their greenness. By this method the crop
will be as large as by the ordinary way ; but what is
of more importance, the germinating powers of the
potato will be fomid greatly improved and invigorated ;
for the greater number of the tubers having grown
above ground, will have the advantage of the light and
air to form and strengthen in the buds or eyes, and
therefore will be much hardier and not so easily injured
by rain or frost as those grown in the ordinary way."
In conclusion, Mr, Tod says — " Before I adopted the
above method, I had for several years failures in my
crops of early potatoes, more especially in the ash leaf
kidney, and the Adelphi early, but observing that such
tubers as were accidentally growing above ground, ex-
posed to light and air, had well formed, strong and
vigorous eyes or buds, I resolved to adopt the said
method of growing my seed, and have done so for the
last four years ; and the result is, that my crops are
considerably larger than they were, and have no
blanks." To a question put from the chair, Mr. Tod
replied, that he had cut his seed into sets when the pota-
toes were large, but planted the small potatoes whole.
He considered it, however, of the greatest importance
to manure the soil in autumn or winter.

148

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE CULTIVATION OF ROOT CROPS ON HEAVY LAND.

We are now to inquire into the best mode of
cultivating our strong and tenacious soils for the
growth of root crops, and like\\dse to what extent
the cultivation of them can be carried with profit
on such soils. I believe it will be readily conceded
that roots can be produced on heavy soils, and
large crops of them too, by good tillage and care-
ful cultivation; but then comes the grand and
puzzling question, " Can we consume the crop
when we ha^'e brought it to maturity, without })o-
sitive loss to our pockets, and ultimate injury to
the land ?" Some time ago I certainly should not
have attem])ted to answer the question, or if I had
replied to it at all, it would have been by declaring
my conviction of the uselessness and folly of the
attempt ; but now the case is far different. We
have discovered a mode of taking up and stacking
away the roots when arrived at their full growth,
with ease, and certainty of their preservation till a
late period in the spring ; and we have also, by the
result of experiments carefully tested and duly re-
gistered, found out that sheep as well as other
stock, when housed and kept warm and dry, will
thrive faster and with less food than when folded in
the usual way in the open field. I must remark like-
wise that the drainage of moist clay soils (which for-
merly were, from being saturated with surface-water,
difficult to cultivate) is now well understood, without
which drainage the necessary oi^erations of husbandry
cannot be carried on to good purpose, and without
which the cultivation of roots should not be at-
tempted; for if attempted, it will not be success-
ful. I am sorry that I am not enabled to state, as
the result of my own experience, facts on which
you might safely proceed, but that I shall be com-
pelled instead to resort rather to hints and sug-
gestions for your adoption or rejection. These I
leave to your better judgment, and to the test of
future experiment and experience.

I will commence then by telling you what I did
for upwards of thirty years since, when I began to
attempt to be a farmer and a grower of root crops,
and you may take me for an example to avoid :
shun my errors. Well then, being aware of the
great advantage of a plentiful supply of roots as
food for my stock during the winter months, where-
by to save my hay-ricks and increase my heaj) of
dung, I divided my arable land into eight parts,
taking as a rotation of cropping — turnips, barley,
clover, wheat ; cabbages and beet, oats, beans, or
vetches ; and lastly, wheat. Thus, a fourth of my
arable land was annually producing a root crop. I

This went on for a bit. I grew roots, good ones,
and plenty of them ; but how were they to be got
off the land, at that time not thoroughly drained ?
I will tell you how it was. Got off they must be ;
I for it was out of the question to think of feeding
them off where they were growing; so I pulled
them and fetched them away in carts as I wanted
them, let the weather be as it might, wet or diy.
You will say I got into the mire : I did so most cer-
tainly, but this was not all, for as the season advanced,
and when the spring crops of oats and barley were to
be planted, the land could not be worked properly, not-
withstanding much labour and pains were bestowed
upon it. The lent grain was, consequently, often-
times a failure, or at best an indifferent crop, and
so the scheme was, after a time, given up. Mine
was an experiment farm rather than an example, at
least one to be followed, I did not, however, like
to allow myself to be dead beaten; and finding the
great advantage of having a few roots in mnter for
my stock, I changed my course of cropping, and
managed the eight pieces of arable land I at that
time farmed as follows, viz. : — A rotation of six
years. First, fallow or vetches manured, wheat,
clover, wheat, beans, the land previously manured,
and lastly, oats, to be succeeded again by winter
vetches. On this rotation I have no cause to com-
plain of my crops, wliich have been to the full as
good as those of my neighbours.

The two remaining pieces, situated near the
homestead, and also being tolerably sound land,
they having been pretty effectually drained, I re-
served for roots alternately with white straw or
corn crops. The roots I have always carted off at
my convenience, choosing as dry a time as I could,
and have stowed them away with various success
as to their keeping sound. This plan I have now
pursued for several years, and have found the roots
so grown to be of considerable advantage to my
winter stock of cattle. The quantity of land being
small (not exceeding seven or eight acres in a sea-
son), I have been enabled to go on without diflS-
culty. These two pieces I consider the most pro-
fitable of my whole farm, having always gro\vn me
excellent crops of roots and corn alternately, hav-
ing never lain idle, or having required a naked fal-
low, for upwards of thirty years. I have always
kept them clean at a small expense, by forking out
the Uttle couch the land produced, at a cost not ex-
ceeding in any one year two shilhngs per acre.
The ground is never ploughed more than once in
preparation for the root crop; and in alternate years the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

140

succeeding corn crops are usually put in, the ground
being worked with the scuffler without i)louglung.
The only difficulty I had to contend with was to get
the land into fine tillage for the root crop by once
ploughing. This I eflected after the following
manner : — As soon as my winter vetches were in
and my wheat-sowing finished (which I always
drilled on a stale furrow, and in many instances
after the scuffler, without ploughing at all), I
looked over the field intended for a root crop very
carefully, forking out with a three-grained fork
every blade of couch that was visible. This, after
the land had been once got into condition, was by
no means either a troublesome or expensive job .
never exceeding, as I before observed, 2s. per acre.
The ground being thus i)repared, at my earliest
convenience ; and having previously well opened
out the old furrows in dry weather, I carted out on
the land the usual dose of dung : and spreading
the manure by carefully shaking out every lump,
so as equally to cover the ground with it, I pro-
ceeded immediately to plough it into ridges of sLx
feet in width, taking a deep furrow of at least
seven inches. The land thus ploughed remained to
receive the benefit of the winter frost, to mellow
and sweeten till the spring, at which time, when
thoroughly dried, I passed, if found needful, a
heavy roller lengthways and across the ridges ; and
then put the scuffler to work lengthways Avith the
broad shares, cutting the whole surface about two
inches in dei)th, and thereby destroying a multi-
tude of annual weeds which had sprung up since
the land ^vas ploughed. Tlie dung ploughed in
before winter remained undisturbed and well co-
vered. Nothing now remained to be done till the
time arrived for planting the cabbages and the beet
root, or for drilling the Swedes, at which time the
BCuflSer was again put through the ground nearly
to the full depth of the furrow, now pretty well
mellowed, mixing the manure, and further pul-
verizing the soil. By these means I have rarely
failed to produce the requisite fine tilth, and have
never been compelled to sow the Swedes twice.
For should I apprehend danger of losing the plant
from an attack of the fly, I have, while the dew was
on the young turnip, dusted them with fresh-slaked
lime : this I have always found a complete safe-
guard. The roots have been carted off the land
and stacked away, and the land immediately pre-
pared and drilled with wheat, generally with the
scuffler alone, or it has got one furrow for some
white straw crop, to be planted in the spring.

I have now told you all I know and have prac-
tised in the growth of root crops on my land, as
grounded on my own actual experience, and shall
now have to launch out into the region of fancy
and untried experiment. No doubt you will say^

Why not let well alone ; for if you do not, you will
again, in all probability, stick in the mire ? Per-
haps I may ; 1 cannot, however, burn my fingers in
this matter, and have sanguine hopes of better suc-
cess than attended me when I commenced farming
many years since. Circumstances are now in my
favour, which were then against me. I imagine
that I possess more knowledge and experience ; the
drainage of the hea\7 clays is now well under.
stood ; a greatly improved method of storing the
root crop is practised, which (since we can by no
means reckon upon feeding oflf the turnips as they
grow) is a necessary part of the business ; and Mr.
J. Morton, by means of accurate and well-tested
experiments, has shown us that sheep can be fed, in
littered yards and under shelter, well and quickly,
with less food than they would have consumed in
the exposed and open field-fold.

Now, gentlemen, matters standing thus, I con-
fess that I am induced again to tempt my fate, and
a second time to alter my course of cropping.

Arableland must, by management and by j udicious
husbandry, be rendered fit, not only to produce
good corn, but also by the introduction of roots,
where practicable, and by green crops, be made ca-
pable of carrying a large stock of cattle and sheep
I consider that system the best and most profitable
where the land is made to produce alternately food
for man and beasts ; in other words, that two white
straw crops should never be permitted to be planted
in succession : this is the foundation and the
groundwork of all good husbandry, and ought
never to be departed from. It is the sole restrain-
ino- covenant I would ever introduce into an agree-
ment between landlord and tenant as to the culti-
vation of his arable land ; for if this were strictly
adhered to, the land and the landlord could never
be materially injured by a tenant, and it might also
be a means of removing a prejudice at this time
prevailing in the minds of most of the landlords in
the Vale of Gloucester, against converting worth-
less pasture into tillage land, which, if.it were set
about judiciously, would benefit the tenant, the
landlord, and the country at large. I can show
you two pieces of land which I myself broke up
from pasture more than thirty years since, and
which at that time produced me little or nothing,
but which are now very valuable arable land ; and
as they have never been over driven, are at present
more fitted for being returned to pasture, and are
in better heart than when first ploughed up.
But, gentlemen, you will say I have been running
rather wide of the subject proposed ; and I come
back to tell you what I next propose doing, or en
deavouring to do.

I must first obseiTe that much of my land has
been laid out in wde ridges of eight yards, ga-

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thered twice from the flat, and drained where need-
ful, witli tiles and stones up every furrow. The re-
maining part of the farm is in lands of six feet or
two yards wide, and has been drained many years
since with shallow stone drains in a direction across
the run of the furrows, at intervals of eight or nine
3'ards, and with tile heads. This method of drain-
ing does not answer upon our close and adhesive
clay soils, as it does not carry off the surface-water
readily. It is my intention to set out these lands
afresh, and to put them (as I have done the others)
into ridges of eight yards in width, and to inter-
sect the old drains, where necessary, by running
others up the new furrows, at intervals of sixteen
or thirty-two yards. By this means I hope to give
the old drains a quicker vent, and to enable them
to discharge the water more readily than they do at
present. Other drains may at a future period be
laid in those furrows which are at first missed,
whenever it may appear necessary. We wiU now
suppose the ground drained and rendered as sound
and dry as such land can be made. We will also
suppose the land to be in fair condition, and to-
lerably free from couch and root- weeds (for should
the field have been run out, as we say, and full of
couch, a naked fallow, on this kind of soil, must of
course be resorted to). My mode of proceeding
will be thus : I shall, in the first place, have the
ground very carefully looked over, and with three-
gi-ained forks dig up every blade of couch and
every dock that can be seen; having previously fi-
nished, as I said on a former occasion, sowing my
winter vetches, and drilled my wheat. The land
intended for a root-crop is then to be ploughed, in
a direction diagonally to the run of the furrows, in-
to single bouts of twenty-seven or twenty-eight
inches, or into two-bout ridges where cabbages
are intended to be grown. The appearance of the
field will then be like garden ground laid up in
trenches. I should plough as deep a furrow as
practicable, exposing a large surface for the winter
frosts to mellow and sweeten. After the land has
become sufficiently pulverized, and the trenches are
in a dry state, Avith a double mould-board plough I
purpose thorouglily to open out and considerably
deepen them, directly following with a stout
plough, having the turn-furrow taken off, and with
a strong team of horses harnessed at length, sub-
soil or stir the hitherto unmoved soil in the bottom
of every furrow-trench, as deeply as may be prac-
ticable—six or eight inches at the least. This
being not trampled on while in a moist and tender
state, will lie hght and hollow for the air and frost
to sweeten and pulverize. Nothing will have to be
done now to the land till the dry weather sets in in
the early spring, be it in February or the beginning
of March, at which time I intend to set the dung-

carts to work, and having spread the manure care-
fully in the bottom of the trenches, with a pair of
horses, driven abreast, cover it up, by splitting or
reversing the bout-ridges. These are again to re-
main untouched till well dried and pulverized,
when an opportunity will be afforded of subsoUing
or stirring the inten^als. Thus, then, nearly the
whole of the groimd will have been loosened to the
depth of twelve inches at the least, and a sufficient
tilth gained ; and that, too, at no very ruinous ex-
pense. I prefer to cultivate my turnips and other
roots (such as cabbage and beet) on the ridge sys-
tem, after the Scotch manner, because it will give
me an opportunity of working the ground deeply
and frequently during the growth of the crop, and
because it will allow me, at the time of singling out
the turnij^s, to draw the earth well away from the
plants, whereby they appear to swell, and form
better bulbs. I am now working a piece of seven
acres in this way for roots, and shall be happy to
show what I am about to any of the members who
may feel disposed, or v/ho may think it worth their
while, to pay me a visit.

It is somewhat remarkable that in the autumn of
last year I was suggesting the mode which I have
now adopted of preparing my land for roots, by
trenching and subsoiling, to one of our members,
when he observed to me that he had met \vith the
same idea, or something similar to it, in a Glou-
cester journal of November last. That member
has sent me a copy of the paper, which I have now
lying before me. 1 completely agree with the
writer in principle, but not exactly in his practice.
In the first place, I do not well understand how land
can be ploughed into single-bout ridges with a
wheel-plough ; and I consider a swing-plough, with
two horses abreast, far better calculated for the
operation. I would likewise confine the trench-
ploughing and subsoiling to the fields under pre-
paration for the root crop, as I well know by prac-
tical experience that a surface which has been
exposed to the action of the weather through the
winter should by no means be ploughed down, but
should alone be worked by the scuflHer and har-
rows in putting in the lent grain. Strong heavy
clays, such as I am farming, should be carefully
and deeply ploughed before wnter. This will en-
able the farmer (provided his land has been pro-
perly drained) to get through the necessary work
in a way that would surprise any one who has
never given the plan a trial. Our calcareous clays
by exposure are rendered so friable that in spring
they can be'worked quite as readily as the lighter
soils ; but turn up the stiff and clung bottom after
winter, and you will ne^'er I'ecover that you have
lost — namely, a fine workable surface ; but, instead,
you will be plagued with clods as hard as brick-

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151

bats, which you may beat and liammer to all
eternity \vithout producing the desired effect, and
that, too, at a vast expense. I am hapi)y to find
that some of my neighbours are at length beginning
to open their eyes, and are follo\ving the lead I have
given them.

Having thus stated to you, in the best manner I
am able, my opinion of the practicabihty of raising
root crops upon heavy soils, with profit and advan-
tage to the grower, it only remains for me to de-
clare to you to what extent I would propose their
culture. I have now before me a paper, sent me
by a friend out of the county of Nottingham,
wherein Mr. Richard Parkinson, an eminent prac-
tical farmer of that county, has stated that, on a
clay fann, he has for many years past pursued a
course of cropping on a rotation of twelve or twice
sLx years, I consider that his authority may be re-
lied upon, and woidd follow in his track. I
myself am holding twelve pieces of arable land,
which I would crop nearly after Mr. Parkinson's
manner : —

since, set fast in the mire, and from which I feel
assured you will not get out without serious loss. —
Mr. N., in the Fourth Report of the Gloucester
Farmers' Club.

1. Cabbages, carrots, mangold wurzel, manured

^vith dung,

2. Oats or wheat.

3. Seeds (white clover and ray-grass).

4. Ditto (red and ditto).

5. Wheat or oats.

6. Winter tares.

1. Swedes, manured wth dung and bone-dust.

8. WTieat or barley.

9. Clover or cow-grass.*

10. Wheat.

11. Beans or peas, dunged.

12. Wlieat.

Thus one-sixth part of the whole arable land
would be under a root crop. I have little doubt of
the practicability of this rotation, provided the land
is fun-ow-drained as it ought to be, and the ground
thoroughly cultivated, and subsoiled on the plan I
have projjosed. I will now leave the subject in
your hands. The cultivation of root crops on such
soils as those I am farming has been little practised
and less understood, but is a matter well worthy
your serious attention. I would by no means ad-
vise you to attempt it till such time as your land
has been properly furrow-drained. And observe
that your roots and turnips must be planted early,
so that they be rijie and ready for stacking away
before the bad or wet season sets in in the autumn ;
for you must not attempt to feed them off where
they grow, or you will be, as I was some years

DARLINGTON FARMERS' CLUB.

* Dressed with hme previous to wheat, or a light
dose of compost.

Dec. 8. — The Best and Cheapest Mode of Keep-
ing Draught Horses during Winter. — Mr. Walton,
Vice-Chairman. Mr. Trotter said: I have paid
some attention to the subject of keeping draught
horses during winter for some years past, but
for the last three years I have adopted quite a dif-
ferent mode to what I previously followed. My
method formerly was to allow my draught horses
each two bushels of oats per week, together Avith
one bushel of beans and as much hay as they could
eat, generally clover-hay ; but for the last three
winters I have fed them almost entirely on cut oat-
sheaf, cut into half-inch chaff, which to me has
been a very great saving. In an oat-crop of about
forty stookes per acre, which might yield near
sixty bushels, the feed of a draught horse averages
two sheaves per day, or fouiteen sheaves per week,
which would be about a bushel and three pecks per
week, if they had been thrashed out, wliich is a
saving of a peck of oats per week each horse, from
what I formerly gave them; besides, I save the
bushel of bran per week, and the clover-hay, which
was a very considerable item ; for draught horses,
you are aware, gentlemen, when they get three
feeds of clean oats in a day, when at work, they
will eat a great quantity of clover-hay besides.
Now, when I first changed my mode of feeding
from corn and hay to cut sheaf, the horses im-
proved in condition wonderfully, thus shoAving that
it suits them well. In veiy busy seasons, when they
are very hard worked, I allow them half a peck of
oats at dinner time besides the cut sheaf. Last
winter I had only eighteen acres of oats ; those
kept twelve draught horses, besides four young
horses occasionally. Tliis quantity of oats would
not have served me through the year, had I not
pursued this system of feeding. The mode I have
adopted of preparing the cut sheaf is this : I have
my straw-cutter to work from the horse-wheel of
my thrashing-machine, and I generally have as
much cut in one day as v/iU serve twelve draught
horses for near a month. One man attends to and
feeds the cutter with the oat-sheaves, whilst another
man carries the cut sheaf into the granary ready for
use, when it is taken to the stable in bags as re-
quired.

At the close of Mr. Trotter's remarks, a rather
lengthy discussion ensued on the subject, but

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upon the whole it appeared that Mr. Trotter's mode
was much the cheapest. The secretary also read an
extract from the Highland and Agricultural So-
ciety's Transactions, by Mr. Carmichael, in which
he says, in speaking of the draught horses of the
clayey districts of Scotland, that —

" In the wnter months each horse has a daily
mess, or mash of boiled or stewed (not steamed)
bean-chaff, mixed with light corn and small beans,
separated by the winnowing -machine, or sieve, from
the best grain, to which a few turnips and a portion
of salt are added, with just enough of water to secure
the boiler from injury, whilst the whole is being re-
duced to a pulpy state, and the pulp is then put into

one or more troughs, to remain till the evening,
when the mash is divided among the horses at a
temperature of aljout blood-heat, immediately on
their return from the yoke. This, with bean straw,
and the additional allowance of one feed of inferior
oats and beans in the morning, and one at mid-day,
when constantly employed, keep the horses in best
possible condition."

At the conclusion of the meeting it was resolved
that from the statement of Mr. Trotter, it appears
that his mode of feeding draught horses is much
more economical than the methods usually prac-
tised, therefore it is desirable that it should be more
generally adopted.

THE COMPARATIVE MERITS OF PLOUGHING AND FORKING.

(Prize Essay.)

BY EDWARD WORTLEY.

This essay was written in consequence of the
following announcement in the advertisement of
the eighteenth anniversary of Mr. Baker's Cot-
TERMORE Ploughing Meeting : —

" A premium of five sovereigns for the most ap-
proved statement on the comparative merits be-
tween ploughing and digging ; experiments to ex-
tend over not less than four acres of land — viz,
two acres to be dug, and two ploughed. Competi-
tors will be expected to state full particulars as to
their mode and cost of management throughout,
together \vith the nature, quantity, and relative
value of their crops, and the description of soil.
Statements to be delivered to Mr. Baker, Cot-
tesmore, in November, 1845 : the award will be
declared at the annual meeting of the Rutland
Agricultural Society."

At the Rutland Agricultural Meeting, December
3rd, 1845, Mr, Baker stated that he had awarded
the premium to the writer of the essay that had
been delivered to him under the motto —

" Much food is in the tillage of the poor ; but
there is that is destroyed for want of judgment."

The motto was acknowledged by Mr. Edward
Wortley, of Ridlington, Rutland.

No sooner had I ascertained that a premium was
offered for a statement of the comparative merits
of ploughing, and of digging or forking, than I
determined to undertake the experiment ; and hav-
ing just concluded the carting and weighing of the
separate allotments, I feel great pleasure in thus

presenting the result to the pubhc, hoping it may
tend to estabUsh correct principles, and emulate to
advantageous practices in the husbandry of our
country.

I shall endeavour in the following remarks to
avoid entering at length into a theoretic essay, and
confine myself as closely as possible to a practical
statement.

Owing to the continued severity of the frost, the
land was not broken up, either with the fork or
the plough, imtil the month of March.

The experiment extended over four acres, which
were cultivated in the following manner : —

One acre forked with the fork introduced into
this neighbourhood by R. W. Baker, Esq., of Cot-
tesmore, and drilled with carrots.

On6 acre ploughed once, harrowed, and drilled
with carrots.

One acre forked, and drilled with mangold wur-
zel ; and one acre ploughed once, harrowed, and
also drilled with mangold wurzel.

I should mention that the tines of the fork are
fourteen inches long. It weighs eight pounds and
a half.

The ploughing was done with a Ransome's N. L.
Plough — depth five inches.

The previous crop — the fourth — was wheat ; so
that (this farm being cultivated on the five-field
system) the experimental crops were last in the
rotation, and the land itself by no means of first-
rate quality ; in fact, some few years ago it was a
fox-cover.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

15

The soil consists of a light red loam, mixed ^vith
red sandstone.

On the 12th of April the two acres of carrots
were drilled %vith five pounds of seed to the acre,
mixed previously with one cwt. urate, for the pur-
pose of assisting in the more even distribution of
the seed — one cwt. being too small a quantity to
have much influence as a manure.

The two acres of mangold \vurzel were drilled —
the rows eighteen inches apart — on the second of
May — the same quantity of seed as the can-ots, and
mixed, to facilitate the drilling, with the same
quantity of urate.

No farm-yard manure whatever was applied to
any of the crops. So that, however scanty the
fare of food allowed, they were, nevertheless, all
treated alike. The experiment was not for the
purpose of testing manures, but implements.

Every one remembers how wet and unfavourable
the weather was early in the spring. Cold and rain
were the characteristics of the season; and the
first appearance of the carrots was anything but
promising.

The mangold wurzel — being sown later — came
up more quickly and better. On the first appear-
ance of the plants, there was not a discernible dif-
ference between those of the ploughed, or forked
acres.

Every attention was paid to the hoeing ; but in
consequence of the slow-growing nature of the
carrot, and the ^vild character of the land, it was
rather an expensive process, but the cost not
greater with one acre than another. They were
all hoed by the day as the weather would allow ; no
exact account could, therefore, be readily kept of the
cost; nor was it essential, because, being equal,
it could not affect the comparative merits of the
trial.

As the plants advanced in growth, the difference
between the plough and the fork became very ap-
parent, and was greatly in favour of the fork.
Each acre was stumped out separately ; but the
greater luxuriance of the crops from the forking
was so remarkable, that the stixmps were rendered
quite unnecessarj' for reference.

We began to dig the carrots up the first week in
November. I superintended the gathering of all
the roots myself, and can vouch for the correctness
of the following statement.

CARROTS : — T. C, Q.

Produce from one acre forked 7 8 2

Ditto from one acre ploughed 4 7 3

MANGOLD WURZEL ! — T. C. Q.

Produce from one acre forked 13 2 2

Ditto from one acre ploughed 8 5 0

Difference ^er acre in favour of forking ..4 17 2
Thus we see that we have an average gain of very
nearly four tons of roots per acre by using the fork
instead of the plough ; and the only drawback is,
the difference in the expense between ploughing
and forking.

The forking cost twenty-six shillings per acre —
the soil being stony, and never having been moved
so deeply before ; nearly two cart-loads of soft red
stone were brought up in forking the two acres,
which the plough of course had never touched.

Allowing ten shillings per acre for ploughing, it
leaves sixteen shillings per acre only in favour of
the plough, to stand against upwards of three tons
of carrots on one acre, and nearly five tons of
mangold wurzel on the other.

I scarcely know how to place a money value upon
the roots, as we are not in the habit of selling any
but to a farmer, who produces and consumes them
on his o\vn farm: I do know they are invalu-
able, both for food and manure.

But taking the market value of carrots at fifty
shillings per ton, and reckoning the increase from
forking of 3 tons 0 cwt. 3 qrs. per acre of carrots at

fifty shillings £7 H 10^

and deduct, for greater expense of cul-
tivation , 0 16 0

Difference per acre in favour of forking , , 3 0 3

it clearly leaves us a balance per

acre, of £6 15 lO.i

in favour of the fork.

Still more remarkable is its advantage in the
cultivation of the mangold wurzel. Without de-
ciding upon the price per ton of this root, even if
its value should be less than that of carrots, this
circumstance is more than counterbalanced by the
relative produce being much greater.

Having now stated all the facts which bear upon
this experiment, it will not, perhaps, be deemed
irrelevant to the object of this paper to allude briefly
to the reasons which may be advanced in favour of
the introduction of the fork into our system of
husbandry.

But first I would express a hope that it should
not be imagined for a moment that the result of
this experiment, convincing as it is, has led the
\vriter of these remarks to wish for, or desire the
extirpation of the plorigh — the ancient implement
which he loves and venerates. Nor would he be
thought so far to disregard the advancing im-
provements of the worthy agricvdtural mechanics of
the present day, as to suppose that they cannot
produce inplements capable of closely imitating the

154

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

action of the fork; but, by whichever implement
the operation be performed, let but the old, hard-
ened bed of soil, which has not been, perhaps, for
centuries disturbed — let this be broken up and
rendered more permeable to atmospheric influence,
and thus available for the extension and support of
vegetation, and then — whether the implement be
the spade or the scuffler, Mr. Baker's fork or
Lord Ducie's drag — the principle is right, and the
result sure to be good.

It is not contended, though, that forking is either
necessary for, or would be ahke advantageous to
every crop : were this the case the supply of
labourers would fall far short of the demand.
Forking clover ley for wheat, for instance, on light
land, would probably be injurious by rendering the
soil too spongy and porous, when it is required to
be solid and cohesive — capable of resisting frost,
and preserving the yoimg plant in the winter. Our
object in forking is to secure a ready access of at-
mospheric changes into the soil — the very thing
we seek to guard against, during the winter season,
in the cultivation of wheat.

Then as we cannot fork for every crop, the ques-
tion which next meets us is — When is the forking
to be performed with the greatest advantage, and
for what crops ? I should say, without hesitation —
in the autumn, for the fallow crop, and previously
to manuring.

It is only of the benefit to a root crop that I
can at present speak positively myself, but I think
that benefit can scarcely fail to extend itself through-
out the rotation. A little reflection will soon con-
vince us of this.

The fork combines, in one simple operation, the
perfect action of the common and subsoil ploughs.
But, unhke the spade, and some subsoil ploughs
also, it does not at once bring to the surface the
substratum, which, if introduced too rapidly into
the better soil, would doubtless prove prejudicial ;
nor does it confine itself to the same oft-frequented
depth, below which, for years, the common plough
has never ventured. Wlien the fork has been
thrust to its proper depth of fourteen inches, in
wrenching it up, perhaps as much as the lower
four inches mil break into crumbs — if the expres-
sion may be permitted — and fall through the prongs
of the fork; but nevertheless rendering the lower
uncultivated soil more permeable to water and air,
and the fibrous roots of plants, without bringing
too large a quantity of it to the surface.

Rain and air exert a wondrous influence upon
the fertility of soils, and that influence is much
more readily exerted after the operation of the fork
than the plovigh. This remark will be the more
applicable if the farm-yard manure is spread upon
the soil after the forking — the most prudent time

and method, in my opinion, of getting it upon the
fallows, whether they be forked or ploughed. This
is a point I am pi-epared to defend, but not here.

It has been said that an acre of wheat plants,
after ordinary cultivation, will leave two tons of
roots and fibres in the soil. If so, and I cannot
contradict the statement, how much larger a quan-
tity must be left after a root crop ! a crop, too,
with double the quantity of soil to grow in. This,
which let us bear in mind is vegetable matter, is
left to decompose in the fresh accession of soil,
which thus becomes enriched and gradually amal-
gamated into one fertile body. The gentle com-
mixture, from time to time, of portions of fresh soil
with the old is a process in the highest degree
beneficial for turnip cultivation, that root, it being
well understood, floui'ishing nowhere so well as
upon fresh soils. Then, when we come to our
barley and other cereal crops, we shall again per-
ceive the benefit of the previous forking. The ad-
vantage of a porous substratum, and a deepened
soil, to aflford an increase of food and space for the
roots of growing plants, admits of no dispute.
The bad effects of a low temperature caused by
stagnant water in wet seasons are mitigated, be-
cause that soil which once was hard, and perhaps
impervious, is now rendered capable of conveying
away superfluous moisture from the roots, and pre-
venting much injury, to the crop. Of course I am
not now supposing that forking is to supersede
draining : on wet soils, if we wish to see them act
well, they must act in conjunction.

We have a familiar instance of the injurious in-
fluence of stagnant water in observing its continued
application to the pan of a water pot, instead of the
svirface of the soil in the pot. The water stagnat-
ing on a bed of soil too near the surface of our
fields produces, doubtless, the same ill eflfect. It
is indisputable that excess of moisture tends to the
production of cold in the soil; but on the other
hand, Mr. Parkes observes that " when a soil is
naturally so porous, or is brought into such con-
dition by art, that rain water can sink down into
the earth, it becomes a carrier, an alert purveyor,
instead of a robber of heat, and tends to raise
permanently the temperature of the mass of useful
soil, and this more particularly and beneficially
during the vegetative season. Rain water at that
time conveys downwards the more elevated super-
ficial heat of the soil, and imparts it to the subsoil
in its course to the drains ; it leaves the soil in a
fit state to receive fresh doses of rain, dew, and air,
and in a better condition to absorb and retain heat,
at the same time that ' it jjrotnotes, in other loays,
its fertility and productiveness.' " — Journal R. A. S.
V. 5, p. 124.

Seeing, then, the importance of a proper supply of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

155

water to the fertility of the soil, we must be at the
same time convinced of the absolute necessity of
facilitating, hy deep cultivation, its access to the
subsoil and furrow drains, because we then i^reserve
it a moist, but prevent it from becoming a wet soil ;
we make an escape for the water, and insure an
admission for the air.

Neither \vill the advantage of forking be lost in
times of drought. The very action of the plough
in turning the furrow tends somewhat to condense
the soil, the particles of which are left in a much
finer state of division by the fork. Well pulverized
soils attract much more dew than those which are
close and compact, because the radiation of heat is
affected from many more points in highly com-
minuted, than plane surfaces. The greater the
depth, and the finer the dinsion of the soil, the
longer %vill it be enabled (as numberless experi-
ments have proved) to retain a sufficiency of mois-
ture for the sustenance of the plant.

The improvement experienced in the root crops

will, chiefly from the same cause — the introduction
of fresh soil — be found to exert an influence equally
valuable upon the clover. So striking is the eifect
upon this crop, that Mr. Mitchell, of Wattlefield,
finds, where the forking is properly done, that he
can let his clover land remain down in seeds two
years, where, before the introduction of fork hus-
bandry, the same land would only maintain them
for one year.

Besides, then, the first advantage which we gain
in our turnips, or other roots, from forking, we
shall evidently derive a further benefit in the subse-
quent crops, without the necessity of repeating the
operation.

I shall only further add, in closing these remarks,
that I intend both to continue and extend the use
of the fork, because I believe it to be a most ex-
cellent and profitable tool — a useful and powerful
auxiUaiy in the cultivation of the farm; for, of
course, on large occupations it can only be used in
conjunction with the plough.

A SKETCH OF GERMAN AND DUTCH HUSBANDRY.

Germany. — After leaving Belgimu, and taking a
hurried view of the magnificent scenery of the
Rhine, I directed my steps to the north of Germany ;
and as most of the country I passed through was a
mere barren sandy waste, possessing little attraction
in its scenery to a tourist, and much less inviting
in its agriculture to a farmer, I was not so parti-
cular in my inquiries as in Belgium, and therefore
have little of importance to mention on that subject,
lliere are, however, certain oases in this extensive
waste, which mark themselves not only by the lux-
uriance of the crops, but by the cheerfulness of the
scenery and the numerous smihng villages.
Amongst these the principal are parts of the duchy
of the Lower Rhine, the Saale and Hehne valleys,
a portion of Mecklenburg, and the delta of the Vis-
tula, The culture practised in these districts va-
ries with the locaHty and the demands of the place.
The soil in the ^-alley of the Saale is of fine quality,
and well adapted to the growth of barley, great
quantities of which are raised, and the grain is un-
equalled in quality. A plant \\'hich is extensively
cultivated here, also, is the beet, for the sugar ma-
nufactories established in Magdeburg. Great care
is bestowed on the cultivation of this crop, in
weeding and hoeing it ; and a considerable por-
tion of the rural population depend for their hveli-
hood on the emplo)'ment they get in the cultiva-
tion of the beet. The valley of the Hehne is
watered by a stream of that name, and is passed

through in going from Cassel to Halle. This road
is one of the most picturesque in the north of Ger-
many ; and a person coming from the sandy flat
about BerUn cannot fail to enjoy the scenery,
which assumes a new feature at every turn of the
winding hilly road. In the fine parts of Mecklen-
burg wheat is grown in considerable quantities for
exportation to Britain. The most of the wheat
grown here is shipped from Stettin. It is rich in
minerals. Silver to the amount of nearly 4000/. is
yearly obtained here, while iron and copper are also
found. Brown coal is worked and burnt in all
this neighbourhood for fuel. It is formed, by
means of water, into shapes, in which state it is
burnt. But it is the soil which demands our atten-
tion. It is of the finest quality, and so rich as to
entitle the valley to the name of the Golden Valley,
It produces very heavy crops of wheat, rye, grass,
and oats, which are the principal plants cultivated.
The poppy is one of the secondary class of farm
produce here. The rotation followed here is — fal-
low, wheat or rye, grass, oats ; and the strength of
horses kept on the farm corresponds with that of
farms managed in the same way in this country.
The farms are small, and the fields uninclosed.
But by far the most fertile part of the
north of Germany is the delta of the Vistula,
which extends for a considerable distance from
the banks of the river. It is, however, inconsiderable
when compared with the extensive wastes which

156

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

skirt it. It consists entirely of alluvial deposit de-
rived from the overflowings and former com-ses of
the river. The soil is a stifT retentive clay, and
would be much benefited by the introduction of a
good system of surface drainage. The farms are
small, and are either occupied by proprietors, or, as
is more frequently the case, let to tenants, who
club together in villages, which are composed often
of nothing but their houses and offices. The great
luxuriance of the crops raised with no display of
skill is a sufficient test of the fertihty of this
district. But these rich spots form but an in-
considerable portion of the north of Germany, a
very few particulars of the agriculture of which I
will now mention.

Agriculture is improving rapidly in some dis-
tricts of this part of Germany, particularly in the
neighbourhood of those towns which have much
trade with England in corn; and the consequence is
that land is now rising in value, I know of in-
stances where, within the last twenty years, the
value of land has been increased to more than
double. But there is still great room for improve-
ment. The land is farmed, for the most part, by
proprietors whose properties vary from three to
thousands of acres, according to the districts in
which they are situated. In some localities the
farms are all small, in which case the farm build-
ings ai'e all collected in villages. Sometimes as
many as seven or eight compose a village. Fanns
of this description are to be found near the towns,
which they supply with milk. The farm-house and
offices are generally connected and under the same
roof. This building is oblong, with roofs at the
gables as well as at the sides. One end is devoted
to the dwelling-house, before which is a patch of
ground very neatly laid out as a kitchen and flower
garden. The kitchen fire is often on the outside
of the wall, which divides the farmer's rooms from
the rest of the building, which is tenanted by the
cows on the one side, the horses on the other^ and
the carts and implements are placed between them;
while at the end are large folding doors, which
close in all the farmer's moveable property. But
the generality of the farms are large, and possessed
and farmed by a most respectable class of men,
many of whom are men of education ; and they are
all distinguished for their great kindness and hos-
pitality. The house on such farms is quite sepa-
rate from the offices, and is surroimded generally
by an extensive garden. The offices are in the
form of a square, inclosing an area in the middle
for the accumulation of the manure. They consist
of byre, stable, sheep-shed, corn-shed — for all the
corn is kept in houses instead of stacks — and
servants' houses. The buildings are often erected
according to the most approved principles for con-

venience and comfort to the animals. Having
mentioned a sheep-shed, I think it necessary to ex-
plain its use, as there are no similar erections in
Scotland. The sheep are always kept in, in winter,
when they get potatoes and hay, and the greater
part of summer, when they get clover. Some of
these sheds are very large, capable of containing
1500 sheep. There is a walk made along the side
of one of the walls, and the area between it and the
other wall is divided into compartments, by means
of railings, designed to hold a certain number of
sheep ; each of these divisions is furnished with a
rack for the hay and clover, and troughs for
ground food ; and a small gate leads from the side
walk to each division, so that the keeper can
supply the different lots with food, and inspect
them without much trouble or disturbance to the
whole flock.

The principal grain culti\'ated in the north of
Germany is rye, of which there is said to be eight
times more grown than of wheat, for which the
soil, being in many places bare sand, is not at all
adapted. The black rye bread is the principal
food used ])y all the poorer classes, and in West-
phalia it is to be found on the tables of rich and
poor, and there goes under the name of pumper-
nickel, which was given to it by the French, on
their march to Russia, Potatoes are now largely
cultivated, and flax and buck-wheat form in some
cases a part of their produce. The triennial rota-
tion is still prevalent all over Germany, which
shows at once the backward state af agriculture.
Fallow, or potatoes, or flax, is the first year of the
rotation, (turnips are never raised but in gardens,)
then wheat or rye, and lastly rye or oats. The
oats grown are in general very bad in quality.
This is the prevailing system ; but we shall immedi-
ately advert to a course adopted where agriculture
has undergone every improvement, which is pro-
ducing rapid changes on the face of the country ;
for where, in Pomerania — the most barren spot in
Europe — the road from Stettin to Danzig lay
through a healthy waste a few years ago, it is now,
retaining its former line, skirted by healthy crops
of rye, potatoes, and some fresh fields of grass.

The following sketch of the management of a
farm ten miles from Danzig will give one some
idea of the system carried on among the most intel-
ligent farmers there. This property consists of
1400 imperial acres, which is all arable but a A'ery
small part. To work it 36 horses and 60 oxen are
kept throughout the year, 4 horses or 4 oxen be-
ing used for one plough. The horses are small,
and in general not in first-rate condition. For this
property, including land, houses, animals, and im-
plements, the gentleman paid 8,400/., which may be
considered a fair estimate of the value of land and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

157

agricultural projierty in that district. His rota-
tion is — 1st, fallow; 2nd, wheat or rye; 3rd, grass
for two years ; 5th, fallow, ])otatoes or peas, 6th,
wheat or rye, 7th, oats. Rye is the principal pro-
duce, but he also grows a considerable quantity of
wheat. The potatoes are grown expressly for his
family, servants, and as winter food for his ani-
mals. He only kept as many cows as were neces-
sary to supply his own family and the hinds with
milk. One man is kept for each team of horses or
oxen, which is driven when in the plough by a
boy. The ploughmen receive 6d. a-day, out of
which they must clothe and feed themselves, a
house being provided for them. The women get
3^d. a-day, and girls 2id., out of which they must
provide themselves with the necessaries of life.
These are the highest wages given to farm-labour-
ers in that locality, and, no doubt, will startle one
who has never considered the question before.
The first question that will be asked is, " How can
they live on such a pittance ? " which is best an-
swered by mentioning their dietary. In the morn-
ing the labourer gets ry^e-bread and milk ; in the
forenoon, potatoes with such kitchen to them as
they are enabled to obtain from one pig they some-
times fatten during the year ; in the evening, either
bread and milk or simple rye-meal brose. The
German labourers are very slow at work, and do
much less than is commonly expected from the
same class in Scotland,

With such low wages, and with such a low value
of land, it will be readily seen that they are
enabled to sell their produce for very little and at
no loss. The gentleman to whom the property
above described belongs, was selling his wheat
when I saw him at 31s. a quarter; and I under-
stand that the farmers can afford to sell their
wheat and carry it to the ships for 30s., without a
loss, \v\\\\q they consider themselves amply remu-
nerated for every expense attendant on the raising
of a crop of wheat at 35s. a quarter. The mer-
chants in Danzig generally allow 6s. 6d. a quarter,
as a fair average for freight, insurance, and other
incidental expenses from that port to England.
Therefore, wheat grown in the north of Germany
can be sold in an English market at 41s. 6d. the
quarter, with a suflficient profit to the German cul-
tivator.

I will mention here a visit I paid to a potato
distillery near Danzig, where potato whisky, or, as it
is called in this part of Germany, brantwein, (that
is, brandy) is made. The distiller possesses a farm
also of 600 acres, of which 300 acres are always in
. potatoes, and the other half in rye. He dungs the
land at every crop of potatoes. He has 40 horses,
besides oxen, employed on his farm, and 120 cattle
tied up to fatten. The number he will fatten de-

pends on the condition in which he ties them up.
He showed us one, nothing but skin and bone,
which would take six months to fatten. Tlie
whole of the animals — horses, cows, sheep, pigs —
were fed on the refuse from the distillery as part of
their food, and the fattening animals got nothing
else. His method of making manure is deserving
of attention. He first puts down the rough dung,
on this a layer of good earth, and then a layer of
marl, and the whole is steeped in the urine from
the stables and byres. Immense quantities of ma-
nure are thus made. The potatoes are never
hand-hoed, but are planted so far apart as to admit
of a plough passing between them longitudinally
and transversely. Wages are low here. Men get
their meat and from 4/. to 51. in money in the
year. The whole of the potatoes grown on his
farm are employed in the distillery. They are first
boiled, and then crushed, and malt added. It is
put out after this upon a level, and mixed with
ice, to cool it more rapidly, and the mixture sinks
down to a cellar, where it ferments, after which the
operation of distillation is performed. 1 50 bushels
of potatoes are used daily, and 180 gallons of
whisky made at this season, but in winter consider-
ably more. He obtains 10,000 quarts of refuse
from this distillery daily, and each feeding cow
gets from 100 to 120 quarts. The produce of
10,000 quarts must be meant for the present
season, as he could not feed so many animals as he
mentioned if 10,000 were the yearly average.
The whisky sells for about 3d. a bottle.

Holland. — Ha\'ing completed my tour in Ger-
many, I sailed down the Rhine from Dusseldorf,
and set foot first on Dutch landat Arnheim. Hol-
land as a nation is quite unique, and ought to be
visited by every Scotchman who wishes to see a
country in every respect the reverse of his own.
When viewed from the sea, the coast of Holland is
marked by a dark unwaved line in the horizon,
and the villages, seen to their very foundations,
rise in bold relief on the clear blue sky. The tour-
ists who annually traverse countries and continents
are induced to visit most places, either from their
possessing natural beauties and attractions, from
their fame in histoiy, or from containing within
them objects hallowed by antiquitj', celebrated
works of art, or abundant sources of amusement
and pleasure ; but Holland, besides holding out all
these inducements to a traveller, excepting what is
natural, of which there is no true exemplification to
be found in it — for even what was originally natu-
ral has been made to assume an artificial appear-
ance,— possesses much that is far more attractive to
him, as he can nowhere meet with the same or si-
milar objects of attraction. It invites the mere
novelty-seeker; for there he \vill find the most of

158

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the land in the kingdom reclaimed from water; he
will be placed in the awkward position of knowing
that he is there entirely at the mercy of the waves,
which rage without the barriers thrown up to op-
pose their progress, and make the miost vigorous
efforts to regain their former dominion. He will
see everything different from what he is accustomed
to find anywhere else — houses in the busiest and
most smoky towns as clean as if the the painter's
brush had just been removed from them for the
first time ; streets unspotted by mud ; trees painted
in the gaudiest colours, and cHpped into the most
fantastic forms ; every town, every proAdnce inter-
sected by canals, many of which are below the
level of the sea, with which they are in connex-
ion ; and a people delighting to spend their
pleasure moments over stagnant and fermenting
ditches, from which rise the most noxious vapours
and the most offensive effluvia. It invites the phi-
losopher ; for there he can see his laboratory expe-
riments in hydrauhcs brought to a practical and
useful end, and carried on on the grandest scale
ever projected by man ; he can see also the exist-
ence of a kingdom dependant constantly on the mi-
nute calculations of men of science. It invites the
historian ; for there he will tread on many a spot
hallowed by individual acts of self-devotion to the
cause of patriotism. He wUl be reminded in many
a city of former displays of unrivalled national
valour, and of the most dreadful sacrifices made in
defence of liberty and country, preferring death,
and even the destruction of their country, to the
yoke of an invader. It invites the artist, to judge,
criticise, and admire the works of its children,
many of whom are excelled by none in the Avorld.
It invites the agriculturist, and with pride bids him
walk over its once sub-merged fields, now covered
with the richest luxuriance, visit its once moving
sand-hills, whicli it has fixed in their present posi-
tion, and turned to profitable account by an atten-
tive observance of the laws of nature; examine its
system of draining, in which it has rendered one
element subservient to its will in overcoming
another and more dangerous ; bids him enter its
dairies, and follow the examjile there shown him
of cleanliness and comfort to the animals under his
care.

The first place in Holland I went to visit, con-
nected with agriculture, was the agricultural colo-
nies at Fredericksoord and Willemsoord. They
were established when, after two years of great
scarcity, a large proportion of the population were
reduced to absolute destitution, and depended en-
tirely for their subsistence on the charities of their
more fortunate countrymen. So prevalent did the
practice of begging become, that it was found ne-
cessary to do something to relieve those unfortu-

nate men who were willing but unable to get work.
A society was, therefore, formed by a few benevoi
lent individuals, the object of which was to give
employment to men in this deplorable condition.
In carrying out their purpose, they conferred not
only an immediate and lasting benefit on the indi-
viduals in question, but eflFected great national ad-
vantages— first, by stemming the spread of vice,
which would have been the natural consequence of
such destitution, and, in the second place, by in-
creasing the national resources in converting to
arable land a waste on which even a sprig of
heather was scarcely to be met with. Such was
the origin of these colonies twenty-four years ago.
And no one can travel the road along which they are
situated without noticing the great change that has
been effected on the face of the country by their
estabhshment ; and the change is doubly obser\'-ed
when we pass from the unimproved waste to the
neat cottages which Mne the road. From a wild
barren country we enter at once a httle oasis which
bears every mark of prosperity ; neat cottages, be-
traying the Dutchman's taste in their clean appear-
ance, crops as luxuriant as if nurtured by a better
soil, and gardens stocked with useful vegetables
and adorned with a variety of flowers. Each
house is placed at the road side, in the middle of
the plat belonging to it, and directly opposite to
another on the other side of the road. The build-
ings are all in one, the part allotted to the cow and
pig being built of wood, and the cottage of brick.
In the cottage are two rooms : one of them is large,
and answers the purpose of kitchen, dining-room,
and bed-room for some of the family ; the other is
small, and contains only a bed at one end, and at
the other a closet, which answers the purpose of a
milk-house. Great attention is paid to the dung,
which is put up into neat heaps at the back of the
house, consisting of alternate layers of turf and
manure from the byre, and watered every now and
then by the liquids previously collected from all
the houses, in a cask sunk in the ground. In
Willemsoord, which is the smaller of the two co-
lonies, there are 176 such houses, all tenanted by
paupers but six, whose occupiers pay rent for their
farms. The quantity of land attached to each
house is about seven acres imperial. The colonists
are all supplied with implements on entering on
their plat, besides a cow and pig. The food of the
colonists is, for the most part, potatoes, and rye-
bread, Math milk, little or no flesh being used. The
small farmers pay 3l. 15s. a-yearfor their plat, but
the whole produce of the colonists' land is taken to
the general magazine. There is a regular creditor
and debtor account kept with them from their first
entering the colony. Eveiything they receive on
entering is marked down against them ; and when-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

159

ever they are 'enabled to pay off" their debts from
economy of hving, they are allowed to rent their
plats. Some have succeeded in this ; but the in-
stances are rare. The scheme is not to be looked
at in the hght of a speculation ; for, as such, it was
never intended : but it has sufficiently succeeded in
the object for which it was designed, viz., the re-
lienng of the destitute, besides the consequent ad-
vantages referred to before. Attached to these
colonies are others of a penal character, to which
unruly members are sent and subjected to more
rigorous laws than are necessary in the free colo-
nies. The wages and rations allotted to them are
as follows : — Suppose a family of eight individuals,
husband, wife, and six children, three of whom,
with their father, work; the other three go to school,
while the mother remains at home. The sums set
down for wages here are only imaginary, being
somewhat higher than they are generally al-
lowed. Per week.

Man at lOd. a-day, £0 5 0

Son at lOd. a-day, and other two
at two at 2s. 2d. each per
week 0 9 2

Wages earned for whole
family per week . . .
From which is deducted —

per week.

Winkel geld £0 5 4

Bread, potatoes and

clothing for eight 0 8 0

£0 14 2

0 13 4

£0 0 10
Which is put do^vn to their future emergencies.

By winkel geld is meant money for buying little
necessaries, such as coffee, tobacco, &c. : the allow-
ance of it for each person is 8d. a-week. The al-
lowance for bread, potatoes, and clothing is Is. per
week for each person. The only crops grown by
the colonists are rye, potatoes, and grass. The
farmers grow what they choose. There are several
overseers who superintend the work done in colo-
nies. Attached to them are schools for the gratui-
tous education of the children, and also workshops
in which they are taught some useful trade. I
passed one of these shops, in which there were from
thirty to forty looms worked by the children ; and
adjoining it was another room, where some were
engaged in spinning, mending shoes, and other oc-
cupations. I was attracted to the place by the
busy clatter of the shuttles and sounds of music
which proceeded from it ; and, on coming up to it,
found them engaged at their respective occupa-
tions, cheering on one another in their work by a
song, in which they all joined. What health, what

happiness shone in these pauper children's faces !
Their looks were a sufficient proof of the benefits
derived from such an institution.

Is the estabUshment of such societies impracti-
cable in our own country ? Are there not thou-
sands of unimproved acres, that have been con-
demned as useless, many of which exceed in fer-
tility the waste in which the Dutch colonies are
situated ? Are there not hundreds of unemployed
hands who crowd our poor-houses and pauper-
rolls, who frequent oixr roads and streets as mendi-
cants, who haunt our lanes as degraded miscreants,
advancing their poverty as a palliation of their
vices and crimes? Is there not money raised to
relieve the destitute ? And are there not many
benevolent individuals who, by the gratuitous be-
stowment of their charity, encourage idleness and
foster vice? In Britain, truly, we have the ele-
ments for such a society ; but we want some master
spirit to bring them together, and put them hito
operation. It is a subject that cannot be too
strongly pressed upon proprietors of land as the
best way of improving the waste portions of their
properties, and of reducing, at the same time, the
burdens with vv'hich their cultivated lands are so
heavily taxed.

I shall now detail a short trip I had through
North Holland, in which I visited some of the
farms where the celebrated Dutch cheeses are made.
The route I took is one that e^'ery person wishing
to obtain in a short time a knowledge of the cha-
racteristics of Holland and the Dutch'oughttotake.
But I wall put him on his guard against the extor-
tionary habits of the jieople, which will be very
apt to throw him into bad hum_our, and thus mar
the whole pleasure of his journey. When he
reaches some of the towns in North Holland, he
will be called upon to pay most exorbitant charges
for the simplest meals and dishes, unless he should
take the precaution of bargaining with the inn-
keeper before hand. The poorer classes in Hol-
land will not perform the slightest favour for a
stranger mthout expectation of some recompence.
And people there Avill expect and take a gratuity
from a visitor, which a person of the same class in
Britain would spurn at as a breach of hospitahty.
I allude to the small farmers.

By means of ferry and trekschuiten, we arrived
at Buiksloot from Amsterdam. The first part of
our road lay along the banks of a canal, indeed on
one of the d3^kes, for the roads here are often made
on the dykes, so that we ha^'e a good view of the
extended flat which is stretched out on both sides
of the canal, with the surface all intersected by
ditches, but covered with a luxuriant sward of
grass, excepting where it is replaced by rushes in
the wettest spots. The farms in the first district

160

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

we passed through are all tenanted by farmers, who
are allowed to remain on the ground as long as
they are regular in the paj^ment of their rents.
The men who occupy them are, in general, pos-
sessed of little capital. The farms are from
seventy-five to eighty acres in extent. The price
per acre is 33s. 4d. The number of cows kept
varies from thirty to thirty-sLx, according to the
soil and the management. The one half of the
farm is kept for pasture, and the other for hay.
They are very careful of the dung about the place,
and put it on when thoroughly rotted. This, with
the submersion the fields get in winter, is all the
return made for the good it does the farmers.
The cows are beautiful, and kept in the finest
order ; indeed many farmers seeing them would be
apt to consider them too fat to give milk. They
are black and white, and many of them are marked
like the sheeted breed of cattle, the colours being
black and white instead of brov\'n and white, as in
the latter. They are very small in the bone, have
small heads, thin necks, and capacious carcasses,
with large udders. This is the description of
cattle found all over Holland. The interior of
the farm-places show all the neatness and
cleanness generally spoken of by writers.
When the door was opened for me to
enter, I felt more inclined to undergo the pro-
cess of purification than the worthy doctor did be-
fore entering the sacred temple of Juggernaut.
We went through the byre first, which is unfre-
quented at the present season by its accustomed in-
mates. It is divided into stalls for two cows each,
every piece of v/ood about which bore evident
marks of hard scrubbing. Many a dining-table is
not so clean as was the floor of this cow-house.
In all the stalls there is a layer of clean shells, as
level as the newly-gravelled walk which leads to
some lady's bower. At the top of the stalls a
trough built of bricks runs along the length of the
byre, from which the cows drink water ; and over
each stall, attached to a beam in the ceiling, is a
ring to which the cows' tails are tied up when they
are in the house. A door opens from the byre to
the milk-house where the cheese is made. This
shows the same cleanness as the cow-house.
Thence we went into the cheese-salting room,
where they are kept in pickle or salt for ten days.
We were led through a door-way which opened
from the byre to the winter-kitchen. Three sides
of this room were papered, and the fourth, as well
as the fire place, was adorned with square pieces of
porcelain of difierent colours. Instead of having a
grate, a large metal plate is placed on the hearth-
stone, and extends for a good way into the room :
under it is placed some live coal ; and in the winter
nights, when the waves of Zuyder Zee roar without.

the family sit round the blazing faggot with their
feet upon this heated plate, and talk over the events
of the day. The walls of the room aie hung with
Roman Catholic engravings, while the floor is all
matted. We were shown into other two rooms, the
one a bed-room and ordinary parlour, the other a par-
lour ; used only on particular occasions. These were
also matted on the floor, excepting the centre, where
the well-cleaned slabs of marble were exposed to
view. The walls were similarly adorned, and two
or three handsome oaken cupboards and drawers
were placed in the most con\-enient part of the
room ; while in the principal parlour a table stood
in the middle, with a nice set of tea-things, all ar-
ranged, from the well burnished heater to the silver
spoon. The following particulars I obtained from
the farmer's wife, about their method of making
cheese : — After the cows are milked, and before the
milk is cold, the rennet is added, till the curd is
thoroughly formed. The whole milk is used for
this ])urpose but a little, which is kept for cream.
After the whey is separated from the curd, the
latter is put into the chessa?'ds, which are of round
form in the interior ; and the cheeses remain under
the press for four hours. The press is of the sim-
plest form, being a beam used as a lever, with a
weight at the end. It is in general gaudily painted
and gilt. The cheeses are then removed from the
press, and put into a pickle of salt and water, where
they remain for twenty-four hours. From the
pickle, they are put into cups made of wood, and
salt is sprinkled on the tops of them ; they remain
here eight days, being turned every morning
upside down, and clean salt added. At the end of
the eight days they are put into the pickle again
for twenty-four hours. After this, they are taken
out, and allowed to dry for three weeks ; linseed oil
being rubbed on them every day, to prevent the
cracking of the crust. They are generally sold at
the end of this period. The practice of pickling
prevails only in this district, which is called
Brucker Meer. This part of the coimtry has not
been reclaimed from lakes, like the Beemster and
Purmer, or, if it has, it is not in the memory of
man. The soil is of inferior quality, and the
cheeses made here are not esteemed so good as
those made in the other two places. In them they
allow thecheese to remaintwodays longer in the salt,
instead of putting it into the pickle. The cows are
never brought in in summer ; in winter they are fed
on hay and water, and some farmers give oil-cake.
A few pigs are also fattened from the whey, which
is churned before being given to them. More
people are employed on these small farms than
would at first sight be thought necessary.
This is owing to the expedition required in the ope-
rations. Cheese is made twice a-day on all the

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IGl

farms ; and from eighteen to twenty are made
daily, from thirty-two cows, at the height of the
season. The men's wages are from 61. to 10/.,
with their meat, some jierquisites, such as calves,
and 1 /. twice a-year as presents at fair time and
Christmas. Women receive 6/., with their meat.

Thence we proceeded to Brock, about which
most authors have spent their powers of exaggera-
tion. The houses are buUt of wood, and painted
green. The front doors and windows are never
opened but on three occasions — a marriage, a birth,
or a death. The streets are paved with chnkers or
small bricks, which in some places are of differ-
ent colours, probably giving rise to the idea of
Mosaic, so often spoken of by authors. Carriages
or horses are not allowed to pass through the
streets. The gardens have all the absurdities of
the Dutch taste about them. After a short drive
from Brock, we enter upon one of those drained
lakes so frequent in Holland, called the Purmer.
In passing through them, we are placed in a very
curious situation. The same leval surface, dotted
over wth innumerable farm buildings, built in
exactly the same manner, with an exact number of
trees about them, with gardens laid out in exactlj^
the same style, containing the exact number of
cabbage plants and flower stalks, meets the eye in
all directions, inclosed as its boundary by a high
bank, on the other side of which a boat may be
seen far above our heads, with distended sails,
scudding along the waters of the canal. Assuredly
we ride under the keels of the vessels, and the in-
dustrious inhabitants of these parts as truly dwell
under the water. The farms in the Purmer are
marked off by gates, and the subdivisions of each
farm are made by ditches. After an hour's drive
through the district, we arrived at Purmerende,
where, fortunately, the great North Holland weekly
fair was held that day. It is amusing for a
stranger to walk through the streets at the time.
He sees the people in their pecuhar costumes,
from the wide pantaloons and docked tail-coat
to the court dress and cocked hat, with glit-
tering buckles on the shoes. The women also do not
fail to attract our attention, from their brilliant gold
head-dresses, and bunches of silk curls over each
temple, which are sported by all ages of the sex.
The cheeses when sold are carried to the weighing-
house by a class of porters who run with their
loads, roaring most vociferously all the way, to
give warning of their approach to the bystanders,
who meet with no civility from them if they ob-
struct their passage. The immense number of
cheeses weekly sold here may give some concep-
tion of the number of people employed in making
them. The passage in one part of the town was
quite blocked up with the heaps which lay in rows

along the streets, each heap containing about lifty
cheeses.

About five miles' drive from Purmerende brought
us to the Beemstcr. The most careless observer
can be at no loss to mark the commencement of
this fertile tract of land. We pass at once from
rank marsh vegetation to the most splendid fields
of grass, surpassing in healthiness and beauty the
best swept lawn of an English nobleman. We
stationed ourselves on the top of the dyke, the
only eminence near us, and surveyed with no little
pleasure the novel but not uninteresting scenery
before us, the effects of the jiatient industry and
untiring perseverance of a people whose country
may be said to be the most remarkable in the
world. As far as the eye could reach this level
tract of land extended, richly green and unwaving
on its surface, which was studded with innu-
merable farm houses, each surrounded with its
well-pruned trees ; and all around the gigantic
windmills extended their arms to catch every pass-
ing breath of wind, while the whole jjrospect was
enlivened by the handsome herds which fed in
quietness on the rich herbage which the soil pro-
duced almost spontaneously. The farmers in the
Beemster are many of them proprietors, and there-
fore we find in some parts of it more appearance of
wealth, in the substantial houses and in the exten-
sive and elegant gardens which surround them.
The farmers' premises in these districts are gene-
rally'aU connected, and under one roof. The form of
the buildings is that of a square, with alow sloping
roof at each side, which nearly reaches the ground,
with now and then a smaU building jutting out
from one of the sides.

The extent of North Holland is eighteen miles
square, and it is kept dry or drained by forty-two
windmills. Sometimes four or five windmills will
be seen placed close to one another, raising the
water from different levels, or, where there is a dead
level, producing a run in the water, so that the
working of the windmills may not be impeded.
On coming out of the Beemster, we enter the
Woermer, which is another drained lake, but far
inferior to the Beemster in value. At one end of
this extensive meadow lies Woermeer Veer, which
is a small \dllage, and with Keoch, Sandyke, and
Saardam, forms a continuous street about four
miles long. There is a canal at Woenner Veer,
and considerable vessels sail in it ; but still it be-
trays no symptoms of the filthiness to be found
generally where there is much loading and unload-
ing. On leaving the canal, the road, which is
narrow, and paved with clinkers, and as clean as
the floor of any gentleman's lobby, runs between,
on the one side, a row of beautiful cottages, for the
most part built of wood, and painted light green ^

162

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

with gable fronts which terminate in a spire, and
windmills, all having the apjjearance of being built
yesterday, gaudily adorned with the most glaring
colours, and gilt, and thatched on the sides instead
of being built of wood, Init so neatly, as to look like
one solid mass, instead of millions of straws bound
together ; and on the other a row of trees shading
the road, a stagnant water, which is spanned in
the length of these villages by no fewer than 500
small bridges, all similarly adorned as the houses,
then another row of cottages, surpassing those on
the other side in their whimsical embellishments,
while every now and then we pass gardens,
abounding in every variety of flowers which the
fortune of the possessors would enable them to
purchase, and laid out with walks, which are
paved ^vith small stones and shells of different
colours, and arranged into an endless set of fantas-
tic forms. Such was my route for half an hour,
till I reached Saardam, where Peter the Great
learnt the art of ship-building. From Saardam
our road lay along the top of a dyke, which re-
strains the waters of the Y to their proper bounds.
The mills in this neighbourhood, which are more
numerous almost than the houses, grind tobacco,
crush linseed, and make paper. In'an hour after
leaving Saardam we were in Amsterdam, highly
gratified with what we had seen during the day,
and more than ever impressed with the imwearied
perseverance of this people, and of their almost
faulty habits of cleanliness. — P. M'L. — Journal of
Agriculture.

PROBUS FARMERS' CLUB.

BONE MANURE.

At the last meeting of the members of this club,
a paper on the " Analysis of the Soils of Carmvi-
nick Farm" — the property and in the occvipation of
T. H. Hawkins, Esq. — was read by Mr. Karkeek,
of Truro. Its object was to prove the durability of
bone-dust as a manure for a period of 10 years. It
appears that, in 1835, a piece of waste ground was
broken from the common, and tilled to turnips, the
larger part of which was manured with bone-dust,
at the rate of 3 quarters to the acre. In the two
following years, it was successively cropped with
oats, and with the last crop laid down to permanent
pasture, in which state it has remamed ever since.
At the present period, the effect of the bone-dust
can be plainly distinguished on the grass as far as
the eye can reach, having a rich grass sward —
whilst the adjoining part, where no bone-dust had

been applied, has a coarse sterile appearance ; the
difference being as great as if a line had been drawn
between rich pasture and scanty coarse herbage.
This, and a great many other experiments of the
same character, made by Mr. Trethewy, the mana-
ger of the estate, amounting altogether to 120
acres, and on all of which the effect of the bone was
equally visible, induced the club to send a sample
of the soil from each part of the field on which the
first experiment had been made to Mr. Hunt, late
of Falmouth, and now " Curator of the Museum of
Economic Geology," to be analyzed, in order to
ascertain if the bone could be detected at the pre-
sent time. It should be observed that Mr. Hunt
was kept altogether ignorant of the object of the
club, and that the result was perfectly satisfactory,
inasmuch as he readily detected the bone in that
portion of the field on which it had been applied
some ten years before. The following are the
analyses : —

No. 1. No. 2.
Water, evaporated by stove

drying 14.06 14.18

Vegetable and animal matters

burnt off 12.01 12.05

Silica and siliceous grit . . . 49.54 49.50

Oxide of iron 7.30 7.00

Carbonate of lime 1.05 1.06

Carbonate of magnesia . , , 0.25 0.35

Sulphate of lime 1.05 1.04

Muriates 0.54 0.54

Alumina 7.10 6.04

Phosphate of Ume 0.10 0.75

Phosphate of magnesia . . . 0.00 0.05

Potash 1.00 1.27

Humus and soluble alkaUes . . 6.00 6.17

Mr. Karkeek contended that the experiment
went to prove that the chief manuring principle of
bone-dust exists in the phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia. It also set to rest the question whether the
imncipal manuring properties of bone exist in the
earthy matters, which constitute about two-thirds
of bone, or in the oily and glutinous parts constitu-
ting the remaining one-third. An interesting dis-
cussion ensued on the subject of the analyses, the
club being of opinion that the organic parts of bone
evidently had a powerful effect as a manure, but
that it was next to an impossibility that any other
than the earthy matter could have remained so
long in the land — the whole of the animal matter
having been probably consumed by the two crops
of oats ; and they agreed with Mr. Kai'keek that
the principal manuring properties of bone existed
in the earthy phosphates.

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163

STEWPONEY FARMERS' CLUB.

The second annual meeting of this club was held
at the Stewi^oney Inn, on Tuesday, Dec. 9, when
the follo\ving members were present : — Lord Lyt-
telton, J. H. H. Foley, Esq., Mr. Yardley, Mr.
Corbett, Mr. Windle, Mr. Thompson, and Mr.
Beddard. On the motion of J. H. H. Foley, Esq.,
seconded _by Mr. Yardley, it was unanimously re-
solved, " That the thanks of this meeting be given
to the chairman, vice-chairman, secretary, and
committee, for the past year, and that they be re-
quested to continue their services for the year
ensuing." The accounts were then produced by
the secretary, and approved. The different sub-
jects for discussion during next year having been
arranged, Mr. Foley was requested to draw up the
annual report of the club, and to cause copies of
it to be printed and distributed as usual. The
business then terminated.

STEWPONEY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The annual general meeting was held at the
Stewponey Inn, on the same day as above, when
there was a good attendance of members. The
chair was taken by Lord Lyttelton. The accounts
of the past j^ear were examined and audited, and
the premiums fixed for the ensuing one. On the
motion of J. H. H. Foley, Esq., seconded by Mr.
Windle, W. W. Whitmore, Esq., was elected pre-
sident of the association. The committee were
re-elected : and John Joseph Bramah, Esq., of
Ashwood House, was also elected a member of the
association.

The Lecture.

At two o'clock, A. Gyde, Esq., M.R.C.S. E., of
Pains-wick (consulting chemist to the society), deli-
vered an extremely interesting lecture " On tlie
application of physiology to the rearing and feed-
ing of cattle." The lecturer was listened to
throughout with marked attention. He said : —

Twelve months have now elapsed since I first
appeared before you in the capacity of consulting
chemist to your society, on which occasion I ex-
plained the composition of soils, and their influence
on vegetation. It becomes my pleasing duty this
morning to consider another link in this beautiful
chain — the connexion of the vegetable with the
animal kingdom — and to offer some observations
on the application of vegetable physiology to the
rearing and feeding of cattle. But, before enter-
ing on the immediate subject, it will be necessary

that we possess a clear conception of the elements
of animal nutrition. The vegetable on which the
animal is fed consists of an organic and inorganic
portion ; the former is supplied by water, carbonic
acid, and the salts of ammonia and nitric acid ; the
latter is obtained entirely from the soil, and con-
sists of the various earthy and saline constituents
which constitute the ash of plants. These sub-
stances are taken into the texture of plants by their
roots and their leaves, and under the influence of
light are decomposed — the oxygen being returned
to the atmosphere, while the carbon, with the ele-
ments of water, forms starch, gum, sugar, or woody
fibre, or, with the addition of the elements of am-
monia or nitric acid, constitute gluten, albumen,
or casein. Hence the plant obtains its food from
the inorganic kingdom ; while the animal, on the
contrary, is only capable of existing on organized
matter.

The recent discoveries in organic chemistry, and
more particvdarly in its application to the phy-
siology of animal life and nutrition, has thrown
much hght on this subject. It has explained in
the most satisfactory manner why one article of
diet is more nutritious than another — why the
Greenlander should devour large quantities of train
oil with his daily food, while the same diet would
not only be disgusting but positively injurious to
an inhabitant of a warmer climate — why animals
cannot be sustained on starch, gum, or sugar alone,
or on gelatine alone, and yet these substances com-
bined constitute their daily food. Chemistry has
pointed out the particvilar requisites of the animal
Ijody, and how these are supplied in the food we
eat It has shown that the animal, like the vege-
table, consists of an organic portion constituting
the soft parts of the body, and also of an inorganic
portion, which principally exists in the bones,
forming the skeleton ; these substances in the
herbivora being obtained directly from the vege-
table food on which they Hve, and in the carnivora
from the flesh and blood of the herbivora.

If we examine any article of food, such as wheat,
cabbage, beans, or turnips, we find that, in addition
to water, it contains gum, starch, or sugar, wth
woody fibre, and a very small portion of fatty
matter ; these constituents being composed of three
elements only, \\z., carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
united in nearly the same proportions. But we
also find there are substances in vegetables which
contain nitrogen, in addition to the elements of

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gum or starch, and are known as gluten, vegetable
albumen, and casein. If, for example, we take
wheaten flour, and mix it with water into a paste,
and then wash it on a sieve by pouring a stream
of cold water over it, while it is kneaded with the
hand, the starch, gum, and sugar of the flour will
pass through the sieve mixed with the water, and
there will be left on it a tenacious stringy substance
like birdlime : this is the gluten of the wheat, and
which, when dried, becomes a brittle mass, not un-
like horn, and emitting the same odour when burnt
as burning feathers, horn, or any other animal
substance. The casein which is obtained from
beans or peas, or the vegetable albumen and fibrine
from the expressed juice of the carrot, turnip, or
cabbage, possess similar properties with that of
wheat, with this single exception, that they are
soluble in cold water, whereas the gluten from
wheat is insoluble in that fluid. When these sub-
stances are submitted to chemical analysis, they
are all found to be of the same composition, and
further, that they are also identically the same as
the flesh and blood of animals ; this identity does
not only consist in their containing nitrogen or azote,
with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the same
proportions as it exists in the flesh and blood of
animals, but it extends to a small portion of sul-
phur and phosphorus, which is also found to be
associated with flesh in the animal. Hence we
find the flesh and blood of the animal ready pre-
pared in the vegetable. The vegetable prepares
and elaborates out of the elements of water, am-
monia, and carbonic acid, constituents which are
identically the same as the flesh of the animal; and
the animal has only to apply them to its own indi-
vidual use.

The following table will show the identity of
composition between these substances : —

Gluten Casein

from from Ox Ox

Flour. Peas. Blood. Flesh.

Oxygen . . 22-4 23-0 22*2 22-3

Hydrogen . 7*5 7-2 I'b 7'5

Carbon . . 54-2 54-1 54-3 54-1

Nitrogen. . 15'9 15.6 15-8 157

All animal bodies are continually undergoing
change ; every thought, every motion, is performed
at the expense of a portion of the body, and hence
arises the demand for food to supply that waste.
This fact is strikingly illustrated in animals that
undergo much severe fatigue, when compared with
those that use but little exertion. The horses used
to draw our well-appointed coaches, which are
now rapidly disappearing before the gigantic powers
of steam, are almost exclusively fed on oats and
beans, two of the most nutritious of £ill vegetable

food ; while horses performing less laborious work
^vill supply the natural waste of the body from the
small quantity of gluten contained in hay or clover.
The food of animals, I have stated, consists of
two distinct classes of matter : one containing ni-
trogen or azote as one of its constituents, and
which is identical with the flesh and blood of the
animal ; the other devoid of nitrogen, and consist-
ing of gum, starch, or sugar, with woody fibre.
These different substances serve two very distinct
purposes in the animal economy — the former, or
nitrogenous constituents, supply the wastes of the
tissues of the body, and may be termed the ele-
ments of nutrition : the latter, or non-nitrogenous
constituents, supply fuel for combustion in the
lungs to keep up animal heat, and under some
circumstances also contribute to the formation of
fat. These elements may be arranged under two
heads, viz : — those of nutrition, and those of res-
piration. '

Elements of Nutrition. Elements of Respiration.
Gluten Gum

Albumen Starch

Casein Sugar

Flesh Oil or Fat

Blood Alcohol.

The former of both these elements exist in com-
bination in all substances capable of supplying
food to the animal ; but, before they can minister
to its wants, they must undergo the process of
digestion ; that is to say, they must be rendered
soluble and capable of entering the blood. This
is accomjjlished in the following manner : — The
food, when received into the mouth, is broken
down by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva se-
creted by glands situated near the angle of the
jaw, and under the tongue ; when properly masti-
cated, it is collected into a ball at the base of the
tongue, and by the act of deglutition is carried
into the stomach to imdergo the process of diges-
tion.

Independent of the fact that the saliva, when
mixed with the food, renders the digestion of it
more easy, Liebig supposes that it has the peculiar
function of inclosing air, as froth, the ox3'gen of
which enters into combination with the consti-
tuents of the food, while the nitrogen is again given
out by the lungs and skin ; he also believes that
the rumination of some animals, as for instance the
ox and the sheep, has for its object a renewal and
repeated introduction of oxygen into the stomach.
When the food has entered this organ, the process
of digestion, or the solution of certain of its con-
stituents, commences ; this is accomplished by
a fluid secreted by small glands, situated between
the coats of the stomach, and known as the gastric

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165

fuid : it consists of mucus mixed with free hijdro-
chloric acid, and a peculiar principle known to
chemists imder the name of pepsin.

Hydro-chloric acid is always present in the
stomach, and is o1)tained hy the decomposition of
common salt (which is composed of hydro-chloric
acid and soda), the acid assisting digestion in the
stomach, while the alkali (the soda) enters into the
formation of bile. Thus a certain quantity of salt
is necessary to digestion in animals ; and although
it forms a constituent of the ash of vegetables, still
it seldom exists in sufficient quantities to supply
the requisite quantity of acid or soda required for
healthy digestion, and therefore salt ought to be
placed within their reach. The instinctive avidity
with which animals seek salt, points out its neces-
sity as part of their daily food. Pigeons are known
to fly from great distances to the sea-coast for the
purpose of obtaining it ; and a very common mode
of seducing one's neighbour's jiigeons is by placing
a ball of salt, formerly called a salt-cake, in an
empty dove-cote: this practice is especially forbidden
by an act of parhament still in force. From the
stomach the digested food i)asses into the small in-
testines ; here it receives the secretions from the
hver (bile), and from the pancreas (pancreatic
juice) ; and, from the surface of these intestines,
the dissolved portion capable of supplying the
body is removed by small vessels known to ana-
tomists by the name of lacteals, from the fluid
usually contained in them having a milk-like ap-
2>earance ; these vessels haA'e numbers of mou ths
opening on the inner surface of the intestines, from
which they convey the fluid thus prepared, and
which is known by the name of chyle, into a tube
lying along the left side of the spine ; and passing
upwards through the chest, it ultimately discharges
its contents into the subclavian vein, on the left
side of the body. Here it becomes incorporated
•with the blood, and with it is conveyed into the
right cavity of the heart, from whence it passes to
the lungs, where it undergoes those changes fitting
it for the nutrition of the body.

In ruminating animals, as the ox and the sheep,
the process of digestion diflfers a little from the
foregoing; these animals have their stomachs more
complicated, to enable them to extract the nom-ish-
ment from the food, which, as in the case of grass,
contains but little when compared with the bulk.
In these animals the grass is cropped wth the
fore-teeth, and after receiving a very slight masti-
cation, is swallowed ; this process is continued
until the first stomach is filled, when the animal
lies down, and commences rumination. In the
first stomach, the food is mixed with secretion,
similar to saliva; and in this state it is injected into
the mouth in detached portions, to be perfectly mas-

ticated, and when swallowed a second time, the food
passes into the second stomach, or omasum ; from
this it passes into the third stomach, or ubomasum;
in the two last the food undergoes preparatory
changes, when it is carried into the fourth, or true
stomach ; here digestion is completed, and the
food passes onward into the intestines, undergoing
the same process as before described. Blood,
formed either from flesh, as in the carnivora, or
from vegetables, as in the herbivora, is of the same
composition ; it circulates through the different
organs of the liAang animal, and supplies the waste
which is continually going on in the animal frame ;
it deposits bony matter for the growth and main-
tenance of the skeleton ; muscular fibre for the
muscles ; from it the various secretions necessary
for healthy existence are separated, and it supplies
carbon to the lungs by which animal heat is kept
up, with fat to be deposited in the tissues as a
store to be drawn upon should necessity compel
it ; it is the true moving power of the animal ma-
chine, and food is its fuel.

Hithei'to we have only spoken of that part of the
food from which flesh is formed, viz., the casein,
albumen, and gluten of the vegetable, "We will
now consider the purposes served by the starch,
gum, and sugar, or the oil or fat, which constitutes
so large a j)ortion of the food of man and animal.
All animals have a temperature far above that of
the surrounding air ; this increased temperature is
called the animal heat, which, in our domestic ani-
mals, averages about 100 degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer, and is maintained the same under
all circumstances, whether we inhabit the frozen
regions of the north, or hve under the burning heat
of a tropical sun.

This heat has its origin in the body, and is
caused by the chemical union or combustion of
the elements of the starch, and other non-nitro-
genous constituents of the food, Avith the oxygen
of the air received into the lungs during inspiration,
and also by a portion which is absorbed tlu-ough
the skin.

The atmospheric air when received into the
lungs consists of 21 parts of oxygen and 79 parts
of nitrogen, with a very small quantity of carbonic
acid gas ; but when expelled from the body, the
nitrogen is found to have undergone but little, if
any, change, while the oxygen has in a measure
disappeared, and has been replaced by a volume of
carbonic acid gas, and a httle watery vapour; this
chemical change being accompanied by the pro-
duction of heat in proportion to the carbon and
hydrogen consumed. The heat thus produced is
caused by precisely the same chemical action as
that which causes the combustion of wood in a,
stove, or the fat of a candle or lamp ; and the pro^

M

166

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ducts are identically the same: the carbon and
hydrogen of the food combine with the oxygen
supphed by the air, and heat is generated in the
body in proportion to the quantity consumed. In
the sto^'e or lamp the same changes occur, the
fuel being composed of the same elements which
enter into the composition of the food ; and the pro-
ducts of the combustion are the same, the combina-
tion being less energetic in the body than in the
stove or the lamp.

In a full-grown man, if we subtract the weight
of the carbon disengaged in the excretions from the
weight of the carbon contained in the food con-
sumed in twenty-four hours, we find the remainder
to amount to about foiu-teen ounces, which is assi-
milated with the components of the body; the
weight of the body, however, does not increase,
fourteen ounces of carbon requiring thirty- seven
ounces of oxygen* for its transformation into car-
bonic acid, which escapes from the lungs and skin.
Thus we clearly understand how the enormous
quantity of oxygen introduced into the body by
respiration, and the carbon of the food consumed,
are removed from the body ; and also how it
is that the food required for maintaining the
animal in its normal state is in exact proportion to
the oxygen absorbed. A horse consumes daily, in
his food, on an average, eighty-nine ounces of
carbon ; and a cow seventy ounces : the former
requires 211| ounces, the latter 186^ ounces, of
oxygen, in order to transforai the consumed carbon
into carbonic acid. But we find, in addition to
the constituents already described, that the vege-
table contains a small quantity of fatty matter, as
well as earthy and sahne ingredients. What pur-
poses are seiTed by these in the animal economy ?
All animals in a state of health have a layer of fat
placed between the skin and muscles, as well as
between the muscles themselves, thus giving round-
ness of fonn to the hmbs, as well as constituting
a bed for the muscles, in which they have great
freedom of motion. Fat is also deposited in the
body of the animal, and more particularly in the
omentum and round the kidneys. In the cami-
vora, or animals which live on flesh, the fat con-
tained in the food is consumed in the lungs, for the
purpose of keeping up animal heat; and for this
reason we seldom find the body of the carnivorous
animal to contain much fat. Darwin, in his
Journal of Researches into the natural history of
the countries Aasited during the voyage of the
Beagle, mentions the fact of the Ganchos, or
simple countrymen in the Pampas, South America,
living for months together on flesh; but he observed

* One ounce of oxygen equals 1416.5 cubic
inches.

they ate large quantities of fat. And Dr. Richard-
son has also remarked of them, " that, when they
have fed for a long time solely on lean animal food,
the desire for fat becomes so insatiable that they
can consume a large quantity of unmixed, and
even oily fat, without nausea." Tliis instinctive
desire for fat, in man and animals hving on flesh,
arises from the imperative demands on the body
for carbon to keep up animal heat, and which is
contained in the fat consumed as food.

In the herbivora animal the case is widely differ-
ent. In it the supply to the lungs is kept up by
the starch, gum, and sugar of the vegetable ; while
the fat contained in the food is in a great measure
laid up as fat in the animal body : hence we find
the bodies of the herbivora so much fatter than
those of the carnivora. But if the supply of the
starch in the food is inadequate to the deinands
for respiration, then the fat is also consumed in the
lungs, as in the carnivorous animal : the gum,
starch, and sugar being readily transformed into
carbonic acid and watery vapour in the animal
system, these are first consmned ; and, should this
supply be inadequate, then the fat ; next the fat of
the animal body ; and lastly, the tissues them-
selves are laid under contribution, the animal be-
coming thin and emaciated, and ultimately dying
from starvation.

The formation of fat in the animal has been of late
a subject of much contro\'ersy between M. Dumas,
the celebrated French chemist, and M. Liebig,
of Germany. The former contends that the vege-
table given as food to the animal contains, ready
formed in its structure, all the fat necessary for
the supply of the animal, and that, like the gluten
for the formation of muscle, the phosphate of Mme
for the bone, and the starch or gum for animal
heat, the fat contained in the vegetable is destined
to supply the fat of the animal body.

Liebig, on the contrary, contends that, if the
animal be supplied with more of the non-nitrogen-
ous constituents of the food (gum, starch, and
sugar), than are necessary to supply the demands
for animal heat, they are converted into fat in the
animal economy. The theory of M. Dumas is at
once simple and beautiful ; and, as regards the
animal in its primitive state, no doubt can exist as
to its correctness. But we must consider the ac-
cumulation of fat in the ox or sheep confined in
our stalls as arising from an abnormal condition of
the body, produced by the circumstances under
which the animal is jjlaced, and as such, in addi-
tion to the fat ready formed in the vegetable, the
animal has the power of secreting an additional
portion of fat from the food consumed. The saline
and earthy matter also contained in the crops have
their uses in the animal body : they supply the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

167

phosphate of Ume for the formation of bones, as
well as the saUne constituents constantly present in
the flesh and blood of animals. How far the ordi-

nary cultivated crops are cajjable of fidfiUing the
purposes required of them will be seen on referring
to the following table :—

AVERAGE COMPOSITION

OF CROPS.

Water.

Woody

Starch,

Gluten,

Fatty

Sahnc

100 parts of—

Fibre.

Gum, or
Sugar.

or
Albumen.

Matter.

Matter.

^\Tieat contain of

16

15

55

10 to 15

2 to 4

2

Barley

15

15

60

12

2-5

2

Oats

16

20
10

50
40

14

28

5-6

2

3*5

Beans

16

3

Peas

13

8
5

50
12

24
2

3
0*3

2-8

Potatoes

75

1

Tiu'nips

85

3

10

1

J

1

Carrots

85

3

10

2

•4

1

Meadow hay

14

30

40

7

2 to 5

5 to 10

Clover hay

14

25

40

9

3

0

Pea straw

12

25

45

12

1-8

5

Oat straw

12

45
50
50
18
. 16

{

35

30
30
45
51

17 \
271

1-3
1-3
1-3

10
10

2
22

'8

•5

•8

2-6

6-6

3-2

36

6

^^^aeat straw

14

5

Barley straw

14

5

Buckwheat

18

2*3

13

2-5

Rice dust >

14

2-2

10

4

Oil-cake

.. 15 to 20

15 to 24

30 to 50

12 to 22

5 to 14

5 to 10

From this table it will be seen that 100 parts of
the diiFerent crops contain very unlike proportions
of dry solid food : thus, in order that the animal
obtain the same equivalent of dry food as 100 lbs.
of hay woidd peld, it must consume upwards of
600 lbs. of Swede turnips or carrots, or 300 lbs. of
potatoes ; but of this dry matter the composition
exerts a very material influence over its value as
food. We have seen that the gluten, albumen, or
casein of the vegetable, is converted into blood
and flesh in the animal ; hence young animals sup-
plied with food containing much of these muscle -
forming principles will grow rapidly, and their
muscular frames wiU be well developed ; but, un-
less liberally supplied with such substances as gum,
starch, and fat, by which animal heat is kept up
and fat formed, the animals will be muscular, but
unfit for the shambles. It is a common practice in
some places for butchers to feed their growing pigs
on the refuse of the slaughter-house, as the blood
and intestines of the slaughtered animals ; and in
France many hundreds of pigs are fed on horse-
flesh ; these pigs grow rapidly, and their muscular
frames are well-developed, but they do not become
fat unless supphed with a liberal portion of non-
nitrogenous food, such as potatoes or meal would
yield.

As it is only from the nitrogenous constituents
that muscle is formed, it has been supposed that
the quantities of these substances contained in any
given article of food would be a fair estimate of its
feeding value; and, under this supposition, M.
Boussingault has constructed some tables of the

proportions of nitrogen contained in different vege-
table substances. The Rev. W. Rham has also
given tables in the Journal of the English Agricul-
tural Society, of the relative value of different
kinds of food as arrived at by practice; but all
such tables must, to a certain extent, be arbitrary,
since the quantity of these substances consumed by
the animal must be influenced by circumstances,
the animal taking active exercise requiring a much
larger quantity to supply the natural waste which
would occur under these circumstances than wotild
be needed by the animal at rest.

We have seen also that the starch, gum, and
sugar of the vegetable supplies the constituents by
which the heat of the animal is maintained; and
as this heat never varies during health, whatever
variation may occur in the temperature of the at-
mosphere or apartment in which they are i)laced, it
follows that the lower the temperature the larger
will be the quantity of carbon consumed in the
animal body; this increased consumption arising
from a larger portion of oxygen being introduced
into the body during cold weather than when the
temperatvire of the air approaches nearer that of
the animal ; hence, animals \vill consume a larger
amount of food during the winter months than in
the summer season, and those exposed to the chil-
ling blasts of winter more than those fed in shel-
tered situations, warmth being equivalent to a
certain quantity of food. With this fact before us,
we cease to be surprised at the enormous quantity
of train-oil and fat consumed by the Greenlander,
while the inhabitants of the tropics exist on fruits

M 2

168

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and light farinaceous diet. In the former, the
surrounding atmosphere is constantly rohbing the
body of its heat ; whilst in the latter, the tempera-
ture of the air approaches so near to that of the
body that a little additional heat is sufficient to
maintain the requisite temperature. Exercise also,
by increasing the number of inspirations, intro-
duces into the body a larger amount of oxygen
than would otherwise be inspired ; and as this
never leaves the body without undergoing a change,
it follows that the greater the number of inspira-
tions taken in a given time, the larger will be the
demand for food to supply the consumption in the
body. Hence we find that an increase of tempe-
rature, Avith diminished exercise, tends to lessen
the quantity of food consumed, and also to increase
the weight of the animal. This fact has been
clearly proved by the experiment of Mr. Childers *
in feeding sheep. In this experiment he selected
from his Hock forty sheep, and divided them into
two lots of twenty in each: one lot was left in the
field, which had a dry and sandy soil; the other lot
was placed in a shed, on a floor made of pine
planks, in order that they might be kept dry, the
floor being swept once a day. The experiment
commenced on the 1st of Januarj', when the
twenty sheep in the field weighed together 184
stones 4 pounds, while the weight of those placed
in the shed was 183 stones 3 pounds ; each lot had
as many turnips as they could eat, which averaged
27 stones per day ; each sheep was also allowed in
addition half-a-pound of linseed cake and half-a-
pint of barley per day with a httle hay, and an
unlimited supply of salt. For the first three weeks
each lot consumed equal portions of food, but in
the fourth week the sheep confined in the shed ate
a less quantity of turnips by three stones per day
than those in the field ; and on the 1st of February
they had gained in weight 21 stones 11 lbs., while
those in the field had only gained 15 stones 14 lbs.
By the ninth week of the experiment the sheep in
the shed had diminished their consumption of tur-
nips two stones more, and also three pounds of
linseed cake per day; and on the 1st of March the
shed-fed sheep had gained 10 stones and 10 lbs.
more in weight, while the sheep in the field had
only gained 8 stones and 8 lbs. ; and at the termi-
nation of the experiment on April the 1st the shed-
fed sheep had gained in the last month 23 stones
and 15 lbs., or on the three months 56 stones
6 lbs., while the sheep in the field had only gained
12 stones and 10 lbs. in the month, or in the three
months 36 stones and 8 lbs., making a difference
in favour of the shed-fed sheep of nearly 20 stones ;
the sheep in the field consuming the same quantity

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,

of food during the \vhole time of the experiment.
In this experiment we have convincing proof that
the quantity of food required by an animal will be
less in proportion to the increase of temperature ;
and that when a hberal diet is allowed, but with-
out shelter, much of the constituents of the food
will be consumed to keep up the heat of the animal,
which would othervvise be stored up in the body
as fat, if no such cause of waste existed : and hence
to the influence of cold is to be attributed the
difficulty of fattening animals in cold weathei', or
in cold unsheltered situations.

I may also here mention some experiments made
by Mr. Morton, at Earl Ducie's farm at Whitfield,
as illustrative of the effects of an increase of tem-
perature and diminished exercise on the feeding of
sheep. In the first experiment five sheep were fed
in the open air, between the 21st of November and
the 1st of December; they consumed 90 lbs. of
food per day, the mean temperature of the atmo-
sphere being 44 ; at the end of this time they
weighed 2 lbs. less than they did on the 21st of
November. In the second experiment five sheep
were placed under a shed, and allowed free motion,
the mean temperature being 49; they consumed
at first 82 lbs. of food per day, then 70 lbs. ; at the
end of the experiment they had gained in weight
23 lbs. In the third experiment, five sheep were
placed in the same shed, but were not allowed to
take exercise : they ate at first 64 lbs. of food a day,
then 58 lbs., and increased in weight 30 lbs.

Darkness, in combination with warmth and rest,
tends mutually to facilitate the fattening process,
by removing those causes of excitement which
might otherwise exist, and which would tend to an
increased consumiJtion of carbon or fat-forming
principle in the lungs. It is well known to the
practical farmer, that restless animals consume a
larger quantity of food, and fatten much slower,
than those of a quiet disposition ; and as it is the
object of the feeder to produce the largest weight
of flesh with the smallest quantity of food, all those
collateral circumstances should be attended to
which facilitate the attainment of the desired object.

Regularity of feeding is another point which
should never be neglected, since the gastric juice
is secreted by the glands of the stomach at the ac-
customed time of feeding, and if there is no food
to act upon, it irritates the coats of the stomach
itself, producing a restlessness and inquietude
which is highly injurious, and tends to check that
steady progress of the animal which it is so desir-
able to maintain. Von Thaer, in his work on agri-
culture, says that, " in fattening, care should be
taken to maintain a uniform, and particularly in win-
ter a somewhat high temperature. Light must be in-
tercepted; for just in proportion as it keeps up th^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

16d

health of cattle, so does darkness accelerate the
attainment of the required degi'ee of fatness. The
repose and contentment — the ha})py freedom from
anxiety, arising from the certainty of receiving
their food in proper time and measure, contributes
so much to the fattening of cattle, that a much
more plentiful supply, given irregularly, cannot make
up for the want of order. The hour for feeding,
and the quantity of food, may be variously regu-
lated, but a system once adopted should be strictly
adhered to."

The saline and earthy matter contained in the
food, is by no means an unimportant ingredient.
The animal requires that the plant should supply
phosphate of lime, for the formation of its bone,
and sahne matter for the blood : and it is a beauti-
ful provision of nature, that plants will not grow in
soils which are devoid of those constituents re-
quired by animals : hence the advantages derived
from the use of such manures as guano or bones,
and the saline manures, or the urine of cattle, in
the growing of our commonly cultivated crops.

The proportions in which these different consti-
tuents of the food are required by the animal,
varies at different periods of its growth, and also
at different stages of its approach to that degree of
fatness which fits it for the shambles.

In the young and growing animal there will be
a larger demand on the food than there woidd be
in after-life. The muscles require to be enlarged
by the addition of more gluten or muscle-forming
principle than would be sufficient to compensate
for the natural waste constantly going on in the
body, and the food must supply an increased quan-
tity of phosphates for the growth of bone ; the
lungs are more active, and the greater number of
inspirations are made in a given time, by which
more carbon is consumed ; hence the necessity of
supplying the gromng animals with a richer and
more nutritious diet than would be required by the
adult, and of feeding at shorter intervals.

The milk of the mother is the food prepared by
nature for the young animal ; and a glance at its
composition will be sufficient to convince us how
admirably it is adapted to fulfil the purposes re-
quired of it in the animal economy : —

COMPOSITION OF MILK.

Butter 27 to 35

Cheef.e (casein) .... 45 to 90

Milk-sugar 37 to 50

Phosphate of hme ... 3 to 10

Salts 7 to 10

Water 831 to 805

The sugar of milk with the butter supplies the ma-
terials which are consumed in the lungs of the
young animal, by which animal heat is kept up.
The casein, or cheesy matter, yields the materials

for the growing muscles, and the gelatine of the
bones ; while the phosphate of hme, dissolved in
the water, supplies the earthy matter for the bones.
The quantity of milk, and the proportions of the
ingredients contained in it, varies with circum-
stances, such as the breed of the cow, the food with
which she is supplied, the time of the calving, the
age, and the state of health. It is also materially
influenced by the temperature of the air ; warmth
producing similar effects on the composition of the
milk as on the fattening of the animal ; the colder
the air the less butter will the animal yield in her
milk. This fact is well known to farmers, the
cause being the larger consumption in the lungs of
the animal to keep up its heat against the cooling
influence of the external air, of those principles in
the food from which the butter is formed. As an
illustration, I may mention an experiment con-
ducted under my own directions. Six cows, dui'ing
the warmest part of the summer of 1844, when in
the field, yielded, on an average, fourteen quarts of
milk each ; as the season advanced, and the
weather became colder, the quantity of milk steadily
diminished, and with it the butter. In the early
part of November, four of the six cows were
placed in a house, the floor of which was boarded
in order to keep them dry. Light was nearly ex-
cluded, and the mean temperature of the house
was kept at abovit fifty-five, the animals having
barely enough room to lie down in their stalls ;
their diet was cut turnips, hay, chaff, and a little
ground lentil mixed with the chaff. For the first
few days the animals were evidently uncomfortable
in their new habitation, and their yield of milk,
diminished. At the expiration of three weeks the
milk had again increased, and the quantity given
was equal to that of the best yield of the summer.
By the middle of December — the cold being then
intense in the open air — the cows gave eighteen
quarts each of rich milk, from which a propor-
tionate quantity of bvitter was made. Animals
when yielding milk require a richer food than when
diy, since it is from the food taken that they are
enabled to secrete their milk ; and if their food
does not contain a sufficiency of the elements re-
quired, the milk is less nutritious, hence the growth
of the young and sucking animal is less i-apid, and
its future health and strength of constitution suffers
by the treatment it receives when young. When
sheep are fed on turnips, and in winter, during the
time they are giving suck, it is a good plan to allow
a portion of oilcake, or linseed, or pea or bean
meal, as part of their daily food ; such addition
greatly improves the secretion of milk, the lambs
grow rapidly and fatten much earlier than when
no such addition is made, and the sheep are found
to be in much better condition in the spring. In

170

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tlie rearing calves, also, it is desirable that they
should have the whole milk, and not be supplied
after the first two or three days with milk which
has been skimmed, as is the custom in some parts
of England. The practice of the late Earl
Spencer in feeding calves was to allow them the
unskimmed milk for the first three months, and
afterwards to give them skimmed milk mixed with
barley or oatmeal 5 this practice was found to
succeed remarkably well ; but I am inchned to be-
lieve that pea or bean meal mixed with linseed
would probably have been better than oat or barley
meal, since the bean and pea contain vegetable
casein, which is identical in composition with the
casein of milk, and forms an admirable substitute
for it ; while the soluble gum and mucilage of the
linseed would be more easily acted on by the sto-
mach of the young animal than the insoluble
starch of the oat or barley.

In fattening calves for veal, attention should be
devoted to the production of fat animals of mode-
rate size, veal of this description being most sought
after by the epicure. The animals should be kept
perfectly quiet, and placed in as warm a situation
as convenient, that there may be as little loss of
the fat-forming principle as possible ; and a gloomy
situation, not amounting to actual darkness, is
found by experience greatly to assist the above
means, by inducing tranquility and a disposition to
sleep. The food should be rich and regularly
supplied, and the strictest attention to cleanliness

should be obser\''ed. Bleeding is occasionally had
recourse to by some feeders, and its effect is to
check the too rapid development of muscle, while
it does not interfere with the regular accumulation
of fat in the body. Animals intended for stock
should 1)e allowed exercise, that their muscular
frames may be well developed ; and their food
should be of a nutritious character, containing
sufficient gluten to supply the full demand of their
growth. They should have sheds to go into at
night and during rain, with a dry bed to lie upon ;
animals so treated will grow rapidly, fatten much
faster when required, and be of a stronger consti-
tution than those fed on course, inferior, and
unwholesome food, which is unfit to supply the
demands of the system, producing an imperfect
development of the animal frame, and not unfre-
quently engendering disease of a troublesome and
often fatal character.

I have now laid before you a sketch of the
theories of our best animal physiologists, and
applied them to the rearing and feeding of cattle ;
had time permitted I would have entered more into
detail. If I have succeeded, by the practical expe-
riments I have deduced, in convincing you of the
coiTectness of these theories, you are in a position
to examine them for yourselves, and to regulate the
management of your live stock as may be best
suited for the purpose they are intended to sen^e.

Mr. Gyde concluded his lecture amidst loud and
general cheering.

A VISIT TO THE FARMS OF THE REV. A. HUXTABLE,

AT SUTTON WALDRON.

Public attention having been much excited dur-
ing the last few months by the frequent mention at
agricvdtural dinners of the name of the Rev. A.
Huxtable, and the advice to visit his farms at Sut-
ton having been again and again reiterated by gen-
tlemen who had seen them, we considered that a
familiar description of those farm, together with an
account of the new modes and systems adopted by
Mr. Huxtable, would be very acceptable to our
readers, and accordingly the rev. gentleman having
given a very kind and ready invitation, in reply to
an intimation of our wishes, we proceeded on the
5th instant to fulfil the visit of which we now pro-
ceed to give an account.

The rev. gentleman occupies two farms — the
Hill Farm and the Vale Farm ; the former being
upon chalk, the latter on clay, and lying at a dis-
tance of tlwee miles froin each other. The Hill
Farm, of 135 acres, was taken about two years

since, when to the larger portion (about sixty acres
being fair average down land) might well be applied
the forcible language of the Hon. and Rev. S. G.
Osborne — "Tlie rabbits had the fee simple, and
with all their subsoihng and tojj dressing could
J not make it productive." In fact, it was then a
portion of the most barren land in Cranbome
, Chase. It principally consisted of down of the
poorest character, encumbered with stunted cop-
pice wood, furze, and brambles, a portion of which
is still left as a sample ; and, in addition, was situ-
i ated on such steep acclivities that it appeared well
j worth the whole price of the crops that could be
j grown there to plant and gather them. Certainly,
(if anything can heighten the pleasing reflections
with which Mr. Huxtable must regard the results
of his labours, it is the sight of the land which he
i has cultivated, but which in the onset would have
I frightened many less enterprizing farmers than

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

171

himself. The soil was so scanty that here and
there the siihstratum of chalk peeped through the
greensward hke the limbs of a beggar through his
ragged garments, and where there ] was soil it was
not more than •2'- inches thick. Mr. Huxtable's
first step was to grub up the roots and burn the
surface, and then sow the coppice land half with
peas and half with rape. The peas were carted
away, and the rape fed off by sheep ; but it is
rather remarkable, that by the application of aljout
two hundred weight of guano to the land on which
jieas had been grown, it was rendered more pro-
ductive for M'heat than the land fed off by the
sheep — a fact which may surprise those of our
readers who pin their faith to the virtues of fold
mp.niire. The land was then set to wheat, and
produced a fair average ; of the remainder about
fifty acres were sown to Swedes.

On part of this farm are five acres of extremely
barren land, called by Mr. Huxtable " his experi-
mental hiU." On this land were grown the swede
turnips of which an account was given at the Stur-
minster and Blandford dinner. We walked over
it, and were as much surprised at the enormous
dimensioiis of the turnips as at the stony, barren-
looking soil on which they grew. From this land
21 tons of Swedes per acre have been obtained,
and in proof of Mr. Huxtable's assertion that he
could grow a crop in a hole cut in a table, we may
mention that we saw some of his finest turnips
growing in a hedge furrow, from whence the httle
quantity of soil originally found had been thro^vn
to form a bank. Thus on flints and chalk (for
those were all that could be obserA'ed) were grown
a sample of turnips that might challenge the pro-
duce of the richest lands in the county. These
turnips are the staple food used for the stock on
the farm, and which, as they are treated in a some-
what different manner than usual, deserve a special
notice.

The sheep and oxen are fattened in sheds thickly
thatched, the wind-ward side being stopped up
vnth turf and the other penned with hurdles,
through which sufficient air penetrates. The sheep
sheds are very simi)le erections, put together by
the labourers on the farm. The following descrip-
tion of them was given by the rev. gentleman him-
self, in a letter to J. W. Childers, Esq., M.P., con-
tained in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society, vol. vi , part 1 : —

"A couple of fir poles, 12 feet long, are nailed
together at the top ; their extremities, at a distance
of 15 feet, are driven into the ground; another
couple, 10 feet distant, are united with this, and
held firm by a ridge-pole nailed into and lying
between the tops of the fir poles, Side pieces are

nailed parallel to the ridge-pole, and small hazel-
wood is interlaced, so as to support the thatch,
which alal)ourer ties on with tar-twine. The thatch
in front and behind reaches to about 3 feet from
the ground ; behind, a bank of turf is raised to
meet the thatch ; the front is guarded by a hurdle,
moveable at pleasure, to allow the sheep to go into
the court, which is of the same size as the shed. It
is important that both ends of the shed shoiild be
protected with ba\ans only, which wU secure a free
ventilation, yet keep out rain. My sheds, about
50 feet long (not charging the straw), cost about
41s. each. These sheds are covered with 1-inch
boards, separated (each strip from the other) by
f inch intervals. The cost of the timber and mode
of preparing the floor were as follows : — White
pine timber was used for its cheapness, being
Is. 3d. the cube foot, which would therefore give
eleven 1-inch boards. On account of the particular
wdth of the logs which I bought, the board was
sawn into pieces 7 inches broad and 1 inch thick.
These, for economy, are hand-sawn into three
parts, and are nailed upon joists at a distance of
f inch. By this plan nearly one-third of timber is
saved ; so that each sheep, requiring 9 feet of space,
hes actually on 6 feet of 1-inch board. The cost of
timber for joists, nails, and carpenters' work, raises
the total expense of placing the sheep on boards to
Is. 4d. per head."

We may remark that these sheds have since been
considerably improved by the addition of a gang-
way in the middle, along which a man passes to
feed the sheep without (as before) being obliged to
get into their pens and disturb them.

The animals stand entirely on rafters placed
about an inch apart, and thus allowing an aperture
through which the dung and urine pass. Under
these rafters is a small pit containing saw-dust or
burnt earth, burnt clay, ashes, or any other porous
material which absorbs the salts of the manure.
These pits are calculated to hold as much manure
as will accumulate in three months — the time given
for fattening — when the sheeji are sold oft' and the
pits emptied.

The beasts stand only partly on these rafters,
their fore feet resting upon sand or sawdust (in the
absence of sawdust Mr. Huxtable recommends
chopped straw). As these animals are, unhke the
sheep, fastened to their mangers, it is not necessary
that their floors should he entirely of wood. The
sheep are kept in pens, and in one shed, 70 feet
long and 15 wide; we noticed six score, all looking
fat, healthy, and remarkably clean. The superiority
of this plan of keeping stock consists, first, in the
cleanUness of the animal ; and, secondly, in the
preservation of the manure mthout the slightest

17-2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

waste of any of those essentials, whether soUd or
liquid, which escape in the usual method of fatten-
ing stock.

The manure, after removal, is taken to caves
scooped out of the chalk, being about 50 feet
long, 9 wide, and 9 deep, and thatched over ; here
it is mixed with dry clay or ashes, and left until re-
quired to drill with green crops, or to sow broad-
cast with corn.

The various liquid matters that accumulate on a
farm (excepting those that have been already men-
tioned) are conveyed to a large tank under ground,
from whence they are pumped up when required.

Our readers may recollect a reference made at
Sturminster to the vahie of dead horses, reduced
with sulphuric acid as manure, ^^'e were not for-
tunate enough to visit the farms at a time when this
process was going on, but we witnessed something
that will astonish the incredulous still more, viz.,
the dissolving of ruts for the same purpose. All
the vermin caught on the farm are thrown into sul-
phuric acid, by which they are soon converted into
a manure as valuable as bone dust. Thus, on an
improved system of farming, the very pests and
scourges of the farmer may be converted to his ad-
vantage.

The principal food of the beasts, as we have
mentioned, is sliced Swedes ; but bruised hnseed
steeped for twenty-four hours in cold water, then
boiled and poured over chopped straw, with Ijarley
or pea meal, is daily given to them.

The mows and ricks in the yard are raised above
the ground by brick pillars, and the earth being
dug out between, space is thus afforded for wag-
gons, carts, dry manure, &c. Under one of these
mows, of not unusual dimensions, we saw two wag-
gons and a cart, and under another a large quan-
tity of ashes. Besides economising the ground of
a homestead by this contrivance, the cost of a wag-
gon-house is altogether avoided, whilst the contents
of the rick are preserved from the ravages of
vermin.

The barn-doors, instead of turning upon hinges,
are drawn back upon iron slides, by which arrange-
ment the effect of the wind (which is here some-
times very high) is greatly checked.

The Vale Farm, of 95 acres, of which four acres
are coppice, was a poor dairy farm when taken by
Mr, Huxtable. Here are a number of cattle sheds,
similar to those at the Hill Farm, and several pig
houses, wherein these animals run about on saw-
dust, which plan renders the contrivances in the
sheep and beast floors unnecessary. There is also,
as at the other farm, a steaming apparatus, having
attached two coppers, into each of which are fitted
another copper. The steam is circulated round the

inner copper, raising the watei' in it to a boiling
heat ; and, by a simple contrivance, the steam can
be immediately drawn off from one to the other of
these coppers ; so that as soon as linseed has been
boiled in one, the steaming of potatoes, or any
other article, can be immediately commenced in the
other. In these utensils linseed, potatoes, and
chopped Swedes are prepared.

In 1844 Mr. Huxtable detailed at Sturminster
the results of experiments in pickhng carrots and
mangold wurzel. The carrot-top experiment has
answered perfectly, Init subsequent trials have
proved the failure of the mangold ^vurzel, Mr.
H.'s opinion is, that in air and water tight-caves
the system would answer perfectly; but he con-
siders that the most economical use of these tops
is their consumption whilst green by milch cows
and breeding ewes, to both of Avhich the large
quantity of phosphates the tops contain is eminently
serviceable.

By the horse power which drives the thrash ing-
machine, a band attached to a drum cyhnder is set
in motion, and by this no less than three other
machines are worked, viz., a chaff-cutter, a bean-
crusher, and a linseed-crusher (on Earl Ducie's
principle). These drop their produce through
pockets into proper receptacles in the floor below.

This farm, when taken by Mr. Huxtable was,
with the exception of 10 arable acres and a 5 acre
coppice, wholly pasture — undrained — and let at
only 80/. per year. It has been thoi'oughly drained
by tile drains put in three feet deep, and placed a
perch and a half apart down the furrows, on Mr.
Smith's, of Deanston, plan. By the aid of this
and the home-manufactured manures, an average
crop of Swedes has been grown, even after two
crops of clover had been fed off the same year.

The present stock maintained on the 230 acres
of land consist of 31 fatting beasts, 400 fatting
sheep, 240 breeding ewes, and 50 pigs. These are
the numbers of stock at present kept on the farms,
but Mr. H. calcvilates that the supply of roots now
existing would carry nearly double the quantity
which are to be provided as soon as the necessary
buildings are completed. As a proof that their
novel mode of feeding do not deteriorate their
quality, it may be mentioned that a pen of ten
wethers purchased at Wilton fair at 36s. a head,
and kept in sheds for eleven weeks, were sold to
the butcher on the day of our visit at 56s.

It would be an act of ingratitude to omit to ac-
knowledge the kind and hospitable reception we
received — the perfect openness with which every-
thing was shown, and the readiness and courtesy
with which the required information was given. —
Sherborne Journal.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

173

NORTON FARMERS' CLUB.

On Monday evening, the Norton Farmers' Club
held their annual meeting at the Bagshawe Arms.
Omng to the regretted absence, from indisposition,
ofW. J. Bagshawe, Esq., the President of the club,
Mr. James Jenkin jiresided on this occasion. After
an examination of the yearly accounts, which showed
that the affairs of the cIuIj were in a flourishing
state, Mr. Richard Booker, jun., was called upon to
read his ])romised paper on "Tenant right and
security of tenure."

Mr. Booker commenced by recapitulating the
substance of his former remarks, which we noticed
at the time in the " Independent," and requested
the secretary to read extracts from the speech of
Mr. Shaw, of the Strand, London, treating on the
subject, as reported in the "Farmer's Magazine"
for January ; but, owing to the great pressure of
matter, we have only room for the following : —

" The question of ' tenant right' divides itself
into two heads. First, ' as regards outlay in the
improvement of the soil, whether permanent or
otherwise ;' and secondly, ' as regards outlay in the
improvement of buildings.' The first of these
heads, ' improvement of the soil,' may be again sub-
divided into two parts. First, permanent improve-
ments, or such as will endure through a long pe-
riod ; as enclosing and breaking up waste land,
uprooting trees and hedge-rows, and levelling banks
when the enclosures are small, draining, making
roads, &c. Secondly, improvement of the soil by
extra tilling, subsoiUng, and the application of an
additional quantity of manure. Now, as regards
the first class of improvements, it is manifest that a
considerable period of time is requisite to enable the
tenant to recover back so large an outlay. I am
anxious to establish the right of the tenant to com-
pensation under any tenure, the duration of which
has not been originally agreed upon, and hence
any reference to leases will only be made for the
purpose of exemplifying the subject. A lease for
this purpose may be considered as a mode of pay-
ment by the landlord to the tenant for improve-
ments, by securing to him the enjoyment of his
outlay during a sufficient period to enable him to
reimburse himself. L^pon some estates, the best
and most equitably regulated (as, for instance,
those of the Earl of Yarborough, in Lincolnshire),
no leases are granted, but agreement is entered
into between the landlord and the tenant, whereby,
in the e^'ent of an iim\illing remo^'al of the tenant,
compensation for permanent improvement la made.

But to carry out my views to the full extent, the
tenant should obtain compensation for actual im-
l)rovements, under whatever circumstances he
might quit his occupation. Leases and agreements,
such as I have just alluded to, cannot be otherwise
regarded than as affirming the principle of ' tenant
right;' for if it be just that the tenant should have
time to reiml)urse his outlay, he has an equal claim
in the event of his being deprived of his occu])ancy
by unforseen circumstances, and which of course is
more liable to occur where he has no fixed tenure.
The landlord, who should expect the manufacturer
or the commercial man to make an outlay in the
permanent improvement of his premises, without
such an agreement as would secure him compensa-
tion, should he be ousted before he was enabled to
obtain a return, would be regarded as little less
than a madman. The practice of other classes,
therefore, warrants the compensation contended
for. In respect to compensation for this class of
improvements, a considerable advance has been
made ; and there can be no doubt but that, as the
owner of the soil shall become better advised of the
advantages to himself from adopting such a sys-
tem, the progress wiU be more rapid. As regards
the second part of this head, namely, improvement
of the soil by extraordinary cultivation and the ap-
phcationof extra manure, it is but common justice and
common honesty that the tenant who expends his ca-
pital should either have the opportunity of reaping
the advantage, by taking a sufficient number of
crops, or receive compensation for that which he
leaves in the soil for the benefit of the landlord. I
say for the benefit of the landlord — because, if the
farm falls into his hands, it will let for more money.
In taking this view, I do not seek to obtain any pe-
culiar advantage for the tenant, but merely to ob-
tain for him a return for skill and capital invested,
and for which, I think, it will not l)e denied he has
a just claim. As regards the second head— the im-
provement of buildings — the propriety of making
compensation for this species of outlay by the
tenant cannot be doubted. Upon the suitableness
and convenience of farm buildings, in a very con-
siderable degree, depends the advantage of the
tenant from his occupation ; and yet in what a la-
mentably deficient state, both as regards stmcture
and extent, will most farmsteads be found ! A
dogged adherence to old maxims of law, in every
point having regard to the management of their es-
tates, whether in reference to the rules of cultiva-

174

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion, or the economy of the buildings, has espe-
cially signalised the lords of the soil. Privileges
have been conceded to occupiers engaged in trade,
by vi^hich they are permitted to remove buildings
erected for the express purposes of trade, whilst
the landlords, themselves the legislators, have not
sought a similar privilege for their tenantry ; nay,
with more of law than justice, have frequently in-
sisted upon buildings erected at the cost of the
tenant being left for their use and benefit, without
the shghtest compensation. Surely in farming, as
in trade, if the tenant chooses to incur the exjiense
of erecting buildings for his own accommodation,
when the landlord is unwilling to lay out his money,
he should at least be permitted to remove such
buildings on his quitting the farm. As regards
compulsory compensation for buildings erected by
the tenant, I am aware that considerable difficulty
must occur, inasmuch as without a perfect under-
standing between landlord and tenant, the landlord
might be involved in heavy, inconvenient, and not
unfrequently unnecessary expense; this remaifc
however, would not apply if the power of remova^
were granted to the tenant. It wiU be readily ad
mitted that but a small proportion of the land of
this kingdom is let under lease, or under agreement,
giving compensation to the tenant in the event of
unexpected removal. Now, I am wiUing to give
credit, to the fullest extent, to those noblemen and
gentlemen, owners of estates, who, not giving any
fixed tenure to their tenants, may be implicitly re-
lied upon as never turning out or taking undue ad-
vantage of a weU conducted tenant ; but then it
must be borne in mind, that honour, any more
than talent, is not hereditary, and hence the estate
of the most noble-minded, honourable landlord
may be destined to undergo great changes when
least expected. I do not believe that, including
leases and agreements giving compensation, one-
third of the tenantry enjoy this protection in the
investment of their capital. What man of common
prudence will, in such a state of things, embark his
capital in the improvement of the soil ? On the
other hand, how liberally and how spiritedly would
extra cultivation be carried on, and extra manure
apphed, if the tenant felt safe in obtaining compen-
sation provided he were suddenly and unexpectedly
deprived of his farm ! If the position of the land-
lord be referred to, it will be found that he wiU be
no less benefited by the establishment of a ' tenant-
right.' The confidence inspired in the tenant, from
the knowledge that his capital is safe, will stimulate
him to improve the soil, and of this improvement
the landlord must sooner or later obtain a propor-
tionate part. As the old system of farming is pass-
ing away, so must old customs, antiquated modes
of tenure, and ' clogging' covenants, ' High,' or

what may be termed a more * artificial' mode of
farming, must be pursued by the tenantry, and the
landlords must keep pace with the tenants. They^
ought, indeed, to take the lead, and I am convinced
that they could not do so more beneficially to their
own interest, than by establishing a ' tenant-right.'
The cultivation of the soil cannot henceforth be
carried on to advantage without ample capital ;
tenants with ample capital are becoming too much
men of business to invest their capital unless they
see it secured. Landlords will find it to their ad-
vantage to have tenants possessing capital; and
hence I doubt not the time is at hand when a know-
ledge of their own interest \vill induce them to con-
cede the establishment of what I contend for, a
' tenant-right.' "

Mr. Booker said, he could not urge any thing-
more applicable to the question, and in support of
his opinion, than the foregoing; and he should
conclude by proposing the following resolution,
viz. : — " That it is the opinion of the Norton Far-
mers' Club, that the views on the important ques-
tion of ' tenant right,' so ably discussed by the dis-
tinguished friends of agriculture in London, on the
10th Dec, are worthy of the best attention of their
body, and the united support of the agriculturists in
the United Kingdom."

Mr. John Hewitt, of Bradway, seconded the
resolution. After pointing out the inadequate pro-
tection of the capital invested by tenant farmers, and
the unremunerating profits derived therefrom, Mr.
Hewitt proceeded to say that it would be no easy
task to find a trade or profession among the whole
range of manufactures or commerce, that suffered
so extensively as farming. If a commercial man
sees an opportunity of extending his business, his
landlord assists him in carrying out his plans, know-
ing full well that it is his interest to enable his te-
nant to carry out his views, either by effecting the
improvements himself, or advancing capital at a fair
rate of interest, and guaranteeing a securityof tenure.
With the tenant farmer the case is very different,
landlords generally being very backward in making
improvements. He adinitted that there were some
noble exceptions ; but generally speaking, landlords
are far from being liberal in these things. It is often
said, if the landlord is unwilling to exjiend his cap-
ital in making improvements for his tenants, the
latter may make them himself, which he is frequently
urged by his landlord to do. WTien the tenant
complains of bad times, the low price his
produce brings in the market, and the conse-
quent difficulty he finds in meeting his payments,
"Oh," says the landlord "you are negligent; you
must bestir yourself, be up and doing, and move
with the times, and make two l)lades of grass grow
where only one grows now." This is all very fine,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

176

and would be all very well, if the tenant were pro-
tected for his outlay. But who, I will ask, would
risk his capital in the dark, as he certainly must do
under the present system ot yearly tenure ? Some
tenants, I admit, have done so with success, but
numbers have been ruined by it. Suppose, for in-
stance, a tenant with adequate capital at his com-
mand, takes to a farm much out of condition, and
ha\dng confidencein the landlord, enters as a tenant
at will. He sets about draining, subsoihng,
straightening old fences, breaking up old pastures
which grow nothing but rushes, brambles, and any-
thing but what they ought to do, and in a few years
makes the land grow twice the produce it was grow-
ing when he took to it. Just at the very time when
he is beginning to reap some benefit from his im-
provements, his landlord dies, or the farm is sold.
The new landlord or his agent probably values the
land at what it is now worth — not what it was — con-
sequently the tenant, who had. perhaps expended
all his capital in making the farm productive, must
either quit, or pay for his own improvements. He
(Mr. Hewitt) asserted that this was no overstrained
case. Tliere had been numbers of such instances,
and he would refer to two among the number which
had come under his own observation. Both the
farms, he beUeved, are now held by members of this
club. One was taken to a fewyears since by a gen-
tlemen of capital ; a large portion of the land was in
a very inferior state of cultivation. He began by
draining, hming,' fixing manure tanks, and apj^lying
large quantities of fam-yard and artificial manures ;
and what is the result ? Why, just before last har-
vest, he (Mr. Hewitt) chanced to go over part of this
farm, which, when the present occupier entered to
it, scarcely grew produce enough to pay rates and
taxes, but he then saw as fine crops of grass and
corn growing as he could msh to see. And now
that the farm is beginning to repay the tenant for
his outlay of capital and industry, the property has
changed hands, and the rent has been considerably
advanced {hear, hear). The consequence is, that
the tenantwill not consent to hold under sucha land-
lord, and he is about to quit. Being under a better
" custom," than most of the farms in the neighbour-
hood are held, the tenant will receive some sort of
valuation; but his sacrifice of capital mil undoubt-
edly be large. Had he unfortvmately held under
the prevailing "custom," he wovild not have received
a single shilling for tillages and many other valuable
improvements. The other farm he had referred to
was at some distance from there. When the present
tenant took to it, the land was in a cold, wet, and
uncultivated state, and grew a very inferior herbage
and he entered to it at its then value. The farm
has subsequently been thoroughly drained and ma-
nured, and brought into a fair state of cultivation.

No sooner, however, had this been done, than the
landlord sent a valuer over it, who doomed the tenant
to pay ten shillings an acre more rent (shame). The
tenant having no other alternative but to quit or pay
is still occupying the farm, and paying ten shillings
extra per acre for his own improvements. Now,
(said Mr. Hewitt) if this be right, he could not well
conceive what is wrong ; and yet it is according to
law. To him (Mr. Hewitt) it was a matter of as-
tonishment that tenant farmers should have so long
and patiently submitted to such a state of things
{hear, hear). He felt confident no other class of per-
sons would have done so. Had the commercial in-
terest been no better protected, the tables of both
Houses of the Legislature would have been covered
with petitions praying for a redress of grievances.
It was his belief that if Parliament can be prevailed
on to enact a law by which the tenant farmer will be
enabled to recover for all acknowledged and perma-
nent improvements, good farming willbecome gene-
ral, and improvements carried out on an extensive
scale. And if ever there was a time v/hen the British
farmer might with propriety go to Parliament and ask
for such a law, it was now, since it was quite evident
from what they had recently seen, that the farmer
will ere long have to compete with foreigners, whose
rates and taxes, to say nothing of rents, are not one
third of his. The only advantage the British will
have over the American farmer, and others in the
north of Europe, will be in the cost of conveying
produce to market; and the cost of transit is no small
item in the expenses incurred in some parts of Eng-
land. Suchalawashe hadspoken of would be benefi-
cial to all classes. It woidd first benefit the labourer,
in finding him more employment, and consequently
better wages. It would next benefit the tenant, in
yielding a double amount of produce, owing to im-
provements ; and it would benefit the landlord, too,
because it would improve the value of his property.
And lastly, it would benefit the community at large,
because the more the land produces, the better would
the markets be supplied, at a more reasonable rate.
He (Mr. Hewitt) was sanguine enough to beheve,
that if the system he and Mr. Booker advocated had
been in existence ten years since, the population of
this country would not at that time have been de-
pendant on foreigners, for a supply of the first ne-
cessary of life, for it is asserted by many who are
well acquainted Math the subject, that the land now
in cultivation in the United Kingdom (to say nothing
of that which might be brought into cultivation), is
capable of sustaining a population much larger than
the present, without any foreign aid, if the land were
properly cultivated. There is plenty of capital and
skill in the country, and a wilhngness to invest and
employ it, if the enterprising tenant is guaranteed
a security of tenant right {hear, hear). Let this be

176

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

done, and we shall soon see capital and skill employed
in making improvements in the soil, and the market
largely and better supplied with English produce.
Recompence for improvements would, Mr. Hewitt
thought, supersede the necessity of leases, since there
were more objections to the latter than the former.
He was glad the subject had been taken up in so
sjiinted a manner by the Farmers' Club, in London,
and he trusted the excellent sentiments of Mr. Shaw
and others would be responded to by the Norton and
other farmers' clubs throughout the countrj'^, for
the farmers may rest assured that nothing will tend
so much to consummate the rightful claim they
ha^'e in view, as perseverance and unity of purpose.
Mr. Hewitt concluded by seconding the resolution,
amid manifestations of approval by the members
present.

Mr, Jenkins (Chairman), Mr. Green, and others,
heartily concurred in what they had heard, and
the resolution was put to the vote, and carried ima-
nimously. The Secretary was also requested to for-
ward a copy of the resolution to the Farmers' Club
in London.

This being the time for the election of officers,
Mr. Rogers, was re-elected secretary, and Mr. Booker
librarian and treasurer, for the ensuing year. The
remainder of the evening was occupied with matters
of general interest to farmers ; and among other
things, it was stated that the failure in the potato
crop in this neighbourhood was reckoned at from

one-third to one-half. Mr. Nelson, veterinary sur-
geon, related two moi'e facts wliich ought to operate ^
as a further caution against individuals throwing M
or leaving dangerous articles in the way of cattle.
In one instance where he had been called in, he found
a valuable beast labouring under an affection of the
heart, and the cause and remedy being obviously
beyond veterinary skill, he ordered the beast to be
slaughtered, when a large crooked needle was dis-
covered in the pericardium of the heart. Six quarts
of fluid were also found in the vacuum or bladder
adjoining, whereas a table-spoonful was the usual
quantity found in a healthy beast. The presence of
the fluid was attributed to the injury caused by the
needle. On enquiry, it was learnt that the cow-house
adjoined a needle manufactory, and that a number
of waste needles having been carelessly thrown into
the yard where the cows were kept, it was reason-
ably conjectured that the needle had been licked up
with turnips or some other food of the animal. The
death of the other cow was caused by a similar ar-
ticle being found in its heart, supposed to have ori-
ginated in a similar manner to the above.

The next meeting of the club was annoimced to
take place on the 9th February, when Mr. Nelson
will read a paper on " Broken Wind in Horses." j
It is understood, that at the meeting following a '
paper will be given on "Turnip So^ving." — Sheffield
Independent.

NEWCASTLE FARMERS' CLUB.

On Saturday last, a public meeting was held in
the Lecture Room of the Literary and Philosophi-
cal Society of this town, for the purpose of forming
a Farmers' Club, the object of which is to gain and
diffuse information on the subject of agriculture,
G. H. Ramsaj', Esq., of Derwent Haugh, in the
chair.

The Chairman, in opening the business of the
meeting, observed, that they were met for the
purpose of laying the foundation stone of the New-
castle-on-Tyne Farmers' Club. The advertisement
caUing the meeting they had all no doubt read ; and
it needed little argument to prove the importance
of such a society as the one now proposed to be
formed. The gentlemen who had originated this
society had considered, that by bringing the farmers
together and associating them with men of business
in this town, they would do a service to the cause
of agriculture in the north of England. The dis-
trict surrounding Newcastle contained many intel-
ligent agriculturists and gentlemen connected with

agriculture, and interchanging their ideas in the
discussion of various subjects, they would be
enabled to elucidate every subject connected with
agriculture. No doubt the interest of the landlord
was concerned in the improvement of agriculture,
and the interest of the farmer was vitally so.
Farmers in the north beheved they had made rapid
progress in agriculture. He was, however, well
convinced that a great deal had yet to be done in
this neighbourhood, and in the kingdom generally.
There were now in tliis country upwards of seven
hundred associations of one description and another,
many of them farmers' clubs. A club was now
held in London, and he saw nothing to prevent
a large party being gathered in the town of New-
castle. They had a ready market in this town for
their produce. That produce was all swallowed up
in the town ; the farmers had nothing to export ;
indeed Newcastle was an importing town. He was
not against this ; because he knew there were some
other parts of the country which required outlets

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

177

for their produce. This showed that the farmers
in the neighbourhood had great inducements to in-
crease the amount of their produce, for they had
the ready means of disposing of it. He hoped the
rules which the committee had to lay before the
meeting would meet with their approval. With
respect to the rule which referred to the establish-
ment of a librar)^ for the use of farmers, he would
remark that at first this library would be a small
one ; but as the members of the society increased
in number he hoped the number of books would
increase also. It was quite clear that the know-
ledge to be derived from books ought not to be
neglected by the farmer ; for agriculture had de-
rived the most important service from the applica-
tion of art and science by men of talent who had
published the results of their experiments. The
quantity of land under cultivation in this country
was perhaps more than most people were aware of
— it was no less than fifty millions of acres. AVhen
they considered the immense capital employed in
carrying on the cultivation of this immense tract of
country ; and the immense number of persons em-
ployed in that cultivation, they could scarcely for one
moment hesitate in carrying out the design of this so-
ciety to assist them in their own local district {ap-
plause). The rules provided that a discussion should
take place at their monthly meetings ; he hoped that
at these discussions a great deal of knowledge would
be brought before the public, and that this society,
would become popular. They were joined by many
gentlemen of influence in the neighbourhood. The
subscription was a small one, and it was made so
in order that the door of knowledge might be
opened to every poor farmer in the neighbourhood ;
and he had no doubt they would all be quite hearty
in the cause (cheers). He now begged the secre-
tary to read the rules which had been dra\vn up by
the committee.

Mr. Glover, the secretary, then read the rules
of the proposed club, the substance of which was
that a meeting of the members be held on the first
Saturday in each month for receiving papers and
discussing agricultural subjects ; that a library be
formed consisting of works on botany, geology, and
chemistry ; that a museum be opened for the exhi-
bition of improved specimens of grain, agricultu-
ral implements, &c. ; that the society consist of
ordinary members subscribing 10s. 6d. annually, a
president, four vice-presidents, a secretary who
shall act as treasurer, and a committee of twelve
members.

After some discussion the rules were adopted.

The Secretary then stated that he had applied

for the use of a vacant room in the Literary and

Philosophical Society's buildings, and he expected

to obtain on^ on reasonable terms. He also stated

that he h ad received letters from parties ofi'cring to
send specimens of grain and plants : a letter from
Mr. Shaw editor of the Mark Lane Express,
promising the club a copy of the Translation of
Von Thaer's Work on Agriculture; and letters
from the editor of the AyricuUural Gazette and
the Gardener's Chronicle, promising assistance.

Sir M. AV. Ridley moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. Shaw, and the editor of the Agricultural
Gazette, which was carried unanimously.

The following officers were then ajipointed, viz :
President, Sir M. W. Ridley, Bart.; Vice-Presi-
dents, Wm. Ord, Esq., M.P., Savile H. Ogle, Esq.,
M.P., G. H. Ramsay, Esq., and Wm. Anderson,
Esq.; Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. Wm. Glover;
Committee, Mr. Nicholas Burnett, Mr. George
Bates, Mr. Wm. R. Swhn, Mr. John Robson, Mr.
John Redhead, Mr. Wm. Sheraton, Mr. John
Milburn, Mr. Wm. Stephenson, Mr. Wm. Nixon,
ISIr. John Brown, Mr. James Colbeck, and Mr.
Ralph Atkinson.

Sir M. W. Ridley expressed his approbation of
the club now formed, and of his intention to give a
frequent attendance to its meetings.

Thanks were then voted to the chairman, and the
meeting broke up.

TITHE COMMUTATION.

Sir, — As your clerical as well as agricultural readers
may feel anxious to know the result of the averages for
the seven years to Christmas last, which have been pub-
Ushed in the London Gazette of this evening, viz. : —
s. d.

Wheat 7 4 per imperial bushel.

Barley 4 1^ „

Oats 2 9 „

I beg to state that each 100/. of rent-charge will, for the
year 1846, amount to 102/. 17s. 8|d., or about one per
cent, less than last year.

The following statement from my annual tithe com-
mutation tables will show the averages from year to year
since the passing of the Tithe Commutation Act : —

AVERAGE PRICES FOR SEVEN YEARS.

Wheat, 1 Barley, Oa's, Value of Tithe
per imp. per imp. per imp. Kent C'liarge
1 bushel, bushel, bushel. of 100/.

To Chrislmas, 1835

— 1836

— 1837

— \%m

— IS(39

— 184()

— 1841

— 18«2

— 1848

— 1844

— 1845

s. d.

7 H

6 8i

g C|

s. <\.
3 11 J
3 Ui
3 Hi
3 9?

3 n\

4 1

s. d.
2 9
2 9

£

100
98
97
95
98
102
105
103
104
103
102

s. d.

0 0

13 ga

7 11

7 9

15 9.i

12 5|

8 n

12 ^
3 5}
17 llj
17 84

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Charles M. Willich.
25, Sufoli'Sireet, Pall Mall, Jan. 2,

178

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS.

" Sir, — During the last twelve months I have been
examining the heat of the earth a few inches below the
surface, for the purpose of ascertaining how far cultiva-
tion influences its temperature. Whilst carrying on my
experiments, certain results have arisen, which I think
may be in some degree interesting to my brother agri-
culturists. My first trial gave the following results : —

"Nov. 14, 1844. — Weather cloudy; wind w.s.w. ;
time of day, from twelve to one o'clock.

Thermometer in the air, shaded 52 deg. Fahr.

Thermometer four inches deep in stale

ploughed land 48^ ,,

Thermometer four inches deep in land

ploughed the day before, and had rain

all night 49 , ,

Thermometer four inches deep in fresh

ploughed and harrowed land 49 ,,

" From these facts it appears that cultivation caused
the temperature to rise half a degree. Of the many
subsequent observations I have made, I found the re-
sults the same, but only to the extent of one degree and
a half.

" I consider it useless to trouble you with the dry de-
tail of my several experiments ; I shall therefore proceed
to say that the very great benefit which arises from cul-
tivation is to be looked for elsewhere. Indeed, I be-
lieve it is now generally admitted that the mechanical
process of moving the earth, or its cultivation, occasions
the exposure to the sun and winds of the particles com-
posing the soil, and thus acts most favourably towards
the disengaging of all stale air, stale moisture, and stale
gases contained within the same, and no longer conge-
nial for the purposes of vegetation ; also, it destroys the
old water-ways, through which a large portion of every
shower of rain escapes when land has been left long un-
moved.

" This is the first advantage arising from cultivation.
The next is, by the great exposure of the particles com-
posing the soil to the sun and winds, fresh air, fresh
moisture, and fresh gases are thus enabled to enter into
mechanical and chemical union with the soil, to be a
ready store of healthy nourishment for the support of
the ensuing crops. In a few words, cultivation pre-
pares the soil for receiving and digesting food necessary
for the support of plants, as exercise prepares the sto-
mach of animals for receiving and digesting food neces-
sary for the support of the body ; wanting only, in both
cases, a sufiiciency of heat and moisture for perfecting
the respective secretions.

" I have before shown you that cultivation raises the
temperature of the soil. I will presently prove the tem-
perature is also raised by a shower of rain.

"On June 3, 1845.— Weather fine; wind south;
time, from two to half-past two :—

Thermometer in the sod was 72 deg. F.

Thermometer 10 in. deep in a few
weeks' stale ploughed fallow, which had
much rain upon it two days previous 65 ,,

Thermometer 10 in. deep in fresh

ploughed fallow close by 60 ,,

" In this instance there is a difference of five degrees,
and in favour of the stale ploughed land. The cause of
this proceeds from the rain entering into combination
with the dry soil beneath, and, like water thrown upon
fresh, burnt lime, heat was evolved. On the contrary,
the fresh moved land, having already combined with the
rain-water, was placed by the exposure to sun and aii'
in the best state for evaporation, and cold followed as a
natural consequence.

' ' A valuable hint or two suggest themselves from
this — namely, that evil rather than good proceeds from
moving land immediately after a shower of rain, parti-
cularly when between a growing crop, since a check
from cold may be given to its vegetation. W^hereas it
appears, plants receiving a shower of rain derive both
heat and moisture from the same, provided the soil be
left undisturbed for a time, until the land has again at-
tained that degree of dryness when cultivation may be
had I'ecourse to with increased advantage.

" Again, the necessity of draining soils and situations
where more moisture is retained than is required by
growing crops is here proved, because if such lands be
not drained, the escape of the extra water can only be
effected through the means of evapoi-ation, therefore at
the loss of heat, and at the expense of great delay in the
maturing of the crops, if not of their entire destruction.

" I shall now touch upon another subject — the disease
in the potatoes. The same instruments, the thermo-
meters, have exhibited one cause of the decay in the po-
tatoes, and after this manner : —

" On July 19, 1845, weather being fine and wind
south-west ; time, between one and two o'clock.

Thermometer in the air, and shaded. . 72 deg. F.

Thermometer 4 in. deep in the earth .. 72 ,,

Thermometer 10 in. ditto 65 ,,

"And on August 16, 1845, weather cloudy; wind
north ; time, at twelve o'clock —

Thermometer in the air shaded 58 deg. F.

Thermometer 9 in. deep in the air ... . 55 ,,

" We here have in August a difference of temperature
from that which prevailed in July equal to 10 degrees.
This suddenness of change from heat to cold, and parti-
cularly at such a period of the year, must have injurious
effects. We ourselves know, from every day's expe-
rience, the consequences of such changes upon our own
bodies, by producing colds from the too immediate
stoppage of perspii'ation. And may not growing plants

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

170

experience something of the same kind by their vegeta-
tion being so suddenly checked. The conclusion I have
arrived at is, the great want of sun throughout the
summer months, the long continuance of the wind from
the north and north-east — added to these, the check
above stated — are quite sufficient causes of the disease
now so generally prevalent. Too many gentlemen are
aware that the potato is not the only crop which has ex-
perienced injury this year, since the wheat, many fruits,
and the hop, are alike deficient in what was presumed,
from early appearances, would be their produce.

" It has been remarked by many agriculturists, that
the potato and the wheat are found more diseased in
the rich and highly manured lands than in the poor.
Why is this ? Because these lands were like an overfed
stomach, and the diflSculty of digestion from the want
of heat was proportionally the greater.
" Believe me, sir,

" Yours very respectfully,

" W. BLA.ND.

" Harilip, Sittingbourne, Dec. 22, 1845."
—Maidstone Jourual.

PROVISION TRADE OF LIVERPOOL.

In addition to their weekly report, we insert the fol-
lowing admirable summary of the provision trade of that
town during the bygone year by Messrs. Adams and
Banks : —

Liverpool, 29th of December, 1845.

The present year was ushered in with the highest pros-
pects of commercial prosperity, and the realization of
those prospects continued unabated during two-thirds of
the year, and were blighted only by the probability of a
defective harvest, and the abstraction of capital and
energy from business pursuits to the share mania ; the
latter, however, brought the antidote with the bane, and
the former, whether as regards the grain crops or green
crops, are not turning out so defective as was antici-
pated. And although the commercial arm of this great
country is at present a little paralized, it is not
shortened. There is plenty of money in the country,
the manufacturers are busily engaged, the artizans in re-
ceipt of good wages, and the mining population equally
well off. The shipping interest has been doing well all
the year, and still has undiminished good prospects.
The agricultural population, as a whole, are better em-
ployed than formerly ; and the formation of railways is
finding employment for numerous branches of business,
besides the superabundant labourers. Articles of food
are moderate in price, and the consumption of every-
thing enormous. Let the pohtical horizon become set-
tled, the corn-law question set at rest, confidence re-
stored amongst the commercial community ; enjoying,
as we are, a universal peace, we may look forward to
bright rather than dark spots in our commercial history,
and a revival of healthy and active business as the spring
advances.

It is natural that our provision trade with America,
after three years' working, should be My developed. It

is not quite so with regard to swine products. It was
at first expected that bacon and hams would be sent for-
ward freely. Such has not been the case, and the ex-
pectation of a trade cultivation in these articles is much
abridged. A greater business was looked for in barrelled
pork, but the value of this article in America being
nearly equivalent to that of Irish or Hambro', importa-
tions have been in a great measure precluded thereby ;
saying nothing about the disparity in quality, the Ameri-
can proving much inferior to the other two. However,
there have been some good lots of American imported,
and we must not take it as a security that, because little
has been done in this article this year, an extensive busi-
ness is not yet to be cultivated in it. Lard has become
a staple article of commerce, both for culinary purposes
and pressers' and soapers' uses. With respect to beef,
there can be no mistaking American superiority. The
imports this year have been of uniform good quality, and
nothing is now inquired for, for ship stores, but Ameri-
can beef. It has been steady in price all the year,
scarcely differing 5 per cent, in value. It is considered
to be remunerative to the packer and exporter, as well
as importer here ; and the manufacture of it is now so
well understood there, and has so gained confidence here,
that there is no doubt of this article (equally with lard)
becoming a staple article of commerce. Under a 21s.
duty a trade in butter will not be cultivated ;' the fluctua-
tions in this market, and the risk of it becoming grease,
operate against it, but we are hkely to have some extent
in butter shipped as grease from the States, and an effort
may be made to cultivate a butter trade from Canada.
But there is a prejudice against it, and it is not likely
either to be extensive or profitable. There is very little
doubt about the trade in cheese becoming extensive and
permanent. Some of the imports have been equal in
quahty to any made in England, and the ready sale this
article has met with nearly all through the year, with
the good prices lately obtained for it, say as high as 60s.
per cwt., will tend to encourage the trade in it. A bet-
ter knowledge of packing the cheese for the English
market, so as to prevent loss in cutting out, is the prin-
cipal thing wanted, and that will no doubt be gained in
time. The imports of these articles this year has been,
14,831 tierces, 3,437 barrels, of beef; 7,713 barrels of
pork; 10,471 barrels, 49,452 kegs, of lard; 5,322
casks, 43,702 boxes, of Cheese. And the stocks now on
hand are light of beef, pork, and cheese, but heavy of lard.
The import of foreign live stock into the kingdom in-
creases steadily, principally from Holland, but we have
no imports into this port, nor have any of the cattle been
sent otherwise to this market. Considering it is now
nearly four years since the passing of the tariff, little
progress has been made in this trade, but a greater ex-
tent of business may be expected, as prices are suffi-
ciently high to encourage it, and they are now in Holland
preparing both cattle and sheep expressly and well suited
for the English markets. The foreign imports so far
have not had the eff'ect of preventing prices advancing in
this country, as the consumption of flesh-meat has in-
creased in the last three years incalculably beyond those
'mports ; even in this market alone this year the quan-

180

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tity of stock sold more than in 1843, amounts to nearly I
as much as the whole of the year's import into the
kingdom, which, in round numbers, may be put down
at 13,000 beasts, 9,000 sheep, and 700 pigs, nearly all
of which have been disposed of in the south-east and
west of England, which markets are likely to be those
destined for foreign stock ; thus leaving the northern
English markets for the bulk of Irish and Scotch pro-
duce, from whence to this market this year the supply
has been abundant, being 70,180 beasts and 330,307
sheep and lambs, against 66,860 beasts and 280,474
sheep and lambs, in 1844, and 61,042 beasts and
265,055 sheep and lambs, in 1843. The quality of the
stock has in a general way proved good, but the epi-
demic has shown itself more or less throughout the year.
Of the excess of stock, the cattle have come from Ire-
land, but the sheep from Scotland. The business
throughout the year has been steady, and fairly satisfac-
tory, changing in conformity with the seasons, and
prices fluctuating also only in accordance therewith,
maintaining throughout about the average per centage of
value over the previous year, which may be stated at
from 5 to 7 per cent. , leaving the top price of cattle at
6d., and sheep 7d. per lb., against S^d. for cattle, and
6^d. for sheep, on the corresponding market of 1844.
There was a great falling off in the store cattle business
between Ireland and the south of England, at the close
of the last and commencement of the present year,
owing to the drought of 1844, and scarcity of keep dur-
ing the winter and spring months in those districts.
Respecting the supplies of fat stock for the coming
spring, we do not look for scarcity, as there is plenty of
keep both in England and Scotland ; at the same time
we doubt not the consumption will keep pace with the
production, and thereby cause the present full value of
all descriptions of stock to be maintained, if not in-
creased, as the spring advances.

The supply of, and demand for, pigs throughout the
present year has been exceedingly good, and prices so
steady, that (like cattle) they have fluctuated only with
the season, and that without any great or even the usual
depression in the hottest or worst curing part of the
year. During the last two years they have increased
more in value than any other description of meat, being
now 15s. per cwt. higher than at the close of 1843, the
aggregate advance being 8s. i)er cwt. last, and 7s. per
cwt. on the current year. We have not the same confi-
dence in pigs maintaining their value as we have of cat-
tle, as the advance in them has been great in proportion,
and at the present high prices curers will be reluctant at
going heavily into stock ; the supply will, therefore, in
a great measure regulate the prices. Hitherto this
season it has been large, but how it will continue cannot
be ascertained, as in Ireland it is diff'ering in different
parts of the country, according as the potato gathering
has proved good, or defective, or otherwise.

The stock of butter at this time last year amounted
only to about 8,000 firkins, which was gradually worked
down to a mere nothing by the end of March, the price
in the meantime remaining unaltered, ranging at about
96s. to 98s., so that last s?a§on ended well. New butter

came forward sparingly, and there being no good old to
interfere with it, it sold as readily as brought forward,
commencing about 110s. for fine Waterford but shortly
receding to about 100s., which might be considered the
opening price of the season. Up to June there was very
little alteration; supplies then began to accumulate a
little, and a reduction of 14s. to 16s. per cwt. took place
in a fortnight, making our highest quotations about 84s. ;
and which has proved the lowest point 9f the season.
From June until September the trade was extensive and
steady, with very little accumulation of stock ; the mar-
kets now began to rally, and ever since prices in the
Irish markets have been nearly as high as with us. With
free buying there, the shippers looking forward rather to
advantage in holding stock than regulating their pur-
chases, so as to realize a legitimate trade profit on the
transaction of the day. This course proved fortunate at
the fall of last year, which perhaps led to the same mea-
sure this season, but with quite a different result ;
although for a few weeks it assumed the desired position,
prices running up to 98s., but changed again early in
November, since which they have gradually given way
about 6s. per cwt., the stock accumulating, and now
amounting to upwards of 20,000 firkins. The make of
English butter this year has been very considerably
greater than last, but has interfered very little with the
sale of Irish, no doubt owing to the greater consumption
generally through the country. The import this year
having been equal to 372,611 firkins, against 364,680
firkins in 1844, and 359,916 firkins in 1843. Lard has
been very saleable all through the year at good prices.
Bacon is now too high to engage the attention of specu-
lative buyers, and is unprofitable to the retailers ; there-
fore is likely to be a dull article of sale. Of barrelled
pork there is no stock, and, as there is very little Ameri-
can coming forward, it is likely to remain saleable for
some time, at about the present prices.

Nothing can be said at present about the corn trade,
except that it is a great hardship for all classes connected
with it to have a momentous business like it virtually
suspended either by want of confidence or defection in
legislative enactments. The quantity of bread stuff
coming from the United States is great, so that with
the bonded grain now in the kingdom, and that on the
way, the granaries in England are likely to be sufficiently
stored for the consumption of the country until the next
harvest.

THE WOOL TRADE.

LIVERPOOL, Jan. 1. — The favourable views we expressed
iu our last annual circular of the prospects of the wool trade
were fully realized during the first six months of 1845. Au
extent of consumption probably without precedent in the same
period of time was accompanied by an imusual steadiness of
price, and freedom from any appearance of speculation or over-
trading ; and yet there has seldom been a perioil, with the ele-
ments of the trade so sound and promising, that resulted iu so
little profit to those engaged, whether importer, stapler, or ma-
nufacturer. Tins we principally attribute to the relatively high
price of the raw material.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

181

Tlie early months of the year wei-c marked by unusual ac-
tivity. The protracted winter gave an extension to the home
trade whilst the continental di'maud, particularly from Germany,
was good. Some inconvenience was experienced by the export
houses from the navigation continuing closed till so late a
period. In many cases goods ordered arrived too late for the
Leipsic Easter Fair, which may, to some extent, interfere \\'ith
future orders. In June and July it was felt that the continued
prosperity of the wool trade would much depend on the result
of the approaching harvest. The general feeling being favour-
able imparted confidence to transactions, and led toanimprove-
mcnt in the value of most descriptions of wool. These an-
ticipations havuig, unfortunately, not been realized, the wheat
crop being reported as deficient in quantity and inferior in q\ia-
lity, with the admitted failure of the potato crop to a serious
extent, have for the last few months subjected the trade to
feverish excitement, and much limited the amomit of business ;
other causes have contributed to this result. The large absorp-
tion of trading capital in railway and other schemes ; the con-
sequent increased value of money and restricted banking ac-
commodation ; and, more than aU, the narrowed consumuig
power, arising from the large advance in the cost of subsis-
tence to the great bulk of the population, have operated in-
juriously on the trade during that period. Netwithstanding
these obstructions, we report a less depreciation in value than
might have been expected. Stocks of goods are generally light,
and of the raw material by no means excessive. We must not
omit to notice the intense anxiety with which every section of
the trade is awaiting the expected legislative action on the corn
laws. Should it terminate in the total abandonment of all im-
port duties on corn and provisions, the change will be of incal-
culable advantage to the wool trade at large ; and we believe
that no branch of it \vill reap more substantial benefit than the
home wool growers.

The growing importance of this place, as a wool market, is
becoming more apparent every year, as shown by tlie rapidly
increasing imports, and from its contiguityto the manufacturing
districts of Yorkshire, Wales, and Scotland, it will, no doubt,
before long ccmmand a much larger share of the trade. Our
receipts from Australia have hitherto been comparatively insig-
nificant, London continuing to take by far the greatest portion
of Colonial wool. We are surprised at this, when the many ad-
vantages of this port are considered. Its vicinity to numerous
consuming districts is certain to insure a large attendance of the
smaller manufacturers, who form the chief support of the public
sales. In London the excessive quantities brought forward at
one series (sometimes exceeding 30,000 bales), unduly limits
the time for examination ; operates, even under favourable cir-
cumstances, against prices, and, in dull times, is disastrous in its
tendency. We are convinced that if a more equal distribution
of imports were established the return to merchants would be
more satisfactory.

Australian. — The total receipts from these colonies show
a steady increase, which will be much extended by the enhanced '
value of sheep having put a stop to the boiling down for tallow.
The condition of the last clip has been generally satisfactory.
By shearing earlier the biurr was partially avoided, and the sea-
sou seems to have been favourable for washuig. Previously to
the fir st arrivals, which were much earlier than usual, the stocks
at home were nearly exhausted. The accounts fram the German
fairs, stated an imusual demand for low and middle qualities
for their own consumption ; while the French were known to
be operating largely in Spain. These circumstances caused the
first public sales to go otf with great spirit. In October trade
beg an to slacken, though the residt of the public sales in Lon-
don during that month was quite as favourable as could be ex-

pected. The largo arrivals up to this date (which were, in fact,
larger than apparent, owing to the increased size of the bags)
induced the wealthy dealer and consiinier to stock freely, imder
the impression, which we think well founded, that the entire
import will be required before next season. We are glad to
notice throughout the year an improved demand for the better
qualities which will bo encouragement to the growers who at-
teiul to their flocks. Combing wools have been little in re-
quest, owing to the depression of the worsted trade. This
branch is beginning to rally, and promises a better demand in
the spring.

Cape of Goon Hope. — The shipments from this quarter
shew great improvement, amply testified by the high rates the
best flocks have commanded during the season. This result
of judicious management in selection and careful packing will,
we feel assured, be sufiicient encouragement to perseverance.
It is only l)y such means that former prejudices can be overcome.
The best parcels now take equal rank with those from Australia,
and are purchased by the trade with full confidence, whilst the
more mixed and inferior kinds are an article of doubtful sale.
The system of packing unwashed or yolky fleeces with the
washed is most prejudicial, and cannot be too strongly pointed
out.

Spanish. — Our market has not kept place with the advanced
rates paid for this description on the other side, occasioned by
French competition. It has, therefore, been difiicult to efi'ect
sales at remunerating prices to the importer. The demand, of
late, has been chiefly confined to middle qualities.

Portugal. — Best R's have been readily saleable. Most
other kinds have been little sought after.

Oporto Mountain. — Tlie demand has been chieflycon-
fiued to the best combing parcels, other kinds have been com-
paratively neglected.

United States. — The import from this quarter aflbrds a
striking proof of the beneficial effect of the remission of the
wool duty. It has excited great interest and surprise in the
trade, and may be considered the greatest novelty of the year.
The quantity received to this period, as an experiment, exceedo
3,800 bales, comprising a great variety of quahties. It is to be
regretted that the unfavourable turn of trade has been against
the operation. In washing and preparing the wools sufficient
pains have not been taken ; and there is want of discrimuation
in the selection of qualities. So far as used they have been
highly approved ; and we have full confidence that, if got up
with care, they would be highly esteemed in this country. The
American prairies afford peculiar advantages for the growth of
wool ; and we believe this branch of the trade will become one
of great and mcreasmg importance.

Peruvian and Alpaca. — Till within the last few mouths
the supply of sheep's wool was limited. It is now increased,
but the demand is restricted at rather declhuug prices of late.
The imports of Alpaca have been rather large. There arc no
means of ascertaining the exact quantity, but a careful investi-
gation leads us to estimate it at about 18,000 ballots of 80 lbs.
each. It must be borne in mind that, during 1844, great diffi-
culties attended the shipment, and the apparent excess of 1845
represents a portion of the previous year's clip. For the first
six months there was great activity,'and consumers bought freely
for ai-rival. The demand has since been heavy, at almost nomnial
prices. The high rates abroad render it probable that consider-
able loss will attend the import.

Buenos Ayres, &c. — Good clean parcels have been in fair
request. All other kinds have been rather heavy of sale, and at
declining prices, in consequence of the expense and difficulty iu
getting them cleaned. Thq luisettled state of the trade on the

N

182

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

other side Mill no doubt interfere with shipment, and may cause
an improved demand.

East India. — Under this head we notice a considerable in-
crease, and it is satisfactory to observe tliattlie demand has fully
kept pace with it. More attention has been paid to the assort-
ment, which itisdesirableshouldbeperseveredin. Tlie increasing
demand for low wools will enable the ti-ade to take any quantity
that can be fiuTiished.

Russia. — Here the increase appears considerable ; but the
imports have arrived much earlier than usual. The trade gene-
rally has been heavy, except for good combing parcels, which have
tliroughout commanded full prices. The greater portion has
been of an inferior description.

Mediterranean. — The items under this head, including
Italian, Greek, Smyrna, and the varieties of Turkey wools, have
been dull of sale at prices rmrerauneratiug to the the importer.
Some quantity of Egyptian wool has been received, a description
which has not before found its way to this country. It is clean
and well washed, and a portion is well adapted for combmg,but
there is a gi-eat deal of short mixed with it. Greater care is re-
quired in the assortment. The decline in English skin wools
has aflfected its value. We doubt if it will answer, except when
English combing wools nde high.

English, Scotch, and Irish. — Notwithstanding the de-
pression in the worsted trade, the consumption has reached a
fuU average. Prices have varied little tlu'oughout the year, the
general range not varying to any material extent from this period
last year. Stocks with staplers and manufactvu"ers are light, and
not extensive with the farmers, who show more disposition to
hold than give way at present.

In exports the principal featm-e is the increased amomit of
wooUens sent to the East, wliich, we understand, form one of the
most lucrative branches of the trade with China, the rising im-
portance of which it is difficiUt to estimate. The exports of
woollens to the United States, which, for some years past, have
been diminishuig, contmue to recede ; but the tone of the Pre-
sident's message on commercial affairs leads to the expectation
that this important market may agaui revive.

Hughes & Ronald.

A CHEAP AND EXCELLENT MANURE FOR
SWEDES.

Sir, — I beg to inform your readers of a very cheap and ex-
cellent maniu-e, which I last year made use of, and wliich ex-
ceeded my most sanguine expectations. I had a large heap of
turf ashes remaming on hand after the turnip season of 1843 ;
and last winter I made my boys save a barrow-full or two every
morning of the shortest horse-dung in cleaning out the stables ;
that I had wheeled into an out-house, and mixed with the ashes,
a layer of one and the other, till the ashes were all used. I
soon foimd the heap was ui a state of glowing heat, though
no steam was ever perceptible; a rapid decomposition took
place, and when the time arrived for using it, it appeared like
very fine moulds. This I drilled with Swedes, and in one
piece where there was no other manure, I drilled 50 bushels,
to the acre, and the plants were fit for the hoe in three weeks
from the time of sowing. This year I have no turf ashes, and
am using coal ashes in the same way, and intend to driU about
30 bushels per acre. My heap is now extremely warm and
smells strong, but there is no appearance of any evaporation.
Perhaps I should say that my laud is a flinty and chalky
brash, with a gravelly or chalky subsoil.

I am, Mr. Editor, your obedient servant,

A Wiltshire Farmer.

THE UNJUST OPERATION OF THE TITHE
ACT.

Sir, — I am anxious to call your attention, and that of
my brother farmers, to the above subject. Parliament
in passing the tithe act, anticipated not a change in the
protection the landed interest then enjoyed, and conse-
quently framed that measure so as to be only applicable
to a fixed state of the import duties. It enacted that
the average price of corn for seven years, ending on
Christmas day of any year, should be taken to fix the
rent-charge for the year following. This would on the
whole have been fair, had no alteration been made in
the value of corn by a subsequent law. But when the
corn law of 1842 lowered the value of our crops 12^ per
cent., it entirely disarranged the machinery of the tithe
act ; thus the septennial averages, which fixed the rent-
charge for 1843, being taken from the price of corn when
protection had enhanced it 12i per cent, above its value
for that year, it follows of course that the just sum
then to have been paid in lieu of tithes was exactly one-
eighth, or 122 P6i' cent, less than these averages indi-
cated. For every 20s. fixed on the farmer by these
averages, he ought to have paid only as follows : — For
1843, 17s. 6d. ; for 1844 (when onljslx of those highly
protected years would act on the averages), 17s. lOd. ;
for 1845, 18s. 2id. ; for 1846, 18s. 7d. ; for 1847, 18s.
IHd. ; for 1848, 19s. 4d. ; for 1849, 19s. 8.id. : in
1850 they would again fix the right sum. Arrived at
this point, the farmer, after paying a large sum most
unjustly, and one which the framers of the Tithe Act
never intended, w^ould find, so far as the averages are
concerned, his rent-charge again pretty right.

Should any further alteration of the corn laws take
place, a simple remedy for tliis injustice may be obtained
by altering the term over which the averages extend,
and by taking an annual average only to fix the rent-
charge.

Trusting that you and other 7-eal " farmers' friends"
will manfully come forward to assist us at this critical
period, I beg to subscribe myself your obedient servant,
A NcRFOLK Farmer.

HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB.--On the 14th
of January, the subject for discussion was: — "Oil-
cakes V. linseed ; the relative prices at which either is
cheaper ; and the most economical mode of using the
latter .'" Resolved : — "As this subject was introduced
rather to direct attention to the use of linseed than with
a view of obtaining opinions on it, and as the meeting
will, it is fully anticipated, have this effect, it is resolved
to defer answering the questions proposed by the intro-
ducer till further trials (which the club recommends
should be immediately made) shall have given greater
authority to the decision." As far, however, as the ex-
perience of the members has hitherto gone, it is be-
lieved that linseed will prove a very valuable addition to
our fattening food for cattle ; forming an excellent me-
dium for consuming our own corn, which it is thought
should always be mixed with the seed in about the fol-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

183

lowing proportions : three-fifths corn and two-fifths
seed. The club considers that corn and seed, thus mixed,
will be found cheaper than either alone or than oil cake ;
but it is inclined to doubt the practice hitherto adopted
in tliis county, of cooking the seed more than the corn,
believing that the former is little and the latter largely
benefited by it. But, whilst giving this strong ojiinion
in favour of cooking the corn where practicable, and
thinking that barley should never be used without, the
club have evidence that ground beans and peas, mixed
with crushed linseed and given dry, have been used with
great success.

ON BANKING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — I wish J. W. S., in your December num-
ber, in reply to my statement on banking, had
written in better temper. He calls me the
" precious Daniel," and talks about my " cus-
tomers." Now I beg to tell him that I never sat
at "the receipt of custom" — he evidently thinks
me a " rum customer."

He pretends to laugh at a blunder in the calcula-
tion of interest ; but I would fain ask him — does not
the holder of a £50 share, paying six per cent, in-
terest, get £3 for his year's interest ? If so, I am
right ; and he has discovered a " mare's nest."

I fear you must have fallen much in the opinion
of J. W. S. by giving me insertion. He feigns to
pity my ignorance ; but he has not removed it ; nor
can I " mend my manners," or " change my name,"
although I have read all his remarks about the
" advantages to be derived," and the " splendid
fortunes amassed since the war."

I fear they are only in his own fruitful imagina-
tion; and unless he favours me with something
more to the point about " advantages," and
" splendid fortunes amassed," I must remain,

Jan, 22, 1846. Daniel Dubious,

proportion. The insertion of the above questions
will confer an obligation on.

Your obedient servant,
A Member of the North Walsham
Farmers' Club.

Sir,— Residing in a neighbourhood where there are
many large beech and other woods, and with a view of
giving employment during the winter months to women
and children, who are often then without employment,
I should feel much obliged to you or some practical cox-
respondent to inform iie if the leaves can be crushed
into manure for agricultural purposes, as follov,fs : —

1st. — By collecting them together in large heaps and
mixing yard manure with them ; if so, in what porpor-
tion, what time, and the after management.

2nd. — Will they pay for collecting together to rot as
manure without dung, or by adding some cheap artificial
manure.

3rd. — If burning them for the ashes as manure in the
months of March and April ; or any other suggestion
preferable, will be thankfully received by one who feels
a great pleasure, at all seasons of the year, to see every
person employed when the weather will permit.
I am. Sir, yours, &c.,

A Constant Reader of your Paper.

North Hants, Jan. 12, 1846.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

TO THE editor OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — An article appears in the November num-
ber of 1845, on Harvesting Beans and Peas; and in
alluding to the distance between the rows or drills,
the writer observes it should never be less than 27
inches. Now, having had but httle experience in
bean culture, I am desirous of knowing whether the
beans should be planted in single or double rows at
this distance apart ; and how they will answer
upon ridges, the land manured and prepared in the
autumn in a similar manner as for turnips ; and
whether the value of the crop would be enhanced by
an admixture of peas wth the beans— if so, in wha^

A correspondent wishes to know where he can pro-
cure "a ram of the old great, high-standing, black-
faced, horned Norfolk breed." Perhaps some of our
readers will be able to inform him through our columns ;
but we thought that the race was long since superseded
by something more advantageous.

ANSWER TO AGRICULTURAL QUERY.

TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — In your paper of the 19th, I observe a request
from a correspondent to be furnished with some in-
formation derived from practice regarding the use of
leaves as manure.

I have been in the habit of gathering them as soon as
fallen, for the last four or five years, and carting them
into the farm-yard, as a means of absorbing the liquid
which flows in winter from the manure heap, placing
them at the bottom of the yard, and throwing the litter,
as it comes from the sheds, regularly over them. This,
with repeated trampling from the stock when turned
loose, incorporates the leaves so effectually with the rest
of the manure as to improve, in my estimation, its
quality, and certainly its quantity.

If these remarks are considered worth insertion, you
are welcome to them.

I would further remark that it is chiefly on light land,
where the straw is deficient, that leaves are of value,
and that I have heard that beech leaves, gathered dry,
make excellent bedding for man or beast. I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,

Jan, 2^th, 1846. Agrxcola.

N %

184

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

!

Barometer.

Thermometer.

Wind and

State.

Atmosphere.

Day.

8 a.m.

10 p.m.

Min.

Max.

10p.m.

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p. m.

10 p. m.

Dec. 21

in. cts.
29.41

in. cts.
29.78

33

39

29

North

strong

cloudy

fine

fine

22

29.63

29.00

27

44

39

S.W.,W.byN.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

fine

23

29.13

29.70

34

42

37

North

brisk

cloudy

sun

fine

24

30.05

30.19

33

40

30

N. by West.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

25

30.20

30.22

29

42

34

S.W., N.W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

26

30.10

29.74

31

48

45

S. West

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

27

30.03

29.79

37

46

45

S. West

strong

fine

cloudy

cloudy

28

29.55

29.80

44

50

36

S.W., North

strong

cloudy

cloudy

fine

29

30.00

29.89

28

48

48

S.E., S.W.

strong

fine

cloudy

cloudy

30

29.80

29.95

46

54

43

S.W.,W.byN

forcible

cloudy

cloudy

fine

31

30.13

29.56

32

48

48

S.W.,S.byE.

forcible

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

J[an, 1

29.72

30.00

38

46

35

W.N.W.

lively

fine

sun

fine

2

30.20

30.39

32

38

31

N.byW., S.E.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

3

30.41

30.27

26

38

36

S.E. by South

gentle

fine

cloudy

cloudy

4

29.98

30.00

36

42

34

N. West

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

5

30.08

30.10

29

38

28

N.W., South

gentle

fine

sun

fine

6

30.06

30.00

26

44

44

S.E.. W.byS.

gentle

haze

haze

cloudy

7

30.19

30.30

43

47

44

W. by South

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

8

30.40

30.53

44

47

44

West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

9

30.60

30.55

39

44

39

South

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

10

30.48

30.37

36

43

37

S. West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

11

30.53

30.27

36

40

37

S.S. East

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

12

30.05

29.85

33

35

33

S.S. East

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

13

29.79

29.55

31

42

38

S.S. East

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

14

29.43

29.53

36

44

43

S.S. East

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

15

29.57

29.73

39

46

42

S. West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudv

16

29.86

29.76

42

46

44

S. East

gentle

haze

cloudy

cloudy

17

29.69

29.70

38

47

40

Southerly

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

18

29.70

29.64

38

41

41

S.E., East

brisk

fog

fog

fog

19

29.20

28.93

40

51

49

S. West

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

. 20

29.30

29.50

40

45

38

S.W., West

strong

fine

sun

fine

estimated averages of JANUARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

North and N. East Winds.
East and to South

High. i Low.

High. Low. 1 Mean.

8 days,
3|

30.77 1 28.89

52 11 1 36.1

Real Average Temperature of the above period.

South and South West

West and to North

8i
11

High.
44

L)\v.
35.2

Mean,
39.6

Weather axd Phenomena. — December 21,
snow, fierce ^vind preceding; frosty evening. 22,
snow, not lying; mild change. 23, fine lively day.
24, very cbar and beautiful. 25, rain ; changeable ;
cool evenijio'. 26, slight frost; sudden change.
27, rain; boisterous wind, 28, rain; fine even-
ing. 29, rani; strong wind; very changeable.
30 and 31, rain on both days ; high wind in the
evening of the last day. Two days with a little
snow, and seven with more or less rain, in the
above period. 1843. — January 1, very beautiful
and sunny, 2, the same; frosty morning. 3,
after keen frost, changeable. 4, airy; clouds
richly crimson tinted ; a sprinkle of rain. 5, beau-
tiful ; keen frost morning and night. 6, very
hazy. 7, barometer steadily rises, with a westerly

wind, 8 and 9, extraordinary altitude of the mer-
cury, not seen so high here for 15 years; yet
totally cloudy, 10 to 15, inclusive, perfect calm,
with shght deviations and sunless gloom, with high
temperature for the season, 1 6, a partial clearing,
by a few breaks in the clouds, 17, gloomy, and a
few showers, 18, dense fog; every plant and tree
dripping till after sunset. 19, exceedingly wet,
20, fierce wind all night; one heavy shower at
2 p.m. ; otherwise fine.

Lunations. — First quarter, 4th day, 2h. 25m.
afternoon. Full moon, 12th day, 2h. 2m. after-
noon. Last quarter, 20th day, 3h, 52m, afternoon.

Remarks Referring to Agriculture, —
The very abundant rains of December saturated the
land, and, for a little time, checked the plough.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

185

With that month wnd and rain ceased ; and, witli
the exception of a mere hint on the 4th and 17th,
January was dry, exceedingly gloomy, and calm
till tlie 19th. During this long period the

healthy ; the only sign of winter luxuriance is seen
in those fields (sadly too many) in which so much
corn was shed at har\'est, that the plants actually
clothe the surface, and are exceedingly rank. A

labours of the field went on well; the wheats ad- milder winter, for the comfort of the poor, is hardly
vanced little, considering the extreme mildness of i within recollection. J. Towkhs.

the weather. Everything is quiet, and indeed I Maidenhead Thicket.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE— FEBRUARY.

Every circumstance during the first fortnight of
the late month was favourable, unless open weather
be deemed the reverse. With December the rain
and storms ofwnd ceased ; but the supply of water
had been so ample, that the ground remained for a
time too wet, and labour was partially suspended.

A fine open winter, provided that February prove
cool and showery, may be esteemed a harbinger of
a good spring.

There were a few frosty nights, but not so severe
as injuriously to check vegetation ; and yet it should
appear that, considering the mildness of tempera-
ture, there were no precocious advances, unless the
blooming of primroses, oxlips, and white ^dolets,
with here and there a few remaining China roses,
be esteemed such. The forcing-gardener was highly
favoured by the weather, a little fire goinsf far, and
the nights so warm as to require no extraordinary
attention.

Many persons had planted potatoes, and sown
peas and beans ; and among other circumstances of
interest, we learned from a person who had acted
as steward or bailiff in most extensive concerns,
that he had succeeded admirably, in Wales, with po-
tatoes sown in Autumn, so as to leave no manner
of doubt that, if set deep enough and covered with
earth as a ridge, the crop would be superior. The
damaged potatoes that we ourselves collected in
September, were partly sown in November : and
some placed in tubs and troughs, with scarcely any
other protection than a barn, were foimd covered at
the rose-ends with strong short eyes expanding in
the healthiest manner. These, if no severe frost
come on, will assuredly make excellent planting
sets in March, provided the healthy portion, whence
the shoots emerge, be cut off, and the wounded
surface be coated with gypsum or slaked lime.
Vegetable Garden,

First and second week, sow early succession
crops of Charlton and Prussian peas and beans.
It is advisable to recur to the practice recommended
long since by the celebrated William Speechley, and
to sow broad beans along the rows of potatoes, par-
ticularly those affected by the late malady. We last
year saw a veiy large plantation so arranged ; the
beans did not interfere with the gro^\'th of the po-
tatoes ; both flourished together, the former }deld

ing a very fine crop, and the latter one as good as
the then prevaihng malady would permit.

If any crops are fairly above ground, hasten to
earth them, stirring the ground so as to loosen it a
little, but always in fine weather.

Sow a few rows of green Cos and Cilicia lettuce,
salads of several kinds, and a bed of radish and
onions ; radish likes loose and friable ground, let-
tuce richly manured mellow earth, and onion that
which is deeply pulverized, ^vith a fair quantity of
bone dust, and some ammoniacal substance blended
with reduced manure. Deep so\ving is not required,
and for large bulbs it often answers well to beat
the prepared soil ^\'ith a turf-beater, till it becomes
so solid that the surface may be scratched with a
pointed tool to a little depth ; in these hues the seeds
are sprinkled, three or four to the inch, and just
covered over with screened vegetable mould and
sand. The seeds will rise favourably and root
deeply, but the bulbs will lie flat on the ground
and ripen particularly well. At the same time, and
in like manner, little onions (Spanish or Tripoli)
grown in poor soil last yeai', and not larger than
good-sized peas, being set along the lines, five
inches apart, and pressed firmly, wiU produce ex-
tremely fine onions.

An extremely early crop of middle-sized onions
can be obtained by adopting the above practic-
with the bulbs of the last year, which, though per-
fectly matured, had not become larger than walnuts.
These should be set eight or nine inches asunder,
about the third week ; they will grow, and attempt
to produce a flower-stem : this, however, should be
cut or pinched short off"; another stem will then are
rise, and perhaps be followed by a third; but, being
checked, the onions will appear to subdivide,
though in fact they are pre-organized latent buds
which thus develop, and finally become nice valu-
able bulbs, two, three, or four to the plant, about
the middle of July, if the season be showery and
yet warm.

Spinach may now l)e sown, a row or two twice
in the month, of the round-leaved smooth-seeded
variety. The winter spinach of August ought to be
thinned for use to proper distances as it advances,
hoeing the ground between the rows after the ga-
thering.

186

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CarrotSj parsnips, beet-root, prepare ground for,
bearing in mind that for the first the fresher and
more sandj' the ground the better. Belgian white
carrot is more indifferent to soil. Parsnip does
well for stronger loam, pro\nded the ground be
deep and not stony. Beet generally succeed if
thinned to nine inches apart ; but all require that
the manure be placed below, and not about the fu-
ture roots. The last week is early enough for sow^
ing.

Garlick and shallots are planted by division of
the bulbs or cloves, in rows nine inches asunder,
the bulbs six inches apart in the rows. The sweet-
herbs, marjoram, hyssop, thyme, savory — also fen-
nel, burnet, angehca — are sown about the end ; but
most of the former succeed best by division of the
roots, though the work may be deferred tiU spring
or autumn.

Forced, or Excited Vegetables.

Kidney-beans are raised mth faciUty in a stove
or hot-house, especially if heated by water and a
tank. The red spider — so every kind of plant
acarus is called — is kept more readily under in such
moist heat. Celery plants oiight now to be raised
in like situations, sown in a box of mould — also
small salads ; indeed, any small vegetable, and
cauliflower, peas in boxes, &c., &c. These, how-
ever, should have gentle heat only, and not be suf-
fered to remain till drawn up. The floor of a good
vinery answers well ; but where there are none of
these api^liances, frames over a gentle hot-bed of
leaves must be resorted to.

Fruit Department.

Currants and gooseberries, finish the pruning of
early in the month, obserinng the directions before
given ; then fork the spaces, and cover the surface
\vith three inches of manure.

Raspberries should be supported by stakes or
trellis, sloping to the north, in order to give free
scope to the young wood ; treat the ground in the
way just recommended.

Plant the above berry-bearing shrubs in fresh
loam, and mulch the soil over the roots, to prevent
rapid evaporation in spring. This precaution
ought always to be observed, for then one thorough
watering in the warm weather of March will do ex-
cellent and penuanent service.

Finish the pruning and naihng of apricots,
plums, cherries, peaches, and nectarines, before the
flower-b ud be much swollen then wash the trees
with soap suds.

Strawberries, — If the weather be mild in the last
week, dress the plants, removing dead leaves and in-
truding runners, and scatter rich earth among the
plants, because the best roots come below the centre
of the new developments, and not from the old
woody i-oots. But, in fact, if in making new plan-

tations, the plants were placed 14 or 15 inches
asunder every way, the rows in filling up would al- «
ways be new, in consequence of the lateral offsets ■
forming yearly, and the best runners taking root
(if properly placed) in the mid-spaces ; thus, by
the time the allotted ground shall be filled, the
plantation ought to be eradicated directly after the
crop of that season shall be taken.

Fruit-trees can be safely planted in February,
provided that watering and mulching be attended
to.

Fruits in the Forcing Department.

Excite the later vinery, syringing copiously. Be-
gin with a heat of 50° to 55", and about every
week raise the heat 5° by fire or hot water. Some
persons strenuously urge the introduction of a mass
of fresh stable dung, raised in a ridge along the
centre of the house. The heat from it is certainly
moist and genial, and moreover feeble ammoniacal
gases are diffused, which tend to check insects.

The first vinery ought to be raised to 70° or
more, as the flowers open ; but 65° is a perfectly safe
degree, to which the thermometer may recede pro-
gressively tfll the hour of sunrise. A check must
be guarded against, and this is the reason why the
house is left warm at retiring for the night, other- j
wise there is little advantage in maintaining a high
degree during the absence of sun. Every fruitful
shoot should be regularly stopped, '

Pineapples in the first stage (called nursings)
must be kept growing at 65° by night and 70° to
80° by day, A moderate bottom heat (80°) by a
bed of oak-leaves, covered with a stratum of tan,
will bring them on finely ; but more of this in March,
as also of plants of the second stage (successions).
Brick-pits, with strong dung linings outside, aided
by a hot water apparatus, in capacity suitable to )
the extent of the erections, are most efficient in the
culture of pine })lants in both stages. A water tank
might supply the bottom heat. A pine stove is
appropriate to the last or fruiting stage, and herein
the day heat (without sun) should be 75°,

Peach house and pit. — Plenty of air during sun-
shine, syringing — fumigation, if the green fly appear,
and even as a preventive — with artificial heat never
exceeding 50° to 55° till the fruit be stoned, are the
essentials,

Cuciimbers in pots are to be always stopped at a
fruit ; and thus, if assisted, an atmospheric and
bottom heat of 70° and 80° will be progressively
fruitful.

Melons are now so^vn in pans of rich mould in
genial warmth, to be treated hereafter, as in due
season wUl be mentioned. The Persian Housainees,
Cirmck, &c,, &c,, are most desirable.

Recommending neatness in eveiy department,
more particular directions are deferred till March.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

187

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY

Since the date of our last report, the weather
throughout the United Kingdom, has heen mnisually
mild for tlie time of jear. The heavy rains which
have fallen in most quarters have had the effect of
flooding many of the lowland districts, and thereby
completely putting a stop to out-door farm opera-
tions ; as, however, these are sufficiently forward,
this excess of moisture is not expected to produce
any very unfavourable results in this particular.
As might be expected, the Avinter wheats have
grown someA\'hat more rapidly than could be de-
sired ; yet, on the whole, our accounts are toler-
ably satisfactory. Winter pride has, it is true, pre-
sented itself in some parts ; but a few sharp frosts
would speedily effect a change that is, unquestion-
ably, desirable at this moment.

We scarcely ever recollect a period in which the
usual operations in the corn trade have been so
completely interrupted, nay, almost brought to a
stand still, as within the last three weeks, and all
arising from the rumours afloat on the subject of
the proposed changes in the existing corn-laws.
Although the various markets have been very
moderatejy supplied ^vith wheat, arising from the
unwillingness on the part of the growers to depress
prices by sending forward larger supplies of the
article than the dealers have been disposed to pur-
chase : the demand for that description of produce
has ruled very dull, and the quotations have re-
ceded from 2s. to 4s. per quarter. All other grain
has participated in the same heaviness, and lower
rates have been submitted to in almost every in-
stance. As Sir Robert Peel's scheme is now
known, and most of the larger millers and others
very short of stock, an improved demand may
shortly be expected ; but we have very great
doubts whether an increased trade, which may be
only a temporary one, will secure to the farmers
better prices. It must not be forgotten that, not-
withstanding the so-much-complained-of scarcety
abroad, we ha^-e nearly, or quite, one million quar-
ters of foreign wheat at this time in warehouse ;
and which, from its being gradually brought for-
ward for sale, will tend to check any improvement
in the value of home grown wheats. We cannot,
also, divest ourselves of the beUef that the produce
of last year's crops has been considerably imder
estimated by many parties ; though, we are ready
to admit, that the quality was beneath an a^'erage.
To counterbalance that deficiency in some manner,
the available supplies of old wheats have been
good, and which have found a preference amongst
the dealers. Again, as to the crop of potatoes,
there can be no question whatever that a larger
portion of it was destroyed by the unusually wet

weather experienced during the greater portion of
1844 ; yet, contrary to almost general expectation,
a decided improvement has been observed in the
supplies of that valuable root received in the me-
trojjolis, and ^\'hich have proved more than equal
to the wants of the consumers. Facts are stubborn
things — that our observations are founded in fact,
we assert without the slightest hesitation. From a
return which has recently been published, it would
appear that the receipts of potatoes at the water-
side, during the last three months of 1845, were
far beneath those at the corresponding season in
1844. So far so good — but the question to con-
sider is, what have been the arrivals by land car-
riage ? We have made the most careful inquiries
on the subject, and find that, by railway, steam
boat and waggon conveyance the supplies, though
not of the best quality, have exceeded those re-
ported for a series of years past. These ai'rivals
have, of course, had considerable influence upon
value; and so far as our experience carries us,
knowing as|we do, that the actual growth in 1845,
was the largest on record ; we see no reason to
apprehend very high rates during the next three
months, by the end of which time the consumption
will be pretty nearly determined.

Such has been the abundance of pasture-herbage
and other pabulum, that great difficulty has been
experienced by the graziers in procuring an ade-
quate quantity of stock to consume it. Hence
both beasts and sheep have fared remarkably well
in the whole of our great agricultural districts.

The imports of live stock under the new tariff
have been considerably on the hicrease, and of im-
proved quaHty. And, from information which has
lately reached us, it is placed beyond a doubt they
will continue large for some time hence. For par-
ticulars of the arrivals during the month, we refer
our readers to the " Review of the Cattle Trade" in
another column.

Our advices from Scotland state that the corn
trade has been in a very depressed state, arising
from the dull accounts received from England, and
the increased receipts of flour from Canada. Prices
have, in consequence, suffered a general decline.
The potato crop is still badly represented ; yet the
shipments to the south have been liberal.

In Ireland — where the potato disease is felt
more, perhaps than in any other portion of the United
Kingdom — the greatest distress still prevails
amongst the poorer classes ; yet the corn trade has
been far from active. The shipments of wheat and
other produce to Liverpool have been good ; those
to other parts of England small.

188

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Ihe most important matter which arrests our at- j and which have sokl at prices varying from 3s. to
tention this month is the importation of hve stock I 3s. 4d. per 8lbs. The attempt to fatten foreign
■under the new tariff. Notu'ithstanding we have j stock in this country has been abandoned, from the
ariived at a jieriod of the year when nearly all par- I severe losses which tlie speculators sustained last

ties anticipated very limited arrivals, from the fact
of the elements precluding the possibility of ship-
ping animals from the different ports in Holland,

THE ARRIVALS SINCE OUR LAST HAVE CONSI-
DERABLY EXCEEDED TH0.=;E OF ANY MONTH
DURING THE WHOLE OF 1S45. The trUth of

these remarks will be clearly apparent when we
state that, from the 8th to the 26th of January,
current year, they amounted to fourteen hun-
dred AND SIXTY OXEN AND COWS, SEVENTY
PIGS, AND TWO THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED

SHEEP into London, 200 beasts and 400 sheep
into Hull, from Rotterdam, Schiedam, and Har-
hngen. Respecting the quality of these arrivals,
we may observe that they have, generally speaking,
come to hand in good condition, though of course
some of them have been received in middhng con-
dition. As comparisons are useful, we have to
intimate that, at the same time in 1845, only 142
beasts and 200 sheep were received into this coun-
try from abroad— a most decided proof of the cor-
rectness of the views we have so long entertained
respecting Sir Robert Peel's measure— a measure
fraught M-ith prospective ruin to the agricultural
body. Many of the Dutch ports being now
blocked up with ice, the steamers have ceased
runnings yet the owners ha\'e procured several
vessels, built expressly for the purpose, into
which both the beasts and sheep are now con-
ducted over at least a mile of ice ! This clearly
shows the energy and determination of
the Dutch graziers to avail themselves
of our markets, which, from the high prices ruling
here, ha^'e pro\'ed very remunerati\'e to them. The
beasts which we reported in July last as fattening
in the -i-arious Dutch distilleries liave now all ar-
rived, and yet there are now upwards of 12,000 fat-
tening for shipment hither : so that it is placed be-
yond a doubt — whatever may be advanced to the
contrary — that future arrivals will be even on a
more extensive scale than ive have yet had occasion
to report. Having seen many of the beasts slaugh-
tered, we can assert that they carry a very large
quantity of internal fat, hence continue in favour
with the butchers. The sheep are not to say first
rate, consequently have not commanded much at-
tention. The former have sold at from £12 to £21 ;
the latter 32s. to 47s. per head. Several packages
of dead meat have come to hand from Hamburgh,

year ; indeed, it is obvious that the change of food
is highly detrimental to both beasts and sheep.

It affords us gi-eat pleasure to be enabled to state
that very few cases of epidemic or the foot rot have
come under our observation, though we much fear
that, should the present wet weather continue for
any length of time, the sheep will become severe
sufferers.

The supplies of stock on offer in Smithfieldhave
Ijeen remarkably good as respects the beasts, but
those of sheep have been unusually small, but of
very superior quality ; in fact, we scarcely ever re-
collect to have seen better collections of stock at
any previous corresponding periods of the year.
On the whole, the beef trade — arising in a great
measure from the increasing importations of foreign
beasts — has ruled dull, and prices have had a down-
ward tendency. In all other kinds of stock a good
business has been doing at higher currencies. The
total supplies have been as under : —

Beasts . 16,420 Head.

Sheep . 87,500

Calves , 800

Pigs . . 2,512
At the same time last year the numbers stood
thus : — Beasts . 13,802 Head.

Sheep . 112,690

Calves . 783

Pigs . . 2,704
The comparison of prices is as follows : —
Per Slbs. to sink the offal.

January, 1845.

January, 1846

s. d. s. d.

s. d. s. d.

Beef .

.2 8 to 4 2 .

. 2 6 to 4 4

Mutton

. 2 10 to 4 4 .

. 3 10 to 5 4

Veal .

.3 8 to 4 10 .

. 4 8 to 5 10

Porl< .

.3 0 to 4 6 .

. 3 10 to 5 2

Up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets very li-
mited supplies of slaughtered meat have come to
hand in the course of the month ; while those on
offer killed in the metropolis have been by no means
large. Prime beef, mutton, veal, and pork, have
moved off steadily at full prices. In other kinds of
meat very little has been doing at late rates.

Since the above was written we find that Sir R.
Peel, in his speech on Tuesday night, proposed to
repeal the duties on the following live stock and
other articles, viz. : — Calves, goats, kids, lambs,
bulls, oxen and cows, poultry, sheep, swine and
pigs, bacon, fresh beef, salted do., meat, potatoes,
salt pork, fresh do., vegetables, &c., &c.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

189

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF JANUARY.

The Premier has at length cast aside the mask,
and declared that what he once i^rofessed to be his
principle can no longer be maintained. Protection to
native industry is to be wholly given up, and the
doctrines of the Anti-Corn-Law-League are to rule
paramount. The question now is, will he be
enabled to carry his free-trade measures, and what
must be the inevitable consequences should he suc-
ceed. From the manner in which his proposals
have been received by the house, there is too much
reason to fear that, with a few honourable excep-
tions, the bulk of the whigs, and a large proportion
of the mis-called conservatives, will vote with the
premier, whilst he is certain of the warmest sup-
port the radicals can afford him : we should, there-
fore, be deceiving our readers if we held out any
hope of the existing laws, (or, indeed, protection to
any extent worth accepting,) being maintained.
Farmers must consequently prepare for the worst,
viz., an unrestricted competition with the compara-
tively untaxed foreign growers of corn. It is al-
most impossible to foresee the effects this rash ex-
periment must have on the value of landed pro-
perty, and the ruin it is likely to cause among all
classes of agriculturists. And why is this mighty
change to be made ? Not because the native pro-
duce is inadequate in average seasons to supply
the inhabitants of the kingdom \\ath a sufficiency
of food, or that any difficulty has been experienced
in obtaining ample suppUes from abroad in adverse
years under the present laws, but because a party
of wealthy manufacturers have leagued together
for interested and selfish purposes, and, by the
power of money, gained such a position in the
country as to over-awe the ministry. It may be
very well for Sir Robert Peel to come down to the
house, and assert that he has suddenly acquired a
totally new insight into a matter which has been
discussed over and over again, but this sudden
conversion cannot blind the pubUc. He either was
at heart a free-trader when he professed opposite
principles, or the fear of Messrs. Cobden and
Bright has been the moving cause in effecting the
change. The very last time the corn law question
was before the house, viz., in June 1845, when Mr.
ViUiers brought forward a motion for their total
repeal, Sir Robert Peel spoke as follows.
To show the advantages of the sliding scale
in securing steadiness of prices, he said: —
" I must say that during the existence of the law

there has been greater steadiness of price than at
any former period. During every week that has
passed since September, the price of wheat has hardly
varied more than Is. 9d. a qr. Tlie lowest 'price
during that period was 45s. 2d., and the highest 46s.
11 d. It might be said that that was the result of a
good harvest. I must deny it. The harvest has been
good for wheat, but for barley it has been defective
in this country. It is impossible to deny that the
harvest for oats and barley for the last two years was
deficient. So far, therefore, as oats and barley were
concerned, the new corn-law had been exposed to
the operation of a bad harvest. But even with regard
to barley and oats, there was a very general impor-
tation, and the prices were regularly sustained with-
out fluctuation. But, it is said, that the present law
holds out expectations which are false. I must say
that that statement is totally devoid of foundation.
I much doubt whether at any period during the past
history of this country there has been a more rapid
progress in agricultural improvement than during
the last three years. It is impossible to consider the
existence of the present cornlawas incompatible with
the application of capital to land, or with the appli-
cability of science to the improvement of agriciilture.
These are charges to which thelawisnot justly liable.
It is not incompatible with the extension of commerce
or with manufacturing industry, neither is it incom-
patible with steadiness of price. It appears to me
that you cannot take any effectual precaution against
fluctuations in the value of an article like that of corn ;
that you cannot take perfect security against that
which you consider one of the main defects of the
existing law, namely the uncertainty as to the future
harvest. WhUe there are great speculations in corn
great quantities of corn will be brought into the
markets of this country. I believe that uncertainty
as to the production of a future harvest will always
exist. There will always be a degree of uncertainty
as to whether a good harvest may not diminish the
value of corn, and therefore those who hold foreign
corn, if they think that the prices of domestic pro-
duce will be affected by the goodness or badness of
a harvest, will conduct their speculations or transac-
tions accordingly, and in the months of August and
September, whetheryou have a fixed duty or no duty
at all, you must expect that, on account of that un-
certainty, considerable quantities of corn will be
thrown upon the market {hear). But it would be
wrong to suppose that these quantities of corn are

190

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thrown upon the market at once. They are retained
for home consumption, but are not immediately thrown
on the home market [hear, hear). Talking these facts
into consideration, I do not think that the existing
corn law is fairly liabletothechargesbroughtagainst
it, or tliat the predictions made as to its failure have
been verified {hear, hear). Sir, I am not prepared
to accept the propositions of the noble lord, much
less to accept those of the hon. gentleman for the re-
peal of the present corn law. I do not defend that
law upon the ground that it is for the special advan-
tage of a particular interest {hear, hear). I beheve
that it would l^e impossible to maintain any law sup-
posed to be founded on such a consideration as that
upon which it is said that this corn law is founded —
a desire to increase the rents to the landowners
{cheers from the Opjmsition). But this I do believes
that looking to the condition of the agricultural in-
terest generally, and to that of all those who are con-
nected with it — looking to the obligations to which
they are subject — I think that any such change in
the corn lawsasthatcontemplatedby thehon. mem-
ber, must tell injuriously — first, no doubt upon the
proprietor of the soil— but I believe that the main
objection to such a proposition would be, that it
would tell more injuriously still upon that great
class whose prosperity is involved in that of the
landowners {Ministerial cheers)." After pointing
out other advantages connected with the law of
1S42, he concluded his remarks by giving a decided
negative to the policy of free trade, thus : — " Now,
I do beheve that the instantaneous application of any
such policy either to the agricultural or colonial in-
terest, though it might be accompanied by a faU of
prices, yet would not be to the advantage of this
great community {cheers). And it is on that ground
— beheving that such a measure as that proposed
would be injurious to every interest — believing that
our colonial relations could not co-exist with the sud-
den application of such a lav/ — believing that the

interests of Ireland would be prejudiced by it

thinking that it would be difficvdt to foresee the
consequences of such a sudden import of corn taking
place, or whether it would have the effect of giving
you security for permanent low prices. I will give
my decided vote against the motion of the hon. gen-
tleman {loud cheers)."

It may not be pleasant to the minister to see
the words uttered six months ago quoted against
him; but, we ask, what dependence can be placed in
a man who declares emjihatically in June that the
measure In-ought forward in 1842 had worked well,
and answered all the purposes intended, and comes
down to the house scarcely six months afterwards,
to inform that assembly that circumstances have so
altered his views, that he is not only prepared to

actually ready to undo that measure which three
years before he had, with great parade, brought
forward as a final settlement of the question ? But
it is useless to waste words'on the subject ; the only
plan now is, for the landed interest to endeavour to
make the best terms for themselves. The corn laws
may be considered as already virtually repealed;
but surely the Government will not refuse to make
recompense to the farmer, by lightening the bvirdens
under which he lal)ours : at all events, the county
members ought to be on the alert, and as clamour
and agitation appear to be the only means by which
any impression can be made on our expediency-
minister, meetings, advocating the repeal of the
malt tax, and the reduction of other burdens on
land, should be held in all parts of the country.

The turn which affairs were likely to take, has
been some time foreseen, and the important fall
which has taken place in prices of wheat and other
grain, during the last two months, has been wholly
caused by the fear of some such measure being
proposed as that which the premier submitted to
the House of Commons on Tuesday the 27th of
January. So great a fall having already occurred,
in anticipation (fully 10s. per quarter, on wheat), we
do not think any further influence is likely to be
produced ; indeed the removal of uncertainty will
probably give an impetus to trade, and as there is
no chance of large foreign arrivals for some months
to come, we should not be surprised if the value
of corn was for a time to tend upwards. Ulti-
mately, however, the eflfect of a free trade must be
to reduce prices of agricultural produce in Great
Britain to the continental level.

The transactions of the month have presented
no feature of interest, business ha\ang been almost
suspended during that period, all parties have
been alike unwilling to enter into extensive opera-
tions until definitely informed as to the steps the
Government intend to take. For a space of nearly
two months merchants and millers have, therefore,
refrained from buying more tl:an absolutely requi-
site to supply their immediate wants, and the
stocks in their hands have been gradually reduced
to so low an ebb as to render it nearly certain that
now, wlien all doubt respecting the corn laws may
be said to be at an end, a very active demand must
succeed to the recent inactivity. We are, therefore^
inclined to think that farmers will yet have an
op])ortunity of disposing of that portion of their
crop still on hand, on more advantageous terms
than those they have recently been obhged to accept,
provided they be not induced by political events to
overload the markets.

In taking our usual monthly retrospect of the
transactions at Mark Lane, we must in the first

support those whom he previously opposed, but is j instance notice the very great falling ; ofF in the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

191

supplies of home-gro^vn wheat. Considering that
the position of affairs has heen of a nature to alarm
rather than to encoui'age the growers, we are dis-
posed to regard this as a proof that the ];)revious
free dehveries had so far reduced the stocks in the
hands of the producers as to render them unwiUing
to go on selling at the materially depreciated prices.
The total arrival of English wheat into London
from the commencement of the month up to Satur-
day the 24th instant has consisted of only 13,807
qrs., against which were received in the correspond-
ing period of 1845, 31,165 qrs. The smallness of the
supply has, however, failed to cause any improvement
in the value of the article ; indeed, from week to week
prices ha\'e given way, owing to the determination
of millers to buy only so much as they could im-
mediately, when converted into flour, dispose of.
The reduction in wheat since the commencement
of the year cannot be estimated at less than 4s. per
qr. ; and, considering that the fall was quite as
great during the month immediately preceding, we
are inchned to believe that prices have now touched
the lowest point. The very wet weather experienced
of late, and the almost total absence of frost, have
prevented any improvement taking place in the
condition of the nev/ wheat ; on the contrary, the
samples have come to hand in worse order week
after week, a circumstance which has not been
without its influence on the trade. Old English
wheat seems now to be nearly exhausted, and for some
time past httle or none has been brought forward ;
the principal London millers had however, until
very latel} , some quantity of old foreign on hand,
which has enabled them to manufacture the damp
parcels of new. Their resources in this respect are
now nearly exhausted, and should business become
more active (as we anticipate it will), the demand
for free foreign wheat must increase in the same
proportion as the inquiry for Enghsh, a mixture
of the t«'o being absolutely requisite to manufac-
ture a good sack of flour. From the cause above
referred to, namely, the possession of old wheat by
the millers, the transactions in free foreign have
been on a strictly retail scale during the month ;
holders have, nevertheless, remained tolerably firm.
The value of the article has certainly given way
more or less, but not to the same extent as English
wheat ; and we doubt whether even the liberation
of the bonded will produce much influence, the
conviction that all now here will be required before
further large arri\'als from abroad can take place
having been greatly strengthened by the statement
delivered by Sir Robert Peel in Parliament respecting
the unfortunate failure of the potato crop. The
operations in bonded wheat have been even more
circumscribed during January than the month im-
mecUately preceding. Not the shghtest inchnation

has been manifested to enter into spec\ilative in-
vestments ; and, beyond a few trifling purchases of
Odessa and Danube wheat for shipment to Bel-
gium, nothing has been done. On the 23rd instant
importers withdrew their samples under the impres-
sion that the corn laws were to be wholly sus-
pended, and the stocks imder lock be declared free.
Since then the inquiry had decidedly improved,
and, in addition to a sale or two of Pohsh, Odessa,
and Danube wheat, at prices not attainable in the
commencement of the month. Several parcels
changed hands on Monday the 26th instant at de-
cidedly enhanced rates.

Rarely have the metropolitan millers expei'ienced
greater difficulty in inducing the bakers to pur-
chase flour than during the month now about to
terminate. The impression that the corn-laws
would be entirely repealed became general several
weeks ago ; and since that period a firm detemiina-
tion has been shown to meet the new order of things
with a complete clearance of stock ; the London
bakers have therefore refused to buy a sack more
flour than they were obliged to take to keep their
business going ; and as a body they may be said
to have made a total clearance of their stores. The
■ nominal top price of town-manufactiu"ed flour has
remained at 56s. per sack ; but this has been no
guide respecting the real value of the article, se-
condary marks having been sold at very irregular
rates. The lowest price taken for Norfolk house-
holds in the river has been 40s. per sack ; latterly,
however, sellers have refused to accept that rate,
42s. having become the selling price. The impor-
tations of foreign flour have not been particularly
large, still its value has tended downwards.
United States good brands, which were worth
30s. per brl.in bond in December, having been sold
at 28s. to 29s., and Canadian free at 35s. perbrl.

With barley of home growth the London, as well
as most of the principal provincial markets have
been well supplied, but comparatively few samples
of fine malting quality have appeared. At Mark
Lane the best sorts have very nearly svipported
their j)revious value, though the demand has been
far from active ; the present price of choice cheva-
lier is still 38s. to 39s., and at no period has it ex-
ceeded 40s. per qr. Secondary and inferior de-
scriptions have, on the other hand, been nearly
unsaleable, and have receded at least Is. to 2s. per
qr. during the month in all parts of the kingdom.
The arrivals of this grain from abroad have not
been large ; but the greater part of what has come
to hand has been entered for home consumption ;
and at present there is little in bond to be liberated
should Sir Robert Peel's new plan come into im-
mediate operation. The malt trade has been
decidedly inactive ; but the scarcity of the finer

192

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

varieties has prevented these receding in value;
and even good samples of brown malt have been
held at 54s., whilst the price of pale Ware has not
been lower than G4s. per qr.

The extent of the potato disease in Ireland has
caused the shipments of oats from that country to
be on a much more moderate scale during the last
month or two than usual; and the arrivals into
London have been extremely small. From our
own coast and Scotland the supply has meanwliile
been moderate ; nor have the receipts from foreign
countries been particularly large. The market has
consequently become quite bare ; and though
prices have not generally been quoted much
higher, in comparing the present value of the
article with what it was at the close of December,
it will be seen that the advance has been rather
important. Good Irish feed oats were then cur-
rently selling at 25s., and other sorts at propor-
tionate rates ; whilst now the first-mentioned kind
cannot be purchased below 27s., and good feeding
qualities from Scotland have lately been held 2Ss.
to 29s. per qr. Shovild the Irish shippers adhere
to the plan they have lately pursued, viz., keep
their oats at home to be converted into meal as a
substitute for potatoes, prices must unquestionably
rise materially here ; as there is no prospect of
foreign supplies at all adequate to the demand
reaching us, the last crop having turned out verj''
indifferently all over the continent of Europe.

Beans have tended downwards in j^rice through-
out the month, though the siipplies brought for-
ward have not been large ; the continued depres-
sion in the value of this article has influenced the
averages ; and the duty,'after having long stood at
the minimum point, is now 2s. 6d. per qr. From
the north of Europe we are not likely to receive
supphes of any importance ; but from the Medi-
terranean a good many cargoes are, we believe, on
passage to England. The extraordmary mildness
of the season has caused peas to be much less ex-
tensively consumed this winter than usual ; and.
though the exports to Holland and Belgium in the
autumn must have made considerable inroads on
the stocks, the supplies hitherto brought forward
have proved more than sufficient for the home de-
mand, and prices of white and blue boilers are now
about 20s. per qr. lower than they were at the
period when the alarm respecting the failure of the
potato crop in the Netherlands was at its height.
Maple and grey peas have also fallen materially,
the former being at present only worth about .36s.
per qr. at Mark Lane, and the latter from 32s. to
34s. per qr.

In referring to the foreign grain trade, we shall
confine our notice principally to wheat, little or
nothing having been donefn spring corn at any of

the continental markets on British account. Even
in wheat the transactions have been of very trifling
importance, o\ving partly to the season of the year
(many of the Baltic ports having for a time been
frozen up) ; but, in a greater degree, to the imcer-
tainty felt as to what would be done in England
with the corn-laws. This question has been nearly
as anxiously watched by our continental neigh-
bours as by ourselves ; and merchants on the other
side have manifested very little inclination to enter
into contracts for spring shipment whilst the mat-
ter remained unsettled.

The latest accounts from Danzig state that the
abandonment of protection by the British Govern-
ment was looked for with so much certainty, that
holders of fine old wheat had refused to conclude
bargains, to ship the best sorts in spring, below
56s. to 57s. per quarter; and even the produce of
last year, weighing only about 60lbs. per bushel,
had been held at 48s. to 49s. per quarter, free on
board. This certainly shows great finnness in the
face of the continued dull accounts from hence, and
plainly proves that foreigners are sanguine of
driving a profitable trade \vith us, should oiir ne-
cessities at any time render us greatly dependent
on them. It is not inscarceyears that prices here will
be much aflFected by giving up the corn laws, hence
the benefit the public are informed they will derive
from this step is by no means so certain to follow.
It is in comparatively abundant seasons, that sup-
plies mil be poured into our markets, and when
assistance is not wanted we shall be sure to have
prices beaten down to a ruinous point.

The advices from the lower Baltic ports are of
a similar character to those from Danzig ; mer-
chants were patiently waiting the issue of afl^airs
in this country, and were not inclined to enter into
business with any degree of precipitation. The
limits of the few English orders received had not
come up to their expectations, and hardly any con-
tracts had been closed, either at Rostock, Wismar,
Stettin, or any of the neighbouring places to ship
wheat in spring. The price for good qualities
ranged at the port named, at from 48s. to 49s.
per quarter, free on board, and an ad^'ance was
deemed more probable than a decline.

At Hamburgh the transactions in wheat appear
to have been entirely of a local nature, notwith-
standing which the finer descriptions of red wheat,
had at no time in January been sold much below
52s. to 53s. per quarter.

In the Dutch and Belgium markets prices have
rather tended upwards. It will be recollected by
our readers that the export of grain from those
countries was prohibited in the autumn, the pro-
hibition extending to next July, whilst the import
was permitted free of duty up to the same time.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

193

The latest quotations of Odessa wheat, at Antwerp,
were 52s. to 52.s. 6d. per qr., which is several
shillings higher than the same sorts may be bought
at (in bond) in London. Still, there is scarcely suf-
ficient margin for profitable shipments from the
latter to the former place.

All over the Mediterranean the value of wheat
has for some time been, and still contiimes, re-
latively higher than in Great Britain, and though
some few cargoes, i)rincipally of low quality, were
shipped for this country when prices were much
higher here, there is no prospect of large supplies
from thence, at least for some months to come.

The most recent accounts from Odessa state
that the export demand for wheat had fallen off"
materially ; the reduced state of the stock and anti-
cipation of a renewed enquiry had, however, pre-
vented much decline taking place in prices, good
qualities being then, still held at 32s. to 33s., and
fine at 34s. to 35s. per qr. free on board.

By the steam ship " Acadia," we receiv^ed ad-
vices from the United States and Canada, up to
the close of December.

At most of the ports in the States large ship-
ments of flour were still in progress to Great Britain,
for which exorbitantly high prices had been j:)aid ;
and as the freight per barrel to England was then
4s. 6d., a material loss must result from these
shipments.

Since the above was in type Sir Robert Peel has
announced the details of his plan for altering the
corn laws.

He proposes that in three years' time all kinds of
foreign grain, pulse, and flour shall be imported at
a nominal duty, and that till then the rates charge-
able shall vary according to the average price in the
following proportion : —

On wheat, when the average price is under 48s.
per qr., the duty to be 10s. per qr.

48s. to 49s.
49s. to 50s.
50s. to 51s.
51s. to 52s.
52s. to 53s.

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

9s.
8s.
7s.
6s.
5s.
4s.

53s. and upwards

On barley, beans, and peas, when the average price
is under 26s, i^er qr., the duty 5s. Od.

26s. to 27s.
27s. to 28s.
28s. to 29s.
29s. to 30s,
30s. to 31s,

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

4s. 6d.
4s. Od.
3s. 6d.
3s. Od.
2s. 6d,
2s, Od.

31s. and upwards

On oats, when the average price is under 18s. per

qr., the duty to be 4s. Od. per qr.

18s. to 19s. ditto 3s. 6d. „

19s. to 20s. ditto 3s. Od. „

20s. to 21s. ditto 2s. 6d, „

21s, to 22s. ditto 2s, Od, „

22s. and upwards Is. 6d. „

The duties on flour and meal are to have the
same proportion to that on wheat as at present.

On all kinds of seeds a uniform duty of 5s. per
cwt. is to be levied, and Indian corn is at all times
to be admitted at a nominal duty. These are the
leading features in his new plan.

The reductions he proposes to make in the bur-
dens on the land, by way of compensation, are of
so trifling a character that they cannot have the
least influence in suljstantially recompensing the
farmer for what he is called upon to give up. The
only redeeming point in the scheme proposed is in
our opinion the facilities intended to be given by
the Government to encourage draining.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE

January 26.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 52 58

Old, red 56 62

Rye, old a4 38

Bakley, Grinding, 28 31 Malting 34 —

Irish 27 28

Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 58 63

Kingston and Ware 60 —

Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnshire, feed 22

Youghall and Cork, black. . 22

Dublin 23

Waterford, white 21

Newry...... 25

Galway 21

Scotch, feed 24

Clonniel 24

Londonderry 25

Beans, Tick, new 34

Peas, Grey 36

White 46

Flouk, Town-made 55 46 Suffolk 42 —
Stockton and Norfolk 40 41 Irish

23
24
23
27

25
26
38

48

White .. 54 63

Do 60 64

New.... bS 40

Chevalier 36 —

Bere ... 26 27

Brown.. 56 60

Chevalier 65 —

Potato.. 26 —

Cork,white23 24

Westport 24 —

Black .. 23 24

Potato . . 27 80

Limerick 27 80

Sligo 26 27

Old, small 52 —

Maple . . 36 —

Boilers.. 60 —

per sk. of 2801bB.

44 46

FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic 52 56 fine — 60

Hamburg 50 52

Rostock 52 54

Barley 23 26

Oats, Brew 24 28 Feed...

Beans 44 —

Peas 50 —

Flour, American, per brl 30 32 Baltic..

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN

WEEKLY AVERAGES by

the Imp. Quarter, from the

Gazette, of Friday last,

Jan. 23rd, 1846.

s. d.

Whbat 56 2

Barley 31 11

Oats 22 3

Rye 34 9

Beans 36 9

Pkas 39 3

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the last
year, Friday, Jan. 24th,
1845.

8. r).

Wheat 45 7

Barley 34 7

Oats 21 8

Rye 3t 4

Beans 35 7

Pbas .. 35 8

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ending .V

Dec. 13th

20th

27th

Jan. 3rd

10th

17th

Apjrrrcjate averajre of
the sU weeks wliicL
reffulatea the duly.
Duties payahle in
London till Wed-
nesday next inclu-
sive, and at the Out-
ports till the arrival
of the mail of that
day from London , .
Do. on ^rain from
British possesBions
out of Europe .. .

59 4
57 11
55 4

55 1

56 3
56 2

16 0
3 0

Barley.

Oats.

Rye.

Beans.!

82 9

24

6

86 8

40 8

32 7

23

4

34 5

39 6

32 5

23

0

32 8

38 6

31 11

22

8

33 6

37 9

31 10

21

9

33 11

36 8

31 11

22

3

34 9

30 9

32 3

22

10

34 4

38 4

6 0

6

0

8 6

4 6

0 6

1

6

0 6

0 6

43 6
42 5
39 10
39 I

38 11

39 3

2 6
0 Q

194

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRICES OF SEEDS.

January 26.
It being quite a matter of doubt, whether any altera-
tion is to take place in the duties on Cloverseed and
other seeds, the trade was in suspense, holders of bonded
not being at all anxious to press sales. Canaryseed was
more sought after, and 2s. to 3s. per quarter higher.
Quotations of other articles remained nominally unal-
tered.

Sbed, Rape 24Z. 26!. Irish .. — .'. —/.per last.

Ditto, new 25?. —L per last.

Linseed, Baltic. 40 44 Odessa 45 47

Mustard, white 10 12 brown — — per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English,. — lU. 10s. to 12/. Os.per 1000

Linseed, English, sowing 54

Carraway 44

Coriander 11

Mustard, brown, new. . . . 10

Hempseed 35

Trefoil 17

60 crushing 45 47 per qr

46 new .. 48 00 per cwi.

14 percwt.

12 white.. 9 11 p. busli

88 per qr.
24 old . . — new —

PRICES OF HOPS.
BOROUGH, Monday, Jan. 26.
The demand for Hops has not been of any magnitude,
and the supply is moderate. Quotations have been very
fairly supported for new samples, viz. : — Sussex pockets,
61. 10s. to 71. 2s. ; Weald of Kent, do., 6/. 10s. to 7/.
10s. ; Mid Kent, do., 71. 7s. to 9/. 9s. ; East Kent, do.,
8^. 8s. to lO;. 10s. ; Mid Kent, bags, 8^. 5s. to 9/. 5s.
per cwt,

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHWARK, Waterside, Jan. 26.
The supply, since our last report, has been very limited
by the sailing vessels; notwithstandmg, those left of
former arrivals, with the supply by the steamboats and
railways, have been fully sufficient for the present limited
demand, and the trade is languid at the following prices :
York Reds from 80s. to 130s. ; do. Regents, 90s. to
120s. ; Lincolnshire Kidneys 90s. ; Scotch Reds, 50s. to
80s. There were one or two fresh cargoes that arrived at
the close of the week, when 85s. to 90s. was asked ; but
few sales have been effected at the last named prices.
Jersey Blues, 75s. to 80s.

Weekly Prices of Potatoes per ton, in Covent

Garden Market, in 1844, 1845, and 1846.

1844-5.

1845-6.

November 23

50s. to 50s.

Novemb.22

70s. to 130s.

30

50 75

29

80 140 ;

December 7

50 75

Decemb. 6

80 160

14

50 70

13

80 160

21

50 70

20

80 160

28

50 70

27

80 160.

Jan 4

50 80

Jan 3

80 160 ,

11

50 80

10

80 160

18

50 80

17

80 160]

25

50 80

24

80 160,

December

Jan.

Also at the Waterside, Southivark.

50s. to 70s.
50 70

50
50
55
60
60
60

70
70
75
80
80
80

Decemb. 1

Jan

50s. to 120
50 1201

120J
120
120
120
120,
120

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.

LEEDS, Jan. 23.— The demand for wool this week
has been steady, and prices are firm at last week's
prices.

WAKEFIELD, Jan. 23.— There is no alteration in
the value of wool this week, although sales have hardly
been so extensive as last week, from the uncertain state
of political matters, and both parties seem waiting tlie
result of last week.

LIVERPOOL, Jan. 24.

Scotch. — There has been a moderate business doing
in laid Highland Wool at late rates ; white Highland is
still neglected. There has been a good business done in
both cross and Cheviots of a good character and class ;
inferior of both kinds continue to be neglected.

s. d. s. d.
Laid Hiorhlanl Wool, per 241bs .... 9 3 to 9 6

White Highland do 12

Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 11

Do. do.. washed 12

1^0. Chevot do. unwashed .... 12

Do, do. .washed 14

Wii'te Do, do 24

3

13

0

0

12

6

0

13

6

0

14

0

6

18

0

0

28

6

FOREIGN.

The market for Wool has been rather dull, in conse-
quence of the important proceedings in Parliament, and
no leading staple can be expected to assume its right
position until the many auxiliary articles connected with
it are placed in a permanent scale of duties. The
anxiety among all classes is most intense, and the Corn-
law agitation deranges every interest. But for this we
should, doubtless, have had an improvement, as other
matters are in favour of brisker trade.

Accounts of the 10th inst., from Leipsic, state that
the demand for woollen goods had been bad, not above
half the quantity offered having found buyers. The
average reduction in prices, compared with last year,
was 2 rix-dollars per piece. Other woollens were in a
similar position, only the newest fabrics being sold. The
Greeh buyers took more of the English than of the
Zoilverein goods. In sheep's wool a fair business was
done. The BerUn merchants, however, attracted a good
many buyers from Leipsic, by offering wool at 15 to 20
rix-doUars decline, whereas the holders of good clips
who came to the Leipsic market did not feel disposed to
take even 8 or 10 rix-dollars less. Money was scarce.

Advices from Konigsberg state that the Wool fairs of
last year did not go ofi' so well as could have been
wished, and the growing competition of Australian is
felt as injurious to the German staple.

At Pesth, on the 7th inst,, there was a good demand
for Wool, owing to the large sales of cloth.

In the Breslau market, also, on the 12th inst., there
was more doing in Wool.

LEEDS, Jan. 23. — A fair amount of business has
been done in Foreign Wools during the past week, and
a feeling of greater confidence begins to manifest itself,
both amongst manufacturers and dealers. Prices have
also in some measure participated in the improvement.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

195

PRICES OF SHARES.

Div. last
half year

RAILWAYS,

130 a 29

3s
Idis

.S4.i a 3

55

I4| ai

4j a 4

■n a i

Aberdeen 51 pd

Amber, Notnghm., Boston, & Krewash
June 2g? pd

■2/ psli Armagh, Colcraine,Portrush'J5ishlg?pd
Aylesbury and Thame . . 251 sh 1|Z pd
Belfast and County Down . . . -2^1 pd
Bideford and Tavistock l|i pd

10s Birmingham and GhnicesterlOO; sh pd

Do. New, iss. 7J dis. .. 25^ sh 17^/ pd
Birmingham and Oxforil Junction,
20? sh 21 pd
Boston, Stamford, and Birmingh. 22spfl
Brighton, Lewes, & Hastin,gs,50/sli20/pd

USspsh Bristol and Exeter.... \00l sh 701 pd
Ditto New 335Z sh 21 pd

12s p sh Bristol and Gloucester ..501 sh 3(»; pd
Bristol and Liverpool Junction 2.^/ pd

Caledonian 50^ sh 10? pd

Ditto New 251 sh 21)1 yx}

Do. Extension 50/ sh 2^1 pd

Cheltenham and Oxford 21 pd

Chelmsford and Bury If? pd

Chester and Holyhead. ..50/ sh lid pd I6J

Chester and Manchester 42s pd I dis

Clydesdale Junction 51 pd

Co"rk,Blackrock,&Passages22ssh22spd

Cork and Killarney 50.' sh 2^/ pd

Cork and Waterford 25/ sh l|/ pd

Cornwall 50/ sh 5/ pd

Derby, Uttoxeter, and Stafford 2§/ pd
Direct M anchester( Remington's) 20/sh

23/pd If a 5
Do. Do. (Rastrick's) . . . 5^/ pd 4

Direct Northern 50/ sh 2 J/ pd

Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd

Dublin and Armagh I5/ pd

Dublin & Belfast Junction. ..50.'sh 5/pd
Dublin, Belfast, &Coleraine,50'sh2j/pd

Dublin and Galway 50/ sh 4/ pd

Dundalk and Enniskillen 50/sh 5/pd

3s p sli Eastern Counties .. 25/ sh 14/ 16s pd

Do. New 25/ sh 6/ 16s pd

Do Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 13s 4dsh pd
Ditto ditto, No. 3 ..6/13s4d 6/l3s4d

East Dereham and Norwich 1/ pd

Eastern Union 50/ sh 25/ pd

Ditto Quarter Shares... 12j/sh 3^/ pd

East Lincolnshire li/ pd

East and West of England .... If/ pd

U 10s psjEdinburgh& Glasgow .... 50/ sIi pd
Ditto Half Shares, 5/pd

7s 6d p s Ditto Quarter Shares 12j/ sh pd

Ditto New i Shares 12J/ sh 7^/ pd 13^

Edinburgh and Northern,25/sh l^/pd

Edinburgh and Perth 3/ pd 43

Ely and Huntingdon . . 25/ sh 5/ pd

Enniskillen and Sligo 2^/ pd

Exeter.Yeovil, &Dorchest.,50/sh2|/pd2j a J
Glouc, Aberystwith, and Central of

Wales ". 25/ sh l|/pd 1 a 0?

Goole Doncast.&Sheffld., 20/sh 42s pd 2* pm

Grand Junction 100/ sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd

Ditto Quarter Shares 26/ sh pd

Grand Union (NottingIi.&Lynn)ia/ pd 1| a §
Great Leinster & Munster 100/sh7^/pd
Great Eastjru and Western.. . 2^/ pd 1,J
Great Grimsby 6c Sheffield, 50/sh 5/ pd
Great Southern & Western (Ireland)

50/ sh 15/ pd 21^ a 2
Ditto Extension ...... 50/ sh 12^/ pd

Great Munster 2^/ pd

Great North of England.... 100/ sh prl 217jalSj

Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd 51^a50^

Ditto New 30/ sh 5/pd 33

Great North of Scotland 2' / pd

Great Western 100/ sh 85/ pd 161 a 3

Ditto Half Shares 60/ sh pd

Ditto Quarter Shares 5/ pd 19 a 20

5/ per ct
5/ perct
5/ per ct

3/ p sh
10s p sh

4/ per ct
4/ per ct

1/ per ct

l/15s p
8s9d p sIi

23 a

751 a 5
15

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 20/ pd

Guildford, Farnham, and Povtsmoutli,
60/ sh 5/pd

Harwich 20/sh 1/ pd

Hull and Selby 50/6hpd

Do. Quarter Shares 12,^/ sh pd

Do. Half Shares 25/ sh 7/ pd

Inverness and Elgin . . . 20/ sh 2/ pd

Irish North Midland 1|/ pd

Isle of Axholme 2g!pd

S6 a 7

5,000
10,000

5,100
7,908
11,475

4125000!
41,250
54,450

43,000

36,000
4,5U0

33,000
3.'5,000

43,077
11,130

90,000
20,000

lo.ono

10,000
8,000

13,000
13,0(10
13,000

22,750
30,000
30,000

41.55400;
12,500

978500;
15,000

20,000
20,000

21,000
36,000

0,250
3,136
12,208

12,000
19,000
19,000

53^ a 3

4i/percl
4|/ perct
4|/ perct

5/ per ct
5/ per ct
U per ct

;l0s p sh
^sOUpsh

10s
2/Ospsh

pm
g pm

1|

H a

4

in

a 3

50 a

1

2S!f

a 7

m

a 4

81

■J| a

h

3*

08^

a 7^

'^H

■i2 a

20

221

a 1

lU a

Ui

i/lSs5ps
.'5s8a p

I / p sh

3/ per cl

46Li3dpc
il p sh

19s6dpi
10s p si

1/ lOs
22s 6d

74 6d

Kendal and Windermere 25/ sh 1 J/ pd
Lancaster and Carlisle... 50/ sh 80/ pd

Leeds & Carlisle 2*/ i-d

Leicester and Birmingham20/^h 22spd
Leicester and Bedford.. 20/ sh22spd
Leic.,Tam.,Cov.,Bir.&Triit.VaIl,Junc.
20/sh 42spd
Limerick and Waterford 50/ sli 7/ pd
Liverpool & Manchester. . . . 100/ sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 50/sh pd

Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh pd

Liverpool & Leed; Direct 50/sh 2|/pd
Lpool., Manch., and Newcastle Junc-
tion 2^/ pd

London & Birmingham Stock

Ditto Thirds 32/ sh 16/ pd

Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd

London and Birmingham Extension
25/ sh 1|/ pd
London & Blackwall . . Av. 16/ 13s 4d

Ditto New IJ/pd

Ditto Extension 3/ pd

London a«d Brighton 50/sh pd

Ditto Consolidated Eighths50/sh 40/pd

Ditto Fifths 50/ sh 1 0/ pd

London & Croydon .... Av. IS/ 15s 9d
Do. Guaranteed 5 per Ct.. 9/ sli 9/ pd
Lon., Chelt., Oxf., Glouc, and Hrfd.,
25/ sh If/ pd
London & Greenwich . . Av. 12/ 15s 4d
Preference or Privilege. Av. 18/ 17s 2d
London, Hounslow, & Western. .2/ pd
London & South West.. .Av.41/6s lOd
DittoConsolidatedEighths,40;psh28/pd

Ditto New 50/sh7*/pd

Ditto New 40/ sh 6/ pd

London and York 50/sh 2^1 pd

London and Windsor. . . . 25/ sh 1/ pd
London, Warwick, & Kidder. 50/ sh
2i/pd
London, Salisbury, & Yeovil 50/ sh
2^/ pd
Londonderry&Coleraine, 50/ sh 2^/ pd
Londonderry&Enniskillen50/sh 25/ pd

Lynn and Ely 25/ sli 5/ pd

Lynn and Dereham .... 25/ sh 5/ pd
Manchester & Leeds .. 100/ sh 82/ pd

Ditto Half Shares 50/sh 88 ! pd

Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto Fifths l/pj[l2j a |

Ditto Sixteenths Q\l sh 51/ pd|

Manchester & Birming.. 40/sh40/pd77 a 8

Do. J Shares 10/ sh 4/ pd,ll| a i

Do. New J Shares 10/ sh 2/ pd 9J a J

Do. Continuation and Welsh Junc-
tion 1|/ pd li

Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock,

20/ sh 4as pd 2i pm
Manchester, Bir., & Mould Junction
Manchester to Southampton... 2/ pd 3g a \

Midland Stock 156 a 3

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd

iDitto New 40/sh 12/ pd 28^ a 9

Ditto Birmingham & Derby.... Stock 123 a 2
MidlandGrt.West.(Irish) 50/ sh 25/ pd

Do. Extension to Sligo 85/ pd

Newcastle and Carlisle .... 100/ sh pd
Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire

Junction 1 1/ pd

Newcstl&DarIingtJunc...25;sh25/pd 59 a 8
Ditto New (Brandling).. 25/ sh 20/pd 53 a i^
Newcastle & Berwick . . 25/ sh 10/ pil 2iaa20|
Newport -and Abergavenny.... 2^/ pd

New Ross and Carlow 22s pd

Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 2^/ pd 1| a 5
Newark, Sheffield, & Boston 25/ sh

2^1 pd 3 a 2J

North British 25/ sh 17^/ pd 24| a 5

Ditto J Shares 12J'sh 3^/pJ 7^ a J

Ditto Carlisle Extension. 12^/sh ij/pd 3J a g

Ditto Dalkeith 5/ sh pd .|

North Devon 2/ pd 68 a 71

Northern & Eastern .... 50/ sh 50' \:i
Do. Scrip . . iss. 5 dis. . .60/ sh 40/ pd

Do. J Shares 12/ 10s sli pd

Do, New 1/ pdil9 a 18

NorthKent&Direct Dover, 50/sh 2^/pd 3'

1 a i
77 a 8
43 a 2
19 a 18^

4i a I

n af

6 a i

134

63J

North Staffordshire.... 20/ sh 42s. pd

North Wales 25/sh 3^/ pd

Norwich and Brandon . . ,20/ sh 18/ pd
Ditto New 10ish3/pd

35 pm
85 a 4

7 a 64

1

661

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

125,000

13*

12

2i pm
•3J a i

2k
lia

i

3i a

Oi a

Nortliamptoi), Banbury, &Clielt., 2/ pd if a |
Oxford, Witney.&Cheltenham.. 1%! pfl
Oxf.,Worcest.&Wolverhamp., 124^ pd 15j a |
Oxf., Gosp., Portsm., and Southarap.,

20/ sh 42s pd g dis

Perth and Inverness 2ii pd

Pilbrow Atmospheric IZ pd

Portsmouth Direct 50ish3J< pd 4J a }

Preston &Wy re 25/ sh pd 3i^ a ^

Do. J Shares 2jZ pd 6|

Richmond 207 sh 10/ pd lt>| a 16

Rugby and Huntingdon. .20/ sh 2/ pd IJ

Scottish Central 25/ sh 7J/ pd 15| a 16

Scottish Midland 25/ sh 5/ pd 6i a J

Slieffield aiidMancliester.. 100/ sh pd

Ditto A Shares 25/ sli 8/ pd

Shrewsbury & Birmingh.50/ sh 2^/ pd 4J a 4

Shropshire Union 20/ sh 22s pd j pm

Shrewsbury & Hereford 2§/ pd 2^

Sligo and Shannon 2|/ pd

Somersetshire Midland 2|/ pd

South Devon 50/ sh 25/ pd 26.1

ISsGdps SouthEasternandDover. .Av.33/ 2s4d'38^ a 9
Islldps Ditto New, iss. at 32/ No.l,.50/sbl6/pd, :9i
Ditto New 33/ 6s 8d..No.2,50/shlO/pd " "

Ditto New 30/ No 3 10/ pd

Ditlo New No.4,50/sh24/|jd

South Midland 20/ sh 42s pd

South Wales 50/ sh 2^/ pd

Stafl'ordshire & Shropshire 50/sh2a/pd
Staines and Richmond . 20/ sh 1/ pd
Tean and Dove Valley.. 20/ sh 1|/ pd

Trent Valley 20/ sh 5/ pd

Trent Valley & Holyhead Junction,
20/ sh 2^/ pd

Vale of Neath 2/ pd

Warwickshire and London 2()/shl^/pd
Waterford and Kilkenny, 20/ sh 3/ pd
Waterford,Wexford,&Valentia, Ip pd IJ a
Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow, and

Dublin lil pd

Welsh Midland 2J/ pd

West Cornwall 20/ sh 1 1/ pd

West End and Southern Counties

50/ sh 1^/ pd

West London, Old Shares.. 20/ sh pd

West Yorkshire 50/ sh 23/ pd

Wexford and Carlow 2^/ pd

Wilts, Somerset, and Southampton,
20/ sh 1|/ pd
Wilts, Somerset, and Weymouth, 50/
Bh 2i/ pd
Worcester, Shrewsbury, and Crewe
Union, IJ/ pd
Worcester & South Wales 20/ sh 42s pd
10s Yarmouth and Norwich 20/ sh 20/ pd

2s 3d Ditto New 20/ sh 20/ pd

York and CarMBle 2|/pd2J a |

5/ perct York & North Midland .... 50/sh pd 112

5/ perct Ditto Half Shares 25/sh pd

Ditto Scarboro' Branch.. 25/sh 25/ pd 57

5/ per ct Ditto Selby 50/ sh30/ pd88 a 7

Ditto Extension 25/ sh 15/pd 40 a 39J

FOREIGN RAILWAYS.

Anglo-Belgian 4/ pd

Boulogne and Amiens. . 20/ sh 10/ pd 12J a
Bordeaux ScVlediterranean 20/ sh 2/ pd
Bordeaux and Toulouse (Mackenzie)

20/ sh 2/ pd 2 a J
Bordeaux,Toulouse,&Cette, (Espalete)

20/ sli 2/ pd 2 a J

Central of Spain 20/ sh 2/ pd

Ceylon 5s pd 1 a J

Demerara 2J/ pd

Dendre Valley 20/ sh 2/ pd OJ

Dijon and Mulhouse 20/ sli 2/ pd

Dutch Rhenish 20/sh 5/pd 8r a 8

East Indian 5s pd l| a

Great North, of France, (Constituted)

20/ sli 5/ pd 15|al4a
Great Paris and Lyons . . 20/ sh 2/ pd 2| a J
Great Western Bengal ........ 5s pd o| a I

Great Western Canada. .22 j/sh 3^/pd

Italian and Austrian 3/ pd

Jamaica&;SouthMidlndJunc.20/shUpd

Jamaica North Midland 1/ pd

Do. Extension 20/ sh 1/ pd

120,000

25,000
130,000
125,000

80,0(10

72,000

120,000

40,000

31,000
84,000

70,000
12,000

22,500

20,000

5,000

20,000
4,000
40,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
20,000
10,000

10,000
20,000
10,000
60,000

4,000
10,000
15,000

2.000
20,000
10,000

6,000
1 1 ,000
12,000
10,000

1,500
15,000

5,000
20,000

5,051
20,000
11,500
10,000

7,000
43,174

10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000

5,000

2,700
20,000

14,000
4,000

2A a

m a I

llg ai
4 dis

3J

Jersey IZ pd IJ

Louvaine and .Toraeppe.. 20/ sh 4/ pd

Lyons and Avignon 20/ sh 2/ pd

Luxembourg 20/ sh 4/ pd

Namur and Liege 20/ sh 4/ pd

North Jamaica 1/ pd

Orleans and Vierzon . ..20/ sh 10/ pd
Orleans and Bourdeaux ..20/ sh 6/ pd
Ovir Yssel....20/ 16s8dsh 4/3s4d pd
Paris and Lyons(Latfiie) 20/ sh 2/ pd
Paris&.Lyoiis(Ganiieron's)20/ sh 3/ pd
Paris and Lyons (Calon's) 20/ sli 2/ pd

Paris and Orleans 20/ sh pd

1/ Paris and Rouen 20/ sh 20/ pd

Paris and Strasbourg (Ganneron's)

20/ sh 2/ pd

Do. Do. (Compe de L'Est) 2/ pd

Do. Do. (Aymard's) 2^/ pd

Paris and St. Quentin... 21/ sli 2/ pd

Rouen and Havre 20/ sh 18/ pd iS

Royal North of Spain .. 20/ sh 2/ pd

Sambre and Meuse 20/ sh 6/ pd 8 a 5|

Strasburg aiid Bale 14/ sh pd

St. Laurence and Atlantic ...

Tournay, Jurbi^e, Landen & Hasselt,
4/ pd
Tours&Nantes( JIackenzie)20/ sh 4/ pd
Ditto Ditto (Lefebvies)20/ sh 2/ pd
jDitto Ditto (O'Neill's) 20/ sh 2/ pd
;We5t Flanders 4/ pd

JOINT STOCK BANKS.

6/ per cl Australasia 40/ sh pd 27 a 6^

5/ per cl British North American 50/sh pd

6/ per ct Ceylon 25/ sh pd

5/ per ct Commircial of London 100/ sh 20/ pd

5/ i)er ct Colonial 100/ sli 25/ pd

0/ per ct Ionian 25/ sh pd

6/ per ct London and Westm. . . 100/ sh 20/ pd
6/ per ct London Joint Stock .... 50/ sh 10/ pd
8/ per cl Provincial of Ireland.. ..100/sh 25/ pd

per cl Ditto New 10/ sh pii

5/ per cl National of Ireland .... 50/ sh 20/ pd
5/ per ct National Provincial of England 100/
sh 35/ pd

5/ per cl Ditto New 20/ sh 10/ pd

6/ per ct Union of Australia 25/ sh pd

Do. Do 2J/pd

|5/ per ct Union of London 50/sh 10/ pd 12

MINES.

1/ Alten 15/shl4J/pd

Anglo Mexican, iss. 5/ p. 100 sh pd

Ditto Subscription 25/ pd

Bolanos Scrip

British Iron 20/ sh 10/pd

10s Brazilian Imp. iss. 5/p. 35/ sh 21/ pd

Do.Mocaubas&CocaesUnited 25/ sh pd

I/5s Do. St. John Del Rey .... 20/ sh 15/pd

Cobre Copper 40/ pd

Columbian iss. 5/ pra 55/ sh pd

Ditto New 11/shpd

Galvanized Iron 10/ sh pd

Ditio New 10/ sh 7^ pd

General Mining 20/ sh pd

7s 6d Mexican 60/ sh 59/ pd

10/ p sh Mining Comp. of Ireland 25/ sh 7/ pd

Real del Monte, Unregistered Av. ... ,3^

Rhymney Iron 50/ sh pd

Santiago de Cuba .... 25/sh 10/ pd
United Mexican, average 28/ 2s 8|d

I MISCELLANEOUS.

Australian Agricult. ... 100/sh 30/ pd 31

1/ 4s Anglo Mexican Mint 10/ sh pd

6/ per ct [Canada 100/ sh 32^/ pd

5/ per cl Upper Canada Bonds . . 95J

5/ per ctjComp. Copper Miners in England

100/ sh 50-20/ pd

5/ per ct General Rever.& Invest... 100/sh pd

&;bs.2/
4J/perct|Equit. Reversionary .. 100/ sli 85/ pd

1/ 8s and Gen. Steam Navigat 15/ sh 14/ pd 27

2s 6d bs
7/ per cl Peninsular & Oriet Steam 50/sh 15/ pd

4jperclDitto 50/ sh 10/ pdi26 a 7

1/ 10s Rever sionary Int. Soc... 100/ sh pd|99 ex d
6/ per ct Royal Mail Steam 60/ pd

South AiiJtralian 25/sh 20/ pd|

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London.

^ ?

-"•--..ta<#

I Eertii.

^

y^^.

^'4

/^/ ^y~y^'f-'<^f ^^

THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.

MARCH, 1846.

No. 3.— Vol. XIIL]

[Second Series.

PLATE I.
PORTRAIT OF COLONEL LE COUTEUR.

ENGKAVED BY J. B. HUNT, FROM A I'AINTING BY J. BERTEAN.

PLATE II.

THE BARON; Winner of the St. Leger, 1845.

ENGRAVED BY E. HACKER, FROM A PAINTING BY J, F. HERRING, SEN.
(For description see page 208.^

COLONEL LE COUTEUR.

AUTHOR OF "ESSAY ON WHEAT, &C.

So much real and rational amusement accom-
panies the study and practice of agriculture as to
cause one frequently to hesitate whether to rank it
as a pleasure or a profession. Classing it how-
ever, more legitimately amongst the latter, we
have every confidence in affirming that there is
no pursuit to be engaged on with less forced appli-
cation, or continued with more spontaneous attrac-
tions. The business of the farm, indeed, as we
may everywhere alight upon examples, is com-
monly liad recourse to by the best and most pro-
minent men as a positive relief to more onerous,
though scarcely more intellectual labours. They
turn to it as an accredited means by which bodily
health and mental vigour may be equally in-
creased ; and happily the direction of the most re-
fined taste and highest abibty towards rural affairs
has seldom been without a recijjrocal advantage.
Fairly and only properly considered, there are few

I themes would afford more food for reflection, more

II scope for innate talent, or a better employment for
il an enterjirising sjiirit than agriculture ; while none
H could enlist these properties with a greater or more
H direct tendency towards the common good. It

11 OLD SERIES:]

h

may, perhaps, be argued, that when men, however
great their worth, merely affect a particular science
or occupation as a change or resting time to
other duties for which they have more esjiecially
and attentively prepared themselves, no striking
improvement is likely to be the result of their hoM-
day thoughts and acts. In other words, that gen-
tlemen who occasionally " play at fai'ming," though
they may do themseh-es little harm, are not the
most promising people to choose for doing the
whole ])ody of working farmers any good. In op-
position to this, it must he remembered that few
good or great minds are apt to trifle with any sub-
ject they may judge worthy of attending to at all,
and that no calling (as we have said) is more en-
gaging in its nature, when only once commenced,
than that of the farmer. Again, let it l)e im-
pressed, that experiments in agriculture — the lead-
ing feature of course in (jur progress — require, to
be tested with any effect, an amount of attention
and capital which the tenant would, in these days,
be very seldom able to allow ; even supi)osing him
to possess the genius and spirit for attempting
them. Our great hopes, then, must be in gentle-

o No. 3.~V0L. XXIV.

198

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

men, who, with educated tastes and generous mo-
tives, have the means to support the principles and
the completion of those studies on which they have
so honourably, so disinterestedly, and so usefully
employed themselves. This we take as our stan-
dard of an EMINENT BRITISH FARMER, an high
and enviable character, that either in purity of
purpose, perseverance in action, or excellence in ex-
position, we beg leave to introduce Colonel Le
Couteur as having fairly fought for and as deser-
vedly earned.

The efforts of Colonel Le Couteur to advance
the cause of agriculture, though scarcely ever
ceasing when once he had turned his attention to
it, are yet comparatively of but recent date. The
scenes in which his early life was passed, and in-
deed his own address and success on appearing in
them, gave little promise of his ever obtaining any
eminence in that sphere of which it now becomes
our pleasing duty to speak of him. He is, in fact,
one of those we have alluded to, as taking to the
business of the farm, in the first place, chiefly by
way of filling up a vacuum, that to a naturally active
disposition is altogether tmbearable. From his
very birth, his ideas would seem to have had
essentially a military turn ; the eldest son of one
who had well served his covmtry as a soldier — the
late General Le Couteur, of Belle Vue, Jersey —
everything determined him on becoming one
himself, and \vith that view was his education
entirely regulated. He accordingly in due time,
aiTived at the Military College, Marlow (since
removed to Sandhurst), where he quickly gave
evidence of an ability and industry that has in-
variably characterised every act his disposition or
his duty has induced him to undertake. During
his residence at the University, we find amongst
other good features, that he held the appointment
of Senior Under Officer, and at length finished ofl^
a highly creditable course of study, by obtaining
that crowning point with the young soldier — his
commission — by pubUc examination.

From this period, the life of Colonel Le Couteur
as a soldier amply fulfilled that his college progress
had given so good cause to expect. During the
whole of the war in Canada he was, we may in good
truth venture to say, on active service; affording
the right division his assistance as adjutant at one
time, then seeking a reputation at the cannon's
mouth as acting engineer, and at another season
scouring the country to find food for the men as
commissary, by way of change to the " food for
powder" employment he had originally commenced
with. In the dangers, moreover, as well as hon-
ours of these appointments, he had undoubtedly
his full share ; being, through the fortune of war,
blown up by the springing of a mine in the storm-

ing of Fort Erse, and playing a good part, though
with less imminent peril, at the battles of Niagara,
Sackett's Harbour, and many other minor engage-
ments. The next office we trace Captain Le Cou-
teur as filling, after this, was military secretary to
his father's staff in the West Indies— the last, we
believe, he ever engaged in, as his own regiment,
the 104th, was subsequently disbanded, and the
captain with his brother oflficers placed on half-pay.

Captain Le Couteur now returned to and settled
in his own native island, Jersey; but intent on
anything but passing his time in that idleness of
glory to which some — though certainly not the
majority — of our heroes are and have been occa-
sionally prone. A simple enumeration of the hon-
ourable distinctions his worth, services, and talents,
have obtained for him here must be all we can find
space for pi'evious to touching on that part of the
gallant gentleman's life which more particularly re-
lates to our own object. He soon, then, became a
leading member of the Legislative Assembly, after-
wards a Jurat of the Royal Court, a Colonel in the 1st
Regiment of Royal Jersey Militia, permanent High
SheriflF of Jersey, and, lastly, an Aide-de-Camp to
his late Majesty, WiUiam the Fourth.* Strong
and gratifying proofs of Colonel Le Couteur's effi-
ciency as a soldier and a civilian that require no
comment, but which his equally good services as
an agriculturist must, we flatter ourselves, tend in
no small degree to support.

In our biographical notice of the last portrait in
this series pubhshed — that of Mr. Jaques, of Easby
Abbey — we had good occasion to dwell on the ad-
vantages arising from gentlemen not merely put-
ting down their names and their subscriptions to
agricultural associations, but more especially from
any active personal assistance they may have it
in their power to offer. What we then said of
Mr. Jaques's able services on this point we might
very fairly repeat now in estimating those of Colonel
Le Couteur, for they have in their object and effect
on such societies been materially similar. In 1832,
the Colonel having at that period fully entered on
agragrian pursuits, or, in the words he quotes in
his very excellent work on wheat, "turned his
sword into a ploughshare," founded — in conjunc-
tion ^^'ith a few other gentlemen — the Jersey Agri-
cultural and Horticultural Society, of which he was
originally, and stLU continues to be, honorary and
acting secretary. The value of a club of this de-
scription, in a locality comparatively isolated, must
be even greater than if its members were sur-
rounded by plough and pasture instead of salt

* Colonel Le Couteur is also a fellow of the
Royal Society, and a Member of the Society of
Arts.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

199

water ; through it they may ol)taiii every iini)rove-
ment either England or France has suggested; and
by its agency, as has been veiy well proved, may
bring out to the best advantage that produce
in which their own small territory has been found
to excel. This has been more particularly the case
with the fine seed wheat and the deseiTedly cele-
l)rated Jersey l)reed of cows, which have, since the
formation of the agricultural society, engaged a
notice and commanded a market they had never
prenously been prepared for.

For the fame of the wheat samjjles, as we shall
presently show, the island has almost, if not en-
tirely, to thank Colonel Le Couteur ; while his
associates would, we have little doubt, be as ready
to allow the greatness of his exertions in all matters
connected with the advancement of the Jersey
Agricultural Association, as we can in that of agri-
culture more generally.

In at once doing our part, that is, in proclaiming
the labours of Colonel Le Couteur for farming and
farmers throughout the United Kingdom, we
have to commence mth one he was engaged in that
worked on to an unprofitable issue, chiefly, if not
rather entirely, from the Colonel's advice having
been neglected. We allude to the formation of
The Central Agricultural Society, which he
greatly assisted in getting up, and to which he was
at once very properly and fitly elected the Honorary
Foreign Secretary, So far, and all went well
enough : a rule, however, proposed by him — and a
GOLDEN RULE for all pubhc bodies established on
the same princijile — was rejected by his brother
members, and the breaking up of The Central
Agricultural Society was, as he foretold, the
veiy natural consequence. The purport of this
rule was the entire exclusion of political subjects
from all discussions and deliberations of the society ;
an important item that has been ever treated by the
])resent and well established Royal Agricultural
Society of England with that strict observance its
innate worth demands. Of this society. Colonel
Le Conteur is also a member, having been elected a
Life-Governor shortly after its formation. His claims
to participate m the management of any national un-
dertaking of this character, we think we have already
made sufficiently clear, although it is still with the
" Essay on Wheat" that the name and fame of Le
Couteur will be more generally associated ; a work of
itself that would have well justified us in ranking its
author amongst the most eminent British Farmers ;
and, as we hesitate not to repeat, what we said on
its first appearance, one that carmot be too highly
praised. For this, though, we would be under-
stood as taking no particular credit to oursel\-es, the
book having been every^vhere received with equally
high expressions in its favour, as well as gaining for

its author many direct honors from ijuIjUc bodies.
Amongst others a sUver medal from the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; a prize of
twenty guineas from the Central Agricultural
Society of Great Britain and Ireland; a grand
silver medal of honour from L' Academie de 1' In-
dustrie Agiicole, Manufacturiere et Commerciale,
at Paris ; an election as honorary member of the
Agricultural and Horticultural Societies of Avran-
ches and of Nantes; and a resolution expressing the
excellency of his work from the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. Having thus brought sub-
stantial proof of the estimation in which Colonel
Le Couteur's literary labours have been and are
held by those supposed to be the best qualified to
judge, we shall avail ourselves of so appropriate an
occasion to offer a word or two on their nature and
effect.

The grand points considered and advocated in
the essay are the advantages of ha^dng as clean as
possible a sample of seed wheat, and the pohcy of
adopting various kinds of wheats to various soils
and climates. On either of these heads it is not too
much to say, that if, indeed. Colonel Le Couteur's
observations and experiments have not the recom-
mendation of absolute novelty, they are treated at a
length, and with a force never previously employed
on them. They involve, in fact, a branch in agricul-
tural knowledge too long unattended to — at least
with that care and ability the importance of the sub-
ject merited — and fortunately the opening thus
afforded, was in time occupied by one whose in-
domitable energy, and thorough fitness for master-
ing his theme, has left us nothing to msh for be-
yond further contributions from the same hand. It
is well known that some of our greatest discoveries
and most useful improvements in every walk of art
and science, have, in the first place, arisen from
something like mere accident — a sudden hght
striking on a strong mind, that has turned it to a
train of thought as attractive in its progress, as un-
solicited in its origin. That this was the case with
Colonel Le Couteur and his studies will be shown
by the anecdote we quote : a short passage in the
introduction to the work that also well explains the
nature of the after thought to which it gave birth.
" Five yeai's since, I accidentally saw, with astonish-
ment and pleasure, about eighty distinct sorts of
wheat growing in a nursery garden in Jersey ; some
seven feet high, some only four, the ears of some
three inches long, others six. Professor La Gasca,
whose they were, happened to join me, and though
a stranger, he politely explained their nature to me.
I requested him to \isit my crops the following
day ; I considered them as pvu'e, at least as un-
mixed, as those of my neighbours, when to my dis-
may, he drew from one field three-and-twenty sorts

0 2

Soo

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

— some white wheats some red, some liver-coloured,
some spring wheat; some dead ripe, the corn
shaking out, some ripe, some half so, some in a
milky state, and some green. I reflected on the
subject, and immediately became convinced that no
crop in that state, could either ])roduce the greatest
weight of corn, give the largest quantity of flour, or
Jnake the best or lightest bread, such as would be
•Produced from a field in an equal and perfect state
of ripeness." And upon these weighty considera-
tions, based on no mere fastidiousness or affectation
of " neat and pretty farming," but interesting alike,
in all it contained, to grower and consumer.
Colonel Le Couteur, after five years' close applica-
tion gave to the world a work no less excellent in its
aim than great in its success.

Any attempt to follow the Colonel through his
practice, in that the professor only preached, would
be as unfair, as empty a compliment to a volume
ah'eady admirably concise and explicit; and we
shall consequently only advise such of our readers
as have not yet perused it to lose no time in so do-
ing. In addition to the two particular subjects we
have named as having engaged the author's atten-
tion, every possible item in jjreparing the land,
somng and reaping the crop, with all the different
modes, their ad\'antages and disad\antages consi-
dered in comparison one with the other, are quite
as fully and ably discussed. From this part we
shall, in conclusion, endeavour to find room for one
more extract, as touching on an error which many
tenant-farmers, from wofuUy mistaken notions of
economy, are too apt to commit, "It has fre-

quently puzzled me inuch to imagine upon what
principles some writers have recommended for seed,
a sort of inferior grain, the refuse of a crop, after
all the best had l)een sent to the market. How a
principle so entirely contrary to the whole economy
of nature, which usually produces the finest pro-
geny from the healthiest and most robust parents,
the same being improved or weakened in propor-
tion to proper or improper nurture and culture, could
for a moment obtain, it is difficult to conceive ; but
it was merely argued, that because a large quantity
of sickly seed was sown, and that a portion of it
grew, and produced a fair crop, it might be con-
sidered safe practice." We here leave this, as the
writer does, an open question — whether it is better
or cheaper to use good corn for seed, or rather that
which is good for nothing else ? Common sense
would seem to coincide with the Colonel, while sage
experience may lean to t'other side.

In taking our leave of the Colonel himself at the
same time, we cannot but congratulate ourselves
and the interest we represent in adding in eveiy
respect so excellent and distinguished a man to our
Portrait Gallery. As a soldier and a civilian there
are many far abler than ourseh'es prepared to speak
as to the service done the state by Colonel Le Cou-
teur ; while as an agriculturist we know no one
whose acts would aftbrd a better example to the
opinion expressed in the opening pages of his
own work — " 'Iliat it becomes us all to work for
the coimuon good, and endeavour to assist the
farmer in such a way as may tend to extricate him
from his difficulties."

ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE BEAN.

In the February number a letter appears from
"A Member of the North Walsham Farmers'
Club," requesting some information on particular
points of bean culture ; and as the proper period
for sowing that crop is now at hand, it is hoped
the following observations on the subject may not
be uninteresting to him, and other readers of the
Farmer's Mar/azine. The writer may be allowed
to state that he has had no inconsiderable expe-
rience in bean culture.

The soils best adapted to the growth of the bean
are found to be those which are best suited to the
production of wheat, viz. — rich clays and strong
loams ; but in order to obtain an abundant crop of
this valuable and highly nutritive legume, it is
absolutely necessary that the land be relieved from
the injurious influence of redundant moisture, by
means of thorough draining. The bean requires

to be sown early in spring, and it would ob\iously
be impracticable to pre2)are wet adhesive soils in a
proper manner for the reception of the seed at that
period of the season. Hence the necessity of
draining.

The proper place for beans in the rotation is be-
tween two corn or white crops ; and accordingly
in the best bean-growing districts they are made to
succeed oats, and to precede wheat, which is evi-
dently the most judicious practice. The bean is
commonly regarded as a meliorating or restorative
crop — an apj^ellation which is not, however, strictly
correct, inasmuch as all plants culti^^ated for, and
allowed to mature their seeds, must, in a greater or
less degree, exhaust the soil of some of its consti-
tuents. Nevertheless, when this legume is culti-
vated, as it ought invariably to be, in rows or
drills, which; from their distance apart, admit of a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sol

considerable amount of tillage being given to the |
soil (luring the summer months, it is justly es-
teemed as one of our best fallow or i-leansing crojjs,
and as peculiarly fitted to prepare stiff adhesive
land for wheat. Indeed, the value of the bean as a
field plant depends in no small degree on this cir-
cumstance. The tall stems and large foliage also
afford a shade to the ground from the influence of
the summer's sun, which is allowed to be of some
advantage.

The land intended for beans should be ploughed
as early in autumn as the necessary operations of
the harvest and the sowing of wheat will allow, and
in all cases with as deej) a furrow as the strength
of a pair of stout horses can accompUsh. The
early ploughing of the stubble is of the utmost im-
portance, more especially on strong clays, as a
means of mehorating the soil by the action of the
weather, and the influence of frost during the
winter, and thereby greatly facilitating its due pul-
\'erization in spring. Tlie bean being a perpen-
dicular-rooted plant, extends its roots and fibres to
a considerable depth beneath the surface in search
of its requisite nourishment ; hence the great uti-
lity of deep ploughing, in furnishing a sufficiency
of loose soil for that pm'pose.

The amount of, and mode of executing, the pre-
paratory tillage in spring depend in some degree
on the nature and condition of the soil. The pre-
paration of hght or of well-drained land is attended
with comparati\-ely little diflSculty, especially should
favourable weather opportimely occur at the time.
In this case the prejiaratory tillage may consist of
one or two ploughings given in a contrary directiori
to the last, and the requisite harrowing to reduce
the ground, and disengage and expose all root-
weeds ; but as the great object is to pulverize the
soil to a certain degree of tilth, and to eradicate as
many of the roots of couch-grass {Triticum rei^ens)
and of other vivaceous weeds as possible, the
ploughing, harrowing, and weed-gathering (espe-
cially the two latter operations) must be persevered
in, when time and the weather permit, till those
desirable objects be attained, ^fhe grubber may
also be occasionally used, and with advantage.

But even on the lighter classes of soils the fore-
going operations are not easily executed in an
efficient manner during a continuance of unpro-
pitious weather, which so frequently occurs at that
period ; while on the undrained retentive lands, on
which the bean cro]) is most commonly grown,
such a course of tillage is, for obvious reasons,
often altogether impracticable. On strong clays,
therefore, it is not an unusual practice in the best
bean-growing districts to form the drills or ridge-
lets immediately on the winter-furrow, without
bestowing any other tillage upon the land than a

good harrowing to level the surface ; but this, too,
is not unfrecjuently omitted.

It has been found a useful practice to give strong
tenacious land, intended for beans, a course of
tillage in autumn, or at any convenient period
before the severity of the winter sets in. In this
case the ground, after being "ploughed and suffi-
ciently harrowed, is formed into drills in the usual
manner, in which state it remains till the period of
sowing arrives. At seed time the drills receive a
light harrowing to break the surface and destroy
any weeds that may be springing up ; after which
the plough is passed along the intervals, to raise
the earth thus levelled down. The manure is then
laid in the hollows between the drills, the seed is
deposited by the sowing-machine, and both are
covered in liy reversing or splitting the drills with
the plough. The advantages attending the autumn
tillage of stiff clays for the bean cro]) are, that the
soil is thereby finely pulverized by the frequent
alternations of frost and thaw during winter, the
larvse of insects and many of the roots of perennial
weeds are destroyed by exposure to the weather,
and the ground, by being formed into raised drills,
is preserved in a comparatively dry condition.
Another advantage is, that the seed can be sown
in proper season.

The manure to be applied to this crop is some-
times spread upon the stubble, and ploughed under
when giving the first or M'inter furrow. This
practice, it may be observed, posseses a double
advantage : farm-yard dung, not too well decom-
posed, tends to keep the soil open, so as to allow
the admission of the atmosphere ; and this part of
the process being accomphshed during the leisure
of autumn or early M'inter, materially expedites the
work in spring. It is also a useful and convenient
practice to apply one-half the allowance of manure
in autumn in the manner just adverted to, and the
other portion at seed-time.

The bean requires a considerable length of time
to mature its seeds, and should therefore be sown
as early in spring as may be found practicable.
The usual season for sowing this crop is from the
last week in February to the middle of March.
When beans are sown earher than the former
period, and the ensuing summer happens to be
more than usually diy and warm, the grain is found
to ripen rather prematurely, and the straw or haulm
to be both deficient in quantity and of inferior
quality; while, on the other hand, if sown later
than the middle or the end of March, and the
season turn out more humid and ungenial than in
ordinary years, the cro]) is late in becoming ripe,
the haulm is likely to be over succulent and luxu-
riant, and the harvesting is, in consequence, ex-
ceedingly difficult and precarious.

202

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The quantity of seed will depend, in some degree,
on the condition of the land, the mode of culture
adopted, and the particular variety of beans. In
Scotland, from four to five bushels are usually
allowed to the acre sown, as beans there invariably
are in drills or rows twenty-six or twenty-seven
inches a])art; but in England, where the chmate is
more favourable to the ripening of this crop, the
quantity of seed may be considerably less. From
two-and-a-half to thi'ee bushels, with a small ad-
mixture of peas, I should consider amply sufficient
for an imperial acre. And here I may remark that
it is imdoubtedly a useful practice to sow a small
quantity of peas or vetches along with beans, in
the proportion of one bushel of the former to six of
the latter, i. e., about half a bushel to the acre.
The value of the straw, as an article of food for
horses, is thereby considerably enhanced, and the
pea-haulm may be employed at harvest for the pur-
pose of binding the crop,

The bean is sown in a variety of ways. In some
localities the seed is generally sown broadcast, and
in others it is dibbled ; but the most approved
practice is to deposit it in drills at regular- inter-
vals. The broadcast system is now imiversally
condemned by intelligent agriculturists, and the
practice of dibbling, though confessedly both
economical and judicious on a small scale, or in
garden culture, as it efiects a considerable saving
of seed, is far too operose and expensive to be pro-
fitably adopted when the bean is grown to any
extent as a general crop.

Field beans should, in my opinion, be invariably
sown in drills or ridgelets, because, when this mode
of culture is adopted, weeds are destroyed with
facility by the joint operations of the horse and
hand-hoes, and an opportunity is afforded for the
tillage of the soil between the rows during the
growth of the crop, which is an important consi-
deration when wheat is to succeed. It is a mani-
fest error, but one which is frequently committed,
to form the drills for beans too close to each other.
It is well known that a certain quantity of air is
absolutely essential to the perfect development of
plants, and that a free uninterrupted circulation
between the rows is requisite to bring the grain to
maturity. On good land, under a proper system
of cultivation, a heavy crop of beans is generally
produced ; and when such is expected the drills
certainly should not be less than twenty-seven
inches apart, otherwise the free admission of the
atmosphere between the plants cannot be secured.
Intervals of twenty-six inches may, perhaps, be
sufficient where a heavy crop is not anticipated ;
but it must be remembered that when the distance
of the rows asunder is less than twenty-six or
twenty-seven inches, the benefit to be derived from

the action of the horse-hoe in the after culture of
the crop is more or less diminished. The seed is
usually deposited in contact with the manure pre-
viously distributed along the hollows of the drills
by a machine which sows three equi-distant rows
simultaneously; but when a sowing machine is
not at command, the seeds can be scattered with
sufficient regularity by the hand, care being taken
to place them in a right line along the top of the
dung. Field beans should be, and indeed most
generally are, grown in single rows ; double rows
are practicable only when the dibble is em-
ployed.

In some districts in Scotland, beans are sown
in rows by depositing the seed in the bottom of
every third furrow when ploughing the land.
Where this practice is adopted, the dung is either
ploughed down with the winter-furrow, or spread
upon the svirface of the prepared ground at seed-
time. Three ploughs are started in succession,
and a small bean-drill-barrow is attached to, or
follows close upon, the third plough, by which
means the seed is dropt in e^-ery third furrow, and
in due time the young plants come up in parallel
rows, from twenty-four to twenty-seven inches
asunder, according as the breadth of the furrow-
slices may vary from eight to nine inches, the
latter being the usual standard. This method of
drilling beans is expeditious, and has been advan-
tageously practised in many cases ; but it is by no
means so favourable to the after-tillage of the
ground as when the plants are grown in raised
drills, formed in the same manner as for turnips or
potatoes.

Having thus briefly adverted^ to the principal
particulars connected with the preparation of the
land for, and the sowing of, tlie bean, it may not
be improper to add a few obser\'ations on the after-
culture of the plant. The first operation bestowed
on the bean crop after sowing is a good haiTowing,
given just as the young plants are protruding through
the surface, which has the effect of almost levelling
the drills, and of destroying any annual weeds
that may be springing up. Either the grass-seed
or the common harrow may be used for this pur-
pose; but the curved drill-harrow, employed in
certain localities to perform a similar operation in
the after-culture of the potato, is to be preferred.
This implement, it may be proper to obsen'e,
consists of two light curved haiTows, adapted to
the rotundity of the drills, and is drawn by one
horse. The two parts are connected together, and
each is furnished with a handle, by means of which
the workman keeps the instrument fairly on the
drills, and disengages it when impeded by large
clods, weeds, or other obstructions. The subse-
quent culture required by the crop consists of re-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

203

peated horse-hoeings, hand-hoeings, and hand- j
weedings. The implements usually employed as |
hoi'se-hoes are a common plough of small dimen-
sions drawn by one horse, and drill-grubbers of
different constructions, designed for under-cutting ;
and dragging up weeds, and for pulverizing the
soil between the rows of plants. With the small |
plough, a portion of the soil is first i)ared away
from both sides of each drill : the grubber then
follows to reduce and level the earth thus turned
up, and to sever and bring up all kinds of M-eeds
to the surface. The paring-plough may, however-,
be altogether dispensed with where the improved
drill-grubbers or horse-hoes are used, as the latter
are adapted to accomplish the work in a manner I
equally efficient and much more expeditious. |

Immediately after the operation of liorse-hoeing, i

the hand-hoers (women and young persons) are
set to work, in order to cut up any weeds that may
have escaped the action of the grubber. These
operations are to be repeated at intervals during
the summer months, with the view of thoroughly
cleansing and pulverizing the soil between the rows
of plants. After the different hoeing and weeding
processes have been concluded, it is customary to
raise a portion of the loosened earth up to the stems
of the plants, as is done in potato culture. Where
the soil is undrained, and of a retentive or adhe-
sive character, this earthing up undoubtedly tends
to facilitate the escape of surface-water, and in this
case is therefore beneficial ; but on light or well-
drained land this part of the after-culture is cer-
tainly not indispensable. T. S.
Feb. 9, 184G.

EFFECTUAL AND ECONOMIC DRAINING.

The attention which has lately been paid to
draining, and the many schemes devised to effect
this object, fully establish its importance. Out of
the many plans recommended, each making greater
pretensions to cheapness in one form or other than
its predecessor, there are few that do not incur
considerable cost, both upon the landlord and
tenant. Draining with tiles, constructed for the pur-
pose is the present mode. The instruments for the
manufacture of these tiles are endless.

Unfortunately, however, it happens that where
these instruments can be used at least cost, there
is a much cheaper and much better drainage to be
effected without any such expensive assistance.

Although the word " unfortunate" is used in the
last paragraph, it is only applied as to the ingenious
manufacturers of the machines ; in other i-espects it
is fortunate, particularly for the farmer, as the fol-
lowing observations will show.

At present the owner of the soil most generally
finds tiles within three miles of the farm to be
drained, or covenants to bring them within three or
five miles of the farm ; the tenant is left to draw
them the remaining distance at his own cost. The
tenant has also to pay all the labour of digging out
the earth to an agreed depth and width, and at
stated distances ; j)lacing the tiles properly, and re-
turning the earth. The present plan will super-
sede much of this expense, be more effectual, less
likely to choke, take off the water quicker, and, if
the landlord will only be at the same expense to-
wards draining that he is at for the tiles, the farmer
vnW be at very little cost. This will enable the
tenant to drain a larger proportion of his land at

one time ; thus rendering his crops larger and the
land more valuable in a much shorter period than
by any other means. The landlord, too, will be
doubly benefited ; first, by his land being rendered
much more speedily of greater value, and his tenants
more prosperous ; next, but not a very trifling con-
sideration, instead of immediately having to dip
into his pocket for the tiles, he may allow the ex-
penditure to the farmer out of the rent in anticipa-
tion. Should the farmer, as is frequently the case,
have to take the cost of draining entirely upon him-
self, then is the saving effected by doing without
tiles of paramount importance. Many instances
might be recorded where the farmers would not
drain even where found tiles ; because, in addition
to having the tiles free of cost, they required them to
be delivered carriage free in the field upon which the
work was contemplated. Others would \villingly
nicur all other expenses could they induce their
landlords to give the tiles within a reasonable dis-
stance.

The plan recommended is not from the pen of a
theorist, whose farm is his desk, his crop the result
of his pen, and who never had an acre under his
care ; but one who has had great practical experi-
ence, ^vith more than ordinary scope for observa-
tion. The efficiency of the plan may be relied on
with confidence by the less practical ; the others
will at once be convinced that all those who are
about to commence draining may save themselves
the expense of the carriage of the tiles, and have
their water courses more free, their land dry sooner,
and be equally, if not more lasting, and less hkely
to get out of order than the tiles themselves.

204

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

For clay lands only is this plan applicable. For
plonghed lands, take off the surface soil fully the
depth that it has been ploughed, the width of an
ordinary garden spade, across the field in the
direction the drains are to run. Let this first
mould be laid at a convenient distance along the
side of the trench, that it may not be covered by the
clay, which latter is to be taken out at least two
feet deep, and of the above width. Having made
the ditch of the above Avidth and depth, the bottom
of the ditch will be at least seven inches wide.
Now take a navigator's scoop, that will measure
three and a half inches from edge to edge, taking
straight across the front or hollow side. With
this instrument commence digging another ditch
in the centre of the bottom of the former. Let
this be from four to six inches deep. This narrow
ditch being in the centre of the broader ditch, there
will be left a shoulder of one and three quarter
inches at each side of the top of the narrow ditch.
Some of the clay that has previously been taken
out vnQ. be suflSciently long to cover over this nar-
row ditch, resting well upon these shoulders. •

After the first few scoops have been taken out of
the lower ditch, allowing room to continue to work,
the covering in should commence \vith one layer
of the clay as described ; so that the man in digging
this lower trench may throw his clay, as he takes it
out, upon the top of his last work, thereby saving
the loss of time and waste of labour that would be
required in lifting this clay three feet out of a hole
to throw it in again afterwards. As soon as there
are six inches of clay thrown back, let that which
lies over the shoulders be first well rammed ; then
the middle over the hole or drain may be moderately
rammed. Now throw in six more inches of clay,
and ram well over ; then throw in the soil that was
originally the ploughed soil, and that was laid
away from the clay for the purpose ; you may
fill in to within six inches of the top, and ram
again.

It Avill be perceived that the two shoulders, each
one being one inch and three quarters, forms a
solid equal to the width of the opening left, the
latter also measuring three and a half inches. To
every one it mnst be evident that with clay, where
properly constructed and rammed, such a drain
must last to the end of tim e. But, allow that it
only lasts a few years, what is the cost compared to
other plans ? The mere advantage of only ha\'ing
to clear the top earth, instead of the whole drain,
would be worth some attention. The top or wide
drain in most instances need not be more than two
feet six inches even where the subsoil and other in-
struments are used. In some cases where the nar-
row drain is cut six inches deep, it is better to beat
the shoulders with the ranimer till they almost

meet at the top of the drain ; this, however, is
rare.

Where grass lands are submitted to this effectual
and economic plan, the best method is to take the
turf off about four inches deep, at all events to
the clay if within this depth, with a plough con-
structed for the purpose. This turf should be laid
with the grass downwards over the narrow drain,
in many instances as the first covering, jjarticularly
if not a tenacious soil, for this draining will do for
grass on almost any description of land.

One of the greatest advantages of draining is,
that it renders the earth lighter to work, from its
becoming more friable. This is accomplished by
the laws of gravity ; water always persevering to
find its level. This is the reason for having the
drain left open for the depth of six inches, as it
allows of greater capillary attraction and more op-
portunity for the water to acquire more feeders to
the larger stream. Another advantage of these
drains is, that when the water once reaches them, it
has no impediment; this quick transit soon en-
larges the capillary vessels, and does not choke up
their vents. The tile is impervious, or almost so.
The water does not run through, but over or along
it : even when pierced with holes for letting the
water in, so little use had they that the manufacture
of pierced tiles has ceased.

Where grass lands are drained, heavy iron-
toothed harrows ought to be passed over them
several times prior to the drains being cut : this is
to tear out as much of the old coarse grasses as
possible, more particularly those which belong to a
wet undrained soil. No sooner is the draining and
filling in completed than the field should be sown
over with the best kinds of grass for dry soils ;
then let the land be well rolled. The reason for
harrowing before the draining is, that the field
being smoother, the harrows work easier, and some
rolling is saved. This harrowing and seeding will
save much time, for the water-grasses, as they are
termed, take a long while to die out if left to them-
seh'es, although they will not grow upon drained
land suflUciently well to make a crop. It is for this
reason that undrained land will have ^-ery heavy
crops of coarse hay in wet weather, and but little in
dry. When you have drained your land, you ha\'e
brought dry weather to it, or at least taken off the
superabundant wet, which has been the originator
of these grasses. This has occasioned draining to
get into disrepute with some. A few days since,
a farmer said he drained some meadows three years
ago, and he had not had a crop since. There had
not been time for the grasses to change, and he had
done nothing to assist in hastening his work to
perfection. It is something like ploughing a field,
and leaving it to chance to lay it down, then won^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

205

dering it does not produce hay so quickly or of
so good quality as his neighbour, who took i)ains
to produce the best.

The advantages of getting rid of these water
grasses immediately after draining is evident. But
why drain, if it reduces the quantity ? Draining
will not reduce the quantity if ])roperly carried out,
hut increase 'it, and, instead of yielding only a large
crop in wet seasons, will yield an equally good
crop in all of upland meadow, each separate load of
which will fetch nearly as much as two of the other.
The improved grasses will cost less in making,
from taking a shorter time to dry on account of its
being less sappy, also from not being cumbered
with weeds, that fii-e in the rick imless weW dried.
The grass is also more fattening, so is the hay.

beyond calculation. The drained land will also
carry cattle without pouching. These are the
farmer's sheet-anchor ; he cannot manure his
land so cheaply by any other means, nor
can he keep up the l)est quality of grass with-
out their assistance. All those who drain must un-
derstand that the mere making of the watercourses
is not the sole ol)ject and aim of draining, though
it is a great good and the chief part. The grass
must be harrowed and rolled as described, then
dunged and brush harrowed. When there is time,
another rolling will often do good. Never omit
the seeding and dunging the same year, and you
will be paid for the draining the first season.

Practice.

Y OXFORD FARMERS' CLUB.

Eighth Report.

PRESENTED TO THE ANNUAL MEETING, HELD AT THE TUNS INN, YOXFORD, NOV. IOtH, 1845.

"The advantages or otherwise likely to result
from the extension of allotting land to agricultural
labourers" opened the business of the club for the
present year, the members present adopting the
following resolution as conveying their unanimous
ojMnion : —

" That the extension of allotments to labourers is
a highly desirable object, tending, as it is conceived
it does, to promote habits of industry in themselves
and families ; at the same time, firmly believing that
the quantity of land appropriated to their husbandry
individually should not exceed a quarter of an acre,
for which they should pay at the same rate which
similar land lets for in the immediate neighbour-
hood. For, cordially as they feel bound to co-
operate in ameliorating the condition of the work-
ing man, by giving him a stake, and thereby an in-
terest in the ground he cultivates, still, looking upon
it as a grant extended to liim as an encouragement
for his toil, a stimulus to his industry, a little sphere
for the exercise of his skill — vieiving it as a subsidy
and not as a maintenance — they feel assured that a
larger portion would be more than the labourer's
energies could constantly compass with equal jus-
tice to himself and his employer; they consequently
conceive that such grant ought, in the majority of
cases, to be restricted to a rood, the cidtivation of
which should be confined solely to the sjjade."

The subject under discussion in December, was
he result of an experiment with Engraise Laine,

as compared ^^'ith farm-yard manure, and folding
with sheep.

The member who gave the result of his trial of
this foreign manure, although applying on a pea
stubble for wheat double the quantity he was recom-
mended, assured the meeting that in places where
he had used it he realized exactly the same weight
per acre, as where he used no manure at all ; but
that where farm-yard manure was applied at the
rate of 17 carts per acre, very superior and satis-
factory crops were raised : the same observations
held good as regards folding with sheep. With
reference to the Engraise Laine, he wished to add,
that the same unsatisfactory results were reaUzed
when only the specific quantity had been used.

In January, the members present took into con-
sideration the proposed bill to consolidate and amend
the laws relating to parochial settlement and removal
of the poor, and resolved that it was their opin-
ion that a settlement by either birth or residence,
as contemplated by the proposed bill, cannot be
considered a fair and just principle, on account of
the great hardships which would most certainly be
inflicted on all large towns and villages, where great
facilities exist for building cottages for the residence
of the poor ; and that if such a system be adopted,
the towns and villages will be very much injured,
in consequence of their giving residence to a much
larger population than at present legally belongs to
them ; while other parishes, Ijeing cleared of cot-

206

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tages, will be benefited in an equal ratio, it being a
v/ell authenticated fact that many parishes do not
contain a .sufficient number of cottages to give resi-
dence to the laljourers absolutely required for the
projier cultivation of the land. They were also fur-
ther of opinion that all parochial settlements, by
whatever means acquired, are bad in principle, and
tend to oppress the labouring man, actixig very in-
juriously on the morals of the labouring classes, by
narrowing the field of their exertions. The labour-
ing man has nothing but his labour to depend upon
for the support of himself and family, consequently
he ought to be allowed full hberty to sell the same
for the most money he can obtain, and at the best
market; but this right cannot be attained under
the present system, he being confined within the
narrow boimdary of the parish to which he belongs,
which tends very much to place the inefficient
labourer and man of bad character on an equal
footing with the able workman and man of good
character.

In order to obviate the difficulties before alluded
to, the members present do most strongly urge the
necessity of the immediate formation of whole
unions for the purpose of district settlement and
management of the poor, and that all property in
each district or union be rated agreeably to the pro-
visions of the parochial assessment act for the pur-
pose of raising a common fund for the general ma-
nagement of the pool', and that the landlords (in
lieu of the tenants) should be assessed for every
cottage tenement or occupation that may be under
the annual value of £10.

The aljove plan will give the honest labourer
greater liberty to carry liis labour to the 1)est mar-
ket, thus enabling him to reap the benefit of his
skill and good conduct, and will tend materially to
raise the moral standard of this class in the scale of
society, as at present, skill and good character are
not so much considered as the parish to which the
lal)Ourer belongs ; which has a very considerable
tendency to depress his energies, and in a great
measure place the inefficient and less deserving
workman u})on an equal footing with himself.

If the principle of district settlement and ma-
nagement of the poor be recognised and adopted, it
might be then further extended to a county, and
ultimately merged in a national system.

That the members pi-esent are most decidedly of
opinion that until some plan of this kind be adop-
ted, no alteration in the laws of parochial settle-
ment will be effectual as a remedy for the evils at-
tendant on the present system, and although they
recommend that union or districts be formed for
the purpose of general settlement and management
of the poor, they only adopt it as a matter of expe-
diency under existing circumstances j and are

most decidedly of opinion of its being perfectly cor-
rect in principle that the same should be made a
national measure, in order that every description of
property in the kingdom may be called upon to
contribute its fair, full, and equitable quota, for
the support and management of the poor.

On the 1 7th of February, " The relative position
tion of landlord and tenant, with respect to the
great ■\'ariation in the value of agricultural produce,
and the most desirable method of insuring a fair
protection to both, wth regard to letting and
hiring," came under the consideration of the mem-
bers present, by whom an unanimous feeling was
expressed that long leases, based upon an equita-
ble corn-rent, would operate with equal benefit to
landlord, tenant, and labourer; — to the landlord
because his estate would be kept in a better state of
cultivation ft-om his tenant l^eing in a safer position
to employ the necessary labour, added to the com-
fortable assurance felt by the lord of the soil in see-
ing his farms tenanted from father to son, in that
social, hereditary compact known in former days ;
— to the tenant, because he would have a greater
prospective encouragement for investing his capi-
tal and exerting his skill in making his land more
productive, at the same time establishing that most
desirable feeling of cordiality between himself and
his landlord, arising from a reciprocity of mutual
advantage ; and to the labourer, from the fore-
going facts operating materially towards insuring
him more constant work, his employer being so
circumstanced, as to do it with a more reasonable
expectation of benefit to himself.

This subject having been considered by the
clul) to be one in which all classes of the agricultu-
ral community were peculiarly interested, a copy
of the foregoing resolution was handed to the
Editor of the Mark Lane Express, Bell's Neiv
Weekly Messenger, and several provincial papers,
all of whom testified their sense of its importance
by giving it a place in their columns, and calling
the attention of their readers to a reflection on its
sentiments.

In March, the members present debated,
*' whether beet or turnips were the more desirable
roots to cultivate on hea^'y land," and their com-
parative merits were embodied in the following
resolution : —

" Beet is considered the best root to grow upon
a heavy-land farm, owing to its greater certainty of
plant, and early maturity ; consequently allowing
the same to be severed before the land is sodden
with wet : thus affiarding an opportunity of plough-
ing the land previous to the winter, and doing less
injury to the succeeding crops.

Skirving's Swedes are recommended as affording
a larger time for making a fallow, the same to be

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

207

drawn and clamped up in November, and the land
ploughed as early as possilile for the following crop.
These two kinds of roots to be sown on two-
thirds of the land intended for root crops. The
remaining third to be of Pudding, or White Loaf
turnips, the latter for feeding stock till January,
and then to be all cleared ott'the land. The land
intended for the beet and Swede crop to be
ploughed and cleared, as far as the season will ad-
mit, immediately after harvest, and laid up as dry
as possible for the winter.

I'he subject proposed for April was, " the pro-
priety of sowing a portion of the land intended for
long summerlands, on heavy-land farms, with cole
seed, with the view of foddering the same oft' with
stock." The discussion which this topic elicited
from a very full meeting of the members this even-
ing, although variously expressed by the difterent
individuals who took part in the same, seemed
ultimately to merge into two branches upon which
all were agreed : founded, however, more upon
rational conclusions drawn from some practical re-
sults detailed by a few who had made trial of the
advantages presumed in the subject vmder discus-
sion, than from general experience : —

1st. Where autumnal food is required, the land
should be made a good summerland by the first or
second week in July, and sown with cole-seed im-
mediately, the crop therefrom arising being fed off'
at the latest by the latter part of October.

2nd. But where it is desirable to ol)tain spring
feed, it is recommended that the land intended for
long summerland the following year, should be
ploughed up immediately after harA'est, and sown
with cole-seed with a mLxture of rye and tares
(with a view of securing a very thick plant), and
the same fed off" the following spring : by these
means affording ample time for making a good
summerland for Ijarley.

In the first case, this is considered a very excel-
lent jjreparation for wheat, and should the autumn
]n-ove unfavourable for feeding the crop, it might
1)6 advantageously ploughed in for manure.

" An enquiry into the expenses of the different
modes of draining, with the best method of per-
fonning the same," came under the consideration of
the meeting in the month of May, the following
being the conclusions at which they ai-rived : —

1st. Where mole plough draining is intended
to be adopted (as it may be on lands with a fair fall,
being perfectly useless on fiat land), it is recom-
mended to di-aw a level furrow about eight inches
deep before the mole ])lough — which operation
(from the land being then internally moist and ex-
ternally dry) is best performed in the spring. Tlie
main drain should be immediately cut with the
spade, for should a fall of rain occur previously to

such being done, it would materially spoil the mole
drains. The whole of the foregoing operation will
not exceed the sum of £1 lis. per acre, the drains
being drawn every eight feet.

•2nd. For spade draining, the furrow should be
drawn as deeply as possible, and level at the bottom,
the men following with the sjjades and increasing
the same to 31 or 32 inches, more if practicable; a
deep drain being desirable in many jjoints, being
out of the way of the horses' feet, the effects of
drought, &c., and in loose soil will draw much
further. All the leading drains are recommended
to be done full four inches deeper, and considerably
wider than the others ; and in hilly land at a good
distance from the headland. Sharp angles to be
avoided in the leading drains, the water falUng into
them as obUquely as possible. This method, six
yards from drain to drain, will give seven score per
acre, which, including man, horse, and material for
filling in, may be performed for £2 Is.

3rd. Tile draining may supersede with advan-
tage the foregoing plans (where there is sufficient
length of lease), on loose or gravelly soils^ since the
draining, filled with the best material, quickly be-
comes imperfect and totally inefficient : the opera-
tion should be done as deeply as possible, and if a
natural fall be wanting, this defect must, if prac-
ticable, be supplied by an artificial one. The cost
of tile, digging, manual and horse labour for six
score per acre (wliich on such soils is deemed suf-
ficient), wUl not exceed £3 15s.; though such out-
lay would of course be increased if there were far
to cart the tiles. All the foregoing calculations
were made, assuming wheat to be worth Gs. per
bushel.

In June, "the propriety of carrying clay, marl,
and heavy stuff' on our arable lands" engaged the
attention of the meeting, the following obseiTations
on the same being the result of the discussion : —

It is recommended to cart clay on clover, bean or
pea stubbles, for wheat at the rate of 25 loads per
acre ; since by such process, the straw is stiff^ened,
the quantity of corn increased, and the quality de-
cidedly improved. This is to be tmderstood with
reference to deep-soiled, tender heavy-land: clay
will also Ije found beneficial on lands that grow a
superabundance of straw and corn likely to lodge ;
but is not to be carted too freely on thin skinned
heavy-land. Too heavy a coat of clay on old ploughed
land will do harm for several years by setting it
fast. Clay may be profitably applied to layers and
beans, but is thought somewhat injm-ious to barley
and turnips. In all cases the, quahty of clay should
be well considered, as, if very stiff", the same benefit
will not accrue as from the use of a milder descrip-
tion.

Marl was reckoned very desirable for mixed-

208

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

soil land — chalk rubbish beneficial on lands where
turnips were liable to Anbury ; and marsh ooze
preferable to clay, on mixed soil and light lands.
Probably the same obser^•ations M'ould apply to
heavy land.

In conclusion, it was hinted, that ditches round
the field might be made wider and deeper, for the
purpose of obtaining clay, and that the same might
be carted on the land in the winter season.

The proj)riety of collecting dung off the pastures
in the summer months, with a view of increasing
and improving the manure on the farm, being
brought before the meethig in July, it was strongly
recommended that the dung should be collected
from off the pastures, as in all cases where it was
allowed to remain, the feed became long and sour,
and the cattle, consequently, refuse to eat it.

When collected, the dung to be carried into the
par-yards or dunghills, there to be incorporated
with the other manure. At any rate, if not ga-
thered, the dung ought frequently to be spread
about the land.

The club having been prorogued at the July
meeting till that fixed for October (the intervention
of harvest being thought a sufficient reason for this
temporary interruption), the members re-assembled
on the 20th for the purpose of arriving at the best
method of cultivating the ])otato crop, both in
garden and field.

It is but due to the member introducing this sub-
ject before the meeting, to state, that his remarks
bore ample evidence of considerable research and
careful comjnlation, numerous (and in some cases
very novel) details respecting the diflferent methods of
rearing this A-aluable vegetable, with the result of
each experiment in weight, cost and quality, hav-

ing been extracted from that valuable record of
horticultural facts, the " Gardeners' Chronicle,"
and read to the members present. On summing
up the amount of evidence deducible from these
detailed experiments, the leading points towards
a profitable cultivation of the potato appear to be
these —

1st. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage.

2nd. Autumnal planting.

3rd. Careful selection of the seed (the same being
of a middle size, and entire potatoes in preference to
sets).

4th. Allowing sufficient space between the drills.

These seem to be the principal desiderata, but
owing to the fatal disease so prevalent this season
in almost e;'ery district in which the potato has
been cultivated, and the absence at present of a suf-
ficiently weighty assignable cause for so universal
a disorder, the club have determined on instituting
a series of experiments, the result of which shall
be made known to the society at the termination of
another year.

The few remaining observations which yoiu*
committee have to make are of a highly satisfactory
character. The monthly meetings throughout the
past year have been better attended than in any
during the last few years ; new members have from
time to time been added to it ; the funds appro-
priated for awards to the cottage allotment prizes,
have been augmented by fresh donations from se-
veral gentlemen resident in the neighbourhood ;
and our former contributors have generously conti-
nued theirs.

For the Committee,

Robert Hughman, Secretary.

Yoxford, Dec. 1st, 1843,

THE BARON;
Winner of the St. Lrger, 1845.

The Baron, a dark chesnut horse, was bred by
his late owner, Mr. Watt, 1842, and is by Irish
Birdcatcher, out of Echidna by Economist, her
dam Miss Pratt by Blacklock — Gadabout by Or-
ville — Minstrel by Sir Peter — Matron by Florizel —
Maiden.

Echidna, who never appeared on active ser\'ice, is
quite a young mother, the Baron we believe, being
her son and heir; though not having the last
volume of the Stud-book at our ell)ow, we don't say
so on authority.

Birdcatcher, the sire of the Baron, winner of the
St. Leger this season, is own brother to Foig-a-

ballagh, winner of it last, being by Sir Hercules,
out of the celebrated Guiccioh by Bob Booty, out
of Fhght, by Escape, now perhaps considered the
best brood mare in the world. As a race-horse
Birdcatcher will always rank high, though unfor-
tunately, as far as absolute success went, his ever-
ready and able opponent was generally found in the
invincible Harkaway ; while, as a stallion. Oh
Don't, Micky Free, Honest Ned, The Cook, Bea-
trice, Ballinkeele, The Poacher, and that very pro-
mising two-year-old, Osprey, assist the Baron in
doing the paternal honours, and convincing the
sporting public that all of 'em can run a bit.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

209

In colour the Baron is a very dark cheKnut, witli
one white heel and a star in the forehead, in height
about fifteen hands three inches. He has a long
head, with very projecting forehead (not what is
termed Roman nose, for it dips in and becomes
very tajier), his neck rather short, straight, and
light ; his shoulders — perhaps his most striking
feature — very beautiful ; withers high, and slioul-
ders particularly oblicpie. Large fore-ribs, but
back-ril)s short, loins arched, quarters drooping ;
very full in the gaskins ; good arms and thighs,
but on rather a high leg. He is altogether a wiry.

useful-looking animal, but by no means carrying
anything particularly striking in his ap})earance.
In the stable he is as ([uiet as a lamb.

Mr. Watt, the owner and breeder of the Baron,
is better known in his own country, in Dubhn, and
onthe Curragh, as "Wattthe Veterinary," a cogno-
men denoting the high rank he holds in that pro-
fession. On the turf, too, he has always been
pretty forward ; and very lately with King Dan,
Patriot, Wexford, Pickpocket, and Co., has con-
trived again and again to bring the scarlet colours
home in the right place.

THE PRODUCE OF DISEASED POTATOES WILL BE DISEASED.

Ill the official report on the potato crop, by the late
Irish commission, dated Nov. 7, 1845 (see p. 767,
1815), is the following paragraph : " It has also been
ascertained by actual experiments that potatoes, though
diseased, will grow and produce ajjparently healthy
plants." Nevertheless, the commissioners thought it
imprudent to recommend the employment of such pota-
tatoes, " except by way of experiment;" thinking, no
doubt, that the evidence in their favour was incon-
clusive. We greatly regret to state that the event lias
justified their caution. We are now in a condition to
announce positively that, although diseased potatoes will
produce plants which for a few weeks appear to be
healthy, yet they will not remain so, and that dis-
eased sets icill perpetuate disease.

It was stated at the meeting of the Horticultural So-
ciety, on Tuesday last, that it had been for some time
rumoured that the new potato crop was again attacked
in forcing-houses by the old disease ; that these rumours
had become so frequent as to cause strict inquiry to be
made into their truth ; and that the result of that in-
inquiry was a confirmation of the reports alluded to.
Potatoes were produced from Mr. Barnes, gardener to
Lady Rolle, at Bicton, in which the disease had mani-
fested itself in a manner not to be mistaken ; first, by
the appearance of a brown gangrene on the haulm un-
derground and in the neighbourhood of the old tuber,
and next by rotting blotches on the leaves. These po-
tatoes had been planted in the autumn. In the month
of January " they were as strongly and evenly above-
ground as I ever saw a field of potatoes in May," are
Mr. Barnes's words. The disease was remarked upon
taking up a portion for transplanting to a hotbed
for forcing. Of the samples produced to the meet-
ing of the Horticultural Society, one, and much the
worst, was the produce of "rather badly affected
tubers;" in these the whole of the under-ground haulm
was already gangrened and brittle. Another sample,
from tubers supposed to have been sound, also mani-
fested the symptoms in putrefying blotches on the leaves,
accompanied by the under-ground gangrene.

In addition to this Devonshire evidence, it was men-
tioned that plants in the garden of the Horticultural So-

ciety, examined the previous afternoon, were found in
the same state, the under-ground haulm having already
begun to decay in blotches. It was added that these
plants were also obtained from diseased tubers, planted
for the express purpose of watching the progress of
growi:h. No trace of fungi could in their instance be
discovered on the decaying spaces after the most careful
examination of some hours' duration ; but a white
mouldiness had manifested itself on the stems sent up
from Bicton.

But this is not all. Upon examining more carefully
the young potatoes formed by the diseased sets, we
found still further evidence of latent mischief. Some
of Mr. Barnes's potatoes had formed tubers and roots
without haulm or foliage ; they were what are called in
Cornwall " Bobbin joans." In one of these the brown
colour on the walls of the cells, the earliest symptom of
disease, was already appearing in numerous minute
places, in the very centre of the young potato [this po-
tato became black after twenty-four hours' exposure to
air] ; others were decaying on the surface, and one of
them had already rotted away. We now, therefore,
warn the public that diseased sets will produce a dis-
eased crop. Not a shadow of doubt remains upon that
point.

But unfortunately this intricate question is not settled
by such an announcement. On the contrary, a far more
serious consideration remains behind. Can we regard
the sound (?) potatoes saved from the diseased fields of
last year as fit for seed ? It may be rash to venture
upon any prediction concerning so wholly unknown a
subject ; but nevertheless the interests involved in this
question are so mighty, that we must be content to bear
the reproaches which may be poured upon us if we
hazard an opinion which the result may not confirm.
We venture, then, to declare thus early, that great
doubts exist as to the fitness for seed of apparently sound
potatoes from diseased districts. That the remaining
potatoes of last year's crop are in an unusual condition
is certain ; they are more excitable ; they will sprout
much quicker than is customary. At this early period
potatoes are found in a state of advanced growth when
the pits are opened ; and this has taken place much be-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

yond what can be ascribed to the peculiar mildness of
the season. In fact, the old tubers of last autumn be-
gan to grow in a few weeks after they became ripe, or
what seemed so ; an event unknown in previoiv; ^jotato
culture. Why this is we know not, nor shall we em-
barrass ourselves with inquiring whether it is owing to
this or that chemical peculiarity. It may be very true
that the potatoes have formed unstable casein instead of
stable albumen ,- or some other explanation may be more
correct. For us it is enough to know that the vitality
of the potato is affected. The living prmciple is
changed ; of that no doubt can exist ; and such being
the case, it is much to be feared that the disease of last
year will continue to appear until, or except where, the
original constitution of the potato is recovered.

But we would not sound a note of alarm upon mere
speculations. We grieve to announce that we have now
before us evidence that confirms the view we have ven-
tured to take. Among the Bicton potatoes above alluded
to was one which the most practised eye would, we
think, have pronounced sound ; its skin was clear, its
texture uniformly pale yellow, with no tendency to change
colour when exposed to the air, and its surface had not
a blemish, with the exception of a small very narrow
short streak on one side, which seemed to have been the
scratch of a fork. This potato pushed vigorously ; its
main stem is half an inch m diameter ; it must have shown
all the symptoms of the most robust health ; and yet
gangrene has attacked the haulm just above the tuber,
and the usual blotchings have appeared upon the leaves.
This potato plant is unequivocally diseased.

We will suppose that some trace of disease could have
been found in this potato, by cutting it into thin slices,
though we have failed to discover them by that process.
Admitting this, yet it is perfectly clear that if healthy
potatoes can only be discovered by such a process, tJie
crop of next season is doomed wherever sets from dis-
eased fields are employed.

We therefore- warn the country, in the most emphatic
language that words are capable of conveying, to think
well of what is coming ; to plant no potatoes to which
suspicion attaches ; and, if sets from uninfected districts
cannot be procured, to crop their land with something
else. There can now be no doubt that in the absence of
such precautions there is no security for the potato crop
of 1846.

[Since writing the above, we have received confirma-
tion of our worst fears. Mr. Errington, gr. to Sir
Philip Egerton, at Oulton, in Cheshire, writes that in a
garden near him ' ' the early kidney potatoes in frames
are totally destroyed." He adds that he " saw the
frames last week, and the stems have mortified from the
leaves downwards, exactly as they did in the open fields
last September."

Mr. James Cuthill, of Camberwell, informs us that
Mr. Hale, a mai-ket-gardener at Ware, in Hertfordshu'e,
has had his early potatoes attacked with last year's
disease: that ^^ half his crop, amounting to about 60
lights, is ^rowe;" that the plants "were looking well,
and abovit 8 inches high, and all at once they were at-
tacked." Mr. Hale, florist, Stockwell, saw these pota-

toes, and authorises Mr. Cuthill to say so ; the owner
was dusting them with lime.

We have received a sample of potatoes from Mr,
Milbum, of Thorpfield, near Thirsk, just taken out of
the pits, and " quite sound as far as he can judge," in
which indeed there is not the smallest outward sign of
decay, and yet we find every one marked with the disease
upon cutting into them. We are also informed that the
forced potatoes at Col. Wyndham's, at Petworth, have
proved to be diseased, although great care was taken in
picking out what appeared to be sound sets. Of this
last case, however, we have no certain knowledge as yet.]
— Gardeners' Chronicle.

THE POTATO DISEASE IN HOLLAND.

The exteut to which the potato disease has extended its ra-
vages in HoUaiul may be gathered from the followuig official
return published by M. Decaisne in a valuable pamplilet*
which has just reached us, in which we have the satisfaction to
tiud that the learned author takes exactly the same view of the
probable cause of this disaster as we have done fi'om the first.

Attacked by

Hectares. the Disease.

North Brabant . 10,67(5 ... 10,661

North Holland. 2,287 ... 1,121

South Holland. 12,310 ... 10,943

Zelaud 4,686 ... 3,748

Friseland 10,816 ... 7,998

Overvssell 7,326 ... 5,461

Limbourg 7,113 ... 2,254

From these data M. Decaisne concludes that two-thirds or
perhaps three-fourths of the crop have been affected. France,
it appears, has sustained less loss, as might have been antici-
pated from its more southern latitude ; it is calcvUated that
around Paris the loss has not exceeded five or six per cent, of
the crop, if some low situations are excluded fi:om the estimate.
In Belgium, however, the mischief has been enormous, as ui
Holland. No such return as that obtamed by the Dutch Go-
vernment has been pubHshed ; but M. Decaisue's investiga-
tions lead him to rate the loss at two-thirds of the crop in some
provuices ; and he adds that in a great number of cases {luie
fonle des localities), the late sorts have been totalhj lost.

Our statistical friends, who occupy themselves with this sort
of inquiry, may hke to see the folloindng returns of the amount
of the potato crop m Belgium for the years 1843 and 1844.
In 1845 the return is unknown.

1843. 1844.

Hectolitres. Hectolitres.

North Brabant... 2,333,793 1,993,197

Gueldres 2,897,701 2,504,527

South Holland... 1,681,196 1,536,967

North Holland... 275,975 533,250

Zeland 805,464 764,888

Utrecht 453,841 344,792

Friseland 2,126,157 1,830,006

Overyssel 1,116,390 1,348,830

Groningen 1,395,247 1,349,533

Drentheim 622,957 650,777

Limbourg 753,850 695,263

The general diminution of the crop ni 1344 is stated to have
arisen in part from the enormous cultivation in Java of rice,
wliich the Belgians take from the Dutch, and ui part from the
increase of the madder-fields of the former. — Ibid.

* Histoire de la Maladie des Pommes de terre, en I84o.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

211

REPORT OF THE BRALNTREE CHURCH-RATE CASE.

By Cuthbert W, Johnson, Esq.,

ONE OF THE COUNSEL IN THE CAUSE.

Court of Queen's Bench, Westminster, before Lord Denman (Chief Justice),
Mr. Justice Patteson, Mr. Justice Coleridge, Mr. Justice Wightman; January 16.

This great case, which has now for several years
engaged the attention of the courts of law, is much
too interesting to a large portion of the readers of
this magazine to retjuire any apology for a report of
it being inserted in this place.

A brief review of the facts of the Braintree case
may perhaps be usefvil to refresh the memories of
those who have some prior knowledge of the cause,
and to enable those who have none to understand
its general bearings.

In the year 1837, the church of that parish being
very considerably out of repair, a rate having been
twice refused by the vestry, and there being, from
the prepondei'ance of dissent in the parish, no pro-
babihty that a voluntary rate would ever again be
imposed, the churchwardens, Messrs. Veley and
Joshn, determined to adopt the only course which
then appeared open to them, by acting upon the
opinion stated, in the Report of the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners, to be entertained by " some very
learned i)ersons," that " if the vestry refuse a rate,
the churchwardens may of their o^vn authority
make it."

With this view a vestry meeting was convened,
and held on the 2nd of June, 1837, at which proper
estimates were produced, and a rate of three shil-
lings in the pound proposed. An amendment was
moved, which, after censuring the vicar and
churchwardens for again agitating the question, re-
iterated the resolutions of a former meeting, to the
foUomng effect : —

"That it appears to this meeting, the existing
law, which authorizes churchwardens to convene a
parish meeting for the purpose of le^^dng a church-
rate, does also recognize what is called the volun-
tary principle to tliis extent — that by it no church-
rate can be laid but by the free consent of a ma-
jority of parishioners duly assembled in vestry to
determine upon it.

"That the parishioners of Braintree are fully
prepared to vindicate this redeeming feature of the
law as it now stands, by freely exercising the just
rights that law secures to them, and determining for
themselves whether a church-rate shaU now be laid
or not.

"That having accordingly well considered the
])roposition to levy a church-rate on the jDresent
occasion, and the principles involved in that propo-
sition, it is their matured conviction, that so long
as the parochial churches are exclusively devoted to
the use of the established sect, all expenses of
repair should be defrayed out of the ample re\-e-
nues of that richly endowed sect; or if there be no
ecclesiastical funds available for such purposes, that
all expenses of repair should be defrayed by the
voluntary contributions of those who exclusively
eajoy the use of the buildings ; and finally,

" That the consideration of a church-rate be post-
poned to this day twelve months."

This amendment was carried on a show of hands.
A poll was demanded by the churchwardens, and
taken in the vestry on the 5th and 6th of June ; the
result of which was, that the amendment was de-
clared to be carried, and the meeting was thereupon
dissolved.

No doubt whatever existing that the adjourn-
ment for twelve months was virtually a refusal, the
churchwardens proceeded by themselves, and of
their own authority, to make a rate of three shil-
lings in the pound, which they signed at a private
meeting in the vestry room, on the 10th June, 1837.

To enforce the payment of the rate so made, a
suit for subtraction of church-rate was instituted in
the Consistory Court of London, against Mr.
Burder, an inhabitant and one of the largest occu-
piers in the parish. The admissibility of the libel
was opposed before Dr. Lushington, the judge
of that court, by which the question of the
validity of the rate was raised at theveiy outset;
and upon that question Dr. Lushington gave
judgment, on the l6th of November, 1837, in favour
of the churchwardens, conceiving himself bound by
a precedent which Avas cited to him in the course of
the argument, but intimating pretty ])lainly that
his own opinion was the other way.

Mr. Burder, the defendant, immediately applied
to the Court of Queen's Bench, for a writ of pro-
hibition.

The matter was solemnly argued, and after a delay
of nearly a twelveinonth, Lord Denman, C. J., de-

212

THli FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

livered the judgment of the court, that the rate was
bad, and that the prohibition ought to is^sue, "on the
ground that the supposed church-rate was a nuUity,
as having been made by persons who had no autho-
rity to make one, in defiance of the declared dissent
of the vestry."

The churchwardens appealed to the Court of Ex-
chequer Chamber, and the case underwent for the
third time a laborious and searching investigation.
The result was the judgment delivered by Lord Chief
Justice Tindal, on the 8th of February, 1841, affirm-
ing the judgment of the Queen's Bench.

llie writ of prohibition issued accordingly, and"
thus terminated the first Braintree church-rate case.

But the main question involved in the case was
placed in a ])erfectly new light by the clear and con-
vincing exposition of the law laid down in the judg-
ment of the Exchequer Chamber. The eight learned
Judges of that court, in pronouncing their concur-
rence in the judgment of the Queen's Bench, most
carefully guarded themselves against being held to
concur in the reasoning on which it was founded.
They declared that a rate made under the circum-
stances brought before them was illegal and bad.
Beyond this they were not called upon to adjudicate ;
but they threw out a most remarkable suggestion,
founded upon a distinction which in none of the
prcAaous judgments, or in the arguments of counsel,
had ever been adverted to. They said, " It is ob-
vious, indeed, that there is a wide and substantial
difference between the churchwardens alone, or the
churchwardens and minority together, making a rate
at the meeting of the i)arishioners when the refusal
takes place, and the churchwardens possessing the
power of rating the parish by themseh-es, at any
future time, however distant. It is unnecessary,
however, to discuss this point, as the facts of the
case do not bring it before us. It is sufficient to say,
whilst we gi\'e no opinion upon it, that we desire to
be understood as reserving to ourselves the liberty
of forming an opinion whenever the case shall occur."

It wastobeexpected that the churchwardens would
act upon the suggestion here thrown out. And,
accordingly, after holding a vestry on the 1 3th May,
1841 (which was merelyaformalone, for the purpose
of ascertaining that the majority still persisted in re-
fusing a rate) a monition was obtained from the Con-
sistory Court of London, reqviiring the churchwar-
dens and parishioners to meet in vestry on a given
day, and make a rate for the repairs of the church.

In jmrsuance of the monition, another vestry
meeting was held on the 15th July, 1841, when fresh
estimates were produced, and a rate of two shillings
in the pound proposed ;* which was met by the fol-
lowing amendment : —

* This, though apparently lower, was in reality
higher than the rate of three shillings in the pound,

" That all compulsory payments for the support
of the religious services of any sect or people appear
to the majority of this vestry to be unsanctioned by
any portion of the New Testament scriptures, and
altogether opposed to and subversive of the pure and
spiritual character, of the religion of Christ. But
that foranyone religious sect to compel others, which
disapprove their forms of worship, or system of
church government, or which dissent from their
religious principles and creeds, to nevertheless submit
to, sxqiport, and extend them, a2)pears to this vestry
tobeayet more obvious invasion of religious freedom
and violation of the rights of conscience ; while also
it appears to be a gross injustice to dissenters, as
citizens, to compel them to pay for the religious ser-
\'ices of others, in which they have no part, while
they build their own chapels, support their own
ministers, and defray the charges of their own wor-
ship.

"That compulsory church-rates, and more espe-
cially such rates upon dissenters, thus appearing to
be as a tax unjust, and as an ecclesiastical imposi-
tion adverse to religious liberty and contrary to the
spirit of Christianity, this \-estry feels bound, by the
highest obligations of social justice and of religious
principle, to refuse to make a rate, and does refuse
accordingly."

The amendment was carried, on a show of hands :
no poll was demanded, as there was no expectation
of a different result. But the churchwardens, then
and there, openly in the face of the vestry, declared,
that in obedience to the monition they should them-
seh'es make a rate of two shillings in the pound.
The rate was accordingly produced, and signed by
the A'icar, the churchwardens, and a number of other
parishioners. The opponents of the rate protested
against the proceedings in toto, and the meeting
separated.

A suit for the recover}' of this rate was commenced
against Mr. Gosling, an occupier of land within
the parish, by whom payment had been refused.
The admissibihty of the libel was again opposed, and
Dr. Lushington gave judgment on the 4th May,
1842, rejecting the libel.

Against this judgment the churchwardens appealed
to the Arches Court of Canterbury. A fifth time
the war of tongues was waged with unabated energy
and ability, and a fifth time was the law as ap})li-
cable tothiscase, exj)Ounded from the judgment seat.
Sir Herbert Jenner Fust, on the 25th of March, 1843,
reversed the decision of Dr. Lushington, and admit-
ted the liljel, thereby adopting the distinction, and
establishing the principle, referred to in the judgment
of the Exchequer Chamber.

Upon this an application Avas made to the Court

proposed in 1837, the parish having in the interval
undergone a fresh valuation.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

213

of Queen's Bench, and a writ of prohibition obtained
directed to the Ecclesiastical Court. To this the
churchwardens demurred, and it is the arguments
on the writ of prohibition which I have now to report.
The Attorney General (with whom were C.
W. Johnson and R. Ogle), who was for the church-
wardens, commenced by recajjitulating the course of
the first Braintree Church-rate case : he deemed it
unnecessary to go into the large mass of authorities
which was then cited, since the case had been veiy
much narrowed by the decision of the Exchequer
('hamber ; who, f;\r from concurring in the doctrine
that in no case could a valid rate be made by a mi-
nority of the parishioners in vestry assembled, threw
out several hints of various modes ]jy which a valid
rate might be made by the minority of the vestry, for
necessary repairs ; and in their j udgment they say : —
"We do not enter into the discussion whether a
rate so made by the churchwardens at the parish
meeting where the parishioners are met would be
valid or not, or how far such case may be analogous
to that of the members of a corporation aggregate,
who being assembled together for the purpose of
choosing an officer of the corporation, the majority
protest against and refuse altogether to proceed to
any election ; in which case they have been held to
throw away their votes, and the minority who have
])erformed their duty by voting, have been held to
rejjresent the whole number.* It is obvious, indeed,
that there is a wide and substantial difference be-
tween the churchwardens alone, or the churchwar-
dens and the minority together making a rate at the
meeting of the parishioners when the refusal takes
place, and the churchwardens possessing the i)ower
of rating the parish by themselves, at any future time,
however distant. It is unnecessarj', however, to
discuss this point, as the facts of this case do not
bring it before us. It is sufficient to say, whilst we
give no opinion upon it, that we desire to be under-
stood as reserving to ourselves the lilierty of forming
an opinion whenever the case shall occur."

After examining the judgment of Dr. Lushington
(3 Curtis, 2G6), and the refusal of the Court of
Queen's Bench to grant a mandamus (3 Queen's B.
R. 589) to compel the churchwardens of a town-
ship to make and assess a rate to pay their portion
of a rate imposed Ijy the churchwardens and a mi-
nority of the vestry of the parish of Bradford, he
proceeded — The great question is now involved whe-
ther the parishioners may at their will or caprice
suH'er their parish-church to fall into decay, or whe-
ther this mode of raising a rate for necessary repairs
— a mode consonant with reason, and which is not

* Oldknowx. Wainwriyht,2 Burr., 1017. Rex v.
Hawkins, 10 East., 217. Rex v. Foxcroft, 1 W.
Black, 229.

without solemn decisions in its favour — shall be de-
clared to be legal. As to the origin of church-rates
he was content to take the account as given by Dr.
Lushington [Siuith v. Keats, 4 Haggard, 278)
although rather inconsistent with a decision of the
same judge (3 Curtis, 293).

It then becomes of importance to consider the ex-
tent of the obligation imposed upon the parishioners
to repair their ])arish church. Now this had been
clearly defined by Tindal, C.J., in delivering the
opinion of the Exchequer Chamber (12 A. and E,
300), where he observes : —

"In order to open the grounds and reasons of our
decision, it will be necessary to exfjlain, in the first
place, the nature of the legal obligation by which the
inhabitants of every parish are compellable to repair
and keep in repair the fabric of the parish church;
and in the next place, the mode prescribed by law
for carrying such obligation into effect. From the
consideration of which j)oints it will Ije seen at once,
and by necessary inference, whether the cluirch-rate
now under discussion is a legal and valid rate, or
the contrary.

"And we are all of opinion that the obligation, by
which the parishioners — ihat is, the actual residents
within, or the occupiers of lands or tenements in
every parish — are bound to repair the body of the
parish church whenever necessaiy, and to provide
all things essential to the performance of Divine ser-
vice therein, is an oljligation imposed on them by
the common law of the land.

"That such obligation is not grounded on the force
of the general ecclesiastical law is manifest from
this — that by the authority of all the writers on the
general canon law, the repairs of the whole of the
parish church, both the body and the chancel, fall
upon the rectors or owners of the tithes, except that
by custom, in some countries, part fall upon the pa-
rishioners. Whereas, in England, to use the words
of Johannes de Athona, in his "Commentary on the
Legatine Constitution of Cardinal Othobon," passed
in the year 1208, 'By the common custom of Eng-
land, the repair of the nave of the church in which
the lay parishioners sit falls upon the parishioners
themselves; but the repair of the chancel falls on the
rector.' Or again, as Lyndewode says, page 53, 'By
custom,' that is, by the common lav/, ' the burden
of reparation, at least of the nave of the church, is
transferred upon the parishioners.'

"No trace can be found in any of ourbooks of an
obligation on jjarishioncrs to repair the parish
churches throughout the whok' of the realm, less
wide and extensive than this."

If, then, it is a common-law obligation, no option
can be allowed. Would it be endured that the pa-
rishioners should be allowed to remove the church,
in which every parishioner has a right to a seat,i]ancl

214

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to destroy the churchyard in which he is entitled to
a place of burial ? and is there any difference in prin-
ciple between the destruction of the church and the
church-yard, and the suffering of them to fall into
decay ? Can an entire county be allowed to suffer
their roads or bridges to remain imrepaired ?

The common-law liability of the parishioners be-
ing established, let us see how these rates have been
usually raised. Now there is a correct list of autho-
rities from 44 Edward III., that the church-rates
have been apportioned by the vestry, and in their
absence by the churchwardens ; here again the
judgment of the judges of the Exchequer Chamber
is clearly expressed, where they say : —

" As little difference of opmion arises as to the
vahdity of arateimposedbythe churchwardens alone
where a meeting of the parishioners has been duly
convened in vestry for the purpose of making such
rate, butwherenoneof the parishioners have thought
fit to attend and express an opinion. For in this
state of circumstances the churchwardens, who may
be assumed to be parishioners themselves, do in ef-
fect constitute the majority, or, more properly
speaking, the whole of the parishioners who are as-
sembled in vestry ; and therefore, upon the principle
above laid down, they must have authority to bind
the absent parishioners."

If the churchwardens refuse to call a meeting to
make a church-rate ; the Ecclesiastical Court will
grant a monition to compel them to do so, and this
court will grant a mandamus {Rex v. St. Margaret
and St. John, 4 M. and S., 250). Now in this case
the meeting had assembled, but the majority refused
to make a rate, in defiance of the common law of
the land, thus described in the decision of the Court
of Exchequer Chamber (12 A. and E., 302) :—

" Such, then, being the law of the land, it follows
as a necessary consequence, that the repair of the
fabric of the church is a duty which the parishioners
are compellable to perform — not a mere voluntary
act which they may perform or decline at their own
discretion ; that the law is imperative upon them ab-
solutely that they do repair the church — not binding
on them in a quahfiedlimitedmanneronly, that they
may repair or not, as they think fit ; and that where
it so happens that the fabric of the church stands in
need of repair, the only question upon which the
parishioners, when convened together to make a rate,
can by law deliberate and determine, is — not whe-
ther they will repair the church or not (for upon that
point they are concluded by the law) — but how and
in what manner the common-law obligation so bind-
ing them may be best and most effectually, and at
the same time most conveniently, performed and
carried into effect. The parishioners have no more
power to throw off the burden of the repair of the
church, than that of the repair of bridges and high-

ways; the compelling of the performance of the latter
obligation belonging exclusively to the tem])oral
courts, whilst that of the former has been exercised
usually, although pei'haps not necessarily exclusively,
by the spiritual courts from time immemorial."

Now in this case the parishioners did meet, when
duly summoned ; but, having met, they refuse to
entertain the question of a chvirch-rate altogether,
and instead of doing so, they go into the discussion
of totally irrelevant matter ; and there is no differ-
ence in principle between the refusal of the pa-
rishioners to attend the meeting, and, being assem-
bled in vestry, in refusing to enter into the ques-
tion : this principle may be gathered from various
cases (Oldknow v, Wainioriglit, 2. Burrows, 1017 ;
1. W. Blackstone, 229; King \. Parry, 14. East,
549).

After referring and examining the cases of Roberts
and Others, Hetley's Reports ; Rogersv. Davenant,
Modern Repoi'ts; Pense v. Prowse, Lord Ray-
mond's Reports ; Blank v. Newcomb, Modern
Reports ; Datvson v. Wilkinson, Andrew's Reports ;
Groves v. Rector of Hornsey, Haggard's Reports ;
Thurston v. Jones, Ventris' Reports ; and Gaudern
v. Silby, Curtis' Re])orts ; with the obser\'ation,
upon case that made by Sir H. J. Fust, the
Attorney-General, in conclusion, contended that the
question to be decided was, not whether the parish
is to be taxed by the minority, for the tax is im-
posed by the common law, but whether in this case
of the enforcement of a common- law liabihty, the
authority of the case of Gaudern v. Selby is not
binding upon this court; but even if in that posi-
tion the court should be against him, then he was
remitted to his original argument, and submitted
that the minority of the vestry may, under the cir-
cumstances of the case, make a valid rate.

The Solicitor-General (with whom were
Baines, Serjeant, and T. J. Arnold) contended that
this was a case in which it was sought to tax the
plaintiff without his consent. He did not deny the
common-law liabihty of the parishioners to repair
their church, but he contended that in the absence
of the correct execution of their duty, no one else
can tax them. In this case, too, he had a tech-
nical objection, that the rate in question was never
put to the meeting, as it ought to have been, after
the amendment had been carried.

(Chief Justice Denman : They by their
amendment refused to make any rate.)

In this case he contended that he was not called
upon to produce authorities to prove the illegality
of the rate; but if he was so bound, then he
would be ready to show that with the single excep-
tion of Gaudern v. Selby, all the authorities were
in favour of the plaintiff. He here cited Gibson's
Codex.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

216

As to the danger of the church falling down, ard f
the insufficiency of the law to compel the parish to |
repair their church, by the undoubted means, by
interdict and excommunication, which the Eccle-
siastical courts possessed — supposing the asser-
tion to Ije correct, why then it is for the legislature
and not for this court to provide a remedy. The
Court of Queen's Bench, in their judgment in the
former Braintree case, remarked : —

" The Consistory Court decided against this de-
fence regularly pleaded, and has thereby raised the
question, whether the churchwardens have power
to impose a churcn-rate against the declared will of
the inhabitants in vestry assembled,

" In]debating this question at the bar, the ancient
doctrine, that by the custom of England the in-
habitants are bound to repair the body of the
church and to inclose the church-yard, was not
disputed ; a doctrine fully stated by Holt, C.J., as
quoted by the Queen's Advocate, in arguing the
present case in the Consistory Court : ' By the civil
and canon law the parson is obliged to rejjair the
whole church, and so it is in all christian king-
doms but in England, for it is by the peculiar law
of this nation that the parishioners are charged vi^ith
the repairs of the body of the church.'*

" Neither was that proposition denied on
the part of the plaintiff, or that a church-rate is
matter of ecclesiastical cognizance, or that the
churchwardens are entrusted with the expenditure
of the rate so levied, and liable to spiritual censures
for neglect of their duty therem. But the ques-
tion is, whether, in case of refusal by the parish-
ioners, the churchwardens are empowered to im-
pose a rate for that purpose, and indeed compellable
by spiritual censures so to tax their fellow-parish-
ioners.

" If they have not this power, and are subject to
this liability, the defendants argue that there
would be a wrong without a remedy ; a striking
argument, no doubt, as that is an anomaly abhor-
rent to the law of England. The wrong is, neglect
of duty Ijy parishioners ; the remedy is supposed to
be found in the power of their oflicers to tax them.
But the history of ancient times establishes that
the law did apply a remedy, such as was found
then, and was expected always to continue, amply
sufficient to secure the reparation of churches — the
proceeding by interdict, which suspended the per-
formance of ecclesiastical rites in the refractory
parish, or the proceeding by excommunication
against every parishioner.

"This argument would also be entitled to the
greatest consideration, if the law subjected church-
wardens to any personal inconvenience, as a conse.

* Hawkins v, Rous. Carthew, 360,

quence of the cluuxh remaining unrepaired, when
destitute of the funds requisite for upholding
the fabric, or supplying any of its wants to which
a church-rate is api)hcable. If in such a state of
things they could be sued for injury done to a
passenger on the highway by the decayed church
wall coming down upon him, or indicted for a nui-
sance by its fall there, as has been surmised ; if
they could be punished for not laying out their
money in repairs, that law, if it also prohibited
them from obtaining full indemnity from those
whom at the same time it pronounces to be prima-
rily liable, would be chargeable with manifest in-
consistency and injustice. Such habilities indeed,
if recognized by general usage, or even by a pre-
vailing practice for them to make advances to that
end, would tempt us to imply, from the custom of
England, which charges the inhabitants with repair
of churches, a power in the churchwardens to reim-
burse themselves from their neighbours' funds,
even though that power had never been exercised.
But no instance has been found of a churchwar-
den being thus visited : on the contrary, numerous
authorities in our reports establish the proposition,
that churchwardens can only be liable in respect of
moneys come to their hands ; and all that ap]jears
in the books of ecclesiastical law, with reference to
the duties of those officers, is qualified by the sup-
position that the parish has furnished them with the
adequate resources. Nor have churchwardens been
in the habit of making such advances,

"The plaintiff, in this present suit, has the right
to cast the burden of proof on his adversaries.

" The law requires clear demonstration that a tax
is lawfully imposed. No Act of Parhament vests
in the parish officers such a power as these have
exercised, nor recites that such a power exists, by
common law or custom. No book of reports af-
firms it ; no such usage in fact prevails in the land;
an opposite usage prevails : the church-rate is con-
stantly imposed by the inhabitants in vestry as-
sembled. In Gibson's Codex, 220, it is said—
' Rates for reparation of the church are to be made
by the churchwardens, together with the parish-
ioners assembled, upon public notice given in the
church. And the major part of them that appear
shall bind the parish ; or if none appear, the
churchwardens alone may make the rate, because
they, and not the parishioners, are to be cited and
punished in defect of repairs.' "

As to the arguments that this is a tax imposed
by the common law, which the parishioners are
obliged to pay, why all these, and others of a
similar kind, were exactly those which were employ-
ed in the great case of ship-money, in the reign of
Charles the First, As to the comparison with a
county-rate, he would ask, if a majority of the ma-

p'2

216

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gistrates refuse to make a county-rate, can the mi-
nority make an assessment ?

( Justice Patteson : Your analogy fails there,
because you may indict in one case, but not in the
other.)

If the Court decide that the minority may make
a rate, they will hereafter have to sit to inquire into
the reasons why the rate was made.

He cited and remarked on Pense v. Prowse,
Dawson v. Wilkinson, and the Kinxi v. Munday
(Cowper, 530) ; and contended that the very title
or heading of the rates expi-essed that they were
made "by the churchwardens and parishioners."

He commented upon the judgment of the Court
of Queen's Bench in the former Braintree church-
rate case, which, he contended, decided this case ;
and upon Gaudern v. Selby, which last he
deemed to be of no authority. Sujjpose the case
of a mandamus from this court to a corporation to
affix their seal to a bond, and that the majority of
the corporation refuse, may the minority do it .'' In
conclusion, he referred to the whole current of au-
thorities, as showing [Gaudern v. Selby only ex-
cepted) that a church-rate can only be made by a
majority of the vestry.

The Attorney-General, in reply, contended
that none of the arguments of the Solicitor-General
had shaken the case of the defendants. That no
particular form of putting the question of a rate to
the vestry was laid down by any authority'. That
the sense of the vestry was clearly and fairly taken;
and that they had resolved that " no church-rate"
should be granted. He compared these proceed-

ings to the election of a member of Parliament,
wliere the only mode of defeating the election of
any candidate was by voting for another. The
case of ship-money bore no analogy to this. There
no debt was due to the Crown. Hampden's de-
fence was, that there was no liability. As to the
case of county or parish or highway-rates, there is
another remedy provided ; for you may indict the
county or parish, or the case is provided for by an
act of Parliament. In the case of a refusal to make
a poor's-rate, an absolute mandamus goes in the
first instance to the parish officers to make a rate ;
and as to the case of a mandamus to a corporation
to affix a bond, he supposed that if, in compliance
with such a mandamus, the bond was produced
with the proper seal affixed, th<^. Court would not
be very nice in their inquiries as to how that seal
was affixed. The case differs materially from that
of Vcley V. Burder, formerly decided by this Court.
In that case eight days elapsed between the refusal
of the vestry and the making of the rate ; here
the rate was made at the meeting. Thursjidd v.
Jones, and Gaudern v, Selby, were there cited
in support of the proposition, that at any time
after the refusal of the vestry, the cluuxhwarden
alone might proceed to make a rate. In conclu-
sion, on these grounds, on the authority of Gau-
dern V. Selby, and the other cases he had cited,
and in the total absence of all other cases to the
contrary, he claimed the judgment of the Court in
favour of the defendants, the churchwardens.

Lord Denman : "The Court will consider of
their judgment."

DINGLE'S HAND-DIBBLING MACHINE.

registered by MESSRS. WILLIAM E. RENDLE, AND CO., PLYMOUTH.

Notwithstanding the tediousness of the process,
and the cost of labour to sow any considerable
extent of land by dibbfing, the practice has been
for ages persevered in, as the most efficient ; and
as regaras the expenditure of seed, by far the most
economical ; but it was found that even this ad-
vantage might be improved by a better method of
regulating the " dropping" of the grain by those
who followed the dibble : hence, various, and some
very ingenious contrivances have been adopted to
effect the uniform deposit of a smaller quantity;
one of the best of which, we believe, was a " seed-
dropping machine," invented by Mr. Bentall, of
Heybridge, Essex, and exhibited by him at Shi-ews-
bury last July ; but the object of these being simply
to economize the deposit, left the outlay for labour
precisely where it was ; the necessity to employ
one or more to follow the dibble yet continued,
and the consequent expense remained undiminished,
whilst various irregularities still marked the in-
completeness of the process. To remedy these
obvious defects, the attention of several scientific
agricultural mechanics have been directed to the
construction of a simple self-depositing dibl)le :
and the one, of which we this month present an
engraving, is so well spoken of by those who liave
used it, that in recommending it, we feel the
satisfaction arising from confidence in its real

value as an efficient aid to our farming friends.
The inventor, Mr, Dingle, of Calhngton, Corn-
wall, is himself a practical farmer; and had for
many years felt the inconveniences that resulted
from the imperfect performance of one of the most
important operations of the year, and very wisely
set about devising a remedy, the result of which
is the production of the machine in question. We
give the inventor's description of it : — " The dibble
is a hollow tube, comjiosed of two semi-cylindrical
portions, fitting together; the tube is ojien at its
upper end and closed at its lower end, at tlie point,
or toe, a hollow ferrule is fixed to one half of the
divided tube, but detached from the other half,
which is therefore at liberty to slide through it.
This ferrule at the same time acts as a shield, and
prevents the tube from filling with mould, and
therefore cannot by any possibihty get choked. A
quantity of seed is contained in the large upper
box, which by an ingenious contrivance supplies
the receiving box with a regular quantity of seeds,
M'hich fall into the dibl>ling tube. The machine
is manufactured to yiut in a single or double row
at one operation."

Tlie engraving represents the double machine,
with which one man possessing little ingenuity will
dil)ble from half to three quarters of an acre per
day.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

217

h^m^\>

p

218

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REMARKS ON THE AGRICULTURE OF ABERDEENSHIRE.

No. I.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

No branch of the statistics of the country has
been so much neglected as that relating to agricul-
tural pursuits. Great importance has uniformly
been attached to such details by manufacturers and
mercantile men, as constituting a guide to success
in their respective avocations. But there is certainly
no department of national industry, in connection
with which, minute and accurate information of
this kind is of such general importance, as
the cultivation of the soil. Statistical facts when
industriously collected and properly authenticated,
must prove of incalculable benefit to agricul-
ture, as illustrating its previous and existing
condition in various districts, the results of the
successive improvements which have been effected
or introduced, the expenses attending, and the
returns arising from the cultivation of different
soils, and the amount of capital invested in and
actually required for the prosecution of farming,
besides affording the means of estimating the
alimental resources of the kingdom. It is also
abundantly obvious, that the possession of accurate
agricultural statistics would be of immense ad-
vantage to government, as furnishing data upon
which some beneficial legislative enactments might
be founded, as well as for adjusting the relation
between landlord and tenant on fair and equitable
principles. Although the utihty of collecting and
comparing statistical facts and practical details,
illustrative and descriptive of the modes of hus-
bandry pursued in the more improved and ad-
vancing districts is now generally acknowledged ;
yet, as this subject has hitherto received but very
inadequate attention, it wiU not, it is hoped, be
deemed either irrelevant or improper, to advert
here to a few of the more important advantages
that seem likely to accrue from the careful con-
sideration of such statements.

1. It is acknowledged by all, that there are cer-
tain quarters of the country in which agricultm-al
improvement has made more rapid and extended
progress than in others, and that amongst these
there are some districts which, though perhaps de-
servedly famed for the judicious prosecution of one
or more particular branches of husbandry, may,
nevertheless, be considerably backward in other
departments of it. Hence, it is highly probable
that there are many features in the rural economy
and general farm management of some locahties,
which, if made sufficiently known, would be ad-

vantageously introduced into and adopted in
others where they do not at present exist ; for
there is, in fact, scarcely a district in the kingdom
whose system of farming is so wretchedly defective
as not to present some peculiarity of practice
worthy of imitation elsewhere. Now, a correct
knowledge of the practices of improved locahties
can only be acquired either by personal inspection
at different periods of the year, or by means of
impartial reports furnished by individuals who are
intimately acquainted with their respective modes
of husbandry. Although the formerof these methods
is, of course, the more expensive, yet it is ob-
viously far more satisfactory than the latter,
inasmuch as ocular evidence is invariably more
convincing than the testimony of another ; and
certainly .there are few ways in which an in-
telligent agriculturist could more profitably or
agreeably spend a few weeks in summer (between
turnip sowing and harvesting), than in visiting
some of those parts of the island which are noted
for superior cultivation. But though there can be
no doubt that, in most cases, the time and money
so expended would be amply compensated by the
amount of valuable information thus obtained, yet,
comparati\'ely few farmers avail themselves of the
opportunities such excursions afford of acquiring a
knowledge of the agricultural practices of other
quarters. The engrossing nature of the husband-
man's avocations in many instances precludes his
absenting himself for any length of time from the
superintendence of his business ; and for this among
other reasons, which it is needless to specify, agri-
culturists as a body know less of each others
opinions and practices than is the case with other
classes of the community, indeed, generally speak-
ing, they may be said to be almost entirely unac-
quainted with any other system of management
than that practised by themselves or by their im-
mediate neighbours. It is therefore to be presumed
that details of the modes of cultivation which are
pursued in improved or improving districts, to-
gether with such statistical facts as may be correctly
ascertained, can hardly fail to interest and instruct
those who may happen to be either unable or un-
wilUng to go to inspect and inquire for themselves,
especially when accompanied, as they ought in-
variably to be, with information relating to the
nature of the soil, the character of the climate, and
other local circumstances, by which alone the pro-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

219

priety of any system ot husbaiidiy can be estimated
aright.

2. But much benefit may accrue even to the
best cultivated localities themselves from the pub-
lication of their ajrricultural statistics and ap-
proved modes of management. It is generally ad-
mitted, that there is no district in the kingdom
whose system of husbandry is so far advanced
as not to be susceptible of still further improve-
ment; indeed, the recent researches of scientific
men have clearly estabhshed the inaccuracy of
many principles of practical agriculture which had
previously been regarded as fundamentally correct,
and have discovered numerous defective points in
the management of districts in which compara-
tively few were supposed to exist. Hence it seems
reasonable to presume, that were the pecuUar prac-
tices of different localities made more generally
known than they are, the investigations of chemists
would be more definitely and successfully directed
towards the im^n'ovement and advancement of
agriculture. Notwithstanding the cautious reluc-
tance manifested by the majority of farmers to
avail themselves of the discoveries or the aid of
scientific men in the cultivation of their land, and
the culpable pertinacity with which many of them
still adhere to antiquated opinions and practices,
intelligent agriculturists are becoming fully alive
to the important assistance which the judicious ap-
plication of science is so well calculated to afford
them in the improvement of their art. The skilful
chemist may, it is allowed, be competent enough to
form and give a correct opinion regarding the pro-
priety or impropriety of any agricultural process
involving a knowledge of scientific principles ; or
he may be able to suggest improved methods of
rearing and fattening live-stock, and to prescribe
with confidence certain manures and certain modes
of culture for such soils as have been subjected to
chemical examination ; but it is obvious he could
perform these services to agriculture much more
satisfactorily and correctly if furnished with such
details as those to which I have adverted. Existing
practices must, I apprehend, be thoroughly and
maturely considered in connection with the nature
of the soil, the character of the chmate, and other
local circumstances of the district in which they
obtain, before the scientific man can, with any
degree of confidence, either confirm their general
propriety, or show wherein, and how far, they may
be susceptible of improvement. It is evident,
therefore, that while statistical and descriptive re-
ports of improved districts may contain informa-
tion relative to some pecviliarities of practice which
may be advantageously introduced into other loca-
lities less advanced in the path of improvement,
they also undoubtedly furnish data for the establish-

ment of a correct system of husbandry, based upon
those unchangeable laws of nature which science is
gradually unfolding, or for the condemnation and
abandonment of such empirical practices as have
nothing but immemorial usage to recommend and
support them.

3. There is another important and practical point
of view in which we may consider the utility of
collecting and diffusing correct information relative
to the agricultural statistics and pecuhar practices
of different districts. It is not uncommon at pre-
sent to contrast the systems of husbandry pvir-
sued in different parts of the country; and with the
professed intention of illustrating the comparative
inferiority in point of skill of the farmers of some of
the contrasted localities, the relative produce of the
cultivated land is generally adduced as the criterion
of agricultural intelligence. Now, such compari-
sons of different districts are quite legitimate, and
may possibly be productive of much benefit, in
arousing some farmers to emulate the success of
their more advanced brethren, when all the circum-
stances are fully and fairly detailed, such as the
nature of the soil and climate, the kind and the
duration of tenure (or the security afforded to the
tenant), and the amount of capital possessed or
invested by farmers generally in the cultivation
of their land. But, on the other hand, when all
these modifying particidars are not accurately
stated and duly considered, such contrasts are apt
to become invidious and mischievous, as tending
to produce the impression, that the comparative
backwardness of agriculture, and the deficiency of
relative acreable produce in one district, result
from combined ignorance and pi-ejudice on the
part of the tenantry. In all such cases, however,
we should not for a moment overlook the adverse
circumstances in which the alleged backward far-
mers may be placed, or the natural or social
disadvantages with which they may have to con-
tend, and which are probably either altogether
unknown or but slightly felt in the more ad-
vanced and prosperous localities. How fre-
quently, for example, do we find a certain class
of tourists levelling the most sweeping condem-
nation against the modes of fanning practised in
particular counties of England, aud bestowing un-
measured censure on the farmers for not adopting
the peculiar practices of the Lothians, Berwick-
shire, and other improved Scotch counties, with-
out, however, pausing to consider the dissimilar
circumstances in which those different parts of the
island are placed. Statements of produce and pro-
fits are also not unfrequently adduced in sui:)port
of such arguments ; but being mostly derived from
a few isolated cases, they are generally far above
the average, and thus tend only to misinform and

220

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mislead. There cannot be the smallest doubt that
much of the husbandry of the last named dis-
tricts may be successfully introduced into most
parts of England, while some of the i)ecuhar prac-
tices of the latter country may, no doubt, be
adopted with equal advantage north of the Tweed ;
and further, it must be confessed that many
Enghsh agriculturists are in a great degree inex-
cusable for their long adherence to popular opinions
and practices, after their impropriety has been
clearly demonstrated by experience in other quar-
ters. Nevertheless it would, I think, be exceed-
ingly erroneous to attribute the comparatively de-
fective condition of agriculture in certain parts of
England, exclusively to lack of skill among the
farmers. It must be remembered that many favour-
able circumstances have conspired to raise the agri-
culture of Scotland to the proud and distinguished
position which it now confessedly occupies ; the
principal of which has undoubtedly been the
granting, at an early period, of leases unincum-
bered with burdensome obligations, or with useless
or mischievous restrictions. Thus while Scottish
agriculture, under a well regulated system of lease-
hold tenure, aided by the liberal encouragement of
the landed pro])rietary, and the very general esta-
bhshment of grain-rents had been making rapid
and lengthened strides towards its present condi-
tion, that of England and of Ireland, on the other
hand, may be said to have remained almost sta-
tionary, or at least to have been but very slowly
progressing, under circumstances far less equi-
table and encouraging, if not directly the reverse
of those to which the acknowledged superiority of
Scottish husbandry is mainly attributable.

Although there are certain fundamental princiiiles
of agriculture which may be said to be of imiversal
application, yet, in general, a judicious system of
farming is dependent upon a variety of local cir-
cumstances; and the particular practices which
it may be most advisable to adopt in one district
may be wholely unsuited to another dissimilarly
circumstanced in regard to soil, climate, &c. It is
ob^'ious therefore that before we can fairly contrast
the agriculture or the acreable produce of different
parts of the country, we must be in possession of
accurate information respecting the nature of the
soil of which they respectively consist, the character
of the climate to which they are subject, with the
other particulars above alluded to. "When all these
circumstances are duly considered, and their influ-
ence rightly understood, it will, I have no doubt, be
acknowledged that the average produce of the soil
in any particular distiict furnishes by itself no
absolute criterion of the judgment of the farmers
who cultivate it. It requires, for instance, more
skilful management to raise five quarters of oats or

twenty tons of turnips per acre iri certain parts of
Aberdeenshire, than need be exercised to grow
eight quarters of oats or thirty tons of turnips either
in Norfolk or in East Lothian, where the soil and
climate are so much superior. Hence it seems
but reasonal)le to presume that the comparative de-
ficiency of acreable produce in one of two contrasted
localities is to be ascribed not so much to the want
of skill on the part of its farmers (though this of
course is not to be overlooked) as to the more un-
favourable circumstances in which they are placed,
and over which they possess but little or no con-
troul. AVere we in possession of detailed reports
of the practices and statistics of diflerent districts
whose soils and climate are described, no difficulty
could be experienced in contrasting the results of
their respective modes of farming, or in deciding
with some degree of accuracy which is most skilfully
cultivated under the particular circumstances of each.
The foregoing are only a few of the ])rincipal
advantages that seem likely to accrue from the col-
lection and dittusion of correct information relating
to the agricultural statistics and peculiar practices
of improved districts. There are obviously several
other benefits of greater or less importance to be
derived from such details, both by the practical
farmer and the political economist ; but it is un-
necessary to occupy more space by referring
to these, as I have already, I think, sufficiently
proved the utihty of agricultural statistics in other
respects to farmers and all interested in the improve-
ment of husbandry and the prosperity of their native
land. But notwithstanding the great importance
of such statements, it is needless to remark that
their collection has not kept pace with the ra])id ad-
vances which have latterly been made in the path
of im])ro\'ement. The value of such information
has no doubt been recognised by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, under whose auspices
interesting reports of such English counties
as present some pecuharities in their modes of
farming, are now in course of being drawn up.
In Scotland, however, very little has been effected
in this way since the publication of the voluminous
reports furnished to the Board of Agriculture.
Occasionally, indeed, brief and hasty accounts of
the farming of certain districts have appeared in
the newspapers and agricultural periodicals, from
the pens of tourists and others ; but, with some few
exceptions, these have been much too general and
superficial to be of any practical value to the fai--
mers of other parts of the kingdom.* The princi-

* Some interesting and instructive sketches of the
agriculture of certain localities, by Professor Johnston,
have lately been published in the " Quarterly Journal
of Agriculture ;" but the learned writer does not enter
minutely into details of practice.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

221

ptil work of a statistical nature which has issued
from tlie Scottish press, since the pubhcation of the
county reports, is that entitled the " New Statistical
Account of Scotland," by the ministers of the re-
spective parishes, which vmdoubtedly constitutes a
valuable contribution to the statistics of the country ;
but as it embraces numerous topics in limited space,
the department of agriculture is in most instances
very briefly noticed ; indeed the writers do not
])rofess to give anything hke a detailed account of
the jMcsent state of farming in their respective
parishes. It is well known, however, that very
great and im])ortant improvements have been
efl'ected in every branch of Scottish husbandry
since the pul^lication of the county surveys, drawn
up under the direction of the Board of Agricul-
ture, so that these reports are now in many respects
quite inapplicable to the existing condition of agri-
cidture in any part of the country. It would, there-
fore, I think, be an ol:)ject well worthy the attention
and patronage of the Highland and Agricultural So-
ciety to i)rocure correct statistics and reports of the
present state of agriculture in the different Scotch
counties. The Society, by doing so, would suj)-
ply a great desideratum, and obtain much iiseful
information on various branches of husbandry ;
and the agriculturists of England and of Ireland
would thus be put in possession of authentic
details, whereby they would be enabled to judge
for themselves how far the Scotch methods of
farming are sujoerior or inferior to their own ; while
the ignorance and misapprehension which generally
prevail south of the Tweed regarding the prac-
tices of the north, would thereby in a great degree
be removed, and a better understanding established
between the farmers of both countries, which would
doubtless redound to their mutual advantage.

It is not, I think, saying too much, that there
are few counties (if any) in Scotland which have
made greater progress in agricultural improvement
since the publication of the surveys alluded to than
Aberdeenshire. At that period the husbandry of
this county was in a very backward condition
indeed. All operations on the soil were veiy
imperfectly and expensively performed (owing, in
a great degree, to the want of efficient imple-
ments) ; the live-stock, now so much improved in
symmetry and in size, were then comparatively
small, and badly maintained during the winter
months, on account of the limited extent of land
under turnijDs, and the miserable crops ^^dth which
the fanners of those days were content; and
thorough draining was altogether unknown and rm-
practised. Modern improvements were, however,
already beginning to appear, though such instances
were "few and far between ;" old prejudices were
also, it api)ears, beginning to wear away with the

demise of the good old men who entertained them,
and everything seemed to augur a more improved
state of things at no distant period. The reign of
high prices consequent on the French revolutionary
wars tended most materially to accelerate the con-
summation of so desirable an object ; and there is
))erhaps no other district in Britain in which greater
improvements have been so speedily and success-
fully accomplished, notwithstanding the natural
disadvantages of a rugged soil and an uncertain,
changeable climate. The principal of these, it
might be proper to mention, are the extension of
thorough draining, whereby the productive capa-
bilities of the soil and the salubrity of the chmate
have been simultaneously increased — the general
adoption of alternate husbandry, and the cultiva-
tion of green crops on an extensive scale — the
formation of excellent turnpike roads — the planting
of large tracts of waste ground with larch, Scotch
tir, and other suitable trees, the substitution of the
improved two-horse swng plough for a clumsy,
cumbrous thing of the same name, which was
dragged slowly along by a formidable team of from
six to twelve oxen ; of the threshing machine for the
flail, and of the scythe for the sickle in rea])ing grain-
crops, the granting of leases on more equitable terms
for the tenant, the erection of commodious and sub-
stantial farm buildings, the enclosing and reclaim-
ing of waste lands ; the introduction of bone-dust,
guano, and other portable manures, &c., &c.

The Survey of Aberdeenshire, which was drawn
vip for the Board of Agricultm-e by the late Dr.
Skene Keith, is very voluminous ; and being the
production of a man M'ell acquainted with the prin-
ciples and practice of agriculture as then known, it
was justly esteemed as among the most complete
and valuable reports furnished to the Board. It is
needless, however, to remark that it presents but a
very imperfect and erroneous view of the existing
state of farming in Aberdeenshire ; and considering
the important improvements which have latterly
been effected, as well as those that are still pro-
gressing in the county, it has occurred to me that a
few papers descriptive of the present condition of
its agriculture, and detailing such statistical facts as
I may be able to ascertain, might prove interest-
ing if not instructive to the southern readers of this
Magazine. I may state at the outset, that while
adverting in detail to whatever practice appears to
me as worthy of being generally known, I shall not
attempt, as is sometimes done, to hold up the agri-
culture of Scotland as a faultless model for English
farmers. From personal observation in the most
improved districts north of the Tweed, I am
satisfied that however far advanced the agri-
culturists of Scotland may consider themselves
to be, they have still much, very much to

222

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

learn in the best and noblest of all arts — that
of developing the capabihties of the soil to the
fullest extent. I am therefore quite prepared to
admit that Aberdeenshii'e farming is still 'elective
in many particulars, and that its enterprising agri-
culturists may take some useful lessons from the
practices of other districts ; but it is eqvially un-
questionable (and I hope to prove so bye and bye)
that those of other parts of the kingdom may de-
rive some valuable hints from the methods of cul-
tivation at present pursued, and the improvements
now progressing in this county. In my subsequent
remarks I shall take the liberty of adverting to what-
ever appears to me as being injudicious in the
husbandry and rural economy of Aberdeenshire;
but at the same time I think it right to state that
my constant aim shall be to furnish facts and
details of practice, leaving it for the inteUigent
reader to draw his own conclusions.

Situation, Extent, &c. — Having premised
these general obsei-vations, it may be proper to
make a few remarks relative to the situation,
extent, boundaries, &c., of the county, before pro-
ceeding to advert to the nature of the soil and other
practical details. Aberdeenshire is situated between
56" 52' and 57° 42^ of north latitude, and between
1° 49' and 3° 48.' of west longitude. It is the fifth
Scotch county in ))oint of size, being somewhat,
smaller than Inverness, Ross, Argyll, and Pertly,
but larger than any of the other counties. It is
also more extensive than any of the Enghsh
counties except three, namely,' Yorkshire, Devon-
shire, and Lincolnshire. The county of Aberdeen
is computed to contain about one-fifteenth part of
the whole area of Scotland, or one-fiftieth of that of
Great Britain. Its greatest length is eighty-six
miles, and its greatest breadth forty-two miles.

Aberdeenshire is bounded on the north-east and
east by the German Ocean ; on the south-east and
south by the counties of Kincardine, Forfar, and
Perth; on the south-west by Inverness and Banff;
on the west and ^north-west by the latter county.
Having upwards of sixty miles of sea-coast on the
one side, and the broad Atlantic not being far
distant from the other, this county enjoys, as will
hereafter be more particularly noticed, a milder
climate than could be expected from its high latitude
and mountainous character. According to the most
recent admeasurement, it contains an area of 1985
square miles, or 1,270,400 acres Enghsh statute
measure, which are equivalent to 1,007,308 Scottish
acres.* About 300,000 imperial acres are arable,

* It is proper to mention here that one Scotch acre is
equal to one acre, one rood, one pole, and twenty-four
yards, or 1.261183 acres English statute measure. The
common proportion of four Scotch acres being equal to

450,000 acres uncultivated, and 520,400 acres un-
profitable.

Divisions. — Aberdeenshire is divided into five
districts or divisions, named Mar, Formartin,
Buchan, Garioch, and Strathbogie, which differ
from each other in many respects. As I shall have
occasion frequently to refer to these localities when
noticing the different modes of cropping, &c., it is
proper, before proceeding farther, to make a few
remarks descriptive of each, beginning with

Mar. — This division is by far the largest ; it
contains at least two-thirds of the whole county.
It comprehends the extensive district of country
included between the Dee and the Don, besides a
very considerable tract situated on the south side
of the former river, and between it and the Gram-
pian range, which separates Aberdeenshire from
the neighbouring counties of Kincardine, Forfar,
and Perth. But although Mar is the largest and
most southerly, it is upon the whole the most
barren, bleak, and mountainous division of the
coimty. It contains only about two miles of sea-
coast between the mouths of the rivers Dee and
Don, and few of the hills, even in the lower part,
are of less altitude than 500 feet, while many of
the mountains in Braemar (or the highest
grounds of Mar) are upwards of 3500 feet above
the level of the sea. This division contains the
mountains of Benmackdhui, Lochnagar, and Cairn-
toul ; the former of which, according to the latest
surveys, is no less than 4390 feet above the level
of the sea, being twenty feet higher than Ben
Nevis, near Fort William, which until very recently
was considered to be the highest mountain in Great
Britain. In the middle part of this extensive di-
vision there are, however, several highly fertile and
picturesque valleys, among which may be mentioned
the vales of Alford, Cromar, Kildrumy, &c., as
being the most valuable and productive parts of the
county. Grain of the finest quality is abundantly
raised, in favourable seasons, in these beautiful dales
or " hows" as they are provinciaUy termed. The
lower subdi^dsion of Mar includes New and Old
Aberdeen, the former situated on the Dee and the
latter on the Don. It aj^pears from history that the
most of this part was at one period covered \vith
natural wood, and vestiges of the trees are still fre-
quently discovered in bogs. The least rugged and
barren portions have been reclaimed and cultivated
at great expense by the inhabitants, through whose
unexampled industry and perseverance much of
what was once a vast forest, or a mere inhospitable
waste, has been converted into good pastm-e-land

five English is therefore inaccurate, the nearest approx-
mation bemg forty-eight Scotch to sixty-one imperial
acres.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

223

and fruitful corn-fields. Braemar still abounds
\vith large natural forests of excellent timber, which
is much esteemed for its durabihty. These woods
are being considerably thinned at i)resent for rail-
way and other purposes. In such elevated situations
the iilanting of suitable trees ultimately affords a
better return than could be derived either from
grazing or cultivation.

The second division of Aberdeenshire is denomi-
nated Formartin, the greater portion of which is in-
cluded between the rivers Don andYthan; theformer
separating it from iMar and the latter from Buchan.
It extends from the sea-coast to a considerable dis-
tance inland, and contains a great diversity of soils,
from the light drifting sand on the beach to stiff,
tenaceous clay. Tlie interior of this division is
very hUly, and in many places quite un})roductive ;
but towards the German ocean the ground becomes
flat, and generally speaking of good quality, though
susceptible of great improvement l>y means of
thorough draining and the application of calcareous
manures. Though there are in the inland jiarts
considerable tracts of peat-moss, moor, and heath-
land, yet the division of Formartin abounds with
excellent and well cultivated farms, particulaily
near the sea-coast ; and in the parishes of Udney,
Tarves, Fyvie, and Auchterless, where important
improvements have recently been effected. It gives
the title of viscount to the Earl of Aberdeen, who
is the principal proprietor.

The third, and perhaps the most valuable division
of the county is called Buchan. Though inferior
to Mar in point of area, it is considerably superior
to it in agricultural importance, the soil and climate
being much more favourable for the prosecution of
farming. Tliis division possesses about forty
mUes of sea-coast, and the surface is in gene-
ral flat and free from hills, excepting on the north-
west where it adjoins with Formartin. Owing in
a great degree to its level surface and proximity to
the German Ocean, this important district possesses
faciUties for agricultural enterprise which no other
division of Aberdeenshire enjoys to the same extent;
and in general its cultivation is prosecuted with
spirit and success. Adjoining Formartin on the
north-west, there are, however, several heath-clad
hills, besides considerable tracts of peat-moss in-
terspersed through the interior, a good deal of
wliich seems to be susceptible of profitable recla-
mation. Some parts of the coast are verj^ flat and
much subject to boisterous blasts from the sea ; but
in other respects the chmate is comparatively mild
and agreeable. The farms are in general of con-
siderable size ; indeed many of them are apparently
too extensive for the capital at the command of their
present occupiers. The soil in the vicinity of Ellon
and some other to\vns is loamy and very produc-

tive; but the greater portion of this division,
consists of tenaceous clay, which stands greatly in
need of furrow-draining.

The fourth division of Aberdeenshire is named the
Garioch. It is bounded by Mar on the south and west,
by Formartin on the east and north-east, and by
Strathbogie on the west and north-west. This
division is naturally the most fertile and productive
in the whole county ; and while presenting
for the most part a flat, or slightly undulating
surface, it enjoys the advantage of being
sheltered on aU sides from the severe blasts
of winter, by high bounding hills, one of which
called Benochie is 1670 feet above the level of the
sea. But since the introduction of thorough drain-
ing, and the employment of bone-dust and other
manures in turnip husbandry, particular parts of
the divisions of Mar, Formartin, and Buchan, which
are more contiguous to the coast, have, it is con-
sidered, surpassed the Garioch in the progress of
improvement. This division has, however, derived
great benefit from the opening, in 1807, of a canal
from Aberdeen to Inverury, which affords a con-
venient and economical mode of transporting its
surplus produce to the Aberdeen market, while at
the same time facilitating the importation of lime,
bone-dust, and other extraneous manures ; but this
canal is now proposed to be displaced and super-
seded by a projected line of railway betv/een Aber-
deen and Inverness, which it is expected will be of
still greater advantage to the district. This division
possesses in general a flat or undulating surface, and
constitutes a sort of extensive vaUey enclosed by
lofty hills. The soil, as already observed, is na-
turally fertile, producing grain of excellent quality,
and the farms are of medium extent, except in
the immediate \ncinity of Inverury, Old Meldrum,
and Kintore, where there are a great number of
small holdings, denominated "crofts," to which
I shall hereafter more particularly advert.

The fifth and last di^^sion of the county of Aber-
deen is denominated Strathbogie. It is separated
from Banffshire by the rivers Isla and Deveron on
the north and east, and by its bounding hills from
Mar, Garioch, and Formartin. As the greater
portion of this division is mountainous, and as the
situation and elevation of the numerous bogs and
extensive moors preclude any reasonable chance of
their profitable reclamation, it is allowed to be the
least favourable for agriculture, and hence the least
valuable part of the county. There is, however,
some very excellent and productive land in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of Huntly, which is the
principal to\vn, and a great deal more susceptive
of much improvement by means of thorough drain-
ing and a liberal application of lime. Owing to the
distance from Aberdeen or any other large town j

234

THE FxVRMER'S MAGAZINE.

and the want of good roads (which was at one lime
greatly felt), the Strathbogie fanners had neither
inducement nor facilities to begin the improvement
of their land at so early a date as those of the lower
parts of the county ; and hence it is only within a
comparatively recent period that the hand of im-
provement may be said to have become distinctly
visible. The farmers are, however, generally speak-
ing, most industrious and anxious to practise
every improved method of cultivation which their
means will enable them to adopt; and it is but
justice to state, that considerable encourage-
ment is given to his numerous tenantry by the
Duke of llichmond, who is the ])rincipal proprietor
in this part of Aberdeenshire. The crops com-
monly cultivated in Strathbogie, are oats, potatoes,
and turnips. Flax was at one period extensively
grown for the sup])ly of a hnen manufactory which
was established at Huntly, and continued to
flourish for a considerable length of time ; but both
the manufacture and the jiroduction of tins crop
have been abandoned for a number of years past,
to the serious loss of the district, as flax proved a
most remunerating crop for the farmers, besides
affording much useful employment to the labouring
classes.

From the foregoing brief and very general de-
scription of the several districts into which Aber-
deenshire is commonly divided, some idea may
be formed of the topographical character and
more prominent features of the whole county. It
will be seen that it presents every variety of
surface. It is not deemed necessaiy to notice,
or even enumerate, in this place, the ecclesiastical
or other divisions which ha^-e been adopted
in modern times, as those already adverted to,
though now almost obsolete, will be found more
convenient for referring to the different parts of
the county where particular practices are pursued.
I shall now proceed to advert to the nature and
quahties of the different soils of which Aberdeen-
shire consists, and the character of the climate to
which it is subject, as it is on these conditions
that the productive capabilities and resources of
any district mainly depend, and a proper con-
sideration of their joint influence constitutes the
only accurate guide in determining the most
judicious or profitable system of husbandry to
adopt ; besides it is abundantly obvious that the
propriety or impropriety of any particular method
of cixltivation can be rightly estimated only in con-
nection with the nature of the soil and climate of
the district in which it is pursued. To furnish de-
tails, then, of even the most approved modes of
husbandry, unaccompanied with information con-
nected ^vith the soil and cUmate of the par-
ticular localities in which they are represented

as being successfully adopted, would not, I appre-
hend, be of much practical utiUty to the agricul-
turists of other quarters. Such a course, would in
fact, be equally useless and reprehensible with the
practice of confidently recommending the intro-
duction of new modes of management into cer-
tain districts, irrespective of the nature of the soil
or the character of the climate, which should in no
case be overlooked in treating of the details of

agriculture. A judicious system of farming is
dependent on a variety of local circumstances ; it
is obvious, therefore, that until the principal of
these have been explained to, and are fully com-
prehended by the farmer, he will be incompetent
to form an accurate opinion respecting the merits
or demerits of the practices described.

Soils. — The general topographical appearance
of Aberdeenshire has boen already noticed; and
it is obvious that the soil of a county whose
surface is so much diversified with movmtain and
glen, hill and dale, must vary very much in cha-
racter and quality. Accordingly there is no de-
scription of soil, from peat-moss and drift sand
to stifle tenacious clay, that may not be met with in
this county. Although the surface is in general
hilly, rising in some places into lofty mountains,
yet there are extensive tracts of level and low-
lying land in dilferent parts, particularly in the
divisions of Buchan, Garioch, and Formartin, be-
sides several productive vales in Mar. In ad-
verting to the difl'erent kinds of soils which are
commonly met with throughout Aberdeenshire, I
shall, for the sake of perspicuity, follow the fore-
going divisions of the county, beginning, as before,
with that of Mar.*

The soil of this extensive district of country is
very various in texture and quality. The land in a
few places is of a clayey nature ; but for the most
part, it consists of sand or gravel incumbent on an
open or porous gravelly bottom — sometimes also
on a clayey subsoil. In many places the soil as-
sumes the character of a sandy loam, which, in
suitable seasons (neither too moist nor dry) is
considerably productive. The fertile ^'ales of Al-
ford, Cromar, and Kildrumy, contain a good deal
of land of this description, and in those places
excellent crops of every kind are produced. This
sort of soil is found eminently adapted for the
growth of turnips, potatoes, oats, and bear; in-
deed, in the parish of Aboyne, the latter grain has
been grown last season (which was by no means a
favourable one for ripening corn in upland dis-
tricts) to the weight of fifty-four pounds per im-
perial bushel. On the banks of the Dee there is a

* This very large division is subdivided into the
districts of Braemar, Cromar, and Strathdee.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

225

good deal of sandy soil, which approaches, in many
places, to the nature of a sandy loam of greater or
less fertility; and along the Don (the other l)ounding
river), are some very fertile "haughs," consisting,
of deep alluvial soil. The land on hoth sides of this
ri\'er is occasionally flooded during the summer
and autumn months ; and as the haughs are, for
the most part, in pasturage, their inundation proves
more or less injurious to the grass for some time,
and almost invariably destructive to any grain crojjs
that are attempted to be grown. After much rain,
this river, which is fed by numerous tributary
streams, vernacularly called " burns," acquires in
some parts of its course an irresistible impetuosity ;
and overflowing or tumbling down its banks,
sweeps away any corn-stooks, hay-ricks, &c., that
may happen to be within its reach ; while all flat
land that has been submerged is more or less in-
jured by the detrities.

Mar contains comparatively little clay, and where
any does exist, it is generally intermixed with
small stones derived chiefly from the decomposition
of granite. In the lower part of this very exten-
sive division, there is a considerable extent of good
arable land, approaching, in many places, to the
nature and fertility of loam, which had originally
been reclaimed from a state of nature, and brought
to its present ])roductive condition by the industry
and skill of the inhabitants. As has been already
observed, the whole or greater poition of this tract
was at one period a vast natural forest, and a good
deal of it is still covered with heath ; but the extent
of moor is annually diminishing before the progress
of im])rovement. The manner of reclaiming waste
land, which is generally adopted in this county, is
that of trenching with the spade and mattock;
which is certainly a most effective though a very
expensive method, owing, in a great degree, to the
immense number of large, irregular stones, called
" boulders " existing beneath, and protruding
through the surface of the ground, and whicli often
require to be Ijlasted with gunpowder prejiaratory
to their removal. As the trenching and reclaiming
of heath-land is now in general operation in all
parts of Aberdeenshire, I shall have occasion more
particularly to advert to the practice in a subsequent
paper. Mar abounds with peat-moss, of which the
inhabitants manufacture fuel; and in Braemar,
there are very extensive tracts of heath and moun-
tain land, which, in consequence chiefly of their
high altitude, afford no reasonable chance of being
profitably reclaimed.

In Formartin, also, the soil is very various in
character and quality. In the vicinity of the sea-
coast, it consists chiefly of clay, incumbent on an
indurated gravelly or clayey substratum; but a
considerable proportion of peat-moss is inter-

spersed through the inland parts of this division,
besides a large extent of thin moorish land which
still remains unreclaimed and uncultivated. There
is, however, some excellent strong loam in the
division of Formartin, which is in general well
cultivated, and remarkably fertile and productive.
It is chiefly of a brownish colour ; but in those
parts which have long been tilled and manured, it
is black. The suljsoil is for the most part a dilu-
vial deposit of clay ; l)ut in some places the sub-
jacent granite protrudes through the surface. A
very large proportion of the soil of this division of
Aberdeenshire rests upon an indurated stratum of
ferruginous gravel, provincially designated by the
appellation " pan," which is of extreme hardness,
and requires the most vigorous exercise of the
spade and mattock to penetrate it. Whenever the
substratum consists of this ferruginous incrusta-
tion, the surface soil is naturally very wet, cold,
and unproductive in consequence of rain-water
being prevented from sinking through the moor-
hand as it is likewise termed. The only eff'ectual
and permanent remedy in this case consists in
thorough draining and subsoil ploughing, whereby
the ferruginous pan is loosened, and the surface-
water enabled to percolate freely into the drains
provided for its reception and escape. The process
of trenching already referred to is sometimes
resorted to on arable land of this description for
the two-fold object of breaking the pan, and
of getting rid of the immense stones or " boul-
ders" as they are called, which in many
places constitute a most formidable obstacle to the
action of the plough. The operation of draining
is often simultaneously performed, and the stones
taken up in the course of the trenching are con-
v^eniently used in filling the drains, enclosing, &c.
But where such boulders do not exist wthin
eighteen inches or thereabouts of the surface of
the ground, the subsoil-plough appears to be pe-
culiarly adapted for breaking and loosening the
bottom, and may be advantageously substituted
for the spade; not merely on account of being
considerably less expensive, but because in the
ojjeration of subsoil jjloughing the substratum or
pan is thoroughly broken (though not without great
labour), but not brought to the surface or inter-
mixed with the upjjer soil ; whereas in the case of
trenching, the under soil is brought to the top,
and the surface buried beneath it. Where large
stones do not exist near the surface, the subsoil
plough is now, therefore, employed to a consider-
able extent, and invariably with the most beneficial
results, provided the operation be preceded by
thorough draining. Although it has been abun-
dantly demonstrated by experience that the one is a
necessary accompaniment to the other, yet not a

326

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

few agriculturists have fallen into the error of
supposing that subsoil-ploughing is of itself capa-
ble of rendering wet land of this description suf-
ficiently dry. But a little consideration may suf-
fice to convince any practical man of the impossi-
bility of attaining this desirable object by means of
subsoil ploughing alone ; for although this opera-
tion may impart a degree of temporary porosity
to the indurated substratum, so as to admit for
a brief period, the descent of water, yet with-
out under-drains to receive and convey it off,
it is obvious that the land cannot be rendered
perfectly or permanently dry; the subsoil, how-
ever well loosened it may have been, must in a
comparatively short time relapse into its original
imjiervious condition. Neither can thorough
draining on such land be productive of any thing
approaching its maximvim benefit, unless succeeded
by subsoil ploughing or other deep tillage to loosen
the pan, and thereby enable the water freely to
percolate into the drains. Moreover, as any ex-
cess of moisture is thus prevented from accu
mulating in the subsoil and about the roots of
the plants, (which without drainage it \vould cer-
tainly do,) the degree of porosity first imparted
to it will l)e in a great measure maintained by the
continual percolation of water into the drains,
aided by the action of the atmospheric air which
follows in its track, and materially tends to meho-
rate the most obdurate subsoils.

In the division of Buchan, there is a consider-
able extent of adhesive clay, which is most diffi-
cult and ])recarious to cvdtivate in moist sea-
sons, owing partly to the nature of the soil itself,
and partly to the great want of drainage oli-
servable throughout Buchan; though it is pro-
per at the same time to remark, that many pro-
prietors and agriculturists are at length vigorously
setting about the accomplishment of this primary
operation. The clay in some parts of Buchan is
remarkably pure and free from admixture of sand ;
indeed, in point of tenacity it is little inferior to the
clay soilsof the Lothians, though by no meansso pro-
ductive as they are, owing to the superior climate
of the latter district. In some places this soil rests
on a porous bottom ; but in general it is incum-
bent on a bed of ferraginous gravel, or on one
composed of indurated clay. Hence the great
necessity that exists for drainage. The alternations
of frost and thaw, during the winter and early
spring months, exert a very powerful influence in
meUorating this description of land ; so much so,
that, notwithstanding its adhesiveness, it crumbles
down into a powdery state after being exposed for
some time to the action of the weather. When
saturated with moisture, it feels quite soft and unc-
tuous to the touch ; but does not adhere so much

to the plough in wet weather as the clay of some
other districts, and is in general less difliicult to pul-
verize and ])repare for green crops, as it rarely ac-
quires that almost impenetrable hardness, on expo-
sure to drought, which constitutes one of the
characteristic disadvantages of tenacious clays.
WTierever thorough draining has been resorted to,
and Jime and other manures have been liberally
applied, this soil produces very good crops of
grain, jiotatoes, and turnips ; but, as already re-
marked, very much still remains to be done in
the way of draining, without which, indeed, in
this high latitude and comparatively humid ch-
mate, clay land, resting on an impervious bottom,
is of little agricultural value. As a candid reporter,
I must observe further, that many of the Buchan
farmers, in ploughing their land, seem rather
negligent of the advantage of imparting a uniform
and sufficient degree of curvature to the ridges.
The neglect of this precaution occasions the stag-
nation of surface-water, with all its injurious con-
consequences, on certain parts of fields, whUe, if
proper attention were bestowed on the rounding
and accUvating of the ridges at the time of plough-
ing, this evil woull be in a great degree averted.
Although thorough draining is unquestion-
ably the radical cure for all wet retentive land, yet
it is obvious that the deteriorating effects of over-
wetness may be considerably mitigated by the
partial relief afforded by narrow ridges, elevated at
the crown or centre, and uniformly rounded, as
well as by forming open furrows through all the
hollow parts, for the purpose of facilitating the
escape of surface-water. This is now duly attended
to by most farmers, but there are still many ex-
ceptions.

In several parts of Buchan the clay is incumbent
on a thick bed of shelly sand, which, while it affords
proof that the district was at one period submerged
beneath the waters of the German Ocean, has been
found of considerable value as a top-dressing for
the surface soil. Much of the clay is impregnated
with a proportion of oxide of iron, which drainage
and the application of lime can alone correct and neu-
tralize. Besides what may properly be denominated
adhesive clay, which extends almost uninterruptedly
from Aberdeen northwards at a short distance
from the coast, there is in this division a con-
siderable proportion of friable clayey loam, of
excellent quality, and highly productiA'e. There is
also a good deal of peat moss, which furnishes fuel
for the inhabitants, and large tracts of heath and
thin moorish land on the confines of Formartin. A
large portion of these now valueless wastes is tm-
doubtedly susceptible of profitaljle reclamation, a
fact which has been practically demonstrated by
the successful improvements that have recently

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

227

been effected in that quarter. Limestone is found
in different places ; but, owing to tlie scarcity of
fuel, very little of it is employed by the farmers.
A A'ery large quantity of lime is, however, an-
nually imported into Buchan from Sunderland ;
its application has been found eminently useful on
dry land, though, of course, less beneficial on the
wet clays, with which this division abounds.

The Garioch contains less unproductive land (if
we exclude the large bogs on the sides of its
bounding hills) than any other division of the
county in proportion to its extent. This district
having been under good cultivation from a remote
period, is naturally very fertile ; so much so,
that it has been called the granary of Aber-
deen. Upwards of one-half of the extensive valley
of Garioch (for such it may be denominated) con-
sists of light friable loam, which is found eminently
adapted for turnip husbandry. A considerable
tract appears to have originally been stiff clay, de-
rived most probably from materials carried down
from the slate hills, which constitute a portion of the
boundary ; but through the joint influence of long-
continued cultivation, and the application of farm-
yard manure, it has been converted to its present
state of a clay loam of very considerable fertility.
The subsoil is principally composed of sand, and is
c(uite permeable to rain-water. No limestone has
been discovered in this division. The moorish and
boggy tracts are almost exclusively confined to the
bounding hills, some of which, as akeady observed,
are of considerable altitude. The few peat mosses,
which were formerly interspersed throiigh the low
grounds, have either been exhausted for the purpose
of fuel or reclaimed for the production of corn.
This highly cultivated valley presents a most
pleasing appearance when viewed immediately be-
fore harvest from the summit of Benochie, near
Inverury.

In the division of Strathbogie there is less arable
land in proportion to its extent than in any other
district of the county. Mar perhaps excepted.
Barren sand, peat moss, and moorish soil, or heath
land, predominate in the hills ; clay is also found
in some places, occasionally pure, similar to that of
Buchan, but commonly intermixed with gravel and
small granite stones in different stages of decompo-
sition. There is, however, a considerable propor-
tion of excellent hght clay, inclining to the nature
of loam, in the vicinity of Huntly, and also on the
banks of the rivers Devernon, Isla, and Bogie. The
existence in this division of limestone of excellent
quality has been productive of much advantage to
the farmers, in the improvement of their land ;
though it is to be regretted that the want of coal
prevents them from using this valuable fossil to the
extent which its usefulness would warrant. A good

deal of waste ground in the hilly and low lying parts
of this division has been planted with Scotch fir,
larch, and other suitable trees; and these plan-
tations, which are for the most i)art in a thriving
condition, contribute in no small degree to the im-
provement of the chmate, besides relieving the
otherwise bleak and rugged appearance of the dis-
trict. The subsoil in many places consists of a
hard tilly clay, imper\'ious to water, and which
thorough- draining and subsoil- ploughing alone
can rectify. This division, hke Formartin, abounds
with indurated ferruginous deposit called "moor-
band pan," to which I have already adverted. The
distance from the coast, the elevation above the
level of the sea, and the very changeable character
of the climate, in a great degree preclude the pro-
fitable cultivation of extensive tracts of waste land,
which, had they been lower situated, might be re-
claimed and rendered comparatively productive.

From the preceding ol)servations the reader can-
not fail to perceive that the soil of Aberdeenshire
is exceedingly various in character and quahty in-
deed. There is, first, the strong adhesive clay in
Buchan and in some parts of Formartin ; the
gravelly and sandy loams in Mar; the friable,
clayey loam in the Garioch ; and the peat mosses,
moor, and heath-land, of which the upland parts of
the county principally consist, and with which the
low grounds also more or less abound; besides
light sandy " links" in the vicinity of Aberdeen,
and generally along the coast. This great diversity
in the nature and quality of the soil necessarily
gives rise to different modes of farm management :
in fact, each division exhibits some peculiarity in
its system of cultivation, dependent on the cha-
racter of the soil and othei local circumstances.
These peculiarities will be adverted to in due
course ; and I shall also, in a subsequent paper,
furnish a statement of the average produce, rent,
&c., of the different kinds of cultivated land
throughout the county.

But not^vithstanding this diversity in the nature
and productive capabilities of the soil of Aberdeen-
shire, the whole (except what is absolutely barren
and mountainous) is famiharly divided into two
descriptions of land, denominated "infield" and
" outfield." Most farms contain a proportion of
both within their boundaries, though the extent of
the latter is annually diminishing. As these dis-
tinctive appellations shall hereafter be occasionally
referred to, it is necessary, before proceeding fur-
ther, to explain their signification. In the old sys-
tem of agricidture, it was customary to have a cer-
tain proportion of the farm contiguous to the farm-
buildings always in grain-crop, potatoes, &c., to
which the whole of the dung was appUed. The re-
mainder of the farm was arranged into a certain

S28

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

number of divisions, each of which bore four or five
crops of oats in succession, and was then left uncul-
tivated for four or five years, to "rest" and produce
such herbage and weeds as might naturally grow.
Hence the former received the name of "infield,"
the latter that of "outfield." The infield land
being the part exchisively cultivated in a regular
manner, has acquired a rich blackish colour, from
the continued application of farm-yard manure and
the decomposition of vegetable matters. It is gene-
rally a sandy or a light clayey loam ; and, in con-
sequence of the long-continued course of tillage to
which it has been subjected, is of a very soft and
incoherent texture, and exceedingly pi'oductive of
weeds. The Spergula arvensis (spurry), provin-
cially called yarr, is peculiarly prevalent in corn
fields, and often proves highly prejudicial to the
crop. The Arrhenatherum avenaceum (oat-like, or
knot-grass) is also very common and difficult to
extirpate. The " infield" ground is, however, very
fertile, particularly in the vicinity of the towns and
villages, and, when judiciously managed, produces
grain and roots in abundance, and of excellent
quahty. The " outfield" land (which is naturally
of inferior quality, and kept so by neglect) is
chiefly appropriated to the grazing of black cattle
and sheep ; but it is occasionally broken up, one
or two grain crops taken, and again laid down to
permanent pasture.

As the nature and productive powers of soils are
dependent in a greater or less degree on the character
and composition of rock on which they are incum-
bent, and by the disintegration of which they have
been gradually formed, it would be an unpardonable
omission not to notice under this head the principal
rocks and mineral productions of Aberdeenshire.
It is generally known that the rocks of this county,
and, indeed, of the greater projjortion of the north
of Scotland, are chiefly of the primitive kind, gra-
nite being predominant ; and of this mineral Aber-
deenshire possesses an inexhaustible supply. It
abounds in almost all parts of the county, particu-
larly in the divisions of Mar, Formartin, and the
lower pai't of Buchan. There are extensive quarries
in these and other places, at which the granite is
prepared for the erection of buildings within the
county, or for exportation. It is not, however, con-
fined to the hills, or to places at which it may
be quarried for architectural purposes, but is
interspersed through much of the arable and
most of the uncultivated lowlands in the form of
irregular, and detached masses, provincially called
" boulders," which, in consequence of their prox-
imity to the surface (through which, indeed, they
often protrude) constitute a very formidable ob-
stacle to tillage, and require much labour and ex-
pense to effect their removal. The purest quality

of granite is found in the vicinity of Peterhead,
whence it is extensively exported to different parts
of the United Kingdom, for the construction of
pubhc buildings, bridges, docks, pillars, pedestals,
&c. Most of it contains a very large proportion of
felspar in its composition; it is, in consequence,
of a reddish colour, and admits of being finely
polished. The granite in the neighbourhood of
Aberdeen is of a greyish colour, contains consider-
ably less felspar and more quartz than that of
Peterhead, and constitutes an excellent material for
buildings of every description.* It forms, also, a
very durable street-pavement, for which purpose
large quantities of it are annually shipped for Lon-
don. The new streets and pubhc buildings in
Aberdeen, wliicli are all constructed of this kind of
granite, are noted for their permanently elegant
appearance, and the newly erected farm-buildings
throughout the coimty are likewise both handsome
and substantial.

The mountain limestone abounds in certain parts
of Buchan and Formartin ; but, owing to the scar-
city of proper fuel, its calcination cannot be exten-
sively or profitably undertaken by the farmers. The
greater portion of the lime employed in these divi-
sions is, therefore, imported at very considerable
expense from Sunderland. Limestone of good
quality is found in Strathbogie, where its use
has been productive of the greatest benefit to agri-
culture ; and also in the Jparish of Strathdon, in
Mar, where almost every farm has its own lime-
kiln. Coal is not found in any part of Aberdeen-
shire. Slate is obtained at Foudland, one of the
bounding hills of the Garioch, and is now much
employed for roofing agricultural buildings.

Trap, gneiss, hornblende, syenite, greywacke,
mica-slate, and sandstone, also exist in small
quantity, or detached blocks, in different parts of
the county ; but as these exert little influence on
the general character of the soil, they need not be
further adverted to in this place. Granite being by
far the most prevalent rock in almost every district
north of the Grampians, there is ])ut little variety
to interest the geologist. Lead and manganese
exist in a few places ; and the Alpine region of
of Braemar contains precious stones of various
denominations, but commonly designated " Cairn
gorums," from the name of the mountain in which
they mostly are found. T. S.

{To be continued.)

* As felspar is by far the most decomposable
constituent of granite, that of Peterhead, in which
it predominates, cannot be so durable as that of
Aberdeen. 1

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

220

TENANT-RIGHT.

We are enabled to lay before our readers
several communications on the subject of
" tenant-right/' the discussion of which, at the
London Farmers' Club-House in December last, is
beginning to excite great and general interest. The
question has already been discussed at some of the
local farmers' clubs, and will be brought imder the
consideration of many others at an early day. We
also give a full report of the adjourned discussion
at the London Farmers' Club-House on Monday,
Feb. 2. AVe are not inclined to concur with those of
thespeakers who are of opinion that the Legislature
cannot interfere beneficially. It may be that,
upon principle, you cannot restrain a man from
dealing with his own property in any way he
jileases ; but he must not be permitted to deal with
the property of others as his own. The law restrains
and punishes the man who deals with my jiroperty
as his own, whether with or without my knowledge,
if against my will ; and he who induces me to
lay out my money in the improvement of his land,
. upon the faith of a continuous occupation,
and then deals mth it as his own, by turning me
out of my farm, is morally guilty, although he may
not be legally accountable. The subject being once
thoroughly understood in its true bearings upon
the interest of the landlord as well as of the tenant,
will eventually lead to the establishment of a sys-
tem of "tenant-right;" but, as in the case of all
subjects connected with agriculture, it ■\\ill take
time. As bearing immediately on this subject, we
refer our readers to the draft of a Bill by Mr. Dean.

TENANT-RIGHT.

SKETCH OF A BILL CALCULATED TO SET THE
HEART-BURNINGS OF A LARGE NUMBER OF
TENANT-FARMERS AT REST, WITHOUT INJURY
TO THEIR LANDLORDS.

Sir, — Allow me to contribute my mite in the way
of mitigating one of the greatest evils I know, affect-
ing the interests of the country ; and if any spirited
member of Parliament will take up the question zealously,
I will give him all the assistance in my power to make
the measure perfect. My experience on the question of
tenants' rights has, during fifty years, been as great as
most in the profession, and I could detail, if necessary,
some of the most cruel cases ever heard of.

Tottenham, Jan, 24. James Dean.

A Bill to promote good and systematic husbandry on
farm-lands let from year to year, or for one or more
years, by agreement or parole, in England and Wales,
and to make provision for compensation to tenants
upon quitting, for acts of husbandry performed by
them beneficial to the land, but from which none, or
only partial leturns have been received by the tenants,
in consequence of the sudden and short notice given
by the landlords to determine their tenancies, and for
making the like provision for other tenancies, deter-
minable by the effluxion of time.

Whereas, great loss and injury frequently happens to
tenants of farm -lands, from their being obliged to quit
the same at the expiration of six months after notice by
their landlords, which loss and injury arises from the
necessity they are under of cultivating, manuring, and
cropping the land in such wise that the full benefit of the
capital employed therein cannot be received by the
tenant from the land in less than three or four years from
the time of such expenditure.

For the prevention of such loss and injury in future,
and with a view to the advancement of good and sys-
tematic husbandry, the due employment of the labouring
classes, and the increase of farm produce for the benefit
of the community at large, may it please your Majesty,

That it may be enacted, and be it enacted by the
Queen's most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice
and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and
Commons in this present Parliament assembled, and by
the authority of the same. That the Inclosure Commis-
sioners and their assistants for England and Wales,
shall be the arbitrators for carrying this act into execu-
tion, and shall assist in like manner as if the matters and
proceedings directed and authorized by this act were
matters and proceedings directed or authorized by the
said Inclosure Act.

And be it enacted, That all the powers by the said act
given to the assistant commissioners to require the at-
tendance of witnesses, to administer or receive declara-
tions and examine witnesses, and to cause to be pro-
duced before them writings or documents, and the power
given to the said commissioners to delegate to the assis-
tant commissioners, or to any one or more of them the
powers given to such commissioners, except the power
to do any act required to be done under the seal of the
commissioners, shall be applicable to, and maybe exer-
cised for, the purposes of this act, as fully and effectually
as if the matters and proceedings were authorized to be
done and taken under the said act.

And for the purpose of making provision for settling
cases of disputed compensation arising under this act,
he it enacted, That if any difference shall arise, or if no
agreement can be come to between the tenants and the
owners of any lands, or of any interest in any such lands

Q

230

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

injuriously affected by any notice to quit the same, as
to the amount of compensation to be made in respect
thereof ; or if by reason of absence of any such owner be
prevented from treating, or if by reason of any impedi-
ment or disability any such owner be incapable of making
any agreement for enabling the tenant to ascertain the
amount or compensation to be made to him ; or, if any
such difference arise as to the amount of compensation
so to be made, the amount of compensation to be paid
by the owner to the tenant shaU be settled by an
assistant commissioner in manner hereinafter mentioned.

And be it enacted, That where it shall be necessary to
refer any such qiuestion to the determination of an assist-
ant-commissioner, by reason of such difference as aforesaid,
then one month, at the least, before a petition shall be
presented to the inclosure commissioners by the tenant,
praymg for the appointment of an assistant-commis-
sioner, the tenant shall give notice, in writing, to his
landlord, or the person in receipt of the rent, of his in-
tention to prefer such petition ; and in such notice shall
state the particulars and amount of his claim for com-
pensation for the loss and injury which he shall sustain
by reason of quittmg the farm upon such short notice
as aforesaid, or by reason of the effluxion of time as
aforesaid.

And be it enacted. That if any tenant who shall be
entitled to any compensation in respect of any interest
in the farm he is about to quit by reason of notice to
that effect from his landlord, shall desire the amount of
such compensation to be determined by an assistant-com-
missioner, it shall be lawful for such tenant to give notice,
in writing, to his landlord of such his desire ; and he
shall, in such notice, state the nature and full particulars
of the interest claimed by him in his said farm-lands,
and the amount of the compensation claimed by him in
respect thereof; and unless his landlord be willing to
pay the amount of compensation so claimed, and shall
enter into a written agreement for that purpose, then,
after twenty- one days from the delivery of any such
notice, the tenant shall be at full liberty to prefer his
petition to the commissioners, praying them to direct an
assistant commissioner to inquire into the matters in
difference between the parties accordingly.

And be it enacted. That the assistant- commissioner
before whom such inquiry shall be held, shall make and
sign his award ; and, being so signed, shall deliver the
same to the parties in difference, or one of them, upon
payment of the costs and the expenses to him of the in-
quiry. And, that upon every such inquiry before an
assistant-commissioner, where the award shall be given
for a greater sum than any sum previously tendered by
the landlord, or if no such sum shall have been tendered,
the costs and expenses of the inquiry shall be borne by
the landlord ; but if the award be for a less sum than the
sum previously tendered by the landlord, one-half of the
costs and expenses shall be defrayed by the landowner,
and the other half by the tenant. Such costs and ex-
penses shall be recoverable by distress and sale ; and on
application to any justice he shall give liis warrant ac-
cordingly. And with respect to the amount of the award,

and any costs and expenses payable by the owner of the
farm, or of any interest therein, the same may be de-
ducted from the rent then due or which shall become
due at the expiration of the term, and the payment of
the remainder of such rent shall be a good payment and
satisfaction of the whole thereof. But if the rent then
due, or to become due, be not sufficient to satisfy the
amount awarded and costs, the same shall be deemed
rent in arrear, and recoverable as such.

And, with respect to any such question of disputed
compensation by this Act authorized to be referred to
the determination of an assistant-commissioner, be it
enacted. That either party may apply, by petition, to
the inclosure commissioners in respect of any such mat-
ter, and the assistant-commissioner appointed by them
shall examine into the matter of dispute, and make his
award therein as is hereinbefore mentioned.

And be it enacted, That where in this act any sum of
money is directed to be levied by distress, such sum of
money shall be levied by distress and sale of the goods
and chattels of the party liable to pay the same, and the
overplus, after satisfying such sum of money and the
expenses of such distress and sale, shall be returned, on
demand, to the party whose goods shall have been so
distrained ; and no distress levied by virtue of this act
shall be deemed unlawful for want of form.

And be it enacted. That in this Act the following words
and expressions shall have the several meanings hereby
assigned to them unless there be something in the sub-
ject or context repugnant to such construction, that is
to say : —

Words importing the singular number shall include the
plural number, and words importing the plural num-
ber shall include the singular number.

Words importing
females.

the masculine gender shall include

Words, landowner and landlord, shall extend to all
bodies politic, corporate, or collegiate, and also to all
bishops, parsons, and other ecclesiastical persons,
their heirs and agents, and their legal personal repre-
sentatives.

Words " six months after notice" shall mean any
notice to quit less than three years.

Word, justice, shall mean justice of the peace acting
for the county, riding, city, division, liberty, or other
place where the matter requiring the cognizance of
any justice, shall arise, such justice not being inte-
rested in the matters in dispute.

Words, tenants, or a tenant, the occupier of farm lands
at will, or from year to year, or for one or more years,
and their legal personal representatives, as heir, exe-
cutor, or administrator.

And be it enacted. That this Act may be amended or
repealed by any Act to be passed in the present Sessioil
of Parliament.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

TENANT-RIGHT.

Sm, — I am glad to see the subject of tenant-right
taken in hand by the London Farmer's Club, and also
occupying considerable attention in the provincial clubs.
Nobody disputes the landlord's right to do as he likes
with his own, and obtain what rent he can get; but
every man with common understanding disputes the
landlord's right to claim the property of the tenant-
farmer, But such is the law of landlordism ; such the
law enacted by them to suit their purpose, that the pro-
perty of the tenantry is not forgotten, but cared naught
about.

It is not a matter of surprise to any man conversant
with the laws of tenure, that agriculture should have
made so little progress, for the capital of the tenantry is
so jeopardised as to quite preclude them from improv-
ing. There is in a majority of cases no allowance for
any improvements, and the landlords claim the manure
— a most important item. Now, I maintain that if the
corn belongs to the tenant so does the straw, which is
one of the component parts of manure, and the other
parts are what the land has pi'oduced at the cost of the
tenant ; and the landlord has no more right to claim
that important article than he has so many of a tenant's
cattle, carriages, or implements.

What would be said or done if landlords who owned
building property, claimed so much of the tenant's ma-
chinery or household furniture ? I am prepared to
prove before either Lords, Commons, or any other
committee, that while ever such laws exist, the tenant-
farmer will be kept in a state of servility. He must
continually submit to what rise of rent the landlord
thinks proper to impose ; vote as his landlord dictates ;
keep what game the landlord thinks proper ; but, worse
than all, the enterprizing man is prevented from em-
barking his capital in improvements, when no invest-
ment could so well repay him. And there is no better
proof it is their intention to keep the tenantry in a state
of servility, than their " twice" refusing the bills
brought in by Lord Portman for securing compensation
to the tenant farmer.

There are exceptions in every rule. There are the
first-class landlords, the dukes and lords, such that &
tenant might spend his capital safely under them ; but
farmers, like other classes of society, pay regard to the
customs and laws of the country, and are quite aware
that the most trifling unforeseen circumstances under a
yearly tenure might deprive them of their capital. And
there are the second class landlords, the poor duke and
lord, and the man that calls himself a country squire,
who will continually take advantage of a tenant's im-
provements.

Although such are the laws of landlordism, yet I be-
lieve that if a man persevered in claiming full compen-
sation for all manures and improvements, and the dis-
pute was laid before a tribunal, they would be a block -
headed set of jurymen indeed who could not see the
tenant's full claim. In fact I am acquainted with a
case in the West Riding of Yorkshire, where the land-
lord has consented, rather than go to trial. But is it
consistent in the present age, because such laws were

male to suit a party purpose, that the farmer and com-
munity should suffer the loss ' My heart will rejoice to
sec all the farmers' clubs discussing the matter, and de-
pend upon it the day is nigh when men of business
habits, as members of Parliament, will abolish such in-
jurious laws. A Sufferer

UNDER THE La.WS OF LANDLORDISM.

ON TENANT RIGHT.

Sir, — Being a constant reader of the Marl- Lane Ex-
press, I was very much gratified with the report of the
discussion that took place at the Farmers' Club House,
in Loudon, in December last, upon Tenant Right. I
hope the subject is not lost sight of. I consider it one
of the most desirable measures that could possibly be
passed into a law at this critical time ; there is so
much common sense and common honesty belonging
to it, that when thoroughly understood I trust neither
landlord nor tenant could stand in the way of it ;
and not only landlord and tenant, but all classes would
be benefited; the land would be improved ; the tenants'
capital would be invested to advantage ; the labourers
would all be employed, and not sufficient ; and the
country would be reaping the benefits of the extra pro-
duce.

In travelling over England and Scotland, we see some
hundreds and thousands of acres of land in a wretched
state, a disgrace both to the owner and occupier, and
thousands of acres not cultivated in any way, which
might be brought into ))rofitable cultivation. All this
we have before our eyes, at the same time we are send-
ing our money into foreign nations for corn, and our
labourers are starving for the want of employment. It
is evident there must be something wanting. I trust
the tenant farmers will agree with me, and landowners
too, that it is confidence between man and man that is
wanting.

There cannot be a higher speculation for a man than to
expend money on another person's property without
security ; there is plenty of capital ready to be invested
in making improvements in land by enterprising tenants,
providing they dare do it.

It has been too much the practice where improve-
ments have been made (the landlord not a business man,
and the agent perhaps brought up in a garret in London),
for a tenant to be made to pay interest on his own capi-
tal so expended instead of receiving it. It is only jus-
tice for tenant farmers to have the same law as their
landlords, if they make improvements, to be paid for
them on quitting their farms, in the same way as the law
now calls upon them to pay for dilapidations. In the
north of Lincolnshire, where liberal tenant's rights have
been allowed, and in West Norfolk, where the fai-ms
have been let on long leases, agriculture is in an advan-
ced state, not only growing more corn than in the Mid-
land counties, but also producing more meat, where
a few years back two rabbits paid the rent of an acre
of land on a great deal of the two former districts. It is
an old saying, but a true one, " necessity is the mother
of invention." If the tenants had not been induced to

Q 2

232

THE FARMERS MAGAZINE.

expend money on their farms in those districts, they
would not have lived. Any one that has read Mr.
Pusey's report on the farming of Lincolnshire, and the
late Lord Spencer's'report on West Norfolk, must come
to the conclusion that the landowners there have been
the means of the improvements being made, by giving
every encouragement to an enterprising tenantry. The
late Lord Leicester went through the process of being
made a practical farmer, and at the same time invited
practical farmers to his mansion, from all jiarts of the
country, every year to meet his own tenants, so that they
and himself got the benefit of their experience. There
is the same course open now to landowners : if they wish
to have their property improved, they must give every
encouragement to good tenants ; throw no obstacles in
their way, and I have no doubt the produce of the
country would soon be increased one-third, by the or-
dinary means of farming alone.

I am Sir, yours, &c.,

James Webster.
Peakirk, Peterborough, Jan. 20, 1846.

ON TENANT-EIGHT.
To William Shaw, Esa., Strand, London.

Sir, — I received your communication on " Tenant-
Right," and perused the same with great pleasure, it
having been a subject which I have repeatedly brought
before the district agricultural meetings ; and shall
again bring it before the Windygates Club in March next.

The English farmers, who have generally no leases,
and the Scotch who have, ought most undoubtedly to
compare notes and deduce some alterations for the pub-
lic benefit of all concerned, which I am glad to see will
be accomplished by the rational method of eliciting
discussion on the subject at the diffei-ent societies
through the country. Your remark, p. 6, about farm
buildings, comes home to the Scotch tenant with full
effect, as I could point to several landlords who have
taken possession of cottages built for agricultural la-
bourers, milk-houses, dykes, and other permanent erec-
tions, executed solely at the tenant's cost ; but because
the lease bore no evidence that payment should be re-
funded, none was allowed.

In like manner, we have many cases where the land-
lord tests the offer of a way-going tenant who has ex-
pended large sums of money upon drainage, and con-
tinues his operations to a late period of his lease, from a
just pride that he will keep pace with the improvements
going on around him, when at last he is undeceived by
the possession being let at Is. or Is. 6d. per acre more
rent to another, who walks in and reaps the advantage
of the unexpended capital that the former occupant left
in the soil. Consequently, if the practice was general
to allow for reversionary improvements on the soil to
the way-going tenant, the objection would be obviated,
instead of making a stepping-stone of the former tenant's
capital to advance the income of the landlord. In
short, the boasted Scotch farming, is plodding on with
the antiquated valuation at the end of leases, of a tenant

being only paid for what dung remains after the turnip
crop is sown, and the labour and rent of his fallows ;
but almost in no case is valuation allowed for tillages
or unexpended manures, a system long practised in
England.

The injurious effect of game is also alluded to by
Mr. Bodington. I am sorry to say that in the county
of Fife this subject has been the cause of more dissension
betwixt landlord and tenant than any other that I am
aware of; but the aggression is on the part of the land-
lord, and a direct infringement on the capital of the
farmer, which may be shortly stated as follows : — Pro-
prietors have fostered game to that extent that poaching
has become a profitable trade to the idle and dissolute ;
and in self-defence small proprietors have encouraged
men of this description to take a licence, to protect
their turnips from the ravages of the game reared by
the great proprietors who rear pheasants, hares, and
rabbits, and turn them into the standing corn of their
tenantry, for the effeminate pnstime of battues, when
cart loads of game are killed and transported direct to
the market for sale and profit — a practice so detri-
mental to the interest of the agriculturist in corn-
growiug counties cannot longer be submitted to ; while
if more confidence were reposed in the tenantry, plenty
of game would always be found for rational recreation
to the landlord and his friends.

I beg leave also to acknowledge receipt of " Thaer's
Princij^les of Agriculture." — I am, sir, your most obe-
dient servant, Robert Ballingal.

Kingsdale,Jan. 12, 1846,

ON TENANT-RIGHT.

TO WILLIAM SIIAW, ESQ.. STRAND, LONDON.

Dear Sir, — I received yours of the 2iid inst. inclosing a
copy of the debate on " Tenant Right," at the London
Farmer's Club ; and the subject would have been discussed by
the members of the farmer's club at our last meeting, but
our anniversary dinner has been put off until the 10th Feb.

The subject is one that claims the particular attention of
all teuaut-at-will farmers ; and as leases and compensation to
off-going tenants for permanent improvements are unknown in
this part of the country, I trust that recent events in Parlia-
ment will rouse the farmers from the apathetic and slow-coach
paces, and that they will all i\nite to force the Legislature to
pass a law that will give to the skilful and industrious tenant a
bona fide right for outlay of capital, and real improvements,
whether of land or buildings. To speak from my own knowledge,
you may rely upon it that from the date of such a bill becoming
the law of the land (and all other rules, &c., would be nearly useless)
we should soon find what a magic change would spread over the
country ; improvements, great and permanent, beyond present
calculation would take place upon the heavy clay soils, and in
a short time an abundance of grain, nearly sufficient to super-
sede foreign imports, would be grown by a class of men that
are now reproached for being behind the times — alcis ! thousands
dare not attempt to keep in advanee.

I will forward you our opinions on this question as early as
possible.

I remain. Dear Sir, your most obedient servant,

Jan: 30, 1846. F. Browne.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

MONTHLY MEETING OF THE FARMERS' CLUB.
TENANT-RIGHT.— ADJOURNED DISCUSSION.

The usual monthly meeting of the members of the
Farmers' Club was held on Monday, February 2, in
the rooms of the club, at the York Hotel, Bridge-street,
Blackfriars.

The subject of discussion was the all-important one
of "Tenant-Right," which had been adjourned from
the special meeting of the club held on the 10th Dec.
last, on which occasion the question was ably opened by
Mr. W. Shaw, of the Strand, London. A resolution,
acknowledging the necessity of a tenant-right, was carried
on that occasion ; but as there were many gentlemen then
present who had not an opportunity of expressing their
sentiments on the subject, it was, at their desire, ad-
journed for further discussion.

Mr. Baker, of Writtle, took the chair; and having
reminded the meeting that the discussion stood over for
the purpose of being further and more fully discussed,
said it now rested with some gentlemen present to re-
sume it. He was quite satisfied, from the great know-
ledge and talent which had been displayed on the pre-
vious occasion, and the earnest desire which had been
expressed on the part of many members to offer their
opinions upon the subject, that they would not be at a
loss to-night for a continuance of it (hear). He should
not now take up their time by any extended observations,
but rather wait to hear other gentlemen, and content
himself with making a few remarks in reply towards
the end of the discussion. Mr. Shaw, as most of them
were aware, had opened the question ; that gentleman,
he was sorry to say, was not present this evening, but it
would be competent for any one present to offer his
opinions upon the subject.

Mr. Thos. Fordham said he was extremely sorry that
Mr. Shaw was not among them. He begged, however,
to mention an anecdote, which he thought would
strengthen their position, and show the necessity of that
for which they were seeking. There was a piece of land
at Padworth, in Berkshire, belonging to the vicar, which
was so bad tlaat no one would have anything to do with
it for some time. At length a Mr. Baldwin undertook
to rent it at 35s. per acre, if a lease of 7 years were
granted. This was done, and, although there were only
two or three inches of soil upon a considerable depth of
gravel, Mr. Baldwin soon greatly improved the land.
Some time afterwards, when five years of the lease had
run out, the Great Western Railway Company wanted
the land; and instead of going to the tenant, went to the
landlord, and offered 100/. an acre for it, about double
or treble the value of the fee simple. Subsequently the
landlord, through his agent, waited upon the tenant, re-
questing him to give up the land, and asking him what
he wanted for it. His reply was that he had expended
a good deal of money upon it, and ought to be remune-
rated. The agent said he was of opinion that one or

two hundi-ed pounds would be sufficient compensation.
Mr. Baldwin said he thought not, and the matter was
submitted to the decision of an umpire (Mr. Pitt), who
awarded him 450/. for the two years remainder of his
lease. This, he thought, showed how cautious people
ought to be to avoid taking land without a lease ; in the
instance he had mentioned, Mr. Baldwin, in spite of all
his exertions to improve the land, might have been
turned out, losing all that he had expended upon it but
for his lease, which secured him something like an equi-
valent upon his quitting {hear).

Mr. Beadell said he thought they could hardly
identify such a case of rapacity as that mentioned by the
gentleman who had just addressed them with the general
question of tenant-rights {hear).

Mr. Edward Aitcheson said, that having been the
last who spoke at the December meeting on this subject,
he felt, by way of again opening the question, disposed
to renew some of the arguments which he had then used-
He had on that occasion heard a great many observations
very much to the purpose. Gentlemen had offered their
opinions just as they were impressed at the moment ; he
somewhat objected to a long adjournment of the discus-
sion upon one question, because it looked as if they had
not made up their minds upon it ; he begged to remind
them, however, that his opinion was that this matter of
tenant rights was one upon which the legislature could
never be called upon to do them any good. There was,
however, one other course open to them, and which he
thought it very desirable to adopt. It was this : — That
there should emanate from the Farmers' Club a certain
committee of gentlemen to draw up a form or code of
tenant-rights, which might be printed, and published at
a cheap rate, or at the expense of the Farmers' Club.
He thought six of the most experienced land valuers of
this country would be able to produce something which
should be looked to as the book and letter from wliich
farmers should draw their leases. If this were done they
would then at once have something like a clear code of
tenant-rights. He would propose that the club should
pass a resolution to this effect. He thought this was the
only course by which they could bring the matter to any
head whatever, and without it all their discussions would
fall to the ground without result (Hear, hear).

Mr. Beadell said, in ordinary cases if a man erected
a temporary building for his own use upon premises
which he occupied, he had a right to remove it upon
quitting them, if he thought proper. But the judges
had ruled that the farmer was an exception from this
case ; therefore if a farmer erected buildings which were
quite as necessary for the operations of his farming as for
the purposes of any manufacturer or trader, and he hap-
pened to have a bad landlord, not only was he compelled
to leave these buildings, but he was [compelled^also to

234

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

leave them in repair, no matter how long he might have
occupied his farm f7/ea>-, /iert?-^. They all knew that
the great thing they wanted, to encourage them in expe-
riments to make the land produce as much as it was ca-
pable of producing, was security of tenure {cheers), and
a long lease was necessary for that. It was useless to
ask the legislature to compel every body to grant leases ;
many gentlemen had their property so much encumbered
(it was useless to attempt to conceal the fact), that they
could not do it {Hear). If a person had his property
mortgaged he could not grant leases which would be
good against the mortgagee (/7(?a?-, hear). But he sug-
gested that they might meet the difficulty in this way : —
They might freely go to Parliament, and say, " Compel
either the landlord or the succeeding tenant to pay us for
the improvements which we have made upon the farm."
He (Mr. Beadell) did not ask compensation for manure,
for sheep-folding, or for the application of guano to the
land, of which the tenant himself received the major part
of the benefit himself. But he did ask some security of
compensation for draining land which would be useless
without draining, and which if effected would cost from
£^ to ^5 per acre ; he had a right to look to security for
receiving back some portion of that which he expended
for the permanent and everlasting benefit of the land-
lord's property {Hear, hear, and cheers). They had a
right to expect and ought to have it ; they could not get
it by means of lease ; let them have it, then in the way in
which he proposed CHear, hear). Some tenants had been
told after they had occupied farms for a certain period
that they must have one third more added to their ren-
tal, or they must leave, whilst in point of fact they (the
tenants^ had made the farms worth the improved rent
which was demanded of them (Hear). By draining and
chalking they had converted very inferior land into very
superior land, and then they were called upon for an in-
crease of rent. Surely this was a great injury inflicted
on the tenant {Hear, hear). If covenants were to be
drawn up according to such a code as had been suggested,
we should not find such diversity in them, or such ex-
ploded notions as were now frequently found in almost
every lease. He made these observations because it had
frequently struck him, and did so still, that if they were
only true to themselves they might remove the difficulties
under which they laboured, and that something like legis-
lative interference might be of use to them {Hear),

Mr. Edward Aitcheson wished to ask Mr. Beadell
whether he thought it possible that the Legislature could
compel any man to grant a lease upon a principle other
than that on which he himself chose to grant it.' He
(Mr. Aitcheson) did not think it was possible to compel
any landlord to let his land subject to the conditions
which Mr. Beadell contemplated if he did not like to do
so. How could they arrange, in the case of a mortgaged
estate, with five or six different individuals ? {Hear).

Mr. Beadell said he would not attempt to limit or
define what Parliament could or could not do ; but it
had already done a good deal that he did not like, and
among other things it had blessed them with an income tax
{Hear, and a Inugh). He did not, however, desire any
specific legislation on this subject ; all he wanted was
a declaratory act to the effect that it shox\ld be the prac-

tice for either the landlord or the succeeding tenant to
pay the out-going for permanent improvements, or for
stock left in the land. Admitting even with the gentle-
man (Mr. Aitcheson) who had put the question to him,
that it was impossible to legislate upon the subject ; he
contended that great good would be done by the mere
mooting of the question ; if they could not convince
1,000 of the injustice of which they complained, they
might induce 900 to fall into their views from very shame
(Hear, hear, and cheers).

Mr. King said, with respect to building erected by
the tenant upon a farm, it had been said that they became
the property of the landlord, and that the practice in
this respect was different in the case of farmers from that
which prevailed among manufacturers and others. This
was unquestionably the case {Hear, hear). Now he
begged to suggest that an act of Parliament might be
passed to put them both on the same footing {Hear). It
appeared to him that the observations of the gentleman
who last sat down (M. Beadell) applied to cases where
there was no lease ; and, therefore, heagreed withhim that
a declaratory law would be of great benefit (Hear,
hear).

Mr. Shaw (of Northampton) said that since he was pre-
sent here at the last meeting, he had endeavoured to pro-
mulgate, to the utmost extent of his power, the opinions
which he had then heard expressed, one of the best of
which perhaps, was this— that you must first convince
the landlord that he will himself derive benefit from
doing justice to the tenant before you can bring him to
accede to your views {Hear, hear). They must first
endeavour to knock this into the landlord's head {Hear,
and a laugh) or they would do very little good. Mr.
Shaw here read the passage from Sir Robert Peel's
speech in which he proposed to advance money by means
of Exchequer Bills for the encouragement of agricul-
ture ; and then proceeded to say that if the landlords
granted tenant-rights, and thereby induced their tenants
to lay out their capital in thi improvement of their
farms, the matter would be much better accoirplished
than by Sir Robert Peel's plan of borrowing money
{Hear, hear).

Mr. Wood (of Sussex) said he should not feel justified
in obtruding himself a second time on this question
(having spoken at the former meeting), but that he was
desirous of making a remark or tv/o on observations
which had fallen from gentlemen to-night. Mr. Aitche-
son and Mr. Beadell at first appeared to differ in opin-
ion, but he thought they agreed in the material points
of the question. He (Mr. Wood) thought that it would
be very desirable if they could fix and define what should
be the custom of the country generally on this subject ;
but he did not see the use of interfering by legislative
enactment with private bargains, although it would be
very judicious and advisable to have a declaratory act,
if they could get it, which should fix what was the
custom of the country in cases where there was no
lease or stipulation. That was necessary for the bene-
ficial cultivation of the soil (hear, hear). He was of
opinion that, if this custom were declared by act of Par-
liament, nine cases out of ten would be governed and
regulated by it, and that, therefore, the greater part of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

235

the country would come under such an act ; and if the
custom were set aside in particular cases, it would be
because the nature of the soil did not admit of its being
carried into effect {hear). He admitted tlie full force of
Mr. Beadell's observations with regard to erecting farm
buildings, and he thought it highly desirable that the
tenants should erect them for themselves. Many per-
sons had peculiar notions of their own, and although the
agents might be desirous of benefiting the farmer, they
might be mistaken in their views, or from the nature of
their occupation, and the force of habit, much more apt
to benefit the landlord (hear). He repeated that he,
for one, was in favour of obtaining some general act of
Parliament, which would apply to all cases not set aside
by some special act {hear).

Mr. CuTHBERT Johnson thought Mr. Wood had
confined his attention exclusively to the advantage of
tenants-at-will ; any declaratory act of Parliament that
gentleman confessed would be confined to the advantage
of those who took their farms without any lease at all —
in short, who were mere tenants-atwill {hear). He
(Mr. Cuthbert Johnson) was not much in favour of that
sort of occupancy ; he was much more in favour of
a good, a long, and a liberal lease {hear). It was
all very well to procure, if they could, an allowance for
buildings, manure, and permanent drainage ; but if
there were such a declaratory act passed, of this descrip-
tion only, in favour of the yearly tenant, it would operate
against granting leases altogether. The tenant would then
say " It is of no use to have a lease." Wliat then would
be the result ? The landlords of England would add
— " In the absence of any agreement you will go out
with a certain advantage ; I shall insist therefore upon
having some regular agreement consonant with my idea
of justice, the custom of the country, and the custom
which I and my forefathers have adopted and perpetu-
ated." He (Mr. Johnson) made these remai'ks in the
hope that the clubs throughout the country should not
undertake a crusade which could not prove of any benefit
{hear). The great use, as he had before stated, and which
he again repeated, and which he took to be the legiti-
mate and certain fruit of these discussions, was the difl'u-
sion of the knowledge among the landlords of the coun-
try that the more liberal the covenants of their leases,
and the more carefully they provide that good tenants
should be amply rewarded for the capital and skill ap-
plied to their farms, the more would their own interests
be "promoted ; and when that true and legitimate per-
suasion shall be once thoroughly diffused , from that time
forward they might rest assured that^ tenant farmers
would never have to complain of illiberal treatment on
the part of their landlords {hear, and cheers).

Mr. Turner perfectly agreed with what had fallen
from Mr. Beadell and Mr. Aitcheson, although he did
not think they went far enough. He did not see why
the tenant should not be protected by legislative enact-
ment. When a farm ran out at the end of a lease, and
there happened to be any disagreement between the
landlord and tenant, let them only consider what a loss
there was to the public for several years after the expi-
ration of that lease. He had himself suff'ered consider-
ably from taking to farms run out in this way ; he had

seen land on such farms produce a greater number of
bushels of weeds than of wheat per acre {hear). A farm
run out in that way would produce nothing for the first
two or three years, and consequently paid nothing to
the public revenue. A lease generally provided for cer-
tain covenants, to be acted upon in case of its being
given up ; but when a farm was let without any lease,
why should there not be a provision by act of Parlia-
ment to compel the landlord to make an allowance for
all money expended upon the farm by the tenant ? He
could see no objection to such a course ; there were
many acts of Parliament passed for which there was
much less necessity {hear). One grand argument in its
favour was the loss of provisions and necessaries of life
caused by a farm being run out as he had instanced.
To secure' compensation to the outgoing tenant, he
thought, was the principal tenant-right which came
within the scope of their exertions ; not that he dis-
agreed with or dissented from the plan which had been
suggested, of appointing six gentlemen, of judgment and
practical experience, to draw up a code. This would be
of more advantage to agriculture than all the loans of
Exchequer Bills which could be made for that purpose
{hear).

Mr. Spottiswoode said it often happened that when
discussions were entered into, many things were said by
one gentleman and by another, thinking that they were
opposing each other ; but when we came to look closely
into their different views, we found that they were very
much agreed {Hear). Now he did not agree with the
gentleman (Mr. Aitcheson) who said that the Legisla-
ture could do nothing for them ; for he thought, with
Mr. Beadell, that it could do much (Hear, hear). It
had been said very truly by Mr. Wood that nothing
which the Legislature could do ought to affect or con
trol the bargain which one man makes with another.
In this he quite agreed ; but at the same time he did not
see why the Legislature should not be called upon to
secure to the tenant, from the landlord, that which was
only just and right {Hear, hear). He agreed with the
suggestion which had been thrown out for appointing a
committee of gentlemen, or some other such body, to
ascertain what the tenant-farmer really did want. At
present, he thought they scarcely knew what they
wanted ; and it would be idle to ask of Parliament that
which they did not themselves fully comprehend
(Hear). The injustice of which they often had to
complain did not arise in many cases so much from the
want of good feeling as from the want of perception of
the grievance. That the intention of " screwing" the
tenant was general, he could not for a moment believe.
With regard to a tenant-at-will, the law prescribes what
are his rights; it may not define them properly or
wisely or justly, and it was of that they had to com-
plain. He did not think the body of landlords (who
were strong in Parliament, as they ought to be, al-
though, he was sorry to say, he feared the time was ap-
proaching when they would not be so) — he did not, he
said, think that the body of landlords would dare
to oppose so just an application as that which was con-
templated by Mr. Beadell ; and therefore he thought it
was diffidence on the part of Mr. Aitcheson to say that

236

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Parliament could do nothing for them (Hear, hear). It
was only reasonable to first ascertain what it could do,
and then to endeavour to get it done {Hear, hear). There
was one part of the discussion this evening with which
he had been much disappointed ; lie alluded to the re-
marks of Mr. Shaw (of Northampton). That gentleman
had appeared to be opening up a very important part of
the question in a very proper manner, but he did not
pursue it. He had read a part of the speech of Sir
Robert Peel, in which that right hon, gentleman ap-
peared to go altogether beyond reason, beyond justice,
beyond common sense, beyond every tie that ought to
bind us, and every principle which ought to rule and
govern and guide us. Mr. Shaw had alluded to the
plan of lending money in Exchequer bills for the im-
provement of agriculture, but he had not pointed out
the evils of the system. He (Mr. Spottiswoode) was of
opinion that the Exchequer bill system, as at present
framed, was a mere instrument of monopoly in the hands
of the rich, to the detriment and injury of the industrious
classes ; and that excessive production was a production in
favour of the rich, and to the prejudice of the poor. If
the present system were pursued, pauperism must in-
crease, and the tenant-farmer must necessarily be
swamped and reduced to pauperism himself. To that
point they ought to turn their attention. Let them
look to the results of neglect already. Some little time
ago an Agricultural Protection Society had been formed
by parties who felt that there was a power which was
dragging them down. The society was itself founded
on a false basis, or it might have done much in resisting
the innovations of the rights of agriculture ; had it been
otherwise, probably they would never have seen what
they had witnessed within a week from that time. The
society was ultimately swamped by allowing the land-
lords to take the lead in it. Doubtless the interests of
the landlord and the interests of the tenant ought to be
the same; but a bad system had separated them. It
was that system which made these discussions neces-
sary. Our present laws had a tendency to enrich the
rich and to impoverish the poor. The tenant-farmers
were, however, strong enough and possessed of intelli-
gence enough, if they acted up to their principles, to
obtain what they sought, and then not only to do justice
to themselves, but to the body of labourers who were
dependent upon them. After some further remarks,
which were addressed to the meeting in a tone of consi-
derable warmth, he said that he regarded the present
tendency of legislation as calculated to bring about the
disorganization of society ; that, so long as the few
gained all the advantage, to the prejudice of the many,
there must be misconduct in those who were elected.
The time, however, must come and would come when
the many would say, "We will have food" (Hear).
He frequently heard people talking about the price of
corn, upon which he asked them the price of money.
To that question their reply was, that they did not un-
derstand him. Now, if they did not understand the
one, how was it possible that they should understand
the other {Hear, hear).

Mr. Shaw ("of Northampton), after a few words of

explanation said, that with regard to working out the in-
tention of the club respecting the appointment of a com-
mittee of six gentlemen who were land valuers, he begged
to suggest that the club should go far beyond the propo -
sition of Mr. Aitcheson or Mr. Beadell, and that they
should select one gentleman out of every county in Eng-
land, who, no doubt, would give them a meeting, and re-
port to them on the subject.

Mr. Beadell said it appeared that Mr. Aitcheson and
himself had made a few remarks, some of which the
gentlemen present liked, and some of which they did not
like (Hear). But he had not heard a single observation
which went against the original proposition of his friend
Mr. Aitcheson, for the appointment of a committee of
six gentlemen to draw up a code ; and he thought the
club would act wisely at once to act upon that suggestion
(Hear, hear). With regard to the observations of Mr,
Spottiswoode, he must say that he could not allow the
wholesale condemnation of Sir Robert Peel to pass with-
out declaring that he did not think that right honourable
gentleman guilty of the conduct imputed to him (Hear,
hear). If Mr. Shaw had taken the commencement of Sir
Robert Peel's speech, and read that instead of taking an iso-
latedportion, he would have found that he there stated that
his opinion had been altered from certain facts which had
occurred. Now, suppose he had entertained these altered
opinions and yet been content to go on as before, why
he would have deserved to be considered as one of the
greatest hypocrites that ever appeared in the human form
(Hear, and " So he is now," followed by a laugh). He
(Mr. Beadell) did not think so. This gentleman was
about to proceed with his observations on the conduct of
Sir Robert Peel, when he was called to order by

The Chairman, who reminded him that he was be-
coming political, and that, according to the rules of their
club, politics were not to be introduced.

Mr. Beadell said he cheerfully bowed to the decision
of the chair, although he did not think his observations
had been more political than those of the gentleman
(Mr. Spottiswoode) to whom he was replying.

Mr. Fisher Hobbs said he felt that he was placed in
the same position as many of the speakers who had pre-
ceded him, namely, that he had come with the expecta-
tion and intention that he should listen and hear, and
not speak or give his opinion. He must say that he re-
gretted that Mr. Shaw, who had brought forward the
motion at the previous meeting, was not now present.
He CMr. Hobbs^ would have come prepared with facts
upon which to ground his arguments, if he had not thought
that gentleman would be there to do so. He begged,
however, to say that he did not agree with Mr. Aitcheson
that tenant right was a subject upon which Parliament
could not legislate. He thought it would be very easy
to form a code which should meet all the difficulties of
the case. It was no doubt a very great hardshiji when
a farmer had to quit a farm having a considerable amount
of unexhausted capital in the soil ; it often happened
from various circumstances that he was so compelled to
quit, and left thousands of pounds in the land which
justly belonged to himself (Hear, hear). It had been
remarked this evening that Sir Robert Peel recommended

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

237

an improved cultivation of the soil ; he agreed with the
right hon gentleman that there was room for a vast im-
provement in this respect, but thought that his proposed
measures would do more to introduce foreign agriculture
than tend to the improvement of our own (Hear, hear).
He did not quite coincide with Mr, Aitcheson that six
land-valuers would be exactly the committee to draw up
a codeof laws for the regulation of tenant-rights {Hear).
He did not mean to allude to those gentlemen with any
want of respect, but he thought the better plan was to
have a mixture of tenant farmers with the land-valuers
{hear, hear). The land-valuers might endeavour to do
their utmost for the interests of the tenant, but as they
were generally employed for the landlord, their natural
tendency would be rather to take care of the landlord's
interests than those of the tenant {Hear, and a laugh).
He thought an infusion of tenant blood into the commit-
tee, as originally suggested, would form such a body as
might safely go to the houses of Parliament, and ask the
support of the Duke of Richmond and Mr. Pusey, who
had both promised to lend them their valuable aid (/fe«r,
hear J,

Mr. Edward Aitcheson said, when he proposed
that there should be appointed a committee of six land-
valuers, he certainly did think that six conscientious
men might be found who would look to the interests of
the tenant farmer {Hear, hear, and a laugh) . He had
not, however, the least objection to see the names of
one or two gentlemen from each county, or one from
every parish in England, added to the committee he had
proposed, if it were thought necessary (Hear, hear).
But at the same time he knew that where too many met
together, very little business was done (Hear). If the
committee which he proposed produced a pamphlet,
their production would no doubt meet with many oppo-
nents ; that opposition would lead to discussion ; and
in the end they would thereby get what they wanted
(Hear). With regard to leases there was no difficulty ;
if a man took a farm on a lease terminable at 7, 14, or
21 years, all he had to do was to have a covenant
inserted that at the end of each break should ena-
ble him to say to his landlord " Are we to go on ? or v/ill
you pay me for my improvements .'"' If he had this
covenant, he would then be in a proper position. But
yearly tenants were in a very different position ; and
therefore he (Mr. Aitcheson) wanted a code clearly de-
fined, and fixing the valuation which should be put upon
the improvements effected and left behind in the land
(Hear, hear). He repeated that all he wanted was that
the tenant farmer should be compensated by a certain
and fixed rule of valuation laid down on tiie best prin-
ciple which could be adopted by six practical men, who
were land-valuers, adding, if they liked, six and thirty
practical farmers. They neither wanted to oppress the
landlord, nor to get more than they were entitled to
{Hear, hear). The most obvious improvement for which
they were entitled to remuneration was that of drainage ;
and it would be for this committee in their code to say
to what amount of compensation a tenant was entitled
for such improvement at the end of 3, 5, 7, or 14 years.
They wanted, in fact, to know upon what tenure, and
wpon what principle they entered upon their land (Hear,

hear) . These were the principles by which he was ac-
tuated in making the proposition for a committee
(cheers).

Mr. Turner said , for his part, he would rather take
six land valuers and six tenant farmers for the formation
of the proposed committee, than any other number ; and
he thought it would then be quite numerous enough to
manage the matter. All he (Mr. Turner) wanted, was,
that the tenant should be paid for improvements ef-
fected, and for unexhausted manure left in the land ; if
this arrangement were once carried into effect, all ill-feel-
ing between landlord and tenant would soon be done
away with (Hear, hear) He beggetl to move that a
committee thus constituted be appointed, viz., six land ^
valuers and six tenant farmers.

Mr. Knight (Edmonton) said, he was not present at
the last meeting upon this subject, although he had read
with very great pleasure a report, in the Mark Lane
Express, of the remarks which had been made on that
occasion (hear). He quite agreed with what had fallen
from Mr. Beadell this evening, with respect to the ne-
cessity of obtaining some legislative enactment on the
question of tenant rights. In the course of the discus-
sion, however, he begged to remind tlie meeting, that no
one had thought of mentioning the case of the property
of public companies, or of church property. Now, un-
less a legislative enactment were obtained, neither public
companies, nor parties in trust for property belonging
tosthe church, could be made to meet the demand con-
templated as a tenant-right (Hear, hear). A church
lease ran for seven years ; at the end of the seven years,
the surveyor came again, ran over the land, and said —
" This is worth more money than you pay, and I must
have more money for it; " and if, on the other hand,
the tenant worked out the farm, why then the public
were the losers, as Mr. Turner had well pointed out
(Hear, hear) . It was well known how public compa-
nies acted in this respect ; if the land were well farmed,
they came down and demanded an increased rent, and if
badly farmed, why, as in the other case, there was the
alternative of public loss (Hear, hear) Under these cir-
cumstances, he should strongly insist upon the necessity
of interference in their behalf by legislative enactment.
In tlie case of heads of colleges, he was quite sure they
would be glad to be placed in such a position as an act
of parliament of the kind contemplated would put them
(Hear, hear).

The Chairman reminded the meeting, that although
they had this evening heard the opinions of a consider-
able number of gentlemen, they had not, as yet, had
any resolution embodying those opinions, formally pro-
posed and seconded. He begged to say for himself, that
he had long been and was still of opinion, that
it rested with the legislature to frame some enactment
apontheimportant subject of their discussion; he thouht
rested with tlie legislature, and with the legislature en-
tirely, to do this (Hear). It was, beyond a doubt, a
question which ought to be provided tor by law ; indeed
it was to a certain extent provided for by law, but not
to a sufficient extent to give the tenant that right over
his own interests to which he was entitled (Hear).
Every one knew that if he went and hired land as

23S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

a yearly tenant, that it was in tbe power of his land-
lord, by giving him six months' notice, to oust him from
his occupation, and seize upon all his improvements.
Was not that the law? (hear, hear). Well if it
was, why may it not be as easily made the law to com-
pel the landlord to give a longer notice than six months' ?
(Hear, hear). The notice under the present state
of the law was given on the 25th of March,
and at that time the tenant had made all his ar-
rangements for the year. He may have been purchasing
manure, put in his spring- seed and his corn-seed — yes,
positively put in his seed — when at the very last mo-
ment comes a notice from his landlord to quit the farm,
and leave all his improvements behind him {Hear).
Was this equity if it was law } (Loud cries of ("■ Hear" )
It was such points as these that ought to be corrected,
and thereby put the tenant on the same fair, equitable,
andsafe footing as other men {Hear) . If a tenant put up a
farm building, he was not only bound to maintain it in re-
pair duringhis occupancy of the farm , bixt he was bound also
to leave it in repair on quitting the land ; any other tenant
had the power of taking it down (Hear). But because a
special jury had decided that this should not be done, their
decision had become a precedent against the tenant farmer :
the trading community were wiser in their generation.
The fault, however, was rather in the law than in the prac-
tice. If the principle of a tenant-right were adopted, it
would put an end to that great competition for farms
which was 'frequently allowed to act injuriously to the
occupying tenant, and prevent that practice of one person
riding over the head of another. If a person took land
at 20s. an acre, and by his capital and skill made it
worth 30s., he ought to receive compensation if com-
pelled to give it up. The system which at present pre-
vailed operated in such a way as to induce the tenant to
resort to all kinds of stratagem and cunning. He went
on improving his farm for a certain period, but at the
end of that time he began to say to himself, " Now, in
order to protect myself, I must take the capital which I
have expended out of the land." During the last seven
years of his lease he set about the accomplishment of
this object, and the consequence was that he frequently
left the farm in a worse state than he found it upon first
entering it (Hear, hear). This, of itself, was a suffi-
cient reason why agriculture did not improve in this
country as it did in others. Let them by all means
alter the law. There was no difficulty in defining the
tenant right ; it was a matter of every day practice. He
(Mr. Baker) was in the constant habit of making farm
valuations, and knew that as there was no difficulty in
defining the extent and value of the improvements for
the landlord when a new tenant was coming in, neiihei
could there be any difficulty in the other case. He was
recently called upon to value the improvements in a farm
which had been let for twenty-one years, and in two
years after it had been taken at lis. an acre, the land
was found to be worth 21s. ; so that in the short space
of two years the tenant had increased the value of the
property to the amount of one-third, or 33 per cent.
{Hear, hear). Widi regard to the suggestion that this
question should be referred to gentlemen from various
parts of the country, he begged to say that he did not

see why they should go out of their own club in order to
get opinions upon the subject {Hear, hear) ; he thought
the matter should emanate from them. He did not see
why they should go beating about for information ; in-
deed, he thought it would be rather infra dig. in the club
to do so (Hear, hear). Let them appoint six, or ten, or
twelve, or whatever number of gentlemen they thought
proper for that purpose ; but let them be selected from
among the members of this club. To them the question
could be submitted ; and, when they had drawn up their
code, let there be another meeting to approve of what
they had done {Hear, hear). The matter was one of the
greatest importance to the farmers' interest, and more
important at the present period than it ever had been
before {Hear).

Mr. TuRXER then rose, and submitted to the meeting
a formal resolution to the effect ' ' That six land valuers
and six tenant farmers, beuig members of this club, be
appointed to investigate the subject of tenant-rights,
and that they be requested to draw up a series of rules
thereon to be submitted to the club for adoption" {hear,
hear),

Mr. Shaw (of Northampton) moved, as an amend-
ment, that the land-valuers should not be members of
this club.

Mr. Edward Aitcheson suggested to the gentle-
man who had just moved the amendment whether, as
the subject was to emanate from this club, it would be
right to introduce foreign bodies ? {hear, hear.) As
this matter had arisen out of discussions at the Farmers'
Club, he did not think it desirable that the committee
should be comprised of any but members of the Farmers'
Club.

Mr. Turner said when the code should be drawn
up, as proposed, they would have opinions enough upon
it from all parts of the country {hear, hear).

Mr. SiiAW explained that the object of his amend-
ment was to admit gentlemen of undoubted practical
knowledge, even if they happened not to be members of
the' club. There v/as Mr. Beaseley, for instance, of
Northampton, who would be invaluable as a member of
the committee ; but he was not a member of the club
{hear, hear).

Mr. Fisher Hobbs said he quite agreed with the
gentleman who had last spoken that it would be very
desirable to have the assistance of such a gentleman as
Mr. Beaseley ; but, at the same time, he did not think
that they ought to go out of the club in selecting the
members of the committee.

Mr. Shaw said that, perceiving the feeling of the club,
he would at once withdraw his amendment {hear, hen?-)-

Mr. Spottiswoode was quite of opinion that the
committee ought to be confined to members of the club.
There was one point of great importance to which he
wished to call the attention of gentlemen present, and
that was what the committee would have to consider
(Hear). The whole of this discussion had been con-
fined to the interests of the outgoing tenant ; but there
was another right which he considered well worthy the
consideration of the committee, and which he wished
would be brought under their notice, namely, the nature
of rent. At present the tenant paid a " gold" rent, if

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

239

he might so speak ; and the question was, whether it
would not be much better that he should pay a " corn"
rent {Hear, hear). He begged to suggest that a pound
was nothing but a piece of gold, and moreover to remind
them that when the tithes were commuted they were
commuted for a " corn" pound, and not for a " gold"
pound {Hear). Now, he wanted to know why should
not rents be arranged in the same way {Hear)} The
present system had led to a separation of interests be-
tween the landlord and tenant, which it was impossible
to conceal. He thought the corn pound ought to be
adopted, and not the gold pound. The gold pound was
nothing but the tool of the money dealer. If they
wanted to have a bona Ji.de rent, let them have a corn
rent. They did not eat gold or live upon gold, but they
did eat and subsist upon corn, which was the natural
sustenance of man, and the foundation of all value. He
believed that the adoption of a corn rent would do them
more good than anything else that could be devised
{Hear).

The Chairman then put Mr. Turner's resolution to
the meeting, which was carried unanimously ; and after

a short discussion, in which Mr. Brown, Mr. Knight,
Mr. Hobbs, Mr. Pocock, and Mr. Muggeridge took
part,

A committee was nominated, consisting of the fol-
lowing members (with power to add to their numl)er),
the si\ first-named being land-valuers, and the others
being tenant-farmers : —

Mr. Baker, of Writtle; Mr. Trinder, of Cirencester;
Mr. Anderson, of Oakley, Beds. ; Mr. Bell, of Buck-
lersbury ; Mr. Brown, of Wilts; and Mr. Dixon, of
Oxford ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs, of Mark's Hall, Cogges-
hall; Mr. Thomas Knight, of Edmonton; Mr. Edward
Aitcheson, of Tonbridge Wells ; Mr. Hudson, of Cas-
tleacre ; Mr. Turner, of Devonshire ; and Mr. Samuel
Jonas, of Cambridgeshire.

Another discussion took place on the question, whe-
ther the subject should or should not be resumed on a
future day ; and it was at length decided that the dis-
cussion should be adjourned until after the committee
should have made their report.

Thanks were then voted to Mr. Baker for his conduct
in the chair, and the meeting separated.

BROMSGROVE FARMERS' CLUB.

At the last meeting of the Bromsgrove Farmers' Club,
Mr. Wright, of Bentley, read the following paper on
" tenants' rights."

Of all the arts and sciences that can engage the atten-
tion or industry of mankind, agriculture, or the culti-
vation of the earth, must stand pre-eminent, for on its
being properly understood depend the comfort, happi-
ness, and welfare of the millions that inhabit the earth.
If the cultivation of the soil was worthy the attention of
kings in olden times, surely it cannot be less so now,
when our great and rapidly-increasing population de-
mands all the energy, skill, and industry of the agricul-
turist to grow two blades of grass or corn where one
grew before. To render the tenant farmer beneficial to
mankind, he must be cherished and fostered by the
generous hand of the landed proprietor ; he must be
made to feel an interest in the soil ; and nothing would
give more confidence than the revival of the good old
custom of granting leases, or that compensation should
be paid, in the event of an unwilling removal, for all
permanent improvements. The national good which
would arise from a general improvement of agriculture,
from any general eS'ort made on the part of the tenants
to improve permanently, as by drainage — not of waste
land, but of that which is already in cultivation — can
hardly be over-rated. W^e could show, by many exam-
ples, how much the national wealth has been, and may
be furtlier, increased by these means. Take, for in-
stance, the average produce of wheat, which is stated at
twenty-six bushels per acre. If, by a small improve-
ment, we could raise the amount to twenty-seven bushels,
we should add to the nation's annual income 475,000

quarters; worth, at 50s. per qr., nearly 1,200,000^
yearly from wheat alone. As the population of the
United Kingdom seems to be rapidly out-growing the
ordinary capabilities of the soil for its maintenance,
proving the vast importance of an improved system of
agriculture, how desirable it is that the tenant-farmer
should have security for the capital he invests in the soil,
for no man can obtain the capital necessary to cultivate
his farm unless he is secure in his possession. Thus the
most industrious and persevering farmers may be
crippled, and placed at a grievous disadvantage. The
heir may be a gambler or a spendthrift, and how long
will he be bound by his predecessor's pledge ? Trustees
may feel compelled to make the best of the property ;
or the possession may change hands, and the proprietor
do as he likes with his own ; or the tenant may give an
adverse vote at an election, or his son may have stumbled
over a hare ; and although a man has obtained all the
manure within his reach, drained all his heavy land,
limed all his light land, he may have immediate notice
to quit, and leave all his improvements behind him.
What then becomes of previous agreements which have
no legal authority ? The despotic, not to say dishonest,
principle on which much of the land in this country
is let, is the tenant-at-will system, which enables the
landlord to put into his pocket by far tlie greater part of
all the tenant's improvements. By the statute law of
the land the tenant is punished for dilapidations, but it
aflbrds him no protection for improvements. A large
expenditure of money is necessary to successful farming,
but men will always look for a guarantee in proportion
to the outlay. A man who expects to hold his land but

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for a year, or to hold only on such conditions as may
terminate his tenure at the year's end, will expend so
much only as will reimburse him by a year's crop ; for
all that is expended beyond that might be thrown away ;
but let a man be assured that his farm will remain to
him and his posterity, and he will cast in his whole lot
with it ; if he be rich and skilful he will cultivate it to
the highest point to which the constantly improving
state of agricultural science can attain. Such is the im-
portance to the whole nation of the tenant's rights ; and
it is on this ground that I contend for some modification
of the laws affecting landlord and tenant, not merely for
the sake of the tenantry, but on public grounds. A
great crisis seems near at hand, and it high time that
the tenant farmers should exert themselves, in order
that they may derive some benefit from the occupation.
They wei-e often told, as farmers, that they ought to till
the land, and employ the labourer, and do this and that ;
but suppose we expend our capital in this way to any
extent, how do we know what landlords may do, and
then what would become of us when called on to give up
our farms ? If they took farms and improved the condi-
tion of them, nothing could be fairer than that they
should reap remuneration. The law of landlord and
tenant imperatively calls for revision, and the introduc-
tion of some measure having for its object the giving the
tenant a sort of co-proprietorship in the lands ; thus
raising him in the scale of society, inspiring confidence
in the outlay of capital, securing the employment of an
increasing population, and providing food in our country
for almost an indefinite number of mankind. In con-
clusion, I would recommend that in the absence of long

leases, the legislature be called on to pass an act that
any farmer, being a tenant-at-will, or under a lease for
a less term than twelve years, it shall be lawful for such
tenant, on receiving notice to quit, to call in a valuer,
and give notice to his landlord to appoint a person on
his part to meet such valuer, to assess the amount of
compensation due to the tenant for any improvement he
shall have made during his occupancy, the full benefit of
which he shall not have received ; any lawful claims of
the landlord for dilapidations and mismanagement to be
deducted ; the decision of such valuer or that umpire to
be final. Such an act would prevent, to a great extent,
the deterioration of land, and benefit all classes of per-
sons. I am not aware that any difficulty would arise in
the legislature's interference, and I would call upon all
farmers' clubs and agricultural societies to canvass this
question, and follow the example of the London Far-
mers' Clnb, that some measure may be brought in in
this present session of parliament to give the tenant
farmer those rights which in justice he is entitled to.

After some discussion on the subject the follow-
ing resolution was unanimously carried: "That this
meeting considers that when land is held merely
on a tenancy from year to year, six months notice
to quit upon the part of the landlord is much too
short ; and that as the tenant upon deteriorating the
soil is liable to an action for dilapidations, so upon
having made improvements they think the tenant should
have a remedy against the landlord in case he should
have been compelled to leave before he has had time to
obtain a just return fpr his capital expended."

FEEDING CATTLE, SHEEP, & c

At a late meeting of the Parsontown Union Farmmg
Socie^^y, Ireland, Dr. Waters, an eminent physician,
and a gentleman of great scientific attainments, delivered
a most interesting lecture on the application of physiology,
or the laws of the vital functions, to the rearing and
feeding of cattle. We are induced to give an extract
from this lecture, in the hope it will prove highly inter-
esting to our agricultural friends, and it certainly con-
tains many facts worthy of their attention. Dr. Waters
said —

" The subject chosen for the present lecture was the apiili-
catiou of physiology on the laws of tlie vital functions, to tlie
rearing and feeding of cattle. He did not pretend to any
practical experience ; in fact, lie had none ; but sliould endea-
vour to point out those i)rinciples upon which practice should
Ije based, and which, being once kno\TO, would enable the
practical man to regulate tlie application of them iu a way
best adapted for the purposes intended."

He then entered into a description of Liebig's important
discoveries in the processes engaged in the nutrition of animals,
pouiting out the division of the elements of food of herbworous
unimah into the two classes, viz., the elements of nutrition, and
the elements of resphatiou,

The elements of nutrition, containing oxygen, nitrogen, hy-
drogen, and carbon, are perfectly identical with the flesh of
animals ; so much so, that the most experienced chemist cannot
by analysis detect any essential difference between the sub-
stance gluten or albumen, which is invariably present ui all
vegetable nutritious food, and the flesh or blood of an animal.
Thus proving the strange fact, t\\at the flesh and blood of ani-
mals e.iist, ready funned, in vegetables ; and the only duty the
vital functions liave to perform in connection with nutrition, is
to assign a place and form iu the animal to this food, which is
already of the proper composition, manufactured, as it were,
in the laboratory of the vegetable kingdom.

The elements of respiration are those compounds from which
the element nitrogen is absent, such as sugar, gum, and starch ;
they consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, hut not contain-
ing nitrogen ; they, therefore, cannot form flesh, and cannot,
iu this sense, be considered nutritious. Tlie experiments of
Magendie liave shown that animals fed solely on these sub-
stances will die ; but as they are invariably present in food,
what are tlieir uses ? Tliey serve as fuel to keep up the heat
of the animal body. The bodies of our animals are always
above 40 degrees over the average temperature of our chmate,
and the supply of heat necessary to sustain this temperature
is produced by the union of tbe oxygen contained in the air

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

241

they breathe with the carbon within the body, thus producing'
the same gas tis if a piece of charcoal were burned in tlie open
air — carbonic acid gas ; and as a certain amount of heat is the ne-
cessary result of liurning a piece of charcoal, so when carbon
or ciiai-coal unites with oxygen within tlie body, the anioimt of
heat generated must be the same as if such carbon were con-
sumed in the open air, and experiment has proved that the
amount of heat thus produced is amply sufficient to sustain
the temperature of the animal body.

The most accurate obser\ ations have shown that the heat of
the bloo<l of animals is the same in all regions, whether at the
equator or in the polar regions. The quantity of heal neces-
sary to keep up this uniformity of temperature must obviously
>ary with the climate. The inhabitants of the Tropics, for in-
stance, can sustaifi the temperature by a less expenditure of
heat, where the surrounding air equals the temperature of the
body, than the inhabitant of the Polar region, where the air is
100 degrees colder than the body ; but we find that the food
in the Tropics is vegetable, containing not more than 10 per
cent, of carbon or combustible matter, while the food of the
inhabitant of the Polar region consists of l)lubber, train oil, and
tallow, containing 80 per cent, of carbon.

Air is condensed by cold and expanded by heat, so that the
quantity of air in a given volume varies with the temperature.
The size or capacity of the chest of an animal is a constant
quantity, and therefore the volume of air taken in at each in-
spiration may be considered uniform ; hence, in a cold climate
more air must be taken in at each inspiration, the air being
condensed, than in a warm climate, where the air is expanded ;
more oxygen is therefore taken in, and as oxygen once taken
into the system never leaves it as such, but enters into combi-
nation with carbon, so more of the latter must be supplied in
cold than in hoc climates. Anything, in fact, that increases
the supply of oxygen, must occasion an increased demand for
food. Exercise, for instance, increases the supply by making
our respiration more rapid ; we therefore consume more food
after exercise, than when at rest.

Our clothing is in fact an equivalent for food. The more
warmly we are clad, the less urgent becomes our demand for
food ; beca\ise, the loss of heat by cooling, and consequently
the amount of heat to be supplied by the fuel or food, is di-
minished.

Two forces exist in connection with animal life — the one, vi-
tahty, the cause of life, which is always endeavouring to sus-
tain and increase the mass^the other, the chemical force, the
gas oxygen, always present in the air we breathe, endeavouring
to waste and destroy the animal substance, by entering into
chemical imion with the elements of organic matter. These
forces are placed in antagonism. When vitality has the as-
cendancj', the body increases; when the chemical force triumphs,
the residt is waste. When the chemical force succeeds in the
waste of the body, it resolves it into the elements carbonic
acid, ammonia, and water ; but these are the very substances
upon which plants subsist. Thus, we find death and destruc-
tion in one kingdom of uatiure, the source of life and activity
in another.

Cold depresses the vital function (the cause of increase) ;
while, by condensing the chemical force, oxygen (the cause of
waste), it increases its power. We,'accordingly, find that cattle
do not fatten so well in cold as in hot weather. In fact, the
animal body is a. furnace, which must be kept up to a certain
heat. The food is the fuel, the air we expire the same as the
gases which pass up the chimney ; and the excrements are
the ashes. ITiis furnace must, therefore, be supplied with
more or less fuel according to the temperature of the external
air. If, then, we wish to keep up the vital functions of our

cattle in proper action, we must support the heat of their bo-
dies, wliich we may do in either of two ways, viz., adding more
fuel, that is food, to the furnace ; or, we may keep their bo-
dies warm. Warmth, in point of fact, supplies the place of
food, which we may tlius economize. An experiment performed
by Earl Ducie at his Whitfield Farm will place this in a clearer
light.

100 sheep were folded by tens m pens, each 10 by 22 feet,
having a covered shed attached 12 feet by 10. They were
kept in from October to March ; each sheep consumed on the
average 201bs. of Swedish turnips daily. Another 100 were
put by tens into pens of the same size, bid without sheds; they
were kept in during the same time, and consumed on the ave-
rage 25 lbs. of Swedish turnips daily. The only ditference in
the treatment consisted in the former having a shed into which
tliey could go to protect themselves from the wet and cold.
This protection was equivalent to a certain proportion of food,
and we find that those that were deprived of it consumed one-
fifth more food. In the latter case, the additional quantity of
food arose wholly from the necessity of adding more fuel to keep
the furnace at its proper temperature. This is pro\ ed by the
fact that the sheep that had the sheds increased on the ave-
rage 3 lbs. each more than the others.

There are many illustrations of this prijiciple, that warmth is
a substitute for food; and therefore by protecting cattle from
the cold, wc economise food.

The excess of those principles containing nitrogen is deposi-
ted as flesh, while the excess of those destitute of that element,
as sugar, starch, &c., is deposited as fat.

The fattening of cattle is similar to the growuig of corn
plants ; we endeavour to produce an unnatural mcrease of
some particular part of the plant, as the gluten of wheat, and
this we accomplish by artificial means — by manure. The fat-
tening of cattle is the same. We want to produce an imnatu-
ral increase of part of the body ; and we do this by putting the
animal in an unnatural state.

One of the most remarkable of Liebig's theories is, " that
every manifestation of force, every movement is the result of a
transformation of the structure of the body or its substance."
This may appear problematical in the highest degree, and yet
there is no theory more easily proved by every day experience.

PoiJtry feeders confine their poultry when they want to fat-
ten them, thereby depriving them of motion. Pigs about to
be fattened are confined in a narrow stye, on the same principle.
Jlr. Childers found in his experiments on sheep, that those fed
in sheds consume one-fifth to one-half less food, and increase
one-third more in weight than those fed in the open field. The
cause of this is — first, the sheep in the sheds take less exercise,
and therefore exhaust less food in the production of motion
than those in the field ; and, secondly, the sheep in the sheds
have their warmth economized.

We may now endeavour to apply these principles.

The food, as has been mentioned, consists of two sets of
elements — one destitute of nitrogen, destined to support the
respiration and heat of the animal, the excess converted into
fat, but never iiito muscle ; the other containing nitrogen,
similar in chemical composition to the flesh and principal tissues
of the animal body, first converted into blood, from which the
flesh is deposited without undergoing any decomposition.

In estimating the relative value of different foods, these facts
must be taken into consideration ; and it is, therefore, difficult to
express by numbers the eqiiivalent value of the various articles of
food. Tables have been drawn up showing the amount of either
set of elements in each kind of food, by reference to which it will
be seen that their relative values depend on totally different qua-
hties. Tints, potatoes, which contain a large proportion of

243

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

those elements destitute of nitrogen, are most profitable for
forming fat, but in the highest degree unprofitable for forming
flesh ; while beans, on the contrary, are profitable for forming
flesh, but most unprofitable for forming tallow. It is clear,
therefore, that their equivalent values cannot be compared,
as their respective vahie as food arises from totally different
causes. We, therefore, see the utility of mixing food to
supply, in a small bulk, the element of which any particular
article of diet may be deficient.

The form in which food is given to cattle is of considerable
consequence. Food difficult to attain, or to masticate, creates
an expenditure of force required to bring it into a state fit for
the organs of digestion, and, therefore, causes waste of sub-
stance, and, consequently, of food to supply this waste. The
cutting of hay or straw is thus useful in saving an unnecessary
expenditure of force. Steaming food brings it nearly to the
same condition as it is reduced by the action of the three first
stomachs ; and, therefore, force is economized by this process.

The practice of bruising oats for horses is useful on the same
principle.

The amomit of water contained in the different kinds of
food shoiddalso be taken into consideration. Tables have been
constructed exhibiting the quantity in the more common kinds
of food. Thus, in giving an animal 100 lbs. of potatoes, we, in
reality, give but 281bs. of solid matter, potatoes containing 72
per cent, of water. Turnips contain 89 per cent., and
beet 89 per cent, of water. When any of these succulent
vegetables are taken into the stomach, the watery parts are
soon got rid of, therefore a necessity arises for adding food to
give bidk to the residue. As rumination is essential to the
health of an ox, and this process cannot be carried on unless
the food possesses a certain degree of bulk, we find that animals
fed on turnips will voluntarily take a certain quantity of hay
or straw each day to increase the mass. Cattle fed on meal
and boiled potatoes, without hay, have perished on this account.
The food did not possess sufticient bulk, the animal was un-
able to riniunate, and constipation and death was the result.

All cattle feeders are in the habit of giving salt to their
cattle, and must have perceived the benefit arising from it. The
explanation of this is somewhat complex.

Respiration, as has already been stated, consists in the com-
bustion of the sugar, starch, &-c., contained ui the food; but be-
fore this combustion is effected, those compounds are converted
by thehver into bile. The bile is a compound of the alkali soda
with a substance derived from the food containing a large
amount of carbon. The bile is taken up by certain vessels in
the intestines, and being brought into contact with oxygen, is
converted into carbonic acid and water.

The mode in which this is effected, is very curious. All
blood contains iron. Iron enters into combination with
oxygen, in two proportions — the protoxide consisting of one
proportion of oxygen to one of iron, and the peroxide containing
two proportions of oxygen to one of iron. The peroxide
gives up its additional proportion of oxygen with great facility
to organic matter ; and accordingly, when that contained in
arterial blood comes in contact with bile, it is decomposed,
carbonic acid is formed, and the iron thus reduced to a pro-
toxide enters into union with the carbonic acid, forming carbo-
nate of iron, which is taken up by the venous blood, and carried
to theheart and lungs. In the latter, the carbonate of iron comes
in contact with the oxygen of the respired air ; but the mo-
ment it does so, it is decomposed, oxygen is absorbed, a pe-
roxide of iron is again formed, while the carbonic acid is set
free, and is discharged with the expired air. The peroxide of
ironagaui enters the arterial blood, to perform its duty anew, as
carrier of carbonic acid to t^e lungs.

The bile is therefore essential to the perfect respiration of
the animal, and to ensure its due formation, a certain amoimt
of soda nnist be applied. We do tliis, in giving common salt
(muriate of soda) — the soda goes to form bile, while the muria-
tic acid assists in the process of digestion.

Too much salt will prove injurious, by converting the excess
of food into bile, and so preventing the deposition of it as fat.

The delivery of the lecture occupied an hour and a quarter,
and was illustrated Ijy numerous tables, explanatory of the sub-
ject.

CULTIVATION OF WASTE LANDS,

An Appeal to the British Public, for Promo-
ting THE InCLOSURE ANU CULTIVATION OB

Waste Lands, for the full Employment or
THE Poor, upon the following important

GROUNDS.

1st. It is the true policy and interest of almost every
member of the nation, that the unoccupied part of the
iiopulation should not only be employed in providing
food for themselves, but also in producing it in a much
greater ratio, for the other members of the community ;
thus the more we increase in population, and the more
we bring the waste lands into cultivation, tlie greater
abundance we shall obtain from that land and labour
which would otherwise be lost to the community.

2nd. It is the true policy and interest of every per-
son paying taxes and poor rates, to diminish the burden
individually, by diffusing such over a much greater
sphere of population and industry ; by increasing the
value of rateable property by labour ; and by bene-
ficially employing the poor, so as to reduce their claim
upon the poor-rates, from their own industry and ex-
tended exertions.

3rd. It is the true policy and interest of our agri-
culturists and manufacturers to cheapen food and to
lessen the expense of the labourers' and artisans' sup-
port, and increase the comforts of mankind, by engag-
ing a greater part of the population in the cultivation
of the waste land, so that we may not only have the
productions of both cheaper, but may enjoy all the ad-
vantages of enlarged machinery, in the extension of
vegetation ; tlie increased uses of animal strength ; and
in the indefinite applications of steam and mechanical
powers.

4th. It is the true policy and interest of each indivi-
dual, from the most beneficial employment of labour in
extending the caltivation of the land, not only to pro-
mote the use of the natural productions of our own
country, but to encourage and increase the demand for
every species of home manufactures j which secures the
advantages arising from quick returns of capital, and the
least possible risk and expense both to the manufacturer
and consumer.

5th. It is the true policy and interest of the whole
community to enrich the capitalist and the nation gene-
rally, with the continually renewing and increasing gifts
of providence, in the productions of the soil to the
mother country, where they are likely to be most valu-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

243

able, and where the riches they produce most imnie-
atcly and most uninterruptedly flow ; instead of import-
ing these productions from the soil of other countries,
while our own waste lands remain nearly useless, and our
unemployed increasing population continue to be a
burden upon the industrious.

Gth. It is the true policy and interest of all classes
of the community to amend the morals, habits, and
feelings of the working classes, and the poor in particu-
lar, by constantly affording them fresh sources of
healthy employment, in cultivating the land, for the full
exercise of their industry and ingenuity ; raising the
abject poor from their degraded state of poverty, idle-
ness, and crime, to work for their support and indepen-
dence ; and in keeping that industry and skill for the
home market, by rewards for their perpetual encourage-
ment and improvement, alike beneficial to the rich and
the poor, the old and young, and to persons of every oc-
cupation.

7th. It is the true policy and interest of the state,

more uniformly to provide in all seasons, an abundance
and variety of food, to satisfy the cravings of hunger,
and to render a poor man's family a blessing instead of
a helpless burden. To avoid the repeated calls for
charity, and the present plans of public begghig to in-
struct the poor, and relieve the lowest classes, during
bad winters and unfavourable seasons. To produce by
agricultural labour and industry, increased comforts to
mankind in health, long life, and the full enjoyment of
intellectual and social happiness ; and thus uniting the
slow and sure efficacy of experience to the hasty flights
of theory, so that they keep up a continual excitement
and check on each other. And,

8th. It is the true policy and interest in a national
point of view, to encourage this system of supporting
our increasing population, as a bulwark of irresistible
strength in times of war ; and as the most natural, pros-
perous, and enlightened means of directing our grand
national pursuits, and using our surplus capital, in times
ofpeace. An Experiencf.d Agriculturist.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

On Tuesday evening, at five o'clock, Mr. Hay-
wood, professional chemist of this town, deUvered
in the Cutlers' Hall, Sheffield, before a highly re-
spectable audience, a lecture on the Elementary
Constituents of Plants as they exist in the refuse of
towns, showing the intrinsic value of such refuse as
compared with the various manures now in use, and
its importance in agriculture. The following is

THE LECTURE.

In caUing 5'our attention to the subject of this
evening's lecture, namely, the elementary constitu-
ents of plants as they exist in the refuse of towns, it
will be necessary for me in the first place to give a
brief description of those ingredients of which
plants are composed, and generally known as their
elementary constituents. In doing this, it must be
obser\'-ed, I am entering upon a subject of the
greatest importance, not merely to the agricultu-
rists, but to the prosperity of the nation ; for on the
presence of these very elements in due proportion
in the soil, and on the continuance of such re-
sources as are now available, or can in future be
rendered so, is man and all animals dependent for
their existence. ITie sources, then, from which
these elements are derived, combined with a
knowledge of the quantity each crop requires for
its development, and the quantity such sources can
supply, will form the most prominent parts of my
discourse.

The elementary constituents of plants may be
divided into two kinds, namely, the volatile ingre-

dients, or such as are dissipated in the fire when
the substance is said to be burned ; and the fixed
ingredients, or such as remain in the form of ashes
when the organic part is consumed : the former
are found to consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen, in various pro])ortions ; and the lat-
ter of phosphates, sulphates, and silicates of potash,
soda, lime, and magnesia. Chemists are now
pretty uniformly of opinion, that the four volatile
ingredients are principally derived from the air,
while the latter are derived from the soil in which
they grow, or the manures used to supply them.

Carbon, the substance better known in an im-
pure state as charcoal, forms the principal part of
all vegetable productions, and may certainly be
considered the most important volatile constituents
of plants. The quantity by weight of this sub-
stance assimilated by the vegetation growing on
each acre of land, amounts to about 1600 lbs., the
whole of which is derived from the atmospheric air.
Carbon is found to exist in the air, in the form of
carbonic acid gas, in the proportion of about five
parts in ten thousand : this gas consists of a chemi-
cal combination of carbon and oxygen, which plants
absoib very rapidly by their leaves, and which
they decompose under the influence of light, car-
bon being fixed in their organism, and oxygen
again being returned to the air. From the quan-
tity of carbon existing in the air, its constant pro-
duction from sources I shall shortly explain, and
its gradual accumulation in soils where plants are
constantly growing, we conclude that nature her-

244

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

self has made ample provision for ita due supjily
without the assistance of man. Experiments, too,
have verified the conclusion, by showing that the
growth of plants is by no means accelerated by the
sole supply of carbon as manure, consequently we
need not assign any value to this ingredient, as it
exists in manure or in the refuse of towns.

Hydrogen and oxygen are two other elementary
substances which, combined with carbon form
nearly the entire weight of jilants : these are de-
rived from water which contains the same elements,
and generally in the same proportion as they ex-
ist in starch, sugar, woody fibre, and other
vegetable productions. The quantity of I'ain which
falls in this country is far more than necessary to
furnish these materials to plants ; but it has other
processes to ijerform equally as important as the
simple supplying of its elements. It is in fact the
medium by which all the other constituents are
conveyed into the organism of plants.

The processes performed by water in the great
laboratory of Nature are indeed beautiful, and I
hope I shall not be considered as digressing from
this subject if I briefly allude to them. Conden-
sing, as it does, from the state of an invisible gas
in the immense fields of air above, it brings down
carbonic acid, ammonia, and other ingredients
useful as food for plants, at the same time produ-
cing an amount of heat which modifies the tempe-
rature of our climate. On reaching the soil, pro-
viding it is a fertile one, it descends to a consider-
able depth, carrying with it a portion of the soluble
matters, and leaving the surface still porous and
permeable to atmospheric air. This water may re-
main as a kind of subterranean reservoir, or find
its way into our rivers by drainage. We may,
however, consider that a soil perfectly saturated
with moisture exists at a certain depth below the
surface, and that a continuous film of water adhe-
ring to each particle of soil extends from the sur-
face to this supply. It is well known how rapidly
water evaporates at all temperatures, and how
great is the quantity given from the leaves of
plants, and the surface of the soil by this process,
it has been clearly shown that out of the 2,500
tons of water which fall annually in the form of
rain, on each acre of land, no less than 1,500 tons
again pass into the air by evaporation from the
same area. This water is brought from below by
the capillary attraction of the soil as it evaporates
from above, and by this means the upper stratum
is kept moist eA'en in the driest seasons, and solu-
ble manures, which may at one time have been
washed down, are again brought to the roots
of plants. Evaporation progresses more rapidly
during the summer months when vegetation
flourishes, as a greater quantity of water evaporates

at this time than generally falls in the form of rain,
consequently soluble manures applied at this time
cannot be lost by drainage, the current of water,
contrary to the general opinion, Ijeing from below
upwards ; in winter months, however, the case is
difl^erent ; at this time not more than one-fourth of
the fall is returned in vapour, and the loss of solu-
ble manures by drainage will conseqviently be
great. I would not, however, lead the agricultu-
rist to infer that I am decidedly opposed to the
application of maimres during the Michaelmas and
winter seasons, for I am fully aware that there are
many cases where it is absolutely necessary.
Farm-yard manure, bones, and a variety of other
ingredients in constant use, require the prolonged
action of the atmosphere to render them soluble,
and in many cases a sufficient quantity is barely
liberated for the nutrition of plants. It will be
inferred from what I have just stated, that it is
necessary that all those constituents which plants
require for their development, should be in a solu-
ble state, before they can be of any service to the
growth of plants, consequently such as are applied
directly in a soluble state, or can be slowly dis-
solved l)y the action of rain and atmospheric air,
are the only ones valuable as manure ; hence it is,
that the irrigation of meadows increases their fer-
tility to a surprising extent. The water made use
of for this purpose difters very materially from rain
water, inasmuch as it contains the fixed ingredients
most important for the growth of jjlants. It must
be borne in mind that those meadows most re-
nowned for their fertility are those irrigated by
streams which receive the drainage of towns. I
may allude to those belonging to the Duke of
Portland, at Clipstone, where the stream which re-
ceives the drainage of the town of Mansfield, and
consequently contains the soluble portions of that
drainage in a very dilute state, has converted the
above barren sandy district into the most fertile
meadows in the kingdom. This land, including
148/" aci-es, might be considered, prior to the appli-
cation of this iri'igation, the poorest grey sand in
Sherwood Forest, being then little better than a
rabbit warren covered with heath and furze, and
letting for less than 5s. per acre per annum : such,
however, has been the effect of this irrigation that
its annual value has been raised to III. 4s. per acre.
If, then, dilute manures as they flow in the river
Mawn can produce such extraordinary effects, and
increase the value of the land 4000 per cent., how
much more should we expect from the sewerage of
a large town like Sheffield, the number of inhabit-
ants of which exceeds that of Mansfield ten-fold.
To give an idea of what might be done, I only
needallude to Edinburgh, where the sewerage of the
Old Town is made to irrigate a large extent of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

245

poor land towards the sea ; the vahie of this has
consequently been raised from 30s. to 40Z. per an-
num, or calculating the whole extent of 150 acres,
to 6000/. ^Yhy such results are obtained I shall
shortly explain.

If we inquire what becomes of the three volatile
constituents, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, we
find the starch, sugar, &c., which they produce is
consumed by man and animals for the purpose of
producing animal heat ; that the process performed
in the animal system in producing this heat is simi-
lar in every respect to the combustion which such
substances would undergo if burnt in atmospheric
air, giving rise to the same products — carbonic acid
and water, which escapes again into the atmos-
phere. It is immaterial what changes these sub-
stances undergo in the animal organism — they may
be converted into oil or fat, but ultimately this
process of slow combustion does take place in the
system, and they escape; we have, consequently,
the same substances generated by the breathing
of men and animals as those required for the growth
of plants ; and whatever be the quantity of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxj'gen consumed by the inhabitants
of this country, every particle of these elements is
again returned to the air as carbonic acid and water,
to supply a succeeding race. In addition to this
source of carbonic acid and water, the combustion
of fires, candles, &c., furnishes a very large amount
— every ton of coal producing about 47,000 cubic
feet of gas, a quantity sufficient for the annual de-
mand of an acre of land. The 30 millions of tons
consumed annually in this country will, conse-
quently, furnish about 150 cubic miles, which in-
conceivable amount will be yearly absorbed by 30
milhons of acres ; hence, the carbonic acid produced
from the coal which we burn to-day in the fire, or
the bread we consume in our system, may to-
morrow be absorbed by plants, and again converted
into vegetable matter, its oxygen being set free. A
continued circle of changes is thus going on, and
the carbonic acid and oxygen in the atmosphere
are maintained in one fixed and unvarying propor-
tion.

The next volatile constituent to which I have to
call your attention is nitrogen. This forms the
principal part of what may be correctly called the
nutritive portion of plants, and is consequently the
one we should apply to them, in order that they
may assimilate it in the greatest possible proportion.

Plants growing in a wild state obtain the whole
of their nitrogen from the minute trace of ammonia
(a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen) existing in
atmospheric air ; this is probably absorbed to some
extent by their leaves, but is principally condensed
from the air, and conveyed to the roots of plants by
every shower of rain which falls. It was for a long

time a question whether this source of nitrogen was
not sufficient to supply all kinds of produce, Bous-
singault, the celebrated agricultural chemist, from
a series of experiments carried on for fourteen
years, concluded that it was sufficient for white
crops which required a certain time to ripen their
seed, and that no artificial supply was consequently
needed; for green crops, roots, and bulbs, how-
ever, the case is different; such plants developed
themselves in much less time, and attained a much
greater size when supplied with nitrogenous ma-
nures than without them. Now, if the quantity of
citrogen existing in one acre of wheat, five quarters
per acre, be 561bs., which is found to be pretty
nearly the case, the ammonia which falls annually
in the 30 inches of rain, will supply this amount,
Liebig, however, has proved most clearly, that the
quantity of nitrogen in wheat and other articles of
food, viz., the nutriment, may be doubled, or even
tripled, by the appHcation of such manures. Now,
although, we do not increase the quantity of grain
or potatoes, by the simple application of ammonia ;
if we can increase the quantity of those compounds
most serviceable as food for man and animals — yea, if
we can make a given weight of bread, or potatoes, con-
tain three times the amount of nutriment they now
do, then I say it is of the greatest importance to
preserve every particle of those ingredients which
can put such a power into our hands. I cannot,
however, reconcile myself to the opinion that
ammonia does not increase the quantity of grain
and other seeds. I have seen a variety of experi-
ments where the quantity of wheat and barley, as
well as its quaUty, was certainly increased to a con-
siderable extent, and green crops probably doubled
in amount. It would, in fact, be absurd, in the
present state of our knowledge, to suppose tbat the
heavy crops of carrots, cabbages, &c., grown by
our farmers and market gardeners, could derive the
whole of their nitiogen from the air, or otherwise
than from the manures they employ. An acre of
carrots, such as they grow, would contain 134lbs.,
and an acre of cabbage 2461bs. of nitrogen. Now,
the main object of agriculture being to produce the
greatest possible quantity of produce on the small-
est space of ground, these ammoniacal manures
become of the greatest importance ; and I do not
despair of seeing the whole of our cultivated land
in England capable of producing double the amount
of food it now does, when we learn better than to
throw away the only means which can enable it to
do so.

Now, let us inquire what quantity of nitrogen is
assimilated annually by the crops and animals pro-
duced on a farm of 100 acres, under the four-course
system of rotation, viz., wheat, turnips, barley, and
clover, and what ultimately becomes of it ?

246

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

From a report I made for the visiting justices of
the Derby Lunatic Asylum, I showed that the
quantity of nitrogen existing in twenty-five acres
of wheat would be . . . l,360lbs.
Nitrogen, in 25 acres of

barley ],030lbs.

Nitrogen in lambs, calves,

horses, &c., produced by

the clover, and turnips

consumed by them, the

rest being returned to the

soil in their excretions

Total

2911bs,

2,6s libs, of nitrogen.

The straw resulting from the white crops, and
the nitrogen contained in the straw, will be con-
sumed by cattle, or trodden into manure, and again
returned to the land, the total quantity of nitrogen
not returned being 2681 lbs., as above. Now what
becomes of this ? Is it not true that it is sold away
to support the increasing population of our manu-
facturing districts, and that you get none back in
return ? Is it not also true that not only nitrogen,
but all the elements necessary to the growth of a
succeeding supply of food, and the continued ex-
istence of man, are suiFered to run to waste ; and
instead of being applied to the purposes for which
they were obviously intended, pollute our streams
— support subaqueous vegetation, the putrefaction
of which gives rise to noxious gases, which poison
our atmosphere — produce disease and death — and
if any remain after causing such undesirable effects,
they are carried into the ocean, there to be for the
most part lost, as far as regards their immediate
application to the produce of the soil ? Yes ; and
the qviantity thus lost, and the mischief thus
effected, even in this town, is inconceivably great.

It is well known that whatever be the quantity of
nitrogen contained in the food consumed by a cer-
tain number of individuals in a given time, the
same weight of this constituent \vill again be given
off in their liquid and solid excretions in the same
time; in youths, however, the case is different, a
certain portion of this element goes to the formation
of flesh ; but this is so small in amount, com-
pared with the quantity consumed, that it need not
be taken into consideration. Now I find, from a
careful analysis of the dietary of your union work-
house, that 100 paupers consume in bread, meat,
potatoes, and other articles taken by them, about
l,530lbs, of nitrogen per annum, this quantity will,
consequently, be contained in the excretions pro-
duced by them in that time ; if we assume that each
of the inhabitants of the densely populated portion
of the town, who amount to 110,000, consume food

and give off its elements in the same proportion as

these paupers, which must be considerably under | cultural interest of this country, which tends more

the truth, then have we no less than 751 tons of
nitrogen contained in their urine and solid foeces, a
quantity sufficient to produce above 30,000 acres of
wheat, or to keep more than 62,000 acres in a con-
stant state of fertihty on the four-course system of
rotation.

Could we ascertain the quantity of these mate-
rials which are actually preserved from this town,
I fear we should find that instead of their being
used for fertilizing thousands of acres, they are
barely sufficient for hundreds — the most valuable
part, namely, the urine being suffered to drain from
the solids and escape into the river. It is well
known that in the decomposition which all feculent
matters undergo shortly after their expulsion from
the animal system, the whole of the nitrogen they
contain combines with hydrogen, and takes the
form of ammonia ; this again combines with car-
bonic and other acids, generated at the same time,
forming carbonate and other salts of ammonia. It
is only a few years since chemists were unanimously
of opinion that the intrinsic value of manures might
be represented by the quantity of ammonia they con-
tained or would yield by decomposition in the soil.
Now, although this opinion is proved tobe erroneous,
vve may safely compare the value of the ammonia
in this town's refuse, with manures of known value,
which can furnish nothing else ; and if we take
mill waste or shoddy, a manure which can yield
the largest quantity of ammonia at the cheapest rate,
we shall find its value to be £14,660. This mate-
rial, which is purchased in large quantity from the
woollen cloth manufacturers of Yorkshire by the
farmers of Nottinghamshire and Kent, at a cost of
about £2 per ton, is found to contain, on an average,
about 11 per cent, of nitrogen, or about 250lbs. in
the ton. If 250lbs. of nitrogen be worth £2, the
751 tons contained in this town's refuse will be
worth the above sum ; and being in a better state
for assimilation, will be more serviceable to the
growth of plants. If we further compare it with
the sulphate of ammonia, a manure which is much
extolled for its fertilizing properties, and readily
purchased at £ 1 6 per ton, we shall find it would
require 3,581 tons, value £57,293, to furnish the
quantity of ammonia contained in this refuse. In
the same way we shall find that 14,025 tons of
bones, value £70,125, or 8,850 tonsof guano, value
£88,500, would be required to furnish the same
quantity. Is it not, then, absurd in the extreme
to allow such an immense source of profit to run
to waste, and to expend such immense sums of
money in the purchase of manures from abroad,
when precisely the same materials can be obtained
at home, \vith but one expenditure of capital ? Yes,
and it is more than this — it is a tax upon the agri-

1

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

247

to keep up the price of bread than either landlord's
rents or corn laws. I know many farmers who
annually expend more money in the purchase of
manures than they pay as simple rent, and such I
beUeve to be the case with most of the large farm-
ers in this country — the cost of their tillage amount-
ing in many instances to £3 per acre. Let such,
then, be provided with manures of equally fertili-
zing quality with those they have hitherto used, at
one-half their cost (which can be well attbrded if
the methods now under consideration be carried
out) and you uill effect an immense saving in their
expenditure, and enable them to compete with the
foreigner in any market in the world,

I stated that there were other materials besides
the volatile constituents which plants require for
their development. These are the fixed ingredients,
viz.. Silicates, Sulphates, and Phosphates of Pot-
ash, Soda, Lime, and Magnesia.

With regard to the silicates of potash and soda,
these ingredients are principally found in the straw
of wheat, the stems of grasses, &c., in materials
therefore not used as food for man, and which,
therefore, cannot be contained in his excrements.
These compounds are found in aU soils in the state
of an insoluble gas, in quantities varying from four
to ten tons per acre, within the reach of the roots of
plants. Each acre of wheat is found to extract
from 100 to 140 lbs. of ^iUca per annum, the whole
of which is returned to the soil in farm-yard ma-
nure. We obseiTe, therefore, that there is a suffi-
cient quantity of this material to supply croj^s for
an indefinite period, the silicates, however, are of
such an insoluble nature as to require the pro-
longed action of the atmosphere before a sufficient
quantity can be rendered soluble to supply the
plants — hence farmers find it impossible to grow
such crops in succession as require silica in large
quantity, but to alternate them with green ones,
such as turnips and clover, which require none.
Potash and soda — without silica — are found in the
grain of wheat and other produce used as food for
man, and these being constantly removed from the
soil in such food and conveyed to large towns,
should also be returned to the soil, if we wish to pre-
ser\'-e its fertility. The quantity of potash and soda
contained in the refuse of this town, deduced from
the same data as the former ingredient will be
about 537 tons. Now admitting these ingredients
to exist in the proportion of three parts of potash
and one soda, which will be very near the truth,
the value of potash, as compared with its cheapest
salt, pearl-ashes, will be 24,000?., and the soda
4,200/.

I need but make few observ'ations on lime and
magnesia, as they are ingredients of little value,
and generally form a considerable portion of all

fertile soils. Some soils, particularly those of a
porous nature containing much humus, and from
which the lime has been removed by the carbonic
acid contained in rain water, require its restoration
to the amount of about half a ton per acre an-
nually. Lime, however, does not act so much as a
manure, as it does as a secondary agent in promo-
ting the decomposition of the silicates, and render-
ing them soluble for the use of plants. Stiff clay
soils and others containing a large quantity of siU-
cates, are those most benefited by the application
of lime. All soils intended for the growth of
wheat and other crops requiring sihcates, demand
its occasional apphcation. Lime is found in con-
siderable quantity in all our cultivated crops, either
combined with acids generated by the plants them-
selves, or \\'ith others, such as the sulphuric and
phosphoric, already in combination in the soil.

The sulphate of lime, or gypsum, as it is called,
enters largely into the composition of clover and
other plants, and is one of the constituents of the
food of man, being absolutely necessary to his ex-
istence. The sulphur contained in this sulphate, is
an important constituent of all cruciferous plants,
such as turnips, cabbages, &c., and without which
they cannot come to maturity. This sulphur exists
in the pungent essential oil of their leaves, stems
and flowers, and is very hable to be transferred to
butter when cows feed upon them. It is from the
decomposition of svilphate of lime alone, I beheve,
that plants naturally acquire their sulphur, and this
being contained in minute quantity in most soils,
an addition is absolutely necessary to keep up
their constant fertihty. Gypsum, the material
generally employed, is purchased for about 30s. per
ton. Now the quantity contained in the food and
excretions of the inhabitants of this to\vn, amounts
to about 50 tons — consequently wll leave an an-
nual value of about 75Z.

By far the mOst important compounds, however,
and those to which I would most particularly di-
rect your attention, are the phosphates ; — these are
assimilated by plants for the purpose of supplying
bones to animals, their bones being composed prin-
cipally of phosphate of lime. Phosphates are also
found in the blood, muscle, and brain of animals,
and may certainly be classed amongst the most
important elements of their existence. Wheat,
peas, beans, hay, and all vegetables on which ani-
mals can live contain these phosphates in consider-
able quantity. On analysing the ashes of wheat
we find that each acre of 5 qrs. contains about
271bs. of i)hosphoric acid, equivalent to 561bs. of
phosi>hate of hme, or about lOOlbs. of bones. An
acre of barley, 5 qrs. per acre, contains about l71bs.
of acid, equal to 62 lbs. of bones. One acre of tur-
nips, 20 or 25 tons per acre, contains 25lbs. of

R 2

248

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

phosphoric acid, equivalent to about 92 lbs. of
bones. These, however, are not entirely removed
from the farm on which they grow, being consumed
on the land by sheep, or in the farm yard by cattle,
it is consequently only such portions of their ele-
ments as become parts of the animals consuming
them, which are entirely removed, the remaining
portion being returned to the soil in their excre-
tions. From obsei'vations carefully made on the
quantity of ])hosphates annually removed by a
certain number of lambs, young horses, &c., from
a farm of 100 acres, I find it would be as fol-

lows ;

Phosphoric acid in the bones
and flesh of 1 lOlambs, weigh-
ing 25 lbs. each, sold at 6
weeks old . . . .

Phosphoric acid in 40 year-old
sheep, weighing, with skin,
&c., QOlbs. each .

Phosphoric acid in 4 calves,
sold at 5 weeks old weighing
altogether SOOlbs

Phosphoric acid in 4 young
cows forming 140lbs. of flesh
£ind 3 5 lbs. of bone each per
annum ....

Phosphoric acid in two young
horses, gaining the same as
the last ....

Total ....

Lbs.

14.5

210

21

16

21

Bones.
Lbs.

537

in

77

23

77

439 1623

We should consequently export from a farm of
one hundred acres, by 50 acres of white crops, 50
acres of green, by 110 young lambs, 40 yearlings,
4 young calves, 4 young cows, and 2 horses —
l,549lbs. of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 5,7371bs.
of bone.

Now let us inquire whether there is a sufficient
quantity of phosphates in our cultivated soils to
meet this demand for an indefinite period, and
whether there is not some danger of the whole be-
coming exhausted, and our land going out of cul-
tivation in consequence.

Taking the average of 20 soils of various charac-
ters which I have analysed from Nottinghamshire
Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Derbyshire, I find
that the average quantity of phosphoric acid com-
bined \vith various basis in the soil, does not ex-
ceed 5 cwt. in the acre, one foot deep. Now, al-
though this may appear to be sufficient for our
present demand, yet when we consider that 15 lbs.
weight is annually removed from this extent, it is
evident that the above quantity would not last 40
years. This gradual extraction of the phosphates
has so exhausted some of the grazing lands in Kent,

by the exportation of them in cheese, that the
grasses were found incapable of producing cheese
any longer in consequence of the deficiency. On ji
the restoration of these ingredients, in the form of *
bones, however, the land regained its original ferti-
lity, and nutritive grasses were again produced. <
It, no doubt, \vill be thought by some that the arti- ^
ficial tillages now in general use are amply sufficient
to restore what is taken away, and judging from
the large quantity of bones expended on many soils
in this neighbourhood, such wU naturally be the
inference ; but we must not look at things as they
exist in a mere local district — we must not imagine
that because this gentleman or that has put two or
three tons of bones on every acre of his land within
these last ten years, that every agriculturist in the
country has done the same, — we must look at
things on a more sxtensive scale, and inquire
into the sources of these bones and all other
available tillages, before we can state positively
that they are sufficient to keep up a continued
supply. I have shown before that the quantity of
phosphates extracted from the soil in the bones and
flesh of animals bears but a small proportion to
that extracted by other causes, amounting, in an
arable farm of 100 acres, to 439 lbs., while the
latter amounts to l,110lbs. Now, if we collect
every particle of these bones, and again restore
them to the land, it is evident that we should only
supply a quantity of phosphoric acid that would
produce an equal amount of bone the succeeding
year, while none would be added to supply the
growth of wheat. Seeing, therefore, that the bones
in this kingdom can only furnish phosphates
for an equal weight of bones the succeeding
year, let us see how the phosphates are to be ob-
tained for restoring the exhaustion by wheat and
barley. It is clear that the materials to do this,
must either be imported from abroad, contained in a
mineral state in our own country, or e\'ery particle
of excrementitious matter must be preserved which
contains them.

First, as to the manures imported from abroad.
We have bones and guano — the latter, however, is
acknowledged to be so nearly exhausted, that I
scarcely need allude to it ; of the former, we have
sometimes imported as much as forty thousand
tons per annum. Now these bones contain httle
more than one-fourth of their weight of phosphoric
acid, which consequently will be 10,000 tons, and
this would but restore the phophates to 1,500,000
acres of land. Now admitting the annual importation
of phosphates in cheese, cattle, seeds, fish, &c., to
be double this amount, and that the whole of these
ingredients are preserved, we have but sufficient
for 3,000,000 of acres, the remaining 10,000,000
being perfectly dependent on our own resources.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

240

And what are these resources ? What becomes of
these phosphates which are annually extracted from
our soil l)y our corn and cattle ? Are they not ex-
ported into the large towns to be consumed ; and
after performing certain functions in the animal
organism, to be given off in the liquid and solid
excretions of its inhabitants; and are not thej'-,
alike with the nitrogen and other valvial^le ingre-
dients, suffered to escape into the sea ? Yes ; such,
indeed is the fact ; for out of the whole excretions
made by the inhabitants of this town, only about
one-half of the solid, and scarcely any of the liquid
— which is by far the most valuable — is presented;
so that we may estimate the loss of phosphates in this
and all large towns in England, at three-fourths of
the entire quantity consumed in their food. Now,
from the dietary of your union workhouse, I find
that 100 paupers consume, in the various kinds of
food during the year, about 1103 lbs. of phosphoric
acid, which gives, in the same ratio, for the whole
inhabitants of Sheffield, 541 tons, which would
supply about 86,000 acres. We have seen, how-
ever, that but one-fourth of the ingredients are
preserved, consequently but 20,000 acres can at
present be supplied ; and for the whole of England,
calculated in the same way, no more than 3,273,300
acres, which is only one-fourth of the quantity of
land under cultivation. The native bones, however,
will supply 4,614,600 acres. The imported bones
1,500,000 acres; and imported seeds, &c. 3,000,000;
hence we have a sufficient quantity of these in-
gredients to supply 9,114,600 acres, or about two-
thirds of the quantity of land now under cultiva-
tion, and consequently capable of supplying only
two-thirds of the phosphates extracted annually by
our four-course system of farming. It is clear,
therefore, that we are losing 5 lbs. of phosphoric
acid ever)' year from each acre of such land ; and
if this waste is suffered to go on, our 5 cwt. will be
exhausted in 112 years, and the whole of our land
must go out of cultivation. This does not include
any of the meadow, pasture, or wood lands, from
which phosphates are extracted in a similar way.
1 am fully aware that many persons \^'iU think
lightly, and perhaps carelessly upon this subject,
in consequence of there being no fear in their own
day : but I think it is the duty of every man to
promote, as far as possible the welfare of the race
which is to succeed him. I also think one of the
greatest benefits he could confer upon them would
be to insure to them a due supply of their daily
bread. In a moral point of view, then, the case is
obvious, and it becomes the duty of every man and
every nation to preserve every particle of those ma-
nures which can in any way contribute to increase
and maintain the supply of the necessary elements
of life.

In the ])resent arrangements in our own country
this duty is recklessly neglected, and we are com-
pelled to have recourse to the productions of other
countries to supply what we might get at home at
a trifling cost — for it is quite clear that were we to
preserve the whole of the excretions made by in-
dividuals during their lives, we should preserve the
whole elements of the food they have consumed,
except the portion which the grave receives, which
is a mere fraction of that consumed during their
lives, and would be more than made up by articles
of food imported from abroad. These elements, if
again properly applied to the soil, would produce
food enough for a second year's supply, and so on
ad infinitum.

We have already estimated the value of the ni-
trogen, alkalis, &c. — we will now see the value of
the phosphoric acid. The cheapest ingredient that
can be employed to furnish this material, and the
one generally used is bones — these, as I have re-
peatedly found, from the examination of many
samples, but seldom contain more than one-fourth
of their weight of acid, and selling as they do for
£5 per ton makes the value of the phosphates in
these no less than £20 per ton, and the 541 tons
in the refuse of this town will have an annual value
of £10,820; or, compared with guano, a value of
about £26,800. Why, then, should we yearly ex-
pend £400,000 or £500,000 in the purchase of
manures from abroad, M'hen the expenditure of
such a sum in our own towns would put us in
possession of a lasting supply. The intrinsic value
of this refuse of towns should be compared with
guano, a manure which it closely repi-esents, and
each ingredient in this guano must be valued at
the lowest price it could be purchased for from
other sources : —

Tlie phosphoric acid as compared with
bones, deducting the value of the ni-
trogen in bones £8,867

Nitrogen as compared ■with shoddy . . 14,964
Potash and soda compared with the

cheapest salts 28,221

Gypsum 75

Total value of the whole ingredients in

the refuse of Sheffield £52,927

Of this about one-half, including the whole of the
phosphates, admits of being converted into a por-
table form ; and will have greater fertihzing powers
than £27,000 worth of guano, and vAW certainly sell
for the same sum in the market ; the remainder
might be distributed to the surrounding country in
pipes, and used for irrigation, and would certainly
prove more serviceable, after the powerful ingre-
dients had been in a great measure removed, than
if they were allowed to remain. The graziers in

250

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the neighbourhood of Edinburgh are obliged to
make pools in their fields to allow the phosphates to
subside, before they irrigate ■with the liquid. Be-
sides, the above quantity of ingredients having
been shown to be sufldcient for 100,000 acres of
land, it would therefore be wasteful in the extreme
to apply them to a few hundreds in the immediate
neighbourhood of the town. There ^\dll be quite
sufficient remaining, after the liquid has undergone
a simjile chemical process, to furnish the necessaiy
ingredients to them. I may remark that the pro-
cess proposed to be used in the case is exceedingly
simple and cheap, and in addition to the separation
of the various ingredients which it will effect, it
\vill at the same time destroy, in a great measure,
the disagreeable odours and exhalations given off
from such refuse. No fear, consequently, need be
entertained on this head.

In conclusion, I trust I have shewn in as simple

a manner as the subject will allow, of what im-
portance the refuse of towns is, not only to agri-
culture, l)ut to the country at large. I have shewn
you that in order to maintain the fertility of the
soil, it is neeessary to restore to it in manure what
we take from it in produce, and that from the pre-
sent domestic arrangements it is impossible so to
do. The land must sooner or later go out of cul-
tivation if this system is allowed to continue. I
have shewn you that the only way of restoring
what we take from a soil is to return back the town
refuse which we take from it; and that undertak-
ings of this kind, not only in this town, but in
others, must be attended with great odvantage to
the projectors themselves, and of great permanent
benefit to this country.

After a number of remarks by various gentle-
men present, a vote of thanks to Mr. Haywood for
his lecture was passed unanimously.

ANNUAL MEETING OF THE WAKEFIELD FARMERS' CLUB.

On Friday, January 9th, the annual meeting of
the Wakefield Farmers' Club v/as held in the
saloon of the Corn-exchange.

Mr. Charnock's patent machine for making
draining tiles was exhibited in the room. Several
gentlemen connected with agriculture were present,
and took a prominent part in the proceedings of
the meeting. Previous to the business com-
mencing, about 90 farmers of the surrounding
neighbourhood sat down to dinner.

The chair was taken by W. E. Johnson, Esq.,
president of the club, and was supported on his
right and left by John Brakenridge, Esq., Matthew
M. Milburn, Esq., secretary of the Yorkshire
Agricultural Society, McHelton, Esq., and several
other influential gentlemen. After the withdrawal
of the cloth, the chairman proposed " the Queen."

The following officers for the ensuing year were
proposed and elected : —

President, T. C. Johnson, Esq. ; Vice-President,
A. Lees, Esq.; Hon. Secretary, Henry Briggs,
Esq.; Committee, W. Hislop, W. Barratt, T.
Bayldon, J. H. Charnock, Jno. Dawson, E. Sykes,
Jno. Wood, Jno. Moore, Jno. Heanley, Joseph
A\Tiitaker, W. M, Charlesworth.

Mr. Briggs, secretary, then read the report.

Report.

At the termination of one year and the com-
mencement of another, in the career of the Wake-
field Farmers' Club, it becomes the duty of your
committee, on resigning their office into your hands.

to submit to you a short report of the progress
wliich the society has made during the session just
closed, to bring forward a statement of its funds,
and to take a prospective view of its proceedings
for the future. It is with great pleasure that they
are enabled to announce an increase in the number
of members since the last annual meeting, of nearly
tliirty per cent — there being now ninety-eight on
the books, against seventy-seven twelve months ago,
making an increase of twenty-one. The number of
new members, admitted during the j'ear, were
twenty-five; but in that period, your committee
regret to say, that three of the old members have
been removed by death, and one has resigned. Of
the present ninety-eight, seven are honorary mem-
bers, contributing 20s. per annum ; and the remain-
ing ninety-one are ordinary members, at 5s. per
annum. The attendance at the monthly meetings,
during the past year, your committee are sorry to
say, have not increased with the increase of mem-
bers, the average having been only twenty-one,
which is less than the average of the previous year ;
but as the books in the library have been more
eagerly read, they trust that much valuable infor-
mation has been diffused, which, like good seed,
may bring forth a rich and abundant harvest ; and
they are willing to hope, that as the knowledge of
the usefulness of the society extends, a greater and
more tangible appreciation of its excellencies may
be evinced, by members attending to hear and
contribute to the discussions which take place at
the monthly meeting?. In order to give some idea

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

of the nature of those discussions, your secretarj^
has drawn up a condensed report of the subjects
brought forward during the past year, with the
opinions thereon expressed by the members pre-
sent, which, with your permission, he will read to
you. These communications have been eight in
number, and have been contributed by six mem-
bers, namelj' — two by Mr. Dawson, two by Mr.
Briggs, one by Mr. Stringer, one by Mr. Char-
nock, one by Mr. Heanley, and one by Mr. Lees.
It would be invidious for your committee to offer
any critique on the papers and communications
with which the club has been favoured, but they
think they may, without impropriety, direct your
particular attention, in the report of proceedings, to
the subject introduced by Mr. Stringer, " On
Leases and Corn Rents," the discussion on which,
excited so great an interest, as to be extended to
three successive meetings. Your committee are
happy to announce that the finances of the club
are in a flourishing condition ; of which the follow-
ing is a condensed statement : —

£. s. d.
Balance in the hands of the treasurer. . 38 3 0
Arrears of subscriptions and forfeits . . 10 12 0
Subscriptions for the present year .... 29 15 0

Making a total of ways and means

for 1846 78 10 0

The estimated expenses of the society for the
present year, will be as follows ; —

£. s. d.

Use of club room and saloon 4 13 0

Postage of circulars, about 3s. 6d. per

month 2 2 0

Cleaning the club room 0 10 0

Printing circulars 2 12 0

Cartridge paper and calico for covering

books 1 0 0

£ll 17 0

Leaving the sum of £66 13s. to be spent in
books or in other modes of contributing to the
usefulness or the society.

The additions made to the library during the
past years have been books to the value of £6 12s.
only ; but your committee trust that in the course
of the present year, as the funds are in so flourish-
ing a state, members will take the opportunity of
recommending for admittance any standard works
on agriculture, or connected therewith, that it may
be advisable to place on the shelves of the club.

On taking their leave, your committee beg to
express the deep interest which they feel in the
success and well being of the Wakefield Farmers'
Club, and trust that its merits may henceforth be
so duly appreciated, as to render it one of the most

useful institutions of the country, by promoting
and encouraging the production of plenty through-
out the land, without which even peace itself cannot
adequately shed her benign influence.

Mr. Briggs then read an account of the monthly
proceedings of the club, but as most of them have
appeared in our columns, we only make one ex-
tract as follows : —

"July 18. The ordinary business of the club
then proceeded, and Mr. H. Heanley was called
ujion for his promised paper, 'On the advantages
of the application of steam power to farming
purposes' — and he read as follows : — ' Steam power
is one of those mighty agents which have advanced
the manufacturing, the mining, and maritime inter-
ests of our country to their present proud position.
Why is not the same powerful assistant more gene-
rally apphcable to agriculture ? The use of ma-
chinery in agriculture is to produce a cheaper des-
cription of labour, with the advantage of enabling
the farmer to expedite all his operations by a cheaper
arrangement than can be done by manual or horse
power. To show the advantages of that principle
look at the benefit which the farmer derives from
erecting a thrashing machine, to be worked by
steam-power, in preference to horse-power ; the
cost of thrashing by the latter, at a moderate com-
putation, being 5d. per load of three bushels, and
by the former only 3d. per load, causing a saving
of 2d. per load, as an experience of two years has
abundantly shown. A great saving also accrues
in grinding food for horses, cattle, and pigs ; and in
the facility aflforded in chopping hay and straw;
and in steaming the food previous to being given
to the animals. Mr. Heanley also enlarged upon the
benefit arising in several ways in being able ex-
peditiously to thrash out the coi'n immediately on
its being carted from the field, by which interest of
money is saved; and a greater measure of grain.
secured ; as it appears from the observation and
experience of practical men, that corn, when kept
in the stack for some months, loses weight and
measurement, and the quantity of meal and flour
is seriously diminished. It has been urged that
the straw is deteriorated for food for cattle when
not thrashed immediately before being given ; but
Mr. H. maintained that when made into stacks, its
virtues are preserved imimpaired. The advan-
tages of steam-power are as follows :— 1st, cheapness,
being little more than one-half of horse-power j
2nd, always being able to have a supply of meal,
without being dependent upon the miller; 3rd,
being able to grind all the small corn and seeds of
weeds for pig-food ; 4th, being subject to less loss
or waste in grinding them, by sending to the public
mill ; 5th, the engine and machinery are so simple
and easily managed ; that any tolerably steady man

622

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

or farm labourer can superintend the work, the
cost of dressing the millstones being only about
6s. per annum ; 6th, by chopping the hay and straw
which is given to the stock in the yard, a great
saving is effected, and many persons are of opinion
that straw for bedding is even more valuable when
cut or chopped, the decay being thereby hastened ;
and 7th, the steam, when the engine is of the
high pressure construction, can be used for
steaming food, after it has performed its work in
the engine.

" The calculation of the relative cost of thrashing
by steam-power and by horse-power, Mr. H. stated
as follows : —

BY STEAM POWER PER DAY.

3 men at 2s. per day
2 women at Is. per day .
2 boys at 6d. and 8d. per day
Oil for machine and engine
Coals and slack
Wear and tear of engine.
60 loads, or 180 bush, per day,
costs 3d. per load

d.
0
0
2
10
6
6

15 0

BY HORSE POWER.

3 men at 2s. per day . .60
2 women at Is. per day . .20
2 boys at 6d. and Sd. per day 1 2
Oil for machine . . .04
8 horses at 2s. each . . 16 0
60 loads, 180 bush, per day,

cost 5d. per load . . 25 0
The cost of a steam-engine and thrashing machine,
fixed ready for work, is . . , . £125
The cost of an eight-horse thrashing machine
complete. ...... £90

Extra prime cost of steam-power . . £35
which, at the rate of 1,000 loads thrashed per an-
num, would be amply repaid in four years."

Mr. Johnson expressed his great pleasure in
having heard the subject so ably treated, and per-
fectly coincided in the opinion expressed by Mr.
Heanley, of the advantages in the application of
steam-power to thrashing, grinding, chopping, &c.
Mr. John Dawson thought that steam-power
so applied must be highly advantageous. He could
easily conceive that corn thrashed out immediately
on being housed, would be more in quantity as it
must then contain more moisture. He also noticed
the advantages of steaming food for cattle, as dry
food is apt to distend the stomach, and by grinding
the corn for horses and cattle, they derive more sus-
tenance from it.

Mr. Andrew said that he really thought the ad-
vantages of using steam in agriculture, both as a
motive power, and in other ways, were greater than

is generally imagined. He calculated that a horse,
on the average, cannot last more than 15 years,
whilst an engine, with moderate care and attention
to necessary repairs (which are only slight when
taken in time), will last 100 years. Horses, whe-
ther working or not are expensive in their keep ;
but when an engine stands still it costs nothing. A
large boiler he considered more economical than of
the size that is generally erected, and is attended
with less risk. He said that what is commonly de-
nominated a four-horse engine would do more work
than eight horses yoked at the same time, for they
are never all of one mind in puUing together ;
whereas an engine is steady at its work, and its
whole energies are applied at once. He recollected,
in his capacity of a colhery manager, employing
eighteen horses to perform some work, that is, six
at a time, in three companies, relieving each other
as they required it ; but it proved very fatiguing
work. He afterwards erected a six-horse engine,
and performed the same work well. Ten per cent,
per annum upon the prime cost of an engine, Mr.
Andrew said, would keep it in repair, when well
used — even if working every day for 20 years ; but
the repair of one used for farming purposes, which
does not work every day, might be covered with 7 2
per cent. — say 5 per cent, for the interest of outlay,
and 2^ per cent, for wear and tear. In whatever
way steam power is employed, it is the cheapest and
best way of getting work done, and done well. But,
Mr. Andrew added, he believed a portable engine,
on wheels, might be made extremely useful, as it
could be applied to work in various places ; for in-
stance, it might be used in the field to thrash out
the corn there, immediately on its being reaped ;
it might be used for irrigation, or for distributing
liquid mamue, by means of flexible pipes ; and
might be made available in several other ways.

Mr. J. Whitaker said that he could not help
concurring with what had been previously said, but
that he conceived it would not pay to any farmer
who occupied less than 150 acres.

Mr. Greaves also agreed with the preceding
speakers, and said that he had lately devoted his at-
tention to the use of steam-power for grinding and
chopping food for his coUiery horses, which he
found to effect a great saving.

Mr. J. Moore thought that farmers occupying
even less than 150 acres might advantageously make
use of steam-power, employing an engine of two-
horse power. He so approved of the principle that
he was erecting a steam-engine and thrashing ma-
chine, of an improved description, on his own pre-
mises, and would continue to make improvements
as circumstances dictated.

Mr. Barratt expressed his pleasure at the dis-
cussion which had taken place, and asked what had

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

253

contributed so much to England's present elevated
position in a commercial point of view, as the appli-
cation of steam to manufactures ? He would say
success to the manufacturers of England, because
amongst other benefits to be derived from them, an
extensive trade is sure to benefit the farmer in the
enhanced i)rices and increased demand for his pro-
duce. He did not mean to say that he thought
steam-power could do so much for the farmer as
the manufacturers and the traveller ; but that, if
connected with other improvements, it would enable
the farmer to triumph over the threatening aspects
of free trade in corn. Let the dormant energies of
the country be roused on this point, and he repeated
his conviction that farmers had nothing to fear. He
said he was not an enthusiast in steam-fanning, but
when he contemplated the saving to be effected by
thrashing, chopping, and grinding by steam-power,
amounting, he imagined, to 15 per cent., and keep-
ing of horses and cattle on steamed food, saving
other 10 per cent., he should say that the sooner
the application of steam and steam-power became
general, the better will it be for the country.

The following resolution was the result of the
discussion : — " That in the opinion of this meeting
Mr. Heanley has treated his subject in a very lucid
manner, and practically illustrated the uses and ad-
vantages ot the application of steam-power to agri-
culture."

The following new members were proposed and
admitted : — Messrs. Carr, J. Hicks (honorary)
— Pope, — Bottomly, — Child, W. Long, —
Saville.

The Chairman then proposed — " Success to
the Wakefield Farmers' Club," and he could only
congratulate them on its present improved state.
He called upon Mr. Lees to respond to the toast.

Mr. Lees said — He felt great pleasure in respond-
ing to the toast. It was only within the last few
years their society had arisen, and it was a gratifi-
cation to him to find that from small beginnings it
had become what it now was. It was only by far-
mers congregating together that they could gather
that information which would do them good, and
which they required. The society, when it first
met, only comprised twelve individuals ; and the
large number met on the present occasion must be
gratifying to those who laid the ground-work. He
had great pleasure in proposing — " Success to the
Yorkshire Agricultural Society," and accompany-
ing with it the name of its respected secretary, Mr.
Milburn.

Matthew M. Milburn, Esq., said — He was
highly pleased with the kind notice they had taken
of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, and also the
kind manner in which his name had been men-
tioned. He trusted their meeting at Wakefield

next year might be successful. It was suggested at
the last meeting at Beverley, that, as a Yorkshire
society, we should come into the large emporium of
manufactures of whicli Wakefield is the centre ; and
coming as we do amongst a large body of agricultu-
rists, that meeting will be the most triumphant, in
every sense of the word, our society ever had. It
is not only the spirit and the modes of farmers'
operations we wish to see ; but even to see, as we
did, at the neighbouring town of Doncaster, a
farmer come from Wakefield and take the prizes.
We see one railway offering to carry our imple-
ments one way for nothing, and then another comes
and offers to take them both ways for nothing.
Last year, at Beverley, we were able to offer £600
as prizes ; and we are coming this year to Wake-
field, and intend offering £800. He was dehghted
with the report he had heard read of the Farmers'
Club. He was persuaded it was by institutions
such as these that the farmers could alone be bene-
fited. He would have every market town in the
kingdom possess a Farmers' Club, but not exactly
similar to the one in Wakefield. He would have
them so constituted that the farmer could state his
experience ; he would have that experience all col-
lected and embodied in some county society ; he
would have them carefully edited and printed ; and
then all combined in one great central society. He
would have them circulated, not in hundreds or even
in thousands, but in tons, and in such a way as to
reach every home and every farm in the kingdom,
so that all the farmers of the country should be
combined in one common object. He had a toast
put into his hand, but would not propose it until
Mr, Briggs had finished reading the report, when
he perhaps should again trouble them with a few ob-
servations (applause).

Mr. Briggs having finished reading the report.

Rev. G. A.Walker rose to propose — "That
the report be adopted, printed, and circulated
amongst the members."

Seconded by Mr. C. D. Atkinson.

Mr. Milburn again rose. The committee had
put in his hand a tract which might be considered
as wishes of prosperity to two twins. They were
not twin lambs, or calves, but he believed they
might be called Siamese twins. He alluded to the
union of agriculture with commerce. We never
need be under any apprehensions or fears from the
union of these twins. They both depend for suc-
cess upon their union. We must not attempt to
support the one to the detriment of the other ; but
they must go hand in hand, and heart in heart, as
belonging to the same one, good, and great famil}'.
A blow levelled at one, is levelled at both — if one
suffers, both suffers. " Let us then," said the
speaker, " imite to keep them united, as they ever

254

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ought to be together." Mr. M. gave " Health and
prosperity to those inseparable Siamese t^vins,
Agriculture and Commerce."

Mr. Morton rose to respond to the toast. He
thought the comparison of the last speaker some-
what unfortunate, for he beheved the Siamese twins
referred to, never had had a healthful existence.
But he did believe that the proper union of agricul-
ture with commerce would produce such a health-
ful state of things as the Siamese twins never expe-
rienced. The former speaker had, in some measure,
frustrated him in his speech by mentioning the
tmion of agriculture with commerce. He had often
thought whether agriculture should be placed upon
the same footing as commerce, and whether such a
subject \vas admissible for discussion at their meet-
ings. He had asked whether such a matter was
proper for discussion — v/hether the principle which
we call protection, was or was not admissible (mur-
murs). We ought to be at liberty to discuss such
a subject at a Farmer's Club. We are not, I hope,
like the members of the American Congress, who,
when a member brought forward a motion for
liberating the slaves, passed a resolution that no
member should be allowed to introduce such a
motion again. True, there was a rule which ex-
cluded all political discussions. But he thought
they might be at liberty to discuss such a subject,
as whether protection was the bane or the antidote
of agriculture, he would ask the meeting M'he-
ther protection was good or bad for agricul-
ture, and he was confident there was no man
of intelligence who would run away from the
discussion of such a question. The question was
one which related to the economy of agriciilture.
It resolved itself simply into the economies of
agriculture. It was only bringing in a subject of
agriculture, and M^as a legitimate subject for discus-
sion. There were other associations in this town.
There was the coalmasters' society of the West
Riding of Yorkshire. They admitted for discus-
sion all subjects connected with fiscal duties.
There was also the Polytechnic, Avhich discussed
all subjects connected with geology, never shrink-
ing from any. He would ask why not introduce
such a question as he had mentioned; for it was a
great reflection on the farmers to say they could
not discuss such a question without losing their
tempers. They could discuss questions of drain-
ing, of leases, and of steam power ; and from all he
knew, he thought the engine would not rise to an
undue pi'essure, or break through the rules of pro-
priety. He did not think they were afraid to dis-
cuss such questions. He had a toast to propose,
in which lie was quite sure they would be all
imanimous. He concluded by proposing the health
of " their President, with their thanks for his valu-

able ser\nces during the past year," — Three times
three, and cheers.

The Chairman in returning thanks said, he
beheved that his services, if weighed in the bal-
ance, would be found wanting. He was a friend
of the working farmer, and trusted he might ever
be found so.

The Chairman then gave the toast — "Liberal
landlords, and may it be met with a similar spirit
on the part of tenants," couphng with the toast
the names of Thomas Wentworth Beaumont, and
John Brackenridge, Esqs.

Mr. Bayldon said he had no fault to find with
his landlord. He had been a tenant for many
years, and drew his first breath upon his estates.
There were some who had denominated him (Mr.
Bayldon) as the father of the club ; but he always
said that if he was, there were many of his sons
who cast him into the shade.

Mr. Brackenridge assured them that he felt
proud in having his name coupled with the term
liberal landlords, and more particularly with Mr.
Beaumont's. AVithout liberality on the part of
landlords, there could be but little to encourage the
enterprize of tenants. Landlords ought to be the
first in the movement. Their chief time and atten-
tion should be devoted to the management of their
estates. Looking at their property, they should
adopt those means which shaU induce the farmer
to introduce the principal scientific improvements
on his farm. Without the landlord assists his
tenant there is no scope for him to employ those
effective implements now found to be essential for
proper cultivation, and for drawing forth the pro-
ductive power of the soil. Looking at an estate,
the arrangements should be sufficiently extensive as
to enable the occupier to carry on his operations to
his own advantage. He should also provide the
tenant with large granaries and beast-houses, to-
gether with tanks, and proper places for the secre-
tion of manure, the value of which is now becoming
appreciated. He concurred in general in the ap-
plication of manure. He highly prized it, when
applied to land which had been brought into a state
of cultivation, and well stocked. He did not re-
commend the application of liquid manure. But
still manure was quite essential to bring out the
productive powers of the soil. Tanks should be
provided at the expense of the landlords. The
next thing is, good roads should be proAdded. At
Dumfries, it is stated, on one farm, on which eleven
horses had been kept, that after good roads had
been made across most of the fields, nine horses
were found to do the same amount of work which
it before took eleven to perform. He hoped good
roads would soon be appreciated by the farmer.
Then follows a good system of draining. This the

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255

landlord should do, and as a return for the ex-
penditure of his capital lay a charge upon the
tenant. With respect to leases of land, they can-
not expect men of inteUigence and capital as their
tenants, unless they grant them a lease. He was
decidedly favourable to leases renewable every five
years. Himself and Mr. Johnson made an agricul-
tural tour in the county of Norfolk, and could not
help contrasting the land there with what it was in
some other counties. The fences, stock, and im-
plements, as contrasted with the tenant farmer, un-
der those, who, in other respects, were considered as
kind and generous landlords. It would be invidious
to mention names, but there certainly was a great
difference between what they Avitnessed in some
other counties. In the county of Lincoln they saw
the same excellence in some cases as they did in
Norfolk, although the system of leases were different
in the former county. It was, however, quite ne-
cessary, to insure the productive powers of the soil
being fully brought out, that some security of pos-
session should be guaranteed to the tenant. There
was nothing so congenial to human enterprize as the
cultivation of mother earth, and nothing so grateful
or pleasing, or beneficial to our happiness. Leases
should not be fixed too high. In speaking of liberal
landlords, accompanying the enterprize of tenants,
is quite reasonable. He expects the tenants will
cultivate his land, and will carry out his reasonable
expectations. Farming was looked upon as a com-
mercial speculation, and the enterprizing man found
it was to his interest to do so. As an inducement
to farmers to extend their knowledge of agriculture,
Mr. Johnson, Mr. Briggs and himself, proposed
the establishment of this society, and it gave them
great pleasure to find it had been so successful. It
showed they valued the information brought before
them in discussion ; and by the comparison of our
ideas with the experience of others, a beneficial re-
sult had been the consequence. He did think the
general result had been satisfactory. He had seen
a copy of a report taken before the Agricultural
Committee of Parliament in 1837-8 of the average
produce of wheat in Great Britain. England gave
to every acre of land 2 1 statute bushels ; whereas
Scotland gave 25 bushels; and Ireland, although the
land was much richer and more fertile than either of
the other two countries, gave only 7 bushels per acre.
He did think they might bring up the average of
England to that of Scotland. The valleys and lands
of Scotland were certainly very rich; but he thought
that 1)y the application of industry and proper means
Ireland might be made to outstrip either of them.
He was not favourable to the introduction of politics
at their meetings. They ought not to convert an
agricultural club into a political arena. They might
discuss the connection between commerce and agri-

culture. He had a toast in his hand, which he pro-
posed with great pleasure — " Success to the Town
and I'rade of Wakefield." He hoped the trade in
Wakefield would continue to increase, and become
one of the most important towns in the neighbour-
hood. With this toast he begged to connect the
name of Mr. Wm. Barratt.

Mr. Ba.rratt dishked useless apologies, yet he
would say the toast he had to propose had fallen to
the lot of an humble individual. Wakefield was by
no means a large town, and could not claim to be
considered as a place of great importance. He
looked at Huddersfield, Hahfax, and Leeds, and
asked how it was Wakefield did not take the lead
of all these towns ? There was everything in Wake-
field calculated to its advantage. There was no
town in the county of York possessing greater river
or canal accommodation, and connected with those
running into every part of the kingdom. It had
also minerals and coals in abundance, capable of
giving employment to all the steam engines of Leeds
Huddersfield, and Halifax. It was also advan-
tageously situated for warehouses. He was glad to
hear from Mr. Milburn, that while other towns had
had £600, Wakefield was to have £800 expended in
prizes. But a few years ago, this society had no
existence ; now it had extended to nearly one hun-
dred members. Commercial men are the most en-
terprising farmers; for they well know the soil is a
grateful thing. He was looking to farming rising
stiU higher than it was. Many thought that farming
operations in England were at the zenith. But
irrespective of anything like prejudice, he was look-
ing foi'ward to the time when England should be
what Scotland now is. A short time since, Scotland
went abroad for the very "maist " of her victuals ;
now they export both corn and cattle. The land
was no largei', but the ])opulation was four times as
large. W^hat then could be done in this garden-
like England. Farming was employing all classes
of the people, from the prince on the throne (who is
a patron), down to the lowest, and he had no doubt
it would greatly i)rogress. It was now on the in-
crease ; and it was found to be a beneficial operation
and he hoped every succeeding to find it under still
greater auspices. He begged to propose the health
of the strangers present ; coupling \ni\\ it the name
of Mr. McHeaton.

Mr. McHeaton said that, as a stranger, he had
met with greater courtesy here, than he had ever
met with before. By these meetings they were en-
deavouring to diffuse real benefit amongst the far-
mers, and to better their condition. Many farmers
felt a great difficulty in securing the necessaiy capi-
tal for carrying on their operations. He was happy
to find that a society was in the course of formation
for doing away with this difficulty. It proposes to

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

direct its energies to improve the cultivation of the land,
by a good system of draining, and the adaptation of
crops to the soil ; to improve the buildings, and other
things connected wth farming in general. They
propose to raise acapital of one million, and will land
money to the tenant, who will, of course, pay a rea-
sonable interest. Mr. McHeaton concluded by
proposing the health of the Committee.

Mr. Charnock rose on behalf of the Committee
whose health they had just drank . He could assure
them they had great pleasure in doing anything
which should conduce to the interest of the club.

Perhaps they would still allow him to " harp upon
his daughter," and say a few words of confirmation
as to what the former sjjeaker had said. He had not
heard till thepresentmomentof the society mentioned
by Mr. McHeaton. So far as he was concerned, and
the committee of the Yorkshire Drainage Associa-
tion, they would be most happy to co-operate wth
such a society, in anything that may be to their
mutual advantage. He thought that in agricultural
pursuits such collective powers might be mutually j|
and beneficially employed. ^

The meeting then separated. — Wakefield Journal.

PROBUS FARMERS' CLUB.

The annual meeting of the members of this spiri-
ted agricultural society, was held at Probus, on
Saturday, January 10. After the transaction of
bvisiness at the school-room, by the committee, a
party of nearly forty members and friends partook
of an excellent dinner at the Hawkin's Arms. Mr.
Tresawna, the president of the club, presided ;
Mr. Williams, the secretary, was vice-president.

After the removal of the cloth, the healths of the
Queen, Prince Albert, and the rest of the royal
family were given.

The Chairman then gave, " Success to agricul-
ture ; and may the skill and industry of the British
farmer conduct him through all the difficulties which
he may have to encounter" (cheers).

The secretary then read the report of the com-
mittee for the past year : —

The report commenced by referring to the neg-
lect of the advantages which the club affords, by
the younger agriculturists of the neighbourhood.
The state of the funds was satisfactorj' ; and the
library had increased in value. The subjects in-
troduced at the ordinary meetings of the club, had
been more numerous and more freely discussed
than those in preceding years. As the fimds were
not sufficient to warrant the offering premivuus for
the best samples of roots and seeds, the committee
recommended that small sweepstakes be entered
into for competition by the members.

Some other toasts followed, among which was
the favourite one of " Liberal landlords and in-
dustrious tenants ;" after which, on the chairman's
invitation, Mr. Karkeek, of Tniro, proceeded to

deliver a

Lecture on Manures.

Mr. Karkeek laid down as the basis of his
lecture, the principle that the food of plants con-
sists of substances like to those of which the plants
themselves are composed. This principle was

illustrated by analyses of some of the principal
plants cultivated by the farmer. The elementary
bodies which were ^^TOught into the substance of
plants, and of which manures, to be properly and
scientifically applied, should consist, he divided
into two classes — organic and inorganic ; the
latter comprising potass, soda, lime, magnesia,
alumina, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, silica,
sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and chlorine ; the
former class comprising oxygen, hydrogen, nitro-
gen, and carbon. He then explained whence these
substances were obtained. The inorganic being
derived from the soil, he showed the per centage of
each commonly found in the Cornish soils. This
part of the lecture was extremely interesting, illus-
trated as it was, by analyses of the Cornish rocks
and soils, and clearly proving that the various soils
were valuable in proportion to their per centage of
potass, soda, lime, and phosjAate. The effect of
the application of lime, he said, was sometimes to
supply a valuable mineral ingredient when absent,
as it frequently was, from many of the slate soils ;
but it more frequently acted in quite a different
manner — by liberating the silica, jiotass, phosphate,
and carbonaceous matter, to be administered to the
wants of vegetation. If a chemist wished to libe-
rate potass or silica from the soil he was analyzing,
he mixed it with lime, and then heated the whole
tegether, by which means he rendered soluble in
acid or in water, all that was insoluble before. "
" The farmer," said the lecturer, " when he limes his
land, performs exactly the same operation as the
chemist; he liberates from the soil more of the
alkaline and earthy phosphates, &c., in one year,
than could be extracted, by any other means, in
three or four years." But it generally happened
that no equivalent was furnished to the land for
that which was removed by the crops ; and hence
the continuance of the system of liming, was no

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

257

better than a rapid method of exhausting the soil.
In the absence of the alkahes, the phosphates, and
other earthy salts, no plants could grow to perfec-
tion ; and however valuable nitrogenized and car-
bonized manures were, they were alone insufficient
to become part of a plant destined to the nourish-
ment of animals. When considering the organic
elements, which were derived, partly from the at-
mosphere, and partly from the soil in the shape of
manure, Mr. Karkeek showed the importance of
preserving the various manures made on the farm,
which contained the various alkalies, phosphates,
and other earthy salts, as well as nitrogenized and
carbonized elements. Farm-yard manure, \vith
others of like nature, contained all the elements
plants required; and by applying them to the soil
in proper quantities, the farmer supplied all that
had been taken away by the different crops.
Guano also was another manure which contained
nearly all the required elements. This part of the
lecture was illustrated by analyses of the principal
chemical fertihzing ingredients contained in the
various manures usually employed by farmers ;
showing that by a careful preservation of the ma-
nure on a farm, the farmer might obtain the raw
material of guano at home, instead of importing it
from abroad. For this purpose, the lecturer re-
commended the farmer to collect together road-
scrapings, weeds of every kind, old banks and
marls, to mix with the liquor of their dung heaps,
which would fix the volatilized portion, and pre-
vent its wasteful escape into the atmosphere. All
the more valuable parts of a dung heap would either
run away, or fly away, unless means of prevention
were adopted : and the substances he had named
contained salts of various kinds which absorbed
and fixed the ammoniacal parts of a dung heap,
as well as could be done by the appUcation of gyp-
sum, suljahuric acid, or any other chemical ingre-
dient. This was a very important subject for the
farmers' consideration ; many of them willingly
paid pounds yearly in the purchase of guano, but
grudged the expense of a day's work for a man, to
preserve the raw material on their own farm-yard,
allowing it either to escape into the atmosphere or
into the water-courses, spreading disease and death
among themselves, their famthes, and their live
stock. Another part of the lecture treated of the
conditions for manuring land generally expressed
in leases. These the lecturer strongly condemned
as injurious to the farmer, the landlord, and the
country generally, by tending to perpetuate bad
farming. In one lease, a tenant was bound, by way
of manuring the land for wheat, to use 100 butt
loads of mixens, consisting chiefly of the scrapings
of the road, the field, and the farm yard. Another
was bound to dress the land with 100 bushels of

Ume ; another was not allowed to employ lime
oftener than once in nine years ; and another was
obliged to carry so many loads of sea-sand and
dung, and road scrapings. These ridiculous clauses
should be set aside, founded as they were upon
obsolete and unprofitable systems of husbandry,
equally inconsistent with modern improvements and
with prudent discrimination of the characters of the
tenantry. That certain restrictions were necessary,
no one could deny ; but they should be so framed
that while the tenant was prevented from doing
injury to the estate, he should not be so fettered as
to bar improvement. Mr. Karkeek also alluded to
a clause generally inserted in Cornish leases, re-
stricting the farmer from seUing his barley and
oaten straw. This he considered to be a wise and
necessary restriction, for the ashes of straw consis-
ted for the greater part of silicate of potash, and if
this article was sold off the farm, it was robbing it
of those very essential materials on which the suc-
cess of corn crops greatly depended. "Nothing,"
he said, "could justify the selUng of straw except
the applying to the land, for every ton, the value
of the same in some chemical manure containing
those ingredients removed from the farm."

Mr. Downing said, as Mr. Karkeek had
spoken of beans and peas as articles of food most
productive of muscle, he should be glad to know
if it was necessary to continue the use of such food
in order to keep up the muscle once produced ?

Mr. Karkeek repUed that the continuance of
the use of muscle- forming food was necessary, be-
cause there was, in every action of the animal, a
constant wear and tear of muscle going on.

Mr. Trethewy adverted to the introduction of
silica in the tabular forms exhibited by Mr. Kar-
keek in illustration of his lecture ; and said he be-
lieved its use was but little understood by farmers
generally. He believed its use was principally to
strengthen the stalk, which was a flinty substance.
There was a great deal of sihca in most of the
north country sands ; and he believed it was largely
used in Daniell's maniu-e. On a great deal of the
soil in this neighbourhood they could grow a great
deal of straw, but it was very apt to lodge. Pos-
sibly, if more silica were used, the straw would be
strengthened, and they would have a more perfect
grain.

Mr. DoBLE : I am told that charlock has been
recommended for strengthening the barley-straw
(laughtej-).

Mr. Karkeek said that the soils in the neigh-
bourhood contained silica in a considerable degree,
and gentlemen need not use charlock for keeping
up their barley (laughter). Sihca alone was re-
quired ; but then they must have an alkali in com-
bination with the silica, otherwise the plants could

258

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

not take it up. Either soda or potass formed an
excellent chemical combination with silica, particu-
larly for all cereal plants.

!Mr. Robins, of Roche, referring to an observa-
tion that granite soils contained more silica than
the slate soils, said that, according to his experi-
ence, the crops on granite soils lodged more than
those on the shelf or slate soils. -

Mr. Trethewy said, as Mr. Karkeek had
made some allusion to the soil on the Carnwinnick
estate, and the use of bone-dust there, it might not
be amiss to state that the use of l:)ones had been
found very serviceable there, and that their effect,
ten years since their application, was still visible.
He would also observe that where they had conti-
nued the application of bone-dust, it had also been
successful, not only with turnips, but with the fol-
lowing crops of corn and grasses. It was his firm
behef that notliing was equal to bone for a light
soil. It might also be useful for a hea\y soil ; but
he should prefer it for a light soil lying on Villas.
He believed it also answered on granite. He had
seen it used with very great advantage indeed on
some very inferior soils in the parish of St. Ste-
phens, that abut on the parish of Probus. He was
satisfied that there was never a manure applied to
better purpose. It was done by a small farmer,
and he was enabled to grov/ beautiful crops of po-
tatoes and turnips on land scarcely ever before
brought into use. Mr. Trethewy, in conclusion,
appealed to Mr. Robins, of Roche, saying he had
no doubt that that gentleman, who had tried bone,
had found it very useful.

Mr. Robins replied in the affirmative.

Mr. Karkeek pointed to an analysis of the
soil at Carnwinnick (where he said the land had
been let at 2s. 6d. per acre), obsen'ed that it ap-
peared to contain all the inorganic elements re-
quired for the growth of plants, in addition to
some decayed vegetable matter and humus. Now
Mr. Trethewy applied to this soil nothing but
bone-dust — not fresh bones, but such bones as
were commonly used, of which the largest consti-
tuent was phosphate of lime.

The Chairman asked Mr. Trethewy if he had
tried lime on Carnwinnick, where he had pre-
viously tried bone-dust ?

Mr. Trethewy said. Yes : he had carried 100
bushels of lime last year, in addition to other ma-
nures, for turnips. The first turnips looked very
stunted and ill ; but after a time they made a start,
and they were now the best turnips in the field.
This land had been previously dressed with bone-
dust, and was also dressed with bone-dust, in ad-
dition to the lime, for turnips. There v/as nothing
in the shape of mineral manure carried besides the
lime. Perhaps it might be well for him to say

that, some twenty years since, some of this land
was broken and limed, but it was a total failvire.
It was then tilled, some to wheat and some to tur-
nips, but the crop was very inferior, and the land
was allowed to go to waste again ; and he beheved
it would have so remained to the present moment,
had not bone been brought into use. [Mr. Kar-
keek : The land wanted phosphates and a small
quantity of nitrogen.] They had taken repeated
crops successively on the same ground, but not in
regular rotation — merely as they suited best.
That was done in order to destroy the young furze,
which was constantly sprouting. It was well
known to most persons who were in the habit of
farming rough land in this country that there was
great difficulty in destroying thefurze; and,indeed, it
was thought almost impracticable, because they
could not get a second crop, until bone-dust came
into use. Now he found no difficulty in producing
a crop of turnips from that land — either from fal-
low, or from wheat or oat stubble ; he had grown
turnips repeatedly, after wheat or oats, \vith a
single ploughing — the land ploughed down in No-
vember, and not touched again till the seed was
sown.

In reply to the Chairman, Mr. Trethewy said
the quantity of bone-dust he had used was about
2 2 quarters per statute acre, and no other maimre
but that.

Mr. Karkeek : But you consumed part of your
turnips on the ground with sheep.

Mr. Trethewy said that he meant to say that
they carried nothing in on the farm but bone-dust,
and lately some guano. He had made, of late, a
pretty deal of yard manure, which had been princi-
pally carried for wheat every year; and he had
been successful in growing wheat after oats with
yard manure. He found this the best method of
keeping back the furze. He took two white crops
following, and then a crop of turnips. He had
succeeded in doing that : he did not mean to say it
was a good practice : it was done in order to de-
stroy the furze.

Mr. DoBLE said it appeared that Mr. Trethewy
had formerly carried lime on his land \vithout
effect ; but after the soil had been bone-dusted, the
lime produced a good effect.

Mr. Karkeek said Mr. Trethewy had been not
only carrying bone-dust on the farm, but had also
been manufacturing manure. All the organic and
inorganic elements had been carried on the farm,
in yard manure. When the lime was ap])lied, the
land had been under cultivation for five or six years.

Mr. DoBLE asked if there was any dung carried
on the field.

Mr, Trethewy said. Yes ; of course, the
sheep had been eating oflf the turnip crops.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

259

Mr. Karkeek thought the plan adopted by
Mr. ColUns, of Truthan, for bringing waste lands
into cultivation, was very good. His plan was to
cultivate with bone-dust a crop of turnips, half of
which was eaten off by sheep folded on the land.
After that, he took a crop of barley or oats, and then
let the land to grass for two years. Then he put
in a crop of rape, which was also eaten l)y sheep ;
then followed wheat, then turnips, barley, and seeds
again. That was the plan which Mr. Colhns had
pursued on those barren lands which many respect-
able farmers considered as worth nothing at all,
but which Mr. Karkeek beheved he had converted
into a valuable property.

A gentleman, referring, we believe, to the Carn-
winnick experiment, said they must not consider
that all the merit was due to the bone-dust alone?
but to its having come into contact subsequently
with lime.

Mr. Karkeek said he beheved the o]ieration
was thus : — The bone-dust produced large crops,
which led to the production of a large quantity of
manure, and, by this means, there was a larger
proportion of humus in the soil, when the lime was
applied the second time.

Mr. P. Davis : But supposing no dung was
applied ?

Mr. Karkeek said, again, if the land contained
tlie mineral elements to which he had before
alluded, the lime woidd bring them into active ope-
ration. If he were a farmer, and looking out for a
farm in the neighbourhood, he woukUiy to select one
that had not been limed for a good many j'ears. He
would then immediately begin to use lime, particu-
larly if he had but a seven-years lease ; but, of
course, he should impoverish the soil l)y so doing.

Mr. Davis : But, as you would be making other
manure on the land, you would not impoverish the
soil.

Mr. Karkeek : There could be no doubt it
would impoverish the soil to a great extent, be-
cause the farmer did not carry everything back on
the land wliich he took from it ; he sold all the
wheat straw he could, and all the hay which he did
not consume on the farm, besides the cattle and
sheep fed and sold. After repeated applications of
lime, what was required was a quantity of night
soil and farm-yard dung or guano, which contained
the elements that had been removed by the appli-
cation of lime.

In reply to the chairman, Mr. Trethewy said
with bone-dust or guano, he wovild rather take the
chance of a crop of turnips on waste land just
broken up, than on the best land they had.

The Chairman : Can you get as good crops
from waste land just broken up as you can from land
that has been kept in cultivation for several years ?

Mr. Trethewy rejilied that he saw but very
little difference. They might expect the best crop
from land just broken up, because generally it was
burnt, and the effect of the ashes was to be consi-
dered besides that of the bones. But still he would
as soon take the chance of a crop of turnips from
wheat or oat stubble, as he would from land just
broken up at Carnwinnick.

Mr. Karkeek should think the best crop would
be from the land just broken up. He did not call
Carnwinnick a bad soil. But the best land for
farming was near Penzance, on the greenstone rock.
Considering its mineral elements, and the climate
in which it was situate, he believed it was both
theoretically and practically the best land in Eng-
land. It was the only land in England that could
produce two crops of potatoes in the year. 1,000
acres of the land round Penzance produced a rental
of nearly lO.OOOZ.

Mr. Teethewy said Mr. Karkeek had alluded
in his lecture to the necessity of improving the farm-
yards in Cornwall. He perfectly agreed with Mr.
Karkeek on that subject ; he believed there were
few counties in England in which this subject was
less attended to. There had, however, been great
improvement of late years, and also in the ])reser-
vation of liquid manures. He was not of opinion
that the best way of preserving liquid manures was
in tanks. He believed it might be better applied
to mould, or broken killas, as a means of preser-
ving it. He would not recommend couch for the
preservation of liquid mamu'e, but either mould or
peat soil. He thought it might be thus turned to
better account than where applied in its liquid
form ; besides which, the mode he suggested would
save a great deal of labour. He had obseiTed on
Lord Ducie's farm that there were large tanks for
the reception of the liquid manure, which was con-
veyed thence to the mixcns, or piles of mould, with
which it was mixed. That was, in his opinion, the
best mode of applying it.

Mr. Karkeek explained that he had not, in his
lectvu-e, recommended the growing of couch grass
for the purpose of mixing with liquid manure
(laughter). He had merely said that if the farmer
would mix the liquid manure with his road-
scrapings, &c. — couch grass if he had any ; the
salts which they contained would be very useful in
fixing the ammonia and other volatile substances
in the liquid.

Mr. MiLi'ORD proposed " Success to the Probus
Farmers' Club, and the health of Mr. Wm. James."

Mr. W. James returned thanks ; spoke of the
gratification he felt at being one of the oldest mem-
bers of the club — acknowledged that he had re-
ceived veiy much instruction from attending its
meetings — and expressed his regret that, as the re-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

port of the committee had stated, the club should
be neglected by the young men of the neighbour-
hood {hear). Mr. James proposed the health of
the chairman, to whose ability and courtesy the
club was highly indebted. (The toast was cor-
dially received, and drunk with three times three.)

Tlie Chairman expressed his sense of incom-
petency for the performance of the duties of his
office ; but as they had again that day appointed him
to the office of President of their Club, they might
rely on every effort in his power to promote its
prosperity. They had now met to celebrate their
seventh anniversary ; and he hoped that some
among them, at least, had received great benefit
from having been members of the club. He thought
it would be well if they were all to review their con-
duct, as farmers, since they had been members of
the club, to see if they had improved the opportu-
nities afforded them. If they had not so done, it
should be the means of stimulating them to more
active exertions in future {hear). Their faci-
lities of gaining information on agricultural
subjects were great; at their monthly meetings,
the various opinions of the members \vere
brought forward, and in their library they had the
best works written on agricultural subjects, which
they might carry home, and read at their fire-sides.
If they acted up to the instructions derived from
these sources, he was sure they could not fail to
make great improvement in the different branches
of agriculture. And they must remember that it
was not enough for the farmer to have a knowledge
of one or two of those branches, and be deficient
in the rest. It was not enough to know how to cul-
tivate and manure their land so as to raise a good
crop ; but they ought also to know how to make the
most of the crop afterwards ; otherwise, it was im-
possible for them to farm with advantage. It was
of vital importance to become acquainted with all
the branches of agricultural information ; and, cer-
tainly, one of the best means of so doing was to
attend the monthly meetings of our Farmers' Clubs
{applause).

The Chairman then said he was about to pro-
pose a toast which he was sure they would all drink
with gieat pleasure. It was the health of one of
their most useful members, Mr. Karkeek {cheers).
It was an honour to the club to have that gentle-
man as a member ; and he would beg to projjose
his health, with thanks to him for his excellent lec-
ture {cheers).

Mr. Karkeek returned thanks, and expressed
his unabated interest in the prosperity of the Club.
If he had been enabled to render it any small ser-
vice, he had been more than amply repaid by the
information he had received in return. Mr. Kar-
keek proposed the health of one of the oldest, and

most useful members of the club, and one of the
most regular in attendance — Mr. Richard Doble ;
one who had always acted on the ' go-ahead' sys-
tem, and, as he believed, meant still to maintain it,

Mr. R. Doble, after acknowledging the compli-
ment paid him, said he was always willing to assist
the operations of the club, either by trying experi-
ments or othervv'ise. He thought those clubs were
very usefiU ; and if they went to any club, they
might learn something. He was not quite so pre-
judiced as Mr. liiddell, who thought there was no-
thing to be learned in Probus (No no ; a parish in
the west). Probus, he presumed, was the parish
alluded to ; at all events, it was a very celebrated
parish in the west. Mr. Liddell said he should not
come into the west again to learn anything about
farming. He agreed with Mr. Liddell that there
was some coarse ground in Probus (mo j a parish
in the west), and many other places ; but that was
not the fault of the farmers, and had nothing to do
with farming. As to the growing charlock as a
prop for barley, that he (Mr. Doble) did not under-
stand. They had been sadly in the dark here if
that was the proper mode of growing barley. For
20 or 30 years they had been trying to eradicate
every weed they could find. But it appeared
there was a new light [ Yes ; a northern light~\
{laughter). It might be a correct one; but, for
his part, he should not try the experiment. He
had seen some beautiful fields of charlock in the
north, in the beginning of the summer ; and could
hardly tell whether the crop was barley or charlock.
It looked very beautiful to the eye ; but still he
thought it was a very unprofitable experiment.

Mr. Downing proposed the health of Mr. Peter
Davis, as the founder of the club, and expressed
his gratification at learning that the funds of the
club were in a favourable state.

Mr. Peter Davis returned thanks, and spoke
in disapproval of so large a use of sand and lime
as was customary in that neighbourhood — especially,
the sand generally used. He had carried sand
from Tresillian and the north, and lime, as much as
any person in Probus ; but he had now altered his
system altogether. Speaking of the recent progress
of farmers in the race of improvement, Mr. Davis
said he had no doubt they would, by and by, be
able to cope with the manufacturers. Had Farmers'
Clubs been estabhshed fifty years ago, he had no
doubt that, at the present time, they would have
nothing to fear from the corn laws or anything
else.

The Chairman proposed the health of ' the
strangers' naming his old and valued friend, Mr.
Hotton.

Mr. Hotton, formerly of Probus, but for some
years resident in London, acknowledged the toast.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2G1

in a long and able speech, congratulating the Club
on what it had already accomplished in the pursuit
of useful scientific knowledge ; and urging the
niein])ers to futiu'e perseverance. He was surjirised
to learn that there existed among the younger far-
mers, so much apathy towards this club. He trusted
they would with one voice, and one heart unite in
the promotion of its objects. He felt pride in being
a native of Probus ; and was lately highly gratified
in hearing a gentlemen of Gloucester, who, in the
summer, took a tour down to Penzance, say, that
of all the farming he saw from the tiaie he left Glou-
cester till he reached Penzance, he gave the prefer-
ence to Probus {cheers).

Mr. Heard proposed the health of Mr. Trethewy
— a gentleman who was always willing to give
every information he possible could to his brother
agriculturist (cheers).

Mr. Trethewy retm-ned thanks. It afforded
him great pleasure to be useful in any way to this
or any other Society of Farmers. Although
farming was, as Mr. Hotton had said, a very
l^leasant life, he was sorry to say it was not a A'ery
profitable one. He would not recommend gentle-
men who were not farmers to leave their profession,
and take to farming [hear and laughter), though he
must acknowledge it was a very pleasant and inde-
pendent life for a man who had a good estate with
capital. They might see the day v/hen farming
would flourish again. He hoped that day was not
far distant. Whatever might be the clouds, the
sun might still appear. What the "northern
light " might do, he did not know [laughter). It
might improve the weight of grain, but he did not
think it M'ould improve the loaf.

Mr, Trethewy jiroposed, "The Press," and
expressed his high sense of the obligations which
agriculturists were under, to so eflficient a medium
for the communication of their proceedings. He
also alluded to the regularity with which the pro-
ceedings of the Prolnis Club had been reported in
the Cormcall Gazette and D'est Briton papers.

The toast was most heartily received, and was
acknoAA'ledged by the reporters for those papers.

The importance to the farmer, of correct book-
keeping, having been adverted to, Mr. Trethewy
said the subject had been discussed at one of the
ordinary meetings of this club, and a set of books
as approved by the club might be had of the secre-
tary. He perfectly agreed that a correct method
of keeping farming accounts Nvas essential to the
prosperity of the farmer.

The Chairman proposed the health of the
secretary, to whom the club was greatly indebted ;
but who, he was sorry to say, had that day resigned
his office, in consequence of his business at Tntro
recjuiring his personal attendance, on those days

(Saturdays) on which the club had its monthly
meetings at Probus.

The toast was drunk with cheers.
Mr. Williams returned thanks, alleging that
the reason for his retirement was as had been
stated by the chairman. He still desired to remain
a member of the club {clieers), and shouUl feel con-
tinued interest in its welfare. Mr. Williams spoke
in high terms of the young gentleman (Mr. Henry
Tresawna) who had been aj^pointed to succeed him
in the office of secretary. He then adverted to
a subject mentioned in the report — the getting up
ot a sweepstakes for the best farming, towards
.vhich, we understood Mr. Williams to say he had
some contril)utions. — With reference to the subject
of Ijook-keeping, he thought it was very desirable
that those members who had used the books sanc-
tioned by the club, should give their opinions on
them, and suggest any improvements that might
render them more useful.

Several complimentary toasts were now given :
after M'hich, the Chairman said as there were
])resent some gentlemen who were not members
it might not be amiss to state that the club were
now trying some experiments. It must be well
known that a club like theirs, could do much more
in the way of trying experiments than could indi-
viduals. A single individual might incur serious
loss ; but if they, as a club, incurred loss, it would
be of less consequence. It had been considered by
the club that they could not spend their money
better than in trying experiments ; and they had,
therefore, requested Mr. Doble to conduct one with.
regard to the feeding of sheep. Mr. Doble had
five sheep feeding in a dark house ; five others in
an open house ; and five others in a field. The
sheep were all weighed before they were put under
the experiment ; and the food given them was all
weighed. — The club was also going to make some
experiments as regards sulphuric acid with bone-
dust against other manures.

Mr. R. Doble said, as far as the experiment on
sheep-feeding had gone, he had found that the
sheep in the dark house ate more turnips and hay
than those in the open house or the field, which
was opposed to the result of the experiments on
Whitfield Farm, by Messrs. Playfair and Morton.
In the field, the sheep had had no hay ; they had
only grass and turnips. He did not know any-
thing about the jiresent weight of the sheep ; he
intended to weigh them next Saturday. It might
jjrove that the sheep in the dark house, were paj'ing
best, through eating most food. — He then proposed
the health of the newly-elected secretary, Mr. Henry
Tresawna, which was drunk with cheers.

Some other complimentary toasts followed. — ■
Cornwall Royal Gazette.

S

262

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Mr, Williamson, of Cardrona, was requested
to occui^y the chair of the monthly meeting, and
which meeting was more numerously attended than
usual.

The first paper was read by Mr. Boyle, younger,
of Shewalton, " On planting within the influence of
the sea, or on exposed barren tracts." This sub-
ject was well illustrated by the report of Mr. Gri-
gor, of Norwich, on the Trimingharn and Runton
jjlantations, in the county of Norfolk, belonging to
Sir Edward North Buxton, Bart., which were exe-
cuted by the late Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, and
are situated in the northern extremity of that
county, close to the German Ocean, standing on
elevated sites, opposite to or facing that dangerous
part of the coast known as a continuation of the
Yarmouth Roads — a tract alike dreadful to the
mariner and the merchantman. Notwthstanding
the obvious difficulties attending the planting of
ti'ees in a situation subject to so continual and se-
vere sea breezes, means were judiciously employed
by which the experiment was conducted to a suc-
cessful issue.

The geological features of the tract occupied by
these plantations are well defined, the high cliflfs in
the immediate neighbourhood showing at once the
natm'e of the underlying strata. The lowest
stratum which has been reached is the carr-stone
or iron sand- stone, corresponding with the green
sand of other places, and is used extensively as a
building material. Over this are layers of chalk,
namely, red chalk ; marl, nearly of a grey colour ;
hard chalk so compact as to be used in building
houses, and containing the remains of a large Sau-
rian animal ; and loose chalks, containing flints,
arranged in horizontal layers about four feet apart.
Reposing ontliis chalk is a thin layer of ferruginous
gravel, containing the Avrecks of a forest, such as
trunks and branches of trees, and the bones of ani-
mals, over which is a marine formation, called
crag, containing a thick bed of testaceous remains
and littoral shells found on the coast at the present
day. Superincumbent on the crag is a stratum of
blue clay containing ammonites and gryphce, the
loose textiire of which renders it insecure against
theeffects'ofthe ocean and of land springs. Overthe
clay is athickbed of gravelofthepoorest description,
consisting chiefly of small water-worn pebbles ce-
mented together by a cement of iron, which is
hardest, or forms a crust or pan, near the surface.

Of the twenty-two plantations described by the re-

porter, Mr. Boyle selected to read to the meeting
three which seemed to combine the particular cha-
racteristics of the rest. Tliese are the Boreas, the
Rome, and the Davie Hill plantations. The Boreas
plantation is represented as the boldest trial which
has been made in that part of the country. It
runs along the brink of the cliflf 250 feet above the
sea, and rises 100 feet higher to the top of a hill;
and is fidly exposed to the keen and biting air
which comes from the north-west. The soil con-
sists of sand and peat, superincumbent on a mass
of clay, a hundred feet in thickness. It was
planted in 1842, and the trees particularly recom-
mended for this locality were the Pinus pinaster,
P. maritima, P. Austriaca, P. MugJio, the sallow,
ozier, elder, alder, ash, and sycamore. Tlie alder,
ozier, and sallow were planted next the sea, inter-
mixed \\\i\\ the Piniis pinaster. The pines are al-
ready six feet high, and exhibit shoots fifteen inches
in length, and seem fitted for bleak and barren
tracts even better than the Scotch pine. The ash
presents a healthy state, notwithstanding that their
tops are continually being acted on by the sea
breeze. An ash tree, half a mile from the cliflT
measures nine feet in circumference, at two feet
from the ground.

Tlie Rome plantation contains five acres, and is
similarly situated to the foregoing. In it the alder
again takes the lead, and it is worthy of especial re-
mark that it thrives weV on poor sand and peat
soil, in the most exposed situations; whereas it is
constantly placed in works on aboriculture within
the limits of swamps and bogs. An improvement
is yearly observable in the fields adjoining, from
the warmth and shelter already aftbrded by this
plantation.

The Davie Hill plantation is 390 feet above the
sea, and lies nearly half a mile distant from it. Its
extent is eight acres, and its. soil is various, much
of it being pure sand; and it was planted in
March, 1841. The farmers in the neighbourhood
are beginning already to appreciate the advantages
their lands and stock derive from the yearly in-
crease of shelter aflbrded by this and the contigu-
ous plantations.

In regard to the preliminary details which were
requisite for the formation of these plantations, the
first in importance was the formation of the soil.
The efforts of unassisted nature would tempt a
man but httle to plant in such a locality as the vici-
nity of the sea, Art must, therefore, be exercised

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2G3

with much ingenuity to foster trees there ; so that
all maritime planting, to be clone effectually, must
be an exjiensive process, and the chief item of ex-
pense is trenching the ground. By way of experi-
ment, several acres of the Davie Hill plantation
were left untrenchedj and the result was, that
about two-thirds of the plants died. Indeed, with-
out trenching in such a situation, the land had
better remain as it is, for until the plant can readily
establish itself underneath, it cannot stand the buf-
feting of tempestuous winds from the ocean. The
time of planting should be in spring, just before the
plants begin to show symptoms of vitality, such as
in the last week of March and the first week of
April ; ])ecause the plants then have the benefit of
a full season's growth before they are subjected to
the effects of winter. The next best time is Octo-
ber, and ])lanting has been tried in winter, but
with no success. In the choice of plants, experi-
ence has proved that two or three year old planes
are better than any other, and such as had been
transplanted in the nursery the previous year are
better than those which had remained undisturbed.
An experiment was made in the Davie Hill planta-
tion, by inserting plants fovu* or five feet high, and
they fail to establish themselves. But however
well the ground may be prepared, or the plants
chosen, unless shelter is afforded to young plants,
they will perish at the very outset. The best exter-
nal defence betwixt a young plantation and the sea
is furze bundles, or brushwood cut in summer,
with the leaves on, and failing these, a turf wall
sLv feet high, broad at the base, and tapering to the
top. The best sheltering nurses amongst desidu-
ous trees are the sallow, alder, ozier, and birch, and
amongst evergreens the Scottish pine. Oaks and
the finer kinds of pine should be surrounded with
these nurses in the form of a triangle, having its
apex towards the sea. The hoeing of the trenched
land for the purpose of cleaning it, for at least two
years, is all-important.

As to the trees best suited for such a situation, it
was the \vish of the late Sir Fowell Buxton that
most of the trees should give place to the oak ; but
even of those which were used as nurses, many
became trees of great size and utility. Of these,
beyond all others, the common black sallow, or
goat willow (Salix caprea), is entitled to take the
lead as the best adapted to grow in exposed mari-
time tracts. The plant is usually regarded as an
underwood, but it grows to a large size when not
cut down. One specimen, about three quarters of
a mile from the sea, is 9| feet in circumference at
four feet from the ground. The alder, birch, and
ozier, should be planted, not as mere nurses, but
as permanent occupants of the soil. The ash, sy-
camore, and elm {Vlmus montana), maintain them-

selves against the blast in trenched ground, as is
well exemplified in the Boreas plantation. No
doubt can exist of the perfect adaptation of the
pinaster to the bleakest tracts of the country and
the poorest description of soil ; for a few miles off
on the Westwick estate, a space of five hundred
acres is covered by them, and traversed by a car-
riage road of five miles in length.

These pinasters average 12 feet in circumference
and 70 feet in height. It is generally understood
the Scotch pine is of all the trees the least scrupu-
lous as to the quality of the soil they are placed in ;
but the pinaster is even more serviceable in shelter-
ing bleak and barren districts. As to underwood,
the snowberry [Symphoricarpus racemosus) and the
barbeny {Berberis aqtiifolium) are best suited
for planting close to walks, which should be intro-
duced in all maritime plantations for the sake of
the view over the ocean.

The expense of planting the 114 acres were OsJ.
for trenching, at 61. per acre; carting stones, 151.
10s.; erecting fences and gates, 158Z. ; price of
G00,000 acres, at lOs. per 1,000, 800Z. ; price of un-
derwood, 80,000 plants, at 15s. per thousand, 60l;
and expense of cleaning the ground for two years,
102/, 12s,; altogether, 1,320?. 2s., or 11?. lis. per
acre.

Tlie next subject was an address by Mr. John
Goodsir, on the potato disease. He said, on ad-
dressing the society, he wished it to be understood
that it was hot his intention to submit to the meet-
ing any new facts regarding the diseased structure
itself, but rather to adduce certain considerations
derived from facts already ascertained, and from
collateral subjects, which appeared to him to explain
the phenomena of the bhght, and to reconcile the
conflicting opinions regarding it.

He observed, in the first place, that it must be
admitted by all that the blight was an epidemic,
and therefore there was to be considered in regard
to it, first, the general cause of the epidemic — the
epidemic influence ; and, secondly, the local or indi-
vidual circumstances or causes of attack in the
plants themselves. Regarding the nature of the
general or epidemic influence in the potato muiTain,
nothing very definite can yet be stated ; we know
notliing, indeed, of the general influences affecting
the epidemics in man and the domestic animals ex-
cept the existence of such epidemic influences, and
to a certain extent the laws of their approach, pro-
gress, and retrocession.

The local or individual causes of attack in the
plants themseh'es here, as in the other epidemics,
promise to yield more easUy to inquiry, and to
afford more legitimate indications for prevention.

In various epidemics Mr. Goodsir stated that
these two causes have different degrees of influence,

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and it was interesting to know that in proportion to
the knowledge of the natiu-e of the secondary or
local causes, was the power we possessed of arrest-
ing the progress of an epidemic ; the plague, for
instance, the secondary causes of which, filthy
habits, &c., were well known, is arrested in direct
proportion to the improvement in the habits of the
people ; for the plague is an epidemic disease, in
which the general epidemic influence is not so
powerful as the secondary cause. In cholera,
again, the epidemic influence is stronger
than the secondary causes, so that its pro-
gress cannot be arrested in the same degree. The
general influence appears to be more powerful in
the potato murrain than any secondary cause, the
plants affected do not ajipear to be inferior to those
of former seasons in quality, at least they certainly
contain as much starch and as compact a texture
as they usually do.

If such be the general nature of the influences
bearing on the disease, a remedy or mode of arrest
was not to be hoped for to the extent some one
might expect. Here, as in most diseases in man
and the domestic animals, our knowledge of the
nature of the disease much exceeded our means of
cure or prevention.

After alluding to the opinion which appeared to
be gaining ground, that contagious and epidemic
diseases depend not on an elevated condition of the
infected individuals inr se, but on an influence ex-
erted on them by parasitic or organic beings, deve-
loped in or on them — an opinion supported not
only by the detection of such parasites in certain
diseases, but also by the general phenomena
of progress, attack, and arrest, Mr. Goodsir
stated that he had always, as others had
done, detected in the diseased potato at least two
kinds of parasitic fungi — one a minute granular,
spherical, deep, brown body, which existed in enor-
mous numbers from the very first access of the
disease, the other a branching filiform tubular fun-
gus, with terminal spordia, containing spoves, and
appearing in the potato rather later apparently
than the brown spherical parasite. They both
exist in the cavities of the polygonal cells of the
tuber, the brown fungus adhering to the walls of the
the cells, and the outside of the coats of the starch
cells, binding them together : the fiUform parasite
branching among and between the starch cells, so
as to be obscured by them.

As these fungi are universally present in the dis-
eased potato, we cannot, in considering the nature
and cause of the disease, keep their existence out of
view. There can no longer be any doubt that the
chemical influence produced by the contents of the
cells of certain parts of plants produce certain che-
mical actions in the juices of these plants, and also

that a similar influence was in all probability exer-
ted on certain fluids in which minute fungi exist,
such as the yeast plant in yeast, &c. ; it is, therefore,
a legitimate hypothesis that constant fungi in the
diseased potato must direct or influence the chemi-
cal actions and effects which have been detected
in the diseased tubers.

This view of the subject in no way tends to over-
throw the chemical explanations of the potato
blight, but confirms the chemico-vital view of the
subject, by combining the opinions of those who aj)-
parently differ concerning the disease. In this, as
in other inquiries of the same kind, the subject has
been retarded by the determined opposition of those
who examine it from opposite sides, who are both
so far correct, but will not admit the conclusions of
their opponents.

From these and from other considerations sub-
mitted to the meeting, Mr. Goodsir gave it as the
result of the inquiries he had made on the subject,
that a general epidemic influence, of the existence
of which there can be no doubt, but of the nature
of which we know nothing, had during the present
season, induced in the potato a disease, the essen-
tial nature of which consisted in the growth of two
or more species of fungi in the textures of the
plant — the plants attacked being in the condition
to afford a nidus for the parasites, which condition,
however, may not be peculiar to those of the pre-
sent season — the existence of the fungi being ne-
cessary to the constitution of the blight, inasmuch
as they afford the initiati^-e, and direct the pectdiar
changes which take place in the tuber; and in re-
ference to a remedy or mode of arrest of the disease,
it was stated, that as the amount and appearance of
the starch granules do not to the eye diflfer from
those in the healthy potato, at least until the root is
very much diseased — and as other individual and
local circumstances in the culture and growth ap-
pear to have been very much as in former seasons
it is therefore to the general eijidemic influence, of
whatever nature it may be, that the spread of the
disease is to be referred — that a cure or mode of ar-
rest is not to be too certainly looked for — it is to be
expected at the same time, that hke the influenza
and cholera which have already swept across the
globe, the potato blight may not again, at least im-
mediately, commit its ravages.

Mr. Goodsir's address was listened to with
marked attention, and, at its conclusion, was warmly
applauded.

Professor Balfour had hstened \vith much inte-
rest to the observations of Mr. Goodsir, and had
no doubt of the accuracy of the conclusion he had
arrived at, as to the existence of fungi in the potato
in certain stages of the disease. The researches of
Mr. Berkeley led to the conclusion that several

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283

species of fungi, especially Botrytls Infestans, gave
rise to the jjlienomena of the disease. The Botrytis
attacked all {)arts of the potato, including leaves,
stems, and tubers. These fungi are never deve-
loped in dead matter, but always ajjpear on living
bodies. One of them, B. bassiana, causes the di-
sease in silk worms called Muscardine. From these
and other phenomena of a similar nature, it seemed
to be evident that under certain circumstances,
which are still very obscure, animals and plants are
liable to the attack of fungi, which modify if they
do not cause disease.

Mr. Goodsir, in further illustration of the sub-
ject, adverted to the existence of vegetable fungus
in the minnow, gold-fish, frogs, and newts ; and
as the employment of moss water, as a means of
checking the disease, had been recommended by
the Commissioners in Ireland, it may have the ef-
fect of kiUing the fungi in the potato tuber, in the
same manner as creosote is known to destroy vege-
table fungus in the human stomach.

Mr. Lawson then read the substance of a com-
munication from Sir James Miles Riddell of Stron-
tirn, and another from his overseer, Mr, Thomas
Smith, on a collection of potatoes presented to the
Society's Museum, which had been raised from
seed collected in October, 1842. The apples were
laid in boxes in alternate layers, with dry sharp
sand. In the succeeding May they were well
rubbed by the hand with the sand, and sown in
prepared ground. In the middle of July they
showed a good braird ; and shortly after some of
the plants were transplanted, which succeeded bet-
ter than those left in the bed, the plants being
more vigorous and the tubers larger. In spring,
1844, they were planted whole, and the collection
now exhibited on the table was the produce. The
transplanting in July seems a good practice. Sir
James states that the produce was quite healthy on
the 3rd December, when he wrote, and that pre-
vious to that period only a very few had been dis-

covered that showed any symptoms of disease,
which was the case throughout generally in his
neighbourhood. Sir James's opinion is, that the
primary cause of the disease is the extreme humi-
dity of the summer and autumn ; and this opinion
is, to some extent, corroborated by a commvmi-
cation which Mr. Lawson had received from an ex-
tensive proprietor in Holland, Mr. M, E. Have-
laar, of Rotterdam, of date the 28th November,
who says, that everj'where in strong moist soils,
the crop had failed, while in high dry soils it had
produced an average crop ; that the potatoes taken
up during the rain became diseased, while those
which were lifted dry did not become so. Throug-
out Holland, generally, in marshy soils, he adds,
the disease showed itself in July, in Guelderland in
August. Sir James Riddell draws these conclu-
sions— 1. That there is no deterioration of the
plant ; 2. That he has no reason to suppose that a
fungus is the primary cause ; 3. That the variable
temperature and excessive moisture of the season
were sufficient to produce it; 4. And that the sepa-
ration of the diseased potatoes, and drying the good
ones, are the only processes necessary to preserve
them.

Mr. Gordon, of Cairnbulg, took the opportunity
of observing, that in the district of Buchan, in
Aberdeenshire, with which he is connected, and in
which potatoes are extensively grown, he had not
heard of the disease appearing, but on the contrary
that the late crop in that quarter had been both
abundant, and of an excellent quality.

Mr. Stephens then exhibited a small model of a
ventilating pit for keeping potatoes, sent to the So-
ciety by Dr. Halpin, of Cavan, in Ireland, from
whom he read a letter, of date the 29tli November,
containing a statement of the approbation conferred
on this his mode of keeping potatoes by the Lord
Lieutenant, the press, and other parties in Ireland.

The paper on the wheat fly, by Mr. Archibald
Gorrie, was postponed to the next meeting.

BURTON-ON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB,

At the evening meeting, held on Thursday, the
11th January, Mr. Worthington was called to the
chair ; and Mr. J. D. Greaves, the Secretary of
the Club, read the following paper on the subject
which had been appointed for discussion : —

The question proposed for our consideration this
evening is — " What kind of green crop may be
most advantageously interposed between the pre-
vious corn and the turnip crop."

I do not know that I can answer the question
satisfactorily, because my experience in growing
different kinds of plants in this part of the rotation
has been very hmited. As far as it goes, however,
my expeiience is in favour of growing that kind of
crop which seems generally to be most approved;
and I will shortly state the reasons which apj^ear to
me to make it the most eligible ; I will afterwards
proceed to say a few words on the question, whether

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

it is a beneficial practice to grow any green crop
at all before the Swedish turnip, instead of letting
the land be fallow till the spring. Among the many
plants which have at various times been cultivated
for early spring feed, the only one which seems to
me to require notice are, the crimson clover, white
mustard, tares, rape and cole-seed, Itahan rye-grass,
and rye. The crimson clover I have myself tried;
and though at first it was much praised, and ex-
cited great hopes of its becoming a most useful
crop, it is now gone quite out of fashion in our
part of the country, having been found too tender
for the winter. The other plants, except white
mustard, I have grown, but not so frequently as to
give me confidence in speaking decidedly as to their
merits. The Italian rye-grass gives a good bulk of
feed very early in the spring ; but there are two ob-
jections against cultivating it between two crops :
first, it is necessary to sow it with the corn crop,
and you are thereby pre^'ented from giving the land
an autumn tillage, which I consider to be of the
utmost importance in keeping it clean; and secondly,
the roots of the rye-grass would prevent your get-
ting the land into so fine a state of tilth in the spring
as turnips require. Of white mustard I know
nothing, except from what I read in the journals.
It seems to be likely to prove a useful plant for
summer and autumn feed ; but I should doubt if it
will be found to stand the winter, and produce a full
bite early in the spring. Besides, there is perhaps an
objection to this plant, which equally applies to rape
and cole-seed : they are so close akin in nature to
the turnip, that it might not be advisable to grow
them before that crop. I have tried rape, however;
but I cannot say that I had reason to think the
succeeding turnip crop was at all hurt by it. I
was at first veiy much inchned to prefer rape to any
other crop, because the seed is so inexpensive ; but
I did not get much eating from it in the spring, and
have abandoned it for rye— which, though the seed
comes high, gives in general so much more feed,
that I think the extra expense has repaid me.

Winter tares are grown in the south of England
before the Swede turnip ; but the difference of the
climate both renders the tares earUer, and requires
the Swede to be sown later, than in this part of the
kingdom. I have seldom found winter tares ready
to eat off until the middle of May, by which time
the Swede turnip ought to be sown, if the weather
be favourable. As a crop before the white turnip,
nothing that I know of is at all comparable to
winter tares and rye ; and whatever may be thought
of the practice of growing a green crop befoi'e the
Swedes, there is not a doubt that a crop of tares may
always be taken with advantage before the white
turnip. I had, in this season, winter tares and rye,
which, when I mowed theni; would have weighed

20 tons per acre, and were thought worthy of the
prize of our agricultural society ; and my white
turnip, grown after them, certainly exceed 40 tons
per acre, including tops. Nothing, however, that
I have seen — except rye — will give any bulk of
eating before the first week in May, by which time
it is essential for the land intended for Swedes to
be cleared ; the only objection to it is the expense
of seed. My plan is to plough up the stubl)le as
soon as possible after harvest, give it a good clean-
ing, and sow 2h bushels an acre of rye, broadcast.
I do not think it can ])e put in too early ; indeed, I
should say that the great advantage of growing it
at all is only seen in those years in which the corn
harvest is tolerably early. There is no danger of
its being too winter proud ; the higher it is before
mnter, the better it stands the cold and the earlier
it gets a head in the spring. I usually eat it with
ewes and lambs, beginning the last week in Slarch
or the first in April, from which time until May it
will in ordinary years keep well ten to twenty sheep
to the acre. I have seen in a prize essay, published
in the " Royal Agricultural Society's Journal," that
a mixture of rye and rape is recommended, which I
should think might perhaps answer better than rye
alone, and I have some thoughts of trying it another
season. I observe too, in the last number of the
same journal, that Mr. Baker, of Writtle, describes
a kind of rye which appears to be much earlier, and
to yield a very much larger bulk of produce
than what I have grown ; and in looking over the
English translation of " Von Timer," I find that
the colsa bears the winter better than the rajie, and
grows more luxuriantly in the spring. One may
hope, therefore, that as the practice of growing an
intermediate green crop extends, we may arrive at
a more advantageous way of management than we
now follow.

I might stop here, for I have nothing more to say
as to the immediate question which is given as the
subject of discussion; but as the practice of grow-
ing an intermediate crop is not generally introduced
among us, it is perhaps more important that we
should consider the expediency of adopting the
practice, than that we should decide what crop is
best to sow, I will, therefore, offer a few remarks
on that point. I must confess that it does not, on
a first view of the matter, seem very pi'ofitable to
grow a crop which returns but a little more than
the cost of the seed ; yet, perhaps, when the ad-
vantages are all stated, they will appear sufficient
to warrant the i^ractice. It must be borne in mind,
that whether we sow a crop in the autumn, or no,
the land should be well cleaned, so that no part of
the expense of the tillage should be set down against
the spring crop, except merely the sowing and har-
rowing of tlie seed.

THE FARMER'S MAQAZINE.

2G7

In ordinary years, the price of rye may be taken
at 5s. a l)ushel ; the expense will be, therefore, j)er
acre, 25 bushels rye at 5s., so\\'ing and harrowhig
Is. 6d., — cost 14s.; against which we have to set
down the value of the keep of ten sheep five weeks.
I sujipose nobody will doubt that this is worth Gd.
a week for each sheep ; it is generally worth nearer
double that sum in early spring; but I both take
the lowest amount of produce and calculate its
value at the lowest rate, lest I should ajipear to be
anxious to show the fairest side of the practice I am
recommending. The value per acre is, therefore,
at least 25s.; leaving lis. per acre of profit.
Where the rye has been put in early, or the autumn
has Ijeen open and warm, or the spring forward, the
])roduce will be twice or thrice this amount.
Besides tliis, the land is benefited by the consump-
■ tion of the rye on it : and I reckon this jjenefit to
be at least equal to one ton of good manure per
acre. So that, on the whole, the profit on the crop
is not far short of £l per acre, even on the lowest
calculation ; and that, you wiW agree with me, is no
insignificant farming profit on the use of the land
for the dead half of the year. Notwithstanding this
apparent direct profit, I am inclined to think that
the indirect advantage is greater; and as it is
this which, to my mind, forms the chief argument
for the practice, I think it worth while to insist on
it the most. 'JTliis indirect advantage is, in enabUng
you to reserve your pastures, seeds, and tares, until
they have got a good start.

I do not think there is anything so ruinous as
cropping grass and seeds bare in the spring ; and
if we examine the matter closely, we shall, 1 think,
at once see why so much injury is done. Every
farmer acknowledges the fact, that all kinds of her-
bage grow Tcmch more profusely when they have
once got a good cover. This is sometimes attri-
buted to the ground being kept warm, and at
other times to its being kept moist in dry wea-
ther. It is, I believe, true, that in early spring the
growth of herbage is very greatly promoted by the
ground being covered ; and of late it has been re-
commended to cover grass in spring with thorns,
or straw, to get early spring feed. The covering
prevents the escape of heat from the surface of the
earth, and thereby promotes vegetation. We see
just the same eflfect ])roduced when pastures are
left with a good bite before the winter ; and this
seems to me the cheapest and most eflScient system
of Gurneying. It is also certain that a good cover
of herbage will protect the plants from the effects
of drought. But neither of these two causes seems
to me sufficient to account for the immense increase
of produce which land throws up when the her-
bage is suffered to get full and high, instead of
being kept bare by the stock. The true explana-

tion of the fact I take to be, that a plant, when it
has attained a larger size, grows more in a given
time than while it is smaller. Suppose that a pas-
ture of fair average quality and condition be left
without stock in the spring, it will yield 30 cwt. of
hay per acre by the middle of June. Now, 30 cwt.
of dry hay is equal to at least 15 weeks' keep of a
cow. But if you should turn cattle in this same
piece of land on the 1st of May, when there is just
a spare bite of herbage, an acre of it will not more
than supply one cow for the six weeks imtil the
middle of June, at which time the land will be as
bare as mown ground. In one case, therefore, the
land will have returned 1 5 weeks' keep for a cow ;
in the other, only six. It is calculated that land di-
vided into small enclosures, so as to allow a frequent
change of pasture, will keep twice as much stock
as when the cattle are suffered to roam the whole
summer xipon one field. I do not know how to
account for this fact, but by explaining it on the
principle I have named. In each of the enclosures,
the grass is allowed to attain, perhaps, tmce the
height before it is eaten, which it would have at-
tained in the single field. It is asserted by some
ad^'ocates of summer soiling, that the same quan-
tity of land will keep thi'ee times as much stock
when its produce is mo^\^^, and consumed in sheds,
as when it is pastured. The diflference m^ay not be
quite so great as the zealous advocates of the soil-
ing system make out, but it is certainly, I think,
greater than is to be accounted for by the usual
mode of exi3laining the fact. The cattle trample
down so much herbage, it is said, and spoil so
much by their excrements, that less than half of it
is consumed by the grazing cattle. I cannot see
how this is made out, since, in the end, a pasture
v.ill, if suflSciently stocked, be eaten bare, and
every blade of grass which the land has yielded
will have been eaten up, except just where the ex-
crements have fallen ; so that not a tenth of the
surface can have been wasted. There is in Von
I'haer's work a passage which shows that he was
aware of the real cause of the superiority of soiUng.
He c|uotes an experiment made on clover : — A part
was cut three times, at intervals of a fortnight ; and
on a given space, each mowing produced 30 lbs.
Another part was left for six weeks ; and the pro-
duce of the same space as had at three mowings
yielded 90 lbs., was COO lbs. The author of the
" Book of the Farm " quotes, from a prize essay
of the Higland Society, a notice of the singiUar
fact, that sheep, on turnips, will consume nearly, in
proportion to cattle, weight for weight; that is, 10
sheep, of 14 lbs. a quarter, or 40 stones in all, will
consume nearly the same quantity of turnips as an ox
of 40 stones ; but that if the ox be turned to grass,
six of the sheep will consume an equal quantity.

268

" This great difference," the author of the essay
says, " may perhaps be accounted for by the prac-
tice of sheep cropping the grass much closer and
oftener than cattle, and which, of course, prevents
its growing so rapidly as with cattle." A horse
will not^ certainly, eat so much in the stable as a
miliiing cow in the shed ; but it is an established
custom to charge more for the grazing of a horse
than of a cow; and this custom has arisen, not
because the horse consumed more grass, but be-
cause, from his manner of grazing, he prevented
the growth of the grass more than the cow, which
does not graze so close. I had a piece of grass
this season, which was kept very full of keep the
whole summer ; and I am sure that it kept me
tu'ice as much stock as some other land in its
neighl)Ourhood, which was equally good, but which
was grazed bare. It would be very easy to adduce
numberless other facts, which go to show that the
herbage of grass or seeds grows more rapidly when
it has attained a head ; and the same principle is
equally applicable to other crops. If you mov,'
vetches, for instance, early in May, and again early
in June, the two mowings will not amount to half
what the produce would be if cut at one mowing in
the latter month. I think I have observed that
vetches have doubled their weight sometimes in the
last fortnight of their growth ; nor does the fact
seem at all extraordinary, when we consider that a
large plant has so many more leaves and stalks
than a small one, and that every one of these more
numerous pai-ts grow as rapidly as the first blade
which rises from the grovmd.

If it be admitted, that these opinions as to the
different yield of herbage, when treated in different
ways, are correct, and that the true cause of such
difference is as I have supposed it, the importance
of an early crop of rye, which may keep a part of
the stock away from the pastures just at the time
when it is most injurious to graze them, will at
once be seen. You cannot usually depend on a
supply of turnips for all your stock through the
month of April. If you manure a pasture, and
save it from the autumn, it will still not be ready
to eat so early as rye by a fortnight or three weeks.
If you mow vetches so early, you diminish their
yield very greatly. I do not, therefore, think that
I over-estimate the value of the rye grown before
the Swede turnip when I say, that it is worth twice
as much as the same amount of keep at any other
part of the year ; because, as far as it goes, it en-
ables you to get double the produce from your pas-
tures in the spring.

I grew, this season, a very fair crop of Swedes
on the part of my vetches which was first cleared
off; but I am of opinion that a full crop of Swedes
cannot usually be obtained, unless sown before the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

time when vetches are fit to cut ; I think, perhaps, ■
you lose more in the turnips than you gain in the ^
vetches. Nevertheless, it sometimes happens that
the late sown Swedes are as good, or better than
the early sown ; and it is not, therefore, amiss to
have two sowings at different times, and before
the latter sowing, vetches may generally be taken.

With regard to the growing of rye before the
early sown, Swedes, such a practice can, of coiu'se,
only be pursued on easily worked land, and on
land which is kept so clean as not to require a la-
borious tillage in the spring before the turnips. I
should never think of growing a green crop, unless
I got the land toleraljly clean in the autumn. By
hoeing every crop, and by keeping my land in such
condition that the sown crop is always master of
the weed, I have never experienced any difficulty
in getting my turnip fallow clean after the rye has
been taken off; but if I have by chance left my
seedn down two years, and the land has (as it al-
ways will in that case) become jjretty full of couch
grass, I have thought it better always to omit the
green crop before the Swedes, in order to make
more certain of a good opportunity to clean the
fallow well in the sj)ring.

I could easily have adduced, from agricultural
works, instances of much greater success in the
growth of rye for early spring feed than I have my-
self attained. Indeed, in the last spring, I saw
rye in my ov/n neighbourhood high enough to be
cut for horses by the middle of April. The har\^est
had been early, and allowed the seed to to be sown
in the beginning of September ; and as the autumn
was o])en and fine, and the spring favourable, the
produce of the early rye was double what is usual.
I have however, thought it better to confine myself
to my own experience, and have stated what ])ro-
duce I have had in seasons the least favourable,
and have endeavoured to show that the cultivation
of rye, as an intermediate crop, loses nothing in the
worst season, arul may be very profitable in a favour-
able one. With respect to the other subject on
which I ha\'e ventured to touch — namely, the ma-
nagement of pastures — I shall be glad to learn the
opinions of others as to the explanation I have
offered of a circumstance which is familiar to us
all. If I am correct in stating the weight of grass
added to the crop in the latter part of its growth to
he so much greater in a given time than when the
grass is short; and if this excess of produce is
wholly due to the fact, that each individual plant
is larger, and, therefore, growing at more numerous
parts — the immense loss sustained by eating pas-
tures early, or bare, is easily accounted for. So
far as I know, the view I liave taken of the fact has
not been prominently remarked ujjon by our agri-
cultural writers ; and I am sure it is not kept in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sight in our practice. I am in hope, therefore, that
in directing your attention to this subject, I maybe
better furthering the objects of our club, than by
confining myself wholly to the immediate question
before us.

Mr. WoRTiiiNGTON : The ])lan of growing an
intermediate green crop seems to me only ajjplicable
to small farms, situated, as Mr. Greaves' farm is,
close to a town, from whence a supply of marmre
may be had. This additional crop would recjuire
extra manure, which could not be supplied on or-
dinary farms. On large farms, too, I think there
would not be time to sow the rye crop in the
aiUumn, without interrupting the wheat sowing,
which is a matter of more importance. The prac-
tice of summer soiling has been alluded to, and I
had lately occasion to see the operation of this sys-
tem ; and the result was not such as to temjjt me to
adopt it.

Mr. Laxdor: I agree with Mr. Greaves, that it
is highly important to keep the stock out of the
pasture land in the spring ; and on this account, I
am of opinion that you can scarcely estimate too
highly the value of early spring feed. Nevertheless,
I doubt very much the advantage of growing rye
for this purpose, because rye is an exhausting plant ;
and though it should be fed off with sheep, yet the
land would be in some degree impoverished ; the
crop would consume more manure than the sheep
would return to the land. Vetches, on the con-
trary, are not exhausting ; and I should, therefore,
prefer to grow them. As to summer soiling, I
think the practice of the system is bad, when the
grass of the pastures is used ; though the land
yields more food when so treated, the produce in
milk and cheese is not so great. But I have seen
the partial adoption of the system, by partly grazing
the dair}', and partly soiling on artificial green crops,
attended with great success.

Mr. W. Greaves : I approve of the plan of
growing a green crop before the Swede turnip, and
rye appears to me to be the best crop to grow. In
many districts, the plan is regularly ])ursued, and
rye is almost universally chosen. 1 believe the
crop eaten on the ground would be restorative, and
not exhausting. Usually, the time of soAving rye
would be earlier than the wheat sowing. In North-
amptonshire, I have frequently seen two-thirds of
the wheat stubble jiloughed for this crop, while the
shocks of wheat still stood on the unploughed por-
tion of the land.

Mr. GovAN : I agree with Mr. Greaves, that the
plan of growing rye before turnips may be profit-
able on his kind of land, situated as it is ; but I do
not think it would answer, as a general system, on
farms placed in ordinary circumstances. The
spring eating is very valuable ; but as the land on

which rye is grown would require an additional
ploughing in the spring to bring it into a fit state
for turnips, I doubt whether the expences of the
crop would not exceed the value of the keep. I
am of opinion, too, that the crop would consume
more manure than it would yield, which would
again add to the ex])ense. I do not agree generally
in the o])inion, that a crop eaten on the ground is
not exhausting. An instance of the impoverish-
ment of a soil by eating on the ground a crop of
rape came to my knowledge. The land was pre-
pared for turnips, but, through mistake, rape was
sown. The crop proved very abundant, and the
roots so deep and strong, that mattocks were re-
quired to clear the land of them. The rape was
consumed on the ground ; but for seven years after-
wards the land yiekkd little, and was only restored
to fertility by extra manure. I therefore conclude,
that a crop consumed on the ground does not res-
tore the manure required for its growth. As Mr.
Worthington has remarked, the rj'e would require
you to be getting ready the land for it at the parti-
cular time when you are busy with the wheat sow-
ing. Considering all the circumstances, therefore,
I think the rye would not repay the cost.

Mr. Lathbury : I think the plan of growing
spring feed on the turnip land may be pursued to a
great extent on light and suitable soils ; and I think
the plan equally applicable to large as to small
farms. I agree that it is very important to reserve
the pastures in the spring ; but cows milk better,
and yield more curd, when the grass of the pasture
is not too high, but only affords a fair bite.

Mr. Lea, of Grantham (a visitor) : I am not a
practical farmer, but I take great interest in farming
affairs ; and lately, while in Cambridgeshire, where
it is usual to take a half green crop before the tur-
nip, I made minute inquiries to ascertain the merits
of the plan. Rye is the crop grown ; sometimes
rye and seeds ; and it is fed off with sheep. It is
not thought well to eat it very early, for besides
that it would furnish a less bulk of food, the very
young rye disagrees with the sheep. The rye should
be sown earher than the proper time for sowing
wheat ; and the one operation, therefore, need not
interfere with the other. I cannot agree in opinion
with those members who think the plan is inappli-
cable to large farms ; and it seems to me very easy
to find manure. Whatever is laid on this crop
will be returned with interest in the spring, for no-
thing is so grateful as the soil ; and if the supply
of farm-yard manure be deficient, why not use ar-
tificial manures, such as guano or rape ? I am of
opinion that hght lands, which grow r)'e to be fed
off with sheep in the spring, will not require more
working in the preparation for turnips than those
which have lain fallow all winter; indeed, they wU

970

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

usually turn up lighter. The succeeding turnips
are quite as good after rye ; and^ on the whole, I be-
lie\^e the system to he very advantageous on all light
soils.

It was the general ojjinion of the club, that a

crop of vetches might always he taken advanta-
geously before the crop of white turnip ; and that
the system of taking rye before the Swede turnip
was ap2)licable to a considerable extent on hght
lands.

HOLDERNESS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The foUott'ing remarks were read by the secre-
tary at the quarterly meeting, 8th December, 1845.
The society having completed its 50th year, and
the subject for the day's discussion being, " What
are the tendencies and what have been the effects
of agricultural societies in general, and of the Hol-
derness Agricultural Society in particular," The
remarks v\'ere ordered to be printed and circulated
amongst the members of the society.

Agriculture is the first and most important avo-
cation in human affairs. Man placed on the earth
in his natural and primitive state, for satisfying his
hunger is dependent upon the unciiltivated precari-
ous supply of the fruits of the earth, and the beasts
of the field ; no sooner he touches upon an artifi-
cial state than he discovers that the wants of to-
morrow must be provided for by the care and con-
trivance of to-day. He finds grain spontaneously
produced, and his ingenuity prompts him to make
it into bread, and then he also finds that to insure
the supi)ly which is necessary for future existence,
he must sow, reap, and store this grain, and hence
springs the science and practice of agriculture.
Esau returning from imsuccessful chase, sold his
birthright for a mess of pottage. A man may sell
his raiment for food, but he cannot sell his food for
his raiment. Hunger vnW compel him to sell his
coat for his dinner, but he cannot sell his dinner for
his coat. Man must have food.

Upon a late letting of the toll bars on the Pat-
trington road, I took occasion to expatiate on the
many superior advantages of this countr)', and es-
pecially on its complete productive cultivation — not
an acre being wasted. A rough West Riding man
called out "Ye cannot do withaut ar' chimbleys."
My reply to him was, " We can eat our wheat, but
you cannot eat your chimneys." Now this brief
and homely colloquy of only two sentences, com-
prises all that the most ingenious essayists, or the
most eloquent orators can write or say on the rela-
tive position of agriculture and manufactures.
Agriculture must of necessity be the first and most
important ; supply a man with food and he can toil
and wait patiently for the manufacture of a web of
cloth, but he cannot begin with the manufacture of I

this web of cloth and wait for his food. Agriculture
is the parent — arts and manufactures are the child-
ren, and like other children, being well fed, they
sometimes become rather undutiful. To a con-
temi)lative mind, it appears matter of wonder that
the supply of food should uniformly increase in the
ratio of the immensely increasing population, and
that provision should be proportioned to want,
equally now as a hundred years ago, or at any other
more remote period. Whether this is to continue
for ever, or whether from an overwhelming popu-
lation, or a vast or even partial failure of the pro-
duce of the fruits of the earth some mighty disrup-
tion may ensue, is perhaps, worthy the considera-
tion of the philosopher and the politician. At all
events, in the meantime, foreseeing or apprehending
such a calamitous doom, the wise and the prudent
will direct and employ all the energies of mind and
body towards the' promotion, encouragement, and
success of agriculture.

The fundamental principles of agricidture are
few and simple, but they are plain and incontrover-
tible. 1. To drain the land. 2. To eradicate
weeds. 3. To add fertilizing substances when and
where required. As to the first proposition, it is
plain, that grain will not grow in water, and it
hence follows that every gradient between water
and dry land i)rogresses in productiveness. As to
the second, it is equally plain, that two stems can-
not grow in the same place, and hence it follows,
that to produce that which is desired, it is neces-
sary to abstract that which is not desired, and
which is consequently denominated weed. As
to the third proposition many theories are
abroad which I don't understand. It has
been said in this society that every farmer
ought to be a chemist ; this I very much doubt,
and I am much inclined to believe that the less he
dips into abstruse subjects of chemistry, the better;
and that he will be found the wisest and most suc-
cessful farmer, who applies matter to his soil which
he knows to be fertilizing, and leaves new combi-
nations and discoveries to men of professed science.

The Holderness Agricultural Society was esta-
blished the 2nd November, 1795. The originator

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

271

and foundei* of the society was Mr. Stovin, of
Boreas Ilillj a gentleman cut oft" in early life, and
within little more than a year after he had formed
the society. He was a most zealous, inteUigent,
temperate, judicious, and excellent magistrate, and
l)0ssessing all the qualifications suitahle to a coun-
try gentleman, would had he livedo have proved an
ornament and a benefit to the sphere in which he
moved. The laws of the society emanated from
himself, and the progress of the society under those
laws, imaltered to the present moment, excejit in
very few unimportant matters of detail, sufficiently
attest the luminous, comprehensive genius from
which they were dictated.

What have been the tendencies of agricultural
societies in general I am not at all able to state,
but I am willing to suppose they were the same as
our own. What were their effects, it is not easy to
ascertain, they having died in infancy ; I don't al-
lude to the newly formed associations, which are of
quite a different constitution to the old societies.
The tendencies of the Holderness Agricultural So-
ciety in particular, have Ijeen the promotion and
improvement of the science of agriculture, and the
effects have been commensurate with that design.
This society in the first years of its establishment,
consisted of nearly fifty members. Its numbers
have gradually increased, and it now consists of
xipwards of eighty. It has, from the beginning
contained an admixture of other professions and
men of science from whom much useful knowledge
has been constantly derived. The late eminent
Dr. Alderson was one of the original formation,
and continued a member several years, and many
valuable communications of his are to be found in
the records. At the commencement of their pro-
ceedings, the society gave great promise of useful-
ness, and the expectation derived from that promise
has never after been disappointed.

At the first meeting it was resolved, " That the
breed of horned cattle in Holderness had been
much neglected ; that it was capable of great im-
provement, and that the members would use their
utmost endeavours to restore and improve the
breed." At the same meeting a question was dis-
cussed, whether Holderness was particularly defi-
cient in any part of its rural economy ; and,
whether the arable land was capable of any, and
what improvement; and it was also I'esolved, " That
a rotation of corn and grass seeds might be very be-
neficially adopted in Holderness as a general mode
of managing land."

Thus the Holderness Agricultural Society propi-
tiously commenced its labours, and the members
have continued at each quarterly meeting, to dis-
cuss and investigate questions on scientific agricul-
ture, on practical husbandry, and on the selection,

breeding, and rearing of cattle, and they have con-
sequently dealt with two hundred different subjects,
exchanging their opinions and experience on each,
and by communicating their collected knowledge
to others, have diffused through the surrounding
country the most approved principles and practice,
and inspired a spirit of improvement.

Under these auspices and encouragement the
various modes of internal drainage have been adopt-
ed, more care has been employed in the culture of
the soil and in the eradicating of weeds, the seed
system recommended at the commencement, and
various other advantageous practices have been in-
troduced, and the breed of cattle and sheep greatly
improved.

At the meeting of the society, 1st June, 1796,
it was resolved, "That it would be advantageous
to the farmers and others in the neighbourhood,
and generally to the public, if fortnight markets
for cattle were holden at Hedon throughout the
year, instead of only from Candlemas to Midsum-
mer, as they had before been held." In conse-
quence of this resolution, the Corporation of He-
don were memorialized and the markets were fixed
as desired by the society ; the yet continuance of
these markets, and the svipport given to them, is a
sufficient proof of their utility.

In the early proceedings of the'society the system
of under-draining was ])romoted ; Mr. Bell, I be-
lieve, was the foremost in performing this
important operation; the first I personally ob-
served was on the farm at Nuttles, then occujiied
by Mr. Thomas Champney. Tiles were not then
in use, and the work was performed by covering
the bottom grip with an inverted sod, then filling
up with thorns, and closing the top with earth.

In 1807, the society commenced giving prizes
for the best heifers, bulls, cows, steers, sheep,
horses, and pigs, and from thence to the present
time, in those prizes have distributed more than
1000/.

In 1811, and in several subsequent years, the
society gave prizes to ploughmen. The sums ex-
pended on these competitions have amounted alto-
gether to about £300, and the operation of plough-
ing in Holderness was decidedly veiy much im-
proved and benefited.

In 1819, the society applied to the Board of
Agriculture for, and obtained, the gold medal, to
be offered for the best cultivated farm within the
district. The rules prescribed by the Board of
Agriculture were exactly observed ; there were
many competing claimants, each of whose farms
were pronounced to be in the highest state of culti-
vation, and the medal was awarded to Watson Har-
rison, the occupier of a farm at Burton Pidsea.

At the quarterly meeting of the society, 19th

572

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

December, 1836, it was resolved, "That it would
be advantageous to the country to estabhsh a wool
market at Hull, and that a committee be appointed
to consider what are the proper steps to be taken to
establish such market." The committee then ap-
pointed, failed to produce in the authorities at Hull
a zeal to co-operate in the object of this resolution.
The societ)% however, persevered, and after much
discouragement, advertised at their own expense,
the commencement of a wool market on the 29th
June, 1841. The members of the society engaged
to take their clips to this market, and with great
assiduity, successfully urged other wool growers
in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire to do the same ; and
thus by the active exertions and influence, and at
the cost of the Holderness Agricultural Society, a
wool market was established in Hull, which yet
flourishes, and is perhaps, one of the best in the
kingdom.

And the society have also, at different times,
purchased agricultural implements, which were
experimentally used by the members of the society,
and then sold by auction at the quarterly meetings,
the first cost having been about 30 OZ.

The society has collected a valuable Ubrary con-
taining treatises on subjects connected with rural
affairs, which is deposited in a suitable apartment
in the Market-place at Hedon, called "The
Sensorium." The discussions at the quar-

terly meetings and other proceedings of the so- J
ciety are regularly recorded, and now amount *
to three folio volumes and the miscellaneous
papers, containing amongst them many essays
l)y the members and other men of science and in-
formation, are carefully preserved, and will alto-
gether, at some future period, form valuable matter
for the historian.

Thus I think it is shown, that daring the whole
existence of the society, the intelligence and ener-
gies of its members ha\'e been imiformly employed
to promote and encourage the progress and im-
provement of the cultivation of the soil, and the
breeding, rearing, feeding, and quality of the cattle.
That their endeavours have been rewarded with
success, will I think, be satisfactorily sho%vn by the
present state of the country, its crops, its cattle,
and its practical systems of husbandry, and espe-
cially as compared with their state when the society
commenced its labours.

I therefore, do hailwithjust pride and exultation,
the prosperous career and profitable labours of the
Holderness Agricultural Society for the duration
of half a century, and I do sincerely hope and con-
fidently trust, that this prosperous career, and those
profitable labours may long continue, being well
convinced that they work well for the advantage
of the surrounding country and the benefit of
mankind.

ST. PETER'S FARMERS' CLUB.
Discussion on "Tenant-Right." — Jan.

Mr. Smeed said he had been requested to introduce
to the attentive consideration of the club the subject
of " tenant right." It had been discussed at length
at the Farmers' Club House, London, the report of
which discussion had been forwarded to him, with the
request of the secretary of that society that the subject
might be considered here. The President of tliis club
had also requested him (Mr. Smeed) to introduce the
subject to this meeting, which he would therefore do
without further apology.

He presumed the meeting would fully agree with his
first statement, viz., that every possible arrangement
should be made to secure good farming. Rents
could not be kept up without it : the heavy expenses
of the tenant could be met under no other system :
the increasing population of the country rendered it
necessary, and this alone could secure the full employ-
ment of the agricultural poor.

2. It was not likely that the capital and skill of the
agriculturist, and the capabilities of the soil, would be
fully developed, unless due attention waa paid to the

relative position of landlord and tenant. Indeed he
thought it should be forcibly felt by all classes engaged
in agriculture, that their interests are mutual, that they
rise or fall together.

3. He was of opinion that in a few cases rents are
too high under any circumstances over which land-
lords or tenants have any control. In many cases he
thought them too high under existing circumstances over
which they have control; but in very many they might
be raised, and at the same time the tenant encouraged
and benefited, if their circumstances were altered.

4. He believed security of possession to be most im-
portant to every occupier of land. Improvement in
the condition of the soil is to the farmer what improved
machinery is to the manufacturer ; nor can there
exist proper inducements to the necessary outlay in
either case, unless a fair chance is given of obtaining
adequate remuneration. A farmer, under any circum-
stances, risks his outlay ; and he has many dangers
and difficulties to contend with, unfelt and unknown
to mercantile men j but uncertainty of tenure places

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

273

him at once in circumstances intinitely (lisiidvantu-
geous : it will bo sure to operate on every reasonable
mind, in tbe manifestation of a j)arsimony incompati-
ble with the best intcrcsis of the landlord, the labourer,
and the country. On these grounds leases arc desir-
able.

5. If farms are taken on a yearly tenure, there
should be given two years' notice to quit, and care
should be taken in the agreement that the landlord is
not left with a starved farm, nor the occupant without
fair remuneration for his outlay.

G. He thought that a tenant leaving should stand
on quite as good terms as one coming in ; and he knew
of no better plan to secure the interests of both these
and those of the landlord, than tlie following : —

(1). That the outgoing tenant be paid for all work
done on the land after his last harvest.

(2). That all fodder, straw, and manure found on the
farm at Michaelmas be taken at its full value.

(3). That half the value of manures applied the preced-
ing year be paid to the outgoing tenant.

(4). That all buildings erected by the tenant, or pur-
chased by him of his predecessor, be taken by his
successor.

(5). That the real value of these items be fixed by fair
arbitration.

7. He thought the effects of this and similar meet-
ings would prove of greater advantage if they brought
the subject before the parties immediately concerned,
and promoted their co-operation, than if they pro-
moted any legislative interference. Judicious volun-
tary arrangements between landlords and tenants
would do more good than acts of Parliament ; still
something was needed to meet cases where persons
found in possession of farms are not protected by any
sort of agreement with their landlords about the treat-
ment they are to receive on quitting, but are left to
the " custom of the country." A legal standard of
appeal would be exceedingly useful in such cases. Now
the tenant must take just what the landlord pleases to
give him, or enter on a contest to which he is unequal,
and the very ground on which he stands as unstable
as a floating iceberg. He hoped gentlemen would
speak freely on the subject this evening, but would re-
commend them to wait till the London Farmers' Club
had collected the information it was seeking, and they
felt themselves in possession of more light, before they
proceeded to petition Parliament on the subject.

Mr. Wm. Manser, the President of the Club, said,
I quite agree in all that has been said by Mr. Sm eed.
I think the greatest obstacle to good farming is the
non-employment of capital, arising principally from
uncertainty of tenure ; and if any means could be de-
vised to overcome this, so that the tenant farmer could
feel secure that he should be reimbursed for every
judicious outlay of capital on quitting the farm, it
will be a great boon, not only to tenants, but to
landlords and the country generally. In my opinion,
the outgoing tenant is entitled to compensation for

any increased value that his system of cultivation may
have given the farm he has occupied. Were he secure
of obtaining this, I feel confident the intrinsic value
of landed estates would rapidly increase. I think
there are many things that the outgoing tenant ought
to be paid for by the landlord, which ought not to be
charged to the incoming tenant in any other way than
by an increase of rent ; for, in very many cases, if the
tenant (who may be an industrious, practical, and
persevering man) has a large sum to pay on entering
the farm, he may be so crippled in circumstances as
to be unable to improve the estate, and yet, in justice,
he could not object to pay increased rent for the bene-
fit received. This plan would give accommodation to
many tenants, and also prove a good investment for
landlords, increasing the real value of their estates,
while it improved their rent-roll. For the advantage
of all parties I would recommend that such a per
centage should be paid (whatever the extent of the
lease might be), as would wipe off both principal and
interest by the end of the term ; then the tenant on
leaving would, in justice, be paid by the landlord for
all work done for the benefit of his successor, and for
all unexhausted improvements, as Mr. Smeed has
stated ; but, above all, the full value should be paid
for straw, fodder, and manure j and every inducement
should be given to secure good farming to the end of
the lease.

A long discussion ensued, at the close of which it
was proposed by Mr. J. C. Bennett, seconded by Mr.
N.Bradley, and carried unanimously, "That, as the
opinion of this Club is fully embodied and expressed in
what has been said by Mr. Smeed and Mr. Manser,
the secretary be requested to forward their speeches to
the secretary of the London Farmers' Club, as expla-
natory of the views of this Club on the subject."

GROVE FERRY FARMERS' CLUB.

DISCUSSION ON " TENANT RIGHT," FeB. 5, 1846.

Resolved —

1 . That this club is of opinion that tenant right should
embody all the improvements made upon the land by
the tenant, either by draining, levelling, grubbing, ma-
nuring, chalking, liming, and building, and from which
he has not derived a full remuneration.

2. That the tenant be by law entitled to receive from
the landlord a full compensation for this outlay, of which
he has not had time to repay himself.

3. That it is essential in making a valuation between
landlord and an outgoing tenant that the actual condition
of the farm compared with the state of cultivation it was
in when entered upon, should be the basis of such culti-
vation. Thos. Slater,

Preston, Wingham, Kent, Feb. 12. Hon. Sec.

274

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

DEEP DRAINING IN STIFF CLAYS.

TiPTREE-HALL FaRM.

As there still exists amongst agriciUtm-ists a strong doubt
whether water wOl percolate through cold putty-like cla.ys, I
will, for the benefit of the community at large, communicate the
results of my draining operations during the past year. I have
drained thirty-three acres of some land I rent adjoining my
own, finduig it unprofitable to farm such soil in its uudrained
state. The draining cost me £3 per acre, including pipes and
every expence, as follows : — Diggmg drain, placing pipe, and
filling in, 6d. per rod of 5^ yards ; cost of pipes, of 1 inch bore
and 15 mches long, 15s. per 1,000.

The drains are placed 33 feet asunder. We begin to cut as
low as the ditch or outfall will permit, and work into the
rising ground until we reach five feet iu depth from the
surface ; the pipes are butted against each other — no stones or
bushes placed over them — nothing but the clay is retiu'ued into
the drain. I have several times examined these drains after
rains during the last three months, and find they nm admirably,
like so many tea-pots — leaving the surface dry enough for us
to plough, ti-ench plough or subsoil, which we have been doing
the last five weeks, in preparation for beans. The soil is a
very strong brown brick earth, varying occasionally to a yellow
colour, with much iron in it. I should strongly recommend
those Mdio are doubtfid about the best and cheapest mode of
drauiing strong clays, to inspect the drains on my Tiptree-hall
Parm, wliicli they are quite welcome to do at any time, and so
satisfy their minds. The question of getting the water through
dense soils is a vital one to the interests of agriculture. The
difference in the wheat crop this year, between the drained and
imdi-ained land on my farm, is fidly one quarter of wheat per
acre and one load of straw, being more than the whole cost of
the drainage.

It is amusing to hear the doubts, arguments, and disbeliefs
of the majority of agriculturists, when they see a small pipe the
size of one's thumb placed at so great a depth as five feet in
such a soil, whilst others camiot imagine that an inch pipe is
large enough to carry the water. I have never yet, however,
seen them run more than half full, although possibly when, in
the course of years, the soil becomes, as it will, more friable,
water must have a freer access to them. We have the authority
of Mr. Josiah Parkes, whose calculations cannot be controverted,
that one inch pipes at 33 feet apart, and four feet deep, will
cariy off aU the water that does fall from the heavens on a
given space in a given time. I consider the disbelief as
to the possibility of draining heavy lands a great mis-
fortune and curse to our country. If there are 24 millions
of acres cropped aimually with corn, and 12 millions of that
land require draining, I am quite sm-e the increased quantity of
com iu a cold wet season would be 12 million quarters (I mean
of wheat, beans, oats, and barley), and on grass lands in pro-
portion.

There is something very absurd in the assumption that
clays are impervious to water ; such opinions will not bear the
test of reason. How often one hears " O ! but water can't
get .through my soil;" well, then, if water canuot get iu, how

does it get wet? Perhaps the same person will tell you that
he has built a waU or shed of clay lumps well dried, and that it
requires all his ingenuity to keep the water from getting itito
it, by thatching, tarring, and a brick foundation. It is true
clay already saturated with water will hold water on the surface
like a bashi, for a very good reason, that it is already full of
water and cannot take in any more ; but once provide the means
of escape under clay, Mith alternate dry and wet days, and it
would puzzle a conjuror to keep the water from sinking tlurough
it. If any man doubts it, let him dig an under-ground cellar
in cla)', and see if he can keep the water from comnig iu, even
though well bricked.

Tapping the land when full of water is, after all, like tapping
a cask — the liquor runs out at the bottom and the cask dries at
the top. The deeper the drain or tap, the greater the pressure
from above. As the liquor flows the air must follow. If you
doubt it, consider that no Uquor can flow out of a cask if you
keep in the vent peg and prevent the air entering. Independent
of the capOlary reasons why deep drains act best (as explained
in my 18th letter), we must consider that the deeper the dram
the more steep the inclme ; and we all know that water will
rush quicker down a steep hUl than a gentle slope. Those who
consider one inch pipes too small woidd find how soon such a
pipe running constantly would empty a large pond. Ofcoiu-se,
where springs are to be drained, the size of the pipe must be
regulated by the quantity of water. It is well laiown iu
sewerage, that small drains, if uot too small, will keep them-
selves clear better than large ones ; and as to expense, why, it
must be bad policy to use large pipes and large cuttings, where
small ones will answer better — no rats or vermin can enter one
inch pipes. It is lamentably painful to contemplate the con-
dition of our hea\"y undrained lands diu-ing a wet winter. Look
at them now, filled with water to the surface, consequently un-
able to receive or appropriate that best of manixres, the heavenly
rain. Every hasty or continuous shower scours the surface,
driving dowii the furrows in turbid and wasteful streams, the
very essence of the sod — those finely comminuted, disintegrated,
and valuable particles, which the farmer has, with so much
perseverance and costly labour, exposed to the vivifying and
advantageous action of atmospheric alternations. But let us
carry our perspective to the months of IMarch, April, and May.
Is the prospect less dismal and distressing ? No 1 the blessed
svui shines on the sodden and saturated soU; but it is dead and
impervious to its invigoratuig rays. The imprisoned water
having no escape downwards, can only be released as steam by
evaporation, carrying with it the heat which should warm the
soil, and leaving beliind a death-like coldness, wliich is well at-
tested by the sickly and yeUow plants. Poor tilings, many j
die, leaving their hardier companions to struggle on in hopes -m
that a parching summer may do that naturally by gaping "
cracks, which mau is too poor, too niggardly, too ignorant, or
too prejudiced, to effect by cheap and profitable dramage. — J.
Meclii, 4, Leadenli all-street.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

275

ARTIFICIAL GUANO.

Our attention has been called to a new manure, this
week, which the inventor calls " Cooke's London
Guano." The manner in which it is made is at present
a secret, but if it can be made at the price the inventor
states, viz,, 3/. per ton, it will certainly be one of the
most valuable manures that has ever been seen in this
country. We have seen an analysis made of it by Dr.
Ryan, of the Royal Polytechnic Institution, which we
insert: —

ANALYSIS OF COOKe's GUANO ROYAL POLYTECHNIC

CHEMICAL SCHOOL, LONDON.

This is to certify that I have examined a specimen of
Cooke's Guano, sent by Mr. M. Joscelin Cooke. Its
composition is as follows : —

Ammonia lO'O

Uric acid 7*4

Oxalate of ammonia 17'fi

riiospliate of lime ; 16'7

Oxalate of lime 6'1

Sulphate of lime G'3

Nitrates of soda, potash, and lime lO'O

Silica, alumina, and iron 0*0

Moisture 17-0

100-0
The ammoniacal compounds in this article, called
" Cooke's Guano," are in very unusual quantities : the
phosphate of lime exists also in large abundance. Com-
pared with natural guanos it holds an unusually high
fertilizing rank. John Ryan, M.D., LL.D.

Robert Longbottom, Sec.
309, Regent-street.

And in order that our subscribers may judge of its
merits, we insert an analysis of a first-rate sample of
Peruvian guano, extracted from Liebig's Chemistry —

analysis of a sample of PERUVIAN GUANO ;

FROM liebig's CHEMISTRY.

Urate of ammonia 9*0

Oxalate of ammonia 100

Oxalate of lime 7 0

Phosphate of ammonia GO

Phosphate of ammonia and magnesia 2-6

Sulphate of potash 5.5

Sulphate of soda 3-3

Sal ammoniac '. 4*2

Phosphate of lime 14-3

Clay and sand 4-7

Water and organic matters 32-3

Any party examining these will see how superior this
London guano is to the foreign, in those essential ingre-
dients which constitute the real value of guano. In the
manufacture of artificial manures hitherto it has been the
oljject of the manufacturers to bring their manure as
near to the superior qualities of guano as they could ;
but here we have one actually supeiior, and that to the
best sort imported into this country, viz., the Peruvian.
We have seen a sample of it ; in appearance it is black
and pulverulent, and has a strong and peculiar smell.
We are informed it is made from the excrementitious
matter, as found in the sewers of London, such as urine,

night-soil, and offal, wliich is treated in a peculiar man-
ner with a cheap chemical agent. The inventor and
manufacturer, Mr. M. Joscelin Cooke, has also disco-
vered that the same agent he employs to treat these mat-
ters, and form a manure, is also peculiarly applicable to
treat the contents of the London sewers ; and so in-
stantaneous is its operation on sewer water, which is
known to contain a most valuable manure, that the in-
stant it comes in contact witli it, it precipitates all the
thick and valuable matter out of it, and leaves the super-
natant water perfectly clear. Several experiments have
been made by him on the sewer water from the different
sewers in London, which clearly prove this to be the
case. If this can be carried out — and we have seen a
plan for it also prepared by the same party — we think
we may state that our agricultural friends will find suffi-
cient manure in England, quite equal to guano, without
going abroad for it. London is alone supposed to be
equal to produce 400,000 tons per annum of this ma-
nure ; and it can be made in any of the large towns of
England. Mr. Cooke expresses himself ready to submit
it to any test, and is anxious to get some capitalist to
join him in carrying out the invention ; he likewise
states, he can, by the same agent, produce a manure
suitable for any soil ; but he has one that will do for
soils generally, and for all crops.

MODE OF CULTIVATION ADOPTED IN
CORNWALL TO RAISE EARLY POTATOES.—
1 . The potatoes are set in December and January. 2*
The sort planted are the kidney, and the ash-leaf kidney;
The best ash-leaf kidney are procured from Somerset-
shire, and are planted in the neighbourhood of Uxbridge.

3. The best soil is a light loose soil, and the ground
should be well worked. Old grass-land is preferred.

4. The seed should be set about eight inches in depth,
four inches distance from each other, and the rows four-
teen inches apart. An open situation, facing south or
south-east, in the best situation — proximity to the sea
is the most advantageous. 5. The best manure is long
stable dung covered with sea-weed, the seed being first
slightly covered with earth. 6. The finest, cleanest,
healthiest seed is best. When cut, never plant a piece
with more than two eyes : some prefer one. When
small potatoes are used, they are sometimes planted
whole. 7. To i)rotect the tops from being injured by
early spring frosts is impracticable in extensive planta-
tions ; but, in small quantities, they may be protected
by being planted in sheltered situations, and litter kept
over them, or by trenching them as celery, and covering
the trenches with litter transversely till the weather be-
comes warm.

278

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A monthly council was ixeld at the Society's House I
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 4th of Feb.
Present — The Right Hon. Lord Portman, president, in
the chair : Earl Grey ; R. Archbold, M.P. ; Thos. Ray-
mond Barker, Esq. ; J. R. Barker, Esq. ; S. Bennett,
Esq. ; H. Blanchard, Esq. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; F.
Burke, Esq. ; Col. Challoner : F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; Sir
T. Drake, Bart. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs,
Esq. ; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ;
John Hudson, Esq. ; G. Kimberley, Esq. ; J. Kinder,
Esq.; C. Pocock, Esq.; F. Pym, Esq.; Professor
Sewell; W. Shaw, Esq.; J. V.Shelley, Esq.; Geo.
Turner, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; T. R. Tweed, Esq. ;
H. Wilson, Esq. ; and W. B. Wingate, Esq.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker presented to the
council the report of the Finance Committee, from which
it appeared that the amount of capital invested in the
public funds stood at 8,200/., with a current cash ba-
lance in the hands of the bankers of 1,695/. The council
confirmed the recommendation of the Finance Committee,
that 1,200/. stock should be sold out of the funded pro-
perty of the Society for the purpose of removing the
temporary inconvenience occasioned by the excess of the
expenditure over the receipts at the Shrewsbury meet-
ing chargeable on the funds of the Society, and which at
that time had amounted to 1,600/., independently of the
1,000/. contributed by the town of Shrewsbury towards
the expenses of the meeting. — On the motion of Mr. H.
Gibbs, the various financial returns (of which a detailed
statement was given in our last report) required in his
notice of motion, of the 3rd of December last, were or-
dered to be laid quarterly on the table. — On the motion
of Colonel Challoner, a statement of the ordinary in-
come of the Society for the past year, apart from income
arising from the payment of arrears of subscription,
should also be prepared. The council ordered further
that a list of all members in arrcar of subscription should
lie constantly on the council table for public inspection.
Newcastle Meeting. — The President having laid be-
fore the council a communication from Sir Matthew
White Ridley, Bart., Chairman of the Newcastle Local
Committee, on the subject of the date of the meeting,
it was imanimously decided by the council that the
annual country meeting of 1846, for the Northern Dis-
trict (comprising the counties of Northumberland,
Cumberland, Durham, and Westmoreland, and the
town of Berwick-on-Tweed) should be held at New-
castle-on-Tync in the week commencing on the 13th of
July next ; the principal day of the show, and that of
the pavilion dinner, being Thursday the 16th of that
month.

A letter having been read from Mr. Frere, in reference
to railway accommodation and conveyance to the place
of meeting, the Secretary was directed to enter into com-
munication with the various railway companies, and the

Newcastle Local Committee, on the subject, and report
the result of his inquiries to the council at their next
monthly meeting.

The following communications were received : — A
letter from Mr. Pusey, M.P., to the President, an-
nouncing the preparation of a report by the Analysis
Committee, on the best course to be pursued in the
present state of the inquiry respecting the Ashes of
Plants. Letters and Specimens of Draining Tiles, ad-
dressed to the Duke of Richmond, by Mr. Johnson, of
Northampton. A recommendation from Mr. Thomp-
son, of Moat Hall, that the county of York should form
one of the districts for the country meetings of the
Society. A suggestion from Mr. Martin, of Kingston
House, Dorchester, that engravings should be published
of the prize implements of the vSociety. A printed re-
port from Mr. Dean, of the Proceedings of the Land
Agents' Society. A letter from Dr. Dewhurst, offering
to deliver lectures before the Society. Plans from Mr.
Harrison, of Devizes, of Cattle Sheds, Manure Tanks,
&c. Papers from Mr. Dickson, on the Cultivation of
Flax. An offer from Mr. Stothard, Medal Engraver to
the Queen, of unappropriated medal dies for a royal
medal. An offer of services from Mr. S. Curtis, of New
South Wales, in reference to the promotion of the ob-
jects of the Society. And an intimation from Dr. Cal-
vert, that if the arrangement should be approved by the
Council, he would willingly communicate, in a Lecture
to the members at the ensuing Newcastle Meeting, the
result of his inquiries and practical trials on the subject
of the best Grasses for cultivation.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 11th
of February.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 11th of Fe-
bruary, pi-esent : Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in
the chair ; B. Almack, Esq., T. B. Browne, Esq., Rev.
T. C. Browne, F. Burke, Esq., F. C. Cherry, Esq., C.
Cure, Esq., W. Cuthbertson, Esq., P. Feamhead,
Esq., A. Eraser, Esq., A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H.
Gibbs, Esq., W. Leveson Gower, Esq., W. G. Hayter,
Esq., M.P. ; E. Hussey, Esq., J. Kinder, Esq., Sir
Robert Price, Bart., M.P. ; Prof. Sewell, Sir Richard
Simeon, Bart., S. Solly, Esq., T. Thomas, Esq., T. R.
Tweed, Esq., and J. L. Wight, Esq.

The following communications were received : —

1. A letter from Mr. Rodwell to Lord Portman, the
President of the Society, containing his further re-
sults in the cultivation of the varieties of Italian Rye-
Grass.

2. A statement from Mr. Shepherd, of Shaw End,
near Kendal, of the extensive depredations committed
by rats in that part of the country, and of the means
taken for their destruction.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

•277

3. An offer from Mr. Braley, one of the librarians of
the London Institution, to deliver lectures before the
Society, on the origin and the natural history of clay ;
or more generally, if required, on the process and re-
sults of the disintegration of rocks, as connected with
the production of soil ; the subjects to be treated in
reference to the geology, mineralogy, and mineralogical
chemistry of the arts and of agriculture, and illustrated
by specimens, maps, diagrams, drawings, and numerical
tables, as well as elucidated by the exhibition of such
direct experiments as the topics investigated may require.

4. A letter from INIr. BuUen, Secretary to the Royal
Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, transmit-
ting the prize sheets of that Society for the ensuing
year, and calling the attention of the members to the
prizes placed at the disposal of the Council of that body
by his Excellency Lord Heytesbury, for the encourage-
ment of thorough-draining in Ireland.

5. A recommendation from Sir P. Micklethwaite,
Bart. , that it should be suggested to railway companies
to remove two spits of the top surface of the land on
which the superstructure is to be placed, for agricultu-
ral purposes.

6. Mr. Turner communicated his plan of forming a
new and economical manure.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 18th
of February.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover square, on Wednesday, the 18th of
February ; present : His Grace the Duke of Richmond,
in the chair ; B. Almack ; G. T. Raymond Barker,
Esq. ; T. H. Bateman, Esq. ; S. Bencraft, Esq. ; W.
R. Browne, Esq.; F. Burke, Esq., H. Burr, Esq. ;
Dr. Calvert; F, C. Cherry, Esq.; W. Cuthbertson,
Esq. ; A. E. FuUer, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq.; B,
T. B. Gibbs, Esq. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; J. Kinder,
Esq. ; O. Ogilvie, Esq. ; John Reed, Esq. ; Professor
Sewell; W. Shaw, Esq.; W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq.,
M.P. ; T. P. Stone, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; and T. R.
Tweed, Esq.

Country Meetings. — Mr. Mason, Town Clerk of
Doncaster, addressed a communication to the Council,
soliciting, on the part of the corporation of that borough,
that one of the country meetings of the Society may be
held at Doncaster, at some future time, when the new
succession of districts throughout England and Wales
for the holding of the Society's country meetings after
1847 (when the present schedule ends) shall have been
determined upon. — The Council ordered that the Rota-
tion of Districts' Committee should be summoned to
meet on Monday, the 2nd of March.

Prize Barley. — Earl Spencer transmitted his Re-
port of the cultivation of the Barley selected by the
Judges at the Southampton Meeting for trial along with
the local varieties commonly grown in the neighbour-
hood of the respective parties appointed by the Council
to undertake the task of instituting such trial . This
report was reserved for consideration until the other
communications on the same Bubject have been re-
ceived.

Potato Disease. — Mr. Browne submitted to the in-
spection of the meeting some specimens of diseased po-
tatoes, and stated that he had taken them from a heap
which had lain together for upwards of two months with-
out any increase of the disease. The Duke of Richmond
drew the attention of the meeting to an ingenious plan
which was practised in American families, by cutting off
the stem end containing the eye of the potato, and em-
ploying the remainder for culinary purposes. The por-
tion thus cut off was thrown into a vessel containing lime
and charcoal, for the purpose of preserving it for seed.
His Grace also stated that, not having found the pota-
toes in the north of Scotland affected by the disease, he
had secured a supply for introduction into the county of
Sussex as seed for his future crops. His Grace further
stated that the Duke of Portland having made many ex-
periments relative to the disease in potatoes, he would
take an early opportunity of requesting him to favour the
Council with a report of his results. An interesting dis-
cussion then took place, in which Mr. Raymond Barker,
Mr. Stansfield, M.P., Mr. Fuller, M.P., and Dr. Cal-
vert detailed the results of their respective experience of
the potato disease.

After referring to the diversified results of the last
potato crop, the various prices at which potatoes were
offered for sale in different parts of the country, and the
success which had attended the cultivation of the ash-
leaved kidneys in Buckinghamshire, where one person,
at Aylesbury, had grown upwards of 300 sacks of that
variety, all of which a fortnight ago were perfectly sound,
Mr. Raymond Barker, in alluding to the best means for
securing an adequate supply of good sets for future use,
mentioned the result of an experiment he was induced to
make about ten or twelve years ago, when there was a
considerable scarcity and a very backward spring, on
hearing of the satisfactory result of a similar trial made
a few years previously to that date by a friend of his at
Reading. Having prepared the ground in uniform tilth
and dressing, and planted longitudinally four rows of
equal length, with — 1st, whole potatoes of a fair size;
2nd, halves of similar potatoes cut into two ; 3rd, cut
eyes, such as those commonly obtained when economy
of seed is a consideration in the planting ; 4th, eyes ex-
tracted by a scoop ; Mr. Barker obtained the following
results : — By the last process (No. 4) he retained for
use in the family nearly the whole of every potato, and
had an abundant supply ; from Nos. 1 and 2 of course
nothing could be saved ; and from No. 3 scarcely a cen-
tre now and then for the hog-bucket. On digging up
the crops, and carefully weighing the produce of equal
lengths of the rows of the four systems, Mr. Barker
found the result to be greatly in favour of No. 4, over
two of its competitors, and his impression was that there
was no material difference as to the other one ; but his
primary object at that time being to ascertain the prac-
ticability of effecting the saving of the food without the
loss of a future equal crop, he supposed that he was not
very careful in observing the difference of results among
the other rows. Mr. Stansfield's observations had
reference to his own experiments on diseased potatoes,
and his fear of the consequences, should the disease be

T

278

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

liable to be propagated by cultivation. Dr. Calvert had 1
found charcoal preserve, while peat-eartli considerably
injured, the potatoes embedded in it.

Conditions of Draught- — Mr. Bencraft having sub-
mitted to the Council a detailed explanation of the
principles on which his hames and new saddle were con-
structed, and of the beneficial results which had at-
tended their trial under various circumstances, an in-
teresting discussion ensued, in which the Chairman, Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Turner (President of the College of
Veterinary Surgeons), and Mr. Cherry (Principal Vete-
rinary Surgeon to the Army) , stated to the Council the
result of their experience respectively, on the subject of
draught and harnessing. Mr. Cherry also presented to
the Society (in reference to papers on the subject of one-
horse carts in the last part of the Journal of the So-
ciety) copies of his various pubhshed, as well as pri-
vately printed works, on the best mode of constructing
a cart for hospital service, and of transporting by vehi-
cles, or on the backs of animals, the personal baggage of
the army.

Mr. Glover, Secretary of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Farmers' Club, transmitted a copy of the regulations of
that institution.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 23th
instant.

NEW MEMBERS.

David Jones, Esq., of Glanbrane Dark, Llandovery,
Carmarthenshire, and William Marshall, Esq., M.P., of
Patterdale Hall, near Carlisle, were elected Governors
and the following gentlemen Members of the Society : —

Anderson, William, Bent House, South Shields, Durham
Angeworth, M'iiham, The Hay, Bridgnorth, Salop
Aruiidale, Charles, Scaton Bum Farm, Newcastle-on-Tyue
Bell, IMatthew, M.P., Wolsiugton, Xewcastle-on-Tyne
Buller, James Wentworth, Dowues, Exeter, Devon
Butland, WiUiam, Cliff Cottage, Laiigharne, Carmarthen
Cargey, George, Saudon Hall Farm, Stone, Staffordshire
Chapman, Charles, Extou, Stamford, Liucolushire
Cleiland, Major-Geueral, Walton-uison-Tliames

Cooksou, William, Benwell Lodge, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Coxe, Lieut. James (27th Foot) Newtown Lodge, Hungerford,

Berks
Craig, J., Q,uatt, Bridgnorth, Salop
Curties, Rev. Thomas Chandler, Linton Vicarage, Bromyard,

Hereford
Cuthbert, William, jun., Beaufront, Hexham, Northumb.
Easton, Abel, Strathfieldsaye, Hartfordbridge, Hants
Farhall, Bichard, Billingshvu-st, Sussex
Ferrahee, John, Phocuix Iron Works, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Ferguson, Daniel, Northallerton, Yorkshire
Gibson, George, Kendal, Westmoreland
Glover, William, Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Grenfell, Charles Pascoe, 38, Belgrave-square
Grey, The Hon. Capt., F. W., R. N., Howick, Northumberland
Hutton, Rev. Heurj-, Rectory, Filleigh, South Moltoii, Devon
Jones, John, Pant-y-Corred, Brecknockshire
Jones, John, Blannose Villa, Llandovery, Carmartheuslnre
Keen, Tlioinas, Croydon, Sun-ey
Knipe, J., Ecclestou-street South, Belgrave-square
La Beaume, !M., 11, Argyll-street, Loudon
Lee, Edward, Stocktield Hall, Newcastle-ou-Tyne
Loscombe, Francis, Goodworth, Chatford, Andover, Hants
Macliin, John ^'essey, Gateford Hill, Worksop, Notts
ilackworth, Su: Digby, Bart., Glainisk, Caerleon, Monmouth
^Merrick, J., "VMudsor, Berkshire
IMUes, Charles, 93, Great Russell-street
JIuggeridge, Henry, St. Andrew's-hill, City
Newman, Sir Robert WiUiam, Bart., Mamhead, Exeter
Onslow, Rev. Charles, Church- Knowle, Wareham, Dorset
Ormston, Ptohert, Newcastle-ou-Tyne
Overeud, Willson (J. P.), Sheffield
Pattissou, Jacob, Witham, Essex
Pugh, WiUiam, Coalport, Ironbridge, Salop
Read, George, Easton HaU, Norwich
Reeks, James, Stauden, Hmigerford, Berks
Smith, William, Burton, Belford, Northumberland
Stevens, J. Curzon Moore, 2, Harcourt-buildings, Temple
Thompson, Andrew, Woodford, Kettering, Northampton
Timuigs, Richard, AVarton, Bromyard, Hereford
Walker, WilUam, Wilsie, Doucaster, Yorkshire
WiUiams, Evan, Rhayader, Raduorsliire
Wollen, Joseph "VA^eduiore, Cross, Somersetshire
Wright, John, Chipping-Ougar, Essex
WjTme, William W. E., Mount Siou, Oswestry, Salop.

ON TREE PLANTING.

If one were permitted to form an estimate of
seasons from a comparison of the meteorological
phenomena of ditterent localities, I should say —
judging from the immediate vicinity of my ov/n
residence — that the month of March, even in
its earhest days, is too late for the safe removal of
most deciduous trees or shruhs ; because, during
a term of almost si.xteen years, I have observed but
two of those years wherein there was a fair alterna-
tion of the genicd showers and sunny gleams which
constitute a true " spring," and secure, nearly to
a certainty, the success of every well-performed
operation. Drenching and cold rains long pi'o-

tracted, and their opposites — fierce, parching \vinds,
with a burning sun, have characterized by far the
greater number of the years. To plant, therefore,
in March — a season which, par excellence, ought to
be dry and wind} — in land reposing upon a sub-
stratum of gravel, must be dangerous, unless April
kindly brings with it those showers for which, in
the olden time, it ^vas famed : but when, in lieu of
showers, April is perfectly arid, not only danger,
but almost certiiin destruction must be the result.

There are other locahties far different from that
of East Berkshire, whei'ein both soil, subsoil, and
atmosphere are more suitable and moist ; I there*

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

279

fore shall now allude to two deciduous s/irubs,
both of them extremely ornamental, which may in
most }-ears be removed with a fair promise of
safety, and to one evergreen of surpassing beauty ;
reserving other subjects of the latter tribe for a
future notice.

First, of deciduous plants. There are two varieties
of the gemis ribes, both of modern introduction,
u'hich ought to be found in eveiy garden.

1. The first is the Golden-flowered Ribes, {R.
aureum) introduced from Missouri, in 1812. It
is a strong, rather coarse-growing shrub, which at-
tains 8 or 9 feet in height, but blooms when much
short of that. It prodiices suckers in al)undance,
which rise strong from the beginning, and can be
safely transplanted even when the roots are few in
number. The wood is erect, yellowish-brown ; the
leaves smooth and glossy, three-lobed, toothed ;
bracts long ; flowers pale yellow, self-coloured at
first, but the tint of the carolla heightens in a few
days, and then becomes edged with scru'let. The
odour of the blossom is sweetly fragrant. The
season of bloom is during April and May. Smooth
berries, few in number, on short racemes are occa-
sionally formed, and ripen ; but I have seldom seen
them. This plant suits shrubberies, or shrub
borders, introduced among evergreens. It is,
however, rarely cultivated ; perhaps in consequence
of its rampling suckers, which yet are very easily
regulated.

2. Red-flowering currants {Ribes sanc/uineum),
found by the late Mr. Douglas — or rather, the
seeds were transmitted by him, in 1826, to the
London Horticultural Society. Mr. Paxton figured
this shrub, in No. 1 of his " Magazine of Botanj',"
and stated it to be native of A-arious parts of North
America. It is perfectly redolent of bloom ; its
strong, pendent racemes, comprising ten or tv/elve
richly tinted crimson flowers, emerge from the
angle of almost every leaf, or pair of leaves. The
buds are produced very early in the year, yet rarely
expand till April. The tree, however, is ]ierfectly
hardy, and might be trained with a single stem, to
the height of sixteen feet. The " Murphy winter "
of 1838 did it no injuiy; and one I have in a bed,
which was then a small shrub, is now a tree of veiy
considerable size, that has bloomed profusely every
year, and nearly at the same period, however stern
might have been the preceding frost. The colour
of the flower varies from pale purple to full, rich
l)ink. Mr. Paxton presumes that Mr. Douglas was
perfectly coiTect when he observed that " if the
bushes were planted in soil having a portion of hme
rubbish mixed with it, the blossoms would be more
profuse, and probably of deeper colour." Oi;r soil,
or loam, has chalk in it ; but I have found, that
in whatever soil the plants grow, with me, they are

healthy and full of bloom, whether they stand in
an open exposure or repose under the shade of
laurels and in close shrubbery. The stems are
1n-ownish grey, mottled ; leaves lobed, downy, with
a defined odour of black-currant. Tlie berries here
are abundant : they are large and beautifully
coloured, the ground being a coating of opaque
French-white, over a dark purple husk, abounding
with bristly procepes, which cause each berry to
appear like an elegantly spotted bird's egg, about
the size of a tomtit's.

The Holly-leaved Berberry {Berberis uqui-
foliuiii) is perhaps the handsomest evergreen which
our gardens can boast of. Leaves winged, leaflets
ovato-lanceolate, flat, deeply and regularly toothed,
remarkably shining, of a full olive green, turning
richly purple during winter. It blooms most
freely, e^•en when very small. As a proof, I have
before me a plant — a perfect bush — about a foot
high : it abounds with low, scaled, branchy shoots,
flexiljle, so as to be layered round the main stem ;
and all of these are now showing single racemes of
expanding, yellow blossoms. Nothing can exceed
the beauty of larger bushes, three or four feet high,
full to the base with perfect foliage, contrasting
with the rich lemon tint of numberless blooms ;
and equally so with the dark, glossy berries that
ripen abundantly in autumn. Any good loam suits
this evergreen, and so would heath-soil and vege-
table mould. In hedges, or as a solitary bush, or
interspersedly planted in shi'ubbery, it is always in
its place, orderly in figure, and never intrusive.
Some persons say it is difficult of culture : we find
it to root by layers ; and as its seeds ripen freely
(though birds are equally aware of the circum-
stance), if carefully collected a lai-ge progeny may
be so raised. It is native of North-west America,
introduced about twenty years ago.

J. Towers.

PRODUCE OF SWEDISH TURNIPS ON A
SQUARE PERCH.— Ballinasloe, 2nd Fe.— Su-,— I
beg to enclose you the weight of the produce of one
square perch of Swedish turnips, deprived of tops, tails,
and dirt, taken out of the middle of a moory field of \%
acres which I have been pulling this day, as I found
they were very perceptibly starting to seed, owing, I
beHeve, to the present mild weather, I pledge my
word that, with the exception of putting six or eight
sound ones in place of six or eight that were rotten, that
the rest was done under my own inspection, with the
greatest accuracy, and shows the enormous weight of 9
cwt. 2 cp's. to the perch, or 76 tons to the acre ; and
any portion of the field, with the exception of the ends
of the drills, was just as good as the perch that was mea-
sured. The manure applied was farm-yard, and clay com-
post, and a sprmkling of malt, combing on the top. —
Tours, &c., William Boyd. P.S. I forgot to mention
that the number of turnips in the 9 cwt. 2. qrs. was 226.
W. B. — Irish Farmers' Gazette.

T 2

280

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Bab

.OMETEK.

i Thermometer.

Wind and State.

Atmosphere.

Day.

8 a.m. 10p.m.

Min.

Max.

lOp.ra.

Direction.

Force. ;

8 a.m.

2 p. m.

10 p. m.

Jan. 21

in. cts. in. cts.
29.34 29.16

38

52

52

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

22

29.04

29.20

51

51

48

West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

23

29.23

29.20

43

50

47

S. West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

24

29.37

29.65

42

50

44

West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

25

29.38

29.20

44

52

50

S. West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

26

29. J8

29.18

46

47

47

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

27

29.32

29.60

41

49

46

N. West

hvely 1

cloudy

cloudy

fine

28

29.43

29.53

41

49

42

West

lively

cloudy

sun

fine

29

29.38

29.66

39

50

45

West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

fine

30

29.90

29.90

39

50

50 I

Westerly

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

31

29.98

29.81

47

49

49

Westerly

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

Feb. 1

29.83

29.85

45

47

40

Westerly

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

2

29.64

29.90

38

44

39

N.byE.,S

gentle

cloudy

sun

cloudy

3

29.90

29.71

37

48

47

South West

\'ariable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

4

29.99

30.00

38

44

39

W.S.W.

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

6

29.74

29.80

37

44

41

W.N.W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

6

29.91

30.00

34

45

43

W.byN.

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

7

29.85

29.94

43

56

42

W.N.W.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

fine

8

29.98

29.33

34

34

32

N.byW.

lively

fine

sun

fine

9

30.10

30.18

28

36

28

N.byE.

lively

fine

sun

fine

10

30.30

30.30

25

33

28

N. East

gentle

fine

sun

fine

11

30.16

30.06

25

40

35

N. West

gentle

fine

cloudy

cloudy

12

30.09

30.13

26

42

38

N. West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

13

30.11

30.11

38

45

42

W.N.W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

14

30.10

30.18

33

44

41

W.N.W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

15

30.23

30.23

31

44

40

N. West

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

16

30.23

30.20

37

44

43

N. by W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

17

30.00

30.06

41

49

42 )

N. by W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

18

30.00

30.00

39

45

41 j

N.byW.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

19

30,00

30.00

39

44

45

West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

20

30.02

30.06

39

46

43 1

South

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

ESTIMATED AVERAGES Ol" FEBRUARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

High. 1 Low.

High. 1 ^Low. 1 Mean.

North and N. East Winds . . 6 days.
East and to South 5^

30.807 1 29170. 1 53 1 21 1 36

Real Average Temperature of the above period.

South and So\'.t,h ^^' est 7i

West and to North Qi

Higb.
46

L(

)\V.

38

Mean.

42

Weather and Phenomena. — Jan. 21. —
Wind and much rain. 22. — Improved, but
changeable. 23. — Small rain at times. 24. —
Some sun. 25. — Rain last night and this forenoon.
26. — Wind and rain last night. 27. — Improved.
28. — Changeable — sun-gleams — rain, 29. — Pro-
fuse rain early. 30, — Mizzling rain — wind. 31. —
Cloudy — changeable — wind at night, as has been
generally the case for some weeks. Feb. 1. —
Finer — lunar halo at night. 2. — Profuse rain in
night — fine day. 3. — Red sun -rise — cloudy — damp
day. 4. — Fine day — halo — cirrus clouds. 5. —
Much rain last night — gloom. 6. — Fine day —
driving cirro stratus in evening. 7. — Shower. 8.

— Snow — scuds — first wintry day. 9. — Keen frost,
and a little snow. 10. — Very keen. 11. — The
same. 12. — Frost abates — the days have never
been frosty. 13. — Sober, overcast day. 14. — The
same. 15. — Rime, only for a few hours. 16. —
Rather fine morning — cloudy day. 17, 18, 19,
and 20. — All alike — consistent — gloomy, but
drying.

Lunations. — Jan. 27 : New moon, 9h. 23 m.
morning. Feb. 3 : First quarter, 5 h. 11m. morn-
ing— full, 11th day, 9 h. 12 m. morning — last
quarter, 1 9th day, 4 h. 44 m. morning.

Remarks referring to Agriculture.—
The great quantity of rain which fell during the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

281

latter weeks of January saturated the land, and
floods prevailed in the river valleys. With Febru-
ary the weather improved ; but there were five or
six of its earlier days on which some rain fell.
Flood-water passed away, and the land became

mellow; but everysvhere, we discern, by the tintings
of the ploughed ground, how great is the call for
drainage ; without it, perfection cannot be looked
for. The crops, under all circumstances, are of
fair promise.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— MARCH.

Retrospect. — The very great fall of rain after
the middle of Januarj', which had completely satu-
rated the ground, and made it almost impossible to
touch the surface, abated at its close, and, as was
natural, made the dry weather of February very ac-
ceptable. The air became cooler, and in the second
week there were two or three successive and rather
smart night frosts, which gave a seasonable check
to vegetation in garden and field, February is, or
oirght to be, a dripping month, and so far the year
has been " out of sorts" — an unfavourable prognos-
tic for that seasonable, bracing, and dry weather of
March, which aflfords so excellent a promise.

It was curious to observe the slow progress which
the buds of trees and shrubs made during a great
part of January — a progress by no means corres-
ponding wth the high temperature of the air (not,
in fact, below that of a cold Jvily!), Suddenly,
however, as if by magic, buds swelled, nature ac-
quired an impulse which threatened the develop-
ment of blossoms, and the " flying up," as it is
termed, of many garden vegetables to seed. Broc-
coli came on rapidly; and heads, large and white as
those of an ordinary cauhflower, were far from rare
in the first week of last month. The few frosts, of
6°, 7°, or 8°, were then most seasonable, especially
as the \vind came steady from a northerly point,
and consequently cooler on the whole. Still, how-
ever, the season is remarkable, and we have only to
hope that it may be propitious. Potatoes still
decay; but all tend to grow; and, therefore, if the
vital parts can be preserved suflSciently long, they
may be trusted to raise the middle early planting
of March.

Vegetables raised by Heat.

Our forefathers were much more adroit in form-
ing hot-beds than are gardeners of the modern
school; and the reason is ob\'ious — namely, be-
cause it has been found advantageous, far less
troublesome, and more sightly, to adopt the prac-
tice of forcing in brick pits. But where manure is
plentiful, as in the farmstead, and economy rules
absolute, it is well to be made thoroughly aware of
the method formerly practised by such men as
Abercrombie, who in his day might be reckoned

little inferior to that " prince of gardeners," MiUer,
the renowned author of " The Gardener's Dictio-
nary,"

Cucumbers and melons were raised and success-
fully cultivated by these patriarchs of the gardener ;
and premising only that tree-leaves, especially those
raked off an extensive grass surface, like that of a
park, are essential meliorators of manure, we think
that the following extract from " Mawes Gardener,"
last edition, may be perused with manifest advan-
tage :—

" Choose a place on which to make a hot-bed in
a sheltered dry part of the melon-ground, &c., open
to the morning and south sun; then, according to
the size of the frame, mark out the dimensions of
the bed, either on the ground or with four stakes,
making an allowance for it to be two or three inches
wider than the frame each way ; this done, begin to
make the bed accordingly, observing to shake and
mix the dung well as you lay it on the bed, and beat
it down with the fork as you go on ; but I would not
advise treading it, for a bed which is trodden hard
will not work so kindly, and be more liable to burn
than that which is suflfered to settle gradually of
itself."

The state of the dung must, however, be pre-
viously considered ; it should be that of the stable,
moderately fresh, moist, full of heat, taking long
and short together. If, however, it be rank, it will
be proper to fork the whole well over, blending and
incorporating one-third part of leaves, and placing
the mass in heap, there to let it remain for eight or
ten days to foment equally, by which time it may
either be turned over again, or formed into the bed
as before directed.

Earthing the bed. — After the work is finished,
and if the manure settles evenly, cover it with fine
rich mould, prepared either of loam and decayed
manure, long mellowed together, or Math thoroughly
decayed couch-grass roots, which ultimately yield a
soil eminently favourable to the cucumber. The
frame, meanwhile, should be placed on the bed for
a time'with the lights on, in order to cause the heat
to rise freely ; and during this time the fine-screened
earth is placed under an airy shed to dry sufiiciently.
Then take off" frame and light, make the surface

282

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

smooth, replace the frame, and cover the manure
with the prepared earth four inches deep ; fill three
or four small pots with the same eai-th, place them
in the frame, and when the soil is warm, sow
cucumber and melon seeds, two or three in a pot,
carefully marking the sorts. Some care is required
to prevent scalding the young plant by over heat-
ing, and air must be given occasionally.

Cucumbers are thus raised by seeds sown
from October to March, but melons rarely prosper
till February or March. Cucumbers raised early
are transplanted on ridges raised in new beds pre-
pai'ed for the purpose at the commencement of
March,

In brick-pits heated by dung Hnings raised all
round the outsides, assisted by gentle hot water
heat inside, cucumbers, &c., are now generally
raised, and trained upon a trellis, with gi-eat facihty
and much cleanliness; but ])eri5ons must act ac-
cording to their means.

Mushrooms succeed best in small shelved houses
furnished with troughs or deep trays to receive the
best droppings of the stable, and the fresh covering
loam. Such houses are heated to 50 or 55 degrees
by a hot water pipe, passing through the middle or
around it. External beds are poor things ; but a
melon frame, M'hen the dung has become moderately
cool, ans^vers well.

Open Garden.

Transplant cauliflo^^'ers from frames, or from
under hand-glasses ; the exposure should be warm,
and the ground rich in manure. As the plants
grow, manure-water from dung-hills, or made by
infusing an ounce or two of guano in a large pot of
soft pond water, is very excellent. But though it is
I'ight to transplant supernvuneraries, one single
plant ought still to be retained under each hand-
glass.

Sow broccoli for earliest winter crops ; also some
cabbage seed; transplanting other cabbage of
August soAving, either to fill up blanks, or to make
new beds. Cabbages may stand one foot asunder in
the rows, these being eighteen inches distant, row
from row. Sprinkle guano, weakened with three
times its Inilk of sawdust, charcoal-dust, or sifted
earth, over the surface between rows of autumn-
planted brassicas of all kinds ; then hoe, or fork-dig
the ground.

While recommending guano— beheving it, if good,
to be the most comprehensive of all manures for
very light top-dressing— it will be proper to say that
some of it is in the state of a fine pale brown
powder; while other samples abound with lumps of
saline, grey-white substances, so hard as to require
considerable force to break them: such ought
always to be jjeaten till as small as common salts,
prior to being diluted \vith three times their bulk

of one or other of the ingredients before mentioned.
Sow spinage, lettuce, salading, radishes, onions,
beet-root, carrot, parsnep, once or oftener, at any
convenient time during the two middle weeks of
the month.

Sow peas and beans twice, earthing-up, and
sticking as required.

Celery and celeiiac should be transplanted from
the seed pans, into nursery beds, or the latter in its
final situation at once. J

Sow parsley, purslane, and all the sweet herbs ; "
though most persons, in respect to the last, prefer
rooted suckers, or root offsets.

At the end of the month fork asparagus beds or
rows, turning the loosened soil into the mamu'ed
alleys ; then level and rake the beds.

New beds or rows may be prepared for by deep
trenching, bottom manuring, and by the introduc-
tion of a body of new turfy leaf to create a deep sta-
ple. Saline adjuncts to a very liberal quantity of
fold or stable-dimg, thoroughly blended with the
loam, promise permanent fertility ; such salines are
Potter's guano or bone-dust, either with or without
sulphuric acid, and a tenth part of common salt.
About a gallon would do for every single row of IS
inches wide, 24 inches deep, and six yards long.
Three times this quantity would, of course, be ap-
pUed to a three-row bed ; the ground must settle
till April.

Artichoke. — Clear away decayed leaves, and
point with a fork three inches of rotten manure as
top-dressing.

Sea-kale. — Cut over such plants as are used for
the season, turn the loose earth into the intermedi-
ate spaces, top dress with weakened guano or bone
dust and some salt mixed with fine loam, and rake
the s\u'face.

Fruit Department.
Apricot, peach, and nectarine, finish j^i'uning;
wash the trees with soap-suds or lime-water, and
fork the border lightly ; then mulch the surface
over the roots. Prune and regulate the fig-tree,
and finish v.'ith apples and pears, being ^'ery parti-
cular to keep, or to make, the spurs very compact,
and to train the leaders of espaliers in neat regular
order.

Strawberry borders, beds, and rows, should be
cleared with a wooden rake, trimining off long dead
strings and leaves ; the sm'face ground should be
carefully raised with a small fork, eradicating grass,
crow-foot, sow-thistle, &c., &c., all of which take
free ])Ossession of strawberry-ground ; finally, top
dress with two inches of light loam, wherewith a
pound of guano to every moderate barrow of earth,
or twice that quantity of bone-dust, with some
short decayed manure, may be mixed with the Ijest
effect.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

283

Flower Garden.
Sow every kind ol annual seed in pans or pots,
placing them in the mild heat of a frame either
warmed hy water-pipes or dunpf-lining. All the
hardy herbaceous plants can he safely introduced
or increased by division of roots after the 21st; but
as to annuals, thei'e is much more security in trust-
ing to the method above recommended than by
sowing seeds in the open border.

American shrubs, and indeed all evergreens, can
be planted now ; the shrubberies may be pruned,
and put in trim order; and the grovmd can be fork-
digged, introducing a fair proportion of old rotted
cow manure.

Take great care of auriculas, carnations, &c., in
pots, guarding them from cold driving rains and
sleet showers. Do the same by the best bulbous
plants, particularly when the flower-buds are seen.
Repair box-edgings ; sweep and roll lawns and
gravel walks ; sufter no grass to intnide on the
latter.

Greenhouse and Cool Pits.
Give plenty of air, but prevent ingress of rain.
As plants grow, re-pot, top dress, and give water.
Guano used with great caution, as hquid manure,
may always be substituted for the draining of dung-
hills ; but it should be recollected that nearly 40 per
cent, of the guano consists of salts soluble in water,
sulphates, muriates, phosphates of potassa, soda,
and ammonia, while the insoluble remainder con-
sists chiefly of bone phosphate and urate of am-
monia. Hence, one ounce in three gallons of soft
water, stirred up, giving here a little and there a
little with the utmost care, would confer rich ele-
ments to anything that requires a liquid aliment.

Forcing Department.

Keep the heat lively in the earliest vinery, but
less moist than in the second ; maintain 70° to 80°
in melon and cucumber pits, and an equally high
temperature in the fruiting pine-stove.

As to succession pines, we used to be told to
disroot ! But why ? What good can arise from
the destruction of every imbibing and absorbing
organ ? True it is, that if plants have been ren-
dered torpid by cold atmosphere and a cold bed for
the three months past, the roots may now be black
and dead. But if ahvely heat and steady advance
have been maintained, nothing can be required but
a timely shift into moderate-sized pots, using pure
turfy loam \vith a little bone-dust and charcoal as
drainage, trusting to manure water for future pro-
gressive enrichment.

At the time we finish this article, there is a con-
tinuance of the sober rather gloomy atmosphere so
prevalent of late ; the temperature also has greatly
exceeded the ordinary avei-age, and is about lOdeg.
above that of 1845. — Feb. 19.

AGRICULTURAL QUERY.

to the editor of the farmer's magazine.
Sir, — Wishing to steep my seed-barley and oats,
and being a " young farmer," I shall feel obliged
if any of your valued correspondents will favour
me with the best and most approved method. I
have lately used sulphate of copper for my wheat,
at the rate of half a pound per bushel. Fearing
that v/ould be too large a quantity for spring-com
makes me anxious to obtain better information than
I am possessed of ; or perhaps there is some other
manure better adapted than the one I mention.
Sir, your obedient servant,

O. S. P.

ANSWER TO AGRICULTURAL QUERY.

'lO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir,— Mr. Playford, of Hendenham, near Bungay,
had very recently, and probably has yet, some genuine
specimens of the old Norfolk ram inquired for in your
paper of the 2Gth.

The curious in ancient breeds of stock will be well re-
paid by a moderately long journey to Hedenhara Park,
as there neither the cattle nor the sheep seem to have
been selected for the vulgar purpose of paying rent, but
to preserve in these iron times a few samples of the stock
of ages long gone past. Yours faithfully,

Jan. 28, 1846. A Subscriber.

GUANO V. MANURE.— On reading the report of a
trial made with guano and stable manure, on a crop of
Swedes, at the late dinner of the Agricultural Society,
by Mr. Nicholas Le Ceir, Secretary of the Guernsey
Royal Agricultural Society, I could not but be surprised
at the result in favour of guano, and which I calculate
as follows : —

STABLE manure.

15 tons, at 4s. each per English acre,i;'3 0 0

Cartage of manure, at Is. per ton 0 15 0

Labour of spreading manure, 3 me "Iq 5 q

work, at Is. 8d. each, J

Total

.£4 0 0

GUANO.

ISOlbs.of guano, at 10s. per cwt., .
Cartage, and labour of spreading,

0 15
0 1

- 0 16 0
£i 4 0

To which add the difference of crop in favour "l
of guano, say 6 tons 2 cwt. Swede turnips, V4 11
at 15s. per ton, J

Total amount in favour of guano .... £7 15 6
per English acre, or 3/. 2s. per veree, one-third more
than the yearly rental of the land. Surely, with such a
golden return, our farmers can no longer be blind to the
value and almost miraculous fertilizing qualities of
guano. — An Agriculturist in the Guernsey Star.

284

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR FEBRUARY.

The continuance of unusually mild weather, the
time of year considered, has had the effect of pro-
ducing most abundant supplies of grass throughout
the whole of England ; indeed, we seldom or never
recollect to have witnessed such an immense avail-
able supply of pasture and other food for live stock
as during the month just concluded. Vegetation
in general has, as might be expected, proved un-
usually forward ; indeed, the whole face of nature
reminds us of our being in the middle of spring
rather than at the close of February. Not^vith-
standing this forv/ard state of things, the accounts
which have reached us from most quarters re-
lative to the appearance of the young wheat plants
are favourable, and they are reported as progress-
ing rapidly.

The early lambing season has been productive of
a fine fall of lambs; and it affords us great
pleasure to state that, owing to the openness of the
weather, very few losses have been sustained.

The various corn markets have been but mo-
derately supplied with English wheat, yet the de-
mand for that article has been in a sluggish state,
at about stationary prices.

The supply of barley has been great ; hence, the
sale for it has ruled heavy, at a decline in value of
from 2s. to 4s. per quarter.

Full average supplies of malt have been on show,
and which have sold slowly, on somewhat easier
terms.

For oats — the arrivals of which from Ireland
have been considerably on the increase — we have
to report a didl sale, at a depression in value of
from Is. to Is. 6d. per qr.

Both beans and peas have been purchased on
easier terms ; while flour has been a mere drug.

Our advices from Scotland and Ireland are to
the effect that considerable heaviness has prevailed
in the corn trade, and with it, prices have again
retrograded for most descriptions, with fair ave-
rage supplies on offer.

The lengthened debate in the House of Com-
mons, on the subject of the corn laws, and the
almost certainty that Sir Robert Peel's measure
will receive the sanction of the legislature, have
produced an excitement in the agricultural world
almost wthout a parallel. Although many parties
appear, from their inertness, to have settled down
to their future fate, it is most gratifying to find
that the representatives of most of the agricxUtural

districts have fearlessly done their duty, in op-
posing a measure fraught with injustice to the
farmers of England. Without denying the exis-
tence of distress in Ireland, we are still of opinion
that the rumours as to the extent of the failure in the
potato and other crops, have no positive foundation
in truth. Now, it occurs to us, that were the
people of that country on the eve of famine, efforts
would have been made to keep back some portion
of the immense supplies of grain and other pro-
duce which are almost daily finding their way
into our various ports. From a return lately
issued by the Board of Trade, we perceive that the
receipts of all kinds of grain, as well as flour and
live stock, during 1845, were considerably in excess
of those in any former year. Surely this does not
savour much of scarcity. As to the supplies of
grain in the hands of our farmers, we have every
reason to know they are tolerably good. What,
then, in this state of things, will be the result of the
passing of the measure now under the considera-
tion of the Legislature? The quantity of wheat
and other grain that will be released at a low duty
within six weeks from this time, will exceed
1,300,000 quarters; consequently, it is fair to
presume that prices will fall considerably below
their present level, as we must not forget that, in
addition to the above quantities, very large supplies
are now on their way hither from America and
elsewhere. We look, then, upon this scheme as
fraught with great injustice to the home growers.
The other alterations proposed in the tariff are
equally subversive of their interests.

NORTH NORTHUMBERLAND.

In our first report from this district for the year '46,
it is our pleasing duty to return thanks to Divine Provi-
dence for the almost uninterrupted continuance of fine
weather since the commencement of the year. During
the entire month of January, out-door work in every de-
partment was carried forward, and we never recollect
any season in which farm-work and vegetation had made
such progress as in the past f first) month of the year.
February came in with a " bit storm," a heavy gale from
N.E., with smart showers of sleet, hail, and snow,
which lay on the high grounds for a few days ; but so
moderate has been the temperature, that we cannot ob-
serve the slightest check put to the growth of the tur-
nips, which are Ceven on high situations) running fast to
a flower stem, For the last few days the weather has

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

285

been very fine. Late-sown wheats have come up heal-
thy and strong ; but we observe many fields (autumn-
Bown) where the plant looks thin, but it is too early to
speculate on the appearance of the wheat plant. As it
is, a great breadth of this staple grain crop will be
sown in fine condition this week. New grass and old
pastures (where uneaten) present a full bite for sheep.
Turnips are more plentiful than expected last autumn ;
and should the fine genial weather continue for a few
weeks, those left on the land will be alike valuable to the
bee fancier and the flock master. Markets have kept
steady, with an upward tendency for fat in all the bor-
der markets held lately. Sheep are wanted, and beef is
selling at a price remunerative for the feeder ; the grain
crop, however, will tell tales when the spring rents be-
gin to fall due. The yield of wheat is greatly com-
plained of ; and the bulky crops reaped last harvest all

over the fine lands of Bambroshire deliver a poor acre-
age produce in the thrashing barn. Oats and barley
yield better, but prices are receding. Potatoes are not
much grown in this district as an article for sale: last
year's crop lifted from the field was unusually great, but
like " men and measures," they were only a " shadow
of things to come." Where the crop was lifted and
carried in the usual way to the pit, they very soon went
to corruption, but when carefully stored in dry grana-
ries, or sheds, and turned, picking out the diseased tu-
bers, they have kept tolerably well, and we shall at least
have seed with a spare one for the table. Labourers are
fully employed ; the line of railway now forming through
this county has taken all the extra hands, and wages
are on the advance. Draining is now costing for labour
one-third more than at the same date last year. — B.
Feb. 16.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The ministerial proposition to admit foreign stock
into this country free of duty, and the great in-
crease which has lately taken place in the imports
of human food, have, as might naturally be ex-
pected, formed the svibject of serious discussion
amongst the agricultural community during the
whole of the past month. In the observations
which we shall offer to the consideration of our
readers on this all-important question, we shall not
allow ourselves to be led away by the sophistry of
the opponents of British industry ; but confine our-
selves to undeniable facts. In the first place, it
becomes necessary for us to expose a series of
glaring inaccuracies which have appeared in the
columns of the Times, which has asserted that "the
importations of live stock for the London market
continue on a very limited scale." Now, we are pre-
pared to prove — and which we shall presently do
from the returns derived from official sources — that
these, during the present year, have greatly ex-
ceeded those of any previous season since the pass-
ing the new tariflf. But the Times goes on to as-
sert, " The importance of admitting foreign cattle
into England free of duty begins to wear the aspect
of unquestionable necessity. The stock of cattle,
and sheep in particular, in the country is at this j)re-
sent moment so immeasurably below the demand,
that the prospect of an extraordinary rise in the
price of mutton and meat generally is no longer a
question of doubt, but clear certainty, imless some
means be taken to meet the consumption. It is
doubtful, however, if even the proposed measure of
the Premier will be adequate for the pressing exi-
gency of the case ; for it is ivell known that the sur-
plus stock of cattle in Holland, France, Spain, or
Germany is small, compared with the enormous

consumption of meat in this country, and which
svirplus only, it may be expected, will come to this
country." Whence this sapient scribe has derived
his agricultural knowledge, we are at a loss to di-
vine; but in this instance he has displayed as
great a density of ignorance of the whole matter as
could well be conceived. What does he mean us
to infer from " the stock of cattle and sheep being
so immeasurably below the demand ?" If refer-
ence be made to the arrivals of beasts up to Smith-
field and our other large markets of consumption in
the provinces, it will be seen that the supplies have
not fallen off to any great extent ; indeed, we have
every reason to know, taking into considera-
tion the quaUty of the stock, that the actual
weight of meat disposed of has been above that of
the average of ordinary years ! Perhaps, however,
the writer in the Times will not perfectly compre-
hend us, though it must be quite as clear to him
as the " great fact" he announced some months
since, to the eft'ect that " an arrival of stock for the
metropolitan market had taken place from Cal-
cutta!" To show the absurdity of such a state-
ment, we may intimate, for the amusement of our
readers, that the expense of shipping an ox from
the above-named port would be somewhere about
one hundred pounds ! As to the available supplies
of beasts in this country, we have no hesi-
tation in saying they are not deficient, but the prin-
cipal reason that the actual numbers brought for-
ward have not been considerably on the increase, is
principally the result of the immense available sup-
plies of dry and succulent food on almost the whole
of our large stock-farms. Such is the abundance of
turnips, &c., that it is found almost impossible to
consume them. The causes to which we have before

286

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

alluded, viz., the great drought experienced in
1844, which compelled the flockmasters to send
their sheep to market in a half-fat state, and thus
submit to ruinous losses, have, we admit produced
a scarcity of sheeji in most districts, and a corres-
ponding decrease in the supplies disposed of in the
metropolis and elsewhere ; stiU, is'it reasonable to
suppose that such a deficiency will continue after
another good lambing season ? As respects " the
surplus stock of cattle in Holland, France, and
Germany," we are perfectly aware that in the two
former countries, it is by no means large ; but what
is the case in the latter, whence eventually our
principal imports will be derived ? Now, it is well
known that immense numbers of both beasts and
sheep are available in Germany; and so soon
as our import duties are abolished, larger
droves will speedily find their way into Holland,
and be fattened in that country preparatory to their
being exported to England. This is not an idle
assumption ; and, further, we have no hesitation in
saying that we could readily draw 20,000 beasts,
and 100,000 sheep annually from the Dutch ports,
without producing any material rise in the value of
stock, either in Germany or Holland. We look,
therefore, upon the proposed measure of Sir Robert
Peel as one sure in its fatal eflfects upon the in-
terests of the English grazier ; and we have a full
conviction that, in the course of years, it wiU ma-
terially reduce the value of live stock in this country.
Allusion has been made to what has been termed a
considerable advance of late in the value of sheep,
but we maintain that no actual rise has taken place
in it during the last six weeks, for, though the
quotations obtained for the live sheep have been
good, it must not be forgotten that the ofFal has be-
come much more valuable than some time since ;
hence the advance is more imaginary than real.

During the month just concluded, the imports of
live stock into London, and at the outports, have
been again on the increase — they having amounted
to 1,094 beasts, 1,693 sheep, 20 calves, and 62
pigs, from Hambro', Rotterdam, Harhngen, and
Scheidam, in fair condition. In February, 1845,
we received 478 oxen and cows, together with 581
sheep, from which it will be seen that we have an
increase this season, in beasts of upwards of one
hundred, and in sheep of three hundred per cent.

From our own districts the receipts of stock up
to Smithfield have been as xmder : —

Beasts 13,140

Cows 590

Sheep 78,270

Calves 640

Pigs 2,031

At the same period last year the supplies were
as follows ; — ■

Beasts ' 13,879

Cows 527

Sheep 119,950

Calves 659

Pigs 2,159

From the above, it will be seen that the only ac-
tual deficiency — as we have before observed — has
been in sheep. On the whole the general demand
has ruled steady, though, at the close of the month
the quotations were barely equal to those at its
commencement, if we except the prices of sheep,
^I'hich were 4d. to 6d. higher, at Avhich, however,
some difficulty was experienced in effecting clear-
ances.

The monthly comparison of figures stands
thus : —

Per Slbs. to sink the oftal.

Feb. 1845. Feb. 1846.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef 26 to 42 26 to 42

Mutton.. ..28 4 4 36 56

Veal 40 54 42 54

Pork 3 0 4 4 3 10 5 2

The bullock droves, since our last, have thus
come to hand from the following counties : —

Norfolk, Suflfolk, &c 4,800 head.

Northern counties 2,100

Western do 2,650

Other parts of England 1,400

Scotland 400

Ireland 130

The remainder of the supplies have been de-
rived from abroad, and the neighbourhood of
London.

Up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, the re-
ceipts of country-killed meat have been somewhat
on the increase, and of improved quality. Gene-
rally speaking, the demand has been in a sluggish
state at our quotations. Beef, from 2s. 6d. to 3s.
6d. : mutton, 3s. 6d. to 4s. 8d. ; veal, 4s. 4d. to
5s. 4d.; and pork, 3s. Sd. to 5s. 2d. per Slbs. by
the carcase.

The country supplies of meat have been thus
derived : —

Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

Scotland 103 1060 — 1270

Yorkshire 113 1312 — 1750

Lincolnshire .... 136 400 — 350

Norfolk 96 280 — 320

Suffolk 95 260 ~ 310

Cambridgeshire.. 136 350 — 260

Essex 70 270 150 420

Surrey 140 420 220 850

Devonshire .... — — — 280

Wiltshire 200 370 145 430

Other parts . , , . 230 630 270 900

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

287

REVIEW OP THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY.

The majority by which Sir Robert Peel is
expected to carry his motion in the Commons,
renders it lorobable that no effectual opposition to
the measure will be offered in the upper House, and
the corn-laws of 1842 may therefore be regarded as
virtually repealed.

History scarcely affords a parallel of poUtical dis-
honesty at all to be compared to that displayed by
the present Ministry to the agricultural interest.
They obtained power solely on the understanding
that they were prepared to uphold adequate protec-
tion to native industi-)'. 'ITiat was the watchword
which enabled Sir Robert Peel, on former occasions,
to command his overwhelming majorities ; and
though he soon began to exhibit his leaning to free
trade by hitroducing the new tariff and Cana-
dian corn bill, still no one suspected that he could
so far forget the interest of the party by whose
means he obtained his strength, as to propose a re-
peal of his own enactment, brought foi-ward little
more than three years ago, as a final settlement of
the question. Admitting that the failure of the
potato croj) in Ireland is to the full as serious as it
is represented to be, surely a temporary evil might
have been met without permanently altering the
aws regulating the import of corn. If there really
be grounds to api)rchend scarcity, our Government
might ha^-e taken the same steps as several of the
continental governments have been forced to adopt,
namely, opened the ])orts for a given period, say till
next harvest, though we are far from allo^^'ing that
any such course would have been necessary, as the
regular working of the system on which the law of
1842 is framed, would have caused the duties on
grain to have fallen to the minimum point before
prices had risen to a height likely to occasion se-
rious inconvenience to the consmners. It is how-
ever of little avail to argue the matter ; the example
set by the Prime Minister has been followed by
many who stood pledged to a contrary course, and
henceforth the heavily-taxed British farmers will
have to compete Mnth the comparatively untaxed
foreigner.

That the ultimate residt of the rash experiment
will be detrimental to all classes of the community,
including the prime mover (the manufacturer), is
more than probable; but, owing to the unusual cir-
cumstance of a deficient harvest over the greater
part of Europe, the fvill extent of the mischief may
not for some time be developed.

'SXe shall here take our leave of pohtics, beheving
that our readers are as much disgusted with the
subject as ourselves.

In commencing the regular business of our
monthly retrospect, the weather engages the first
place. Rarely have we experienced a more open,
and on the whole favourable winter. Should there
be no severe frosts in March, the spring must be
an unusually early one. The wheat plant has not
received a single check ; its aspect is everywhere
vigorous and healthy, mthout being prematurely
luxuriant. Quite the usual breadth of land is under
this crop, and up to the present time there is every
promise of future abundance.

All kinds of green crops have, throughout the
winter, been plentiful, and keep for cattle has been
abundant. The mildness of the season and the
profusion of grass have greatly lessened the neces-
sity for stall feeding, which has been a considerable
saving to farmers. The preparation of the land for
spring sowing has also been carried on under highly
ausjiicious circumstances ; and from present appear-
ances it seems that the Lenten crops will be got in
eai'ly, and in first-rate condition. Thus far, there-
fore, our prospects are cheering, and were it not
for the storm in the political horizon, the British
farmer would have little cause to be dissatisfied with
the opening of the year 1846. The depreciation
which has taken place in the value of his i)roduce
since the beginning of November (when it was first
rumoured that the Government contemplated
making a material alteration in the laws), has,
however, injured the growers of corn very severely
in a pecuniary point of view ; the price of wheat has
since then been reduced fully 10s. ]ier quarter, and
other descriptions of agricultural property in nearly
the same proportion. If this had been the effect
of a large yield, the extra quantity would, of course,
in a great measure, have compensated for the low-
ness of price ; but as regards wheat, it has repeatedly
been admitted that the crop of 1845 was decidedly
deficient of that of average years.

So com])letely have all our previously conceived
notions been upset by political events, that we feel
more than ordinary difliculty in forming our opi-
nion respecting the probable range of pi-ices during
the time which mvist elapse before another crop
can be gathered. On the whole, we are, however,
disposed to adhere to what we have on former oc-
casions expressed, viz., that the late fall has not

288

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

been warranted on the grounds which usually
operate to produce a depression ; and we cannot
but think that, sooner or later, this will be found
to be the case. If, as is generally supposed, the
produce of wheat in Great Britain has really been
defective, it is not very easy to determine
from whence supplies are to reach us to make up
for the deficiency. In Poland the scarcity of food
is stated to be so great, as to have hurried the peo-
ple into revolt ; and the export of aU kinds of grain,
excepting wheat, has been forbidden from that
country. Latterly the Prussian Government has
deemed it prudent to put a stop to shipments of
grain from the Rhenish provinces ; and instead of
Holland drawing supplies from that quarter, the
Dutch merchants have been sending wheat up the
Rhine. It seems pretty clear, therefore, that be-
fore England can expect to have her wants supplied
by shipments from the north of Europe, prices wUl
have to advance here considerably above their pre-
sent level. If we turn our attention to the Mediterra-
nean, affairs will be found to present nearly the
same features ; nor do we think that the shipments
from North America — of the extent of which so
much has been said — will be so overwhelming as
represented, unless American shippers are assured
of a higher return for their goods than prices in
our markets at present can lead them to expect.

By the foregoing remarks, we do not wish to be
xmderstood to say that Great Britain would expe-
rience any difhculty in importing a million, or even
two millions of quarters, if it should be found that
we really required assistance ; but merely that she
will have to pay high to secure even the first-
named quantity, and that any fall from present
rates is consequently improbable. The trade in
wheat has nevertheless remained in an extremely
inactive state since we had last the pleasure of ad-
dressing our readers, the previous depression hav-
ing been rather added to by the protracted debate
on the corn-law question, there being, up to the
present period, a feehng of uncertainty how the
matter wiU be ultimately settled.

The arrivals of wheat coastwise into London have
not been large ; but, as compared with those of the
month immediately preceding, an increase is shown.
A large proportion of the supply has been from Lin-
colnshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, most of
which has gone direct to the millers without ap-
pearing at Mark Lane for sale. The actual opera-
tions in the market have therefore been unusually
small ; indeed, the system of buying free on board
on the coast is gradually becoming more general,
and the business of the English factors is daily de-
creasing. Whether the Essex, Kentish, and Suf-
folk farmers have so far reduced their stocks as to
have become indifferent about selling more at pre-

sent rates, we have no data to determine ; but cer-
tain it is, that they have for some time past sent
comparatively little grain to market. On no occa-
sion during the month has the show of samples
from these counties been large ; still, as before re-
marked, the demand has been of so restricted a
nature, that the moderate receipts have not been
felt as an inconvenience. The tendency of prices
has, however, rather been upwards, particularly for
good qualities On the first Monday in the month
(the 2nd), factors succeeded in placing the finer
sorts at rates Is. to 2s. per qr. above those pre-
viously current, but it has since been unpossible to
exceed the prices of that day. The attempt was
made both on the ] 6th and the 23rd, and in some in-
stances a trifle more may have been realized for
choice dry samples of white ; but so far from
any rise having occurred in the value of the
ordinary runs, we question whether the terms at
which sales have recently taken place have been
quite equal to those realized in the commencement
of the month.

The indifferent condition in which most of the
home-grown wheat has come to hand has rendered
it very unfit for grinding, without a mixture of old.
Duty-paid foreign, of good quality, has conse-
quently been in fair request. The continued drain
of the finer sorts (for the purpose of mixing)^ ever
since last harvest, has so reduced the stocks in
granary, that it has recently become difficult to ob-
tain even tolerable parcels ; and, as the ordinary
sorts have been wholly neglected, the transactions
in free foreign have been less extensive than would
otherwise have been the case. In bonded wheat
the operations have also been on a restricted scale,
and we rarely recollect a period at which so little
disposition has been shown to enter into speculative
investments. Considering that wheat under lock
has throughout the month been freely offered at
least 10s. to 12s. per qr. below the rates at which
the same qualities have been held free ; and that
most parties look upon it as nearly certain that Sir
Robert Peel ^vill carry his measure reducing the
duty at once from I7s. to 4s. per qr., it is certainly
singular that so little speculation should have taken
place. The explanation, is, however, to be found
in the state of the money market ; the great diffi-
culty which has existed in obtaining the usual
faciUties, and the consequent caution which mer-
chants and factors have been obliged to use in
entering into fresh engagements. Under these
circumstances, the business done in bonded wheat
has been principally in retail, for the purpose of
being immediately released for home consumption,
the want of fine quality haNdng been so great that
millers have been compelled to adopt that course
to obtain the requisite quality for mixing. In

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

289

these cases the current duty has, however, not been
paid, the object having been effected by bonded
certificates, at a cost of from lis. to r2s. per qr.

The demand for flour has, throughout the
month, been exceedingly slow, the mildness of
the season and the abundance of vegetables having
sensibly diminished the consumption of bread.
Up to Monday, the 23rd, the nominal top price of
town-manufactured flour was kept up at 56s. per
sack ; on that day the principal millers put down
the quotation 3s., but even the reduced rate is still
too high, in proportion to the prices at which coun-
try-made flour has been selling. Good Norfolk
households have at no period during the month
commanded more than 4'2s. per sack in the river,
and lately 40s. to 41s. has become the current sel-
ling price. In the early part of February, United
States flour in bond was generally held at 30s. per
barrel; subsequently holders gave way Is. to 2s.,
when a speculative demand ensued, and lately
several thousand barrels have changed hands,
under lock, at 28s. per barrel. At Liverpool the
article has been sold even cheaper, say 26s. ; and,
as most of this flour must have been bought at
high rates in America, the importers must have been
heavy losers. Large as the quantity of wheat and
flour in the United Kingdom is, it would scarcely
suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants of
Great Britain for a month ; if, therefore, the state-
ments of the minister respecting the probable want
which may hereafter be felt, owing to the failure of
the potato crop, be not greatly exaggerated, farmers
have not much reason to be alarmed at the extent of
the stock of foreign bread-stuff's.

Notwithstanding the very important fall which
has recently taken place in the value of barley, the
growers have continued to supply the different
markets freely with this grain ; in some parts of
Norfolk, good 50lbs. feeding quahties have actually
been sold at the low price of 23s. per qr., and the
finer descriptions have declined in nearly the same
proportion. The arrivals of barley into London
have been on a very hberal scale, and having pre-
\'iously rather a large quantity on the market, the
greatest difficulty has been experienced in effecting
sales. Even the best malting qualities, which, up
to the close of January, commanded comparatively
high rates, have receded materially. Good malting
parcels have recently been sold at Mark Lane, at
34s. to 35s. per qr. On the ordinary sorts the fall
has been still greater : indeed, for some weeks past
common kinds of barley have been hterally unsale-
able. There can be no question that the depression
in this grain has been considerably heightened by
the fear that the admission of Indian com at a
nominal duty will cause large imports of the latter
article, which would of course have the effect of in-

terfering with the sale of all articles used for feed-
ing purposes. The languid state of the barley
trade has naturally influenced quotations of malt.
The fall on the latter article has, however, not been
nearly so great as that on the former, good brown
malt having at no period been sold in the London
market below 53s., while the best pale Ware has
been held at 62s. to 63s. per qr. In addition to the
other causes calculated to produce a depression, the
failure of a house largely engaged in malting was
announced in the early part of the month.

During the first fortnight in February, the ar-
rivals of oats into London were small, and an
opinion began to prevail that Ireland was not in a
position to afford us our usual supply. Within this
week or two we have, however, received a large
quantity from thence ; and the latest advices from
the sister isle admit that rather important shipments
were still in progress for the English markets.
This certainly does not look much like famine ; but
if it should be urged that the fact of the Irish ex-
porting their grain at a period of great internal ne-
cessity only proves the extent of their poverty, we
answer that government would do better to purchase
the grain there, and afterwards sell it again at a
moderate price, to alleviate the wants of the people,
than purchase Indian corn in America, as it is re-
ported to have done for the purpose of feeding the
distressed Irish. The trade in oats at Mark Lane
has remained in a very quiet state throughout the
month. At one time there was some appearance of
the market becoming bare, and in partial cases a
trifling advance on the rates current at the close of
January were obtained. This, however, was by
no means general. Lately the dealers have acted
with BO much caution, that in cases where, in con-
sequence of the expiration of the lay days, it has
been necessarj' to get vessels cleared, factors have
been compelled to submit to a decUne of 6d. to Is.
per qr. Of foreign oats the arrivals have been un-
important ; and at present there are ver}' few in
bond in the United Kingdom.

Beans continued to recede in value till near the
close of the month, when a somewhat improved de-
mand sprung up : still no rally has as yet taken
place in the value of the article. The duty has
risen rapidly, and is at present 7s. 6d. per qr.

Though the supplies of peas have been moderate,
and an opinion prevails that later in the year
they will, omng to the large shipments made in the
autumn to Holland and Belgium, run short, still
peas of all descriptions have up to the present
time been difficult of disposal. The best white
boilers are certainly not worth more than 42s. to 45s.
at Mark Lane ; and grey and maple may be had at
prices varying from 32s. to 35s. per qr.

The reference we made in the foregoing portion

290

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of this article to the position of the grain trade
abroad, renders it scarcely necessary to enter into
a further detail in this place ; still, as we have not
before taken much notice of prices abroad, we may
as well follow our usual custom, and furnish our
readers with the most recently received quotations
at the different foreign ports.

The latest advices from Danzig state that really
fine high-mixed wheat, the growth of 1842, was
then still held at 55s. per qr. free on board ; but
fair qualities of new were obtainable at 48s. to
50s. The stock was rather large, amounting to
nearly 700,000 qrs, ; it was, however, the general
opinion that, in consequence of the great scarcity
prevailing in Poland, the supplies down the Vistula
■would be unusually small during the summer
months. At the lower Baltic ports a moderate
amount of business appears to have been done in
wheat, partly for shipment to Belgium. At Ros-
tock, Stettin, and neighbouring ports, good heavy
red wheat might at present be bought at 4Ss. to
50s. ; but it was the general impression at those
places that the slightest increase in the demand
would be immediately followed by an advance.

In the Mediterranean PoHsh Odessa wheat (the
quality mostly received from thence) is nearly as
dear as in this country ; and in the United States
markets flour was, according to the latest accoimts,
selhng at 22s. to 24s. per barrel.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL

February 23.
Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 53 5S
Old, red 5fi fi'2

MEASUR

White.. 54
Do 60

New.... 38
Chevalier 86
Bere ... 26
Brown.. 50
Chevalier 05
Potato.. 26
Cork,wliite23
Westport 24
Black .. 21

Old, small 48
Maple . . 36
Boilers.. 50

<rsk. of 2801b8
46

1 BOND.

e — 60

Feed ... 19
Baltic .. —

E,

63
64

SI .IS

40

Barley, Grinding, 28 31 Malting 31 34
Irish 27 28

Malt, Suftolk and Norfolk 58 63

Kin£;ston and Ware CO —

Oats, Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 22 —
Yougrhall and Cork, black. . 21 22
Dublin 23 24

27
60

21 23

OO

25 27

20 21

..... 34 88

riO

Peas, Grev

■\Vhife

36 —

4fi iA

Flour, Town-made 55 46 SufTolk 42 — p(
Stockton and Norfolk 40 41 Irish 4-i
FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR 11

Wheat Dant/ic 52 fiC\ fin

50 52

52 54

...20 23 26

.... 24 28

"0

44 —

Peas

50 —

Flour, Amorican, per brl..

.... 30 3i

-

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ending Wheat.} Barley.; Oats, i Kye. Boans.i Peas.

Ja)i. 10th ..

nth..

2Uh

31st 51 8

Feb. 7rli 54 3

14th 54 9

A prj^rcp^ate ttveraj^e of

the six weeks which

reij'ulates the duly. 55 3
Duties payiihle in

L.mdon till Wrd-|

npsdiiy TiHxt inclu-
sive, and at theOut-I

ports till the arrival

of the mail of that'

day from Lond.m . .; 17 0
Do. on grain from

British possessions

out of Europe ... 4 0

56 3 I 31 10 21 9
58 2 i 31 11 [ 22 3

55 7 I 31 8
31 3

n

9
8
0

. -- 2

30 6 21 0 ! 32 7

21 10
21 10

30 10 21 7

33
34
37
32
34

36 9
86 1

35 9
34 9

4 I 21 10 I 34 2 35 II

38 II

39 3
36 8
:i5 8
35 6

35 7

36 II

7 0 6 0 8 6i
0 6 3 0 0 6

7 6
0 6

PRICES OF SEEDS.

February 23.

Seed, Rape 2il. 2Gl. Irish .. —J. —/. per last.

nitto, new 25?. — /. per last.

Linseed, Baltic. 40 44 Odessa 45 47

Mustard, white 10 12 brown — — per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English.. — I W. 10s. to 12/. Os. per liioo

Linseed, English, sowing 54 60

Carraway 44 46 new

Coriander 11 14 percwt.

Mustard, brown, new.,.. 10 12 white

Hempseed 35 38 per qr.

Trefoil 17 24 old

Mediter. & Odessa 44 45

Canary, 48 49 per qr. fine 51 52s.

Tares, Winter 7s. 9d. to 8s. 3d.

crushing 45 47 per qr
48 50 percwt.

9 11 p. bush

— new —

PRICES OF HOPS.
BOROUGH, Monday, Feb. 23.
There has been a tolerably steady inquiry for the best
pockets, and at fully previous rates, though there is not
much inquiry for other sorts. The quotations are —

Sussex New Pockets £Q S to .£7 5 per cwt.

Weald of Kent ditto 6

Mid Kent ditto 7

East Kent ditt) 9

Mid Kent Basis ««.... 7

East Kejit ditto 8

S to £7

5 7 7

7 9 9

9 10 10

5 8 3

0 9 9

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Ini|). Quarter, from the
Gazette, of Friday last,
Feb. 20th, 18-16.

s. d.
54 9

SO 6

0\T3

&1 9

Rye

32 7

Beans

34 9

Pjbas

85 7

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the lasi
year, Friday, Feb. 2l8t,
1845.

6. .1.

Whe.it 45 5

Barley 33 o

Oats 21 6

Rye 30 I

Beans 35 8

Peas 85 7

POTATO MARKET.
SOUTHWARK, Waterside, Feb. 23.
The supply to this market since this day se'nnight
has been limited ; yet, in consequence of the unprece-
dented mildness of the weather, the trade is very heavy,
at the following prices : York Reds, 80s. to 130s. ; York
Regents, 80s. to 110s. (dull trade) ; Scotch Reds, 60s.
to 80s. ; Montrose Buffs and I31ues, "Os. ; Jersey
Blues, 70s.

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.
LEEDS, Feb. £0. — Sales of combing and clothing wools this
week have not exceeded the quantity required by the manufac-
turers for immediate use. Prices are statiouary.

LIVERPOOL, Feb. 21.
Scotch. — There still continues a moderate demand
for Laid Highland Wool, and as the supply is light, prices
are well supported. White Highland is still neglected.
Good and well-conditioned Crossed and Cheviot Wool
are in fair demand at full rates ; inferior are neglected.

s. d. s. d.
Lakl Hiahlr.nd Wool, per 241bs .... 9 3 to 9 9
WhUe HlsliUmd do 12

Laid Crossed

Do.
Do. C.'iavjot

Do.
Wliite Do,

do., unwashed.... 11

do., washed 12

do. unwashed .... 11

do. .washed , 14

do 24

3

13

0

6

12

0

0

14

0

0

14

6

0

18

0

0

23

0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

291

PRICES OF SHARES.

Shares.

Div. last
half year

24,000

9,500
10,000
30,000

9,500
15,000

6,640

86,000
61,000

■12,000

40,000

35,000

21,600
19,000
12,800
17,11(10
144,000

144,000
144,000

4,800
2,000

18,000

RAILWAYS.

1 Price per

Share.

Aberdeen 1 0/ pd

Anib^r, Notnghni., Boston, & Krewash
June 2j; pd|2j

21 psh ArmaKh,Colpriiine,Portrush25;shlf5/|icl
Bideford and Tavistock \^l pd

103 Birmingham and Gloucesterioo; eh pdlliO ex-d

Do. New, iss. Tj dis. .. 25/ sh 17 j' )id]-31
Birmingham and Oxford Junction,
20/ sh 21 pd
B<istoii, Stamford, and Binningh. 22si)d|
Brighton, Lewes, & HastinL'S,50'6li2(t/pd

HSspsli Bristol and Exeier . . .. l(i'>/ sli 70/ id|.98j a 7
Ditto New 3:3j/ sh 5/ pdl 12

12s p sh Bristol and Gloucester ..60/ sh 3"/ pd|
Bristol and Liverpool Junction 2,^/ pd|

Caledonian 50/ sh IO/p.1'14 a V'i

Ditto New 25/ sh 2^/ \«iM a f

Do. Extension 2.j/ sh 2J/ pfl'2g a i

Cheltenham and Oxford 2/ pd 2g

Chelmsford and Bury 1§/ pil|

Chester and Holyhead... 50/ sh 20/ pd,21| a i

Chester and Ulanehester 42s pd|

Clydesdale Junction 5/ j.cl

!Cork,Blackrock,&Passages22ssh22spd|
jCorkand Killarney .. 50/ sh v.'^; pd;

jCork and Waterford 25/ sh 1^/ pd 1

iCornwall 50/ sh 5/ pd

iDerby, Uttoxefer, and Stafford 2j^pd
Direct Manchester(Reminston's)2 i/sh
I 2:J/pd n a g

IDo. Do. (Eastrick's) ... 5j/pd 3J

Direct Northern Sal sh 'Hj pd

Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd

Dublin and Armagh If pd

Dublin & Belfast Junction.. .50sh 5/pd .if a G\
Dnblin,Belfast,&Coleraine,50'sh2^'pd

Dublin and Galway 50/sh4/pd4|l a

Dundalk and linniskiUen 50/ sh 5/pd

3s p sh Eastern Counties .. 25/ sh 14/ Ifis pd 21f a 2

|Do. New 2.5/ sh 6/ 16s pd 7 pm

jDo Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 13s 4dsh pd g pm
iDitto ditto No. 2 ..6/13s4d 0/13s4ri I pm

'Do. York Extension 20/ sh iOs pd I? a i

lEast Dereham and Norwirh ... 1/ pd

Eastern Union 50/ sh 25/ pd

Ditto Quarter Shares... 12^/sh SJ/ pd

lEast Lincolnshire Il/pd2| a J

lEast and West of England \%l pd

\l 10s ps Edinburgh & Glasgow .... 50/ s.'i pd 77i a ^

! Ditto H.alf Shares 5/ pd 16

18,000 !7s 6d p s Ditto Qua' ter Shares 12^/ sh pd

26,100
26,000

10,800

10,918
10,918
10,918
8,000

12,000
20,000

10,000

85,000
25,000

87,500

20,000
8,000
8,000
8,000
15,000
50,000

5,000
16,000

Ditto New i Shares 12^/ sh 10/ pd 16

'Edinburgh and Northern ,2.T/sh 11/ pd

'Edinbursh and Perth 3/ pd

Ely and Huntingdon . . 25/ jh 5/ pd

Enniskillen and Sligo 2.^ pd

Exe'er, Yeovil, & Dorehe6t.,5i'/sh2|/ pd
;Goule Doncast.&Sheffld.,20/sh 42s pd IJ pm

5/ per of Grand Junction 100/ sh pd

5/ per ct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd

5/ per ct Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh pd

Grand Union (Nottingh.&Lynnil|/ pd IJ
Great Leinster & Munster 100/sh7.}/pd
Great Ea-steru and Western. . . 2^/ pd
Great Grimsby &, Sheffield, 50/sli 5/pd
Great Southern & Western (Ireland)
50/ sh 1 5/pd

Ditto Extension 50/ sh 12^/ pd ;i7J

Great Munster 'i\l pd

3/ p sh Great North of England. . . .100/ sh pd 220 ex-d

10s p sh Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd

Ditto New 30/ sh 5/pd]

Great North of Scotland 21/ pd

4/ per ct Great Western 100/ sh 85/pd 154 ex-d

4/ per ct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd 85 ex-d

Ditto Quarter Shares 5/ pdll7^ ex-d

il per ft Ditto I'lfths 20/ sh 20/ pd S3| ex-d

Guildford, Farnham, and Portsmouth,'

50/kh5/pd5 a 4^

Harwich 20/ sh 1/ pd'

10/per ct Hull and Selby 60/ sh pd 107 a J

10/perct Do. Quarter Shares 12^/ sh pd

Do. Half Shares 25/ sh 7/ pd 27

Inverness and Elgin . . . 20/ sh 2/ pd

Irish Norih Midland 1|/ pd

Isle of Axholme 2j)/ pd

Kendal and Windermere 25/ sh IJ/ pd
Lancaster and Carlisle... 60/ sh 35/ pd 57
Do. New 5/pdIOl

Iccds & Carlisle 2*/ pd 1

Leicester and BirininKham20/. h '.d23iid
Leicester and BeiKord . 20/ sh 2-'spd i
Leic.,Tam.,Cov.,Bir.&Trnt.Vall.JuMC.

20/.sh 42spd i
Limerick and Waterford 50/ sh 7/ iid
5,100 tj/percl Liven)ool ic Manchester.. .. lOU/ sh pd

7,908 4i/perct Ditto HalfShares 50/shpd

11,475 4|/perct Ditto (^lartpr Shares 25? sh pd

Liverpool &c Leed Direct 50/sh 2§/pd
Lpiiol., Manch., and Newcastle Junc-
tion 2^/ pd !

4125000/ 5/ per ct London & Birmingham Stocks

41,2.10 5/ I erct Ditto Thirds 82/ sh 16' pd

54,450 -i/ per ct Ditto Quarter Shares .... 2.0/ sh 2/ pd !

Ditto Fifths 2ii/sh27pd:

4?,000 3s London and liirmingham Extension

25/ sh l|/ pd
London & Blackball .. Av. 16/ l:!s ^d i

Ditto New . 2J/pd

Ditto Extension 3/ pd

36,000 30s p sh Loudon ii-nd Uriehton 50/sli pd '

4,5oO 'Ditto Consolidated Eightlis.'iO/sh 40/pd •

'Xiitto Fifths 50/ sh 20/ pd '■

33,000 SsOdpsh London & Croydon .... Av. IS/l.'isyd'
33,000 |Do. Gnarantppd 5 per Ct.. 9/ sh 9/ pd

Lon., Clielt., Oxf., Glouc, and Hrfd.,
25/ sli IJ pdi
43,077 London & Greenwich . . Av. 12/ 15s 4d

11,136 IOs IPreferenceor Privilege. Av. 18/ l/sUd

London, Hounslow, & Western.. 2/ pd
46,200 2/ Os psh London i: South West... Av.41/6s lOd :
DittoConsolidatedEigliths,40/psh -S/pd

DitioNew. .50/shl2/pd:

Ditto New 40/ sh 10/ pd

90,000 London and York 50/ fh 2^ pd :

Do. i Share* 25/ sh 4/ pd f

20,000 London and Windsor... .2.i/sh 1^/ pd i

London, Warwick, & Kidder. 5"/ sh
2^/pd
London, Salisbury.&Yeovil 50/sh -J.^/pd
I0,0''0 Londonderry&Coleraine, 60/ sh 2^1 pd '■

10,001) Londonderry&linniskilleniO/sh 2i/pd '■

8,000 Lynn and Ely 25/ sh 5/ pd i

Lynn and Dereham .... 25/ sh 5/ pd

13,000 ^/ISsSps Manchester & Leeds .. ICO/ sh 82/ pd
13,000 >5s8dps Ditto HalfShares ...... 50/sh .'iS' pd i

13,000 2s Ditto Quarter Shares .... 2")/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 1/ pi 11 J a 12

22,750 Ditto Sixteenths 6^/ sh 6i/ pd 9^

Do. Extension 42spd 3^ pm

30,000 il/p sh Manchester \; Birniing.. 40/sh4O/|jd 79 a 3

30,000 ; Do. i Shares 10/ sh 4/ pd

Do. New i Shares 10/ sh 2/ pd 9| a lOj

Do. Continuation and Welsh Junc-1

tion lp/pd|7^

Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock,]

20/ sh 4-'s pd 1| pm
Manchester, Bir., & Mould Junction
Manchester to Southampton... 2/ pd 24 r J
4155400/ .3/ per ct Midland StocL lolaSOi

dis
dis

3iai
222 ex-d
4U.i ex-d
2B a 7
2.i ex-d

i ex-d
h-i a il

^'2i a 2
10

10 a 9?

8 a J
-13 a 4

3] aj

I3 a J

-I a 9
6a i
<i a 5
133i
61
Mi

12,500

978500/
15,000

20,000

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto New 40/sh 12/ pd

46s3d p c Ditto Birmingham & Derby .... Stock
MidlandGrt.West.(lrish)50/ sh 10/ pd
[Do. Extension to Sligo 25/ pd

2/ p sh jNewcastle and Carlisle. . . . 100/ sh pd
Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire

I Junction ' i^ pd

20,000 ! I9s6d p a Newcstl&Darlingt June. . .25/sh 26^ pd
I'o. New.; '-'5/shUpd

IOs p sh Ditto New (Brandling).. 25/ sh 20/pd
Newcastle Hi Berwick . . 25/ sh 10/ pd
Newport and Abergavenny.... 2^/ pd

New Ross and Carlow 2cs pd

Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 2^/ pd

24,000
86,000

10,256
3,136
12,208

19,000
19,000
19,000

Newark ,Sheffield,&Boston 25/sh 23/pd

28 a 7i
118 a 20

tS a S{
10^ a I

38

22 a I

OJ

273 a k

M IOs

22s 6d
7s 6d

North British 25/ sh Ml pd '

Ditto ^ Shares 1 2 J'sii 6/pd

Ditto Carlisle Extension. 12i/sh U/pd 2|

Ditto Dalkeith 25/ sh pd

Do. Do 5/ sh pd fij a t

North Devon 2/ pd

Northern & Eastern .... 50/ sh 50.' pd 69J
Do. Scrip . . iss. 5 dis. . .50/ sh 40/ pd

Do. i Shares 12/ IOs sh pd

Do. New 1/ pd

NorthKent&Direct Dover, 50/sh 2J/pd 23 a I
North Staffordshire.... 20/ sh 42s. pd 3^ pm

North Wales 25/sh 3^/ pd

Norwich and Brandon . . .20/ sh 18/ pd 25? ex-cl
Ditto New 10/ sh 3/ pdl

29':

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2,000
12.5,000

Xortliamplon, Banbury, kCheU.,21 pd
Oxford, Witney,&Chelleiiham.. \ll pd
Oxf.,Worcest.&Wolvpi-liamp., ^^l pd
Oxf., Gosp., Portsm., and Soutliainp.,
2 U sh 42s pd

Perth and Invernesa 2J/ pd

Pilbrow Atmospheric li pd

Portsmouth Direct 50?sh3|;pd

Preston & tVyre ,.,..,, ,,..,2bl sh pd

Do. 4 Shares ,. 2^? pd

Richmond 20! sh 10/ pd

Rugby and Huntingdon. .20i sh 21 pd

Scottish Central 25/ sh 7^1 pd

Do. New 2|z pd

Scottish Midland 25i sh 5/ pd

Sheffield and Manchester.. lOOi sh (id

Ditto } Shares 2.5i sli 8/ pd

Shrewsbury & Birmingh.50/ sh 2,^ pd

.Shropshire Union 201 sh 22b pd

Shrewsbury & Hereford 2^1 pd

Sligo and Shan r, on 2|i pd

Somersetshire Midland 2Ji pd

South Devon 50/ sh 35/ pd

t.1s6dp8SouthEasternandDovcr..Av.33/ 2s 4d

Islld p E

■)Z percl
5/ perct

51 per ci

Ditto New, iss. at 32/ No.I,50/slil6?pd
Ditto New 33/ 6s 8d..No.2,.50/shlO/pd

Ditto New 30/ No.3 10/ pd

Ditio New No.4,50/sh2^/pd

South Midland 20/ sh 42s pd

South Wales 50/ sh 5/ pd

Staflordshire & Shropshire 50/sli2ij/pd
Staines and Richmond . 20/ sh 1/ pd
Tean and Dove Valley.. 20/ sh I|/ pd

Trent Valley 20/ sh 5/ pd

Trent Valley & Holyhead Junction,

20/ sh 2i/ pd

V'ale of Neath 2/ pd

Warwickshire and London 20/.sh42spd
Waterford and Kilkenny, 20/ sh 3/ pd
Waterrord,Wcxford,&VaIentla, IJ/ pd
Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow, and

Dublin li/pd

Welsh Midland 2*/ pd

West Cornwall 20/ sh l|/ pd

West End and Southern Counties

50/ sh IJ/ pd
West London, Old Shares.. 20/ sh pd

West Yorkshire 50/ sh 2|/ pd

Wexford and Carlow 2j/ pd

Wills, Somerset, and Southampton,

20/ sh 1|/ pd

Wilts, Somerset, and Weymouth, 50/

8h 2^/ pd

Worcester, Shrewsbury, and Crewe

Union, IJ/ pd
Worcester &SouthWale3 20/ sh 42s pd
Varmouth and Norwich 20/ sh 20/ pd

York and Carlisle 2|/pd

York & North Midland .... 50/ sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 25/6h pd

Ditto Scarboro' Branch.. 25/ sh 25/ pd

Ditto Selby 50/ sh 30/ pd

Ditto Extension 25/ sh 15/pd

Do. East and West Riding Ext. 25/ sh
1/pd

FOREIGN RAILWAYS.

Anglo-Belgian 4/ pd

Boulogne and Amiens.. 20/ sh 10/ pd
Bordeaux &Mediterranean 20/sh 2/ pd
Bordeaux and Toulouse (Mackenzie)

20/ sh 2/ pd
Bordeaux,Toulouse,&Cette, (Espalete)

20/ sh 2/ pd

Central of Spain 20/ sh 2/ pd

Ceylon 5s pd

Oemerara 2J/ pti

Dendre Valley 20/ sh 2/ pd

Dijon and Mulhouse .... 20/ sh 2/ pd

Dutch Rhenish 20/sh 5/pd

East Indian 5s pd

Great North, of France, (Constituted)

20/ sh 5/ pd
Great Paris and Lyons . . 20/ sh 2/ pd

Great Western Bengal 58 pd

Great Western Canada. .224/sh 3^/pd

Italian and Austrian 8/ pd

Jamaica&SouthMidlndJunc.20/shl/pd

H a i

14J a 14

35
34j a 5

15j a 16

31 ai

j dis

38 a ^
Ifi a 18
l> a 3
l^^alli
"■{ a f
2g pm
•ij a Ci

20i a 6

■'i

3

■ia i
2 a la

3J a

27j

ini

47^

73

33 a 1^

10 a ^

3

11^ a 12

2i aj
1 a i

g a 7
1 ai

15i a I

15,000 I Jamaica North Midland H pdj

20,000 Do. Extension 20/ sh 1/ pd

'Jersey 1/ pdjOf

.Louvaine and Jeraeppe.. 20/ sh 4/ pdl2

120,000 {Lyons and Avignon 20/ sh 2/ pdjij

jLuxerabourg 201 sh 4/ pdiii a §

Namiir and Liege 20/ sh 4' pd 3J

25,000 North Jamaica U p'l

! Orleans and Vierzon 20/sh 10/ pd '7ial8i

130,00!) iOrleans and Bourdeaux ..20/ sh 6/ pd ll| a |

lOvfr Yssel....20/ I6s8dsh 4/3s4d pd

125,000 [Paris and Lyons (Laffite) 20/ sh 2/ pd

:ParisSiLyons(Ganneron's)2(.)/ sh 3/ pd

Paris and Lyons (Galon's) 20/ sh 2/ pd

80,000 |ParJs and Orleans 20/ sh pd 5"! a 1^

72.000 1 / I Paris and Rouen 20/ sh 20/ pd 40^ a J

120,000 Paris and Strasbourg (Gannerrm's)

j 20/ sh 2/ pd

Do. Do. (Compe de L'Est) 2/ pd

{Do. Do. (Aymard's) 2^/ pd

Paris and St. Quentin... 2^1 sh 2/ pri

40,000 Rouen and Havre 20/sh -.iOl yd'-i'ii a SO

81,000 jSambre and Meuse 20/ sh 6/ pdj5J a ^

84,000 I Strasburg and Bale 14/ sh pd]

St. Laurence and Atlantic I

Tournay, Jurbise, Landen & Hasselt,j

4/ pd

70,000 |Tours&Nantes(MackeBrie)20/ sh 4/ pd

iDitto Ditto (Lefebvres)20/ sh 2/ pd

|West Flanders 4/ pdU| a |

JOINT STOCK BANKS.

Australasia 40/ sh pd 26J

British North American 50/ sh pd

Ceylon 25/ sh pd

Commercial of London 100/ sh 20/ pd

Colonial 100/ sh 25/ pd

Ionian 25/ sh pd

London and Westm. ..100/ sh 20/ pd
London Joint Stock .... 50/ sh 10/ pd
Provincial of Ireland.... 100/ sh 25/ i)d 49^ a 60

Ditto New 10/ sh pd

National of Ireland 50/ sh2o/ pd

National Provincial of England 100/
sh 35/ pd

Ditto New 20/sh 10/ pd

Union of Australia 25/ sh pd

Do. Do 2j/pd

Union of London 50/ sh 10/ pd

22,500

20,000

6,000

20,000
4,000
40,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
20,000
10,000

10,000
20,000
10,000
60,000

4,000
10,000
15,000

2,000
20,000
10,000

6,000
11,000
12,000
10,000

1.500
15,000

5,000
20,000

5,051
20,000
11,500
10,000

7,000
43,174

10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000

5,000

2,700
20,000

14,000
4,000

6/ per ct

5/ per ct
6/ per ct
5/ per ct
5/ per ct
6/ per ct
6/ per ct
61 per ct
8/ per ct
8/ per ct
5/ per ct
5/ per ct

5/ per CI
6/ per ct

5/ per ct

lOs
W5s

7s 6d
102 p sh

1/ 4s
6/ per ct
5/ per cl
5/ per ct

5/ per ct
&bs.2/
4.yper ct
1/ 8s and
2s 6d bs
7/ per ct
4iper ct
1/ 109
6/ per ct

MINES. j

Alten 15/ 8h 14^/ pd

Anglo Mexican, iss. 6/ p. 100 sh pd

Ditto Subscription 25/ pdj

Bolanos Scrip j

British Iron 20/sh 10/pd|

Brazilian Imp. iss. 5/p. 35/ sh 21/ pd|
Do.Mocaubas&Cocaes United 2.")/ sh pdj

Do. St. John Del Rey 20/sh 15/pd

Cobre Copper 40/ pd 23

Columbian iss. 5/ pm 56/ sh pd |

Ditto New ll/shpdj

Galvanized Iron 10/ sh pd'

Ditio New 10/ sh 7ipdi

General Mining 20/ sli pdi

Mexican 60/ sh 59/ pd|

Mining Comp. of Ireland 25/ sh "I'pdi
Real del Monte, Unregistered Av. . . .

RhjTTiney Iron 50/ sli pd

Santiago de Cuba .... 25/ sh 10/ jid
United Mexican, average 28/ 2s 8|d

I MISCELLANEOUS. 1

Australian Agricult 100/sh 30/ pd|

lAnglo Mexican Mint 10/ sh pdi

JCanada 100/ sh 32^/ pdj

Upper Canada Bonds

Comp. Copper Miners in Enghmd,

100/sh 50-20/ pd.

General Rever.& Invest... 100/ sh pdi

Equit. Reversionary .. 100/ sh 85/ pd SOJ
Gen . Steam Navigat 15/ sh 1 4/ pd

Peninsular & Oriet Steam 50/ sh 15/ pdi

Ditto... 50/ sh 1"/ pd 26

Reversionary Int. Soc... 100/ sh pdHO ox d.

Royal Mail Steam 60/ pd 57i

South Australian 25/ sh 20/ pdi

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Noi folk-street, Strand, London.

,1

•X, Cil

M

. 1 ^^ ^

-i;- ^

V.

^

1 xJ

^

M

^^

V

if

THE FAKMEE'S MAGAZII^E.

APRIL, 1846.
No. 4.— Vol. XIlI.j [Second Series.

PLATE I.

PURE LEICESTER OR LONG-HORNED BULL.

Our Hist embellishment represents a pure Leicester or Long-Horned Bull, four years and four
months old, bred by Mr. SHngsby, of Foleshill, near Coventry. The animal was exhibited at the
countrj' Meeting of the Royal Agricidtural Society, held at Shrewsbury, in July last, and obtained
a prize of Twenty Sovereigns, awarded to the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, near
Hinckley, Leicestershire.

PLATE 11.
SUFFOLK CART STALLION,

THE PROPERTY OF W, FISHER HOBBS, ESQ.

Briton, aged nine years, a SutFolk Cart Stallion, the winner of the first prize of Thirty Sovereigns,
at the Shrewsbury Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1845 ; exhil)ited at the meeting by Mr.
H. Crosse, of Finborough, near Stowmarket, Suffolk, and purchased at the sale by W. Fisher Hobbs,
Esq., of Marks Hall, Kelvedon, Essex? who is the present owner of him. Briton also won the fol-
lowing prizes at local societies :— West Suffolk, 1838, first prize; West Suffolk, 1841, second prize ;
Central Suffolk, 1841, first prize; West Suffolk, 1842, first prize ; Central Suffolk, 1842, second prize;
West Suffolk, 1843, first prize; Central Suffolk, 1843, first prize; West Suffolk, 1844, first prize;
Central Suffolk, 1844, first prize; West Suffolk, 1845, first prize— amounting to £66.

Briton was bred by the late Mr. William Crosse, of Little Finborough Hill ; sire Mr. W. Crosse's
horse of One House Hall ; grandam Mr. Howlett's Old Briton. Dam bred by Mr. W. Crosse, by
Mr. Shepherd's horse, late of Boyton Hall ; grandam by the late Mr. Groom's horse by Mr, Edward's
noted horse Old Sampson.

ON THE IMPROVEiMENT OF PERMANENT PASTURES.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

The improvement of pastures (an operation at-
tended with some practical difficulties) has certainly
been ever slow and inconsiderable. " Grasses,"

ever, unattended with advantage to recall to our at-
tention the most modern successful efforts to im-
prove the pasturage lands of England. There

says Paley, " are nature's care ;" and in too many is, of course, the first operation to be regarded : it

instances the farmer seems to deem it best to leave is idle for us to attempt any improvement, where

his grass-lands in her hands, without attempting to crops of rushes indicate the presence of standing

aid her in her operations. It may not be, how- water. The good effects of deep drainage, how-
OLD SEBIES.} u [No. 3.— VOL. XXIV.

294

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ever, are much too rarely attended to in the case of
pastures. The water being removed, there are
then two courses to be profitably followed by the
farmer to increase the produce of his grass-lands,
either of which, or both, he may adopt to the per-
manent increase of their produce, viz. — by using
the chemical or the mechanical agents which he
possesses.

Let us briefly examine these ; and first with re-
gard to their chemical treatment. It has been
long determined by many important experiments,
at some of which I have personally assisted, that
by the application of certain manures as top-dress-
ings to pastures, a rapid change takes place in the
variety, and the produce of the grasses with which
they are tenanted. Thus gypsum (sulphate of
lime), when I applied it at the rate of three cwts.
per acre, to some pasture land in the neighbour-
hood of Hungerford, was found so to encourage
the growth of white clover, that the old coarse
herbage gradually disappeared ; and when I re-
peated this experiment on some grass land on the
Craig formation, near Ipswich, and on other grass
land on the chalk formation, near Winchester, the
same result followed, the old herbage disappeared,
and a far better and more luxuriant variety of the
grasses made their ajjpearance.

Many of my own long continued experiments
with the sulphate of lime, were made with it as it
exists in the peat ashes, or ashes from coals, in
which it constitutes the only fertihzing ingredient.
Of this fact, I had in the summer of 1843 a re-
markable confirmatory instance in an experiment
which I made on the grass in the park of a rela-
tion of mine, situated in the valley of the Kennett,
in Berkshire. I was led to try the effect of gyp-
sum on a patch of this grass, from being told that
" farm-yard manure is no good to the park, but the
peat ashes produce an excellent effect." The
quantity which I apphed was only two cwt. per
acre, and the time of year (July), was perhaps the
worst that could have been chosen — the season
dry, the hay crop only just carted off the ground ;
and yet, in spite of these disadvantages, the effect
of the gypsum was excellent, and I was told in the
following November, that " the deep green of the
gypsumed grass appears like a pocket-handkerchief
in the middle of the park ; and the amount of the
produce is very greatly superior to any of the adja-
cent portions not thus treated." The gypsum em-
ployed in this experiment was finely powdered, and
spread by hand, as evenly as possible over the
grass, and, from the long continued drought, re-
mained for a considerable time totally unmixed
with, and on the surface of the soil.

But gypsum is not the only salt of lime whose
application as a top-dressing to pastures, influences

so materially the growth of these grasses. Phos-
phate of lime, as it exists in crushed bones, has been
found to produce the same, or even greater results
than the application of gypsum. I have on several
occasions remarked this, and last year, in some ex-
periments on the London Basin clay, at Lee, in Kent,
after dressing a long neglected grass plot, abound-
ing in coarse herbage, with a proportion of the
urate of the London Manure Company (a very
powerful and excellent manure, abounding in the
phosphate of hme), I have found the same result.
The white clover and other young grasses are now
(March) appearing in great profusion.

The effect of bone-dust in inducing the growth
of white clover, seems to be one produced on most
soils. On the sandy soils of Nottinghamshire, his
grace the Duke of Portland (letter to the author,
dated Feb. 22, 1836) remarked, "In my early use
of crushed bones, and for many years afterwards,
they appeared so much to encourage the growth
of white clover that I almost formed the opinion
that it was superfluous to sow the seed." " Of
this tendency," his grace adds in another letter,
" the most remarkable instances have repeatedly
been seen on very poor land, and none more so
than one which occurred on a very poor piece of
land, prepared for a timber plantation, by a crop of
turnips, manured for with 40 bushels of crushed
bones per acre, for on which, between the trees, a
great deal of clover has spontaneously sprung up.
Previously to this land being broken up for tur-
nips, scarcely a plant of clover was to be seen."
It is hardly necessary to remind the intelligent
farmer that the chief fertilizing ingredient in bones
is the phosphate of lime.

There is yet another way of applying the phos-
phate of lime, in combination with other fertilizing
matters, to grass — that by the food of animals,
which produces siiTiilar results. It is a fact well
known to the farmers of the east of England that
if sheep, feeding on pastures, are regularly sup-
plied for a year or two with a portion of odcake,
not only is the quantity, but the quality, of the
herbage is also very materially altered for the better.
A recent report of a Suftblk farmer proves this very
clearly. Now, it is found that about one-half of the
ashes of linseedcake is composed of phosphate of
lime. Professor Johnstone fovmd in 100 parts of
the ashes of two varieties of hnseed cake {Trans.
High. Soc, 1845, p. 203)—

English. American.
Alkaline salts ... . 31.35 .... 38.20
Phosphates of lime,

and magnesia . . 47.67 . . • • 56.26

Lime 4.88 .... 1.24

Magnesia ,. 1.51 ....

Silica 10.81 .... 4.04

Sand 3.86 ....

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Tlie mode in which these salts of lime operate in
I)romoting tlie vegetation of the seeds of the
grasses resting torpid in the soil, is pretty certainly
by supplying theni with an ingredient essential to
their vigorous growth.

'' It has been generally sui)posed," remarked Sir
H. Davy, "that these materials act in the vegetable
economy, in the same manner as condiments or
stimulants in the animal economy ; and that they
render the common food more nutritive. It seems,
however, a much more ])rol)able idea that they are
actually a part of the true food of i)lants, and that
they suppl3'that kind of matter to the vegetal)le fibre,
which is analogous to the bony matter in animal
structures. Thus, those plants which are most be-
nefited by the apphcation of gypsum are those
which always afford it on analysis. Clover and
most of the artificial grasses contain it, but it ex-
ists in very minute quantity only in barlej^ wheat,
and turnips" (Ac/. Ckem., p. 1 9). And it is notice-
able, that most of these remarks apply to the phos-
phate of lime of the farmers' corn crops (which
can hardly be regarded as a stimulant, since it is
not even soluble in water). It is also worthy of
observation that the same salts of lime (the phos-
phate and the carbonate) which Davy thus sup-
poses to be placed in plants to add to their strength
and sohdity, are precisely those salts which, for
that very purpose, are placed in the bones of ani-
mals. Thus they, as it were, mutually nourish
and support each other : the very phosphate of
Ume which, from the dissolving bone-dust, is ab-
sorbed and assimilated by the plant, again, when
employed as the food of animals, is the chief mate-
rial for the formation of other bones.

There appears, as I have elsewhere remarked, to
be on many grass soils some care requisite to en-
sure the greatest advantage from the application of
the bones. This fact is strongly alluded to in the
following extract from a letter of Mr. William
Lewis, of Trentham, in Staflfordshire, transmitted
to me in an obliging communication of his Grace
the Duke of Sutherland : —

" I have never," says this intelligent farmer,
" apphed less than one ton of crushed bones per
acre for tiu-nips drilled in, and have been generally
successful in gro^\^ng that crop ; and their good
effects (I mean the bones) are most conspicuously
shown and felt on the grass crop that follows the
turnips, showing to an inch how far the ground
has been manured with them. I have no genuine
fertile land, being nearly all of a hght, dry, sandy,
hungry nature ; but I have now excellent pastures
for sheep, which I greatly ascribe to the use of
bones ; for the pastures following barley, which
have been manured with dung, I find very inferior
to that manured \vith bones (the difference in the

l)arley ci-o]) not being perceivable) ; so much so,
that I am u]Jon the eve of breaking up some of my
pasture fields which have lain three years, and
were intended for permanent pasture; for those
manured at the same time with bones are still
looking beautiful, with a close, fine, even bottom.
I have also applied bones to pastures, and they
have generally improved the herbage and verdure
very greatly. The top-dressing with the bones I
would recommend to be done in moist weather,
when the ground is pretty well covered with grass.
I consider from one-and-a-half to two tons per acre
to be a fair dressing. After sowing them, the
ground should be ivell brushed, harroived length
and breadthways, then heavily rolled, and all stock
taken from the field for at least ten days, I have
seen bones applied to bare pastures, with httle or
no covering, done in hot, dry weather, showing no
beneficial effects whatever afterwards."

That the bones, and in fact aU decomposing or-
ganic manures, are best applied beneath the roots
of plants, is very well established, and I cannot
but regret that no instrument has yet been pro-
duced which shall combine the sub-turf plough
with a manure-drill, so as to enable the cultivator
to unite the two great and advantageous operations
of loosening the soil and at the same time deposit-
ing the fertilizer completely beneath the roots of
the grasses which constitute the turf. That this is by
far the best mode is evident, from not only the obser-
vations of Mr. Lewis and others, but from my own.
experiments ; and I do hope that some of our
great implement-makers wlU speedily furnish the
farmer with a simple implement of this kind.
The object appeared to me so very desirable, that
until I had asked the question of my friend Mr.
Robert Ransome, of Ipswich, I could not but feel
convinced that some such implement must be
already in existence ; but he tells me in a recent
obliging communication — " I know of no plough,
or drill, or combination of both, that wiU eflfect
the object described in thy note of the l6th, but it
strikes me, that a plough with a manure dropper
might be made to effect it, by lifting a breadth of
tiu-f and dropping or traihng sifted dry manure
after it."

This leads me to the second division of my
paper, the mechanical agents in the possession of
the farmer for the improvement of his pastures, in-
tending by this phrase to include those operations
which are chiefly directed to the loosening of the
soil. That loosening the turf, as by the sub-turf
plough, is productive of the best results on many
soils, is very certain. The very chemistry of the
operation (promoting the access of the atmospheric
gases and aqueous vapours to the roots of the
grasses) tells us it must be so. Sir Edmund Stra-

u 2

296

TilE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cey thus describes the operation of this plough
(Journ. of Roy. Eng. Ag. Sac, a'oI. 1, p. 253): —
"It is used to loosen the tiu'f about ten inches and
a-half deep below the surface, without turning
over the flag, loosening the soil underneath ; con-
sequently, admitting the air and the rain, and jier-
mitting the roots of the herbage to spread in
search of food. There are no marks left by which
it can be known that the land has been ploughed,
except from the straight lines of the coulter, at the
distance ot fourteen inches one from the other. In
about three months from the time of ])loughing
these lines are totally obliterated, and the quantity
of aftermath, and the thickness of the bottom,
have been the subject of admiration for all my
neighbours."

The object, therefore, to which I have thus
briefly alluded, is not only one of the highest in-
terest to the farmer, but it is one of those practical
eftbrts which, in some form or other, var)ing the
manure and adapting the imjilement employed ac-
cording to circumstances, which can hardly fail to be
productive, on almost all grass-lands, of profitable
results. It is an operation, too, very easily tried ;
for in most experimental trials of this kind, only
small plots of grass-land may be, for the sake of
the acquisition of knowledge, employed in the first
instance, and in them the fork may be substituted
for the ])lough, so that knowledge of the highest
importance may be gained — a variety of manures
tried — with facility and economy.

RADICAL EXCRETION OF PLANTS.

It seems desirable at this particular time to revive
the consideration of a theory which has formed the
subject of much controversy during tlie several
years that have elapsed since it v.'as broached by
the i)hilosopher of (jieneva, De CandoUe.

At the period of its first annovmcement this theory
was hailed as the interpreter of the agency of a due
rotation of crops. Macaire's chemical experiments
tended to add probability to the conjecture; but,
like all other attempts to elucidate the phenomena
of vegetable life by operating upon mutilated or
disturbed ])lants, the experiments embraced only a
one-sided view of the subject, which was anything
but convincing and satisfactory.

A variety of trials have subsequently been made,
which being adverse, or at least negative in their
results, have thrown discredit ui)on the hypothesis,
and shaken its position in the science of agriculture.
Why then revi^'e the recollection of a fiction ?
The answer shaU ])e given in few words. First,
then, there are facts incontrovertible, natural facts,
iadej)endent of all that is artificial or analytical,
which prove to demonstration that plants do excrete
\>Y their roots, and some of these shall soon be ad-
duced. Again, a paper, or Prize Essay, from the
able pen of Mr. Gyde, of Painswick, has just been
l)ubh3hed in the Transactions of the Highland So-
ciety, so precise, so argumentative, that it ought to
be made public. Our limits will not permit of any
thing like a full notice of it; but it may be possible
to quote a few short i)assages, and to ofler remarks
upon them to an extent that sh.all raise curiosity,
and induce many to read and ponder over the ori-
ginal, which otherwise might not meet their eye.
We are too aj)t either to disregard the authority

of a writer, or to attach bhnd credence to his opi-
nions. Mr. Gyde, on the contrary, with the utmost
candour lays before the reader the conflicting opi-
nions of De Candolle, Macaire, Braconnot, de Mir-
bel, &c., and then observes — " It becomes a matter
of importance that the subject be fully and fairly
investigated, and that the true functions of the roots
of plants be clearly defined." Adding — " Im-
pressed with this idea, the author in the year 1842
first commenced the investigation of this interesting
subject, and his experiments have been continued
to the present time." He then, systematically and
in order, i)roceeds to submit to the Highland and
Agricultural Society the experiments, and their re-
sults, which he undertook and obtained.

The leading points of inquiry were — 1 . Whe-
ther plants do, or do not, excrete by their roots ?
2. If they do, is the matter so excreted organic or
inorganic ? 3. Is the excreted matter peculiar and
specific to each class ; and what is its quality ? 4.
Does it correspond vnt\\ the sap of the i)lant, or
diflfer from it ? 5. By what physiological action do
plants so secrete ? 6. Have plants the power to se-
crete noxious matters previously absorbed ? 7.
Will seeds germinate and continue to grow if
steeped in noxious fluid, and sown in poisoned soil ?
8. Why do i)lants refuse to grow on some soils,
while they grow freely on others ?

These questions are not literal quotations, except
the last; they are true, howeA'er, to the spirit of in-
quiries which indicate a mind capable of great per-
ception, and patient assiduity; and the method of
solving them, ado])ted by Mr. Gyde, was in exact
conformity with the caution which had been
urged and re-urged by me for nearly twenty years.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

297

and sanctioned by the late Mr. Knight, namely,
that to operate upon mutilations, or on jjlants dis-
turbed by removing the roots from the soil, led to
difficulty and uncertain results. He therefore
grew the plants which were the subjects of ex])eri-
ment — wheat, barley, oats, rye, beans, jjeas, vetches,
kidney beans, cabbage, mustard, and turnips — in the
following manner : —

"1st. — In gardensoil in pots, and plunged in the
earth.

"2nd. — In jiots filled with silicious sand, watered
with weak liquid manure from the dung-hill drain-
ing, diluted, but not used till quite clear.

"3rd. — In pots with silicious sand, that had been
repeatedly washed with boiling water.

"4th. — In pots filled with damj) moss"(query —
hijpnum, or sphaynum f).

" 5th. — In pots with coarsely powdered char-
coal."

The first series of experiments do not coincide
with the opinion so often expressed, namely, "that
plants removed from the natural bed wherein they
have grown are not in a situation to aftbrd strictly
natural results." Still it is just to Mr. Gyde to
avow that in the two entire pages (278-9), occu-
pied by three distinct tabular arrangements, it is
clearly shown that both odour and colouring matter
of various tints were transferred to clear water, from
the roots of 11 or 12 species — the former in fewer
instances ; but the latter in most, though generally
after the lliiid had been evaporated to dryness.

This admission is made with greater readiness,
though contrary to theory, because by the second
series it is shown that the products therein obtained
con-esponded with those of the former series. Mr.
Gyde shall speak for himself. Thus (p. 281) : —

" In order to ascertain if the soil in which plants
had grown contained any portion of excretion, the
following experiment was tried : — Sand, which had
been well washed with boiling water, was planted
with young beans and jieas ; these plants were sup-
plied with distilled water, and placed under the
most favourable circumstances for healthy vege-
tation. After they had grown in the sand three
weeks they were removed, and the sand washed with
distilled water filtered, and, on evaporation, it (the
liquid) yielded a portion of both organic and inor-
ganic matter, in every respect of a similar character
to that obtained by the immersion of the roots in
water. Plants of the same kinds as those used in
the former experiments were cut from their stems,
the lower extremities of which were plunged in dis-
tilled water, so that the descending sap, which it was
presumed would escape, might be examined and
compared with the radical excretions from the same
kinds of platits ; and it was found that in each in-
stance similar results were obtained on evaporation

of the water in which the cut plants had been im-
mersed, as those from the water in which the roots
of similar plants had excreted. Hence we may
conclude that the matter obtained from the roots of
plants by radical excretion is similar to the sap of the
plant from which it ivas excreted."

It is very gratifying to notice the able and com-
l)reliensive methods adopted by Mr. Gyde to deter-
mine the great fact of radical excretion, and the
natural results to which it leads. His experiments
are able, and to a very great extentconclusive. This
will be soon shown ; but, in the mean time, I dis-
tinctly assert that, without having entered upon any
direct experiments similar to those of Mr. Gyde, I
have, by observing nature alone in her great labora-
tory—the cultivated land — traced certain signs and
proofs which coidd not be mistaken, that excretion
or radical deposition does exist, particularly in the
brassica and leguminous families. No one, who
has this definite object before him, can possibly mis-
take the specific odour abundantly diffused through
soil where peas, beans, kidney-beans, broccoli, &c.,
are raised; take, for instance, a box or frame of peas
sowed with a view of transplantation for an early
crop — on raising the plants, or turning them out, a
powerful effluvia evolves, and establishes the main
fact ; and so in numerous cases. Aroma is matter ;
and if it pervade a soil ; some effects must follow.
The question is, whether the theory of De Candolle
is borne out or not ? I once was of opinion that
rotation might be greatly involved in it ; but so
many circumstances tend to embarrass the pheno-
menon, that I am inclined to 1)elieve that a future
crop is no otherwise benefited or injured by the ex-
udation of a previous one, than as it is or may be
influenced by the addition of so much fresh organic
matter thus supplied to it. And with the admission
I conclude this article, by stating on the authority
of Mr. Gyde, that a crop of wheat during 12 con-
secutive years was grown on land " dug in 1832,
and burned, since which time it has received an oc-
casional light dressing of manure, the stubble be-
ing generally l)urned, and the ashes strewed on the
land."

The average yield from the acre is 32 bushels ;
and the innocuous effect, as refers to wheat excre-
tion, thus appears to be proved.

The inferences Mr. Gyde arrives at, from all his
experiments and observations, are chiefly the fol-
lowing : —

"1st. That the commonly cultivated plants of the
natural orders of grasses, legumes, and cruciforms,
excrete by their roots.

"2nd. That the excretions consist of both organic
and inorganic matters."
"13th, That plants are not injured by their excre-

298

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion being re-absorbed into tlieir stractuic, as was I It would be needless to cite the other intermediate
supposed by M. de Candolle." positions. The object of this notice is to extend

14th. Finally, " That the necessity for a rotation the knowledge of a most able undertaking, and it

of cro])s arises from the soil in most instances be^
ing unahle to supply those earthy and saline consti-
tuents reqviired by plants."

would be unjust to borrow more of an original paper
than is required to show its importance.
March 11. J . ToAVE RS .

GERMAN PAMPHLETS ON THE POTATO DISEASE AND ITS REMEDIES.

At this time all that relates to the potato disease
has so much interest, that we have thought it desir-
able to lay before our readers the following abstracts
of some papers on the subject, whicli have been
extensively circulated in Germany.

No. I. On a New Potato Scoop, loith directions
for using it (a paper circulated through Prussia by
the minister of the interior, with the instrument to
which it refers). — Since circumstances more than
ever demand that economy be employed in the use
of the seed potatoes, so does it seem the most appro-
priate time to be reminded of a kind of culture
which, although not new, is not yet universally
known, and by wliich potato planting is effected
with slight loss in the mass of potatoes. It is well
known that every potato in a depression on the
surface, caUed an " eye," contains a germ which is
capable of developing a perfect potato plant. On
a knowledge of this fact is founded the practice of
growing the plant from cut potatoes, or from thick
portions of the bark or peel of the tuber. In both
these- cases the germ is easily injured, and the con-
sequence is that twice or
three times more tubers are
employed than are really
required. Already has it
been proposed to use for
this purpose a spoon or
scoop, but nothing has
been thought of adapted
for general use. An expe-
rienced farmer has, how-
ever, invented a scooj^, by
the use of which a larger
amount of produce is se-
cured, and varieties of po-
tatoes which yield tubers
of only small circumfer-
ence, have by its use been
made to give tubers of a
large size.

In order that the scoop
may be successfully used,
those potatoes should be
employed whicli are per-
fectly developed, and care
should be taken that the
mass of flesh of the tuber
taken out with it should be

so large as entirely to surround the germ, and to
contain the root of the germ uninjured. This instru-
ment consists of a round scoop or spoon, made of
steel, furnished with a sharp cutting edge ; the dia-
meter of the circle which the edge forms is an
inch ; the greatest depth of the scoop, which has
the form of half a hollow globe, when measured
from the centre of the diameter of the edge to the
middle point of the cavity, is 4^ to 5 hnes. The
scoop has a short steel shaft, by which it is inserted
into a wooden handle. When the scoop is used,
the germ to be taken out should occupy tlie middle
of the scoop, and the surrounding flesh should en-
tirely fiU the cavity. With a little use this instru-
ment can be employed with ease and speed. When
used on large potatoes, six or eight eyes may be
taken out, and the rest of the potato used for other
purposes.

The germs thus procured are placed about two
inches deep in the earth, with the flesh of the po-
tato below, and the eye or germ above. The dis-
tance of the plants should be that which is ordina-
rily adopted. The land on which the eyes are
planted should be good, and the springing up of
the plant watched, and the hoe be employed, for the
riddance of weeds, &c.

The eyes which have been taken out may be
permitted to dry for some days ; but they should
not be entirely dried before they are planted. Y/hen
not planted immediately they should be thinly
spread on something, as when they are laid in a
heaji together they become heated, ferment, and are
destroyed. The scoop may also be employed, for
the purpose of transporting seed from one district
to another, at a diminished cost for carriage, on
account of the bulk being much less than whole
potatoes. When this is done the scooped eyes
should be carefully packed in moss, speedily con-
veyed, and planted in the soil as fresh as possible.

Where small landowners j)refer planting whole po-
tatoes, the produce may be much increased by at-
tention to a few circumstanes. The ground should
be well dug and v/orked, and then the potatoes may
be planted deep — as deep, in fact, as the ground will
permit; the plants should be placed at a distance

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

299

of 2 to 3 feet from each other, and the earth not
thrown up in rows around them, but in heaps for
each plant. Ground is thus economised, and the
roots have free space to spread in, and their produce
is ahvays greater. When rich manure is emi)loyed,
great care shoukl be taken to mix it well with the
soil; l)ut let it never be forgotten that potatoes may
be over-manured, and the vegetation thus stimu-
lated, without the tubers being increased in number
or size. If there be only a poor soil and weak ma-
nure, let the manure be placed under each plant-
heap, and cover it with some earth, so that the
])lant-heap may not rest immediateiy on the manure.
No. II. Authentic Facts on the Renovation of the
Potato by means of Seed, in relation to the disease
of that plant now prevalent ; by W. Albert. With
remarks by the Justiz-rath Isensee ; Magdeburg,
18-15. — ^This pamphlet is introduced by some re-
marks from Mr. Isensee, who states that he is not
himself a practical agriculturist, but one who takes
great interest in all that relates to agi-iculture. He
is the president of the Agricultural Society of Co-
then, in which position he has not only great op-
portunities of observing the different branches of
agriculture, but also is able to make comparative
experunents. Having become acquainted with the
fact that one of the Saxon agriculturists had made
experiments on obtaining potatoes from seed, and
that even in the first year useful tubers for food
and other purposes had been obtained, he turned
his attention to the subject, and thus collected a
variety of important details, which are recorded in
the paores of the pamphlet before us. It ought to
1)6 added that the season in which the experiments
were tried was not favourable ; the spring was cold
and wet, and the frosts in the beginning of Septem-
ber did much injury.

During the last 10 years it has been observed that
the potato has exhibited a marked change in the
vital powers. For —

1. Their preservation is more difficult now than
foi'merly : 400 or 500 bushels of the tubers might
be laid together, and no bad results ensued ; but
recently 60 or 70 bushels laid together will speedily
decay.

2. Formerly potatoes, whenwovmded in digging
them up, healed ; but now they either putrify or be-
com.e tainted.

3. It is well known, moreover, that in many
"places they cut off the ends of the potatoes, where
the buds are mostly found, and planted them as
sets. Now, however, these ends most speedily run
to decay.

4. Damp fields, that used to yield sound and
beautiful potatoes, give now a crop of far less dura-
bility.

5. Varieties of potatoes, that formerly blossomed

and bore fruit, perform these functions no longer
the blossoms drop oft", and no seed can be ol)tained.
All these points have been more or less observed
in many ])laces.

In 1839, however, a disease appeared, which,
within a short time, destroyed thousands of bushels
of potatoes. This was the dry gangrene
(kartoffelfiiule), which speedily changed the tubers
into a brown dry powder, and rendered them unfit
for any kind of use. The author discovered that
this disease was caused by insects, especially small
mites, resembling those in cheese. Many persons
smiled at this discovery, and supposed that the
insects were produced by the disease in the potato.
The following things, however, ought to have some
weight with such opponents : —

1 . Such an explanation would favour the doc-
trine of equivocal generation, which the celebrated
naturalist Ehrenberg, of Berlin, has contradicted.

2. The author has found in the midst of sound
potatoes nests of small white mites, and in the cen-
tre of an apparently sound Gibraltar potato a small
living fly.

The author tried every means in his power to
get rid of this disease, but failed ; he at last, how-
ever, succeeded, by procuring seed potatoes from a
district where the disease had not been known.
At the same time were constantly found individual
potatoes which entered into a state of decomposi-
tion, by which their whole organization was quickly
destroyed. Besides, also, the scurf (schorfigwerden),
or, so called, pock-mark (pockenkrankheit), made
its appearance. This disease, for the most part,
exerted no influence upon the produce^ nor upon
the firmness or germinating power of the potato ;
only, in the sale, it prejudiced them on account of
their unseemly appearance. The scurf, for the most
part, made its appearance where the land had been
strongly manured, or mixed with marl, chalk, or
soap-ashes.

This year a disease has attacked the potato in
Belgium, Holland, the Rhine region, and other
places, which has destroyed their organization, and
rendered them unfit for the food even of brutes.
This disease has been accurately investigated in the
countries where it has broken out. The French
and English governments have both appointed
commissioners. By some the disease has been at-
tributed to the attacks of a fungus, which, fastening
itself on the under surface of the leaf, prevents
that organ from performing its proper functions,
and the whole plant becomes diseased. In this
district (Lower Saxony) the potatoes have this year
(1845) exhibited a greater tendency than usual to
run into a fluid decomposition. This is especially
the case with potatoes in damp soils, and those
which were placed under the water during the

soo

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

spring. Here and there specimens have been
found which in all respects correspond with the
above-mentioned disease.

AVhat then is the origin of this disease ? Nu-
merous hypotheses are advanced in the various
joiirnals. To us it appears that it must have arisen
out of the following causes : —

1. Peculiar atmosjiheric influences.

2. A continual propagation by tubers.

As a proof of the last cause acting before all
others is the fact that the later varieties of pota-
toes will not produce flowers and seeds. Un-
questionably it is the legitimate function of a plant
to bear seeds. The seed is the crowning result of
the life of a plant ; to it is committed the propa-
gation and increase of the species ; and when it
fails to be produced, it indicates a want of power
both in the vegetable and animal kingdom. Fur-
ther, it is a fact that the early varieties of potatoes
which generally blossom and bear seed have been
aflfected to a much less extent with the prevailing
disease than those varieties which are older, and
which bear no flowers nor fi'uit. A brother of the
reporter planted a field this year with the following
varieties of potatoes : —

a. Gibraltar potatoes.

h. Sugar potatoes.

c. Leipsic potatoes, with red eyes.

d. Potatoes planted from seed.

e. Wax potatoes (wacks-kartoffel).

At the harvesting, which occurred on the 20th of
October, 1845, the potatoes a, h, and c were found
to contain more or less indications of disease,
whilst the wax potatoes and those grown from
seed were not toiiched at all. My brother also re-
ceived from an agricultural society four potatoes of
a new sort, which were planted in a g;u'den
amongst other varieties. At the time of gathering,
all the other potatoes afforded traces of the scurf,
and exhi])ited suspicious-looking spots upon the
skin, whilst the produce of the foin- new jjotatoes
were entirely clean and free fi'om disease. The
produce of the four potatoes was 40lbs.

It ought, however, to be observed that it has al-
ways been found that some sorts of potatoes are
more liable than others to be diseased, although
placed vmder the same circumstances ; thus, in the
district of the reporter, the red varieties of potatoes
have been much better preserved than the white.
The first possess always more consistence, and
contain a much less quantity of water than the
last.

From these observations it appears to result that
the changes which the potatoes exhibit in disease
are produced by the soluble substances which they
contain, and that the disposition thereto is pro-
duced ])y a weak cohesion of the elementary

matters of which the potato is composed. This
asthenic state of the potato gives many insects their
nourishment in its tissues, and by this means the
decomposition of the tuber is more readily effected.
Even in the fluid forms of putrefaction, the re-
porter has discovered such insects ; and at the mo-
ment of writing, a potato is lying before him,
which, on being inspected with the microscope, ex-
hibits countless insects, the most of which I'esemble
in appearance the cheese-mite.

For four years the Oberamtmann Albert has oc-
cupied himself with endeavouring to restore the vi-
tality of the potato by propagation from seeds. He
has also induced others to try the experiment,
which has indeed afforded some brilliant results.
Especially have the following points been deter-
mined : —

1. By proper culture, potatoes grown from seed
in the first year gave large, perfectly ripe, and eat-
able tubers ; so that from a Magdeburg acre
(morgen) above four Berlin wispel (a wispel is 24
bushels) were harvested. The seed mixed with
dry earth was thinly sown in the middle of April,
in rows a foot apart, in good garden ground. Tlie
seedlings were transplanted in a field at the end of
May or the ])eginning of June. This should be
done when they are 4 or 5 inches high. It is also
necessary that each plant should have at least 3
square feet to grow in, as they develop a much
larger root-system than those wliich are groM'u
from tubers. It has generally been supposed that
it required three years to obtain a crop of jjotatoes
from seed, ])ut the reason of this lias been that the
young plants when transplanted have not been se-
parated far enough from each other.

2. The potato generated in this way exhibits con-
stantly a great vitality. The vegetation is much
more luxuriant, and the produce of the tubers more
abundant. In September, J 845, the reporter
counted on a single stem of a potato plant 102
tubers, all adapted for future seed ; whilst on the
stem of one of the mother-plants near by, there
were only 13 tubers, although larger on an ave-
rage.

3. Potatoes grown from seed are more durable.
On the 10th of October 9 bushels of ])otatoes from
seed were placed upon a floor in a heap, and at the
same time three-quarters of a bushel of the parent
potatoes. Fourteen days afterwards, 16 faulty in-
dividuals were picked out amongst the last, whilst
in the first not a single imsound tuber was disco-
vered. In fact, the disease (and this more particu-
larly applies to the dry gangrene before mentioned)
has not developed itself in the potatoes jn-oduced
from seed.

4. In one case reported in the appendix, the pro-
duce of tubers obtained from seed v/as 2 4-5ths

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

301

gi'cater than that obtained from the mother pota-
toes on the same piece of ground, and this is in ac-
cordance with the previous results.

5. Notwithstanding that the half ounce {loth)
of potato-seed cost from 3 to 4 thalers in previous
years, and from the frost in the beginning of Sej)-
tember spoiling the potato-apples this year, raising
the price to 4 or .^) thalers the half ounce, yet the
expense of growing the potato from seed is less
than from the tuber.

The planting of two Magdeburgh acres with
tubers cost ; —

th. gr.
For 20 bushels of tu])ers, at 12 groschen a

bushel - - - - - -10 0

Four women to plant the same after the

plough - - - - - -01 2

10 12

For ])lanting from seed the following was the
cost : —

th. gr.
For a half-ounce of seed for sowing two acres 4 18
For 12 women, employed in transplanting, &c. 1 12

G 6
C, The plants produced from seed generally re-
.sembled the parents ; but sometimes entirely new
varieties are produced.

At the end of this report is a note by Mr. Isensee,
in which he says, " I hold the renovation of the po-
tato from seed as a highly important matter. I can
confirm the statement that the potatoes yielded by
plants grown from seed ha\'e an especially beautiful
and sound appearance, a remarkably powerful de-
velojiment of the root, and generally a luxuriant ve-
getation. I have also seen that the small and very
smallest potatoes of the crop grown from seed, in
1844, and which were planted in the spring of 1845,
yield extraordinarily fine and sound tubers, com-
bined with an incredible productiveness, so that I
believe large potato cultivators would find it greatly
increase the produce of their harvests if they from
time to time renovated their crops by raising ])ota-
toes from seed. I believe also that some of the
plants, after the transplanting of the others, and
thinning, might be left in the place where they were
so\vn, and would there yield tubers whose produce
would be good both in quantity and quality, and
which would serve for planting a subsequent year."
The appendices alluded to in the report consist
of various reports and papers bearing on the ques-
tion of the value of the crops of potatoes procured
from potato seed. The first five i)apers consist of
reports given by committees of agricidtural and
other societies on this subject. They are drawn up
in the form of question and answer, and the princi-

pal results have been given in the preceding re-
marks.

One of the papers in Appendix A is upon the
chemical composition of tubers produced from seed
and from potatoes. This paper is by Dr. Dobe-
reiner. He submitted the several sorts of potatoes
obtained from seed to a chemical examination,
which had for its object, more jjarticularly, the as-
certaining the quantity of starch fibrine (faserstoflf),
and water. The results were as follows, in 1,000
parts : —

Water -

Starch - - -
Fibrine, starch-like-
Substances soluI)le
in water

Potatoes

from
Albert.

Potatoes

from
Krause.

Potatoes

from
Greger.

714.4

115.9

70.9

98.8

756.2
110.5

52.5

80.8

810.9

107.0

50.0

32.1

1000.0

1000.0

1 000.0

The quantitative analysis of substances soluble in
water was not made ; from the researches of other
chemists they are as follows : —

Tartaric acid)
Salts

Albumen
Gum
(Sugar

Phosphoric acid
Citric acid

Asparagin
Solanin

The pubhshed analyses of Einhof, Henry, and
Lampadius, are then given, which were made on
potatoes produced by tubers. The following ana-
lysis by Dobereiner is given of a large sort grown
in the year 1845 : —

Water

Starch

Fibrine

Albumen - - }

Gmn, &c. - - S

740.9

120.0

48.9

90.2

1000.0
The most important elements may be seen in
the following comi)arison ; —

Substances.

Starch . .
Fibrine . .
AVater ..
Gum ....

Albumen

Potatoes fioin tubers after

the researches of Kinhof,

Hdiry, and Lampadius.

15 per cent.

7 „
73 „
4/
1 S "

I'otatoes from

sied hy

Dobereiner,

11.1 per cent.
5.7 „
76.0

7.2

Of the remaining elements of potatoes, Henry,
in his researches, gives 3.3 of sugar and 0.1 of fat ;
Vauquelin 0.1 of asparagin, a highly nitrogenous
substance found in asparagus; 1.2 of citrate of
lime ; and an undetermined quantity of pui-e citriq

302

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

acid, citrate and phosphate of potassa, and phos
phate of hme — substances which, in their quantita
tive analysis, determine the greater or less value of
the potato. In addition to these, Buchner, Barry,
and Otto have jjointed out the existence of solanin,
a poisonous substance, which is found in largest
quantities during the germination of the potato,
and is the cause of the paralysis which comes on
in the extremities of animals which have been fed
upon potatoes that have been used by the distillers.
The foUov.'ing table gives the result of the che-
mical examination of potatoes at various seasons
of the year. Two hundred and forty pounds of
potatoes contain, of starch —

lbs. lbs.
In August .. 23 — 25 or 9.6 — 10.4 percent.
September 32 — 68 „ 13.3 — 16.0 „
October.. 32 — 40 „ 13.3 — 16.6
November 38 — 45 „ 16.0 — 18.7 „

April 38 — 28 „ 16.0 — 11.6

May 28 — 20 „ 11.6 — 8.3 „

From M'hich results it will be found that potatoes
ought to be protected against frost, heat, and ger-
mination.

Payen found starch and water in the following
proportions in various sorts : —

Starch. Water.
Rohan potatoes . . 16.6 . . 75.2
Large yellow do. . 23.3 . . 68.7

Scotch do 22.0 . . 69.8

Irish do 12.3 .. 79.4

Suganzak do 20.5 . . 71.2

Siberian do 14.0 , . 77.8

Duvilliers do .... 13.6 .. 78.3
From this table it appears that starch and water
exist in potatoes always in an inverse proportion ;
where there is most starch there is least water, and
vice verstl. It will also be found that starch and
water together constitute from 91.7 to 92 per cent,
of the mass of all potatoes.

Appendix B. Upon the regeneration, or j)rofit-
able propagation of potatoes from seeds, by In-
spector Tinzmann, of Laasnig, in Silesia.

The variety of opinions which exist with regard
to the proper culture of the potato determined me
to undertake experiments for myself, which I have
now carried on for ten years ; and as the results of
their propagation by means of seeds appear to be
important, I have determined to give them to the
public. In the commencement only a few plants
were tried ; but as the result was good, this plan
of culture has been continued till now. The pro-
pagation of potatoes from seeds is attended with
many advantages. The potatoes are by it regene-
rated, their produce is increased, and, what is of
most importance, the potato itself is very much im-
proved. The tubers, also, of potatoes produced

from seed are able to resist the influences of wea-
ther, &c., much better than those grown from eyes,
germs, or peels, in the usual way. It has also the
advantage of a saving in the sowing, as, although
small potatoes are used when the crop is grown
from the tubers, yet these may be employed more
profitably for feeding animals. In the growing of
potatoes from tubers there is no certainty with re-
gard to the crop, as a fine-looking potato may
have weak vital powers, or the germs, on account
of imperfect nutrition, may not be able to develop
healthy plants. The following is the history of
ray experiments : —

In the autumn of 1833 the seeds of an ordinary
variety of field potato (Futter-Kartoflfel) were col-
lected, and sown in a garden on the l6th of April,
1834. From mismanagement, only 12 plants made
their appearance, and of these 9 were transplanted
in the middle of June. They were then 5 inches
high, and were placed a foot apart from each other.
This was an exceedingly unfavourable year for this
experiment, on account of the drought that pre-
vailed. When these plants were dug up, they
yielded only 73 potatoes. The largest were the
size of a hen's egg, the smallest as big as a hazel
nut.

In the year 1835 these 73 potatoes were planted
out in a field, and the whole of them, even the
smallest, produced plants. They were easily dis-
tinguished from the old sorts by their vigour, their
dark green leaves, and more luxuriant growth.
The produce in 1836 was 1,042 tubers, or Ij bu-
shels. These were again planted, and in 1837 pro-
duced 21 bushels, which were again planted, and
produced 447 bushels ; of these, 223 bushels were
planted, and yielded 3,140 bushels; the rest were
sold. V/e may calculate from this that in five
years 9 plants yielded 6,000 bushels of potatoes.
The produce of the new potatoes, as compared
with the produce of the parent potato, was as 14
to 8i; and the bushel of the new variety weighed
9 libs., whilst the old weighed only 8 libs. [These
are German weights and measures.]

The second experiment was made mth the Ger-
man table-potato (Speise-KartofFel). The seeds
were sown on the 26th April, 1836, which came
up, and 60 plants were transplanted on the 20th of
June following. The ]3roduce was 5| metze (a
metze is the sixteenth part of a SchefFel or Prus-
sian bushel). The tubers were small, not any
larger than a dove's egg, and were 1,382 in num-
ber, or 23, on an average, to each plant. These
were planted in 1837, and yielded 8 bushels of per-
fectly formed potatoes, with an excellent flavour.
In the year 1838, 3 bushels were planted out, and
56 bushels obtained. The produce of this variety
was always greater than the last, as it afforded, on

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303

an average, from CO to 70 tubers on each jilant.
Although in the first produce many of the tubers
were very small, this was found to be no disadvan-
tage in using them as seed-tubers, the very smallest
frequently having the largest number of eyes, and
yielding the greatest produce.

The propagation of potatoes from seed having been
foundso valuable, I have adopted the plan, and now
possess a large assortment of different varieties.
The following table has been drawn up for the
purpose of affording a view of the relative merits
of potatoes grown from seeds and tubers : —

Quantity,

Quality.

Kind of Potato.

Acre
gave.

X be

a

1 . Field-potatoes from

tubers . . . .

2. The same from seed

82
140

92
104

Uis.

81
92

perc'.

H
9

'.lerct.

25
30

:wrct.

68f
61

3. German garden-po-

tatoes from tubers

4. The same from seed

82
91

6h

8

19
23

74i
69

5. Early kidneys from

tubers , . , .

G. The same from seed

93
106

90
94

6
9f

20
25

74
65^

As these three sorts of potatoes were grown on a
soil of equal goodness, and received the same treat-
ment, they prove very satisfactorily the advan-
tage of the raising of the potatoes from seed.
I might communicate the result of experiments on
other kinds of potatoes, but they are all equally
favourable to the plan of culture now recommended.
I wiU now say a few words on the obtaining, treat-
ment, and sowing of the seed.

In order to obtain good seed, not more than from
two to three of the fruits or apples of the potato
plant should be allowed to come to maturity. For
these the most perfect should be selected, and all
the rest cut away. In the neighbourhood of the
plants selected for seed no other sort should be
allowed to grow, because the pollen of the other
I)lants may mix with those intended for seed, and
the sort will thus be changed. Of this I have had
ample proof, and ha^•e sometimes had the varieties
of potato spoiled by such a mixture. It is well
knoM'n that a change in the A^ariety of a plant can
only thus take place by the application of the pollen
of other varieties. Sometimes this mixture of other
pollen exerts a powerful influence, and I have found
that sorts of potatoes that would not bear seed
from impregnation with the pollen of their own
flowers, would bear it when impregnated \vith pollen
from other flowers.

The ripeness of the seed may be known by the
softness of the apple ; or should not this come on
in late varieties, then when the vegetation dies. I
collect the apples generally at the time the tubers
are dug uj). They should be then placed in a
damp, not a wet place, as in a cellar, till decora-
position takes place. The pulpy parts should then
be separated by scjueezing, and the seeds washed
with luke-warm water ; the seeds should then be
picked out, and washed carefully several times,
imtil all the mucus is got rid of. This is a jioint of
great importance, and it was from not properly
separating the seed from the investing mucus that
I did not succeed so well in my first experiments.
When left on, the mucus pi-events the seed from
germinating. The seeds after washing should be
dried in the air, and kept in a well ventilated place.

When varieties are wished to be produced, a fine
dry still day, when the plants are in full blossom,
should be chosen, and the pollen of the one plant
l)e carefully applied to the stigma of the other with
a camel's-hair pencil. This process it is very
desirable to adopt where none of the potatoes of a
district will bear apples at aU, as it frequently hap-
pens that potatoes are borne after this artificial im-
pregnation.

In the cultivation of potatoes from seed the
following notes may be of service. The seed of
the potato should either be sown at the latter end of
April or the beginning of May, in a loose soil,
which, during the previous autumn, had been well
manured. The ground should be sown thinly and
in rows of four inches apart. The young plants
will have appeared within ten days. The groimd
shoidd be carefully cleared of weeds. At the end
of about eight weeks they will be four or five inches
in height, when they should be dug up and planted
out in a well worked field, about eighteen inches
apart in breadth, and seven inches in a line. In
the course of time the soil should be loosened with
a hoe, and later dug up, and housed in the same
way as other potatoes.

The potatoes obtained from seed the first year do
not attain their perfect size, and are watery and not
agreeable as food ; they seldom attain the size of a
hen's egg, and the majority are not bigger than a
hazel nut; but in the second year the potatoes
grown from these attain a large size, and deliver as
fine and perfect a fruit as possible.

(To this statement of the Herr Tinzmann, Justiz-
rath Isensee appends a note, stating that the results
of his observations difier from those of the author.
In the previous report from Herr Albert, and in the
reports in Appendix A, it will be seen that the first
crop of potatoes was large, free from any large
amount of water, and eatable. This was the case,
not only with the early sorts of potatoes, but with

304

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the later sorts, the same as those referred to by
Herr Tinzmann.) An important point to be at-
tended to is the preservation of the seed tubers
during the winter. They shouhi be carefully stowed
away before heating takes place, so as to produce
germination ; and this should be done as soon as
possible after the taking up of the potatoes. If the
seeds are sown in February on a hotbed, then the
potatoes which are produced may be employed for
food ; but I prefer the second year's produce. (It
will be seen from preceding parts of the reports that
it is not necessary to take this precaution to secure
as useful a crop the first year.)

Since obtaining the foregoing results from the
propagation of potatoes by seed, I have not only
always had abundant crops, but they have all been
free from the various forms of potato disease.

Appendix C. In number 245 of the " Berhner
Zeitung," of the 20th of October, 1845, the fol-
lowing occurs. The minister of the interior is
induced to lay the following communication before
the public : — The prevalence of a disease in pota-
toes in various parts of the world has led some to
the conclusion that it is desirable again to raise
potato-plants from seed. There appears, however,
to have been but few experiments performed upon
this subject, and, consequently, persons have been
led to doubt its value. An experiment has, how-
ever, lately been performed by Herr Zander, of
Boitzenburg (Court Arnim's gardener), in which
he not only obtained potatoes from seeds, but when
all others were attacked with disease these were
found free. The following is the plan pursued :
The berries of the potatoes are collected in the au-
tumn, and are squeezed with the hand into a pot
or other vessel, in which they should remain six or
eight days, to decompose, by which process the
pulpy part separates from the seeds ; the seeds are
afterwards washed with water, and treated in the
same manner as the seeds of cucumbers. They
are then dried, and kept in a warm and dry place.
At the end of March, or the beginning of April, the
seeds are sown in a hotbed, and are treated gene-
rally in the same manner as early peas. The young
plants should be protected from the frosts to which

they are exposed at the season of year in whicli
they are i)lanted. In the month of May he trans-
planted and planted in a hght soil at the distance
at which potatoes are usually planted. Zander's
plants were sown on the 11th of April, and trans-
planted, on the 26th of May. The plants at the
harvest yielded largely, and one plant gave 280
tubers. Zander has grown potatoes thus for the
last five years ; and while the potatoes all around
have been subject to attacks of disease, those grown
from seed have been free. The success of these
experiments ought to induce persons, wherever the
potatoes are not got in, and berries have been pro-
duced, to collect the seed for the purpose of sowing
in future years, should the crop turn out to be a
failure. The space required for sowing seeds, in
order to plant an acre of land, is not more than a
square rod, so that persons with only a small
amount of land may successfully pursue the plan.

Appendix D is a short report made on the 7th
October, 1845, by C. Berendt, on the merits of the
potatoes grown by Herr Albert, from seed ; which
is very favourable.

Appendix E. — The president of the Agricultural
Society of Rosslau and Cothen, in consideration of
the importance of the subject, had been induced to
allow the collection of seed under the superintendence
of an experienced farmer, for the purpose of sup-
plying those who may wish to have it.

Appendix F. — Potatoes from seed by Von Blacha,
of Jaschine, near Kreuzburg. In consequence of
the marked diminution in the germinating power
of the potatoes of this district, I three years ago
obtained, by means of washing, an ounce and a
half of seeds from sound potato berries. These
were sown, for the sake of experiment, the first
year in a hotbed, and when the plants were up,
and no frost to be feared, they were planted in the
open field. From these I had the first year one
sack and a half, the next year 12 sacks, and the
present year 95 sacks of perfect and good potatoes.
All my potatoes are, at present, infected with the pre-
vailing disease in a high degree, except the 95 sacks
obtained from the seeds, and they are all perfectly
sound. — Gardeners' Chronicle.

BURTON-ON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB.

The usual monthly meeting was held on Thurs-
day evening, the Sth instant. Mr. Harding, who
had engaged to introduce the subject of discussion,
being unable to attend, the secretary (Mr. J. D.
Greaves) imdertook the task of supplying his place,
and read the following remarks : —

" As it was only yesterday afternoon that Mr.
Harding informed me of his inability to attend the

club this evening, I had no time to arrange with
any other member to bring forward the subject for
which he was engaged ; and I have therefore
ventured to take Mr. Harding's place, rather than
allow the club to separate without expressing its
opinion on the question proposed for discussion.
But as I have not considered the subject attentively,
with the view of bringing it before your notice, I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINIC.

805

niiKst claim your indulgence for the necessary im-
pevfection of my manner of treating it. I have
merely thrown together the results of my own ex-
j)crience in the management of dairy cows.

" The point to which our attention is particularly
called is, whether it is more profitahle to feed dairy
cows liberally, and prolong the time of milking
them ; or to let them dry in the winter, and give
less expensive food. In my opinion, the profit on a
dairy depends more upon the mode of our practice
in regard to this point, than on any other part of
the treatment of the cows ; and I would therefore re-
commend every one to subject the two opposite
plans to the test of experiment. I see instances
around us, where, on the same kind of land, one
dairy is made to produce twice, and more than
twice as much cheese as another ; and it is, I think,
well worth our inquiry, whether those who get the
largest produce, do not, at the same time, reap the
largest profit.

" The system most commonly pursued in this
district is, to let dairy cows dry in seven or eight
months after calving, and to keep them for the re-
maining four or five months of the year on a not
very thri^•ing diet of a moderate allowance of hay,
of hay and straw, straw and turnips, or even straw
alone. I am inclined to think that this system has
had its origin in times when the state of agricvdture
forbade the providing of any considerable quantity
of winter provender, and that it is continued more
from habit than from any well grounded reason of
its suj)erior profitableness. I have myself pursued
an entirely ojjposite plan. I milk my cows until
near their time of cah'ing, and never give them any
but the best kinds of food, and in unhmited
quantities. I am very well satisfied that this is the
most jirofitable system, and will shortly state the
reasons which lead me to think it so.

" A cow kept in milk for seven months will
usually yield an average of twelve quarts of milk a
day during the whole time. The value of the milk
I calculate to be about l^d. per C[uart; so that the
yearly produce of a cow on this system is thirty
weeks' milk at about 9s., or £13 10s. in all.
Against this you have to set off the keep of the cow
for the seven months, and also the expense of keep-
ing her through the remaining five months of the
year. At the end of the seven months, when the
cow is let dry, she will be one-third less in value
than when ready to calve ; that is to say, if at the
time of calving a beast be worth £18, she will only
be worth about £12 when dry, and requiring to be
kept four or five months before her next calf.
About £6, therefore, is to be deducted from the
value of her produce for this unprofitable part of
the year, which is at the rate of 5s. 6d. a week.

" A cow out of milk, and in calf, will not be sus-

tained in good condition on less than I \ cwt. of
hay per week ; which is, on the lowest calculation,
worth 5s. 6d. per week. If other food be substituted
for hay, the cost will still be the same, if the food be
equally nutritious ; for, on the average of times and
seasons, an equal quantity of nutriment — whether it
be in the form of hay, roots, or corn — will cost nearly
the same sum. It is possible to avoid a part of the
expense of keeping the beast, by substituting
cheaper and less nutritious food — as straw, wholly
or in part ; but if this \)e done, the cow will be quite
as much lessened in value at calving time as the
saving in her food will amount to ; for unless a
cow be in good condition when brought into
milk, great part of her food ^vill be consumed in
repairing her wasted body, which would otherwise
be converted into milk. I do not, therefore, see
how it is possible to diminish the expense of keep-
ing the cow while she is yielding no return. But
suppose that instead of letting a cow dry at the
end of seven inonths, you prolong the flow of milk
for another three months : the expense of keeping
her is wholly, or for the most part, repaid in the
additional produce she will yield. A cow takes I2
cwt. of hay, or its equivalent in other food, to main-
tain her in health and flesh. When full of milk,
she will require 2o cwt. of hay per week : thus, you
get for the additional cwt. of hay, a return of from
twenty to thirty gallons of milk. Whatever food
you give beyond what is necessary to repair the
daily waste of her own l}ody, a cow will return to
you in a product three, four, or five times as
^•aluable as the food she consumes.

" If you let a cow dry, she costs you 5s. 6d. per
week for her keep ; but if you add another 2s. 6d.
to her food, she ^vill, for three months longer, give
you back an average of a gallon or five quarts of
milk at a meal. The value of this quantity of milk
is 6s. or 7s. per week. Thus the cost of her keep
is diminished to Is. or 2s. per week, instead of 5s.
6d. for an additional twelve or thirteen weeks.
This plan I have pursued, and have contrasted it
with the other, and have satisfied myself that it has
fully the advantages I state. It has, indeed, more ;
for not only will the expense of kee])ing the cow
be lessened during the time when she is usually
kept dry, but when she is kept full of milk for a
longer period, the produce from the sixth and seventh
month after calving is very much greater than when
she is let dry at the end of seven months.

" The objections which are usually urged against
the plan of high feeding and continued milking of
dairy cows are such as nobody would make who
had steadily pursued and tried it. First, it is said
that it is not possible to prolong the flow of milk
in cows beyond seven or eight months, and secondly,
that if you milk them till within a few weeks of

306

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

calving, the quantity of milk they give after calving
is miicli diminished.

"With regard to the first objection, th:.l you
cannot prolong the flow of milk, I think it
would be more in accordance with the fact if
it were said that you have difficulty in con-
trolling its flow. Cows differ from each other in
their aptitude to milk for a long period, and yoimg
beasts certainly cannot frequently be made to milk
longer than tiU within four or five months of
calving. But as a general rule, cows which have
not been pinched in their first years, and are not
bred so as to possess a more than ordinary pro-
pensity to fatten, Avill continue to milk as long as
plentiful and good food and a defence from cold
are sujjplied to them. If in the autumn, cows are
kept on insufficient ]3astures, or are not taken into
the sheds when cold weather sets in, they will
certainly lose their milk. A cow when she is new
melched will milk, though her food be insufficient;
she will give milk, though her body wastes ; but in
four or five months, if her food be not more than
is sufficient to sustain her body in full and juicy
condition, and to supply also the materials of milk,
she will cease to milk, in order that the body may
be better sustained. But give enough food and
keep her warm, and you will generally find that a
cow, if she comes of a good milking breed, will
continue to give milk until \vithin a month of
calving, and longer, indeed, unless you purposely
check its flow. A cow that will not do this is the
exception, and not the common instance. I in-
variably find that my cows, when taken from grass
in the autumn, increase their milk in the sheds ; and
I have repeatedly — indeed, it is my common prac-
tice— bought half dry cows, which have renewed
their milk under the different management they
have met with in my sheds. Though, therefore,
there are instances of cows which will go dry in
spite of all you can do, yet it is very easy to cull
such from your dairy, and retain only such as have
the habit which you require.

" As to the other objection, I grant that where
cows are not highly fed, both during their time of
milking, and while dry, they will not milk so well
after calving, unlessfthey have been allowed to re-
main dry nearly three months. But this is not the
case when they are fully fed and I find that my
cows, which have been let dry for two months,
milk as well immediately after calving as those
which have been dry longer. I find that if I milk
them until within a month, or up to the time of
calving, my cows fail to give so much milk in
the month or six weeks immediately following. At
the end of that time, however, I do not perceive any
difference in two cows treated differently ; and I
do not feel sure that it is not, on the whole, as

profitable to keep on milking them up to nearly the
time of calving; for in the last two months the milk
is renewed in greater quantity — so that I think that
perhaps a good deal more is gained in the two
months preceding, than is lost in the two which
follow calving. I have, however, hitherto preferred
generally to let them dry at sLx weeks or two
months ; because, though there is perhaps a little
more immediate gain in the opposite plan, yet I
cannot help thinking that the rest is of some benefit
to the health and vigour of the beast. Still, I must
remark that I sometimes milk a barren cow for two
years, and do not find that it injures her in any
way.

" I scarcely think that any judicious farmer will
in this day advocate the plan of keeping milking
cows in the straw-yard through the winter, in order
to avoid the expense of their keep while dry. With
every kind of stock, it is profitable never to let
them sink in condition ; but I think it is more
injurious to the farmer's interests to stint the dairy
cows than his store stock. I am certain that if a
cow be kept low in condition through the winter,
her field of milk all through the following summer
will be diminished, so as to more than overbalance
the saving effected in her keep. Let one dairy be
kept on full food during the \vinter and summex',
and let another be pastured in summer on equally
good land and put to straw four or five months in
winter : the difference between the yield of milk in
the two will be twice the amount of the difference in
the expense of their keep. A cow stinted in the
■winter cannot be made to yield as much milk as
another that has been well fed ; neither can you
make her continue to milk for a long period. But
if you keep a cow well in the winter while dry, the
cost of her food will cei'tainly take all, or nearly all
the profit of her produce, if you have to maintain
her for five months. Tliis is felt to be the case by
most farmers; for wherever it is the practice to keep
up the condition of the dairy in the winter, it is
commonly seen that they are made to milk eight or
nine months. I feel confident that all who try the
plan judiciously will find it better to extend the
time of milking to ten or ten and a half months, and
to let the cows dry only six weeks or two months.
This is the system pursued in those countries and
districts where superior methods of farming have
been longest practised ; and when it is seen that a
change from one system to another is becoming
general, we may conclude that experience, the sure
guide, has proved the change to be profitable. Tliere
may be difficulty in procuring a sufficient supply
of provender to continue the milking of the cows
through the winter on a purely grazing farm ; but
wherever arable and pasture land are joined in one
farm, winter roots or cabbage must be gro^vn, in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

307

order to get a sufficient supply of good manure.
The manure made from milking beasts is not, of
course, so rich as that made from feeding beasts ;
but, on the whole, I think the jirofit would be
greater, in consuming the produce with the dairy.
It may be asked, perhaps, what is to be done with
the straw of the farm when all the stock is kept on
good diet through the winter. It is very easy,
however, to consume the straw in such a manner
as will make it form the chief part of the diet of
milking or feeding beasts. A projjer mixture of
turnips and straw with beans or oilcake will pro-
duce either milk or fat, or keep the young stock in
thri^^ng condition just as well as food in which
hay forms the chief part ; and the expense of the
corn or oilcake will always be repaid, in the su-
perior condition of the cattle, or the greater amount
of produce from them.

" I cannot help remarking how very much our
system of dairy management is behind the other
department of fattening cattle. The most perfect
care is bestowed in improving the breeds, so as to
increase the aptitude to fatten in the highest degree.
We know exactly the quality of flesh and the form
of body which mark the habit of constitution that
wUl give the greatest quantity of fat in return for
the least quantity of food. But, as yet, almost
nothing has been done towards perfecting a breed
of animals that shall possess the same improvement
of their milking qualities that has been given to the
fattening propensities of our most celebrated breeds.
Yet we all know that the aptitude to milk is
inherited by the offspring of a good milker ; and
there is little doubt, if equal sagacity were em-
ployed to perfect the breed of milkers, that we
might attain to as high a state of perfection in this
as we have already attained in the fattening breed.
If I might venture to give an opinion upon a point
on which so many good authorities oppose me, I
should say that it is not possible to unite the two
qualities of an extreme aptitude to fatten and to
milk profusely in the same animal ; for when you
apjiroach the perfect form of a feeding beast, and
the kind of constitvitional habit which disposes to
lay on fat, the milking properties of a cow almost
invariably decline. Generally, cows derived from a
perfect fattening breed will not, in the first months
after calving, yield so mvich milk ; and almost always
it is found that, after six or seven months, they will
cease to milk, and will lay on fat in preference.
Though I admit, therefore, that our dairy cows
have been much improved by the attention which
has been paid to the breeding of feeding beasts, and
that to a certain extent the improvement of the
feeding properties will also improve the milking
qualities of the cow, I think that much mischief has
been done by attending too exclusively to the pro-

pensity to fatten in cows which are to yield a profit
only by their good milking properties. In districts
where the rearing of store stock is the chief object
of attention, the feeding properties of the cattle may
very properly be more regarded than the aptitude
to milk ; but in dairies, where the chief object is to
get the greatest return of milk produce, every step
which is taken to promote the fattening at the ex-
pense of the milking properties of the stock is, I
think, injurious. There prevails a pretty general
impression among dairy keepers, that a highly bred
bull does not improve their profits ; but if there
should arise a breed of animals (as I hope there will)
as famous for their milking properties as for their
shape and other merits, we should then see the
character of the dairy stock universally improved.
But at last, I am inclined to believe that the true
reason why we have not an equally good milking as
fattening race of cattle is, that the dairy farmers
are not so careful in rearing their stock, nor in
treating them liberally, as the breeders of fattening
cattle. x\ny race, whether of milkers or feeders,
will soon degenerate, if not kept well while young,
or if sent into the straw-yard for the winter when
they grow up. I do not, therefore, look for a con-
siderable improvement in the breed of milking
cows until the system I have been recommending
is more generally adopted."

There was but little discussion on the opinions
advanced by Mr. Greaves in his paper, all the mem-
bers present being of oi)inion, that it was most
profitable to continue to teed cows well through the
winter, and to milk them till within two months of
calving. There was, however, some difference of
opinion as to the extent to which it was profitable
to carry the system of full feeding of milking cows.
Mr. Hollier and Mr. Ward thought that a moderate
use of oilcake and corn was productive of a larger
return in milk than repaid its cost; while Mr.
Ordish argued that such stimulating food had a
tendency to make cows fall ofl' in milk when turned
to grass, and was rather productive of an useless
degree of fat than of milk.

VETERINARY PROFESSIONAL ANNUITY
FUND.

Ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid veri non
audeat. — Cicero.

We can assure Mr. Anderson— whose letter ap-
pears in our pages — that we had not forgotten Mr.
Baker's truly philanthropic " Suggestions for the
Establishment of a General Annuity Fund." We
have been waiting to hear the sentiments of the
professional body on the subject. As yet, how-
ever, we have received but two communicr.licng

308

THE ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thereon — one from Mr. Anderson, tlie other from
Mr. W. A. Cherry, After the pathetic and elo-
quent appeal of Mr. Baker, in our numher for Ja-
nuary, we had, we must confess, reckoned on re-
ceiving more letters than two by way of response.
Should tliat appeal — the re-perusal of which we
strongly recommend — fail, we should, for our own
part, despair of success. Mr. Cherry's communi-
cation is forcibly argumentati\'e in favour of the
scheme ; but surely argument in any shape can
hardly be requisite to induce men, members of a
common profession, to embai'k in an undertaking,
at comparatively little cost to themselves, which,
in the day of old age or sickness coming upon
them in narrowed circumstances, or of their leaving
behind them wi^TS and families unprovided for,
promises sustenance at least, if not a provision, for
them. The groundwork of Mr. Baker's scheme
speaks for itself. Five hundred members are re-
quired to subscribe annually a guinea a head ; an
increasing stock which, provided it be left im-
tonched, and have all accumulative interest added
to it, will, at the expiration of five years, amount,
together with the annual subscriptions, to a yearly
income of £600, available for the purposes and ob-
jects of the general fund. Now, the first thing to
be done is, as near as we can, to ascertain what
number of subscribers we are likely to have. The
general meeting of the chartered body, which will
take place on the first Monday in May, will aftbrd
an excellent occasion for bringing the subject for-
ward. In the meantime, we shall be happy to hear
from such of our readers as think well of the pro-
ject.'— Veterinarian .

ON THE CHOICE OF SEED POTATOES.

The subjoined extract is from a paper on the " Selec-
tion and Preparation of the Seed," by J. F. W. John-
ston, F.M.S.,&C., cS;C.

" While the above was in the printer's hands, a strong
opinion has appeared in the Gardeners' Chronicle,
from the pen of Professor Lindley, in reference to the
choice of seed potatoes. His words are, that " diseased
potatoes will prodtcce a diseased crop. Not a shadow
of doubt remains on that point." "That great

DOUBTS EXIST A S TO THE FITNESS FOR SEED OF
APPARENTLY SOUND POTATOES FROM DISEASED DIS-
TRICTS," and that, "if healthy potatoes can only be
discovered by cutting into slices, the crop of next
SEASON IS DOOMED, wherever sets from diseased
fields are employed." (The Italics and capitals are
copied from the Gardeners' Chronicle).

Tlie facts upon which this opinion is founded are the
following :

1. That a brown gangrene on the haulm underground,
and rotting blotches on the leaves, had appeared in
potatoes (no variety indicated) which had been planted

in the autumn, at Bicton, in Devonshire. Of the

I samples examined, " one, and much the worst, was the

j produce of ' rather badly affected tubers.' " Another

j sample, "from tubers supposed to hove Oeen sound,"

also manifested symptoms of the disease. One tuber

appeared to be quite sound botli within and without,

and yet disease had appeared in the haulm just above

the tuber. Some of the Bicton potatoes had formed

tubers and roots without haulm or foliage, " bobbin

Joans," as they are called in Cornwall ; and the disease

showed itself in the very centre of these peculiarly

formed young potatoes.

2. Plants in the garden of the Horticultui'al Society
were also found in a state of disease, the underground
haulm having already begun to decay in blotches. These
plants were obtained from diseased tubers, planted for
the purpose of experiment. The variety is not stated.

3. The disease has attacked plants (early kidneys)
which were being- forced in frames at Oulton, in Che-
shire (Sir Philip Egerton's), and a variety not named in
a market garden belonging to Mr. Hale, at Ware, in
Hertfordshire.

Every thing from the pen of Professor Lindley is
entitled to great respect, but wc hope he has in this
case been hasty. We do not think the few cases of
disease above cpaoted justify his broad conclusions. We
agree so far with his first conclusion, as to be of opinion
that diseased potatoes are not unlikely to produce dis-
eased plants ; and, therefore, we have recommended (p.
186), the careful selection of sound seed. But we do
not think such a result a necessary one. We are still
more inclined to suspend our judgment in reference to
the alleged danger of using sound seed from infected
districts. We have at present it/^ potatoes growing,
with shoots twelve inches in length, apparently in per-
fect health from the potato upwards, and with green
leaves without a visible taint ; and yet these began to
shoot in a potato pit, with rotting potatoes sometimes
in contact with them. We cannot tell how these po-
tatoes may ultimately turn out, but at present they give
no countenance to the disheartening conclusions of Dr.
Lindley.

We venture even to express the opinion that a sound
cup, American early, or forty-fold potato from the
middle of a diseased disti'ict may be planted with less
risk of failure than buffs, flat reds, or lumpers, which
have been procured from a district in which no disease
has hitherto appeared. Should the experiments we now
have in progress lead us to a different conclusion, we
shall not fail to communicate it to you without unne-
cessary delay."

Edinburgh, Feb. 1846.

DALTON FARMERS' CLUB.— On March 18th
a Farmer's Club was formed at Dalton, in Lancashire.
The attendance was highly respectable. They met at
the Cavendish Arras, and several resolutions were pro-
posed and carried. Indeed the opinion was universally
expressed that the time had arrived when an onward
move should be made, and that the best works on agri-
cultural subjects should be procured for their instruction.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

309

LONDON FARMERS' C LUB.— M ONTH LY MEETING.

SUBJECT FOR DISCUSSION :

CONVERSION OF GRASS LANDS INTO TILLAGE.

The usual monthly meeting of the members of the
London Farmer's Club was held on Monday, March
2, in their rooms at the York Hotel, Bridge street,
Blaekfriars, Mr. Baker, of Writtle, Essex, in the chair.

The Chairman, in opening the business of the
meeting, said : The subject which stood for the even-
ing's discussion was the best mode of converting grass
lands into arable lands, that was to say, of bringing
them into cultivation. The question had been given
to Mr. Shaw, of Northampton, but had not originally
stood for to-night. In consequence, however, of Mr.
Cuthbert Johnson's having been prevented from attend-
ing this evening to bring forward his question on
manures, it had been arranged that the order of the
two questions should be exchanged. But it unfortu-
nately hajjpened that Mr. Shaw also was unable to
attend this evening ; he had sent an intimation to
their secretary, Mr. Thorpe, to this effect, requesting
that some other gentleman would take the lead in the
matter in his stead, and expressed a hope that he (the
Chairman) would do so. He was certainly not pre-
pared to open this question in such a manner as to do
it that justice which its importance demanded ; but,
in order to carry out the objects of the club, he had got
together a little information for the purpose of doing
80 (cheers). At the same time if there was any other
gentleman present who was prepared with any observa-
tions, he would rather that he would take the opening
of the discussion upon himself.

Several members of the club expressed a desire that
Mr, Baker would favour them.

The Chaibman accordingly rose and said : That
his ideas upon this subject were compressed into a
very short compass. First, as to the practical part, in
which he had had some experience, for he had seen it
partially carried out in his own county, and he had
made inquiries respecting it in other localities. He
begged to tell them that in his neighbourhood the
usual system of converting grass lands into tillage by
burning and paring was not much practised. Essex
was a " burning" county ; but still the lands gene-
rally were of a more level character and better quality
than those to which the burning and paring system
was usually applied, and therefore they adopted the
plan of ploughing. It must be apparent that, in the
case of coarse lands and uneven surfaces, the burning
and paring system was by far the best that could be
adopted, because there were large masses of vegetable
matter which it was impossible otherwise to reduce to
a proper state to be useful in raising plants. It had
been found that, of all descriptions of manure, the ashes

which were obtained from paring and burning land
of the character to which he had alluded were one of the
best — in fact they were superior to almost any other kind
of manure that could be applied; and therefore
there was a very great advantage derivable from burn-
ing in the first instance. When there were coarse and
inferior lands to be dealt with, the best and the cheap-
est mode was gradually to burn them into cultivation
as the farm might require root crops. Now, with paring
and burning, very much depended upon the manner
in which the process was carried out. Upon stiff clays
it destroys the tenacity of the soil, makes it assume
the quality of lime, or something very nearly approach-
ing to that, and tends very much to improve the
working of such a soil. That is the effect upon clay
soils; but upon light gravelly soils burning becomes
a most wasteful proceeding. In this case so much is
carried off by the process, and so little remains of inor-
ganic matter, that the loss becomes much greater than
by ploughing in. One great point to be observed in
the paring and burning system is, to burn slowly and
gradually, and to avoid getting up too much heat.
This can hardly be effected by burning in small heaps,
and therefore he thought it much better to burn in
large ones. If the smoke is well stopped in, all goes on
well; and the effect is much better than in the smaller
heaps. With the Essex soils the burning generally
assumed a redness, or brick-dust character. Now he
had heard this objected to, and said that wherever
the land was converted into that red colour much
of the benefit was lost. He (the Chairman) had
learnt, however, in the course of his reading on the
subject that this redness was an indication of the pre-
sence of the peroxide of iron, produced by the action
of the fire upon the oxide of iron which the earth con-
tained, and that so far from being injurious, it was
much more beneficial to the purposes of agriculture
than if the soil kept its black character, and did not
assume that redness. Gentlemen present would, how-
ever, doubtlessly, be able to speak upon these points.
In Essex very little grass land was allowed to be
broken up. He (Mr. Baker) broke up some last year,
in consequence of some of his arable land having been
taken away. He stated to his landlord that the
amount of the arable land was very small, and there-
fore requested permission to break up some grass land,
which was allowed. He ploughed it up and rolled it,
in the spring drilled in some oats, and from eight or
nine acres had grown enough to keep a considerable
number of horses. This year he intended to grow root
crops, such as potatoes and mangel wurzel, and then

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310

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

give it a dressing of lime. The lime had the effect of
reducing into compass the vegetable matter which re-
mained ; liis plan would be after that to take another
crop of oats, and then a crop of wheat. He was quite
satisfied tliat the wheat at the end of the fourth year
would be better than if the intervening crops had not
been taken {Hear). The cost of paring and burning
appeared to be about 40s. an acre. In some districts
breast-ploughing was adopted, and was found rather
cheaper.

Mr, Edward Aitcheson wished to know whether
the breast-plough was that which was known in some
counties as " denshire ?"

Mr. Baker said, with the breast-plough the coulter
was made very sharp, and it had a cross handle, which
pressed against the man's breast. The furrows were
drawn out in stetches; the stetches in Essex were
usually about ten feet. In the burning system it was
usual to cart ofi" one-half of the ashes, and then adding
about twelve loads of manure, the ashes taken off
would mend a double quantity of land. One objection
frequently taken to the burning and paring system
was that it wastes the soil. His friend, Mr. Taberham,
of Boys Hall, Essex, however, occupied a large farm,
in which he carried out the principle, and improved it
to such an extent, that at the end of twenty-one years
it kept three times as many bullocks as previously
{Hear, hear) ; and yet Lord Dacre stopped him, as
he said he was quite satisfied that the soil would be
greatly wasted, and the value of the property dete-
riorated. Upon this Mr. Taberham refused to keep
the farm, and left it accordingly. He then took an-
other farm at Navestock, in the same county, and the
plan he adopted there was that of ploughing it out,
taking off the turfs with a sort of feather-edge, and by
that system he greatly improved the whole of the
orass lands. The matter, however, which they had to
consider was the best mode of converting grass lands
into arable lands {Hear). His opinion was that in
burning, the large heaps answered better than small
ones, as the combustion was slower. That a gieat
deal must be lost was perfectly evident. If the soil
were burnt in an open fire, the whole of the carbon
would be evaporated ; but by the process of stopping
it was retained. The substance which passed off was
in fact carbonic acid gas. and unless great care was
taken a very large proportion of this most useful pro-
perty would be lost. The great object in conducting
the process should be to burn only to a certain point,
in order to retain that which was beneficial, and lose
as little as possible. In stifi" clay soils there was no
doubt that this system of burning and paring was of
much more benefit than in the lighter descriptions ot
. sandy or silicious soils. In silicious soils he thought
it was better not adopted; it was much better to de-
pend on tlie slow decomposition of the vegetable mat-
ter wliich it contained, and wiiich was perhaps better
effected by the application of lime than by burning
(Hear). It had been stated by some that ashes were
of too absorbent a character, and that they never
should be U'^nd except with manures. He had also

heard it asserted that a very small quantity of ashes,
applied in composite heaps, would produce a much
greater effect than when the ashes were applied to the
land first and the manure afterwards. He gave these
as the opinions of a practical man in Essex {Hear,
hear). He was of opinion, from the experiments
which he had made himself, that for an ordinary kind
of pasture, there was nothing better than the system
of burning. He had burnt some himself, to the extent
of about two acres, the centre of which was peat six or
seven feet deep, resting on clay, and filled with water
rising from a powerful spring. His first step was to
find out the spring, and having done this, he dug out
the peat, burnt it, and produced a vast quantity of
ashes, as it burnt very well. There was great difficulty
indeed in putting it out, and the waste in that de-
scription of soil was immense; it was reduced to one-
tenth of its original quantity. The ashes were only
ten per cent, as compared with the soil burnt. But
then the ashes were exceedingly beneficial and power-
ful. The first year after spreading the ashes white
clover rose in such quantities as to be sufficient to mow
of itself (Hear). These were the few observations
which he had put together for the purpose of intro-
ducing the subject. But his practical knowledge was
rather limited; for, although in the habit of laying
down grass lands, he did not think this came within
the scope of their inquiry to-night. There was a
mode used in Essex called '' double ploughing," which
was used after a field had been laid down in rye-grass
— one plough followed the other. The first went over
the ground, and then the second came and entirely
buried all the grass. On the second year the grass
came up in a perfect state of decomposition ; and after
this, wheat was found to grow very well indeed {Hear).
He begged leave now to say that he should be very
happy to hear any gentleman who might have any ob-
servations to offer to the club.

Mr. Shaw, of the Strand, said he was quite sure that
every gentleman in the room would agree with him
that they were very much indebted to their excellent
Chairman, Mr. Baker, for bringing forward this ques-
tion in the absence of the gentleman (Mr. Shaw, of
Northampton) who originally intended to have done
so (cheers). He was, in fact, always ready to come
to the rescue when any difficulty arose such as had
occurred this evening {Hear, hear). He (Mr. W.
Shaw), in the few remarks he had to make, would
not pretend for a moment to put himself in competi-
tion with Mr. Baker in reference to the practical
knowledge of this subject, had he not possessed
some practical knowledge, and made observations
of that which was passing around him when living in
a district in which the paring and burning system was
practised. His observation applied to light lands ;
in clay soils he had no experience, but in light lands
he had, and he had observed pretty largely {Hear),
Inalarge tractof country in thewest of England theonly
system of breaking up old grassland which was practised
was that of paring and burning ; first taking a crop of
roots, and thus laying tlie foundation for a succeeding

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

311

crop of corn. He knew that persons who had tried it
elsewhere had brought the results of their experience
to the Mendip Hills, and the consequence was that the
whole of that country had been brought into cultiva-
tion by paring and burning, and then laying down
corn crops (hear). He was quite satisfied that in some
cases the system of paring and burning had with rea-
son been found fault with ; if persons attempted to re-
pay themselves by taking crops of corn at once,
they threw away all the advantage of the ashes ; but
if they took root crops first, they could not fail
to realize as much as could reasonably be expected
from such soils (hear). There was another point he
wished to touch upon, namely, the question of the
relative advantages of burning in large heaps as
compared with small ones. He did not know whether
it resulted from a different set of circumstances or
not, that his notions differed from those of their ex-
cellent Chairman ; but the result of his experience in-
duced him to make the heaps as small as possible,
always avoiding to calcine the ashes. He always had
them watched, to see that they did not burn too strongly
and too red, because he fancied the ashes were not so
good when burnt fiercely and red as otherwise. Now, the
results of ]\Ir. Baker's experience seemed to be that
the calcined earth possessed a quality similar to that
of lime ; but in that portion of the west of England
to which he had alluded, their object always was that
the ashes should be burnt slowly and as black as
possible, under the impression that they preserved
the largest amount of carbon. He had ventured
these two or three observations on a part of the subject
to which he could speak as a practical man ; and,
having done so, he should sit down, in hopes that
some one possessing better information would address
the meeting (hear).

The Chairman said he believed he was justified,
on the authority of all the best works — namely, Lou-
don's " Cyclopaedia,'' Rham's " Dictionary of Farming,"
and " British Husbandry," published by the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge — in stating Ihat
silicious lands ought never to be attempted to be
burnt, for that the waste was so great that it was like
concentrating manures into a narrow compass ; and
although the system might benefit the farmer in the
case of one or two crops, the loss in the long run was
very great. He certainly only spoke from the written
experience of others. He was not able to test the
matter by his own experience. The land which he had
burnt himself was a heavy clay soil.

Mr. Gray said that having had some little experi-
ence in this matter, he would venture to offer a few
observations. About this time twelve months, having
some land not so good in respect of its grazing qua-
lities as the rest, he determined to break it up ; and,
after having ascertained that it was well drained, he
commenced by turning it up with a draining plough,
which threw up the soil in rolls like draining-tiles all
up the field. This mode he thought decidedly
superior to that of using the breast-plough.
Some of his men wanted, at first, to pare it in the

common way; but, when they saw the superiority of
this mode, they said they hoped they should never see
another breast-plough as long as they lived (Hear, and
a laugh). The way in which it was burnt was in largo
heaps, rather against his (Mr. Gray's) will, because he
had always understood that it was best to burn it in
small heaps. He had always thought that if the turf
was simply charred, that was all they wanted. Finding,
however, that he could not get it burnt in small heaps,
he had it done in large ones. The time at which he
did it was tho month of April ; and he was of opinion
that it was much better to encounter the wet of April,
than to wait for dryer weather, and have the vegetable
matter to deal with at the latter end of May (Hear,
hear). In burning, the wet would be much more
easily got rid of than the vegetable matter ; he made
this observation, because he thought it was a fact
worth knowing ; he always found it more difficult to
burn according as he commenced later in the sea-
son (Hear) . With regard to the colour of the soil
after it was burnt, he had generally found that, although
it was red at first, it turned black afterwards. In the
case of the land to which he referred, after burning it,
he used Bruce's subsoil-plough, and drilled in some
turnips, and a finer crop he never saw (Hear). With
regard to the advantage of paring and burning in lands
of the description of which they had been speaking,
one great point was the destruction of the grubs and
wire-worms. The wire-worm was a thing they had to
contend against very much. In the case of some land
which fell under his notice about ten years ago, he
recollected that he had an infinity of trouble with it :
it was taken up without burning, and crop after crop
was destroyed by the wire -worm. He even had a crop
of beans destroyed by wire-worms, which was a cir-
cumstance he never heard of except in that instance.
However, on this land which had not been burnt, he
was now growing the thirteenth crop of grain and
roots in thirteen successive years, and four of them
had been wheat-crops j only two were root-crops
(Hear, hear) .

Mr. Fisher Hobbs : Not four wheat-crops in suc-
cession, surely ?

Mr. Gray : No ; four crops in the time, not four in
succession: and lime only was applied twice during
the period (Hear). He liked the system of burning
best, as it was less trouble than taking up the soil
without burning. If, however, lie were to take it up
without burning, his plan would be to bury the turf;
and, when he wanted a fresh stimulus, to bring it into
action (Hear). Their Chairman had made allusion to
ashes being carted off, and applied to other lands.
He had tried this himself. He had made a practice of
drilling them into mangold-wurzel, but he had been
disappointed. He had not seen that benefit from their
application which he expected. On one occasion,
when his men were at work in this way, hehad said to
them, " Now, miss some of the land, without telling
me which it is ;" and he could never discover any
difference between the places where the ashes liad
been, and where they had not (Hear).

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The Chairman : You admit they do good on the
lands upon which they are burnt ?

Mr. Gray : Oh, yes, I admit that ; but that is what
I do not understand.

The Chairman: Did you apply them to any con-
siderable eitent ?

Mr. Gray : No j to no great extent ; but I think I
put them in thick enough.

Mr. Brown (to Mf. Gi-ay) : IIow many crops did
you say you had in succession ?

Mr. Gray : Thirteen crops in thirteen years.

The Chairman : That was upon land which had
not been burnt ?

Mr. Gray : Yes.

The Chairman : That is most important (hear,
hear). Was any part of the field burnt at the same
time?

Mr. Gray : No.

A Member of the Club : Did you not use any
manure at all?

Mr. Gray : Not a skuttlc-full : and my friend Mr.
Wood has been over the ground.

Mr. Wood : I can bear testimony to the fact of its
being capital landj there is a great depth of soil
{Hear, hear).

Mr. F. HoBBS said that perhaps his friend Mr. Gray
having managed the land in question as a land-agent,
it was hardly a fair criterion.

Mr. Gray said, he could assure Mr. Hobbs that the
farm to which he alluded was conducted strictly on
tenant principles (Hear).

Mr. F. Hobbs said he was happy to hear that in
Mr. Gray's part of the country the tenants had those
rights and liberties which they certainly did not enjoy
elsewhere. He said that he had eleven corn crops in
thirteen years, and he (Mr. Hobbs) could not help
thinking that he had acted upon a feeling which was
far too prevalent, namely, that of breaking up the grass
land, taking out all the qualities, and bringing it into
a sterile condition. It was becoming by far too much
the praetice throughout the country to break up the
pasture lands, apply the " whip," and exhaust all its
good qualities, without putting any thing upon it. He
was not aware, until he came into the room this eve-
ning, that the subject before them was to be discussed,
otherwise he might have prepared himself to oifer a
few observations upon it. He did, however, think that
grass lands were very much mismanaged : he was of
opinion that one-third might be very advantageously
broken up, and the other two-thirds would produce
more beef and mutton than they did now. The infe-
rior grass land would, no doubt, if broken up by a sys-
tem of corn-cropping, produce as much beef and
mutton as they did at present, and produce also con-
siderable quantities of corn. If they took the average,
if they took a farm of 200 acres, and 100 were kept in
grass, and the other 100 under rotations of cropping,
there would be more beef and mutton produced than
at present, and corn at the same time, which must be
advantageous to the neighbourhood, not only by the
production of corn, but by the increase of employment

for the labourer (Hear, hear). This was a subject
which he did think demanded greater attention from
the general body of the farmers than it had met with
for some years past. He felt satisfied that there was
scarcely an acre of grass land which might not be ma-
terially improved by draining or manuring ; or, if it
was of decidedly inferior quality, why then let it
be broken up. The system of soiling also, he
thought, if more generally carried out, would be very
advantageous. He (Mr. Hobbs) had, for some years
past, managed a grass land farm of considerable ex-
tent, on which the land was of poor quality ; indeed a
great portion of it was formerly wood land. The soil
was of a very tenacious character, and contained a
good deal of oxide of iron, and, in some places, con-
sisted of gravel and peat, with a good doal of water.
Now he had no hesitation in saying, with respect to
this land, that if the landlord would have allowed him
to break it up, he could have afforded to give him
double rent, and to have employed a double num-
ber of labourers, to the great advantage of the neigh-
bourhood (Hear, hear). This was not by any means
a singular case ; for in many parts of England there
was a gieat deal of grass land which the landlords
compelled to be kept down under grass, because old
grass land was looked upon with favour, and the land-
lord liked to see that kind of land (Hear),

Mr. Merton begged to interrupt Mr. Hobbs for
one moment, to ask him what he meant by " soiling,"
to which he had just referred?

Mr. Hobbs said, "soiling" was mowing off the
green crops and feeding the cattle in sheds. Now with
regard to paring and burning, he would say a few
words. He had been in the habit for many years past
of paring the borders of fields, or in fact any grass
land, where he had the opportunity of breaking it up.
Upon tenacious soils he found burning very advanta-
geous, and he was one of those who thought it was
rather a fault to burn the sods too rapidly. He
thought they were too apt to select dry weather for the
purpose, and place the heaps in the corner of a field,
for the sake of cheap burning, and thereby got rid of
the carbonic acid gas, which, as their Chairman had
told them, was the most valuable portion of the ma-
nure. He fMr. Hobbs) last year broke up a pasture
which had a great portion of sand upon it — a silicious
soil, which there was great difficulty in burning ; but
he persevered, and burnt most of it. He, however, left
a small portion in the middle of the field, which he did
not burn (it was late in the spring), and sowed it all with
rape. Now the produce of those portions which had had
the ashes upon it was at least three times as great as
that part which had not (Hear, hear). He felt persuaded
that although there was a feeling against the system of
burning, more especially among the landlords than
among the tenants, the existence of the prejudice was
attributable to the plan often adopted of forcing great
crops (the " whipping" system), rather than to any
real injury which could be done to the soil (Hear, hear).
This appeared to be certain, that upon tenacious soils
burning was unquestionably advantageous ; while

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

313

upon light soils it required care and caution in resort-
ing to it (Hear). If they did not hlvc burning, how-
ever, then it was a good plan to mix lime with the soil,
which promoted the decomposition of the vegetable
matter which it contained. In the west of England,
within the last two or three years, they had adopted
the system of charring the earth. Mr. Miles, M.P*
for Somerset, had told him (Mr. Hobbs) that
they had been in the habit of burning the soil
in that county, and had not found it beneficial,
and that therefore they had latterly adopted the plan
of charring in preference, and that it had been found
advantageous in the case of turnips and other crops
also. As lar as regarded the insects, however, it was
unquestionably much safer to bum the soil than to
wait for the process of decomposition. Mr. Gray had
mentioned that he had used ashes with root crops
without finding any benefit from them ; but he (Mr.
Hobbs) could only tell them that he had last year
bought a considerable quantity of manure — guano, and
other fertilizers — and in two instances, with turnips and
carrots, he had derived as much benefit from ashes as
from a much more costly amount of the best guano
{Hear). Although Mr. Gray might be right in his
opinion with regard to his own land, he (Mr. Hobbs)
was of opinion that farmers generally knew so little of
the effects of these fertilizers that they would be applied
to root crops ; although ashes would be quite as bene-
ficial as guano or other manure. The subject, how-
ever, was one of considerable importance, and which
ought to be looked into by landlords, as it would lead
to an increased production of the land, an increased
demand of labour, and, in many instances, an increase
also of rental {Hear).

Mr. Merton wished to know what Mr. Hobbs
meant by the " borders'' of fields; he had spoken of
burning the "borders" of fields. In his (Mr. Mor-
ton's) county they knew no such thing as a border to
a field {Hear, and a laugh).

Mr. Hobbs said, when he took his farm there were
a great many borders to the fields, which had been left
for the encouragement of the game (the landlord was
very fond of game), and these he took the opportunity
of burning. He was not allowed to pare and burn the
grass lands generally, of which he had 240 acres, but
every inch of border he had broken up and burnt, and
found great advantage from so doing. He did not,
however, mean, when he talked of borders to fields,
that that was the cliaracter of the land in the county
of Essex generally {Hear, and laughter).

Mr. AiTCHESON said he had come here tliis evening
expecting to hear a lecture upon the advantages of the
system of raising artificial grasses in comparison with
old pasture lands, but he felt very much obliged to
their excellent chairman for what he had given them
instead {cheers). He was quite satisfied that much
was to be done in the way of converting grass lands.
He was sorry to see that in the county of Sussex and
in the Weald of Kent, the very sink of farming {a
laugh), the system was not adopted. Throughout
Sussex two systems of pasture-land prevailerl, which

perhaps might appear odd. In one case, the land
was covered with coarse grass, blackthorn, and rushes,
and had never had a single handful of manure upon it,
nor even surface draining applied to it. He was quite
satisfied that with proper management one-sixth of
the whole county might be recovered. In many cases
ten acres did not produce more than eight acres ought
to produce ; and there were parts where the roughest
cattle could not go, and where they must be all but
starved. Now, if such land were double furrowed,
ploughed, or pared and burnt, and then laid down
with peas or beans, the next year receiving a good
dressing of lime, they might then have very good crops
of wheat upon it {Hear) ; and if they pleased to keep
it only two or three years, it might be laid down again
with good grass. Under the present system one-sixth
of the county at least was out of cultivation. The
other description of pasture lands consisted of meadows
and home meadows, which were mowed every year— a
most objectionable system. If the whole of the coarse
lands were ploughed up, and cropped one year and
mowed another, there might be one-third more corn
grown for the use of man, and double the quantity of
beef and mutton in addition {Hear) . He thought it
was a great pity the landlords could not be induced to
break up all these old pasture lands {Hear) . If that
matter could be introduced into the code regulating
tenant-rights, he thought it would be very desirable.
Let the tenant have leave to do as he liked with them.
If he thought proper to break them up, let him do so.
He thought there had been some misunderstanding be-
tween Mr. Shaw and Mr. Baker regarding their ideas
on the subject of paring and burning, and he thought
that it arose in this way ; namely, that there had not
been sufficient explanation as to what was growing on
the land at the time of resorting to tlie process. He
quite agreed with the remarks of the Chairman with
regard to stiff clays j and as to the question between
large or small heaps, for his own part he rather pre-
ferred the small heaps, but still he thought it was ne-
cessary to know what was growing on the land at the
time. Now, in the case of the Mendip Hills, which he
believed were very woody, he thought the burning
might be very beneficial, because the wood ashes, with
the turf, would produce the effect desired {Hear). He
repeated his approval of the plan of converting grass
lands into tillage, and concluded by saying that the
present system was not only starving man by depriving
him of labour, but was also starving the very beasts
{Hear).

The Chairman said, in opening this question he had
been desirous of confining himself to the letter of the
card ; but as other matters had been introduced into the
discussion, he would just mention what he particularly
alluded to with respect to burning lands. Some of the
fields of Essex, which were of white marl clay, scarcely
produced an atom of grass. Now it was impossible to burn
this in small heaps, as there was no vegetable matter to
keep the fire going, and it required a great deal of fire and
very large heaps to start it at all. The men were, how-
ever, very clever in the management of them, and by

3U

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

stopping in the smoke from time to time wherever it
appeared, they continued to burn until perfectly red,
and the ashes were applied to the soil of other fields
quite as lime would be applied. The point they were
upon, however, was the conversion of grass lands into
tillages. With regard to the question of burning in
large or small heaps, his own argument, as he had al-
ready said, was that the waste was less in large than in
small ones, and thereby the carbonic acid gas was retained
which would otherwise fly off. That was his argument.
As to burning on light lands, he took that upon opinion
Whether it was advantageous or not, he thought was
questionable : their friend, Mr. Shaw, said it was so,
and he (the Chairman) took it for granted. The general
opinion, however, in Essex was that it did not answer,
and there it was not attempted (Hear) . But whether
when they got upon light soils of a different character
the matter became a different question, was doubtful ; it
might be that it was so. The soil to which Mr. Shaw
had made allusion rested on limestone. Chalk clearly
became converted into lime, and it was just as easy to
convert marl into lime as it was chalk. Then it had an affi-
nity for carbon, and was a very beneficial vehicle in cul-
tivation. They had met there for the purpose of investi-
gating a certain question, and whether there was any
better mode of effecting a certain object than at present
existed ; and therefore it was desirable to hear various
opinions and the various results of experience {Hear,
hear). Lime had an affinity for carbonic acid gas,
which it took up from the atmosphere ; gypsum had an
aflinity for ammonia, and therefore was used in mixing
manures. Lime was a very material thing in agricul-
ture ; carbonic acid appeared to be the very essence
of vegetable life ; and by the application of lime to the
soil, this gas became mixed with the soil. It was upon
this principle that lime produced by its agency the bene-
ficial effects which it did. In all those lands which con-
tained oxide of iron, they would get the red colour by
burning ; but upon other lands they would not. In
burning peat, for instance, they never get the redness,
but merely a white ash. Therefore was it that they
could not apply one general principle to the whole
country, and therefore also was it that they derived
BO much advantage from meeting together from all the
various parts of agricultural England (Hear). Mr.
Shaw told them that on the Mendip Hills they burnt
even the light soils ; now if they had a practical man
from that locality, he would probably tell them why
they did so there and why not in Essex {Hear). He
begged, however, to remind the meeting that it was de-
sirable that they should come to some resolution as the
result of their discussion (Hear).

Mr. Shaw said he had only one more remark to offer
before they did so. Their worthy chairman was a much
better chemist than he was, and therefore he felt that he
could hardly venture to dispute a point with him which
depended on chemical knowledge. But it did appear to
him that burning in large heaps, and reducing the soil
to a red ash, was inconsistent with retaining the carbonic
acid ; indeed, he held that the very act of burning to a
red ash destroyed the carbon.

Mr. Brown said he would take the opportunity of
offering a few remarks on the question under dis-
cussion, although he could hardly hope to throw much
light on the matter. The question before them was,
" the best mode of converting grass land into tillage."
He (Mr, Brown) knew but three methods of doing this.
One, and the most general, was that of paring and burn-
ing : another, that of ploughing without paring and
burning, and allowing the land to lie ; that was to say,
ploughing in November, and letting the land lie until
the next March or April, and then have a crop of oats
drilled in, which would give time for the turf to rot.
The third mode was that of paring and throwing the
turf in, which rotted and eventually came up again, and
was very beneficial to succeeding crops. He had him-
self been a great advocate for burning in the case of in-
ferior grass lands which were not cultivated ; and since
the tithe commission had been appointed, there was great
encouragement for so doing (Hear, hear). Previously,
land which paid sixpence an acre used, when brought
into cultivation, to be subject to six or seven shillings an
acre tithe {Hear). This was a great obstacle. It was
quite evident that there was not sufficient land in tillage ;
the number of acres per able-bodied man was very de-
ficient. In his county (Wilts) they had that immense
plain — Salisbury Plain ; and since the appointment of the
tithe commutation commissioners, a great deal of it had
been brought into cultivation. They had several farmers
now farming in that district of the county, who had bro-
ken up the land, were keeping stock, and also growing a
great number of acres of corn ; and, moreover, were giving
employment to a great number of additional hands — a
part of the matter not the least worthy of consideration
{Hear, hear). He was aware that in this question of
breaking up land, very much depended upon what was
going to be done with it. He had often been applied to
by tenants to solicit the landlord to give them permission
to break up certain lands, and had always said, " Give
me some idea how you are going to manage the land
after it is broken up, and then I shall be in a position to
go to the landlord, and if I can assure him that his farm
is not going to be injured by it, well and good ; but I
cannot recommend him to give you such permission if
I think that it is" {Hear, hear). He (Mr. Brown) was
of opinion that we should never have two crops of com
without green crops between. Some short time ago he I
paid a visit to the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, where the
farming was generally considered of a first rate character.
They were at the time breaking up some land, and he ;|
was surprised to observe that they were using an im- ;j
meusely strong plough, and tearing up the heath and '\
all together. He should have considered that the proper j
way to go to work was to commence by burning this 1}
heath ; and he spoke to the man who was at work with i|
the plough, and asked him when he expected the heath
to rot ? His reply was, " Oh, it may be two or three
years before it becomes thoroughly decomposed" (a
laugh).

Mr. Fisher Hobbs presumed that this person was
not a member of the Highland Society {Hear, and
laughter).

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

315

Mr. Brown : No ; he certainly was not a member
of the Highland Society. In the Carse of Gowrie he
certainly saw some very fine farming, and some of the
most magnificent turnips he ever beheld. With regard
to the question of burning land there appeared to be
great difference of opinion ; he would not take upon
himself to say which was the best mode. Perhaps the
nature of the soil itself might, to a considerable extent,
determine that point. In his county they decidedly
preferred the small heaps. But the more the smoke
could be kept in, the more they were kept in a smoul-
dering condition, and the less they were allowed to break
into a flame, the more advantageous it would be (Hear,
hear). There might, however, be situations where
large heaps were more desirable.

Mr. Wood said he should have risen earlier in the
evening if the subject had come within his knowledge of
farming ; but bis actual experience of breaking up
grass-lands and converting them into tillage was very
limited ; and had it not been for some remarks made by
Mr. Aitcheson, he should altogether have avoided ex-
posing his ignorance {laughter). That gentleman stated
that the land in Sussex might be made to produce much
more than it did ; but the reason why it was not brought
to such an extent of cultivation as other counties were,
was that there were great difficulties in the way, and great
burthens attending it. In the first state of humanity
man was wild ; in the next he led a pastoral life ; and in
the third he became an agriculturist {laughter). Now,
in Sussex, they had not got beyond the second state — in
fact, they were only shepherds (renewed laughter). He
was afraid that, in consequence of the burthens on land,
this was the case in many other parts of England also,
and that no sooner was one burthen removed than
another was supplied by their Legislative enactments to
stand in the way of the progress of cultivation {Hear.)
]Mr. Hobbs had remarked that, if he had been allowed
to break up his land, he could have afforded to pay
double rent, and could have cultivated much more.
But he (Mr. 'W'ood) thought that, if he considered the
burthens of tithe, and so forth, he would come to the
conclusion that it would not have been altogether so
profitable ; and he had too good an opinion of Mr.
Hobbs's judgment to think that he would do anything
that would not be profitable. When the times should
enable him to break up his pasture lands — and he held
considerably more of that than of arable — he should cer-
tainly, from what he had heard to-night, adopt the sys-
tem of paring and burning, as he understood that to be
the most judicious (Hear, hear.)

Mr. HoBBS said, as his friend Mr. Wood had alluded
to him, he intended to reply. He was sorry — as that
gentleman never came to this Club without " getting a
wrinkle" {a laugh), which he had more than once ad-
mitted— that they had not been able to enlighten him
on the subject of convertmg grass-lands into arable. He
stated his opinion with regard to his (Mr. Hobbs's)
grass-lands, that it would not have answered his purpose
to have broken them up when he took the farm ; now, he
firmly believed that it would have answered his purpose
to have given 10s. an acre more for it, if he could have

broken it up, than it did at the present rent, keeping it
under grass management {Hear). He (Mr. Hobbs) did
not think that the burthens on land were sufficient to
prevent the tenant-farmer from converting grass-lands
into arable. The growth of corn was the most profitable
purpose to which they could apply lands ; and he did
think that, in a very few years, most of the grass-land
would be converted into tillage. He last year had an
old pasture, which for a number of years had been
scarcely producing anything ; it happened to come into
his possession, and he determined upon making it do
something. He sent for a person out of Cambridge-
shire, who was in the habit of paring and burning, and
who agreed to breast-plough, pare, and burn it for 30s.
an acre. After proceeding to a considerable extent, he
found that there was a great deal of sand in it, and he
asked 5s. an acre more, which he (Mr. Hobbs) gave
him. He thought there was little grass-land which
might not be converted into tillage for from 30s. to 40s.
an acre, and therefore he did not think Mr. Wood's
argument bore upon the question. He did firmly be-
lieve that the increased production which must take
place if the grass-lands were brought into cultivation,
would have a great effect upon the feelings of the coun-
try, more especially upon the subject which had been
so much agitated lately. There were numbers of bogs
and pieces of wet land bordering brooks and rivers, pro-
ducing nothing but rushes and coarse grass which
was almost valueless ; in very many farms there were
large portions of such land which might be under-drained,
or the water got rid of by one or two large drains pro-
perly applied. He (Mr. Hobbs) had lately drained a
bog which no one in the memory of man had walked
over, and from which cattle had frequently been dragged
out ; there was very good snipe shooting, but it was of
no other use. Well, by converting it into arable land
he had made that which previously had not been worth
5s. an acre worth 30s. an acre {cheers) ; and no doubt
much such land might be advantageously broken up at
the expense of a few pounds {Hear, hear).

A short but animated discussion then ensued as to the
form of the resolution which should be adopted.

Mr. Shaw ultimately moved, and Mr. Hobbs seconded,
the following : —

" Tliat the arguments adduced at this discussion lead
to the conclusion that many descriptions of grass land
will be best brought into cultivation by the system of
paring and burning, provided root crops be first taken ;
but that upon richer soils it is doubtful whether the ob-
ject may not be effected by the ordinary method of cul-
tivation."

The Chairman having put the resolution, it was car-
ried unanimously, and the meeting separated.

ON TExVANT RIGHT.

A committee of the London Farmers' Club arc now
forming a code of laws for protecting the industry and
capital of the English farmer.

My advice to the Provincial clubs is— bestir them-

316

selves and express their sentiments openly, through the
advantages of the press, whose assistance is always
available to remedy public grievances. Such important
matters are not left, as formerly, to the adjudication of
a few landlords ; no, they are settled by a discerning
public, and the more they are enlightened on the sub-
ject, the more disgusted they are with the system.

The public will not be surprised at the price of beef
and mutton, and the great importation of corn required,
when they understand how the tenant farmer is bound
down by the laws of landlordism.

I will state a most cruel and heart-rending case that
has recently come under my knowledge. A tenant has
occupied a farm about forty years ; he has constantly
expended his surplus capital in bones, linseed, cake, &c.,
not only to increase the quantity of corn, but also his
green crops, which are returned to the land in the shape
of manure. His landlord a short time ago had the mo-
desty (or, as Mr. Mechi denominates it, a desire to ap-
propriate the tenant's capital to his own use) by claiming
the manure : the tenant not being a man with much
energy and spirit, coolly submitted to the unjust de-
mand, not thinking that the most trifling unforseen
casualty would deprive him of his forty years' hard toil.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Lastly he dies, and what is the consequence ? his wife ■

and family are unable to manage the farm, and instead ^
of having four or five hundred pounds to receive for

manure, produced at their own cost, which would greatly s

assist in bringing up the family, she quits without a I

shilling for it ; and who reaps the benefit ? The modest
landlord.

I am prepared to prove before Lords, Commons, or
any committee, by men of intelligence, pe7'severance ,
and capital, that they could and would produce more
beef, mutton, and corn, consequently more labour, under
a proper and just system of tenure.

What say intelligent men before they expend their
capital ? My landlord's agreement compels me to make
good all dilapidations, but it does not compel him topay
for manures and improvements carried out at my cost ;
that is another thing.

Are such iniquitous laws to be tolerated in the nine-
teenth century, because they were enacted by the land-
lords to suit their special purpose, to the serious injury
of the tenant farmer, and a loss to the whole commu-
nity? A Sufferer under the

Laws of Landlordism.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA ; OR, EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE.

Sir, — Having had a six months' visit of this fatal
disease among my cattle, and consequently got a little
experienced in its first symptoms, progress, and results,
I think it my duty to my brother farmers and the coun-
try generally, to add my mite to what has already been
published regarding this most fatal epidemic.

Having had some young stock grazing at a distance
of three or four miles from my farm last summer, I was in-
formed by the park-keeper about the beginning of August
that one of my cattle was not feeding so well as usual ;
and on examining it, I found its coat staring a little,
and that it had a slight low cough ; and as the weather
had been very wet for some time, thought it had got a
bad cold, and that it would be advisable to take it home,
whei'e I might have it better attended to ; consequently,
it was sent for and put in a dry shed by itself, and I am
not aware that any of the other cattle about the place
ever saw it or was near it. I then had it bled and phy-
sicked ; and as it was eating a little grass, thought it
would soon get better. On the next day, as the fever
was very strong and the physic had operated, I took
some more blood, and had still good hopes of its re-
covery. However, by the third day it had again got
very costive, the excrement being very black and fetid,
and the pulse beating 112. 1 began to lose hope of it,
but gave another dose of physic (Epsom salts and
ginger), which again operated, but without producing
any abatement of fever ; as I could not think of taking
any more blood, and as it had not eaten anything for
two days, I fed it with oatmeal gruel until the sixth day.

when it died. On opening it, I found the lungs about
twice the usual size, the left being much the largest, and
both gorged with blood as black as pitch, and quite in a
state of corruption ; the pleura also very much inflamed,
and adhering to the lining at the sides in a great many
places, and the chest filled with water 3 the heart, liver,
and bowels all appeared entire ; and being satisfied that
it was some incurable disease, had the skin taken off",
and the carcass burned : and as it was but a year old
stirk, I gave myself little more concern about it ; but
havipg heard that two cattle died in the adjoining field
where it was, I kept a strict watch over the rest, but
never saw anything the matter with them.

Well, in four weeks after, I noticed one of my cows
a little dry, and staring in the coat, and not feeding as
usual ; and on observing her stools, state of her pulse,
and her general appearance, soon perceived she was in
for the same disease ; and as she was in faint condition,
and being convinced of the incurable nature of the dis-
ease, had her sold to a flesher without delay ; and eight
days after, her neighbour in the stall exhibiting symp-
toms of the same malady, gave me ample proof that I
had got not only a fatal but a most contagious disease,
and that disease is pleuro -pneumonia.

On consulting the " Treatise on Cattle," by the
Society for the Diff"usion of Useful Knowledge, I found
it strongly recommended as a good preventive, in cases
of diseases of a contagious nature, to bleed and physic
the sound animals, which I immediately did ; but, not-
withstanding, I have lost ten, seven of which have been

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

317

buried, not having been in condition to kill. Now, Sir,
to give all the information in my power regarding a
remedy for the disease, I have to state that, in five out
of the ten 'cases, I did everything that was suggested to
me from books on the subject, and from practical vete-
rinarians ; and am sorry to say that in all of them I
was unsuccessful, and am of opinion that, after the dis-
ease is fairly established, it is incurable. I bled, blis-
tered, physicked, setoned, and rowelled; and, although
for a time they all had their effects, these have hitherto
all failed to effect a cure, and the disease has, from four
to eight days after its apparent commencement, ended
in death. Bnt, notwithstanding that my feeble endea-
vours have failed, there is no reason for despairing of a
remedy : some one may be more fortunate than I have
been ; and T hope whoever succeeds will make it known.
If my experience can be turned to any account in the
way of prevention, I may mention that the very first
symptom of the disease is looseness — that, while all the
beasts are on the same keep, one will be observed un-
commonly loose, which will continue for two or three
days, and be very black ; then he will get bound very
rapidly, and his hair will begin to become very dry and
erect ; the animal will cease licking himself, preferring
to lie down, and, if in the fields, separate himself from
the rest of the herd whilst grazing, but eating very little
himself; in winter time, although supplied with turnips,
he prefers feeding off a little straw, and will continue to
chew the cud after he has entirely left off eating ; his
belly, which has hitherto been nearly as full and healthy-
looking as usual, will now begin to collapse ; his head
will be somewhat extended, but his eyes, beyond assum-
ing a more than usual brightness, have nothing very re-
markable about them ; about a week after the looseness
has appeared, he will be troubled with alow and not very
frequent cough, which, though almost inaudible, will
irritate his chest, causing it to rise as if with pain, and,
if you observe that cough more than once, in all proba-
bility your chest will rise in a like manner ; you v;ill
next observe a grunt in his breathing, especially when
lying, a catch in every expiration, which will soon
become constant even while standing, and all the medi-
cines I could administer had no effect in removing it,
and the longer it continued the louder it grew, until
death put a period to it ; if you press your hand to the
right side, behind the fore-leg, you will feel the heart
beating very strongly, between 100 and 130 a minute.

Now, although I have never effected a cure where the
disease was fairly begun, yet I think, by employing pre-
ventives, they have been the means of saving one or two.
In going over all my stock with medicines, I observed
two rather loose, but gave them the same treatment as
the rest ; but, while it had very little apparent effect on
the greatest portion of them , farther than diminishing
their appetites for half a day, these two became very ill
in a few hours, and one of them was so very weak,
that it was unable to stand up or to eat anything for a
week, and was fed solely on linseed-tea and gruel, put
over his throat, when he got stronger, and ate, for six
weeks, about as much as two would require, when he
relapsed, took the disease, and died. The other was not

so ill ; he always kept eating a little, but got very much
tucked up ; but, as I nursed him with three bottles of
linseed-tea a day, with sliced turnips and hay, he quite
recovered, and is still doing well.

Now, it may perhaps be of importance to any person
who may be visited by this unwelcome stranger to know
what medicines to give for prevention ; and I may men-
tion that, after taking half-a-gallon of blood from cattle
more than a year old, I gave, on the morning after, on
an empty stomach, lib. Epsom salts, 1 oz. ginger, 1 oz.
nitre, H drahm tartarized antimony, and 1 oz. salt of
tartar, which can all be got from any respectable drug-
gist ; after mixing well together, to be given in 1 ^ chopin
thin gruel, with ilb. treacle, which will be found, in al-
most every case, to operate in two hours. In frosty
weather they require to be kept in a warm place, being
plentifully supplied with lukewarm water after the
medicine, and then only a little straw for the rest of
the day. Young beasts, under a year old, will not stand
quite half the former dose — say 5 oz. salts, 3 drahms
ginger, 3 ditto nitre, 4 ditto tartarized antimony, and 2
ditto salt of tartar. I would advise every man, whose
stock is afflicted with the epidemic, to lose no time in
thu6 treating every beast of the cattle kind about his
place : I can guarantee it will not hurt them, but, on the
contrary, it will repay all his outlay, which is about Is.
per head, and all his trouble in the fresh growth it will
put into his stock. Should the disease still linger about
the place, I would recommend a strict observation, and,
whenever an animal is suspected of having it, remove
it from the rest as soon and as far as possible, and
keeping it separate ; a day or two will show whether it
is the epidemic or not. One test I have never found to
fail : when attacked, they will never be heard to cry, al-
though separated from the rest, even in its early stages.
As soon as it is fully proved to be the fact, have him
either sold, if at all in condition, or put him under ground
as soon as possible ; clean the place where he was re-
cently kept, well washing it with lime-and-water, and,
after a space of three months, bleed all the stock again.

Now, sir, if these observations will not occupy too
much space in your columns, I may perhaps be allowed
to make a few remarks on the origin of the epidemic,
and suggest a way to get rid of it.

It is a disease of recent date in this country : you will
find it about as old as the introduction of foreign cattle :
you will find a disease called chronic pleziro -pneumonia
mentioned by M. Lecoq, teacher of the "Veterinary
School at Lyons, which was very prevalent on the con-
tinent in 1833, and originated in Franche Comte, where
the cattle are worked, and then driven long journeys
to market, in want both of food and water, and, being
naturally subject to diseases of the chest, a great many
fell victims to this fatal disease by the way ; and, as the
same breeds of cattle exist, and the same methods of
working and driving are still customary, we can have
very little doubt but the same diseases exist likewise ;
and as the importation of these cattle is greatly on the
increase, and, under the proposed alteration, will go on
at an immense rate to increase, so we may expect pleuro-
pneumonia to increase in a like ratio. Besides those

318

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

which have already fallen victims to it out of my small
stock, I could mention twelve or fourteen farmers and
cowkeepers in this immediate neighbourhood who have
suffered much heavier losses from the disease than I
have ; and no one is safe in buying cattle in a public
market. If its ravages continue to spread as they have
been doing hitherto, it will furnish a reason to Sir
Robert Peel why the price of cattle is getting still
higher in the face of so many importations, and may
well make him pause before admitting so many more as
may be expected if they are admitted duty-free.

No one at all versed in the annals of this country can
forget the sad consequence of the continental murrain
of 1745, when hundreds of thousands of cattle were
swept away, and government found it imperative to
order every diseased beast to be killed, and gave remu-
neration to the owners, when no fewer than 80,000
cattle were killed, besides what died of the disease. In
my humble opinion, the disease now prevalent is one of
an equally malignant character, and unless, under the
good providence of God, we get rid of it by some means,
every one concerned for the good of his country must
feel alarmed to think that it may again be laid waste by
its fatal ravages ; and thousands have to live on the
carcasses of diseased animals without knowing of it, in-
stead of the wholesome food we have been so long ac-
customed to in this country.

Now, as the admission of foreign cattle duty-free is
to be brought before the House some of these weeks,
I would humbly suggest, as a means of putting a stop
to its future introduction from the continent, that peti-
tions be got up all over the country to bring in a clause
in the bill, " That no foreign cattle be allowed to be
landed in any port of Great Britain or Ireland without
lying in quarantine for thirty days, and then undergoing
a most minute inspection by qualified persons appointed
by the government ; and, in the event of any cases of
pleuro-pneumonia occurring either on the passage or
under quarantine, to be subjected to either 30 days, or
be sent back where they came from, at the option of the
owner ;" as the disease, in all cases that have come
under my notice, will be apparent in about 30 days after
contagion ; and thus, although we may have to fight
against what we have got of it, we may escape the con-
sequences of its further introduction.

Hoping that these remarks will be thought worthy a
place in your widely-circulated columns, and that they
may be the means of arousing my fellow-countrymen to
a sense of the danger of allowing the spread of so for-
midable a disease to continue,

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

A Pkrthsh^re Farmer.

NOTES ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP,

FOUNDED UPON REPORTS OF COMPETITORS WHO GAINED PREMIUMS AT THE WOOL
COMPETITION HELD AT EDINBURGH IN 1845.

Cheviot Sheep. — Mr. Anderson, Sandhope Sel-
kirk.— The flock consists of about 1000 ewes, of
ages varpng from one to six years ; and it was
reared exclusively on coarse hill pasture, elevated
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the level of the sea.
The stock ewes get no artificial food, except on the
occasion of a severe storm, when they are supplied
with a little natural hay. To afford such aid, un-
less urgently required, would tend to lessen the
exertion of the slieei) to provide for themselves.
The tups are bred from selected ewes by the best
rams, and put on grass and turnips during winter
and spring. The washing takes place about the
end of June in a pond, into which the sheep are
made to leap from a platform raised about two feet
above the surface of the water, and then caused to
swim twice or oftener across, as may be necessarj'
for cleansing them. The clipping is performed
about eight days after. The animals are laid on a
stool, the ojierator proceeding length-ways in paral-
lel lines an inch in breadth, and making the cuts as
low and smooth as possible. The price obtained
for the chp of Cheviot wool in 1845 was 28s. Cd,
per stone of 24lbs., and for the black-faced clip,
13s. per stone. Wethers are not kept ; but barren
ewes, sold from the hill pasture at the end of

autumn, weigh about ISlbs. per quarter. The
average weight of a Cheviot fleece is 3lbs. 7 oz.,
and of a black-faced, 4lbs. The black-faced flock,
containing 600 breeding ewes, is similarly managed.
Mr. Gentle, Dell, Inverness. — The flock, in
which there are 500 shearling ewes, is washed
about the 18th June. The sheep are driven three
times through an arm of a fresh- water lake, haA'ing
to leap into the water from a breastwork four feet
high, and to swim from thirty to forty yards. The
clipping follows about the 22nd of the same month..
It is done longitudinally, with an even and rather
bare cut. Tlie clipper is seated on a smearing-
stool, which is covered with a tough sod, to pre-
vent the animals being hurt. The pasturage con-
sists of common mountain grasses, much inter-
mixed with heather, and its altitude A'aries from
1,000 to 2,000 feet above the sea. In winter and
spring, however, the sheep, when the inclemency
of the weather makes it necessary, are brought to
lower ground, at an elevation not exceeding 100
feet. ITie chps of 1844 and 1845 were sold at 18s.
per stone of 24lbs. Three-year old ewes have been
sold for 25^. 10s. per score — a price considered less
than their value. Such sheep, getting good turnip
feeding till the end of March> would weigh, on an

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

319

average, from IS to 20lbs. per quarter; but indivi- j
dual sheep have weighed 25lbs. per quarter. The
fleeces of the shearhng ewes will be about 4lbs.
weight each on an average ; but, taking fleeces of
all classes, the average per fleece will be about 5lbs.
The fleeces are understood to consist of laid wool.

Mr. Tweedie, Deuchrie, Prestonkirk. — The flock
contains from 300 to 400 shearhngs. The sheep
are washed in June by making them leap three or
four times into a pool, and swim fifteen or twenty
yards. They are generally clipped within a week
after, the shears being used longitudinally. The pas-
turage is on the Lamraermuirs, poor and mostly
heath. In winter and spring, turnips and hill pas-
ture are the means of support, each being aflbrded
daily. The chp of hogg and ewe wool in 1845 sold
at 29s. 6d. per stone of 24lbs. For the last five
years, a bath mixture, prepared by Brown of Had-
dington, has been used in autumn ; and, while it
has kept the stock quite clean, it is easily apphed.
Three men to dip, and a boy to drive water, can
easily bathe 600 or 800 sheep in a day. The ap-
paratus is not very expensive, and it promotes the
comfort both of men and sheep. It consists of a
tub for dipping, and a large trough in M'hich the
sheep, after being dipped, stand to drip, and so
constructed that the drippings run back into the
tub. Since the adoption of this plan, the wool has
always been considered very fine, and, indeed, the
best shown at a local exhibition.

Black-faced Sheep. — Mr. Vere Irving, Newtown
House, Moffat. — In the district of Moffat it is not
customf.ry to wash black-faced sheep. The shear-
ling and barren ewes, and the rams, were, in 1845,
clipped on the 2nd July, and the rest of the flock
consisting of ewes rearing lambs, on the 19th of
the same month. In 1844, the clipping of the
latter class of stock took place some days earlier ;
but this is not considered advisable, as the wool
last season was better risen than in the preceding
year. In clipping black-faced sheep, the shears
are run from head to tail, but, in the case of Che-
viot sheep, they are directed over the shoulder and
back. The latter method produces a neater clip ;
but the fonner is more expeditious. The farm
rises from a base of 910 feet above the level of the
sea, to an altitude of 1550 feet above it. Tlie
lower portion, which is divided into parks, and is
well sheltered, is occupied with dairy-stock, grain,
green-crop and hay ; and, for the greater part of
the year, the sheep are entirely confined to the up-
per _ division, or steep-ground. The pasture is
short and of a bright colour, intermixed Avith
coarse bent, which requires to be burnt in spring.
Some years ago, part of the benty ground was
ploughed, heavily hmed, and sown with grass-
seed ; and thus a great improvement was effected,

the bent having been replaced by a bright green
pasturage, which cannot be distinguished from
those portions of the ground that are not naturally
covered with bent. In winter and spring, the
sheep, if their condition seems to demand it, are
admitted into such of the lower ])arks as have been
cut for hay, or pastured during the summer by
the dairy-stock, which is then fed in the house.
The sheep are let down from the higher ground in
the morning, but are invariably put out of the
parks between one and two o'clock in the after-
noon. In the event of a severe snow-storm, they
are fed with meadow hay, which is carried out to
them. In weaning the ewe lambs intended for
stock, they are put into one of the parks for a
week, and then allowed to return to their mothers,
whom they recognise, but no longer attempt to
suck. An advantage of this plan is, that the lambs
follow their dams through the winter, and, if there
is snow, they are helped by them to scrape, so that
they do not so often need to be fed with hay as
when they are kept separate all the Avinter. The
last chp sold fetched 12s. per stone of 24lbs., for
fleeces of all denominations.

Cross between Cheviot and Leicester Sheep. —
Mr. Brown, Halls, Dunbar. — In the flock there are
about 600 hoggs. The usual period for washing is
about the end of May or beginning of June ; and
the plan followed is that of placing four or five men
in a stream of clear water up to their middle, one
above the other, and passing the sheep, one by one,
from the lowest to the highest, each man, in turn,
plunging the animal in the water. The shearing
follows in three or four days, when the natural oil-
iness of the wool, extracted by the washing, is re-
stored. The operation is performed in an open
shed, laid with green sods. One or two women
attend for the purpose of freeing the fleeces from
particles of clotted wool, and afterwards winding
them. The price obtained for the chp last sold
was 31s. per stone of 24lbs. The pasture on
which the Cheviot ewes are grazed, from which the
half-bred lambs are reared, is situated on the
northern boundary of the Lammermuirs. The
lambs are weaned about the middle of August,
when they are removed to the so\vn pastures on the
farm. In November they are bathed with a mix-
ture of tobacco hquor and spuit of tar, in the pro-
portion of half a Scotch pint of the former to a
wine-glassful of the latter for each sheep. They
have then a few turnips laid on their pasture, and,
when they have fully acquired a taste for them,
they are folded on turnips alone during winter and
spring, or until grass is ready for them, which, on
the high situation to which they are transferred, is,
in ordinary seasons, about the middle of April, or
beginning of May. — Journal of Agriculture,

320

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

821

CONVERSION OF THE CONTENTS OF THE LONDON SEWERS

INTO MANURE.

The drawing on the other side represents a plan
of the works proposed to be erected by Mr. M.
Joscehn Cooke, for the conversion of the water of
the London sewers into manure.

Mr. Cooke proposes to establish works as near as
possible to the mouths or embouchures of all the
large sewers in London, and then to allow the
water out of such sewers to run into one or more
main receiving tanks ; afterwards to pump it from
these tanks into a series of smaller ones ; and then,
when in them, to treat it with a very cheap chemical
agent known at present only to himself, which will
instantaneously precipitate all the valuable and
offensive products from the water to the bottom of
the tanks, leaving the top water clear and free
from smell. The top water in these tanks is then
allowed to run into the Thames, whilst the thick
matter that remains at the bottom is conveyed away
into another large tank, and from thence into light-
ers covered over and built into \vater-tight com-
partments, and by these it is to be carried away
either up or down the river Thames, to be dried at
any suitable place, or to be taken at once and laid
upon the land to be manured. The whole of the
works are so arranged that the sewer water is never
open to the atmospheric air, and therefore all smell
is prevented. A description of the drawing will per-
haps give a clearer view of the plan. The sewer is
shown open, but it is intended to be closed in the
works. A represents an arched drain, communi-
cating with the sewer, through which the sewer water
passes to a large tank, which will contain two or
three thousand gallons. This tank is supposed
to be under the two boilers B B, and a steam engine
C, and a pump D, and is arched over with brick
work ; the pump D, which is intended to be a rope-
band pump, passes down into this tank, and is
worked by the rotary engine C ; this pump and en-
gine are to be of gi'eater or less power, according to
the size of the sewer — forty-horse is, however, cal-
culated as the power of the engine and pump. The
sewer water when pumped up is passed by the pipe
E round to the tanks numbered from 1 to 12. This
pipe has branches with ball and stop-cocks in each
tank, sho^vn in tanks 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, which
tanks are shown open, and the other seven closed.
These twelve tanks wll hold each one thousand
gallons or more if necessary ; and the ball and stop-
cocks are so arranged that as soon as one tank is
full the cock stops the supply from the pipe E, and
turns it into the next, and so on in rotation. As
soon as these tanks are filled with sewer water, they

are treated with the chemical agent through the
holes F ; and immediately they are, all the thick
matter is precipitated, and the top or supernatant
water is cleared ; this is then let ofl' by the stop-
cocks G into pipe H, which leads into the drains I,
and so into the Thames. The thick })recipitated
matter is then let off by the valves J at the bottom
of the tanks (see tanks 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12), and
passes into the drain K, and so into the receiving
tank L, capable of holding ten thousand gallons ;
and it thence passes on opening valves N N, by the
pipes M M through flexible hose attached to the
mouths thereof, into the covered lighters which are
bid on the bank alongside the wharf to receive it
at low water and removed at high. These lighters
are then conveyed away, the thick stuff removed
out of them, and dried in a suitable manner — also a
secret ; but we suppose either in the air, or by steam
heat under sheds. Thus is the offensive matter of
the sewers removed without entering the Thames,
and without exposing it to the atmosphere, or oc-
casioning any unpleasant smell to the neighbour-
hood where the works are. It would be supposed
that a great number of lighters would be neces-
sary to remove the thick stuff that remained from
the precipitate in the tanks ; such, however, is not
the case, for Mr. Cooke has ascertained by experi-
ment the quantity of thick or solid matter in the
sewer water is very small in comparison with the
liquid. He has sent us the result of an experiment
he made on the sewer water taken from the sewer
near Scotland Yard, which we give below ; and he
considers this is a fair average result. If this be cor-
rect— and we have every reason to believe it so —
there is no question that the solid contents concen-
trated in the way he describes may be easily con-
veyed away in lighters, and that very few would be
required for the purpose. We shall now give the
experiment he made.

EXPERIMENT.

Sewer water taken from the sewer at the
bottom of Northumberland-street, Strand, taken as
running out, not scraped from the bottom, but
taken as near the centre of the atream as could be
in every respect, on a Tuesday in the morning, and
not a water day. One wine bottle, appearance
thick, rather muddy, but not black ; smell very
offensive, sulphuretted hydrogen predominating.
Test with litmus paper, blue, slightly alkaline, mea-
sured out sixteen ounces, which were poured into
a clear precipitating glass ; treated it with two hquid
drachms of my agent in half-drachms at a time ;

322

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

first half-drachm produced sensible precipitate, but
not complete ; second do., more, not complete ;
third do., do. ; fourth do., complete, and
supernatant water clear. The smell of sulphu-
retted hydrogen had now ceased, and a peculiar
one, not unlike the smell of turpentine, present.
Stirred mixture up, the precipitate in flocks, dark
grey, not unlike threads of over boiled beef. In
ten minutes this subsided, and the supernatant
water clear as before. Prepared filter weighed,
and noted weight — filtered the sewer water, filtrate
clear and sparkling after all had passed through —
shook it up, sparkled much, e\'idently carbonic
acid gas disengaged — poured filtrate into an evapo-
rating basin, and evaporated to dryness, at 212 —
weighed, results 7 grains of brownish matter, which
was deliquescent — treated this mth sulphuric acid,
result muriatic acid gas given oflf in great quantity,
and shght black precipitate formed in small grains.
Dried the filter used at 212 Fahr. ; result, deduct-
ing weight of filter, 30 grains 25. From the quan-
tity of muriatic acid gas given off from the dried
result of filtrate, I was perfectly convinced the
matter was principally muriate of soda, and I judge
the other colouring matter to be a small quantity of
oxide of iron. Upon these two my agent will not
act. I did not carry the experiment further, as the
quantity of matter remaining in the sewer water
after being heated was so small — viz., 7 grains ;
and that giving such a quantity of muriatic acid
gas when treated with the sulphuric acid, that I
felt satisfied nearly the whole was muriate of soda,
coloured by the oxide of iron. I should have tested
for lime, but I know my agent precipitates it im.
mediately, also potash, ammonia, alumina, and all
the phosphates, and there was no smell or sign of
uric acid, or any of its compounds. Samples of
sewer water are very irregular in the quantity of
matter they contain ; no two samples I have ever
experimented upon gave the same result. If taken
on a rainy day, or after rain, or on a water-day,
the quantity of solid matter it contains is very
small, and it differs if taken in the morning and
the evening. To correctly ascertain what matter
it does contain, samples should be taken at every
half hour of the day, and an average of the results
taken. I consider the sample I have given very
near an average result of the running water ; if,
however, you scrape the bottom of the sewer, you
may obtain thicker matter, but it is principally
silica. Two ounces of my agent are suflScient
for a gallon of sewer water containing matter
mechanically and chemically combined, to the ex-
tent of thirty grains to the jjint dried at 212 Fahr.

Now this experiment, in our opinion, proves
Mr. Cooke's agent does precipitate all the solid
matter, excepting muriate of soda and iron. The

small quantity left behind would rather improve
than deteriorate the river water, whilst they are of
no great value as manure. We have seen the thick
stuff when ])recipitated from the sewer water ; it is
of a dark grey colour, and in pulp like paper pulp,
and not unlike what he states — " threads of over-
boiled beef," and is insoluble in cold water. From
experiments he has also made, he has ascertained
this matter can be easily dried, and it then forms a
pulverulent manure, quite equal to guano, which is
now selling at from 7/. to 10?. per ton. It is, therefore,
quite certain, if he can do what he represents, and
can convei't the sewer water in this manner, every
person must admit the plan ought to be put into
operation at once, he being called upon first to give
some public test, shomng its feasibility. The value
of the contents of the London sewers have long
been known, though much exaggerated, and some
plan ought, ere this, to have been adopted to make
the value of these contents available.

The Commissioners of Sewers are the parties
that should investigate a matter of this sort : they
are the representatives of the rate-payers, on whom
the now enormous expense of maintaining the
sewers rest — and they ought to see if the sewer
water does contain this valuable material, that some
mode be adopted to convert it to a useful purpose,
and Arith the funds obtained, lessen the rate, and
give the rate-payers that advantage they are enti-
tled tO". But, unfortunately, there is an unaccount-
able apathy about these gentlemen, which we be-
lieve nothing will rouse but an act of parliament :
we shall then find them rushing from their lairs
against all parties who attempt to molest their ma-
jestic repose ; and when the thing is likely to be
thoroughly investigated and carried, whether they
■ndll or no, they will be found, if we may so term
it, bore-ing parties with what they intended to do,
had they been left alone, which we will sum up in
one word, nothing ! It behoves every agricultu-
rist, and every townsman, who desires prosperity
to agriculture or health to towns, one and aU to lend
a hand to any feasible means by which the products
of the sewers of towns could be collected, and pre-
vented, as they now are, running to waste. We
have seen no plan so likely to answer as Mr. Cooke's;
it combines simplicity -with economy, and is based
on a good chemical foundation that we believe mil
stand any investigation.

We understand the chemical agent he employs
to convert the solid matter of the sewer water into
the state he describes, is to be obtained in London
in any quantity, and that it is exceedingly cheap ;
also, that very little is required to be used to fefFect
the purpose. The works he proposes to erect are
certainly simple enough, as any party may see by
the description given.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

323

NORTON FARMERS' CLUB.

The monthly meeting of this chib was held on
Monday, in the society's room, at the Bagshawe
arms ; Mr. Wm. Littlewood, of Moor Top, in the
chair.

It was intimated that in the absence of the paper
which had been set down for this evening, Mr.
Tillotson (who has had considerable practice in
superintending improvements on the estates of
extensive landed proprietors) volunteered to sup-
ply the deficiency, and would read a paper

ON THE PLANTING OF FENCES.

Mr. Tillotson, after a few introductory re-
marks, in which he stated his willingness, at all
times, to promote the interests of the club, said
that the subject of his paper this evening was rarely
canvassed by farmers, though he considered it
to be one of great importance. He should divide
his remarks on the planting of fences as follows : —
1. Their probable origin and irregularity ; 2. Their
injury on account of number, width, timber trees,
and consequently great exhaling surface exposed ;
3. The remedy by planting new ones; 4. Mode of
treatment when planted; and lastly, The expense of
doing the work. First, then, with regard to their
origin. It is quite plain there was a time, however
remote the period, when England was, if he might
be allowed the term, " a howling wilderness," when
gregarious flocks and herds formed the staple of
the land. Hence, petty rights and privileges as to
boundaries for grazing, which would, no doubt, be
put up as circumstances dictated, and not with any
regard to the good of society generally. With re-
gard to irregularity and vaiiety, they were nearly
left to vague surmise, for they had but very meagre
sources of information from books, though the
subject was one of much interest. He came, there-
fore, to the following conclusion — that as population
increased, every district chief felt more the im-
portance of his situation ; hence not only the fixed
boundaries of his domain, but the interior divisions,
as best suited the immediate circumstances of the
case. Tlius, the midland and eastern counties
betook themselves to rude planting; the upland
and more northern districts to building, or rather
rearing up boimdaries to different inclosures,
because stone abounded. The Irish and other
portions of the United Kingdom put up sod banks,
and mounted them with gorse or furze. This rude
state of things continued, with but little alteration,
until about the sixteenth century, and they were

not wholly obliterated in the nineteenth century,
but were yet shedding their baneful influence over a
great portion of the land, which might be much
more beneficially employed. Mr. Tillotson then
alluded to the injury done to land on account of
the great number of timber trees, and consequently
great exhaling surface ; and proceeded next to the
number of unnecessary fences, respecting which
farmers were generally in error, and he thought
he should be able to shake the confidence
of some of his hearers on this point. Suppose they
enclosed an acre of land in the form of a square
(for the more they departed from this form, the
more they increased the length of fencing), and
that they fenced a ten-acre field in the same form.
They would find that the one acre took one-third
the length of fence that the ten acres did. Conse-
quently, the ten small enclosures would take 2,800
yards, while the large one would require only 880,
thus giving a saving of 1,920 yards, or more than
one mile in length ; while the ten acres in the shape
of a parallelogram of half the width of the former,
would take just as much fencing on the two sides
as the ten acres would (the ends being additional),
and so on in proportion for various sizes, but he
had quoted the one and the ten as numbers best to
be remembered. With respect to timber trees in
hedgerows, they were an injury to a considerable
extent, which could not be denied, and pernicious
to vegetation. Their shadows, speaking more
especially of ash, were destructive to nearly the ex-
tinction of as much vegetation as the tree covers.
The elm, by its roots running so near the surface,
was another bane to the husbandman. Suppose,
on an average, they cover each twenty feet square,
their injury would be proportionate to the number.
The width of fences was a matter of great conse-
quence, distinct from their harbouring rank weeds,
birds, snails, grubs, and many other insects ob-
noxious to vegetation. He found the width of many
old fences to be as much as ten or twelve feet from
the furrow in the one to the furrow in the other
field, and this too in districts taken to he well
farmed. Now suppose the average at only eight
feet, bearing in mind the length of fencing quoted
above, there \v\\l be a clear gain of 5,120 yards, or
more than one acre in ten, by destroying the small
enclosures. Again, suppose fifty millions of acres
to be the cultivated land in the United Kingdom,
and that only one-fifth was in small inclosures, and
that instead of one-tenth, only one-twentieth was

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gained, there would be an increase of 500,000 acres,
which, farmed on a five-course system (reckoning
the yield of corn at three quarters per acre), would
yield the amazing amount of 600,000 quarters of
grain, besides the other portion of the land in use —
a formidable item to meet free trade with. The
fields in the above calculation are considered of
proper size for farms of from 100 to 150 acres. Mr.
Tillotson next adverted to the injury sustained from
the exhalation arising from so great a surface
of fohage on a little space of ground, which he
said was incalculable when we take into considera-
tion how great an amount of vapour must emanate
from so vast a surface of foliage, where every leaf
is yielding as it were spontaneously. Even a leaf
of the hawthorn is said to exude one grain per day,
in spring, while oak and elm as much as two or
three grains per day; it cannot be ground of
surprise then that smut, mildew, blight, &c., should
affect small enclosures labouring under such hu-
midity, besides the deprivation of light, heat, and
consequently a free cun-ent of air, which are three
essential things in the production of grain, both
as to quantity and quality. Mr. Tillotson then
commenced the fourth part of his subject, viz., the
planting of new fences with quick or hawthorn. He
i-ecommended straight borders prepared by digging,
trenching, and manuring to a depth at least of sixteen
or eighteen inches, the year before planting, thereby
bringing the ground into a proper state, carefully
avoiding all old quick borders, otherwise removing
the soil as much as possible, or else bringing other
soil wherein no such plant had been grown. The
custom of raising banks for planting was bad, inas-
much as the plant does not derive that nourish-
ment on an elevated ridge as it does on the flat
surface, if the ground be either naturally dry or
dried by thorough drainage. This being done,
select as good hawthorn plants as you can, of at
least two years' growth. A great deal depends on
the quality of the plants selected, the care with
which they are taken up, and the manner of their
being put in again. The best time for planting is
immediately after the plant has lost its leaf, gene-
rally in October, when it is quite at rest, and should
be planted before it begins forming secretion for
another year. Choose the plants as near all one size
as you can, giving preference to small ones with
large roots than large tops with small roots. Open
the border with a perfectly straight side ; spread
out the roots, and let them lie as much at ease as
you can ; and be careful not to lop or prune them,
for if the fine fibrous extremities be cut away, the
plant loses so much of its vital power. Having
given attention to these directions, plant them
twelve in a yard — that is, six inches apart in the
double rows, and the rows six inches asunder, so

that no two plants stand opposite each other. If
fences be set in pasture-fields, posts and rails, or
some other guard, must immediately be put up, not
nearer than seven or eight feet of the quick border,
so that the ground might be mown ; thus, little loss
of ground would be felt. If the guard fence be
set nearer than four feet, after two years the fence
wiU be subject to injury from the cattle. If
farmers plant on arable ground, let them take such
precaution as the case specially demands. After
the first year, if the plants have not strength enough
(which can rarely be the case), cut them within an
inch or two of the ground ; for, by this time, the
roots will be so firmly fixed in the soil as to be able
to render their support to the jalant independently
of the top, and may enable it to put forth fresh
shoots, which, by expansion, Avill arrest and absorb
the gases afloat in the atmosphere ; for the nourish-
ment from without is as essential to the growth of
the plant as the nourishment from within. To cut
plants at the time of planting, unless the season be
very flattering, endangers them, and retards their
improvement, for by this means they are depiived
of both the supporters above named. At the end
of the second year after planting, they may have
their ends just cut off", but nothing more. The fol-
lowing autumn, the operation should be repeated,
but not oftener than once in a year, and that when
the sap has ceased to rise ; for, by cutting before,
the current of the sap is stopped, and an abun-
dance of surface, that would be giving support to
the plant, displaced. At the end of the next year,
cut the fence for permanent fonn, always upwards,
mth a neat switch-hook made for the purpose. By
this means, the whole energy of the plant is forced
towards the ground, the part where the fence is
most wanted — not broad over the top, as many are
cut. Hence the necessity of plashing, wliich is
not only expensive, but injurious, and never ought
to be practised on well trained hedges. Thus may
be cut off" the greatest portion of the expense in-
curred annually for stakes and bindings. It now
only remained for him to show the expense of
doing this important work, which he would do as
briefly as possible : — ^Taking up old fences (from
2s. 6d. to 4s. per acre, of twenty-eight yards), l|d.
a yard; digging, and preparing for planting. Id.
do. ; planting quick Ohd. do. ; double posts and
rails, three on aside, Is. do.; good quick, 2Jd,
do. ; the total expense of the fencing amounting
to Is. 5^d. per lineal yard.

In the course of his paper, Mr. Tillotson exhibi-
ted several sketches or plans of fences, &c., which
illustrated the subject of his remarks, and excited
the attention of the members, who expressed them-
selves highly satisfied with the lucid and satisfactorj'
manner in which the subject had been brought

THi: FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3d5

before their notice. It was the gene lal opinion of
all, that fencing was but little understood in that
neighbourhood, and that many valuable fences had
been destroyed owing to the ignorance of those
who had undertaken their training and management.

Ample testimony was given of this by Mr.
RoBT. LiXLEY, of Bole hill, who stated that many
of his hedge-rows had been mutilated and des-
troyed by incompetent or mistaken labourers in
that department.

Mr. TiLLOTSON said, that if labourers could be
made to understand their business, stakes and

bindings would be no longer required, and fences
would be stronger and better in every respect,
besides being far more pleasing to the e}'e.

Mr. Green felt grateful for the information
whicb had been imparted by the interesting and in-
structive paper they had heard ; and he for one
should endeavour to carry out its chief recommen-
dations ; but more particularly that which referred
to the doing away with small inclosures.

A general conversation then followed, which
ended with a vote of thanks to Mr. Tillotson, and
the business closed.

GREAT OAKLEY FARMERS' CLUB.

FIFTH REPORT, PRESENTED AT THE ANNCAL MEETING, HELD AT GREAT OAKLEY,

NOVEMBER 10, 1845.

The Committee, in reviewing the discussions of
the past year, and of the five years which the club
has existed, embracing as they do nearly all the
practical subjects that occupy the attention of far-
mers, and exciting as they have done many very
animated and interesting discussions, and although
many members have had their views warmly op-
posed, and their opinions severely criticised, we
can but congratulate and compliment you, that on
no occasion has a difference of opinion given rise to
an unkind expression, and v.-e think we may add
that nothing has occurred during the exis-
tence of the club, connected with its discus-
sions, on which any member has occasion to
look back upon with regret; on the contrarj',
we belie\'e that the club has fully answered
the design for which it was instituted ; and as was
expressed in the first report of the club, it has been
the means of "ilhciting tnith, removing prejudices,
and stimulating inquiry ;" and in a social point of
view, it has been the means of bringing together
those who, although h\'ing in the same neighbour-
hood, were but little known to each other, many of
whom are now bound together by ties of personal
esteem and friendship, which the pleasant, and we
trust beneficial meetings here have engendered.

First Meeting, 2Qih January, 1845.

Subject : — " On the Management of Sheep during
he Lambing season."
A member stated, that when a sheep was about
to larab, it was adnsable to remove her to a pen
which was generally in readiness, but not to be too
anxious to assist her, as there was often more injury
done and more sheep destroyed by being too hasty j
to assist them than if thev were left to themselves.

He recommended that a sheep that had twins
should remain penned a day or two until the lambs
were sufficiently strong to keep with and know their
mother; many lambs lost their mothers by being
turned out too young.

If a sheep experienced difficulty in lambing, and
required assistance, it was advisable to give her a
fever drink to prevent straining ; this was often de-
layed till the fever had gained too great an ascen-
dancy. The drink he found most beneficial was the
Ewe's Relief, or Shepherd's Friend.

A second member said he had experienced much
benefit from the use of the Ewe's Rehefin the cases
alluded to by the first member.

The secretary then read, from a work published
by Mr. Clater, his views on the management of
sheep during the lambing season, in which the
members generally concurred, except in the use of
the knife for castrating lambs; to this plan the
members were opposed, as an unsafe plan compared
to drawing. Some discussion took place as to the
best plan to induce a sheep to take a strange lamb.

llie first member stated that he had (when he
wanted a sheep to take a strange lamb) watched her
lambing; and as soon as she had lambed, he rubbed
the strange lamb well agmnst the young one, and
then first presented the strange lamb to the sheep;
on this plan he seldom failed of inducing her to
take them both. When a lamb was lost, a strange
lamb might be substituted by putting the skin of
the dead lamb on the strange one, and rubbing it
well with the hver of the dead lamb.

A third member said, when his shepherd found
a lamb benumbed by cold, he always wrapt it in his
coat, and put it a considerable depth in a manure
hill. He had had many lambs restored from the

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wannth generated in this manner, v/hicli could not
have been restored in any other.

The second member said he had adopted the
same plan, with sheep that had fallen into his marsh
ditches, and were to all appearance dead, with great
success.

Resolved, It was the opinion of the meeting, that
the plan recommended by the first member would
ensure success in the rearing of lambs, and that
the recommendation of confining the sheep and
lambs in small pens a day or two, until the lambs
were strong, was beneficial to sheep and lambs ;
and with twin lambs it was esuential to success in
rearing them, as warmth and shelter at that time
were as essential as food.

Second Meeting, February I'Jth, 1845.

Subject:— "On the Horse, and the Diseases
common to him."

A member said, that he regretted his inability to
give much information on this important subject,
nor should he have presumed to do so but at the
request of their worthy chairman, to whom they
were all so deeply indebted, and to whose exertions
they owed their present prosperity as a club.

He said he should now speak of horses for agi'i-
cultural purposes as more suited to the objects of
this club.

The Suffolk breed of the present day stood high
in the estimation of this country, and he thought
deservedly so 5 their action was more nimble, and
their unrivalled courage and determination at a dead
pull made them the most valuable for agricultural
purposes ; but he thought there was an evident
improvement in the Suffolk horse, within the last
few years.

He was not an advocate for a short-legged thick-
set horse ; he hked to see them well up in the fore-
hand, more straight in the barrel, and not quite so
heavy ; he thought by this shape much was gained
in- activity. The Flemish horse was introduced
into this country some years ago ; but he did not
conceive they possessed that courage so inherent in
the Suflfolk. Youatt said, " that our heavy draught
horses, and even some of the lighter kind, had
been crossed ynih. the Flemish horse, and much im-
proved ;" but he differed from him in this opinion.
There were so many varieties of horses in use in this
country, he should leave that part of the subject to
others, and speak of some of the diseases common
to him, and which had come Avithin his own obser-
vation.

And first, of broken Wind, which was occasioned,
in his opinion, in most cases by overfeeding ; for it
was generally perceived in horses that were most
greedy in their food; the stomach being over-loaded,
it natui-ally pressed upon the lungs. It was con-

sidered by some that it was caused by furious
driving, which he should think probable, if the
horse was w^orked immediately after having filled
himself. He thought there was no cure for it ; but
the animal might be greatly relieved by being par-
ticular as to its food, and giA'ing it but little water at
a time.

Poll Evil was caused in most cases from tight
reining, or a violent blow on the poll ; it was diffi-
cult to cure, though some farriers professed to do so.
If it was an old horse, and not of much value, the
best cure was to cut his throat.

Colds. — This disease might generally be cured
by warm stabling and bran mashes, and bleeding,
if there was any tendency to inflammation or in-
disposition to feed.

Sandcrack. — He should say rasp or pare the crack
out, and then pitch it ; the foot ought to be filled
mth salt-ooze or cow-dung, and great care taken in
shoeing that no nail penetrates the foot near the
crack ; he had tried this once, and turned the horse
off for a month, then worked him on the land during
summer, and he was then sound.

Eyes. — When a horse is down in the eyes, many
persons were strong advocates for setons : for his
own part, he should let nature take its course ; he
thought there was no good done by torturing
the animal, if it proceeded from cold, or was consti-
tutional.

Quitter. — He once saw quitter in a horse. This
disease arose from various causes — bad shoeing,
prick of the fork in the stable. He should recom-
mend burning it out of the foot in the first instance.
Lampas. — Many persons were astonished at their
colts looking so badly about the age of 2 or 3 years;
but in the majority of cases it was caused by lampas.
He should recommend lancing the gums, in prefer-
ence to the old mode of burning.

Grease. — In the summer it might be kept down
by feeding on green food ; but in the winter, when
the horse returned to dry food, it would evidently
return. He recommended washing it with warm
soft soap and water, and poultice; and it would ma-
terially assist nature to keep the bowels open by car-
rots and bran mashes. After a journey, an ounce
of nitre in water would be very beneficial. Many
horses generated it through bad grooming, and
some constitutionally.

The meeting, after thanking the member for the
interesting account of the noble animal which had
been the subject for discussion, took a general re-
\'iew of the diseases, and their causes, and the mode
of treatment recommended; and after a general con-
versation, rather than discussion, the meeting fully
agreed in his observations.

Several other diseases were then commented on.
For the quitter and gripes, so common amongst

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327

horses, many rer'edies were recommended ; and it
was generally considered safe, if ndt essential, to
bleed for this complaint, as it had a tendency to
promote inflammation.

It was said an nnlimited use of clover hay was
liable to create broken wnd.

A question was asked by a member, if it was ad-
visable, as he had the opportunity, without a great
outlay, to make a separate inclosed box for each of
his cart horses ; but it was generally thought not
advisable to do so.

Several members spoke upon the the ill eftects of
closely confining horses, which from the nature of
their work must often be exposed to stand in the
cold after being heated.

A member stated, it was the observation of an
old and experienced farrier, when the plan was some
few years since generally discontinued in this neigh-
bourhood, of confining horses in the stable after they
had bean baited, " that now farmers had made vip
their minds to keep their horses in the yard instead
of the stable, they might as well hang half the far-
riers, for they would not be wanted ;" and it had
been found on experience, that the loss of horses in
this neighbourhood had been considerably reduced
since they were unconfined, and their health much
improved.

Third Meeting, March l7th, 1845.

Subject : — " On Stifle Burning."

A member said, he would be considered in his
obser\^ations to connect the process of burning in
general mth the subject first named, and remarked
that the object of l)urning and stifle burning
was the preijaration of earth or other raw matter by
the process of fire for the purposes of a manure ; he
considered that the phrase stifle, as applied to burn-
ing, referred to the heat and properties embodied in
a bulk or quantity, whereas merely burning referred
to a process in which a greater part was exposed to
the action of the air ; consequently the heated pro-
perties were not suppressed as in the first-named
operation.

In entering more minutely into his subject,
he would refer to the soils most calculated for the
purpose, and such as were not. He consideredj^it
useless and in some measure impracticable, to
operate upon sandy, gravelly soils ; as also upon
mixed soils in which the properties were nicely in-
corporated for the growth of plants. And having
glanced at the soils unfit, he wovild speak of those
best adapted — viz., clays, chalky, and woodcock
soils, or a mixture of clay and loam.

After describing the methods generally adopted
in burning, and the quantities used, he proceeded
to the eftects, advantages, and disadvantages result-
ing from the process of burning. He could not

I but think that the eflects and advantages were not
at present sufficiently understood, nor could he
pretend scientifically to explain them, but he had
witnessed their beneficial results.

He then quoted the words of an eminent agricul-
turist—"That it is proved by innumerable trials
that the substances produced by paring and burn-
ing constitute a powerful manure, and that greater
crops may be thus procured than by any other
means. That much benefit results from these sub-
stances is beyond doubt, the circumstances that if
they are removed, the succeeding crop suffers
greatly."

The author then explained the nature of these
substances. " When the earth has been thoroughly
heated by fire, its particles, if separated, lose the
quality of coalescing ; it freely admits the delicate
fibrous roots of young plants, and thus promotes
their vegetation. Another property is the power of
imbibing water and retaining it in the earth for the
purpose of vegetation, and hence its utility in thin
and chalky soils where moisture is desirable. Soils
susceptible of the greatest improvement from burn-
ing contain a considerable portion of the oxide of
iron, which the process tends to decompose, and
the oxygen thus obtained may unite with the
carbon of the ashes and produce great fertility.
After it cools, the earth probably retains latent heat,
which it may communicate to growing plants."

He thought that as carbon and water were the
food of plants, a considerable portion of carbona-
ceous matter was retained in the ashes, by stifle
burning.

As to the best uses, and their apphcation to the
rotation of crops. They were approved of for a
wheat crop in some instances ; but, he thought the
ashes more appropriate to turnip or root crops.
They were also used beneficially as an absorbent of
valuable liquids from manure yards, being spread
over the bottom of the yards instead of haulm or
other materials generally used. As the grazing of
cattle was not always attended vAih pecuniary ad-
vantage, it vv'as desirable, in the present state of
agriculture, to consider every means to acquire a
crop at the least possible loss and expense ; not that
he mshed to be considered as recommending the
disuse of so interesting and sometimes profitable
employment as grazing, for which he had proposed
a preparation for the yards, but whether or not in
many cases a manure might not be prepared by the
process suggested, as an advantageous substitute.

The meeting, after hstening with considerable
interest to the address, fuUy discussed the subject.
Several members bore testimony to the benefit
they had experienced on some soils, and the high
esteem in which it was held ; but all admitted that
the trials which had been given it in this neighbour-

Y 2

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

hood had not been attended withverj' beneficial re-
sults. Several instances by different members were
brought before the notice of tlie clul), in which no
benefit to compensate for the expense incurred had
taken place.

A second member said he had applied it to his
marsh lands to a considerable extent, without any
apparent benefit to the crops ; but, he thought the
process of ploughing and pulverizing the land was
facilitated by it ; he only approved of clod burning
as a means of cleansing large coarse borders of
fields from weeds, couch grass, &c. ; but as a ma-
nure, he did not think anything of it, and he be-
lieved in no part of the country was it carried to the
extent it used to be.

The meeting resolved, that however desirable and
beneficial burnt soil might prove in some localities,
it was evident, from the various trials that had been
made, it was not calculated to benefit this locality
to any extent.

Fourth Meeting, April 2lst, 1845.

Subject : " On the Soihng of Cattle during

Summer."

A member said, that for bullocks, cows, and
calves, he preferred mowing, and feeding in stalls
or sheds ; and, at the early part of the season, the
addition of clover or hay, cut into chaff, with the
green food was highly beneficial to the cattle, and
it also tended to economize the green food imtil it
arrived at its full growth. For sheep, the best plan
was to feed in the field, and not to allow them to
feed too bare, as it much lessened the quan-
tity it would otherwise produce, and not unfre-
quently entirely destroy the plant.

A second member said, his father's plan v/as to
feed his cattle in the field during the day in the
early part of the season, and to yard or house them
at night, and give them an oil-cake each; and
during the latter part of the season, to house them
in the day and give them a cake, and turn them out
at night to feed.

This interesting and important subject excited
more inquiry than discussion, for, with the excep-
tion of one or two members, it had not been prac-
tised; but those who had practised it gave it as
their opinion that it was in every point of view de-
sirable to consume as much as possible the green
food grown in summer, in yards and sheds, for all
cattle but sheep.

Fifth Meeting, May 19th, 1845.

Subject: "On Cattle, and the Diseases common
to them."
A member said, tlie subject was certainly a most
imjiortant to the public.

important one. It was

plied with a most necessary article of food; and it
was equally important to breeders, farmers, and
graziers, as the question of profit or loss in these
pursuits must almost entirely depend upon indivi-
dual knowledge of the best description of stock to
rear or purchase, and the best mode of rearing,
feeding, and fattening them, as well as upon the
best means of preserving them in health or restoring
them to it when attacked by disease.

He said it would be presumptuous in him to pre-
tend to enter into the practical part of these sub-
jects— viz., as to what kind of cattle would answer
best in this locality for breeding, milking, or fat-
tening ; which lean beast would, when put to ex-
pensive food, fatten fast and evenly, and which, in
fact, would not fatten at all; and what simple
remedies should be ajjphed to particular diseases
upon these subjects. He hoped to be benefited
by hearing the discussion which he hoped would
follow.

After various extracts were read from Youatt's
excellent work on cattle, and the diseases common
to them,

A second member said, in selecting the best
breed for fattening, he thought, all points consi-
dered, that we could not select a more profitable
breed than the short-horn. It was contended he
was a large consumer ; but this partly arose from
his disposition to early maturity, as compared with
other cattle, grooving and fattening at the same
time.

Some discussion took place as to the advantage
of rearing our own cattle for grazing. Some con-
tended that they could purchase at a cheaper rate
than they could rear, and that those bred from home
fed faster, when put up to fatten, than those bred at
home; others contending that a larger return could
be made off a farm by rearing cattle for fattening.

Considerable discussion took place as to the
various diseases cattle were liable to ; but it was
generally admitted that, when there were any size
and condition, it was most advantageous to
slaughter an ailing animal, and that this plan
being generally adopted tended very mvich to re-
tard improvements in the mode of treatment of the
various diseases to which they were liable.

Sixth Meeting, June l6th, 1845.
Subject : " On the Management of Manure Hills."

A member said the plan he had been taught of
preparing manure hills was very simple, and quite
an old one.

1 St. — To prepare a bottom with as good earth as
he could get ; to carry a good portion of chalk, and
mix them together to the depth of al)out 2 spit. As
to the quantity, some thought half a waggon load

who by this means were, and might be, well su])- 1 to tlie acre, mixed in the bottom, was requisite, or

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329

at least not too much. His present plan was, how-
ever, to carry the chalk on the land clean.

2nd. — To make the straw manure as good as
he could with artificial food, carry it to the
bottom, and drive on or throw it up as most con-
venient. He was in this respect guided by the time
it had to lie ; if wanted in a short time, throw it up
that it might be kept light and sooner prepared ;
but if it was to lie some time, he should say drive
it on, because he thought the closer it was kept the
less it would waste. He always preferred that it
should lie a short time, but it was not always con-
venient; for instance, manure for wheat he got out
of the yards in summer, when he had the most
opportunity. On those lands where he had fallows
of peas or beans, there was no time for getting
manure out of the yards after harvest, as it M'as a
busy time.

3rd. — He thought it a good plan to put one or
two freights of London manure in the hill, accord-
ing to the size — say, one waggon load to the acre ;
for sometimes the straw manure is very long and
raw ; it Avill help to heat it. and by that means kill
the weeds, and likewise shorten it, so that it is
sooner prepared; and it greatly increased our stock
of manure. He found that some people recom-
mended guano instead of London manure ; but he
had not tried it ; he preferred the latter, but he
thought the ordinary straw manure quite equal to
it. Could they get the London manure without
the rubbish generally found, he thought it might
answer the purpose.

4th. — When the hill was thus far prepared, stir
it over and mix it well. Some, the first time of
stirring, place all the earth on the sides and top.
He had tried it, and thought it a good plan when
the hill was to lie long, as it kept it from drying in
a great measure ; but, when it was stirred only
tmce, he thought the earth was not mixed well
enough if this plan was adopted. He had heard of
carrying short straw from the barn doors, and cover-
ing the hill over with it the second time, stirring it;
he should recommend its being carefully beaten and
shaken to pieces, so that it did not go on the land
in lumps. He thought they could not take too
much trouble about stirring the manure hiUs ;
three times stirring was necessary now and then.

A second member said, with respect to the mix-
ing chalk with the Ijottoms previous to carting it
on the land, he thought it desirable, as by this
means the good effects of chalk were kept in the
soil, and a small portion was diffused over the whole
field.

A third member thought the soil or bottom was
much improved by the admixture of chalk, and
would impart an immediate benefit to the crops ;
and he also thought the chalk and earth should be

mixed twelve months at least before the manure
was carted on it.

A fourth member, on the contrary, said the
quality of the chalk was much injured by being in-
corporated with manure in a state of fermentation.
This was the opinion of other members, and it was
contended that, unless a benefit could be proved, a
loss of time in its appUcation was incurred, as well
as an additional expense in turning and re-cart-
ing it.

A fifth member said a plan was adopted in his
neighbourhood, of mixing hills by picking them
over, and that it was gaining ground ; and that he
considered the benefit of stirring over hills was
that each square yard of land had an equal portion
of the soil and manure, and not for the sake offer-
mentation.

^luch discussion took place on these points, and
some diflference of opinion existed, proving that this
important part of the management of the farm was
still in want of more light, which a more accurate
knowledge of the properties of soils and plants alone
could give. It was hoped that the day was not far
distant when a generally acknowledged correct
principle would be established.

Seventh Meeting, July \A:th, 1845.
Subject : " On Sheep, and the Diseases common to
them."

A member said the principal varieties of sheep
consisted of the Southdown, Leicester, half-bred
Leicester and Down, Norfolk, half-bred Norfolk
and Down, and the Dorset and Lincolnshire. ^ He
thought the Southdown was a sheep that was as
well calculated for this part of the country as any,
on account of their strength of constitution, and
generally doing well ; that they were not large consu-
mers, which he thought was a consideration with
the farmer ; that there had been great improve-
ments in this and other breeds of sheep within
the last few years, and he need but mention the
names of the Duke of Richmond, Webb, Boys,
Grantham, &c., to prove what he asserted.

He considered the best way to keep a flock in a
healthy state was to keep them in as near one con-
dition as possible, not to get them too fat nor too
poor ; to maintain this it required great care and
attention on the part of the farmer, to provide the
food necessary for the diflerent seasons of the year.

As to the diseases to which sheep were liable, he
would mention foot-rot, which at the present day
occupied the attention of most; and there were but
few but had been troubled with the prevailing dis-
ease in the feet, some to a greater extent than
others. It was a tiresome disease, and required
great care and attention in the dressing. A per-
son must be careful to pare all the hoof oti" so far as

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

it has let go the foot and become hollow ; then a
dressing of the following ingredients will be found
of service : 4 ozs. of green vitriol, 2 ozs. of sugar of
lead, 3 ozs. of verdigris, 2 ozs. of saltpetre, half a
pint of turpentine, a pint of the best vinegar, and
half a lb. of oil of vitriol, put into a bottle, and well
shaken, and applied with a piece of linen rag or
wool, tied on a stick and dipped into the bottle.
The sheep require dressing every day till a perfect
cui'e is effected. Sheep are sometimes aftected with
dunt or dizziness, which takes place from water
formed on the brain; some have tried trepanning;
others had bored a whole in the head, with a gim-
blet, and let the water out; and it was said that
shaking the head violently wiU break the bladder,
and the sheep becomes better; but he thought the
best remedy was the knife.

Another disease was the scab. It was very preva-
lent in this locality some few years ago, but by at-
tention it was not so much so now. When it was
not in a very advanced state, an infusion, consisting
of lib. of tobacco to a gallon of brine, had gene-
rally been found a good remedy.

The^y was also troublesome during the summer
months, and required much attention and watch-
ing. The plan he generally adopted was, to shake
the maggots out of the wool, and rub the jmrt
with stone sublimate ; if only fly-blown, rub the
part, and it will destroy all intruders ; and he
thought when a sheep had been once struck, it was
hable to renewed attacks of the fly the following
year.

He then alluded to the observations of Mr. EU-
raan on the causes of sheep being hoven or blown ;
he said the plan of keeping the sheep out of the
food until it was dry, instead of preventing the dis-
ease, was the principal cause of it, and that when
in that state they could not be kept too quiet.

A second member said he had some doubts if the
sheep benefited by the receipt alluded to were af.
fected by the prevaihng disease, as they did not ap.
pear to have been aflPected in the mouth.

A third member thought the disease in the feet,
alluded to by the first member, was produced by
the plan of folding them too closely in the yard.

Several members stated that they had adopted
the plan of folding them in the yard, without any ill
efl:ects.

Eighth Meeting, September Ibth, 1845.
Subject : " On thick and thin sowing."
A member commenced by reading large ex-
tracts from Mr. Davies' system of thin sowing, and
from Lord Western's system of thick sowing, and
the report of the Maidstone Club, on Mr. Davaes'
system.
A second member said, that as a principle, he

was an advocate for sowing thinner than was gene-
rally adopted; for early sown wheat, C pecks, and
barley, 9 to 10 pecks on his best land. He said
the general opinion was, that the samjjle was in-
jured by thin sowing : his experience was the re-
verse of this. The late-sown barley required the
least seed, and the early-sown wheat.

The meeting listened with much attention to the
extremes of thick and thin sovving ; and although
the meeting could not agree to the system recom-
mended by Lord Western, they were stiU more
afraid of Mr. Davies ; for although the saving of
seed showai by Mr. Davies, if his plan was adopted
generally in the country, appeared on the first view
of the subject of the first miportance, still the meet-
ing could not but feel that the danger of an entire
failure only once in ten years would more than
counterbalance any ad\'antage that might arise
from the apparent waste of seed : the meeting
thought the middle course as laid down by the se-
cond member more desirable.

A third member thought that the improved sys-
tem of management, and state of the land generally
for receiving the seed, rendered it imnecessary to
put quite so much in as was considered necessary
some years ago.

Ninth Meeting, October I3th, 1845.
Subject : " On the History of Agriculture."

A member, in introducing this subject, said
those who were fond of the country, who loved to
contemplate its scenerj', and shared in the univer-
sal happiness which its cultivation diffused, those
who had paid attention to the process of hus-
bandry, who viewed its daily occurrences with in-
terest, who were at the same time alive to the mi-
nutice of the animal and vegetable creation, would
derive from the study of the art and science of agri-
culture a gratification the most permanent and
pure. It was not his intention to detain the meet-
ing by expatiating upon the importance of the sub-
ject, as he had reason to fear it would serve to ren-
der the weakness of the execution of his task still
more apparent.

The sources from whence he had collected his
materials, and the periods to which they referred
were as follows : — From the earliest mention of agri-
culture in the Holy Scriptures ; from the works of
Homer and Yirgil ; and from the History of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire with such
observations, inferences, and suggestions, as the
shortness of time in which he had collected those
particulars would allow.

And first, he woidd inquire, simple as the ques-
tion might seem, What was agricultui'e ?

It was the art of cultivating the earth in such
a manner as to cause it to produce, in the greatest

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

831

plenty and perfection, those things whicli were
useful to man and to the animals which he had
subject to him.

It was, he thought, the very basis of all other
arts ; and in the colonies springing up around us
was coeval with the first dawn of civilization ; for
where agriculture did not prevail, mankind re-
mained in a barbarous and savage state, with no
other habitation than the most ordinary shed of
the most ordinary cultivator. It was indispensable
to national pros]ierity ; whilst to private individuals
it brought numeroiis blessing in its train, such as
health to the body, and energy to the mind. It
was favourable to virtuous and temperate habits : it
was aj)t to lead men's minds from the creature to
the Creator, and it was thus peculiarly fitted to
give us some idea of the greatness of the Power by
which the universe was directed and governed ;
the evident tendency of all the arrangements which
we could comprehend, being to support the ex-
istence and promote the well-being of countless
myriads.

The first mention he could find of agriculture
was in the book of Genesis, where it was said that
Cain was a " tiller of the soil," that Abel " sacri-
ficed the firstlings of his flocks," that Noah " was
a husbandman, and planted a vineyard," that
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were " husbandmen,"
that their wealth consisted in flocks, and that "they
roamed at wU over the entire country in search of
pasture."

He said it might be useful to name the dates of
the following important epochs.

The Creation was computed at ... 4004 years b.c.

The Deluge 2348 years b.c.

The building of Rome 753 years b.c.

More than 1300 years had now elapsed since
Egypt first began to export corn to the amount of
260,000 quarters of wheat, and in return for it re-
ceived the manufactures of Sidon. Thus society
was enriched by mutual exchange in those early
times ; and as it was with the inhabitants of those
countries at that time, so it was with us now — ever}'
individual was lodged, clothed, and maintained by
the joint and several industry of a thousand hands.

But flourishing as the state of affairs appeared
to be with those countries, we find them at one
period suffering from a bad harvest, and from
the price of bread rising in proportion to the
scarcity of corn, the fair and reasonable propor-
tions being ^^olated by the rapacious acts of mo-
nopoly.

Who had not wtnessed in some shape or other
this unequal contest?

In this case we saw the produce of the land
claimed by one party as his exclusive {property,

used by another a8 a lucrative object of trade, and
required l^y a third for the daily and necessary sup-
port of hfe ; the consequence of this was that all
the profits of the intermediate agents were accumu-
lated on the heads of the defenceless consumers.

They wisely considered agriculture to be the very
foundation of manufactures, and for the best of all
reasons — because the productions of nature were
materials of art.

As it was with the Romans, so it was with us — the
mainspring of improvement in agriculture was a
source of interest ; and those refinements, which
under the odious name of luxuries were often
severely condemned, were, he thought there could
be no doubt, essentially conducive towards this
desirable end. It operated in this way — mechanics
and others, who had no share in the division of the
earth, received a voluntary tax from the possessors
of the land, in a shape most familiar to most, that
of Christmas bills ; and landowners were neces-
sarily prompted to improve those estates with
whose produce they could purchase additional
comforts, and thus the operation of this principle
was felt in e\Try stage of society.

Thus far all appeared to have been well with
them ; but mark the consequence of opening a
foreign trade to supply their increased wants.

Voyages were made to distant countries, and
were rewarded with great profits ; but those pro-
fits came out of the pockets of Roman subjects, and
a few individuals were enriched at the expense of
many. The natives of the countries to which these
voyages were made (Arabia and India) were con-
tented with their own manufactures, and would re-
ceive nothing but money in exchange for their
goods; and thus it was that the wealth of the
mighty Empire of Rome dechned and fell, being
irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile
nations.

Agriculture languished, good morals were neg-
lected and despised ; but it must be remembered,
notwithstanding these sad results, that the same
freedom of intercourse which extends the vices,
diffuses likewise the improvements of social hfe.

He then proceeded to give a very interesting ac-
count of many flowers, herbs, fruits, and plants, and
the localities from which they originally came.

He said the Egyptians were so sensible of the
blessings of agriculture, and carried their gratitude
to such an absurd excess, as to worship the ox for
his services as a labourer; that Hesiod, a Greek
writer, wrote a poem on agriculture, entitled
" Weeks and Days," which was so called because
husbandry required an exact observance of times and
seasons. Various manures were in use, and one
writer remarked that a mixture of soils was calcu-
lated to produce the same efFect as manure. Clay,

S32

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

he observed, should be mixed with sand ; and sand
with clay.

Allusion was made by another writer to the im-
plement known by us under the remarkable cogno-
men of a double-torn ; he mentioned a plough with
two mould-boards, with which he says, "wheu
they ploughed after sowing the seed, they are said to
ridge."

Crop and fallow was the system, and from this
the Romans never deviated.

Feeding young corn when too luxuriant \vas prac-
tised, as appeared from Virgil, who wrote, " What
praise shall I give to him who, lest his corn should
lodge, feeds it while young, as soon as the blade :
equals the furrow ?"

He said that watering was applied on a large
scale, both to arable and grass lands, and that
they considered good tillage as of the very greatest
importance.

After many other remarks, he begged to refer to
chemistry, and said, let not the practical farmer be '
alarmed when he was told that he must bring this i
science to his aid, than which nothing had more ;
contributed to our happiness by enriching the arts '
of hfe with useful inventions.

Agriculture had now assiuned an entirely different
character. Many first-rate chemists had turned
their attention to it, and many farmers were eager
to listen to their suggestions in explaining that
which before was thought a mystery.

He said they knew very well that certain ma-
nures were good for certain soils, and that certain
soils produced some kinds of crops luxuriantly,
whilst others would not grow upon them. But
did they know the why and the wherefore ?

Why was it that they could not produce certain
crops at will ? Why did not manure al\\'ays pro-
duce the same effect, although laid apparently in
the same kind of land ? weather of course being
favourable.

Here the scientific chemist might be of immense
use in solving these questions.

But empty words were fast giving place to ra-
tional ideas ; farmers were no longer prejudiced in
favour of their old modes of procedure. Let but
practice and theory go hand in hand, and improve-
ment was sure to follow.

James Barker, President.
Henry Spurling, Secretary.

MR. GOWEN'S FARM. NEAR PHILADELPHIA.

We extract the follomng particulars from the
*' British American Cultivator," a well conducted
Canadian journal. They relate to what, we presume
is a rare case in America — to one which is only pa-
ralleled on land in the immediate neighbourhood of
good markets : —

"The farm is located near Philadelphia, and now
contains about 100 acres, exclusive of woodland.
Mr. Gowen took possession of it in 1834, at which
time it is represented to have been in a very worn
down and poor condition, from the neglect and bad
management of previous o\niers. Mr. Gowen took
away the old fences, made a new division of the farm,
and fenced with stone wall and hedges of the Osage
orange, drained and filled up ravines and gullies.
The land is now brought into a high state of culti-
vation, producing 100 bushels of corn, 400 bushels
of potatoes, 30 bushels of wheat, &c., to the acre.
He at first bought manure from the city but after
three or four years' experience, he gave up the plan,
and has since made enough on his own premises,
excepting ligbt dressing. To do this he has been
obliged to increase his stock of animals. ' To main-
tain my stock,' he says, ' and bring my land to a high
state of cultivation, by the most efficient and econo-
mical practice, has beeo a leading object ; aod to I

accomplish this, required no ordinary management
on such a farm. The stock in cattle has ranged for
years, from 40 to 50 head, in addition to the neces-
sary horses, with a large stock of swine for breeding
and fattening ; and these I have fed from the pro-
duce of the farm, except the purchasing occasionally
of some straw, and supplies of mill feed for the
horses and swine, and some meadow hay for the
cattle, selling frequently its equivalent in Timothy.
During the same period I have sold hundreds of
bushels of rye, some wheat, and on an average 400
bushels of potatoes annually, with some 300 or 400
1)ushels of carrots, besides providing for the family.
But the chief income was derived from the cattle.
My expenditures during the wliole period could not
be otherwise than large ; as I could not put up so
much stone fence and picket fence as incloses my
farm without incurring a heavy outlay ; but I view
these improvements as cheap in the end. It may be
safely inferred, that there is not at this day any
farm of the same extent in this part of the coun-
try, that can so easily be worked, or will require so
little expense for a series of years in keeping the
fences in order, especially .vhen the hedges are taken
into account. I am also of opinion, taking in view
the couditioQ of the soil, as to depth and richaess.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

333

as well as its being entirely free of stones, and
other impediments, that I can make it i)roduce
as much as any farm of its size in any i)art of
the country, for a series of years, and at as small
an exjjense.

" ' The secret of keeping so large a stock on so
little land, consists in my practice of partial soiling,
and green crops, whereby I make some four or five
acres do the work of 30 acres, in the 'slow and easy
way.' From May to August, my cattle are confined
to one or two fields, most commonly one, to which
they are driven, more for exercise in the cooler j)arts
of the day, than for pasture ; they being fed in the
stables early in the morning, at noon, and at night,
with food cut for them from a lot adjoining thebarn
yard. The food is generally of lucerne, orchard
grass and clover, oats and corn. The patches from
which the corn and oats are cut are always sowed
with turnips in August. No one can credit, unless
he has had proper experience in the matter, the
quantity of food that one acre of lucerne, one of rich
orchard grass and clover, and one of oats and corn,
afford from May till August; nor can he estimate
the great saving in manure, much less the compara-
tively good health of the cattle, from not being ex-
posed on the naked fields, under a fervid sun, toil-
ing all day in search of food. This practice allows
me to crop almost the whole of the land, and to
make some 120 to 150 tons' of hay annually. In
the fall, from August to November, the cattle have
the whole range of the mowed lands, as I do not cut
second crop grass for hay. Then for winter feed,
I have alwaj's an acre of sugar beet, half an acre of
sugar parsnips ; half an acre or more of carrots, for
my horses ; and generally from three to four acres
of turnips. I re])ort to the committee on crops this
eason, over 100 tons of these roots. In 1843, Is
gathered from one acre, 1078 bushels sugar beets;
60 lbs. to the bushel; carrots at the rate of 687
bushels; sugar parsnips 868 bushels. This year
972 bushels sugar beets ; 970 bushels carrot ; 700
bushels sugar parsnips ; and from three and a half
acres, 2,500 bushels of turnips, sowed with Timothy
seed.

" * The farm buildings consist of three substantial
stone barns, one 70 feet by 33, another 50 by 26,
and another hipped roof with cupola, 57 by 25, be-
sides a large over- shoot stable and hay house, stable
high of stone 60 feet by 30 — the lower floors of all
these are made of broken stone and lime, planked,
being vermin proof. There are, also, a corn crib
capable of holding 1200 bushels of corn, one bar-
rack, ample hog-pens, and sheds for carts and wag-
gons. The barn buildings have been filled this fall
to their utmost limit, except the corn crib. A sub-
stantial stone wall encloses the principal manure
heap ; the drainings from this heap are led into a

place of deposit, in which are received also a drain,
that runs underground from the kitchen, as well as
drainings from the pig-pens, and the washings from
all the yards. These drainings form an important
item in the supply of manure to my land ; it is a
saving which I cannot estimate at less than 200
dollars a year. This liquid by a simple process is
applied to the j)atches of roots, &c. ; and to this may
be ascribed my great success in raising sucii croj)s.
Of improved cattle, my first effort was with the ce-
lebrated ' Dairy Maid,' still owned by me. Her
first calf, Leander, by Whitaker's Prince of Nor-
thumberland, was reared and kept by me, for breed-
ing. Dairy Maid's calves alone, exclusive of Leander,
have already sold for more than 500 dollars. It
would be curious to trace her profit at this day, by
stating an account of her first cost, her keep, and
that of her son Leander ; crediting her by sales of
her own calves and grand-calves ; deducting for the
portion of the capital which was invested in the
dams that produced the grand-calves. To do this
would extend this paper to an unusual length — suf-
fice it to say, that Dairy Maid has long since paid
for herself, and that those who laughed at me for
giving 540 dollars for one cow, may turn this state-
ment over in their minds, and think, whether since
1838 any investment of theirs, to the same amount,
in any other branch of husbandry, has paid so well.
But there is a satisfaction beyond that of the pocket,
and that is, that Dairy Maid's breed mil be of infi-
nite service to the country. Her calves and grand-
calves are pretty well scattered already ; and I make
no doubt that, wherever found, they will demonstrate
the high character of the parent stock. My sales
for the last two years, exclusive of Dairy Maid's
calves, amount to over 2,000 dollars. The stock
now on hand is about 40 head, principally Durhams.
The butter sold for the last two years exceeds 750
dollars ; this is a respectable item, when the calves
that were reared, and the supply for my family, are
taken into view. From early fall to spring, the but-
ter averaged 70 lbs. per week — the quality highly
appreciated both abroad and at home.

'" In the hog line I have been quite successful, at
least in bringing the animal by judicious crossing to
great perfection. I fatted off my old Lincoln and
Berkshire boars, and my Hampshire and Chester
county sows last month ; they weighed from 400 to
450 lbs., sold for 86 dollars 24 cents. Have sold the
last two years of pigs, designed for breeding, 150
dollars. Bacon, lard, &c., over 120 dollar, besides
having on hand 14 fine young barrows, last fall's
pigs, now ready for slaughter, which will weigh from
250 to 300 lbs. each, value 150 dollars. The stock
on hand consists of one fine boar of Lincoln, Hamp-
shire, and Berkshire breed, one brood sow of Berk-
shire breed, 12 shoats, and seven pigs.' "

384

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CHEMICAL ESSAYS,

BY JAMES MAIN.

The chief features of agricultural periodicals, for
the last six or seven years past, have been these re-
commending the science of chemistry to the atten-
tion of farmers, as a portion of knowledge which
would be of the greatest service to them in the pro-
secution of their business. There can be no doubt
but that these writings have been of much use to
those who have a turn for investigating those oc-
cult phenomena of nature which are ever occur-
ring to the studious cultivator of plants. But
among the generality of farmers, clieraical know-
ledge has not made that progress which their
friends expected, owing, perhaps, to its uncouth
terminology, and to its treating of powers and bo-
dies which can neither l)e seen nor felt, at least not
ostensibly so to common obseiTers. To render
the science of chemistry as famiUar and compre-
hensible as possible, some of the writers have ex-
plained the terms as clearly as can be, and also ex-
plained the action of the bodies so named upon
those with which they are combined or come in
contact. For instance, carbon is said to be a sim-
ple body, black and brittle, found in various sub-
stances. Hydrogen — one of the principles of water :
when in a state of gas, is inflammable. Gas — a
spirit incapable of coagulation. Oxygen — a prin-
ciple of the air, resj^irable, and necessary to com-
bustion : when combined with other bodies, renders
them acid.

Among other published essays, showing the ap-
phcation of chemistry to practical farming, there
has lately appeared a lecture delivered at the
Fanners' Club, Burton-upon-Trent, by Albert
James Bernays, member of the Chemical Society of
Derby. This intelligent young lecturer appears to
be quite master of his subject, and shows no small
share of sound practical knowledge of farming. In
faithfully detaihng the latter, he introduces his che-
mical ideas wth much perspicuity, and which,
when so closely applied to the actual processes of
the business, throws much light on the subject.

In the course of his lecture, he notices all the
principal processes of agriculture. Ploughing, he
says, is not so much necessaiy for the pulverization
of the soil, as it is for loosening the surface for the
admission of atmospheric influences, so indisjien-
sably necessary to the roots of plants. The air
supplies a chief share of vegetable food ; and no
plant can thrive if debarred from a necessary por-
tion and constant change of that compound fluid.
^Draining audits efFects he explains very accu-

rately. He proves that no plant (except aquatics)
can thrive in a soil which is saturated ^\'ith water,
because the interstices between the particles of
earthy matter are closed by the fluid, and all ac-
cess of air prevented. His advice on the execution
of draining, as well as on its great usefidness to
land subject to receive or to hold too much mois-
ture, whether arising from springs, or falling from
the clouds, is all practically usefuJ and extremely
correct.

It would be well, because much more useful, if
all the chemical essays, which now engross so
much of our agricultural Mterature, were written on
the same plan as is the lecture of Mr. Bernays ;
that is, introducing their chemical remarks at the
same time they are detailing the ordinary pi-actice
and processes of farming. This connection of the
two subjects woidd lead the farmer's mind to a
clearer perception of the chemist's advice, and ha-
bituate liis memory to retain those principles incul-
cated by his scientific teacher, and thereby acquire,
without much mental labour, all necessary infor-
mation of which his friends believe he stands so
much in need.

That the present race of farmers are on the im-
prove, and that they may be much more enlight-
ened by an amalgamation of chemical and me-
chanical lore with their own homely occupaion, is
a truth that cannot be gainsayed ; and if tliey are
doomed to contend with foreigners more than they
have hitherto been, they -^vill have to call in every
auxiliary to assist them in maintaining a pre-emi-
nence, as well for their own sakes as for that of
their own country. British agriculture, though far
superior to that of any other country in the same
parallel of latitude, is stiU susceptible of improve-
ment ; and it behoves every one engaged in it to
avail himself of every offer of assistance, come from
where it may. The farmer wiU do weU to consult
the geologist ; the latter will inform him how far
drainage is practicable ; he will explain the extent,
the nature, quality, and diflferent depths of tlie va-
rious strata which compose the sm'face of his farm —
a portion of knowledge of which no farmer should
be ignorant. I once cultivated a farm situate on
the southern slope of the Chiltern hiUs, in Buck-
inghamshhe : the arable surface was chiefly
a gravelly sand, and in hot and dry summers
the crops were liable to burn. Beneath the upper
bed of gravel thin layers of clay occurred ; and
beneath was found a vast deposits of chalk. Now,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

335

without the presence of the chalk, the district would
have been a very barren possession ; for a constant
and long-continued custom ])revailed, to raise the
chalk from below, and spread it on the surface in
autumn, to be disrupted by frost, and ploughed into
the ground during spring. This dressing of chalk
is repeated periodically, according as the effects of
the former application disappears. It is quickly
and conspicuously serviceable; it renders the soil
more open, and easier cultivated. It has such an
affinity for moisture, that when exjjosed to the air,
it is always damp ; and, of com'se, is particularly
useful to crops on dry soils ; and on clays, from
its attractiveness for water, it serves to ameliorate
the adhesiveness of clay under the action of frost.
On grass land a thin coat of chalk does much good;
adding fresh verdure and strength to the grasses,
and affording a fuller bite to depasturing animals.
On a survey of the general face of this district, it
appears that chalk-drawing is a very ancient custom ;
as in every field there is one or more hollows,
some of them so large as to be called dells ; from
which the chalk, in times long past, had been with-
drawn. Where the chalk rock was near the sur-
face, it was bared and carted out upon the surround-
ing surface ; but if lying deep, a shaft was sunk to
reach the rock, and the chalk was raised in buckets
by machinery, by a gang of men called chalk-
drawers, who were paid so much per acre for rais-
ing and harrowing it from the mouth of the pit to
the surface around. This appears to have been a
principal means of improving the gravelly soils of
that country; and where soluble clay or marl was
found, it was raised and used for the same purpose
of giving solidity and consistence to the friable
staple of the ploughed land; an expedient as ne-
cessary in modern practice as ever it was in earlier
times.

Where strata of clay alternated with those of
sand or gravel, and cropped out to the surface, a
wet spot bearing rushes was the consequence ; but
this oozing out of water, which flowed over the im-
pervious bed of clay, was easily got rid of by cut-
ting a drain through the clay at some distance
above the wet place to allow the water, to sink into
the underlying bed of gravel or chalk. And in all
cases of such stratified land, where wet and dry
spots appear near together, cutting a drain from the
former to the latter will lay the whole surface dry ;
and in this simple way, much efficient drainage
may be executed at a very trifling expense. It is
this knowledge of the various beds of earth which
compose the cultivable surface, which empower the
geologist to suggest, and the cultivator to perform,
important and permanent improvements on land,
which, to a person entirely ignorant of science,
would appear impracticable, or even impossible !

In the same district chalk is often mixed for burn-
ing into lime, both for builders and farmers ; and
where fuel is plentiful, if the farmer can burn his
own lime for about four-pence per imp. bushel, he
cannot lay out money to better advantage. A
command of lime for agricultural purposes is an
invaluable benefit ; and wherever chalk or limestone
abounds, it is, or may be, of vast importance to the
arable farmer.

Besides improving the arable staple of the land
by draining, and by an iiitermixture of the different
descriptions of earth found on the farm or in the
near neighbourhood, enriching it with manure is
the next most necessary expedient. Accumulat-
ing, management, and application of the common
manure made on a fann is well known to most
farmers ; but there is a class of foreign palpable
or impalpable bodies, which, as fertilizers, are highly
recommended to farmers ; and here the illustrations
and instructions of Mr. Bernays and other che-
mists are in\aluable. After describing farm-yard
manure, which he calls the farmer's " sheet-anchor,"
he notices the various ingredients of which it is
composed, and concludes that the dung, or ashes
of the plants on which animals are fed, proves the
best manure for plants of the same kinds. For
example : " If we feed a cow upon hay and turnips,
we obtain a manure containing all the mineral con-
stituents of grass and turnips;" and hence the
value of farm-yard manure above all other. He
next gives the mineral constituents of the dung and
urine of the cow and horse ; and the quantities of
these returned to the land when applied thereon.
He gives also some good advice relative to the pre-
paring and aijplying farm-yard manm-e. Next he
notices and extols human excrements and urine as
the most valuable of all others ; adding, that they are
the principal fertilizers used in China for corn and
other crops. In fact, the Chinese use the excre-
ments of aU animals which are domesticated, par-
ticularly poultry and pigs ; they having no depas-
turing cattle in the southern provinces, their only
other kind of manure is maul drawn from the bot-
tom of ponds and canals.

Mr. Bernays next gives the history and an ana-
lysis of Peruvian guano, and speaks of it as a use-
ful stimulant when ]jroperly applied with a mixture
of powdered charcoal, and thinks it well worth ten
guineas per ton ; African guano he considers infe-
rior. Then foUow, seriatim, notices and remarks
on bones, soot, sulphate of ammonia, nitrates of
potash, chloride of common salt, silicates of potash,
carbonate of lime, quicklime, gypsum, vaiious
ashes, sawdust, charcoal, rape-dust, blood, wool,
hair and horn.

To these particulars is added a tabular view of
the quahties of the various substances used as ma-

336

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

nures. Farm-yard dung being the standard ; qua-
lities when dry, viz.: farm -yard dung, 100.0; oil-
cake, 307.0; guano, 323.0; solid cow-dung, 117.0;
mixed cow-dung, 132.0; solid horse-dung, 113.0 ;
poudrette, 225.0; glue dregs, 288.0; coal-soot,
81.0; wood-soot, 67.0; horn-shavings, 800.0; and
woollen rags, 1039-0. Most of these are more nu-
tritious to ])lants while wet than when diy ; parti-
cularly fresh bones, which, in comparison with 100

l)arts of farm-yard dung, yield 1326.0 of nutritive
matter.

These calculations are curious to the inquisitive
farmer ; and especially if he intends to try any of
these foreign fertilizers ; and if not, he may rest
assured that abundance of yard and fold dung will
answer every purpose he may desire respecting buUc
of crops.

Brompton, March, 1846.

ON INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF LABOUR.
MEETING OF THE NORTH WALSHAM FARMERS' CLUB.

Mr. GowER: Of the amount of agricultural labour in East
Norfolk I cannot speak definitely, aud will merely affirm that
the average is low, considering the nature of the soil, which is,
generally speaking, suitable to almost any rotation. I would
earnestly impress the members with the belief that capital em-
ployed iu labour is a most profitable investment indirectly, as
well as immediately, for by increasing the means of the la-
bourer, it enables him to buy more of the farmer's produce.
I would suggest the following alterations in farm practice —
green-cropping aud stall-feeding. It is an undeniable fact
that double the quantity of stock may be maintained by
feeding them in open yards, or what is still more preferable in
covered boxes or stalls, and the extra manure thus made would
amply repay the extra labour. I would beg to refer you to
our report of last year for a system of cropping. I have begun
in earnest to carry out that system, and shall have a piece of
rye after wheat ready for soiling at the end of next montli,
which I intend to follow by tares, thus securing a succession
through the summer, and 1 think 1 may say that by this plan
I shall employ two men aud two boys extra for 26 weeks.
Another important improvement and source of increased em-
ployment for the labourer is the better management of our
fences, which have hitherto been great obstacles to good farm-
ing, as it is very evident they injure the crops in their vicinity,
and are nurseries for weeds which are continually fouling the
land. When we consider the fact that in every 100 acres of
land there are 10 in fences, it will be seen how desirable it is to
do away with half of them. 1 may be told that the landlord
may object to these alterations, but 1 believe this will rarely
occur, as I am boiuid to say my experience has taught me the
gratifying fact that the landlord will always appreciate the ef-
forts of the tenant to provide full employment for the poor. 1
am aware this question opens a wide field for discussion on
the restrictive clauses of leases, and I do hope the enhghtened
spirit of the age will tend to simplify these. 1 do not intend
to enter into this subject, but surely it would be sufficient secu-
rity for the landlord if the tenant be restricted from taking two
white straw crops in succession, except when the land has laid
more than one year in grass, and if he be required to consume
the produce upon the farm. Increased attention to the col-
lecting and management of manure will open up a source of
very profitable labour.

Mr. Cub ITT : I am aware that I am in the presence of many
farmers whose example 1 might well follow, but I'll defy any
practical man to go through the eastern part of this county —
yes, eveu this fai--famed coimty of Norfolk— without seeing

thousands of acres most sloveiJy cultivated for the want of ad-
ditional lab To improve the condition of the labourers we
must endeavour to keep them fully employed at fair wages,
without which all other attempts will be perfectly futile ; and
I cannot but think it woidd be to the interest of every farmer
in this county to allow each of his labourers a few rods of laud
for the growth of vegetables. Such a system judiciously car-
ried out would tend more than, any other to improve the
character and the morals of the agiiciUtural labourers, and
I think it would assist iu destroying the influence of that
greatest of aU his enemies — the village beer-shoi). But there
is another point worthy of attention. It ought to be the duty
of every employer to watch over the interests of his labourers,
and he has various opportunities of adding to their comforts
with but little pecuniary inconvenience to himself ; and depend
on it if a farmer expects to have good and faithful servants, he
must first teach them that he feels interested in their welfare,
and he will then achieve an object of no small importance to
his own individual interests. Aud now it devolves on me to
state my opinions as to the means of finding increased employ-
ment. I conscientiously believe that if all the land in this
county was properly and profitably cultivated there would at
the present day be a very great insufficiency of agricultural la-
bourers. I shall commence with the road culture, and I challenge
any practical farmer to ride through the more fertile districts
of this county without seeing a great annual loss iu the turnip
crops, arising from ineffectual tillage and the want of manual
laboiu", a loss amounting on some farms to many tons per acre,
wliicli would more than repay the proper cultivation of the
whole crop (manuring excepted). A heavy crop of turnips can-
not now be grown where land has been long cultivated with
that plant (as iu Norfolk) without great care and trouble. But
I will now suppose that you have succeeded in producing from
20 to 30 tons per acre of Swedes ; let them at the proper sea-
son be removed from the soil and carefully stored (except on
those soils which require feeding off) ; it matters not what sea-
son follows, such a system in the end invariably pays a good
per centage for additional labour, enables you to get your
spring crops sown in one season, aud what is of equal import-
ance, preserving the rich and saccharine juices of the turnip. I
now come to the method of consuming these roots. Every
farmer has become aware of the advantages of box or stall-
feeding, but I regret that that excellent system is not likely to
become general amongst tenant farmers without the assistance
of their landlords, for the majority of farm buildings in this
neighboufhood are now one of the chief obstacles to good farm*

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

337

iag, being not only dilapidated, bnt constructed in sncli a man-
ner as to tend more to the destruction tlian the preservation
of the manure. In feeding cattle I woiild recommend every
farmer to make himself acquainted with the valuable properties
of linseed (boiled) and mixed with cut hay, straw, chatf, or other
provender ; it makes excellent food in addition to turnips, is
generally relished by all descriptions of stock, and enables him
to keep an increased quantity. But its advantages can only
be fairly and justly appreciated by its being carried out in
practice. Next comes the management of the manure made from
the root crops, and notwithstanding all that has been said
and written on that subject, the most barbarous practices are
still in existence. I have lately seen drains cut across the ma-
nure in yards, to facilitate the escape of superfluous moisture
arising from the want of spouts around the buildings. Previ-
ously to carting out maniu-e, a good compost or layer of earth
should be formed to receive it, to the depth of 18 or 20 inches,
and where lime is used, it should be twice caiK^fuUy turned be-
fore placing the manure upon it, for the good effects of lime are
partially destroyed in forming composts for want of a more per-
fect incorporation of the materials. This done, I will suppose
the manure intended for turnips to be placed upon the com-
post firmly pressed and well covered. Tliree weeks or a month
before required for use, the heap shoxdd be turned, mixing ^vith
it one half of the compost, and again cover it over ; about ten
days after it should be again turned, every particle of manure
being now separated, and thoroughly mixed with the remain-
ing compost ; it is in a great measure from want of proper at-
tention in this respect, combined wifh careless hoeing, that )
turnip fields so frequently present such an irregularity of
growth. Next, I would call your attention to the unprofitable
manner in which our artificial grasses are consumed. Where
artificial grass is required for fattening purposes, it might be
cut up and mixed with a portion of boiled linseed ; and at the
early part of the season it is advisable to cut and mix dry pro-
vender with gTeen food. Tliis plan, more than all others (of
mixing our grasses), would prove a great saving and increase
the demand for labour.

T. MOTT, Esq. : Not being myself well versed in agri-
culture, it may seem presumptuous in ray addressing this
meeting ; but no one can live in the country, particularly
in these times, when the culture of the soil, with its lia-
bilities and capabilities, occupy so large a portion of public
discussion, without feeling interested. And I think it is the
duty of every one to keep his eyes open, and report any
experiments he may meet with for the benefit of his neighl)ours.
I have been staying lately in Dorsetshire, which is not a
county where one would expect to find an improved system of
farming, as agriculture there has been, generally speaking,
little attended to ; but there is a striking exception in the
farming of the Rev. !Mr. Huxtable. He is a very clever ex-
perimental farmer, and has lately hired 230 acres, partly in the
vale and partly on the down, on both of which he has tried
many experiments, and, I believe, with great success. The
down land, before it was broken up, was valued at 2s. 6d. per
acre. The vale farm was in a most MTetched condition for
want of draining, in which he has expended more than £600.
Now this may appear an extravagant sum, and you may con-
sider !Mr. Huxtable an enthusiast, but I can assure you that he
is a plain, practical farmer — one, however, who has a thorough
knowledge of chemistry, which is the foundation of all his ex-
periments ; and agriculturists have come from all parts of the
kingdom to examine his farm, which I will now attempt to de-
scribe. He attributes his success wholly to shed-feeding his
slieep and stall-feeding his cattle, which do not lie ujion straw,
but upon open splints. Large sheds are erected for the sheep,

holding from 50 to 120 each, the largest being divided into
pens of ten each. They are roofed in, with a passage up the
centre for feeding. Under the splints, the floor, which is exca-
vated, is well puddled with clay, so as not to absorb the urine,
and covered with sawdust, burnt clay, or dry mould, which re-
ceives the droppings from the animals. This manure is not
removed till the spring, when it is carted away in almost a
solid state, and drilled in with the turnips. The results have
been most successful both in the health and well-doing of the
sheep, the return having been nearly 2s . per head weekly upon
each sheep. The same system is pursued in fattening his
beasts, no straw being used except to litter his outhouses, the
pigs laying on sawdust. By this means, an extraordinary
quantity of cattle are kept. Six hundred sheep have been
fatted without the use of hay, the straw being cut into chaff,
with half a pint of oats or peas daily, over which ground boil-
ing linseed is poured. The liquid manure from the beasts is
removed to a large covered tank, from whence it is pumped
and applied to the grass land or elsewhere. The result in the
tiu-nip crop is very satisfactory ; for by this system he has
succeeded in raising a crop of Swedes averaging nearly 25 tons
per acre, on one of the most barren hills in Dorsetshire, the
most unlikely spot having been selected for the experiment ;
and I have scarcely seen a finer crop this year in Norfolk.
This impro\ed system of farming must of course employ a
great deal of extra labour. I understand ifr. Huxtable was
paying £12 a week for labour on a farm not exceeding 230
acres, but he assured me that he was prepared to prove that
the demand for labour was profitably increased. And, however
incredible it may appear, I have no reason to doubt the truth
of these statements. At all events, we ought all to be much
indebted to ^Ir. Huxtable for making these experiments, for
they plainly show that capital may be applied, and labour pro-
fitably employed, from an improved system of farming ; and I
think you will all allow that these experiments on g-razing are
of the gTcatest value just now, when, from the depreciation
which may take place in the price of corn, the attention of the
farmer must more than ever be directed to that which is the
most important and the most profitable, lla^ing thus en-
deavoured to show the benefits resulting from an im-
proved system of farming, I must for one moment reverse
the picture, and point out the evils of the opposite sys-
tem ; and I need not go far for an instance, as there are
many to be found in that same county, Dorsetshire. In the
Vale of Blackmore (a very few miles from ;Mr. Huxtable's) a
friend of mine has some fai-ms quite saturated with water,
which he proposed to one of his tenants to drain, cither finding
all the labour himself and charging five per cent., or finding
the tiles if he would find labour. Both propositions were de-
clined, as the farmer was perfectly satisfied to go on as he had
done for the last twenty years. Now I would ask. Is such a
man fit to be a farmer? Do you think such a man, even if
our worst fears are realized, can possibly be benefited by such
a system ? Would he not reap thirty per cent, by laying out
his five per cent. ? In other words, woidd not the demand for
labour be profitably increased ? Protection certainly has not
benefited, and never can benefit, such a man ; and I fear he is
by no means a solitary instance. But mark the consequences :
Here is a man, with the labourers around him calling (as Mr.
Huxtable has justly observed) for labour and for bread ; and
he refuses to employ them, even when it might be done pro-
fitably to himself. The labourer is willing and anxious to
work, but there is no one to hive him. A large supply, and
no demand ; and what is the consequence ? 'J'lie labourer is
half-starved, and the laud is half-cultivated. His miserable
cottage and poverty-stricken appearance in many parts of the

388

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

county too plainly show that the rate of wages is generally
very far below the average of the best cultivated districts. It
is evident that such a state of tilings must continue wherever
such a miserable system prevails: The laud must be unculti-
vated, the tenant impoverished, the labourer degraded, until the
agriculturist becomes persuaded, by the success of repeated
experiments, that capital may be safely invested, and that
alteration in his practice may be profitably made in order to
increase the demand for labour.

A very animated discussion then ensued respecting those
circumstances M'hich affected the price of labour and the
amount paid in the district.

Mr. Thomas Cubitt, of Wilton, had examined his labour
account, and fomid that diu-ing the last five years his labourers
had received more than an average of 12s, weekly; and he
thought the majority of farmers in this district would find
their labourers exceeded that sum.

A BILL TO AMEND THE LAWS RELATING TO THE IMPORTATION OF CORN.

[Note. — The words printed in Jlalics, and the figures
specifying the amounts of duty, are proposed to be
inserted in the committee.]

Whereas, an act was passed in the session of Parlia-
ment held in the fifth and sixth years of the reign of her
present Majesty, intituled, " An Act to amend the laws
for the importation of Corn :"

And whereas it is expedient that the duties now
payable upon the importation and entry for home con-
sumption in the United Kingdom and in the Isle of Man
respectively, of corn, grain, meal, and flour, should be
altered, and that the act hereinbefore recited should be
amended as hereinafter is expressed ;

Be it therefore enacted, by the Queen's Most Excel-
lent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the
Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this
present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of
the same, that from and after the 2}(issing of this act in
lieu of the duties now payable upon the entry for home
consumption in the United Kingdom, and upon the im-
portation into the Isle of Man, of corn, grain, meal, and
flour, there shall be levied and paid unto her Majesty,
her heirs and successors, on all corn, grain, meal, and
flour, already or hereafter to be imported into the United
Kingdom or the Isle of Man from parts beyond the seas,
and entered for home consumption after the passing of
this act, the duties set forth in the schedule to this act
annexed, until the first day of February which will be
in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred
and forty -nine, and on, from and after the said ^re^
day of February, one thousand eight hundred and
forty-nine, the following duties ; namely,

Upon all wheat, barley, bear or bigg, oats, rye, peas

and beans, for every quarter One Shitting ;

and so in proportion for a less quantity.
Upon all wheat-meal and flour.

Barley-meal,

Oat-meal,

Rye-meal and flour,

Pea-meal, and

Bean-meal,

For every cwt Fourpence-halfpenny ;

and so in proportion for a less quantity.

And be it enacted, that the several duties hereby im-
posed and leviable in the United Kingdom shall be
levied, collected, paid, and applied in such and the same

manner in all respects as that in which the duties im-
posed by an act passed in the session of Parliament held
in the eighth and ninth years of the reign of her present
Majesty, intituled, " An Act for granting duties of cus-
toms," are directed to be levied, collected, paid, and
applied.

And be it enacted, that the several duties hereby im-
posed and leviable in the Isle of Man shall be levied,
collected, paid, and applied in such and the same manner
in all respects as that in which the duties imposed by an
act passed in the session of Parliament held in the eighth
and nmth years of the reign of her present Majesty, in-
tituled, " An Act for regulating the trade with the Isle
of Man," are directed to be levied, collected, paid, and
applied.

And be it enacted, that the average prices, both weekly
and aggregate, of all British corn, shall continue to be
made up, computed, and published, and the certificates
of the aggregate average prices shall continue to be
transmitted at the times and in the manner required by
the said hereinbefore-recited act for amending the laws
for the importation of corn ; and the rate and amount
of the duties set forth in the schedule to this act shall be
regulated and governed, according to the scale in the
said schedule contained, by the aggregate average prices
so to be made up, computed, published, and transmitted,
in the same manner as the rate and amount of the duties
imposed by the said hereinbefore-recited act are by that
act directed to be regulated and governed ; and at each
of the several ports in the United Kingdom and in the
Isle of Man, the aggregate average prices, the certificate
of which shall have been last received previously to the
passing of this act by the collector or other chief officer
of Customs at such port as by the said hereinbefore-
recited act is directed, shall be taken to be the aggregate
average price by which the duties hereby imposed shall
be governed and regulated at such port, until the certi-
ficate of some other aggregate average price shall have
been received by the collector or other chief officer of
Customs at such port.

And be it enacted, that so much of the said act herein-
before recited as prohibits the importation into the
United Kingdom for consumption there of any corn
ground, shall be repealed.

And be it enacted, that this act may be amended or
repealed by any act to be passed in the present session
of Parliament.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

339

THE MALT TAX.

"to the editor of the NORWICH MERCURY.

" Dear Sir, — Although no friend to newspapei- con-
troversy, nor yet willing to apply to myself, personally,
indirect attacks, yet I cannot allow a letter in your paper
of last week to pass unnoticed ; assuming that no other
Norfolk farmer has been called upon to give evidence
before a committee of the House of Lords, as to the
burdens upon land, and, therefore, that no other per-
son can be alluded to in Mr. Palmer's letter. In a
mis-reported, or mis-represented speech of the Duke of
Richmond's, his Grace is made to say, ' That he had
been informed by a very eminent agriculturist that bar-
ley or barley meal possessed more fattening qualities than
malt.' The noble Duke is too good a jvidge of these
matters for any one with common sense to have believed
be ever made such a statement, as well as that he has
in his possession documents which have been furnished
him, both by my brother farmers from other counties,
and also by myself, strongly advocating the use of malt
for feeding in preference to barley. I now send you the
speech of the Duke of Richmond from the Mark Lane
Express, of which the following is an extract : — ' His
Grace said — He thought that within half an hour after
leaving that House he couid introduce to his noble
friend one of the most extensive farmers from Norfolk,
who had tried the experiments, and found that he could
feed his cattle much better on malt than on barley.'
This purports to give a very different view of the case.
I also subjoin a copy of my calculation upon feeding
with malt, which I laid before the committee on Wed-
nesday last, viz., I consider one peck of malt equal to
141bs. of liaseedcakes.

£ s. d.
" A beast consuming one peck of malt per
day will eat 5 qrs. in 23 weeks, which,

with the duty, will cost 12 0 0

Without the duty , 6 10 0

Difference

5 10 0

141bs. of linseedcake per day for 23 weeks,

1 ton, cost 9 0 0

5 qrs. of barley, at 26s 6 10 0

5 qrs. of barley malted, at 26s 6 10 0

7 qrs. of barley, at 26s., equal to 1 ton of
cake 9 2 0

5 qrs. of malt, at 26s., equal to 7 qrs. of
barley 6 10 0

In favour of malt 2 12 0

1 ton of linseedcake 9 0 0

5 qrs, of malt, at 26s 6 10 0

In favour of malt

2 10 0

' ' And at the same time and place I challenge to back
my opinion against Dr. Playfair for 100 sovereigns, that
I would fatten 50 or 100 beasts upon malt against the
same number fed by the learned Professor upon barley
meal, in the proportion of 5 qrs. of malt to 7 qrs. of
barley meal.

"Such are the statements which in ' sober earnest-
ness' I have made, and which I hope may prove conclu-
sive ; so that Mr. Palmer will not be required to make
the attempt to put ' common sense' into the farmers'
heads, any more than his own, as I think they have
manifested a much more stirring spirit than even the one
great unpaid, who in the eleventh hour, even at the
very time the division has taken place in the House of
Commons, and a large majority obtained in favour of the
removal of protective duties, comes forward as an advo-
cate for the Abolition of the Malt Duty.

" I am, sir, yours truly,

" John Hudson.

" Castleacre, March 3, 1846."

MORETON-HAMPSTEAD FARMERS' CLUB.

TENANT RIGHT.

The following resolutions were agreed to at the last meeting
of tills club : —

"That it is the opinion of tliis meeting the present existing
leases are not only injurious to landlord and tenant, but to the
community at large ; as they retard improvements of the land,
and, consequently, diminish increase of production.

"The tenure whereby tenants-at-^vill hold tlieir estates is
highly objectionable, having six months only to quit, ending
with the year, and does require the interference of tlie Legisla-
ture to extend the time beyond that period, to enable the tenant
to reimburse himself for the outlay of capital invested in the
soil, or compel the landlord to take the interest of the tenant
at a fair valuation.

" That all permanent improvements ought to be borne by
the landlord, and charge the tenant a fair interest for the capital
expended ; but where the tenant is at the whole expense of
improvement, by the landlord's consent, he ought, at least, to
be allowed fourteen years to repay liim for the outlay, or be
allowed in proportion to the time unexpired for compensation ;
and all improvements of the soil belonging to an outgoing
tenant should be taken by the landlord at a fair valuation, and
charged to the incoming tenant as an improved rent.

" That a legal system of tenant-rights in accordance with the
above would promote the interest of both landlord and tenant,
and materially conduce to the advancement of practical agri-
culture, by giving confidence to the tenant to lay out his cap-
ital in improvement of the soil so as to cause a vast increase of
production."

Moved as an amendment, but lost by a majority : —
" That this meeting is of opinion that the practice of lettiug
land from year to year, or, as it is called, tenants-at-will, is bad
in principle ; and woidd recommend leases as long as conve-
nient, and that remuneration be paid for all unexhausted ma«
nure at the end of lease."

340

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

BEAN SETTING, &c.

BY JAMES MAIN.

As the whole of the month just concluded has
been remarkably mild, and though generally wet, it
has been, vipon the whole, favourable for putting
the bean and pea seeds into the ground. The month
of January is always uncertain, and the ground
generally heavy, and imsuitable for the operations
of the plough and harrow. It is customary, there-
fore, to have the business of ploughing executed
some time before January, in order that the soil
may be mellowed by frost, and, if diy enough, be
ready for broad-casting or drilling the seed. But
as heavy land is best adapted for the crop, and as
it frequently happens that such a soil is in a very
soft and tender state at seed time, putting in the
seed by dibbling is a verj' common and judicious
practice.

This method of putting the seed into the soil is
best adapted to the natural development of the
bean. It requires a fiiTn subsoil to fix its first tap-
root into ; and a very slight loosening of the sur-
face suffices. Hence, the crop is always luxuriant
on alluvial or clayey loams, which are well con-
sohdated before the seed is deposited. The very
action of the dibble in forming a cavity for the seed
serves to compress the bottom and sides, into
which the fibres of the roots readily strike and fix
themselves. The seed is dibbled in rows eighteen
inches asunder, across the lands by a hue, and are
placed three inches apart in the rows ; the setters
being paid by the acre, or by the quantity : in either
case constant superintendence is necessary, lest the
seed should be withheld, or too lavishly wasted.
When a sowing machine is used, the drilling is
performed lengthwise of the lands, leaving eighteen
spaces between. "WTiether dibbled or drilled, a slight
harrowing of the surface is desirable as soon as dry
enough ; and if the harrow cannot be used, cover-
ing with the hand-hoe must be had recourse to.

There are a good many varieties of this genus of
pod-bearing plants, and which have been originated
by accident, either in fields or in gardens. Hence,
the largest podded varieties are called " garden
beans," which are somewhat more tender and less
prolific than the agricultural sorts, which latter are
hardier and much more prohfic for farm purposes.
The sort which has been longest in cultivation is a
native of Egj-pt and Barbaiy, and takes its name
from a town or district in the latter country, namely,
the Mazagan .; which, being a dwarfish and early
variety, is cultivated in gardens, and also in fields, j

along with a few other \'arieties, having smaller seeds,
and commonly called " horsebeans," from their
nutritive qualities when split and mixed with oats
or chaff for manger. These smaller sorts are the
Heligoland, a Dutch variety ; the tick, harrow, and
the pigeon varietie>:, which are most commonly
seen in Mark Lane and other corn markets ; and
are chiefly cultivated in the heavy-land districts of
the kingdom. In some places, beans, wheat, and
clover — the latter sown upon the wheat in the
spring — is the invariable rotation ; the land being
kept free from weeds by the horse and hand-hoes
during the growth of the beans; and in such cases
it is not unusual to sow a sprinkling of tankard
turnips before the last hoeing of the beans, which
are pulled oflf before wheat seed time. In the same
descriptions of clayey soUs, horse-beans and hog-
peas are often mixed, and sown broadcast together :
the beans support the peas, and in favourable sea-
sons this mixed crop is most abundant and remu-
nerating. The grain is sold in market as polts ;
and the straw makes excellent winter fodder, whe-
ther for rack or manger, when cut into chaff.

Of peas there is also a numerous variety. The
field sorts have purple flowers ; and those of the
garden varieties are white : some sorts of the latter
are also cultivated in fields, either for podding and
carried direct to vegetable markets, or harvested
and sold for boilers. The field sorts are the horn-
coloured or hog-pea, the maple, the blue, and the
nimljle. The last-named is a very early sort ; for,
if sown in April, the crop is ripe soon enough to be
succeeded by turnips ; which is a great ad\'antage
in most cases where the soil is suitable, i. e., on a
fine mellow loam. Early varieties of either peas or
beans are particularly well adapted for admission
into the rotation of cropping in agriculture ; for
when the first can be got off time enough for tiu--
nips, the last would not delay getting in the wheat-
seed in due season. Procuring the earliest kinds
of both these sorts of pulse is always, or should be
always, a special object of a farmer ; and such
varieties, we have still to look forward with hope,
may be originated by the art of cross-impregnation.

Hog-peas and Tartarian oats are sometimes
mixed and sown together, and generally success-
fully ; especially if sown on land in good heart.
The heaviest crop I ever saw was a mixture of peas
and Tartarian oats, and the most valuable the
owner ever cultivated.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

341

Potatoes and beans are sometimes iilauted in tlie
same drills ; but this is more a cottage-garden
practice tban a farmer's expedient, though it is a
double-crop not to be despised.

The cultivation of dibbled or drilled beans con-
sists chietly in keejjing the spaces between the rows
well broken up, either jjy the horse or hand-hoe,
throiighout the spring and summer months : for
keeping drilled crops free from weeds is a principal
advantage of drilled crops. And if the black
ajihides attack the croj), employing women and
children to top the plants would be of great service,
not only in the destruction of the insects, but it
mil actually expedite the ripening of the pods.
This is more a gardener's than a farmer's point of
jn-actlce ; but there is no reason it should be con-
lined to the garden when a field-crop may be im-
proved by so simple a means.

The various descriptions of pidse, or pod-bear-
ing plants, are of the greatest service to mankind,
not only as human food, but for fattening and sup-
porting domesticated animals. Horse-beans, when
crushed, are not only the most nutritious food for
that useful animal, but it is said that the best Lon-
don flour for the baker cannot be properly manu-
factured unless some portion of bean-meal, and of
barley too, be intermixed with that of wheat. This
is a miller's secret; and they are perfectly justified
in improving their goods by admixture of any
wholesome ingredient.

Beans, peas, vetches, and tares, all bear edible,
and none of them poisonous seeds ; are all used as
dietetic vegetables in one part of the world or an-
other. The chich-])ea is a native of the south of
Europe, and commonly cultivated thei'e as an
article of food ; so is the rara's-head-chich ; both
of which are eaten either raw or boiled. French
cooks prefer them to haricots, when dried for winter
use.

Lentils is another pulse which has been es-
teemed as human food from a very high
antiquity. When boiled, they readily dissolve
into a pulpy mass, of a chocolate colour ; and
in days of yore constituted the mess of " red
l)ottage," for which Esau sold his birth-right ! In
Egypt and Syria they are parched over the fire in
pans, and are considered by the natives as the best
food to be taken on long journeys. Three varieties
of lentil are cultivated in Italy, France, and Ger-
many ; and their use is very common, especially
by the Roman Cathohcs during Lent. Lentils are
also imported to London from Hamburg, for the
use of cooks, who prize them as an ingredient in
sauces and soups.

The garden sorts of pea are numerous, and new
varieties are brought into notice and cultivation in
almost every year ; some of wliich are well worth

the attention of farmers, to sow for boilers, and to
be succeeded by turnips or winter tares. Garden
peas, though every where so plentiful now, were, in
Queen Elizabeth's time, annually hnported from
Holland for her majesty's table ; as the first green
peas produced in the open air are now received in
Covent Garden from Lisbon.

There is another tribe of pod-bearing plants
which are agricultiiral in warm climates, but too
impatient of frost to be cultivated in this countiy
except in gardens. This tribe contains the sweet-
peas, everlasting ])eas,&c. ; also the bitter-vetch, and
the various sorts of kidney-beans. These last are
the most useful as culinary vegetables : the green
pods of both the runner and dwarf varieties are
used at table either jjlain-boiled or pickled. On
the continent the ripe seeds are principally used
under the name of haricots ; and they enter into
the composition of soups and many other dishes.
They are rehshed by all classes, and cultivated in
fields ; and on account of their plenty and ex-
tremely low price, they form a considerable propor-
tion of the food of the poor throughout France
during the winter. It M'ould appear from the
analysis of chemists, that the kidney-bean is the
most nutritious of all ])ulse, though not the most
inviting to domestic animals ; as they are rejected
even by the hog before they are dressed.

Besides the common haricot and scarlet-runner
there are scA'eral other species which afford esculent
seeds, and much used in India and the surround-
ing countries. And in Britain the scarlet-runner
is certainly one of the most useful summer vege-
tables that can be grown in a cottager's garden.

Dolichos is another pod-bearing genus of pea-
like plants. The one called sooje yields seeds, of
which the favourite sauce called soy is made, and
which is preferred to the kitjap of China. Both are
imported into England in large quantities, and sold
as soy. Several other species of dolichos yield eat-
able pods and seeds ; but they are exotics.

Lupins are a congenerous family of pod-bearing
plants. In Italy, the white and yellow lui)ins are
grown for fattening cattle, or cut as green fodder,
or grown for jjloughing in, to amehorate the land,
to fit it for bearing a crop of clover.

But of all the various kinds of pulse found in
different parts of the world, experience has already
taught which are best adapted for British cultiva-
tion and puqjoses : and though the most of them
are foieigners, they are now completely naturahzed
to our variable climate.

There is one proj)erty of the bean which may be
noticed, namely, the facility and safety with which,
the young plants may be transplanted. T^iis pro-
perty is more available in the garden than in the
field ; though in the latter it may often be au useful

342

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and profitable job for tbe odd man or l>oy to make
good the blanks which, from careless dibbling or
drilHng, may occur in the field. For this purpose
a seed-bed of a square yard or two is made in any
bye-corner of the garden. On this the seed is sown
thickly in January ; and in April they may be
transplanted to the required station. This ma-
noeuvre is particularly convenient when the ground
on which the bean-crop is intended to grow is pre-
occupied by a crop not yet cleared off, or not yet
ready for the bean-seed. Another circumstance
which constantly attends a transplanted crop of
either common or kidney beans is not only the ease
with which the seedlings may be protected from
frost or other inclement weather, but it is invariably
found that the plants so removed yield their pods
both earlier and in greater numbers.

Recommending garden practices in an agricul-
tural work may be thought a very useless piece of
advice ; but it is universally admitted that the

nearer the processes of farming can be profitably
assimilated to those of gardening, the more suc-
cessful will be the farmer's labours. And in the
present uncertain state of British agriculture many
new expedients must be had recourse to, especially
in the culture of aU sorts of cuhnary vegetables ;
for money drawn from Covent Garden will be
equally acceptable as that received from either
Smithfield or Mark Lane. Cultivating pure sorts
of seeds for seedsmen ; green tares, rye, and Italian
rye-grass for highly-kept horses ; mangold wurtzel
for cow-keepers, &c., are all objects which meet a
ready sale near towns : and though such crops
have been for many years confined to the near
neighbourhood of London, distance is now ban-
ished by the railroads ; for produce raised at the
distance of 100 miles away may be as soon in any
eligible market as if produced in its immediate
neighbourhood.

Old Brompton, March, 1846.

THE EPIDEMIC FROM THE COW TO THE HUMAN BEING.

BY MR. R. FOSTER, GOSBERTON

The subject to be now considered is a cow of the
short-horned breed, belonging to Mr. W. Smith,
spirit-merchant, of Surfleet. She was taken very
ill on the 4th of September, and I was requested to
see her. When I arrived, I found my patient la-
bouring under the following symptoms : — loss of
appetite, staring coat, arched back, heaviness of
the eyes, sore mouth and sore teats, and with all
the symptoms generally attending the prevailing
epidemic.

I gave her aperient and febrifuge medicine, and
applied a mild digestive to the teats, and ordered
the owner to keep the affected parts clean, and to
be careful in milking her, which was done with
great difficulty.

20th. — I found my patient much the same as on
the preceding day, and continued the medicine.

21st. — A little better. Treatment as usual.

22nd. — Continues to improve. The female that
had been milking her could do so no longer, in
consequence of the teats becoming so painful as to
make it difficvilt, and almost dangerous, for a female
to attempt it ; therefore, one of the men-servants
was obliged to take the care of the diseased udder.

About a week after the cow had recovered from
her illness, the same young man asked me what he
should do to his hands ; " for," says he, " the old
cow has given me the epidemic."

I said " No, you must be mistaken ;" but he
said he was not, for the femeile that had milked her
before had had her hands affected the same as his.
I then asked him whether he had been ill ? He
said. No, he had not been ill, only his hands and
arms were very much inflamed ; so much so, in-
deed, that he could get his coat off and on with
great difficulty. He said his hand felt so heavy
and full of pain, that he was obliged to have it in a
sling.

After the inflammation had somewhat abated,
his hand came out full of large pustides, some of
them containing pus, and the others a fluid, which
ultimately spread over the whole surface of the
hand and fore-arm, separating the cuticular parts.
He complained of the left hand being much the
worst, and asked me the reason. I then asked
him whether he had cut any of his fingers ? to
which he rephed. Yes, he had cut one of them
with a straw. He also said that it smarted very
much when the dressing of the affected parts took
place, which I said I thought was the cause of that
hand and arm being the worst. Now, in my
opinion, the two cases here I'ecorded ai'e sufficient
to prove them cases of communicated epidemic,
and having a greater effect by inoculation. — Ve-
terinarian.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

343

HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB.

EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1845.

Your committee having revised the minutes of the
past year, proceed to lay before you their report there-
on. They can but express their gratification that
the suggestion contained in our last year's report
has been carried out so satisfactorily, viz. — " a very
close attention to the nature of the questions to be in
future proposed for discussion." We then expressed
our opinion, that with such a course it would not
be difficult to obtain good attendance at our meet-
ings. This opinion has been so strongly and liter-
ally fulfilled by the present year's experience, that
our hopes have been raised, and our minds at length
enhghtened, by the convincing facts of fuU attend-
ances, and new members adding themselves to our
list of subscribers ; that our brother farmers are be-
gining to understand the true principles of a Farm-
ers' Club ; and that institutions like these, together
with the publication of their experience and the pe-
rusal of agricultural works, wLU do much to promote
that general circulation of knowledge which must
in every case precede the adoption of an amended
system of cultivation. We are well aware that the
necessarily insulated position of the farmers pre-
cludes them from such frequent intercourse and
communication with each other as are enjoyed by
the inhabitants of towns ; l)ut insulated as we are,
if we can but bring our minds to the conviction
that we are far, very far, from having arrived at per-
fection, 'we shall have gained the first step towards
an amendment ; for with such a conviction there
will be a commensurate desire for information, which
will not and cannot be satisfied by comparing our
jiractice with our neighbour's adjoining farm, in the
contracted sphere of our own parish, but by the
farmers of a district, who will meet together, and
who will call the attention of their neighbours to
improvements which have been introduced vnth.
success in other neighbourhoods — thus adding the
stimulus of a fair rivalry and honourable ambition
to the dictates of interest.

The first meeting, on the 18th December, 1844,
was appropriated to the appointment of the com-
mittee for the present year, the arrangements of the
various subjects for discussion, with the times and
places of meeting, together with the future custody
and management of the library.

The second meeting, on the 15th of January,
1845, was very fully attended. Two new members
were added to the hst.

The chairman then called upon the member to
introduce the subject for the evening's discussion,
viz. — " The damage caused by hedge-row timber ;"
who brought forward his own experience, as the
most convincing proof he was in possession of, of
the incalculable injury he had received from trees
gromng in fences; their roots and shade being a
constant source of deterioration to his crops. The
previous dry summer more fully exemplified this
than any year previous. He had fences where trees
abounded, where the soil, on an average of eight
yards in -width, was rendered almost worthless;
their value if cut do^vn did not exceed sixpence a
tree, and the toppings they aflforded to the tenant
were not worth more than sixpence each, in ten
years' growth. The roots of elm trees he had par-
ticularly noticed upon mixed soils, extending as
much as sixty yards upon the surface ; he also no-
ticed the constant expense incurred by the tenant
in the breakage of implements by coming in contact
with their roots. With all these various evils ac-
cruing to the tenant from the timber and old
worthless pollards growing in the fences, he felt
confident that landlords only required to be well
informed of the injury v/hich the producer of corn
received from them, to do away with, such nuisances.

This introduction was followed by many other
members, who pointed out instances where the trees
had caused the greatest injury. One member, after
noticing the important nature of the subject, said he
deemed it one of the most fertile for giievous injury
which the tenant could bring forward. He noticed
particularly two ash trees upon his own occupation,
which did him a yearly damage, upon a very low
calculation, of 6s. each, and both trees were not
worth £5 ; but the landlord admired them too much
to take them away. Some few years since, timber
was of that value that it seemed desirable to protect
it, at almost any cost ; but now that timber is so
cheap, and the tenants' liabilities so heavy, he
thought it most desirable that the whole grievance
should be plainly stated, so that the landlord might
be made aware of the enormous injury occasioned to
thetenant. As totheold pollards, he had no hesitation
in asserting their utter worthlessness, for he had an
instance under his own management, where a large
quantity had been sold for firewood, which actually
did not pay the man who bought them for convert-
ing. Another instance he had seen where the farmer

z2

3i4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

uould never apply manure where he saw the old
trees would destroy its value ; and in these times,
when we are so often told to " improve your soil,"
"grow more corn," in order to meet your expenses,
in common fairness we should tell our landlords,
"Do away with these drawbacks upon our industry,
give us a fair open field for the growth of our crops ;
do not let these old trees take away the benefit
which we reasonably expect to derive from our
manure and our labour, and then we may be enabled
to grow corn where now the soil does not actually
pay for seed and tillage." He beheved that some
landlords calculated that growing timber in a
hedge-row Avould pay him one shilling per acre ;
but even presuming this to be true, upon very poor
land, properly prepared and planted, they would pay
double that, and be of infinitely more value, for in
hedge-row timber the pruning-hook was so often
used to lop the under branches, that the timber
was spoiled in quaUty ; but in a plantation they
would prune themselves by the under branches
gradually dying oft", without having to resort to the
pi'uning-hook.

Another noticed the necessity which compelled
the tenant to speak out upon matters which pressed
most heavily upon him. He now suff'ered in every
possible way : by many leases the covenants pre-
vented him from lopping at all except at the per-
mission expressed in writing by the landlord. The
injury caused by the prevention of a due circulation
of air to dry the corn was most trying, particularly
in moist seasons. A field of five acres he occupied
had the roots of elm trees from the fences actually
meeting each other in the middle of it. How, he
would ask, could the occupier make his industry
and capital pay their fair returns with such a nui-
sance ? He did not wish to see the country denuded
of timber ; but let it be fostered where the tenant
did not rent the land, and then the landlord would
properly understand how its growth paid him. The
one fact, that the roots of trees were an almost
insuperable obstacle to tile or indeed to any other
drainage, would surely shew the landlord the
necessity of abating an impediment to one of the
greatest improvements of land in the present day.
Other members corroborated the fact of the roots
of elms running to the middle of small enclosures
of four or five acres ; and a curious but important
fact was stated of a drain 6ft. deep with a bore of 6
in. ha\dng been completely filled up and rendered
useless by the small fibres from the roots of trees.
The many serious evils to the tenant appeared to
be the want of a due circulation of air for the
growth of corn and root crops, the great quantity
of dross corn occasioned by them, the breakage of
implements, and more particularly in moist seasons

the utter impossibility of harvesting the grain in a
marketable condition, without removing it to more
open fields for that purpose, which occasions very
great loss of time at an important season of the year,
as well as much corn shed and wasted. After a
very long and interesting discussion, the following
resolution was carried unanimously — viz.:

" That in the opinion of this club the hedge-rov/
timber and pollard trees are an incalculable injury
to the tenant farmer, in the deterioration in quantity
and quality of his corn and other crops, in the pre-
vention of a proper circulation of air for the due
ripening and hai-vesting the crop, in the breakage
of implements, and by their acting so perniciously
by their roots against tile draining.

The following resolution was also passed, as it
appeared desirable that the resolutions arrived at at
the monthly meetings should be made puljlic as
soon as possible — viz. :

" That the secretary be requested to send, imme-
diately after every meeting of the club, a copy of
the subject for discussion at that meeting, and the
resolution arrived at, to the Mark-Lane Express,
the Gardeners' Chronicle, the Norwich Mercury,
and Bury Post.''

The third meeting held on the 19th February,
1 845. Two new members were added to the list
of subscribers ; and the secretary was requested to
have the numbers of the Farmer's Magazine collect-
ed and bound in volumes, and to make a fresh cata-
logue of the books belonging to the club. The
subject for the evening's discussion was then intro-
duced by the member whose name stood on the
card for that purpose — viz. :

" The expenses of cultivating a heavy land farm,
one-fifth pasture, the rest arable, on an average of
eight years."

For the purpose of opening the question for
discussion he would confine his remarks and sta-
tistics to a farm of 125 acres, 100 acres arable and
25 acres pasture. He did not intend to enter into
the detailed expenses of cultivating each crop, but
to confine himself to the expenses of an estabhsh-
ment, of manual labour, horses, interest of capital
employed, rent, tithe, tradesmen's bills, seed corn,
small seeds, &c. For the capital employed, which
he would take at £1,000, he allowed £8 15s. per
cent.; and not to charge the occupier's superin-
tendence amongst the expenses, but consider him
to be remunerated by the extra interest allowed for
the capital. This he thought would be better than
attempting to calculate what the tenant could live
for, which would involve such an endless variety of
opinion. He would base his calculations, then, as if
the farm was farmed off-hand.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The supposed capital being 1,000/., with interest at 8/. 15s, per cent., would give as the

345

first item of expenditure
Rent at '25s. per acre _ - _

Manual Labour —
One horseman weekly, at 10s.
One strong plough lad, at Cs.
Two labourers, at 10s. each - - -

One boy at 3s., and one at 2s.

These will make the weekly labour

for 52 weeks - - _ .
Extra for weeding 62 acres of corn, at Is. 2d. -

Ditto in haymaking season, 20 acres, at 3s. Gd^-

Ditto in harvest- . - - .

Ditto for claying . _ _ _

Ditto wheat setting - - - _

Ditto drilling - . - - -

Ditto chaff cutting - - . _

Ditto hay trussing . - . .

Ditto journeys - - - - -

Pulling and storing root crop - - .
Mole-catcher, rat-catcher, and thatcher-

- £§7

- 15G

10

£0 10

0

0 6

0

1 0

0

0 5

0

2 1

0

lOG
3

2
12

0

0

_

_

-

-

3

10

0

-

-

20

0

0

3 0

0

4 10

0

2 10

0

4 0

0

3 0

0

1 5

0

4 0

0

3 10

0

25

15

0

159 9 0

£403 4 0

He considered that a farm of this size, of moderately heavy land, would require five good
horses : their keep he thus calculated jier week : —
To each horse 3 trusses of hay, at 3s. per cwt. - - - - -04G

And 4 St. of corn 4s., and 1st. pollard 8d. - - - - -048

This will be 9s. 2d. weekly; for 35 weeks
Tares and clover, 17 weeks, at 2s. 6d.
AVear and tear, 52 weeks, at Is. -

Horses -

Poor rates at 3s., church and road at Is. 2d.=4s. 2d. i)er acre

Tithe rent-charge at Gs. per acre - - - .

Tradesmen's bills. Blacksmith - - . -

„ Wheelwright - - - _

,, Harness Maker - - - -

„ Farrier - - - - -

„ Carpenter, 4 weeks _ - .
Hurdles or netting ------

Sundries in household and dairy - - - -

Seed corn for 25 acres, wheat, 12 co., at 25s.

„ 25 acres, barley, 20 co., at l4s.

„ 12^ acres, beans, 8 co., at iGs.

Small seeds, 122 acres, layer, at 10s. per acre

„ 25 acres, beet and turnips, &c.

Add Insurance

IG

0

10

2

2

6

2

12

0

20

15

4

5

—

103

16

8

_

-

2G

0

10

_

-

37

10

0

9

0

0

4

0

0

3

10

0

2

0

0

2

IG

0

1

14

0

2

12

0

25

12

0

15

0

0

14

0

0

6

8

0

G

5

0

3

0

0

44

13

0

£

640

16

6

-

1

0

0

Total

£641 16 6

He begged to be distinctly understood that he
had based these calculations upon the common mode
of cultivation in heavy land districts, without any
reference to the extra expenses which in many cases
are incurred. in the purchase of artificial food or
artificial manures ; and having thus submitted his

statement, he would be most willing to enter fur-
ther into detail on any part which the club might
point out.

A member observed that the calculations were
made vipon the gross average of the farm. He
thought that some allowance should be made for

34 G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

waste. He also objected to the rate of interest as
not being sufficiently high; the labour account
being 25s. 6cl. per acre, and previous resolutions,
passed by this club, going as high as 30s. would
appear somewhat inconsistent ; but he found the
proposer of this statement had qualified his statistics
upon the labour by stating it to be only on the
common mode of cultivation.

Other members noticed the amount per acre on
labour as not being sufficient ; and the proposer of
the question himself said that with regard to his
own labour-account he found that he was expending
as much as 36s. per acre; but he could not take his
own as any fair criterion, as he was so much from
home, and had consequently to trust so much to
others, that he believed he did not reap the full benefit
of the labour he employed.

One member noticed the discrepancy between the
proposer's labour-account on his own occupation,
and the calculation he had laid down as sufficient
for the 125 acre farm. He would ask this question :
Would it be possible so to reduce the 30 s. labour
account {i. e., to 25s. 6d.), and to give then a fair
state of cultivation and prodvice ? But supposing
it to be admitted that the 25s. 6d. per acre is suffi-
cient for the commonly fair cultivation alluded to,
would it not be fair to add some extra expense for
getting the farm into a fair state ? He fully believed
that an additional 5s. per acre expended in labour
would give one coomb per acre more in the produce
upon the whole farm : indeed, this club had already i
assumed, from previous calcvUations and other
sources, that there is quite that differencebetween the
well cultivated ?ind the average cultivatediavms in the
district. He noticed some observations which had
been made by other members as to the amount per
acre of the laljour-account, and in reference thereto
he would name the fact of a large heavy-land parish
in this neighbourhood where a recent calculation
had been made, and where the number of working
hands were accurately known ; and there, allowing
10s. weekly to every able-bodied man, including
thirty working farmers, boys of all ages capable of
work in the same proportion, the result did not give
20s. per acre expenditure for labour; this proof
would therefore quite settle the question of labour as
to the amount per acre in the calculation laid down
being sufficient for commonly cultivated farms.
And with regard to the tradesmen's bills, we coidd
each and all of us refer to our own accounts, which
would lead us to an accurate result ; but even then
he did not quite see how this question could be
brought to a satisfactory conclusion without a
corresponding statement as to the produce .of such
a farm under such common cultivation.

The chairman, in adverting to the labour-account,
was of opinion that a much greater loss would ac-

crue to the occupier by the outlay of the 25s. than
by the greater outlay of 36s. It had been observed
that one coomb per acre more could be grown by
the proper application of labour : he fully believed
this from practical experience Assisted by good
tillage and good implements, labour judiciously ap-
plied with the manure made upon the farm, the
coomb per acre might be added to the produce ; and
in the parish just alluded to he believed it might be
fully carried out.

Many others joined in the discussion of the va-
rious points laid down ; but as it appeared that it
would be very desirable to compare the actual ex-
perience of the members with these statistics, it was
a generally expressed wsh that the subject might
be adjourned to another meeting before commg
to any resolution. Several members expressed a
strong desire that the question might be carried
fully out by shewing the produce of such a farm,
so that it might be shewn to the world the ti-ue
position of the tenant farmer. This would shew
how the occupier of the soil stood as to his expend-
iture, and the value which he received for his pro-
duce. But although so many expressed this wish,
yet no one could be prevailed upon to produce such
a statement.

The proposer of the subject replied to the various
arguments and objections he had heard. With re-
gard to the discrepancy which had been noticed be-
tween his own outlay for laboiir and the amount he
had laid down in the calculations, he would state
that in his own opinion he had made too great an
outlay, or in other words, the outlay wanted more
personal management than he had been able to give
to it. He could not agree to any addition being made
to the labour-account for the purpose of getting the
farm into a fair state, as less labour is employed
when the tenant knows he is about to leave the farm,
and the land is consequently again getting out of
trim ; and with regard to the coomb per acre more
being grown by apphcation of labour, he would only
revert to the opinion of the Kentish farmers, who
are most decided in their view of the case, that a
coomb per acre is all the difierence that can possi-
bly be made between the fair and the best cultiva-
tion, and that this could not be done by labour
alone. He still beheved he could keep the farm in
the common, fair cultivated state with the 25s. 6d.
per acre ; but he would most wilhngly consent to
have the question adjourned for further discussion,
which was accordingly done to the 12th of March.

Adjourned meeting held 12th March, 1845. —
Owing to the extreme inclemency of the weather
there were only twelve members present, and the
projDOser of the subject at the last meeting said that
he was now quite prepared to go into the detail of
the ^'arious items then laid down, and he hoped

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

347

that the experience of those present would enable
them to come to a satisfactory conclusion. The
amount of cajjital was allowed to stand as first pro-
posed, at £1000. The interest upon that capital
was ver)' strongly objected to as being insufficient
for the hvelihood of the tenant, let him live as
closely as he would. Some considerable degree of
difference existed upon this point ; and as it was
found that such would always be the case where it
was a matter of opinion only, it was suggested that
it would be much better to charge only the actual
amoimt of interest which the capital could at the
most command if employed elsewhere, and leave
the livelihood of the tenant entirely out of the ques-
tion. The account would thus shew the precise
amount of expense incurred in the cultivation.

The suggestion was very generally concurred in,
and it therefore was put at £5 per cent, upon the
capital=£50. The amount for manual labour
appeared more particularly to have engaged the
attention of those present since the last meeting ;
various accounts had been referred to, and the
amounts were all higher by Is. 6d. or 2s. per acre
than the statement shewed. The proposer said
that he had since the last meeting worked his la-
bour-account over again, and he found various
little items left out, which would raise it to £166
3s. 5d., at which amount it was alloAved to stand.

Many instances of tithe rent, charge having been
quoted as high as 7s. and 8s, per acre, the account
was raised to 6s. 6d. as a fair average. Some
slight additions were made to the tradesmen's bills ;
and as no calculation had been shewn or mentioned
of the wear and tear and depreciation of imple-
ments, and as market expenses and other little in-
cidental charges had ]:)een left out, it was finally
arranged that £10 should be added to the account
for that purpose, and the following resolution was
agreed to : — " That it is the opinion of this club
that the expenses of cultivation on a heavy land
farm of 125 acres — 100 acres arable and 25 acres
pasture— at a rental of 25s. per acre, with wheat at
25s. per coomb, would be as follows, upon an aver-
age of eight years : —

Interest on lOOOZ. capital, at 5 per cent. £50 0 0

Rent on 125 acres, at 25s. per acre. 156 5 0
Rates — poor, road, and church, at 4s.

2d. per acre 26 0 10

Tithe rent-charge, at 6s. 6d. per acre 40 12 6

Labour 1G6 3 5

Keep, and wear and tear of 5 liorses 103 15 0

Tradesmen's bills . . . . 27 12 0

Seed corn and seeds . . . 44 13 0
Wear and tear, and depreciation of im-
plements, market expenses, and small

incidental charges . . . .10 0 0

Insurance 10 0

Total

£626 1 9

The next meeting was held on the 19th of March,
1845, when there was a good attendance of mem-
bers. At this meeting it was resolved unanimously,
" That the members of this club be each allowed to
take one friend to tlie reading room at any time of
its being open."

The sul)ject for the evening's discussion was
" On the most judicious plan of commuting fixed
payments into corn rents, and the general advan-
tages of the latter." The member who introduced
the subject said that he should make but few obser-
vations on the value of corn rents over fixed money
payments, the club having previously sanctioned
the principle of the former. They were all agreed
that with long leases only could the best cultivation
be expected ; and with the present prospect of fiscal
changes, who would dare to take a long lease, cal-
culated on existing prices ? Changes of price from
the variation of seasons, or in other words from a
good or bad crop, might perhaps be met by a fixed
money rent ; but those arising from legislative inter-
ference could only be guarded against by a rent
fluctuating with the prices of produce. The present
price of wheat, 45s. per quarter, is 20 per cent, be-
low the act of parliament price of 56s. per cjuarter;
and at McCulloch's estimate of 34 milhons as the
rental of the kingdom, the loss to the occu-
piers would be £6,800,000, a large portion of which
would have been saved to them by a fair corn rent.
The objectors to corn rents relied chiefly on one
argument, which it is necessary to meet, and in
considering which, we may probably arrive at our
object of this evening — viz., the best plan of carry-
ing corn rents into eflfect. It is this : A high price
of corn arising from a short crop would cause a
high rent when it could be least aflfbrded ; and vice
versa, a low price from an abundant crop, a low
rent when a high one could be paid. If this objec-
tion cannot be obviated, it is fatal to corn rents ;
but it at once suggests that our rents must not be
governed by the price of one kind of corn only, nor
perhaps by the price of one season only ; but the
latter is a point admitting of some discussion. It
rarely happens that the crops of wheat and barley
are equally bad or equally good, and the prices of
them consequently equally high or low. By com-
muting the rent, then, into more than one kind of
grain, the difficulty alluded to is overcome, a proof
of which is seen in the tithe commutation, the pro-
posers of which ran into the opposite extreme, and
the consequence is, we do not obtain the high or
low tithe with the high or low prices ^^'hich go\-ern
it, but are paying a high tithe with a low priced pro-
duce, and may perhaps pay a low one with corn at
higher rates. His first proposition then would be,
that a corn rent should be fixed on those crops to
the growth of which the soil is congenial — wheat

348

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and barley — wheat and beans — wheat and oats, &c.
In this district the former. Having decided on the
crops, there are two ways of commuting the rent, viz.,
into an equal value or equal quuntity of them ; he
preferred the latter. But the better to explain this,
he would suppose a farm to be taken of the same
size as that on which the calculations for the last
subject discussed by the club were based — viz., 125
acres of land, one-fifth pasture, at a rent of 25s. per
acre, fixed when wheat was 25s. and barley 15s.
per coomb; the sum to commute will be £156 5s.
This, at equal values of wheat and barley, would be
62^ coombs of the former, and 104 of the latter ; at
equal quantities 78 coombs of each. He thought
it fairer to both landlord and tenant to take the lat-
ter. The annual value, then, of 78 coombs of
wheat and 73 coombs of barley will be the rent
of the farm in cpiestion. We must now decide
what averages shall govern the rent — viz., whether
of the kingdom, of London, or of the district —
and over what period they shall be taken. He
thought, as regards the former, that the average
price of the market where the produce of the farm
is sold, is that which should govern the rent.
Under the present very imperfect system of taking
the averages, those for London are increased
by a variety of expenses incurred in sending the
corn to that market and selling it, forming a serious
addition to the price received by the grower ; and
those for the kingdom are, on the other hand, defi-
cient by a large proportion of the growth not being
included in the returns, not to mention that the ob-
jection which applies to the London averages applies
with still greater force to those of the kingdom, in-
asmuch as they contain the returns of so many
large consuming markets, where sales and re-sales,
with freights, charges, and commissions, have
added considerably to the original price. These
objections do not apply to the returns from the
market where the produce is sold; and besides, it is
most fair to govern the rent by the prices of that
market at which, if the owner had farmed the land,
he would have sold the produce. It unfortunately
happens that at some markets there are no
averages taken, and he could not but here ex-
press his regret that a better system of making
these returns is not in force. "Why should not
all the corn sold be returned ? "VMiy should that
purchased at Bimgay and Harleston go into the
averages, and that sold at Halesworth omitted ? In
the present retvirns each seller's name and quantity
is distinctly entered, and to discover fraud all those
sellers must be questioned. If the growers made
the returns, there would be no more entries than
at present, and it would be necessary to question
the buyers only, comparatively few, to discover er-
roneous returns, whilst the opposite interests of the

parties would check collusion. We should thus
possess, with little extra trouble, a statistical docu-
ment of the greatest importance, viz., a correct ac-
count of the annual growth and consumptionof corn.
As regards the period over which the averages to
govern a corn rent should be taken, he had found
some difficulty in coming to a conclusion. That for
seven years, by which the tithe rent-charge is regu-
lated, is decidedly too long, as we do not feel the
boon of reduction when we want it ; and of this the
present season is a strong case in point. Many per-
sons think three years would be better for the tithes,
and the same for the rent ; but if we take two crops,
he thought one year would be better than three ;
and if it is taken from !^lichaelmas to Michaelmas,
some portion of the crop which pays the rent would
be included in the retvu'ns. He had now an im-
portant point to suggest, viz., that our corn rent
should have a limitation — that it shall not vary
to the extremes of high or low prices. It is our
object, and he might truly say it is one which
never has been lost sight of in the discussions
of this club, to consider the interests of the
owner as much as those of the occupier. To a pure
corn rent the former might have an objection, that
he could not calculate with any degree of certainty
what his income would be ; but if the scale be li-
mited, say to 5s. per coomb each way from the
pivot price, no more rent wovdd be deducted or
added than may fairly be called the landlord's share.
For instance, if wheat should fall to 20s., and bar-
ley to lOs. a coomb, the rent of our farm would be
reduced from £156 5s. to £117, or 25 per cent.; if
wheat falls to I7s., a price at which we have seen
it, and barley to 10s., the rent would still be £117 ;
and in the same way no advance in the jirices of
corn would add to the rent more than 25 j^er cent. ;
but how seldom would the prices of both wheat and
barley rise or fall in the same season to the limit
piice ? Take the present season as an example, and
suppose the rent of our farm to haA-e been fixed
when the present corn law was passed, and we were
led to expect 28s. per coomb for wheat, that and
l6s. for barley being the pivot price — if the average
price of wheat this year should be 22s. 6d. per
coomb, we should pay on 23s. the limit from 28s.,
and barley say at l6s. ;the rent then would be
£136 15s., or a reduction of £19 10s. He might
be told that this is a very inadequate sum to
meet our present losses. True — but is it not
the landlord's share ? None of us are unrea-
sonable enough to expect him to make up all our
deficiency. As a further assistance, we must en-
deavour to obtain a similar reduction on our other
expenses. The tithe is in fact a corn rent; but as
before observed, the seven years' average prevents
our feeling the benefit of the plan when we Avant it.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

849

Our labour, however, partakes in some measure of
the ])rinci]ile of a corn rent — the vahie of a bushel
of wheat, with 2s. 6d. or 3.s. per week added, consi-
dered a fair standard for labour ; at the present
I^rices of wheat, this would put two-thirds of the
cost of labour on a par with the price of corn — thus
if the 125 acres of land costs 30s. per acre for la-
bour, with wheat at 28s., say £187 10s., it would
cost only £163 15s. with wheat at 22s. 6d. per
coomb, because the 90 coombs of wheat which it
took to pay two-thirds of the labour would be worth,
would in fact have sold for only £101 5s,, instead
of £l26. Tradesmen's bills, another ])ortion
of our expenses (he left horse-keep out, ])e-
cause the price of the jjortion of produce they eat
is immaterial), cannot be equally reduced by
a low price of corn, as their charges depend
some^^'hat on the price of the raw materials —
wood, iron, or leather ; but that portion of them
comprised in journeymen's wages, would probably
partake somewhat of a decreased price of corn.
At any rate, he was disposed to ask the landlords
for their share only, to enable us to meet such imex-
pected changes in price as legislation (might he not
say their legislation r) brings upon us. He had
now laid his plan before the members, and if it was
found to meet their views, he should be pre2)ared to
produce a resolution on the question.

One member said he agreed in the general view
of the matter as laid down by the proposer, but
thought there was some objection to the guidance
of one year's average for the jjayment of the rent,
for it might so hajipen that with a very short crop
and a high price we should pay the highest rent
when we were the least able to pay it; he thought
a three years' average would obviate this.

Another agreed to the system of hmitation, but
did not like the working of the annual change of
payment. He suggested that certain stops might
be appended to the scale which would facilitate the
working ; for instance, making an alteration when
corn fell 2s. 6d. per coomb, and then another when
it fell 5s. He hired his farm on a fluctuation of 4s.
but this he thought t/)0 much. He was strongly of
opinion that the frequent fiscal alterations of the
present day call loudly for corn rent upon some
such principle as the present.

One member observed that he had imagined the
terms of the notice for the discussion of this ques-
tion alluded to a pure corn rent, and upon this
view of it he had based his calculations. "With the
limitations as introduced ])y the proposer it is not
what is called a ]nu-e corn rent. Adam Smith de-
fines a corn rent to be " a certain quantity of corn,
or the price of it, for a certain quantity of land ;"
and he confessed, that before he had entered at all
minutely into any calculations on the subject, he

had apjjroved of the principle of a corn rent ; but
after working out his calcvdations, he found it
would not work at all well. A very old writer upon
this subject, Gregory King, anticipated that the
falling off of one-tenth of the crop would give a
rise of three-tenths in the prices. He, however,
would not go to that length, but would shew to the
club, by a calculation l)ased upon very probable
circumstances, that a corn rent could only be met
by the tenant when corn was very low in price ;
and on the contrary, when it was high in price
from a short crop, the tenant would be in a worse
jjosition than he now is,

lix, 1. — Take 100 acres of arable land, and sup-
pose the corn rent to be at the rate of the price of
one coomb of wheat per acre ; and suppose, on a
shift of 25 acres, the crop to be ten coombs per
acre, and the price 20s, per coomb, the quantity
grown woidd be 250 coombs, which would be equal

to £250

The rent would be 100

Surplus 150

Supposing a fixed rent of 25s. per acre, or £125,
the surplus would be £125; only shewing a dif-
ference in favour of corn rent of £25.

Ex. 2. — Upon the same quantity of land, and
corn rent as above, 25 acres of wheat, groA\Ti at
eight coombs per acre, at 28s. per coomb, the quan-
tity grown would ])e 200 coombs, = £280
The rent would be 140

Surplus 1 40

Take the fixed rent as before, at £125, the surplus
would be £155 : shewing a difference in favour of
fixed rent of £15.

Ex. 3. — Upon the same quantity of land, and
corn rent as above, take a deficient crop, six
coombs per acre, vi'ith a price of 30s. per coomb.
The quantity grown would be 150 coombs,= £225
The rent would be 150

Surplus 75

Take a fixed rent as before, £125, the surjilus
would be £100; shewing a difference in favour of
fixed rent of £25.

Ex. 4. — Upon the same quantity of land, and
corn rent as above, take a decidedly bad crop, and
a produce of only four coombs per acre, mth the
[)rice at SOs. per coomb, the quantity grown would
Ije 100 coombs, = £400

The rental would be 400

Shewing no surplus ; but under a fixed rent as be-
fore, of £125, the balance in favour of fixed rent
would be £275,

Ex. 5, — Comparative summary of the foregoing
c:dculations : —

850

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

In the first case the rent of the farm would re-
quire two-fifths of the wheat crop ; in the second,
one-half; in the third, two-thirds; and in the
fourth, the whole. It is only in a year of large
produce, therefore, that a pure corn rent would he
in favour of the tenant ; he fully agreed in the pro-
position of a new mode of taking the averages.

Many other members took part in this very in-
teresting discussion, and it was remarked, with
very general approbation, that it is one which in
in these times is very essential to both landlord and
tenant.

The proposer replied to the various objections
and observations on his plan. He still thought
that the mode of taking the calculation fi'om the
two sorts of grain would obviate any objection to
the price of the single year as the basis ; and al-
though the present plan might not be a pure corn
rent, still he believed it to be carried out as far as
it was possibly fair work to it, so as to satisfy both
parties ; and it behoved the club to work out a plan
which should be consistent with the interests of
both parties.

The following resolution was carried unanimous-
ly:-

"The club having previously recommended the
principle of corn rents, considers the following to
be the best plan of carrying them into effect in this
district :

" Commute the rent of the farm into equal quan-
tities of wheat and barley, at the prices on which
the rent was calculated. The value of these, at the
average jjrices for the past year, viz., from Michael-
mas to Michaelmas, at the market where the corn
was sold, shall be the rent for that year ; but the
variation shall be limited to an advance or reduction
of 5s. per coomb from the original price. For in-
stance— taking a farm of the same size and value
ae. that on which at our last meeting the calculation
of expenses of culti\'ating land were made, viz. —
125 acres, one-fifth pasture, at a rent of 25s. per
acre, fixed when wheat is worth 25s. and barley
15s. per coomb, the sum to commute would be
£156 5s. say £156 or 78 coombs each of wheat
and barley, the value of which at the average prices
of each at Harleston market, from Michaelmas 1844
to Michaelmas 1845, would be the rent payable at
the latter period. Thus, if the prices of wheat and
barley were respectively 24s. and 14s., the rent
would be £148 4s., and so on down to 20s. and
10s., when it would be £i\7 ; but if the prices
were 26s. and l6s., the rent would be £l63 16s.,
and so on up to 30s. and 20s,, when it would be
£195 ; but above or below these sums it would not
rise or fall, however high or low the price of corn
might be.

"The club regrets exceedingly the present im-

perfect system of taking the averages ; it is of
opinion that the returns should be made by the
(jroioers only, and that not in a few districts, but
thron:;hout the kingdom, and of all the corn sold,
excepting for seed. The club conceives there would
be no difficulty in carrying out this suggestion, and
that many advantages would arise from it, not the
least of which would be an exact account of the
corn grown and consumed in each year, a statisti-
cal document of no plight value."

The next meeting was held on the l6th of April,
when a very full attendance shewed the interest
taken in the subject about to be discussed.

Spooner on the Diseases of Sheep, was ordered
for the use of the members.

The member whose name stood for the introduc-
tion of the subject on the 21st of May next, stated
that he should be prevented by other business from
attending on that day, when it was agreed that the
Secretary should give notice to the members, that
that meeting should be held on the 14th of May, to
meet the convenience of the proposer of the question.

The subject for this evening's discussion was
then introduced by the Chairman — " The neglect
of home-made manures ;" who said that as the
terms of the notice presumed that neglect did exist
with regard to our home-made manures, and such
being the too well known fact, it becomes as ob-
viously our duty to rectify it ; and the very rapid
advance in the application of artificial manures
naturally leads to the inquiry whether our own re-
sources are sufficiently carried into eflfect. He
entertained a very strong opinion that we are not
justified in the use of artificial manures, if any ap-
parent neglect presents itself in the management of
what we already have at our command. With our
variety of soil, we have great opportunities of hus-
banding our manure, which should be made under
cover, if possible ; and this we must ask our land-
lords to assist us in, for with our present low prices
we must grow more corn, or we cannot go on ; our
manures as they are now applied to the soil do not
raise the crops they ought. With corn-fed cattle
their manure is capable of conveying much valu-
able assistance if properly apphed and properly
manufactured, if he might so term its preparation.
He believed it to be a generally received opinion,
that the farms in this locality cannot furnish an
amjile quantity of home-made manures for twice
dressing in a four-course shift, or in other words,
a manuring every other year, which, at present
prices, is of the utmost importance, as he imagined
that, unless this system is fully carried out, com-
pensation to the tenant-farmer in the shape of pro-
duce will be looked for in vain.

At the commencement of the season for making
manure after harvest, or near Michaelmas, the stock

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

351

begins to require shelter ; and the first object is, if
a fourth of the arable land is in root crop, such as
carrots, turnips, or mangel-wurzel, that every
available covering should be occupied, as tending
so very materially to the advantage of the animal,
economising the straw or litter, and securing the
rich properties of the manure ; indeed, he believed
that those who had adojoted the system of stall-
feeding, would universally agree with him that one
load so made under cover in the winter, will pro-
duce aa much nourishment for production as a load
and a half from the open yards. He could but
here notice the advantages of stall-fed cattle, their
food being entirely consumed without waste ;
whereas a number of beasts in an open space are
frequently disturbing each other, and in leaving one
feeding place for another, a piece of turnip or any
other food is dropped and wasted ; and again,
there is a great advantage in each beast being able
to fill himself and to lie down as he pleases without
the fear even of disturbance. Thus rmnination
and digestion were kept in a natural state. When
the stalls are being emptied, he had adopted the
plan of first preparing a bottom, as it is called, of
mould from six to nine inches in depth, then cart-
ing the manure upon it so as to completely cover it
to about the same depth ; then another layer of
mould, ditch earth, clay, or sand, as deemed most
suitable to the soil to which it is to be applied, and
so continue imtil the heap is of sufficient size for
the field it may be intended for, great care being
taken to cover the top and sides well with earth, to
prevent the escape of the gases.

The compost is jiresumed to be carted over or
upon it, in consequence of which it is entirely in-
capable of heating ; therefore the turning or mixing
may be proceeded with at pleasure, and of coiuse
the crops for which it is to be applied will regulate
this operation : great care should be taken in the
first turning that every particle of the earthly mat-
ter and manure be completely shaken or torn in
pieces, and the mixture effectively made, so that the
heap may lie in the lightest possible state ; a slight
fermentation is then produced, and the process of
decomposition will proceed slowly and safely ; the
compost is again completely covered as at first, to
guard as much as possible against the escape of
effluvia ; after about a month, another turning be-
comes necessary, and particular attention should
be paid to guard against the too great width of the
trenches, or the mixture will not be perfect, as he
had found the labourers almost universally, in turn-
ing over manure heaps, were too prone to get their
trenches very wide, and not unfrequently he had
known instances of their forcing or caving a large
])ortion of the top of the loaf to the bottom of the
trench \'i'ithout any kind of care, thereby entii-ely

frustrating the desired object. He deemed it also
very essential that in turning, the sides of the heap
l)e put as much as possible into the middle ; by
this caution any grass or weed which may have
been in the earthy portion of the heap will be en-
tirely deprived of vegetative power ; but with re-
gard to the seeds of weeds, he would not imagine
their destruction in heating manure heaps at any
time, as bj' attempting this an incalual)le loss would
be sustained in burning that which with so much
labour and cost had been preparing for the pro-
duction of crops. After about the same lapse of
time, he generally gave a third turning, with the
same cai'e and watching as previously noticed.
The heap in this last turning will retain merely a
milk-warmness, and every particle (if properly
managed) will present a rich dark greasy-looking
compost, corresponding in appearance to that of
an old cucumber bed.

It is now ready to be applied — and the fi^st crop
after Michaelmas would be on barley stubbles, as
a preparation for beans ; and he contended that
not less than 25 or 30 loads (here called three-
quarter loads) should be applied, as this should in
his opinion be the manuring for the wheat crop,
and the greater the luxuriance of the bean crop the
greater will be the succeeding wheat crop.

If an eighth of the arable land is intended for
beans, all the manure made from harvest to Christ-
mas will be required, and would also be all the
manure applied to the arable land in the winter
months, with the exception of the young layers,
which he would presently allude to. From Christ-
mas all the manure up to the middle or latter part
of April should be applied for the root crop, which
he imagined upon a well-stocked occupation and
under good management would provide an ample
supply. He must here notice that he presumed all
the fallows of the preceding season to have been
occupied with the root crop, or the quantity of
manure could not be obtained ; and also that the
fattening stock are well fed with corn or some other
forcing food, as without powerful manures re-
munerating corn crops could not be grown. The
summer- made manures should be obtained by
stall-feeding cattle, sufficient for producing all that
is required for the young layers to be applied the
first opportunity after harvest, and the compost, if
prepared as before stated, \\\\\ produce a most con-
venient and effective dressing. By thus economis-
ing our own manures, we should be enabled to
grow all that can fairly be expected ; aud when
we can say with honest tru|;h that we have not
neglected any home-made manure, and still find
the supply to he insufficient, then, and not till
then, should we be at all justified in resorting to
the expense of artificial manures.

352

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

One member also noticed what he could but con-
sider a waste of good manure in the too general
plan of spreading for the wheat crop all over the
stetch alilie. He could but consider the accumula-
tion of soil by gathering the stetch sufficient for the
crop, and by sj)reading the manure upon the top of
it, so as to cover about two parts out of three ; the
sides when it was ploughed in reaped the full benefit
of it. Several members objected to so many layers
of earth in the manure heap as a useless expense,
and it was very generally obser^-ed, that where the
heap was well compressed by carting upon it, that
was sufficient to prevent an undue degree of fer-
mentation. And with regard to the application of
raw manixre directly to the soil, a scientific member
who was present said, in answer to questions put
to him as to the comparative merits of raw and
mixed manure, " that provided there was a suf-
ficiency of earthy matter well mixed with the ma-
nure heap, so as to prevent the escape of ammonia,
he would much prefer the mixed to the raw ma-
nure. Care should, however, be especially taken
not to allow the fermentation to rise previous to
turning, for if in a high state of fermentation when
turning over, very valuable matter wUl escape, do
it as quick as you will, and no application of any
other matter at that time, that he knew of, would
stop the escape of such matter ; but it might be
possible to mix something with the manure pre-
^^ous to fermentation which would prevent its
escape, or to speak in other words, to ' fix the am-
monia.' Gypsum would effect this, and clay, he
had no doubt, would answer the same purpose."
It was very generally agreed that it was most de-
sirable to get the manure heap into as manageable
a state as possible by frequent turnings, but some
objected to the too frequent turning as too expen-
sive. The liquid portion of manure received a very
great share of the evening's discussion, and the
practice of several eminent farmers in the neigh-
bourhood, of having tanks for its reception, was
much canvassed. Their plan appeared to be, con-
vepng it in carts for the purpose, to heaps of earth
raised from the scourings of ditches, cleaning of
banks, or any other available substance, and pour-
ing it upon this heap, when, after some turnings
over, it was then a good compost for pasture lands.
The chairman replied to the various objections
he had heard urged, and said that with regard to
the expense of such frequent turnings, he still
could not think that expense given away, when he
found his manure in such a good state to mix im-
mediately with the soil ; and with regard to tanks
for the reception of liquid manure, that expense he
thought might be entirely obviated if the plan of
covering the yards and sheds with a good coating,
earth or sand, sufficient to absorl) it, were more

generally acted upon. After some further discus-
sion on this important part of the subject, the fol-
lowing resolution was carried : " It is the opinion of
this Club that all manures should be made as much
as possible under cover, and should then be carted
upon the heap, and well compressed ; the bottom
to receive it should not be less than a foot thick of
earth ; and the heap, when made, should be closely
covered with earth or mould, to check fermentation,
and to prevent the escape of ammonia ; in tui'ning
over, particular care is required to ensure its being
well shaken in pieces and mixed ; and with regard
to liquid manure, the yards or sheds should be
well prepared with a coating of earth sufficient to
absorb it; but where the liquid is allowed to ac-
cumulate in tanks, it should be apphed to the ma-
nure heaji, or to any earthy matter collected for
that purpose, in preference to its being applied im-
mediately to any crop."

The next meeting was held on the 14th of May,
1845, when there was a fair attendance of members.
The subject was — "What effects will railroads
have on the agriculture of this district?" The pro-
poser of the question said that although the sub-
ject might be one of a peculiarly difficult nature to
deal with, there were many points in it which he
thought it was not difficult to foresee that they
would not eventually be beneficial to the country
to that extent which many anticipated. Facilities
of communication — cheap transit of goods and pro-
duce— easy rates of postage, Avith quick delivery —
were all in themselves most desirable objects ; but
the monopoly once established, would all these
benefits be permanent ? He very much feared not.
Tliere were many objections in connection with
their many supposed benefits. Cattle, feeding in a
country through which a railroad passed, were
found to be so disturbed that their progress was
deteriorated very considerably — ver}' much land
would be taken up by the different lines, to the
detriment of the community in a producing point
of view — horses, as beasts of burden, would be
lowered in price — rearing would be discouraged,
from prices being so lowered — the frequent flush
of goods and produce into the markets would have
a bad effect on prices ; certainly the great facility
of supplying them would not tend to raise prices,
A general system of railroads would have a ten-
dency to concentrate the population in large towns,
for it is but a natural impulse in every class of so-
ciety : this would ha\'e a tendency to divert the
traffic from old-estabHshed roads, and by this
means numerous instances had already occurred of
individuals who had been entirely ruined by their
l)est prospects being suddenly snatched away from
them l^y railroad communication. Harleston, like
all other small towns, would feel the evil l)y the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

^53

loss of its commercial visitors not staying in it, as
the trains would enable them to ily oii" in other di-
rections without expending anything in it beyond a
little time. Even the capital employed in such
schemes would be of no benefit to an agricultural
community. The coach duties would be a loss to
the revenue of the country. In many neighbour-
hoods we now see around us gentlemen spending
their £500 per annum upon their hunting estab-
lishments ; these would, by such easy facilities of
communication, be enal^led to leave it for the more
desirable or perha})s fashionable counties, and thus
a loss would accrue to this neighbourhood. To
commercial men, indeed, the saving might be very
considerable in time as well as expense ; but to the
tenant-farmer, who makes but one return in the
year, he could not conceive any benefit would arise.
The great majority of the members differed very
strongly from the views of the proposer of this
subject; it was very appropriately remarked, that
in this question there are too great classes to be
considered — "producers" and " consumei's :" this
district is a producing one, and any cheap con-
veyance for our produce could but be considered
as highly beneficial. x\n instance was noticed of a
very supeiior lot of fat beasts sold in Smithfield
Market, lately from Norfolk, and immediately
packed off upon the railroad to Bristol ; did not
this increase the profit to the Norfolk farmer?
It IS a practical proof of the benefit of cheap
transit ; it is one of the first of proofs, that ^^ath-
out such a speedy conveyance we shall be always
too late in this district for good markets ; but
when we can have a railroad direct to London, and
can then send the best of our produce to the best
markets, whether corn or cattle, we shall then be
upon a fair equality with our neighbours ; we shall
be brought nearer to the great consuming markets
for our produce, which in this county is four times
in amount more than its consumption; we shall
then have the advantage of the ^-^arliest information,
and can practically avail oursel/es of it as well as
those who now have it, and who a^e now enabled
to beat us out of the market by attording a direct
supi)ly when prices are remunerating; ; and with
regard to the monopoly which had been alluded
to, it was very generally agreed that wthout very
stringent legislative enactments, such would be the
case, and to a very fearful extent ; but it was as
generally believed that the Government would look
closely and jealously upon the course which might
tend to make the monopoly injurious to the com-
munity at large. That part of the subject which
alluded to the prices of horses was then entered
upon, and the food they consumed. Horse keep
is a very expensive item in this country's expendi-
ture. Give that food to any other animal, and it

furnished food for man, which in this kingdom is
the great desideratum. Railway communication
must eventually be the means of equalising prices
all over the country. Keep all the horses in work
you please, they never could accomplish this ; Ijut
with railroad communication we shall be upon
about an equal footing with our neighbours ; with-
out it, we shall always be behind them. After a
somewhat desultory conversation, which lasted
some time, it appeared to be the general opinion
that no resolution could be arrived at, as to the
especial benefit which would accrue to an agri-
cultural district in consequence of the introduction
of a railroad, but as we should be entirely shut
out of good markets by their introduction in ahnost
all other parts of the kingdom, that such com-
munication and the facilities afforded by it are in-
dispensable here. The following resolution was
then carried nem. con.: — " It is the opinion of this
meeting that railway communication is essential to
the agricultural interests of this neighbourhood, in
consequence of its introduction in all other direc-
tions."

At the next meeting, held on the 8th of October,
1845, the subject was — " Agricultural Machinery,
its effects upon our labourers." The member in-
troducing it said, that he looked upon this as a
question of the utmost importance, as by the pro-
per use of machinery so much remained to be ac-
complished. As a general principle lie had always
advocated its use in agriculture, as he believed it
created labour instead of diminishing it. In this
county the advantageous application of machinery to
manufactures had made itself apparent forvery many
years, and he hoped yet to see it as advantageously
applied to agriculture. He hoped yet to hve to see
the day when this country would be producing
more than we want for our own consumption, by
the aid and proper use of machinery in agriculture.
With it we can accom.plish, in due season, almost
every desired object ; and he honestly believed
that by its general use this country might be made
to produce one-fourth more than at present. By
the judicious use of good machinery, we are enabled
to cultivate for the root crop in particular, so as to
save much valuable manure ; and by grov.nng a
good root crop where long fallows would othenvise
be had, we are finding food for cattle, which again
produce manure ; so that here we see the use of
machinery producing and reproducing. Again, he
had always remarked, on good occvqiations, where
there was the most machinery judiciously apphed,
there also he invariably found the most labour em-
ployed; but it must be here remarked, that this
could only be the case where the tenant is secure
in his tenure, for the enormous outlay required
to purchase and keep up good machinery could

354

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

only be justified where the tenant is so secure.
The trite old adage came to his mind, which
said " the more I hoe the more I grow ;" but this
hoeing, as an instance, could only be properly ac-
complished, and at the proper time, by the use of
the horse-hoe ; and it is not the root crop or any
one crop which is alone benefited, but every crop
in succession during the course felt the benefit of
a thorough stirring done in proper season. He be-
lieved and affirmed that we do not spend half
money enough in stirring and cultivating the soil
when the proper time is arrived for it. He had
lately had the opportunity of looking around the
country for many miles in various directions, and
he had listened to almost every variety of informa-
tion on this subject, which, in fact, all at last re-
solved itself into this, that where the most judicious
application of machinery Avas found, there also as a
natural consequence was sure to be found tlie most
labour employed. He fully believed that the use
of machinery in agriculture is one of the best
means that can be found for emptying our union
houses ; for where it is fully and judiciously em-
ployed, there labour is created, and as a natural
consequence more attention is paid to the cultiva-
tion of the soil. He believed also that the moral
effect upon the labourer is good, for as it effects
the very heavy portion of the labour for him, and
he finds that he gets as constant employment with
it, he very naturally approves of it ; for instance,
with the horse-hoe the dead soil is stirred, which lets
the hand-hoe in more easily, and the labourer can
draw it more lightly to himself; this makes him ap-
prove it, for he finds his toil is hght and his wages the
same. Again, in wet weather by the use of ma-
chinery he was very often enabled to find in-door
occupation for labourers, who would otherwise be
thrown out. This he found always told well with
the labourer, and the moral effect still held good.
It is a self-evident fact, that all we want now is
quantity, and we can only get it by the judicious
use of machinery ; but we must have manual la-
bour with it. As to machinery extinguishing la-
bour, although he feared there might be instances
where it is employed for such a purpose, yet as a
whole he was confident it wov;ld be found to create
instead of extinguish it.

The subject created a very considerable degree
of interest with those present. It was remarked
that if the use of machinery in agriculture tends to
throw men out of work, then it is an evil, and a
very serious one. There is a very general impres-
sion abroad that such is too often the case, and in
some instances when the employer is short of
capital it undoubtedly is so, for he naturally says
that it will cost me less money to thresh my wheat
with the machine than it will by the flail ; it is with

him a mere matter of economy, for the labour thus
saved is not applied to any other purpose ; it is
done to save labour, or the expense of it. Had
each occupier sufficient means at his command to
employ the labour thus saved upon some other
work, it would act well. Some diflfered as to the
expediency of applying machinery in order to raise
root crops upon particular soils, as it appeared to
be the general belief that more was lost by the
after corn crops after an ungenial season for re-
moving i-oot crops, than could possibly be gained
by them. That increased produce might be raised
by the judicious application of it was not doubted,
but the farmer must first have the means to pur-
chase it, and in times like the last few years, which
have been gradually reducing the farmer's capital,
it was not to be expected that the tenant farmer
could affiard such an outlay. It was remarked with
very general approbation, that on very strong lands
it would be much more to the tenant's interest,
without injury to the landlord, to allow a bean crop
to be taken instead of a root crop or a long fallow
— this to be compelled to be consumed upon the
farm ; but this could of course be only arrived at
by a change of covenants. It was veiy pertinently
remarked during the evening by a member,
that he had heard a great deal about agricultu-
ral machinery ; but he thought the best machinery
would be that a])phed to the mind and its cultiva-
tion, for to that at last we must look for the proper
use of any machinery. He was very sorry to per-
ceive such prejudices still existing in the minds of
too many against the education of the peasant as
well as the mechanic ; and he could but think that
those who would thus foster ignorance, were much
better calculated for a nation where slavery is in
the ascendant, than in this free country.

The proposer rephed to the many observations
and objections which had been raised as to ma-
chinery extinguishing labour ; as a whole he did
not believe such could be the case, but he did un-
fortunately know instances where machinery had
been borrowed of him for the very purpose, which
had he known at the time, should never have gone
out of his possession. He noticed the growth of a
bean instead of a root crop, and he could but bear
testimony to the very clean appearance of the land
when in barley stubl^le after them. His maxim
was, let the farmer do as he liked with his land
during certain years of his lease, and he did not
doubt of its being cultivated to his own advantage
without injury to' the landlord. The follomng
resolution was then carried unanimously : — " That
in the opinion of this club the employment of ma-
chinery in agriciUture, where there is sufficient
capital at the occupier's command, is both bene-
ficial and eflfective as to the employment and moral

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

355

condition of the labourer; but where it is employed
for the purpose of extinguishing labour, there it is
most baneful in every point of view: the great expense
of effective implements and perfect machinery can
only be borne where the tenant is sufficiently se-
cured by the terms of his tenure."

The next meeting was held at the Swan Inn on
the 15th of October, 1S45, when there was a full
attendance of members. Subject — " Tlie system
of employment of the agricultural labourer." The
member Avho introduced the subject referred to the
effects of particular times and seasons, during the
last few years, upon the employment of the poor in
these districts, and the fact that whole parishes of
labourers have been thrown out of vx^'ork at certain
seasons by the effects of the weather. He thought
it would be granted that the system of employ-
ment which had such features as these, had in it
something radically bad, something which required
the most serious consideration of those most inti-
mately concerned to endeavour to find a remedy
for such a crying evil. He noticed the debasing
effects which such a state of things must have upon
the minds and condition of the poor. He alluded
also to the unfair practice of employing the poor
man, and taking the fuU advantage of his labour in
fine weather, and when a wet day or two happen
to intervene, to make him shift for himself. He
noticed also the bad effects which resulted from
the practice of having nearly all the work done by
out-door labourers. The house servant is under a
wholesome restraint, which the mere out-door la-
bourer is not ; and where young men are left to
spend their evenings as they please, the beer- shop
offers such a tempting place of resort that he but
too often is its habitual customer, and thus con-
tracts habits which are anything but what they
should be. He alluded to the apathy or unwilling-
ness of employment of labour ; and he could but
ascribe it to the position of the tenant-farmer, as
being so generally under a yearly hire ; in this
position he is likely to be ejected from his farm in
any year at six months' notice. Such being the
case, he would get repaid what the custom of the
country would give him by valuation ; and this, it
is weU known, when the outlay has been what it
ought to be, would leave the out-going tenant
minus a very heavy sum in unexhausted improve-
ments. He believed the great remedy to be long
leases with hl)eral covenants, and that when such
were granted, the landlord ought to demand a se-
curity that the ])oor man wiU be permanently em-
ployed.

Many members objected very strongly to a com-
pulsory employment of any quantity of labour,
believing that the lease would be a sufficient
stimulus for its proper management, After a

long discussion, the following resolution was car-
ried : —

"That the system of employment of the agri-
cultural labourer, as a system, notwithstanding
many exceptions, is very far from what it ought to
be, and will always continue so whilst the tenant
is insecure under a yearly tenancy. But let the
landlord give the tenant that security which a well-
regulated lease can alone give, and he will then be
able weU and permanently to employ the labourer."

A member gave notice, that at the next meeting
he would propose " That the rule which prohibits
the discussion of political subjects prevents the
members of this club from investigating and dis-
cussing the question of the corn-laws, as they
affect the interests of agriculture and themselves,
and that the usefulness of this club is rendered
nugatory thereby; and that it is therefore expe-
dient to expunge the 1 1th rule, and in its place to
insert the following — " That all subjects, social,
moral, and political, which bear on the interests of
agriculture, may be discussed at our meetings."

The annual meeting was held on the ] 2th of No-
vember, 1845.

There was a large attendance of members. The
motion which was given notice of at the last meet-
ing, to expunge the 11th rule, was discussed at
some length, and carried.

The Chairman was then re-elected, and accepted
the office.

The Secretary resigned that office, and withdrew
his name as a member of the club as it now existed.

The appointment of his successor was left over
to the next meeting.

W. L. B. Freuer, Secretary.

WHEAT. — By a return issued, on the motion of
Mr. Childers (Malton), an account is given of the weekly
average price of wheat by which the duty is regulated, from the
2d of March, 1844, to February last, as also the total quan-
tities of wheat returned by the inspectors of corn returns from
September, 1844, to January, 1845, and from September, 1845,
to January, 1846. The first part of the document shows the
weekly aggregate averages by which the duty on wheat is
regulated by the act 5 and 6 Victoria, c. 14, from March 1844,
to the 22d of February last, and also, to the same period, the
weekly aggregate averages, calculated accorduig to the pro-
visions of the act 9th George IV., c. 60. The second part has
reference to the quantities of wheat returned by the inspectors
as brought to market in specified months in 1844-5, and 6. In
1844, in September, the corn returns were 450,526 quarters
and six bushels ; m October, 540,783 quarters ; in November*
626,296 quarters and four bushels ; and in December, 554,176
quarters. In 1845, the returns were — January, 518,031 quar-
ters and two bushels ; in September, 414,693 quarters ; ju
October, 665,162 quarters and four bushels; in November,
618,167 quarters and sue bushels; and in December, 475,617
quarters and two bushels. In January last the return was
503,316 quarters and six bushels.

356

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A Weekly Council was held iit the Society's House,
in Hanover-square, on the 25th of February ; present
- Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., in the chtiir ; Earl
Spencer; Viscount Torrington ; Hon. Captain Howard,
M.P. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; J.
Adams, Esq.; T. Alcock, Esq. ; B. Almack, Esq. ; G.
Raymond Barker, Esq. ; S. Bencraft, Esq. ; H. Bin-
sted, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq.; H. Burr, Esq. ; Dr. Cal-
vert ; Rev. Tliomas Cator ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W.
Cuthbertson, Esq. ; G. Dyer, Esq. ; J. Edwards, Esq.;
A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B. T. B.
Gibbs, Esq. ; G. Gurney, Esq ; J. H. Huhne, Esq. ;
J. Kinder, Esq. ; A. Majendie, Esq.; W. Miles, Esq.,
M.P. ; E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq , M.P. ; Professor
Sewell ; S. Solly, Esq ; and T. Turner, Esq.

Potatoes. — Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., of Osslngton,
Nottinghamshire, communicated in a letter to Mr.
Pusey, M.P., the following i-esults of his experiments in
the planting of single Potato -eyes : —

" Osslngton, Feb. 23, 1846.
" At this moment of renewed alarm about the Potato
crop, and the anticipated difficulty of providing seed for
the wants of Ireland, I send you, according to your
desire, an account of the experiment tried here last
year, of planting single eyes of about the size of a nut,
cut out of the whole Potato. Last year, about the
middle of March, my gardener was planting early Po-
tatoes, the Ash-leaved Kidney. It occurred to him, as
an experiment, to cut out some of the best eyes from a
certain number of Potatoes, and to plant these in rows
side by side against whole Potatoes. The eyes were
cut out with a common knife, and planted at once as
they were cut out. The piece was cut out in the
shape of a one-inch sided triangle. The sets from these
single eyes brought in every case the best crops. From
three roots there were one peck of Potatoes. One Po-
tato weighed 1 ^Ib. The tubers were generally large,
weighing towards ^Ib. each. The plants rose with one
single stem from the ground, which was strong and
vigorous. They were not so early by a fortnight as those
from the whole Potatoes. This may perhaps be ac-
counted for by the circumstance, that in many cases the
eyes of the whole Potatoes had made strong shoots when
they were planted ; but eyes which had not sprouted
were chosen for cutting out, as being better suited for
the operation. Another experiment of the same kind
was tried with second-early Potatoes, called American
Natives, with exactly the same results. I have at this
moment a crop of early Potatoes under frames, grown
from single eyes, which look most promising. The ad-
vantages which this plan holds out seem to be these : —
1st. In a time of scarcity several eyes may be cut from a
single Potato, and almost the whole Potato is still avail-
able for food. 2nd. If sets have to be sent from a dis-

tance, as from this country to Ireland, tlie bulk, and
consequently the expense, wouldbeniateriolly diminished.
3rd. By a little timely attention, by inducing parties to
cut the crown off each Potato now in the course of daily
use, an immense supply of seed might be procured,
almost without expense. For the last three months I
have had the crown, about the size of a walnut, cut off
every sound Potato consumed about this place. I have
saved in this way a very large supply of seed for the
spring. The eyes in these small pieces, cut oft' as long
ago as three months, look quite fresh and well, and are
pushing like those in the whole Potatoes. Here my ex-
perience ends : to make the case complete it would be
necessary to have proof that the eyes from the crown of
a Potato cut some time before planting would answer as
well as those fresh cut. Of the apparently certain suc-
cess which attend.^ planting a single eye fresh cut, I
have a very strong corroboration from the practice of the
clergyman of a neighbouring village, Mr. Chell, of Knee-
sail. My gardener has been to Mr. Chell to-day, to
obtain the exact particulars. He has been in the habit
for 12 years of planting single eyes, making use of the
remainder of the Potato for food. He has tried single
eyes against whole Potatoes and cut Potatoes, and has
always had the best crops from single eyes. He now
plants nothing else."

An interesting paper having been also read from Mr.
Southworth, of Merebrow, Tarlton, near Ormskirk, on
the same subject, containing the results of his practical
experience on several points connected with the cultiva-
tion of the potato, especially in reference to the import-
ance of raising potatoes intended for seed from poor
soils, instead of rich ones. Sir Charles Lemon referred
to the series of experiments carried on at the Horticul-
tural Society's Gardens, by Mr. Knight and Dr. Liud-
ley, to ascertain the best conditions under which the
potato plant could be grown. Sir Charles Lemon and
Sir John Johnston adduced their testimony respectively
to the advantageous practice in Cornwall and Yorkshire
of growing seed potatoes in a poorer soil than that in
which they were afterwards intended to be cultivated.
Mr. Fuller, M.P., Prof. Sewell, Mr. Miles, M.P., the
Rev. Mr. Cator, and Dr. Calvert, also favoured the
Council with the result of their experience on the sub-
ject of the decay or preservation of potatoes in their re-
spective localities, under certain circumstances.

Groivth of Plants. — Mr. Pendarves, M.P., introduced
Mr. Gurney to the meeting, when that gentleman de-
tailed to the members present the plan of his operations
for ascertaining the cause of that remarkable increase of
vegetable growth which results from the application of
a fibrous covering, such as that of straw or brushwood.
The Council requested Mr. Gurney to prepare a written
statement in detail on the subject, for the purpose of
enabling the members to uudertake those practical ex-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

357

periments of his plan which it r.as the object oi' his
comiminication to suggest.

Mr. Flanison, of Devizes, transmitted to the Council
a p.ipcr on the manufacture of draining tiles ; l^r. Cal-
vert, a plan of iiis proposed lecture and exhibition of
grasses, at Newcastle-on-T)'ne ; the Count de Guyon, a
letter on the subject of agricultural machinery; the
Royal College of Chemistry, a communication connected
with the application of chemical science to the require -
menls of practical agriculture ; and the Rev. Thomas
Cator, a notice on the question of the height at which
wheat C'ln be grown on the Welsh Hills, in comparison
with that at which it is now grown in Scotland.

Tiie Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the Ith
of March.

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House,
in Hanover- square, on Wednesday, the 4th of March ;
present, The Right Hon. Lord Portman, President,
in the chair; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P. ;
Sir John V. P. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Col. Austen,
M.P. ; S. Bennett, Esq ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; Col.
Challoner; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; J. W. Childers, Esq.
M P. ; H. Gibbs, E.sq. ; S. Grantham, Esq. ; W. Fisher
Hobbs, Esq. ; John Kinder, Esq. ; P. Pusey, Esq.
M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq.; Prof. Sewell ; J. V. Shelley,
Esq.; R. A. Slaney, Esq.; W. Cuthbertson, Esq.; A.
E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; Joseph Johnson, Esq.; James
IVIarmont, Esq.; S. Solly, Esq.; E. Tattersall, Esq. ;
and T. Turner, Esq.

Finances. — Colonel Austen, M.P., Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented to the Council the
monthly report of the state of the funds of the Society :
from which it appeared, that stock to the amount of
1,200/. having been sold out of theS^ per cents, to meet
the inconvenience occasioned by the excess of payments
over receipts on account of the Shrewsbury Meeting,
the invested capital was reduced accordingly to 7,000/.
stock, with a current cash-balance in the banker's hands
of 1,589/. The Council unanimously adopted this re-
port, and ordered that a letter should be addressed by the
Chairman of the Committee to each member of the
Society in arrear of his subscription, reminding him of
the circumstance, and requesting a remittance of the
amount by means of a post-office order made payable to
the secretary.

Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the
Journal Committee, reported that 105 essays had been
already received in competition for the prizes offered by
the society ; independently of those essays which are re-
quired to be sent in at a later period of the year ;
namely, those on tlie potato disease, by the 1st of June ;
those on the St. John's day rye, by the 1st of October ;
and those on peat charcoal, as a manure, by the 1st of
December next.

Agricultural Chemistry. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., as
Chairman of the Committee on the Analysis of the Ashes
of Plants, then laid before the Council the following
report of the committee on that subject :

Report.—" The Committee on the Analysis of the

Ashes of Plants beg to report, that Professor Graham,
to whom the design had been referred, waived the
undertaking in behalf of Dr. Lyon Playfair, the con-
sulting chemist of the society, on that gentleman's
appointment as chemist to the Museum of Economic
Geology, to which office a laboratory in London is
attached. That Dr. Lyon Playfair, however, having
been placed on several commissions under the crown,
has not had time at his disposal for carrying out the
Society's views. That this delay has served greatly to
strengthen the original grounds of the undertaking,
since the hope then entertained, that after ascertaining
those earthy materials of crops which are found in
their ashes, we might employ the same chemical sub-
stances as artificial manures, has now been carried par-
tially, and is likely to be carried more generally, into
practice. That it is necessary, however, to obtain new
analyses of these ashes, because difierences are found
in the results of former inquiries, which it is desirable
to clear up, and to ascertain whether these differences
have arisen from errors of the experimentalist, or from
variations in soil, manure, or other causes affecting the
produce itself, and consequently its mineral ingredients.
That in order to secure the utmost attainable accuracy,
Professor Liebig, who suggested this undertaking, should
now be consulted as to the methods by which it should
be carried into effect, and requested to communicate his
views to the Council. That the Committee recommend
the partition of the analyses ; and that application should
in the first instance be made to those institutions which
have already recognised agi-icultural chemistry as a
distinct object of their researches. They therefore re-
commend that as the College of Chemistry has ap-
pointed a Committee on Agricultural Chemistry, en-
quiry should be made on what terms a share of the
analysis would be undertaken by that Society ; and that
a similar enquiry should be made of the Agricultural
College at Cirencester. They recommend that the
names of several members eminent for their chemical
acquirements should be added to the Committee."

This Report having been unanimously adopted, and
agreeably with its recommendations the names of Pro-
fessor Liebig, Dr. Lyon Playfair, Dr. Daubeny, Pro-
fessor Solly, and the Rev. A. Huxtable, added to the list
of the Committee ; the following gentlemen were, on
the motion of Mr. Pusey, M.P., elected Honorary
Members of the Society, and also added subsequently
to the Committee, namely, Professor Graham, Dr.
Fownes, Dr. Wade, and Dr. Ilofmann.

A letter was then read from Dr. Gardner, Secretary
to the Royal College of Chemistry, communicating a
suggestion from the Council of that body to the Council
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, that a
Committee of the Society should be appomted to confer
with a Committee of the College, for the purpose of
ascertaining the mode in which the prosecution of
chemical inquiries, for agricultural purposes, as an ob-
ject of common interest to both institutions, can be
most efficiently carried out. The Council resolved that
this suggestion should be referred to the Committee of
Analysis, which should be authorised to communicate

2 A

368

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

with the Committee of the Royal College of Chemistry
on the subject.

The Rev. A. Huxtable communicated, through Mr.
Pusey, a letter substantiating the accuracy of his esti-
mate of the expense of growing Turnips on barren land,
chiefly with chemical articles ; the original pecking of
the land having cost, not 6d., but 3d. only per rod.

Country Meeting s.~lslx. Shelley having reported to
the Council the various results of the consideration of
the General Newcastle Committee in reference to the
arrangements for the ensuing country meeting of the So-
ciety, at that town, in the middle of July next, the
Council decided generally on the following points : —

1. That there shall be no Council Dinner this year.

2. That a lecture on some subject of practical inte-
rest shall be delivered at Newcastle- on-Tyne, at 5
o'clock on the afternoon of Wednesday the 15th of
July.

3. That the award of prizes by the judges shall be
read at 8 o'clock on the same evening.

4. That the lecture-room shall be open to all mem-
bers of the Society, on their being furnished with
free tickets to be obtained at that period of the sec-
retary.

5. That all details on these points be left to the ar-
rangement of the General Newcastle Committee.

The Council then took into consideration the various
offers made to the Society on the subject of the lecture
to be delivered before the members at their ensuing
country meeting.

On the motion of Mr. Humphrey Gibbs, the following
appointments for the meeting were confirmed, viz. —
Director of the Show. — Mr. Brandreth Gibbs.
Stewards of the Cattle Department.— Eaxl Spencer,

Mr. Druce, Mr. Kinder.
Stewards of the Implement Department. — Mr. Miles,

M.P. ; Mr. Shelley.
The Council having ordered that it be referred to the
Rotation of Districts' Committee, to take into consider-
ation the expediency of holding the country meeting of
the Society for 1847 in the South M^ales district, Mr.
Pusey gave notice that he should bring that question
before the Council at its next monthly meeting.

Flax. — Mr. Pusey stated that it was the intention of
the Journal Committee, to take into consideration whe-
ther it would not be desirable for the Society to offer a
good prize on the subject of Flax cultivation.

The following communications were then made to the
Council :— ^

1. A statement by the President, of the uniform suc-
cess which to the present time had attended his ex-
periments in growing Potatoes, apparently sound
and healthy, from the most diseased seed in which
a sound eye had been left ; and of his intention to
submit the results of his numerous experiments on
this subject to the Council as soon as plants were
sufficiently advanced in growth for the purpose.
The sound eye in these cases was not extracted, but
the whole of the seed Potato, sound and unsound,
planted together in one mass.
B. A statement from Sir Charles Lemon, of the pro-

bable latent existence of the disease in the Potato
previously to the last season, and of its actual ex-
istence in given specimens, without being discover-
able to the eye by means of the most powerful mi-
croscope.

3. Communications on the same subject from Mr.
Fuller, M.P,, and Mr. Browne.

4. A letter from Mr. Kimberley, on the cultivation of
the Convolvulus Batatas, or " Sweet Potato," as a
substitute for the ordinary Potato ; and on the cir-
cumstances under which the Spanish Phosphorite
could be obtained from the Continent.

5. A letter from Mr. Moyle, of Western Canada, on
the subject of Gypsum as a manure.

6. Results from Mr. Rodwell, of his cultivation of
the Italian Rye Grass, with specimens of the brown
and pale varieties.

7. The new volume of " Coates's Herd Book" from the
Editor, Mr. Strafford, of 4, Morton Villas, Camden-
Town.

8. Mr. Johnson's prices of Draining Tiles ; Mr. Bate
on Agricultural Schools and Farms ; Mr. Couch on
destruction of Insects ; Mr. Nichols, Papers on
Flax Cultivation ; and Mr. Ewing on Potato Con-
sumption.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 11th
of March.

A weekly council was held at the Society's house, in
Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 11th of March;
present, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in the chair ;
Sir R. Price, Bart., M.P. ; F. Burke, Esq.; F. C.
Cherry, Esq. ; B. Gibbs, Esq.; Professor Sewell ; W.
R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P. ; C. H. Turner, Esq. ; G.
Wilbraham, Esq., M.P. ; H. Wilson, Esq. ; B. Almack,
Esq.; G. R. Barker, Esq. ; T. B. Browne, Esq.; H.
Burr, Esq. ; Dr. Calvert ; W. Cuthbertson, Esq. ; A.
E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; J. A. Knipe, Esq. ; A. Majen-
die, Esq. ; A. Ogilvie, Esq.; E. Parkyns, Esq.; H.
Price, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; T. R. Tweed, Esq. ; and
J. L. Wight, Esq.

The following communications were received : —

1. From Professor Sewell, on the part of extensive cat-
tle salesmen, in the metropolis, complaining of the
serious injuries to which stock were exposed in their
conveyance by railway, in consequence of the impro-
per treatment to which they were subjected, and the
want of proper arrangements for their stowage and
transit ; and the great loss sustained on that account
by their owners. The extent to which such injuries
were inflicted was corroborated by Mr. Cherry and
Dr. Calvert ; Mr. Cherry suggesting that the animals
should be placed in divided compartments, and that
spring-puffers should be placed between the trucks.

2. From Mr. Owen, of Westerfield, near Ipswich, on
the use of Sea-water as Manure.

3. From Mr. Elly, of New Ross, Ireland, on an experi-
ment in progress on the Feeding of Sheep with
Furze.

4. From Mr. Neile, of Belle-ville, county of Wicklow,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

359

a present of Potato seed?, carefully collected from
healthy plants of 1845.

5. From Mr. Rogers and Mr. Brown, communications
on the subject of the Potato disease.

6. From Mr. Douglas, on the Removal of Diseases of
Cattle arising from their Teething.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 18th
inst.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's house in
Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 18th of March:
present, Thos. Raymond Barker, Esq., in the chair;
Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; F. Burke,
Esq.; F. C. Cherry, Esq.; J. W. Childers, Esq.,
M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; W. G. Hayter, Esq., M.P. ;
W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; Geo. Kimberley Esq. ; John
Kinder, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; W. Shaw, Esq. ; R. A.
vSlaney, Esq. ; W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P. ; J. H.
Aylmer, Esq. ; H. Bailliere, Esq. ; S. Bencraft, Esq. ;
Rev. J. Bonham ; Dr. Calvert ; W. Cuthbertson, Esq. ;
A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P, ; J. Greene, Esq. ; W. Leve-
son Gower, Esq. ; A. Majendie, Esq. ; A. Ogilvie,
Esq.; E. Parkyns, Esq.; H. Price, Esq.; Capt.
Rushout; Rev. T. P. Slapp ; S. Solly, Esq.; J.
Swinburne, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; and T. R. Tweed,
Esq.

Prize Essai/s. — Mr. Pusey, M. P., Chairman of the
Journal Committee, communicated to the Council the
mottoes of four essays, which the Judges had declared
to be the winners of the Society's Prize in each of the
respective classes in which they competed ; and the
sealed motto papers containing the authors, names being
delivered to the Chairman, and opened in the presence
of the Council, the adjudications were found to stand as
follows: —

1, To George Nicholls, Esq., of 17, Hyde Park-
street, London : the prize of 30/., or a piece of
Plate of that value, for the best Essay on the im-
provement of the Condition of the Agricultural
Labourer, so far as it may be promoted by private
exertion, without legislative enactment.

II. To W. C. Spooner, Esq., Veterinary Surgeon,
of Southampton: the Prize of 10/., or a piece of
Plate of that value, for the best account of the use
of Super-phosphate of Lime as a manure.

III. To Thomas Cooke Burroughes, Esq., of Gaze-
ley, near Newmarket: the Prize of 10/., or a
piece of Plate of that value, for the best account of
the Cultivation of White Mustard.

IV. To Tliomas Rowlandson, Esq., of 59, St. Ann
street, Liverpool: the Prize of 50/., or a piece of
Plate of that value, for the best report on the
Farming of North Wales.

Miscellaneous Communications. — 1. A letter from
Lord Portman, the President of the Society, informing
the Council, that the potatoes raised by his lordship
from diseased tubers, in dry heat, and in pots well
drained, had been examined by Dr. Lindley, and pro-
f. nounced to be quite sound,

2. A letter from Mr. Moyie, of Western Canada,
, addressed to Lord Portman, on circumstances connected

with the prevalence of the potato disease, and the pre-
sumption that the malady has had its origin in the pre-
sence of an excess of acid matter generated vmder
peculiar conditions in the potato, especially in the co-
loured varieties.

3. A statement from Mr. Thomas Wilmot, of Coun-
don, near Coventry, on the raising of potatoes from
seeds, in this country and in Australia ; with specimens
of the result of his cultivation, and an offer to send a
supply of such potatoes for any experiments the Council
might direct to be made with them,

4. A report from Mr. Cherry (veterinary surgeon
to the army) of the directions given by Marshall in his
" Rural Economy of Yorkshire" (vol. 2, p. 51), pub-
lished in the year 1788, for raising potatoes from seeds.

5. A Gommunication from Mr. Greene, of Greene-
ville, Co. Kilkenny, of the directions for saving the
potato-apple for seed, issued at Berlin by the Prussian
Minister of the Interior.

6. A letter addressed to Mr. Fuller, M. P., by the
Rev. James Williams, of Llanfairynghornwy, in Angle-
sey, on the result of his potato crop ; on his long expe-
rience that single potato-sets, if they grow, give a far
better crop than whole potatoes ; and on the fact that
40 years ago, Capt. Jones introduced to his notice a
scoop sent him from London with which the eyes were
taken out singly, leaving the great bulk of the potato
for use,

7. A statement from Mr. T. R.Tweed, of the success
which had attended the trials he recommended to the
occupiers of the allotments at Woolwich, of planting the
peeling of the Potato in which the part near one of the
eyes was cut deeper than the rest.

8. Remarks on the Potato disease, from Mr, John
Hull, of Tarleton, near Ormskirk.

9. A suggestion from Mr. Williams, of Glamorgan-
shire, that some economical mode should be devised for
applying the decayed Potatoes, when dried, to the feed-
ing of cattle, instead of allowing them to be thrown
away entirely to waste.

10. Mr. Curtis presented a French work, on the part
of M. Guerm-Meneville, the author, relating to the in-
sects observed to the present time in diseased Potatoes,
and containing engraved illustrations of their character
and structure.

11. A notice from Sir John Johnstone, Bart., M.P.,
that he had been requested by a friend to obtain for M.
Ouv?ard, the distinguished French financier, at present
in this country, leave to submit to the Council his state-
ment of a new mode of managing farm-yard manure.
The Council accordmgly appointed such statement to be
laid before them at the ensuing weekly meeting.

12. A letter en draining, from Mr. Harrison, of
Devizes.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 25th
last.

NEW MEMBERS.
Atkinson, John, Newbiggiu, Hexham, Northumberland
Barber, Thomas, Hobland-hall, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk
Bolam, Christopher, Low Trewitt, Rothbury, Northumberland

2 A 2

360

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Bolain, William, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Clayton, John, Chesters, Hexham, Northumberland
Cooksou, John, Benwell House, Newcastle-on-Tj'ne
Commerell, WilUam Augustus, Strood, Horsham, Sussex
Cresswell, Oswyu Baker, Cresswell, Morpeth, Northumber-
land
Curteis, George, Canterbury

Dawson, WiUiam Edward, Plumstead Common, Kent
Duncan, William George, Great Houghton House, Northamp-

tonsliire
Edwards, WiUiam, Brook House, Ross, Herefordshire
Fitz-Patrick, Richard Kelson, Graustowu Manor, Queen's

County, Ireland
Green, William George, Bedford Villa, Bedford, Northumber-
land
Hall, Henry, Neasdon, WiUesden, ^Middlesex
Hamborough, Albert, Steep Hill Castle, Newport, Isle of Wight
Hawdon, Robert, Morpeth, Northumberland
Hereford, 'discount, Tregoyd, Hay, Herefordshire
Hinde, John Hodgson, M.P., Acton House, Felton, Northum-
berland
Jackson, WiUiam Kay, Barbot Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire
Lawson, Edward, Redesdale-cottage, Newcastle-oii-Tytie
Lcvn, William, Newport-Pagnel, Bucks

Littlewood, William, Bramley Moor Farm, Chesterfield, Derby-
shire
Longridge, William Smith, Bedlingtou Iron Works, Northum-
berland
Lowe, Henry Porter, Calvertou, 'Nottingham
Markby, John, Duxford, Cambridge
Merritield, Thomas Scare, Waiufleet, Lincolnshire
Nelson, William, Olive-house, Alnwick, Northumberland
Ogden, WilMam Bernard, Newcastle-ou-Tyne
Ogle, Charles, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Parkyns, Thomas, Ruddington, Nottinghamshire
Peel, Jonathan, Accriiigton-house, Blackburn, Lancashire
Redman, John, Froxfield, [Marlborough, Wilts
Roebuck, J. A., Jliltou.. Christchurch, Hampshire
Sankey, Richard, Nant, Holywell, Flintshire
Scarth, James, Newcastle-ou-Tyue

Smedley, Charles E. B., Edmmouth, Kelso, Roxburghshire
Smith, John, Goswick, Berwick-on-Tweed
Thurlow, Rev. Thomas, Baynard's-park, Guildford, Surrey
Wheatley, Matthew, Shieldfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne
White, John Brown, Little Bedwyn, [Marlborough, Wilts
Widdrington, Captain, R.N., Newtou HaU, Northumberland

REVIEW.

COATES'S HERD BOOK; A New Edition, revised
by H. Stkafford.

We could perhaps find no better example of the in-
creasing intelligence, and thorough good understanding
amongst all concerned in the pursuit of agriculture, than
in the support so generally awarded to Coates's Herd
Book — a support, be it understood, that in this case
implies approval of a far more decided character than
the mere act of purchasing a single volume, or becoming
a regular subscriber. In the common acceptation of the
term, this, no doubt, would be considered amply suffi-
cient ; while, on the other hand, for a work of such a

nature as the Herd Book, the communication between
its proprietors and its patrons 7nust be infinitely more
direct and definite, to afford either encouragement to the
one or satisfaction to the other. ' ' The authority in fact
of a work," as the new editor, Mr. Strafford, truly re-
marks in his preface, "which gathers its contents from
such a variety of sources and districts, depends very
greatly on those who consult it : from such should we be
indebted for the correction of error and the conveyance
of information." It is, indeed, we might go on to saj-^,
the very key-stone to its success ; the main duty re-
quired of its compiler being a thorough knowledge of the
material he receives, and a certain skill or tact in making
use of it.

On these considerations we should unhesitatingly have
named Mr. Strafford as able a successor to the Messrs.
Coates as it would have been possible to have elected; an
opinion founded on facts which few breeders or admirers
of short-horn cattle will need to be more fully entered
upon here. His standing as an animal painter— his con-
sequently almost invariable attendance at the principal
prize cattle shows — his long study of the subject, and his
intimate acquaintance with the majority of breeders, must,
we judged, havegiven him qualifications for theoffice, in no
degree unworthy of rankingwith those of his predecessors.
And in this estimate, it need scarcely be added, we have
not been disappointed ; the revise of the three first vo-
lumes of the original edition here collected into one, is
such as to guarantee at least a usual amount of care and
ability in continuing it. Every improvement that time
or other causes made the volume susceptible of, has been
readily and cleverly worked up with it ; while in the mat-
ter of embellishment, printing, &c., &c., a liberality and
a taste has been exercised, never previously aimed at or
attained. For the illustrations, Mr. Strafford himself is
of course more especially answerable, as, to Mr. Roger-
son, of Norfolk- street, must we allow the credit for the
general " getting up." The Herd Book, in short, has
in every way fallen into hands able and willing to do
full justice to it and the interest it so materially tends to
assist.

Two more volumes in continuation are we see announ-
ced as nearly ready, and we are glad to find from a no-
tice in the volume before us, that these said continuations
will, for the future, be issued at much shorter intervals
than has hitherto been deemed advisable. This is an ad-
vance we trust breeders will not be slow to appreciate,
particularly as we believe it is an alteration and an im-
provement that has altogether emanated from the most
zealous of the subscribers.

PRICE OF POTATOES IN IRELAND.

By order of the House of Commonj, a return has been issued
" of the highest price of potatoes in the various markets in Ire-
land, per bushel and stone, in the week ending the 24th day
of January, for the last seven years (from 1840 to 1846 inclu-
sively), as well as they can be ascertained." From the printed
copy of this return we subjoin a few random gleanings : —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

361

Highest price, per stone,

■week ending Jan. 24.

18-10. 1846.

d. d.

ANTRIM.

Antrim 3 5

Ballvnioney 2i^ 5

Belfast 3i C^

CushendaU 2i 4^

I;isburn 2f 6

AUMAGII.

Crossmaglen 2 5^

Keady 2.^ 6

Tanderagee 2^ 5

CARLOW.

TuUow 2 4

CAVAN.

Bailieborough 2^ 4

Ballybaise 2^ SJ

CootehiU n U

Stradone l^- 4

CLARE.

Bally\auglian 2 3

Kilrush 2 3^

Miltown Malboy ... H Si

Scariff 2i 3|

Talla 23 3^

CORK.

Ballincolig 2^ 5^

Middleton 4 6

Newmarket 3 3-^

Rathcormac 2^ 4

DONEGAL.

Ardara H 3

Creeslagh 2" 3^

Dnngloe H 3"

Glenties l| 3^

MoviUe 2 4i

Raphoe 2 3

DOWN.

Banbridge 3 5

Donaghadee 2\ 4

Kircubbin 2i 4

Portaferry 3 4

Saintfield 3 5^

DUBLIN.

Balbrigrgan 4 6

Ballvlohill 5 6^

Clontarf 4^ C"

Howth 3^ 6.J

Skerries 3h 6

Tallaght 4' 6

FERMANAGH.

Edenderry 2^ 3

Kesh 2^ 3

Maguire's-bridge ... 2^ 4

Newton-butler 2^ 4

GALWAY.

Ahaserah 3 4

Ballinasloe 3i 4\

Portumua 3 4

Galway 3 4ii

Tuam 2'- 4^

"VVilliamstown 2^ 4^

KERRY.

Dingle 2 4

Listowel 2 4

Miltown 2 34

Tralee 3 4^

KILDARE.

Athy 34 4i

Kilcock 3' 4I

Naas 3 4|

Robertstown oh 4h

KILKENNY

Callan £^ 3}

Castlecomer 1^ 44

Graigue 3 3|

Kilkenny 3* 44

- '■'.•.inU'Vji-' •*

Highest price per
week ending Jan.
1840.
d.
king's.

Clara 2h

Edenderry 3^

Phillipstown 3

' LEITRIM.

Ballinamore 2i

Garrigallen 2

Mohill 11

LIMERICK.

Adare 3|

Castleconell 4

Croom 34

Limerick 4

Rathkeale 2^

LONDONDERRY.,

Castledawson 2

Kilrea 2^

Magherafelt 1|

LONGFORD.

Balh'mahon 2

Granard 2

Longford 3|

LOUTII.

Ardee 3

Dundalk 2^^

Louth 2I

MAYO.

Ballinrobe 2^

Holly mount 2

Shruel 3

MEATH.

Athboy 2i

Kells li

Navan 3

Trim 3

MONAGIIAN.

Bellybay 3

Clones 2i

Drum 2^

aUEEN's.

Abbeyleix If

Mountrath 2

Stradbally 2^

ROSCOMMON.

Castlerea 2

Ruskey Ij

SLIGO.

Ballaghy 2

Coolany 2^

Easkey li

TIPPERARY.

Borrisokane 2k

Newport 3

Roscrea 2

Tlinrles 2^

TYRONE.

Caledon 2i

Clogher 3"

Fintona 3

WATERFORD.

Ardraore 2

Lismore 2

Waterford 3^

WESTMEATH.

Castlepollard 2^

Killbeggan 3'

MuUingar 3 J

WEXFORD.

Enniscorthy 3

New Ross 4J

Wexford 3

WICKLOW.

Blessinton 3

Bray 3k

Wicklow 3

stone,
24.
1846.
d.

4

4i

3|

3i
3

5

3^

4
5
4

4

4

5
U
4i

4i

In a note appended to the official catalogue the inspector-
gcqeral remarks, " It is represented, &c., that the present low
prices in some instances are attributable to the anxiety of the
farmers to dispose of their potatoes before they become di-
seased ; others refer low prices to disease already conmienced."
In either case the ultimate as well as the present effect must be
most injurious. If immediate and active measures be not em-
ployed, we dread to reflect upon the futurity in store for Ire-
land.— Journal of Commerce.

MALT AND MALT DUTY.

The following are the results shown by a return issued by
order of the House of Lords, giving an accoiuit of ilalt charged
with duty from the year 1841 to 1845, and of the amount of
duty received thereon in the United Kingdom : —

Years. Bushels. Duty.

1821 29,393,441 £5,297,389

1822 29,848,080 4,082,886

1823 28,164,137 3,619,498

1824 32,511,743 4,172,452

1825 36,205,450 4,631,324

1826 32,468,778 4,177,276

1827 29,613,501 3,809,997

1828 36,794,206 4,731,582

1829 29,153,177 3,743,613

1830 32,962,454 4,231,996

1831 39,252,269 5,036,666

1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844

37,390,455 4,799,051

40,075,895 5,140,757

41,145,596 5,275,603

42,892,054 5,499,882

44,387,719 5,699,8/8

40,551,149 5,216,966

40,505,566 5,211,798

39,930,941 5,139,804

42,456,862 5,592,476

36,164,448 4,889,251

35,851,394 4,848,583

35,693,890 4,827,950

37,187,186 5,027,061

1845 36,545,990 4,937,958

Excise Offlee, London, Feb. 21, 1846.

HOPS, MALT, BREWERS.— Accounts relating to
hops and malt, and of the number of persons licensed as
bi'cwers, victuallers, &c. — From this return it appears
that in the year 1845, there were in the United King-
dom 48,058 1-lG acres of land devoted to the cultivation
of hops, on which the duty amounted to 288,526/. Os.
7^d. Quantity of British hops exported to foreign
countries, 151,2101bs. Foreign ditto exported, 728
cwt. 0 qr. 261bs. Imported, 726 cwt. 0 qr. 181b.
Malt made between Oct. 10th. 1844, and Oct. 10th,
1845, 3,749,124 cjrs. Between the same dates there
were in the United Kingdom, 2,637 brewers, of which
2,324 were resident in England, 198 in Scotland, and
115 in Ireland. There were 87,375 victuallers, of which
58,055 carried on business in England, 45,846 in Scot-
land, and 13,474 in Ireland. In England there were
32,553 persons licensed to sell beer to be drunk on the
premises, and 3,709 to sell beer not to be drunk on the
premises. The brewers consumed in the year
18,972,913 bushels of malt ; the victuallers, 7,715,608;
and the retailers of beer, 3,304,475.

363

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

WEST OF ENGLAND AND SOUTH WALES LAND DRAINING COMPANY.

The first general half-yearly meeting of this company
was held, at the office in Bedford Circus ; Sir John
Kennaway, Bart., of Escott, in the chair. There were
present Sir Thomas Tancred, Bai-t., of Stratton House,
Cirencester, Thomas Porter, Esq., of Hembury Fort,
Clifford Shirreff, Esq., of Colyton, Captain Trevillian,
T. A. Mansford, Esq., of Bath, E. G. Roberts, Esq.,
Wm. Lee, Esq., G. C. Holroyd, Esq., S. T. Kekewich,
Esq., of Peamore, and Messrs. T. Hussey, Wm. Wippell,
T. Venn, &c., besides the consulting engineer of the
company, Mr. Parkes, Mr. Thos. May, the secretary,
Mr. J. G. Bidwill, the master of the works, and Mr.
Geo. Pye, the auditor.

The Secretary read the report of the directors as
follows : —

directors' report.

"In presenting theii first general report to the skareholders
of the West ef England and South Wales Land Draining
Company, the directors feel it to be their duty to give a brief
review of the proceediugs of the compauy, since its formation
in October, 1844. The novelty of the undertaking, the im-
portance attached to the objects of the company, its present
position, with the result of its operations, all require this at
the bauds of the directors. It will be found that they had to
commence this undertaking at a time when the state of the
money market caused unexpected diificulties in beginning ope-
rations on the scale at first anticipated, which finally led to its
commencament on a reduced plan. While, therefore, they
congratulate the shareholders ou the present prospects of tlie
company, they are desirous of glvmg the fidlest information
as to the means by which they have been secured.

" The objects for wliich the company was formed are well
known to the shareholders. Its main feature was declared in
the original prospectus to be ' to afford to landowners and
occupiers increased facilities for the driiining of their land by
executing the necessary operations with the most suitable
materials in such manner as shall be deemed the most scientific,
economical, and effectual, or by the advance of capital for such
purpose — the cost incurred thereby, or the money advanced, to
be paid by instalments.'

" The prospectus of the company was issued in October 1844,
and on the sum of £10,000 being subscribed, it was considered
by the provisional committee, under the discretionary power
given them in this respect, and by the recommendation of their
engineer, Mr. Parkes, to be a sufticient capital to enable tliem
to commence the imdertaking, and they were further induced
at once to erect a tilery, sheds, &c., at Farringdon, about
four miles from Exeter, on the application of several landed
proprietors in that neighbourhood to drain their lands, and the
promises of many others to apply hereafter to this company
for scientific draining. The works now in operation, together
\nt\\ the orders for drainuig lately received by tlie company,
have led your directors to prepare for such extended operations,
by directing the erection of tileries in other localities from
whence applications have been received in extent sufficient to
warrant the outlay,

" That such calls for the exertions of the company will
constantly increase and extend, your directors confidently

anticipate. By availing themselves of the experience and skill
of the professional gentlemen and practised workmen in the
service of the company, landlords are saved from the useless
outlay often mcurred through ignorance of the best methods of
drauiing, or through the prevalence of local prejudices ; the
work is executed in the most permanent and effectual manner,
whilst land agents and tenants are saved the trouble of con-
tracting with labourers for or superintending work to which
they may he unaccustomed, and the best methods of executing
which may be unknown to them.

" The subjoined joint report of the secretary and manager
of the works will show the successful operations of the com-
pany and its future prospects. The report of the auditor, also
annexed, will shew the pecuniary results, establishing the fact
that a remunerating profit will be obtained in proportion to
the quantity of land which mdy come under the operations of
the company, and also enabling your directors to recommend
that out of the ascertained profits from the work done, interest
at the rate of £4 per cent, per annum shall be payable for the
half-year ending 24th June next, upon the capital subscribed
and paid up on or before the 25th March next, the surplus
profit after the payment of such interest being reserved for a
future dividend.

" In conclusion, your directors beg to express their obliga-
tions to many scientific and practical men for the fidl and free
information given by them ou the subject of land draining,
and to add a liope that the advantages derivable through the
means of so useful a company may not only be appreciated,
but largely enjoyed by the very numerous body of agricultu-
rists wlio labour under the heavy disadvantages attending the
cultivation of soils surcharged with water."

He then read the joint report of the Secretary and
Manager of the works : —

REPORT OF THE SECKETARY AND MANAGER OF THE
WORKS.

" In this the first half-yearly general report, yom secretary
and manager of the works beg conjointly to state the results
of the operations of the compauy, and to direct the attention
of the committee to the fact that the operations of draining
lands have, from circumstances fully known to your committee,
been so circumscribed as only to embrace the period since Oc-
tober last, and therefore not exceeding in duration four entire
months.

" It is with no little feeling of pleasure that your officers
are enabled to state that the erection of tileries, sheds, and
buildings on your property at Farringdon has been carried to
a state of working operation mider the superintendence and
approval of your engineer Mr. Parkes, and that the clay has
proved in every respect suitable for producing pipe tiles of a
quality both excellent and durable ; but tlie manufacture has
not been in quantity equal even at this early period to the re-
quirements of the company, a circumstance to which every at-
tention has been given with a view to a large increase of pro-
duction in the ensuing year, as even a limited experience has
shewn that in the event of an over-production for its own uses
in drainuig, there would exist a profitable mode of investment
of the company's capital in the sale of pipe tiles alone.

" Your officers beg to refer you to the report of the auditor
for his explanation of the pecuniary position of the company.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

363

fls trell as the results of its operations in carrying out practi-
cally the original intentions of tlie company, developed as tliey
are at this early period ; and by which it will be seen that the
anticipated results have been realized in proportion corunieusu-
rate with the amount of business done.

" In reporting upon the future prospects of the company
your officers witli pleasure refer to the annexed schedule con-
taining applications from landowners who have expressed a
desire to have their lauds drained through the medium of the
company ; and daily experience leads them to anticipate that
the applications will rapidly be increased both in lunuber and
amount, as the liitherto successful operations of the company
become more generally known ; and in order to show that the
draining as yet done by the company has given satisfaction,
your officers with pride refer the committee to the accompany-
ing letters received from tenant farmers, on whose farms con-
tracts for draining have beeu in part completed.

" Your officers beg leave respectively to state their conviction
that the company are now placed in a truly safe position, and
capable of being carried to an almost indefinite extent, sup-
ported, as they trust it will continue to be, by landed proprietors
and occupiers, and conducted with the energy requisite to ni-
sure success."

The Secretary reported that applications had been
received from fifteen influential landowners for the survey
of their estates by the company's engineer, and that
such surveys have led to orders for the company to
drain estates containing upwards of one thousand acres.

It was also reported that promises had been received
from upwards of thirty landowners to employ this com-
pany to drain estates containing in the aggregate many
thousand acres.

Letters were also read from several farmers and land-
agents testifying to the effectiveness of the system. Mr.
Philip Walters, of Honiton's Clist, wrote to say that, as
a practical farmer, he was convinced of the excellence of
the system, which had worked on his lands astonishing
improvement.

Mr. Henry Paramore, of Petherton Paik, stated that
he had found the system " completely and immediately
effectual." In two fields, one thirty and the other
twenty acres, set out to be drained, it had been thought
six acres of each would be sufficient, but the remainder
was found so wet that it was found necessary to drain
the whole. In one part of the twenty-acre field, drains
laid in three roods fifteen perches of land discharged
three gallons of water per minute. Another field, if it
had not been thoroughly drained, could not have been
sown with wheat the last wet season ; and now (7th
February) the plant looks more thriving than in an ad-
joining field, which had not been drained, although it
was of a better quality, and the wheat had been drilled
in a month earlier.

Mr. R. Carter, of North Petherton, states that the
company have placed drains four feet deep in his field, a
heavy loam with a retentive clay sub-soil, and occasion-
ally a stratum of gravel interposed ; and the water had
been flowing from them without intermission.

Mr. J. Gatcombe, of the same place, states that he
has two fields adjoining one another, of a similar quality ;
the one being two years old grass, doubly manured, but
not drained, which was drilled into wheat in the latter
end of November ; the other drilled by the company, and

drilled with wheat after potatoes, more than a month
later. Both had been so wet that he had not expected
to crop till late in the spring ; but, on the 7th of Feb-
ruary, the drained land was more forward, and infinitely
superior to the other.

Messrs. John Drew and Son, of Peamore, say, " We
are thoroughly convinced of the good effect of the deep
pipe tile draining, as practised by the company." The
effect on a few acres of grass land belonging to the Earl
of Devon, at Alphington, in a very short time far ex-
ceeds their expectation ; and the method of doing the
work, and the tools are very superior to the old system.

Sir Thomas Tancred moved the adoption of these
reports. He congratulated the company on its pros-
pects, and hoped the next meeting would be larger. The
company was yet in its infancy, both in the extent of its
work and the benefits it conferred on the public, and on
its own members ; but he trusted it would soon grow
into a perfect stature. He regarded this undertaking
with interest, not merely as a pecuniary investment,
but as a most important agent in the improvement of
agriculture. The time was now come when the agricul-
tural body must avail itself of those powers of combined
capital, intellect, and practical skill, which had worked
such vast results in manufacturing and railway enterprise.
Landlords attempting individually to improve large
estates could often not cope with the complicated diffi-
culties— they were embarrassed for want of capital, or
they had not knowledge of all the operations. It is as
if the Great Western proprietors should make their line,
each working with his own hand. The present position
of agriculture is that of hand-loom weaving before Ark*
wright, and when combined capital and skill can be
applied to cultivation, it may advance in the same de-
gree. The separated efforts of isolated individuals are
altogether powerless ; but by such a comp any as this
they may improve successfully. He took this oppor-
tunity of saying that he was connected with an institu-
tion at Cirencester, which had for its object the improve-
ment of agriculture — the Royal Agricultural College,
chartered by the Crown, and patronised by Prince Albert.
On Easter Monday it would be opened for 100 pupils ;
a gentleman of first-rate scientific acquirements, the Rev.
Mr. Hodgkisson, from Cambridge, had been engaged as
principal, with professors of natural history, chemistry,
and the veterinary art. So great had been the number
of applications for shares and pupils, that the managers
had resolved to double the establishment, and it would
be ready to receive 200 pupils as soon as the building
was completed.

W. Porter, Esq., seconded the motion. On his
own estate he had found benefit from the system.
Where there had been an old fashioned drain thirty
inches deep, small pipes at the depth of four feet six
inches were placed by the assistant engineer, M. Thom-
son ; and so rapid was their effect, that a hole of 3 feet
6 inches, about twelve feet from the drain, which yester-
day morning had two feet of water in it, was in the
evening quite dry — a convincing proof of the efficacy of
the system.

Mr. Parkes wished to guard Mr. Porter against

864

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thinking that in ordinary cases the effect would be so
rapid as had been described. Very often there was a
little inconvenient bank between the water and the
drain, which would require the heat of a whole summer
to crack, before the water could run off. He had
made drains through what seemed to be a light gravelly
soil, and yet within ten feet there would be a bank of
clay under, which would not let the water go. The
results then would not always be so rapid, but they
would be certain.

The resolution was carried unanimously.

S. T. Kekewich, Esq., moved the next resolution,
" that the position of the company is satisfactory and en-
couraging." Knowing the great want of capital both
in landowners and tenants, he wished the company had
funds sufficient to advance money for improvements,
which could be repaid by instalments ; this would in-
duce many people, who wanted capital, to drain very
largely. Sir Thomas had spoken of the advantage of
this system to the landowner and tenant. He would
rather consider its beneficial effect on the industrious
and poor part of our population. The great problem to
be solved in this day for the happiness of the country,
was to find suitable and remunerating employment for
the poorer part of the people. Looking at the vast ex-
tent of uncultivated land in this county, and in the
whole kingdom, which would be so much impi'oved by
draining, he thought if it were properly drained it would
not only give employment to a great number of agricul-
tural labourers, but reward them with cheap food out of
the very land they had been improving. He hoped the
advantages of this company would soon become gene-
rally known, There was no danger in signing the deed
of settlement, because the company was limited in its
operations — could not move when it had no money —
could never speculate.

Mr. Venn, of Uffculme, wished to state the result he
had experienced from draining. He occupied an es-
tate which he had had for 25 years. His predecessor
kept 40 or 50 sheep ; he now kept 300 or 400, and had
never known an unsound sheep among them for the last
ten or a dozen years, except when there was a general
failure, and then his sheep were not more affected than
others upon dry and healthy land. All this had been
done by draining, and he wished the company success.

Mr. Paramore said he was quite satisfied with the
results of the system of this company. His landlord
first gave him leave to have 100 acres drained ; he found
it good, and obtained permission to drain 40 acres
more, and he was only sorry that it was necessary to
drain a great deal more than he thought of before Mr.
Parkes introduced this system. The effect was imme-
diate. The drains stopped running after four or five
days' fine weather a fortnight ago ; in the course of the
night there was a heavy storm of rain, and the next
morning, when he went to the spot, the drain was pour-
ing down at a tremendous rate. He had doubts before
this as to the immediate effect ; he had thought it
would require a hot season or two to break the banks of
earth, and let the water pass ; but now he was con-
vinced.

Mr. Parkes wished to observe that living in London
as he did, and being pretty well occupied with the con-
tinual applications made to him to drain land on his
system, he could not drain small pieces of twenty or
thirty acres without considerable expense ; because if he
did not go himself, he was obliged to send a foreman of
superior skill and ability, as the difficulty of draining a
small piece was sometimes as great as a larger surface.
It would therefore often be impos-ible for the smaller
farmers to avail themselves of his system, were it not
for the assistance of this society — they could neither
have the money, nor the tiles, nor the skill ; and thsy
must be undrained, or they must fall a prey to parties
who pretend to drain, but know nothing about it. The
company had also provided a tilery in the neighbour-
hood— the first step, without which nothing could be
done. Whenever a large proprietor applied to him
(Mr. Parkes), the first thing he did was always to erect a
tilery.

The Chairman said that this very neighbourhood
was indebted to Captain BuUer for a tilery, and he had
known waggons come to Whimi^ole to fetch tiles from as
far as Mamhead. WTiat must be the inconvenience to
those who could not get a tile within 40 or 50 miles ,'
This company would supply the deficiency.

The motion was carried unanimously. —

G. C. HoLROYD, Esq., moved " that interest be paid
on the paid-up capital at the rate of four per cent, per
annum for the half-year ending the 24th of June next,
the surplus profit being reserved till the annual meeting
of September, when the amount of dividend will be
considered." The auditor had carefully gone through
the accounts, and found that this proposition was
justified.

Mr. T. HussEY seconded the resolution. He had no
doubt the sound of this four per cent, would bring up a
good many persons who had been waiting to see if tlie
undertaking would yield a profit.

Mr. Mansford asked how the subscribers would be
situated who had not paid up their calls — how long a
notice would be given tliem ?

It was answered that by the deed of settlement the
five per cent, deposit is imperatively due within two
months, on pain of forfeiture of the shares. Tlie 25th of
March was fixed as the last day for the payment of calls
by subscribers who mean to come in for the dividend at
Midsummer.

A letter was then read from the Earl of Devon, one of
the earliest supporters of the company, expressing his
regret that he could not attend, and his assurance of
continued support.

Letters were also read from Mr. Bradley, land agent,
and others, expressing mucli interest in the undertaking.

Some conversation ensued on the Drainage Bill intro-
duced last session by the Earl of Lincoln. Mr. Hussey
had suggested the insertion of a clause giving the drainer
power to form an outlet through the lower land of his
neighbour, upon paying a fair compensation. The
company, at the recommendation of the Earl of Devon,
had memorialised Sir Robert Peel on the subject, and
Mr. Parkes, who has been engaged in extensive ini-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

865

provements at Drayton Manor, had also brought tlie
matter under his notice in conversation, and exemplified
its necessity by i-eference to Sir Robert's own land ; but
the Premier, having, as Mr. Hussey said, so many
other things to think of, had allowed it to slip his
memory. The Chairman could assure the meeting that
Lord Lincoln's attention had been called to the matter
by Mr. Henry Mules, of Moniton, wlio had been ap-
pointed Secretary to the Inclosure Commission, of which
his lordship was President,

Mr. Kkkewich, however, moved the adoption of a
petition, to be presented to the Lords by Earl Fortescue,

and to the Commons by Lord Courtenay ; which was
resolved.

The business of the meeting being now concluded,
they relapsed into a conversation on the irrigation of fields,
in which Mr. Parkes gave an interesting and instructive
account of his mode of underdraining water meadows, so
as to preserve the healthy moisture of the soil, and regu-
late the supply of water by stopping or opening the out-
falls. He detailed the experiments on Drayton Manor
and Strathfieldsaye with much clearness and precision ;
and the meeting separated, after voting thanks to their
officers and chairman.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

Whether for good or for evil, it is now apparent that
the farmer will have to rely upon his skill in the cul-
tivation of the soil to enable him to meet foreign
competition. The union of " science with practice" will
alone enable him to elevate skill to a high point ; and
the first step in attaining a knowledge of " science" is
to learn its principles. Those principles are most easily
acquired, and most firmly impressed on the mind by the
means of lectures delivered in a plain and familiar style ;
and next to hearing a lecture delivered orally, the
perusal of a lecture, taken down as nearly as possible in
the language in which it was delivered, will be found
most effective. In order, therefore, to afford an op-
portunity more especially to the younger class of our
readers who contemplate as an occupation the cultiva-

tion of the soil, we have made arrangements to give
a report of a series of lectures about to be delivered
by Mr. Nesbitt, the first of which appears below.
Mr. Nesbitt has for many years devoted his time
and talents to the study of the practical application of
chemistry to agriculture. He is the proprietor of an
extensive establishment, in which a large number of
youths are instructed in every branch of education ; but
to those ordinarily taught is superadded instruction in
those sciences which bear upon the practice of agriculture.
We have said thus much in order that our readers may
be acquainted with the source from which these lectures
are obtained ; and we offer this, the first of a series, as
a sample of the bulk, being content to leave the quality
of the article to recommend it.

AGRICULTURAL AND SCIENTIFIC TRAINING SCHOOL,

KENNINGTON LANE, LAMBETH, NEAR LONDON.

LECTURE ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE.

Lecture I.

BY J. C. NESBIT, ESa., F.G.S., M.C.S.L., &C.

Nature of chemical science— Number of elementary l)odieR— Substances found in aninijl andvopetable bodies— Organic and inorganic
—Nature of manures— Manures are those substances wliich aiv capable of furnishing to plants the elements necessary for
their growth— Farm-yard dung, bones, &c.

Gentlemen, — In commencing a course of agricultural
chemistry I shall endeavour in this, the preliminary
lecture, to give you a short and condensed view of the
nature of the science, and the advantages which may
be derived by agriculturists from the application of
the truths of chemistry to the cultivation of the soil.
Many of you are aware that within the last few years
the application of chemistry to agriculture has much
increased; audit is satisfactory to behold, on every
side, farmers paying more attention to that important
aid than they used to do. I shall now, without
further introduction, enter upon the subject of the lec-
ture.

You are made aware of the facts of chemical science
by studying nature ; asking questions, as it were, of

her, and receiving answers. And it is by collecting
these answers, and adding to them by putting
other enquiries, that the whole results of chemical
science are brought within view. We ask a question
when we make an experiment, and the result is the
answer ; and by varying the interrogations, and putting
them first in one shape and then in another, we have
the truth fairly brought out.

By experiments repeated thousands of times,
and in a vast variety of forms, chemists have dis-
covered that the world we inhabit, and all the vegeta-
bles and animals it contains, are made up of from fifty-
six to sixty elementary principles of matter which
diflTer from one another in their properties. Of these
the greater portion consists of metals, such as iron,

866

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

silver, and gold, and also such substances as sulphur and
phosphorus, and many others. These substances are
all elementary, differing essentially from each other ;
and they make up the whole of the mineral, vegetable,
and animal kingdoms. But many of them are exceed-
ingly scarce, being found only in very rare localities ;
some only in places where vast volcanic heat has been
in operation ; some in other localities where circum-
stances have caused them to be brought up from the
extreme recesses of the earth. The great bulk of the
earth is composed of from twelve to fourteen of these
elements, which are found in large abundance all over
the world, in the water, air, and the earth ; and it is
with these substances, few in number, and with pro-
perties easily learned, that the farmer particulaily has
to do.

We find the earth is composed chiefly of a substance
called oxygen. Tiiis body constitutes nearly half the
weight of all earthy matter, nearly eight-ninths the
weight of water, and one-fifth the bulk of air. It is
found in all vegetables and animals ; and it is, there-
fore, evident that a knowledge of such a substance
must be very useful to agriculturists ; and the same
remark applies to other substances which are found
to exist in vegetables.

It is my Intention, in the lectures which I shall have
the honour of delivering before you, to proceed, one
by one, to the consideration of all those bodies which
are found in vegetables — to present to your notice,
time after time, a variety of substances, together with
their properties, which are most usel'ul to the farmer.

The substances which are found in every soil capa-
ble of bearing crops, and which seem essential to that
object, mny be shortly enumerated. We find, invaria-
bly, alumina, which is the base of clay ; lime, which
is the oxide of calcium ; magnesia, which is the oxide of
magnesium ; potash, which is the oxide of potassium;
soda, which is the oxide of sodium ; manganese, iron ;
silica, which is pure sand ; phosphoric acid, which
is the acid of bones ; sulphuric acid, which is a union of
brimstone and oxygen ; and chorine, which is the base
of spirits of salt. These substances are to be
found, in greater or less proportions, in all soils; and
upon the presence, in sufficient ciuantitics, of five or
six of them depends tlie power of tlie land to produce
crops. If we examine any vegetable, we find that it
generally contains the whole of these substances, with
the exception of alumina and manganese. There is a
little dispute at present as to whether alumina is taken
up by plants, because it is detected in the ashes in
such minute quantities as to induce chemists to sup-
pose that it proceeds from that portion of the soil
which adheres to the plant which is examined. But
manganese does certainly enter into some vegetables,
but it does not seem to be essential to their growth.

If we take a vegetable substance, such as wood, and
make it red hot, we see it diminish in bulk ; and if
flame be continued, and air admitted, it will con-
tinue to diminish in bulk until a white ash only re-
mains, the quantity of ash varying according to
the kind of wood ignited. The parts which have

burned away are called organic parts ; whilst those
which are left are termed inorganic.

Organic matter is that which forms part of an organ,
or performs a function in the animal or vegetable king-
dom ; and in this view the earthy salts are organic,
because they form parts of organs. But, by general
consent, the term organic is now confined to
those substances wliich burn away at a red heat, and
inorganic to those which are left ; we will, therefore,
adopt the significatiouj and use the terms as thus de-'
fined.

As I told you, the ash which remains after burn-
ing is inorganic; and it must have been derived from
the land which produced it, being earthy in its own
nature. And when we come to examine it by analysis,
we find that the ash contains exactly those substances
which we have mentioned as existing in the land, viz.,
lime, magnesia, iron, potash, soda, silica, phosphoric
acid, &c.

That these substances have very gre;it influence
over the growth of plants, and are necessary for such
growth, maybe proved by a few considerations arising
out of the nature of vegetables in general. If we
examine those bodies which can grow on what are
called barren soils, we shall find that they take out a
very small portion of the substances of the land; and
in proportion as you come to the plants on which the
greatest amount of culture is bestowed, j'ou come to
those that require an increased amount of the inor-
ganic substances which make up the soil. You are all
aware that the pine or fir will grow on a sandy plain,
on a barren heath, on the top of a mountain, or in the
fissure of a rock ; where a scanty nourishment may be
procured. But the wood of the fir will not yield more
tlian one-half per cent, of ash ; that is to say, if you
burn lOOlbs. weight of the wood, you will not get more
than from 5 to 7 ounces of ash. Take, on the other
hand, the oak ; it will not grow on a sandy soil, but
delights in a cluy soil. Those who are acquainted
with tlie geology of the south-east of England will re-
member the slii) of clay land called the " gault,'' which
lies immediately under the chalk hills of Kent and
Surrey. Tlie line of this gault clay may be observed
for miles by the number of oak trees which grow on it
with great luxuriance. It may be observed very well
in going by tlie South Eastern Railway, just as we
have passed through the last tunnel between London ,j,
and Ryegttc. In the weald clays of Kent and Sussex 9{
these trees grow in great abundance. Now, if we take ^
the wood of the oak, the per centage of ash is much
greater than in the case of the fir ; out of lOOlbs. of
wood burned, more than 21bs. of ash may be obtained.
Taking next wheat, we find that thestraw of this plant,
upon which the farmer is obliged to bestow great pains,
takes 7i per cent, out of the land, and the ear 2^ per
cent. If we go farther and turn to another descrip-
of crop, which some farmers are in the habit of culti-
vating with a great deal of pains, and expending upon
it more trouble and capital than upon anything else —
the hop — we find another singular thing, namely, that
the proportion of inorganic matter taken from the land

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

367

is much increased. In an analysis of tlie Farnliain
hops I found they afforded as much as 10 per cent, of
ash ; and your fellow pupils, Messrs. Allen and Green-
hill, who have just completed an analysis of some
hops from Mr. Kippinsr, of Hadlow, Kent, find them
to contain the enormous amount of 15 percent, of ash.

I wish to point out to you the vast importance of
this inorganic matter. If you look to nature in the
widest view, you will see that these inorganic sub-
stances, which some persons declare to be of no use,
are most seviceable, in fact invaluable ; and that with-
out their presence in sufficient quantity, certain plants
cannot grow. The reason why the oak will not grow
where the fir prospers, is, that there is not a sufficient
number of substances in the soil, rendered soluble by
the rains, to supply each year the inorganic matter to
the oak, though there may be enough for the fir; and
to furnish the inorganic matters for wheat, hops,
and other crops, requires the aid and assistance of man.
You must remember that the plant absorbs the matter
in a state of solution, and not mechanically. With
respect to the organic parts of the plants, they are de-
rived from the air.

I shall now take into consideration the nature of
farm-yard manures. These are substances found by
experience to be beneficial to the growth of plants;
and we shall see if wc cannot trace the sources of these
manures, and in so tracing them discover the reason
why they are useful. Take that, then, which constitutes
good farm-yard dung. How is it made ? It is made
by mixing the urine and excrements of cattle
with straw and hay and other fodder, and allow-
ing the whole mixture to undergo a chemical action,
a sort of fermentation. After fermentation has pro-
ceeded, the farm-yard manure is deposited in the land,
aTid it is invariably found that for all crops it is bene-
ficial ; there are substances in it which tend to in-
crease the growth of plants, when placed within
reach of the roots. Let us see where they come from.
Has the animal any means of producing them by some
means or other of manufacture ? We know that such
is not the case. An animal, whether a cow or a horse,
in order to sustain life, eats vegetable food ; well, the
vegetables, after undergoing a variety of processes in
the animal's body, are ejected at last, and when ex-
amined, a discovery will be made of what has been
taken away in the internal process. A full-grown
horse, which feeds on hay, beans, and oats, consumes
none of tlie inorganic matter of its food. The horse has
to sustain its own animal heat, and to repair the daily
waste of its muscles, by the application of some sub-
stance similar in its composition to the muscles. Now,
there are certain principles contained in the food which
go to supply these and other wants : the gluten, for
example, goes to replace the muscles ; and certain com-
binations of carbon, such as starch and sugar, go to
afford the heat — in fact they are burned and consumed
to afford the animal heat. The same thing takes place
in a horse as in a fire-place. When you put coals on a
fire, you perceive that heat is given out, certain vapours
are carried up the chimney ; and if more coals be not

added, nothing will remain but earthy matter which
will not burn, with the mixture of a little organic
matter. The same thing takes place with the horse
as with the fire : the animal requires each day a cer-
tain quantity of vegetable food ; this is consumed in
the body by the air taken in by the lungs, and the
vitiated bad air is breathed oat, in the form
of carbonic acid gas. In the excrements are
contained all the inorganic matter, and likewise cer-
tain organic substances partially acted upon, such,
for instance, as the woody fibre. Thus the excrements
of the horse and other cattle, which we find to be use-
ful, are merely vegetable substances, but with some por-
tion of the organic matter taken away. It has also to
be remarked that the manure of young growing animals
differs from that of the full-grown animal ; the rea-
son is, that, in the case of the young, certain inorganic
or earthy substances have to go to form their bones,
such as the phosphates of lime and magnesia. It has,
therefore, become anaxiam, that the dung of young
stock is not so valuable as that of full-grown animals ;
the dung of the cow giving milk is, also, not so rich as
that from full-grown stock, because a considerable por-
tion of inorganic matter is taken away in the milk.
With the exception then of what is required for the
sustenance of the body of growing animals, the inor-
ganic substances of the food is expelled in the form
of urine and excrement.

With respect to the straw which is used to mix with
the excrements, we know that it grows in the soil, and
we have seen that the excrements are produced from
vegetable substances ; both, therefore, are derived from
the same source — the soil ; the animal receiving its
nourishment from the vegetables, and the plants de-
riving nourishment from the laud and the air.

Wc will now inquire whether the vegetable sub-
stances are aJi equally valuable for manure, or whether
some of them are not more valuable than others. With
respect to inorganic substances, remember that those
plants which take a great amount out of the land will
be more valuable for manure than those substances
which derive most of their sustenance from the air ;
thus a hundred -weight of hops is more valuable for
manure than the same weight of pine wood, of oak, or
even of wheat straw. There are some chemists, how-
ever, who contend that the organic portion of the
manure is of the most value. Boussingault, the French
agricultural chemist, estimates the value of manures
by the amount of nitrogen or ammonia which they
contain. In this opinion I do not coincide; and I
wish to direct your attention to one fiict which bears
out my view as to the extreme value of inorganic
matter. If you allow manure to rot, it gets dissi-
pated, as it were. The change arises in this way:
when the mass is wet with the excrements of animals,
fermentation takes place ; the oxygen of the air forms
combinations with the organic portions of the manure,
which fly off in the form of gases and vapours.
Great heat attends the action, and if the farmer does
not understand how to temper the heat, there is
danger of the manure heap taking fire. Now, what

868

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

process has been going on? Why you have been
diminishing that portion of the manure whicli was
derived from the air. And is it not singular also
that, weight for weight, the remainder is more valu-
able than the recent dung ?

Market gardeners are well acquainted with the
pi'operties of this old dung. These men carry
farming to the highest pitch, and succeed in
obtaining five or six crops a-year by the use of old
manure. You see, therefore, that the value does not
rest in the organic portion of the manure so much as
in the inorganic. I will admit, and wish it to be dis-
tinctly understood, that organic matter may be useful ;
still r wish you to understand that it has by no means
the value which is sometimes ascribed to it ; but that
it is possible to grow plants on soils containing no
organic matter. However, all the organic matter on
a farm should be carefully collected ; for when you
have access, it is well to use it. In organic manure,
the nitrogen, the most valuable part, may always be
prevented from escaping by the action of various che-
mical substances, such as the sulphate of lime and oil
of vitriol. But I wish to show you that inorganic ma-
nure is capable of producing everything necessary
for the growth of plants.

The volcanic mountain of Vesuvius pours out occa-
sionally vast massesof melted lava in a red-hot state.
Upon tlie lava, after it has cooled for some years
and got disintegrated (it is not very solid, but a kind of
scoria or dross), the inhabitants of the district are en-
abled to grow crops of wheat, without the application
of any manure. The way they do is tiiis : — a crop of
wheat Is taken first; then seeds are put in for two
years, and then wheat again : thus there is a crop of
wheat every third year. Another example is that of
the cutters of Heidelberg, who have the privilege ol'
cutting down the underwood of the forests every
twenty years. This they burn, covering the soil
with the inorganic matter. They then sow wheat,
and reap it, receiving in this way a crop of wheat
every twenty years, by the application of the inor-
ganic matters collected by the brushwood from the
soil in nineteen years.

Now with respect to virgin soils, what are they?
Merely accumulations year after year of rich in-
organic matter. Plants have lived and died on
the same spot for ages ; and, consequently, no in-
organic matter has been by them removed from
the soil. They have, in fact, been accumulating it
from the depths of the soil, and bringing it to
the surface. If you look to some of the marshes
of the Thames, you will find that crops are raised
without the application of manure of any kind.
Many of these marshes are newly formed land, having
been covered by rivers for thousands of years.

In the cases of the virgin soils of Virginia and
other places on the American continent, we have
warning examples of how the finest soils may be de-
teriorated by the constant removal of the inorganic
ingredients, unattended with a corresponding sup-
ply in the shape of manure. These lands, once the

most fertile in the world, for nearly 180 years grew
wheat and tobacco year after year witliout manure.
Tiie whole of these crops were either exported alto-
gether from the country, or, at all events, none of the
materials withdrawn ever found their way back to the
land. Tlie boasted fertility of these regions is now
no more ; and except in some favoured spots here and
there, you can grow no crops without an abundant
expenditure of manure.

I will give you other instances. Take the case of
bones. These are derived from the vegetables on
which the animal is fed ; and the vegetables in tura
derive the substances of which the bones are formed
from the land on which they grow, because in all
good soils bone-dust is to be found. Until recently
the custom was to pay no attention to bones, and to
allow Ihem to be scattered as chance might direct;
but it has been discovered that bone-dust by itself
produces amazing effects in fertilizing the soil. How
can this arise? Surely from nothing else than by
merely supplying the soil with an inorganic substance.
Some may tell us that the effect is produced by gela-
tine; but this view is exploded by the circumstance
tliat burnt bones will produce more effect than those
which possess the gelatine. It is therefore not the
organic matter, but the inorganic which produces such
effects; and it acts by affording a certain amount of
one substance of which thp soil is, in general, the
most in need ; for owing to the fact that phosphate
of lime and magnesia (bone-dust) is only found in
any soil in small proportions, and owing to the uni-
versal habit of mankind to inter the bones of their
species in portions of the earth set apart for the
purpose, most soils are more deficient in bone-dust
than in any of the inorganic constituents of plants.
The application of bone-dust is therefore only an en-
deavour to repay a debt of long standing. Then there
are the nitrates of soda and potash, which are used
largely as manures, and amazing results have in many
eases been produced. This can be assigned to no
other cause than that these manures supply a sub-
stance which the plants require. But those who are
so void of a knowledge of chemistry as to suppose that
the same beneficial results will arise from a continued
application of the same manure, will be wofully
ceived. Once it may prove useful; but on a second
and tliird application it may prove of no avail.
Some persons call these manures stimulants. The
term is improper. Manures cannot stimulate the
plant; but they can supply its wants.

Another substance which is used largely is the sulphate
of ammonia, and it has been found to be of very great
utility ; and the circumstance is adduced by the ad-
vocates of organic manures as a conclusive argument
for the employment of organic in preference to inor-
ganic matter. But this cannot with effect be ad-
duced as an argument. It has been proved that
unless you have inorganic matter, plants will not
take the organic : unless you have phosphates, the
plants will not lake up the nitrogen. Unless you
have the potassa or soda, they will not absorb the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3C0

carbon. Thus, in artificial sterile soils, where there
were no phosphates, &c., the plants would not come
to maturity. Bone-dust does not contain all the in-
gredients which the plants require, nor do the ni-
trates of soda and potash. If, therefore, the farmer
expects that his plants, which retiuire eight or ten
different inorganic ingredients, will long continue to
thrive if he supplies them with but one or two, he
will be much mistaken.

"We may be asked, How does the sulphate of ammo-
nia act ? I will tell you. That substance possesses great
power in disintegrating rocks ; for while the carbonic
acid of the air acts upon the silicates of potash and soda
in the rocks, and makes them soluble, the ammonia
brought down by the rains acts upon the phosphates, and
renders them soluble.

If you take a quantity of the insoluble phosphate of
lime, and act upon it with sulphate of ammonia, a cer-
tain amount of the phosphoric acid is rendered soluble.
In proof of this, I may adduce an experiment made
some months since in our laboratory. A quantity of
soil was washed ten or a dozen times with boiling dis-
tilled water, until all the soluble matters were removed :
it was then acted upon with a dilute solution of sulphate
of ammonia, and after three or four days the clear liquor
was carefully tiltered from the soil. The liquid was
evaporated to dryness, and heated red hot in a platinum
capsule to drive off the ammonia. The residue on the
capsule was found to contain peroxide of iron and phos-
phoric acid.

The probable action of sulphate of ammonia in the
soil is, that by its aid an additional amount of the phos-
phates (bone-earth) is rendered soluble, and that the
liberated phosphates and a portion of the ammonia are
taken up by the roots of the plant. If this view be cor-
rect, the application of ammoniacal manures will answer
the best in the presence of abundance of bone-earth ; and
if the bone-earth be absent from the soil, thpy will not
be beneficial.

The following tables will show the component parts
of a good fertile soil from Norfolk, and likewise the
inorganic matter of farm-yard dung, and some varieties
of cultivated plants. A comparison will at once show
the reason of the utility of farm-yard dung. The dung
' was oilcake fed : —

ANALYSIS OF A SOIL OF NORFOLK. BY DR. LYON
PLAYFAIR.

Organic matter 2*43

Hydrate water 2'60

Silica 81-26

Alumina 358

Lime 1-28

Magnesia 1'12

Potash 0-80

Soda 1-50

Common salt a trace

Sulphuric acid 0-09

Phosphoric acid 0"38

Carbonic acid 0'92

Peroxide of iron. . , . . . 3'41

Loss on analysis 0'63

ANALYSES OF THE INORGANIC MATTERS CONTAINED
IN FARM YARD DUNG, AND IN SEVERAL KINDS OF
PLANTS.

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I have now entered to some extent into the subject
before us. I have explained to you the nature of the
application of chemistry to the cultivation of land, and I
think I have placed the subject in such a light as to
show you that many of the truths discovered by science
may be applied to the art of agriculture. Agriculture
may ask questions, but it cannot give answers ; it be-
longs to the science of agriculture to answer the ques-
tions which the art may put. I have no doubt that,
when the English farmer comes to know the results of
science, and is enabled to avail himself of them, he may
bid defiance to the competition of all the foreigners
in the world.

In the subsequent lectures we shall consider in detail

370

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the properties of the different elementary bodies which
are found in plants ; and I hope that, after having goiif'
through them one by one, and taken a grand view of the
whole as met with in the field and in the farm-yard, we
shall be able to see in how many ways the farmer may
take advantage of the assistance which chemistry affords,
in saving and properly applying his manures, in suiting
diflferent kinds for different crops, and in reaping all the
pecuniary benefits which a proper cultivation of the soil
deserves.

THE CORN MARKETS OF EUROPE.

1. Russia will be, according to all appearances, com-
pelled to import rye, barley, and oats, through its ports
on the Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. 2. East Prussia
will also be compelled to import the same kinds of
grain ; but, on the other hand, it will be able to export
wheat through its ports of Danzig, Elbing, and Konigs-
berg. 3. Sweden and Norway will stand in need of a
large quantity of rye and barley, and some wheat; and,
seeing the deficiency of their harvest of oats, they will
only be able to export a small quantity this year. 4.
The countries adjoining the upper part of the Weser will
probably require much rye and other descriptions of
grain. 5. Holland and Belgium are at present well
provided ; but the corn and potato crop having been vei'y
indifferent in these two densely populated countries, no
doubt is entertained that they will, ere long, be seen re-
sorting to our markets to supply their wants. 6. The
north of France will be perhaps still compelled to make
demands abroad, but they cannot be very considerable.
7. The necessities of England seem to present the
greatest interest in this question ; Scotland and the
north and west of England had a very deficient harvest
(last year), and the complaints of the rottenness of the
potatoes are general ; it hence seems inevitable that
England will be compelled to purchase large supplies of
grain abroad. As regards the exporting countries, we
believe we may state what follows : — 1st, Archangel, for
rye and oats, whose first supplies, however, cannot
reach us before July and August ; 2nd, Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, Holstein, and Denmark ; these countries
had an abundant harvest, of which, however, the greater
portion has been already exported, and the stores of rye
and yellow peas are already much reduced ; 3d, Switzer-
land, as we have said, will only export a few oats ; 4th,
East Prussia will only be able to supply corn ; 5th, the
ports of the Elbe and East Friesland will export some
corn, but especially oats and beans ; 6th, the supplies
that will arrive from the Black Sea and the Mediterra-
nean are stated to be very considerable ; meanwhile, it is
doubtful whether they can exceed those of preceding
years ; seeing that in the circumjacent countries, as for
instance in Egypt and Southern Russia, the last harvest
has been barren. The following view of the estimated
exportation in the harvest of 1845, from the ports of

the Baltic and the Black Sea, in the north, will show the
robable deficiency of this year, compared with the
average years :

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The exportation of the harvest of 1845 amounts alto-
gether at present to about 30,000 lasts of corn, 22,000
of rye, 30,000 of barley, and 18,000 of oats; hence
there remain to be imported from the last harvest
41,800 lasts of corn, 17,000 of rye, 33,000 of barley,
and 12,600 of oats. — Giornale del Lloyd Austriaco.

TENANT-RIGHT. — The subject of tenant-right
was discussed by the members of the Probus Farmers'
Club at their two last monthly meetings, and they were
unanimous in the following resolution : — " That it is the
opinion of the Probus Farmers' Club that the very im-
portant subject of tenant-right, so ably discussed at the
London Farmers' Club-House in December last, is
worthy the consideration and support of all landowners
and occupiers of land in the United Kingdom."

I

i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

371

AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir, — At no former period of our national history
have the friends and followers of agriculture been
more intensely and laudably engaged in the study
of this important concern than at the present time.
It is so intimately connected with the general pros-
perity of the realm, that it is more than ever become
a national affair, particularly interesting, not only
to those who depend upon the successful prosecu-
tion of the business for their livelihood, but all
other classes of the community. Its improvement
is, therefore, a matter of the greatest importance ;
more especially as some political economists assert
that this country cannot grow corn enough for its
own consumption. On the other hand, this assertion
is confidently denied by other statistians, v/ho have
the best means of arriving at a sound and rational
opinion on the subject. In fact, there can be no
doubt of the validity of the latter opinion, provided
that the powers of the soil were judiciously and
generally caUed forth ; and hence the present ex-
traordinary exertions now making to bring about
this desirable result. To render Britain indepen-
dent of foreign countries for the chief article of the
people's food is "a consummation devoutly to be
mshed;" and that such a happy circumstance
is within the bounds of practicability, no one
thoroughly acquainted with the subject can rea-
sonably deny. It is true that there are difficulties
in the way of accomplishing this momentous
object, the chief of which is the want of adequate
funds. Unluckily, all the contemplated improve-
ments are, in the first place, expensive ; and when
both landlords and tenants are poor, it is scarcely
to be expected that improvements requiring a heavy
outlay of money will be carried out by such persons,
whose views of ample returns are only prospective.
In these cases, the legislature has been moved to
lend assistance, by giving liberty to possessors of
entailed estates to lay the burden of such advances
upon their successors, who are most likely to benefit
from permanent improvements executed by their
predecessor. And the tenantry have been en-
couraged to farm Avith more spirit, either by having
leases granted, or by a new law which compels the
landlord to reimburse a quitting tenant for all per-
manent improvements made during his tenure, and
which he leaves to his successor.

These improvements are chiefly thorough draining,
or other means of improving the staple of the land.

by liming, marling, or by ploughing-in extraordi-
nary dressings of purchased manure, or by keep-
ing and feeding a numerous head of live stock ; all
which are expensive undertakings, and which a
tenant with limited means cannot accomplish. And
yet it is said, that, unless such a spirited style of
farming be adopted, and universally carried out,
the agriculture of the country will remain stationary.
Some projectors, in addition to the above particu-
lars, suggest some harsh inquisitorial measures,
which they maintain are absolutely necessary in
order to insure the result above alluded to, namely,
rendering ourselves independent of foreign supplies.
In the first place, they advise that no man should be
allowed to rent a farm, unless he can show, for the
satisfaction of the landlord, that he actually
possesses a sufficient capital to begin with. Next,
that any tenant who farms badly in consequence
of a want of capital, should be compelled to give
up a part or the whole of the farm to a more fortu-
nate tenant. Lastly, all sluggards and unskilful
tenants should be driven from their holdings with-
out mercy, as they are only drones who occupy
stations which should be filled by more able and
industrious men.

If such regulations could be voluntarily intro-
duced, although they would be a sweeping inter-
ference with the hitherto steady and moderate un-
speculating proceedings of the generality of
husbandmen, yet it is impossible to deny, that such
an impulse given to the practitioners and the prac-
tice of farming, would certainly be productive of a
vast accession of agricultural wealth. Because, if
every farmer now struggling with adversity were
sufficiently assisted ; were eveiy acre of his farm
thoroughly drained and subsoiled, if necessary;
were his old cumbrous hedge-banks levelled, and
freed from useless pollard trees; were he supplied
with every necessary implement, and every out-
building necessary for rearing and fattening live
stock, his annual returns, in most cases, would
certainly be doubled ; and then would be realized
the flattering dream, that England might be an
exporting rather than an importing country.

A national draining system is the most prac-
ticable and most rational scheme for improving
agriculture that can be devised.

There are tens of thousands of acres in this
country, at the present moment, which are too wet

372

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

either for the gro\vth of corn, or healthy jiasturage.
Many of tlie richest tracts are deteriorated l)y the
abundance of weeds, rushes, horse-tail, sow-thistle,
and colt's-foot, all luxuriating in consequence of a
want of drainage ; a defect, though well known to
the tenant, is suiFered to exist, merely from a want
of a little geological science. "There is no apparent
outlet" is the excuse of ignorance, although a
swallow might be found within a few yards which
would lay a considerable portion of a wet field per-
fectly dry.

The advantages of efficient drainage are manifold;
no plant, except aquatics, can tlirive in soil satu-
rated with water, air being as necessary to the roots
of plants as it is to their stems and foliage ; but
where water abounds air cannot enter, and conse-
quently no healthy vegetation is produced. Well
drained land is also easier and more eiFectually
cultivated. No land can be properly stirred by the
plough, or other implement, unless it is free from an
excess of moisture; and waiting till the ground is dry
enough often occasions the loss of a season which
never can be the case on efficiently drained land.
Besides, not only is dry soil warmer, but the air
immediately over it is warmer also; which combined
circumstances accelerate the growth, as well as ma-
turity of the plant.

The next most important and practicable expe-
dient which the present race of British farmers can
have recourse to for enriching their land, increasing
their crops, and enlarging their profits, is by a con-
stant endeavour to increase the numbers of their
flocks and herds, and to adopt such a rotation of
cropping as will admit of a frequent repetition of
green crops for the purpose of soiling, and stall-
feeding live stock. This would enable the tenant
to make at home great quantities of the ])est manure,
and render unnecessary the purchase of costly fer-
tilizers, now so highly puffed up. lliis plan of
increasing the fertility of his land, and enhancing
the value of his crops, is so obvious, that no argu-
ments are required in support of such a style of
farming. Nor can any doubt be entertained but
that such a style would be adopted generally, unless
a want of funds |'and suitable buildings prevented
the attempt ; and, wherever such disabilities exist,
the tenant is assuredly in fetters, and can neither
do justice to himself nor to his countrj'.

Relative to the condition of farmers as a distinct
class of British society, much may be observed ;
many of them are opulent and thriving men, aris-
ing either from their command of money, or from
their being luckily situate on a naturally rich farm
at an easy rent, and where the local burdens are also
light; or it may be from their personal skill, and
indefatigable industry in business. Any of these
incidents will serve to advance some individuals

aboA'e their fello-ws ; \vhile a want of these favouring
circumstances, will dejiress others into that state in
which a great majority of farmers find themselves
placed at the present time, namely, labouring dili-
gently, but finding difficulty to farm without suffer-
ing actual lor.s. There is one obvious and striking
anomaly observable in comparing the condition of
the farmer with that of tradesmen who are employed
in the manufacture of his raw material. For, while
the maltsters, the distillers, the brewers, and publi-
cans, have all magnificent establishments, and are
thriving people, and while the millers, bakers, and
butchers are all carrying on lucrative businesses,
as enhanced during the late war, the producers of
the raw material have a struggle to make the
amounts of their receipts and expenditure fairly to
meet at the year's end. This, however, is easily
accounted for : middlemen can take care of them-
selves, by entering into no doubtful or iincertain
transactions, and by recharging with a profit the
prime cost of their commodities. But this is not
so with the farmer, who can l3ut seldom charge
what hi's corn or cattle cost him ; the market value
being aflected by foreign as well as home competi-
tion. In this case one thing is endent, namely,
that in our social system there is a want of a just
balance in the relative value of goods and services ;
for why should the farmer not have a reasonable
share of the jirofits accruing from the manufacture
of his produce ? The fact is, the burdens laid upon
the land and its cultivators are out of all proportion
to those borne by the other classes of the commu-
nity ; because these last, being mostly middlemen,
who, as already observed, can, by countercharging,
take care of themselves. The hea\y duties laid on
malt, hops, beer, and spirits, depress the price of
barley, &c. ; so that it may be reasonably averred,
that no inconsiderable share of these duties are in-
directly paid by the farmer : the poor, church, and
county rates, as well as the highway duties, are all
leviable on the tenant ; and though all these, as well
as tithes, are said to be considered as parts of the
rent on taking or leasing a farm, still they are op-
pressive as being often called for before the crops
on which they are payable are carried to market.
In hiring a farm, therefore, it behoves an offering
tenant to have his eyes open to these particulars
before closing a bargain.

In the present unsettled state of British agricul-
ture, it will require a long-sighted, calculating head
to determine what conditions to stipulate for in
leasing a farm. A well digested system of corn-
rents vnW probably be found the most equitable
and most satisfactory to the contracting parties.
Certainly, as to what may be the condition of Bri-
tish farmers and British farming five years hence,
it is impossible to foretell ; for it is more than pro'

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

373

bable that our ])orts will, Ijy that tiiiie, be partiiiUy
or entirely open to foreign corn ; and then it will
be seen whether our markets will be glutted with
foreign supplies. And then also it will appear how
far the latter will supersede that of home growth,
and what activity our open markets will give to
foreign agriculture, and consequent advance in fo-
reign prices, and extra charges of freight, &c. All
the changes consequent upon any alteration of the
corn laws must first be kno\\'n, before any correct
estimate can be made of the value of a farm in this
country ; and, indeed, it Avill not be till this disturb-
ance of the corn and other markets settles do\vn
again into something like regularity, that any time
bargains can be entered into between landlords and
tenants.

Ma.iiy Leaguers are of ojjinion that the proposed
modification of the corn law will very much reduce
the price of bread. The price of wheat may be
reduced ; but that is no reason that bread shall
be reduced also : the price of wheat, which includes
rent and all costs of cultivation, enters but a very
little way into the price of bread ; the expenses of
the miller and baker constituting — say at the pre-
sent time — nearly seven-ninths of the cost of a 4lb.
loaf; and which, with the freight added, will apply
to wheat of foreign, as well as that of home growth.
In fact, there is no knowing what mil be the effects
of the contemplated alterations until they are fairly
in operation. A two years' trial must first be ex-
perienced, before the British farmer will know what
to be about. James Main.

LECTURES ON AGRICULTURE.

It is now no longer a question if farming shall
have its " leaning-post of protection" to depend
upon, or if it should be followed as a scientific pur-
suit— an inquiry into nature's secret ways of pro-
ducing sustenance for animals.

The lukewarmness and apathetic feeling on the
part of farmers to learn or listen to a display of na-
tures's wondrous ways in the mineral and vegetable
kingdoms was never more evinced than it has been
by the farmers of Hants and Surrey during the past
month, when the Mechanics' Institutions of Ando-
ver and Farnham engaged Mr. Lance, of Bagshot,
to deliver to them two lectures on the sciences re-
lating to agriculture, and invited the farmers of
each district to attend these lectures ; but such
was tlieir little desire to know, that but few would
go across the road, much less pay a small contribu-
tion to an institution, for the purpose of being in-
formed anything about farming, the remarks being,
" they did not want to know anything beneath the
depth of the plough" — " if anything more could be
found out about farming, it would have been found
out long enough before this time" — "I know
enough about farming already" — " don't know
how to get rid of my barley" — " got too many tur-
nips as it is — what use is it to know how to get
more ?" &c., &c.

The manufacturer or the artist in any trade, who
has to compete wth the world, seeks for informa-
tion of how he can increase production, save labour,
and learn causes— the why, and the wherefore.

In the commercial, mining, and manufacturing
districts, farmers are not so generally satisfied mth
their o^vn capacities ; for, in the north. Professor
Johnston, of Durham, who is a geologist and a
chemist, is constantly employed amongst the Scotch

I farmers giving information on these subjects ; and
in Cornwall and South Wales, where mines abound,
a superior race of farmers exists, for there are to be
found many farmers' clubs, and a spirit of inquiry
is abroad ; lecturers are appreciated, attended, and
warmly entertained.

These remarks are made in consequence of the
little attention paid by farmers in general to any
book learning or theoretical information, although
science is the interpreter of successful as well as
unsuccessful practice.

Tlie lectures that have been offered to the far-
mers could do no other than give them information,
certainly could not take from them anything that
they already knew.

On the subject of geology, the lecturer described
the surface of England, and its division into hiU and
vale, the soils on these being in accordance ■with
the stratification beneath; that one district of coun-
try was famed for one sort of production, and ano-
ther range of soil or strata yielded a different pro-
duct. The varied nature of soils was pointed out,
and what constituted the difference between a fer-
tile and a sterile one : the structure of the rich allu-
vial soils on the banks of rivers was explained and
shown by analysis, and that it was the business of
farmers to imitate these rich soils by adding the
simple inorganic matters of which their soils might
be deficient. This lecture was elucidated by Knipe's
new geological map of England, with also sections
and drawings of the order of strata in different
parts. Specimens of agricultural soils were shown,
aiTanged from the tertiary beds near London to the
primitive ranges of rocks at the Land's End, Corn-
wall ; these soils went to show that in general the
surface was in accordance with the rocks beneath.

2 B

374

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The lecture on the chemistry of agriculture
])ointefl out the minute parts of soils, and their iden-
tification with the component parts of vegetables,
the analysis of each being in agreement ; for unless
phosphate and magnesian lime exists in a soil,
wheat cannot be grown with success, and that
wheats will vary in their character and quality from
the mineral and chemical nature of the soil. The
components of air and water was pointed out, and
their uses in the structure of vegetables, and as a
media for the conveyance of extraneous manures to
the mouths of vegetables. The varied quahties of
manures were pointed out, and that one kind was
used by vegetable life for the formation of stem and
straw, and that another food went to build up blos-
som, corn, and fruit. The structure of bread-corn
was dwelt on by the lecturer as being a subject of
vital importance at the present time, in consequence
of a question arising as to the propriety and ne-
cessity of foreign corn being imported into this
country. The qualities of wheat were shown to
arise from various causes, viz., the mineral struc-
ture and components of soil, the chemical nature
of the manures, and the degrees of latitude or cli-
mate. The division of wheat-Hour into gluten and
starch was pointed out, the former being the mac-
caroni of the Italians, and the latter the stitFener of
the laundress. The quality of wheat and of flour
varied in \'alue from the proportions of these in-
gredients. The price of foreign corn is often higher
than the best English because of its quality, the de-
mand being for the miller to mix it with the weak
starchy wheat grown in this country. It has been
said that the same excuse does not hold good with
respect to wheat as it does for wool, viz., that the
fine wools of Germany are wanted to work off and
occasion a demand for English coarse wool in the
markets of the world ; that foreign wheat is not
wanted here. But this is not the fact ; a late and
wet harvest in England occasions the more neces-
sity for a foreign admixture. The Russian (Odessa),
Sicihan, Italian, and the south of France wheats have
a larger proportion of gluten in their structure ; this
is the " proof," and the absorbing quality so de-
sired by the baker; some of this wheat contains 31
per cent, of gluten, whereas some of the winter
grown Enghsh corn will contain only 19 per cent,
according to the analysis of Davy. It may, there-
fore, be concluded that soil, food, and climate, are
all naturally combined in the south of Europe to
make the strong wheats, such as a miller had said
to the lecturer was sufficient to push up the top of
the oven. An increase of animal manures incorpo-
rated with the soil, and a hot summer, are the most
likely to make the stronger wheats, and destroy the
necessity of foreign admixture. Manures that con-
tain much ammonia (nitrogen and hydrogen), as

human ffeces and guano, have produced wheats that
have contained the maximum of " proof," being 35
per cent, of gluten : such is the effect of a proper
supply of food to vegetables. It is the grano-duro
of S. Europe that is so much sought for to yield the
gluten ; it is a small, hard, and heavy wheat. Hot
summers in this country, and not a rich, but light,
soil, with proper manure as food, will produce a
wheat equally good for the purpose of the miller
and baker, but not so good for the purpose of mak-
ing maccaroni. It has also been found that the
nitrate of soda will, by means of its nitrogen, force
a wheat which will contain a larger than usual pro-
portion of gluten, althougb the appearance of the
grain may not be in its favour in recommending it
to the miller, its qualities only being known to the
chemist, and to the experience of the baker. The
occasional introduction of old beans amongst new
weak wheats, and ground together into meal, is
often desirable, and has its excuse only from the
necessity of the practice when foreign hard wheat
cannot be obtained ; this admixture makes a lively
sack of flour, one that will show " proof" in the
oven. Chemists have repeatedly shown that bean
meal contains nearly twice as much per cent, of glu-
ten as that of ordinary wheat-flour. This gluten is
the fleshing principle, as starch is the carbonaceous
matter, which acts by giving warmth, respiration,
and fat, to animals. It is by a record of facts, ex-
periments, and observations, that we are likely to
add to the science of agriculture ; by these details
and by trifling experiments we may hope so far to
improve the farming jirofession, as to enable those
who now despise science to compete with foreign
nations in the production of corn ; and nothing is
so likely to tend to this end, as that of a knowledge
of causes ; it is the first step to all curative processes;
hence the farmer should know of what his soil is de-
ficient, to enable him to produce corn with success.

Mr. Lance pointed out the necessity of farmers
embracing the offers made by the inci-easing intel-
ligence of the age, remarking that unless they pro-
ceed onward in the march of improvement that is
going on around them, they must necessarily ap-
pear to be I'etrograding,

The lecturer spoke on several other subjects
which ought to interest the farmer, particularly on
the diseases to which corn crops are subject ; but
enough has been said to show how proper it is that
the farming interest should be more alive to their
present position of having to compete with the
world, therefore ought to have a greater store of
worldly knowledge.

The lecturer is well known as the author of se-
veral works on the theory and practice of farming,
and as a lecturer in Hants and Surrey on geology
and its application to the arts.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

37-3

SOUTH PETHERWIN PLOUGHING MATCH.

This match took place on the 18th November,
1845, in a field belonging to J. K. Lethbridge, Esq.,
tenanted by ]\Ir. Medland. The weather was favour-
able, and the field was well attended by the
yeomanry and others of the neighljourhood. Six-
teen hoi"se-teams without drivers, and one ox-team
with a driver, composed the number of competitors
that were to try their skill in the art of ploughing
that day. To see the seventeen ploughs start at the
gi\'en signal, with the really beautiful cattle, the
neat harness, and the robust, well-clad, joUyplough-
men, was such a pleasing sight as had only to be
seen to be admired. The brave fellows did try
their skill to the utmost for the mastery, and per-
form.ed their work admirably ; indeed, it was univer-
. sally acknowledged that the ploughing was equal
,tp any seen, for the season, in the two western
counties.

After the business of the field was ended, a re-
spectable party returned to the Brameath Arms,
South Petlierwin village, where an excellent dinner
was served up in Harvey's usual good style.

Mr. WiLL.s, of South Petherwin, being called to
the chair, he remarked, that he regretted mucli the
absence of Mr. Arundell, who so kindly and ably
presided over thsm last year ; all had anticipated the
, same favour again to-day, but his engagements I'e-
., specting railroads, he presumed, was the cause of
,his absence, as he knew his generous and noble
heart was with them.

On the removal of the cloth, the chairman jn'o-
po-sed successively the usual loyal toasts, which
were drunk with feelings characteristic of the
yeomanrj' of England.

On the " Health of W. A. H. Arundell, Esq.,
the Patron of this Association," being proposed,

The Chairman said Mr. Arundell deserved the
greatest possible respect ; for, let the result of the
South Petherwin j)loughing match be what it may
— and no doubt could exist but it would tend to a
better cultivation of the land in that district — they
must look back to him as the founder of it. As it
increased in importance, which he was sure it would,
tSo would their debt of gratitude accumulate to him
and his noble house.

The toast was drunk enthusiastically, M'ith three

times three, and one cheer more.

-'.- The Chairman rose, and said he had to propose

,\t]ie health of a gentleman; and he was sure they

Y '.would rejoice in having an opportunity to express

the high estimation in which he was held by them.

He knew he had only to name Edward Archer,
Esq., and it would at once awaken the best feel-
ings that swelled in their manly breasts. Mr.
Archer was well known as a landlord amongst
them ; bis enlightened mind brought him not only
to see, but to remo\'e the most obnoxious shackles
that fettered his enterprising tenantry, and gave
them leases highly creditable to himself and advan-
tageous to all parties, setting an exam])le that all
good men would speedily follow. He was now,
also, a large occupier of land. " I think he would
not be ashamed if he should hear me — I wish he
did — call him an extensive farmer. The vast im-
provement he has made, and is still making, on his
home farm, and especially by bringing the waste
called the Lenannick Down into cultivation, a piece
of land so extensive, and which for many years
past grew only heath to starve a few sheep, will, by
his judicious management, very shortly become
useful and highly valuable — producing food to a
great extent for our enormously increasing popu-
lation. Gentlemen, you all know, and many of
you l)etter than I do, the immense sums of money
this gentleman weekly pays for manual labour — a
circumstance that should never be forgotten by us,
and that the labourer should remember to his last
hour -with gratitude. Not that I would attempt to
deny that ' the labourer is worthy of his hire ;'
but my oljject is to show you that M'hoever gives
laboiu" to the man whom an all-wise Providence
has thought fit to earn his livelihood by the sweat
of his brow, gives him an opportunity of pro-
viding for himself and family; and whoever deprives
him of lal)our takes away his sole means of support
and independence. You are fully aware ^vlr. Archer
is removing a great number of his hedges, ^'arious
opinions are expressed on this subject; and now I
would ask you, gentlemen, did you ever remember
any improvement set on foot that prejudice did not
damage by making a deadly stand against it ?
Most of us must rememljer the time when small
enclosures, hedge-row timber, and bushwood, were
thought admirable things ; when land was succes-
sively cropped with corn until exhausted, and then
let to remain dormant and useless for a number of
years, to rest, as it was termed ; when cattle were
to derive shelter from hedges, and hedges alone.
Then and in those bygone days, never to return, I
grant you it was of httle importance whether our
fields had the benefit of the sun and a free circula-
tion of air or not. Cut things are now vastly

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376

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

changed ; our arable land is on the modei-n prin-
ciple of alternate cropping. From this circumstance,
I feel confident you vn.ll agree ^\'ith me that the
removal of useless fences, hedge-row timber, and
such like, is highly, beneficial to the occupier, by
enabling him to cultivate his land better and with
less expense, and to use crops of superior quality
and increased quantity. I feel I must not detain
you longer. I therefore beg to remind you of the
interest this gentleman takes in agriculture in
general, and give you the ' Health of Edward
Archer, Esq., and success to his farmingoperations."

It was drunk with great zeal and unanimity.

The " Health of F. Rodd, Esq., High Sheriff of
the County" was proposed by R. Pennarden, Esq.
The health of this gentleman was drunk Avith cheers.

After some delay, the Chairman rose, and said :
I have been anxiously expecting to hear some gentle-
man on behalf of the High Sherift' acknowledge the
last toast ; but as no one appears to put his hand
to tliD i^lough, and recollecting as I do when he
resided amongst us in this very parish, also the
many kind acts of his and his amiable lady to the
poor, and in truth to all, I cannot refrain from bear-
ing testimony to his worth. Anything coming
from me I feel cannot rise him in your estimation,
because I know you all bear the highest respect
and esteem for him ; I thei'efore take it uj)on me
to say that on his behalf I thank you for the com-
pliment paid him. As the Trebartha family is be-
fore us, I have to claim your indulgence for a few
moments. You must all remember the late F,
Hearle Rodd, Esq., the uncle of the present owner
of Trebartha Hall, and you must also remember
the splendid show of cattle he annually offered for
sale — his introduction of the turnip husbandry,
and his general mode of farming. These matters
are so well known to you that it would only waste
your time for me to name them ; but there is a cir-
cumstance or two connected with the benefits which
that departed gentleman conferred on agricultiire
that I am perhaps better acquainted with than some
of you. I allude to the time when he hved at
Higher Croun, in Egloshayle. There it was that his
knowledge of farming so brightly shined. There
he introduced the growth of turnips on the correct
system, and to the greatest perfection, and conferred
a lasting benefit on that neighbourhood. It would
be in vain for me to attempt to enumerate his deeds
of friendship, kindness, goodness, and charity,
during his residence in that neighborirhood. I
will, therefore, leave the pleasing task for one that
can do it more ample justice, and bring your minds
to bear on his usefulness when he afterwards re-
sided at Trebartha Hall. Call to mind, gentlemen,
the North Devon cattle, and ask yourselves, Who
brought the "pure ones" into this county ? Who

gave you tlie opportunity of improving your slock ?
And who taught you the way to raise food for your
cattle, and, by raising food for cattle, food for man ?
When I recollect these things, which I have
thousands and thousands of times, and hear of this
and that being done to perpetuate the memory of
some distinguished man, I confess I feel shame for
my county, because I believe in no county in Eng-
land beside would the memory of so great and good
a man be allowed to dwindle, forgotten, and to die
with those who had the advantage and happiness
of knowing his worth.

The Chairman said he was now about to pro-
pose a toast which must be congenial to their feel-
ings, and would come home to the business of the
day. He meant " Success to the South Petherwin
Ploughing Match." He had before told them that
great improvement had taken place in this useful
art since last year. He was sure it would be the
means of making better ploughmen, and cause the
soil to be more productive. This matter alone was
sufficient to claim public support, and it afforded
him no small degree of delight to see so many
highly respectable tradesmen from our neighbour-
ing town of Launceston taking such lively interest
in the matter, and favouring us with their comjjany
at the table as well as in the field.

Drunk with great zeal.

The ploughmen were all provided Avith a sulj-
stantial dinner at the expense of the society, and
were now called in to hear the decision of the
judges and receive the prizes.

The health of the Judges was proposed and dnmk
with cheers, and the toast suitably acknowledged
by Mr. Palmer, of Lifton, who took the opportu-
nity of making to the ploughman many valuable
remarks. They were also addressed by the Chau:-
man in a speech of great length and abihty, who
clearly showed them the necessity of a good
character, perseverance, and industry, strongly im-
pressing on them to carry most fully out the best
mode of improving their minds as well as their
fields.

The hst of prizes awarded was read by the secre-
tary as follows, and gave satisfaction : —

1st prize, £1 10s., to Daniel Batten, ploughman
to Mr. Jackman, Lawhitton.

2nd prize, f 1, to Wilham Hicks, ploughman to
Mr. Wills, South Petherwin.

3rd prize, 15s., to James Downing, ploughman
to Mr. Taylor, Trewen.

4th prize, 10s., to Samuel Masters, ploughman
to Mr. WiUs, South Petherwin.

5th prize, 7s , to Richard Stacy, ploughman to
Mr. Esser)', South Petherwin.

6th prize, 5s., to John Hooper, ploughman to
Mr. Thompson, Launceston.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

377

To young men under 18 years of age.
1st jirize, f 1 10s., to William Horn.
2nd prize, £J, to Charles Pethick.
3rd j)riz8, 1 5s., to W. Pearse.
4lh prize, 10s., to Thomas Short,

The health of the Chairman was proi)Osed and
acknowledged. Many iiseful sentiments were ex-
changed, and the company separated in peace,
highly delighted with th.e proceedings of the day.

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

Wind and

State.

Atmosphere.

Day.

8 a.m. 10p.m.

Min.

Max.

10p.m.

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p. m.

10 p. m.

Feb. 21

in, ct*.
30.09

in. cts.
30.09

42

54

47

S. West

lively

cloudy

sun

cloudy

22; 29-98

29.88

42

51

51

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudv

23 29.85

29.76

48

54

31

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

24 29.64

29.45

49

55

52

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

25 29.45

29.76

46

54

47

S. West

hvely

cloudy

cloudy

fine

26! 29.79

29.70

42

55

52

South

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

27 29.70

29.64

43

56

46

South

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

28

29.70

29.94

44

58

48

S. West

gentle

fine

cloudy

fine

March 1

30.05

29.95

45

54

46

S. by West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

2

29.95

29.95

44

53

43

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

fine

3

29.90

29.67

41

53

49

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

4

29.38

29.47

43

52

42

S. West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

fine

5

29.47

29.59

40

51

39

West

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

6

29.57

29.70

38

52

42

West

brisk

fine

sun

fine

7

29.70

29.7s

41

50

40

N. West

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

8 29.94

30.00

35

53

40 '

W^W. by N.

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

9 30.08

30.28

34

48

44

E. to N.W.

variable

fine

sun

cloudy

10' 30.33

30.38

34

50

41

S. West

gentle

fine

sun

fine

11 30.38

30.50

36

50

38

N. West

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

12 30.56

30.55

36

46

38

N.E. to S.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

13; 30.45

30.35

31

49

44

Westerly

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

14! 30.20

30.07

40

52

49

Westerly

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

15 30.00

29.90

45

54

47 1

Westerly

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

16 29.63

29.30

42

52

40

Westerly

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

17 29.40

29.46

34

44

36

N.W. to N.E.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

18 29.57

29.57

28

42

32

N.E., N.W.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

19 29.58 J 29.57

26

41

34

S. East

calm

fine

cloudy

fine

20; 29.57 29.65

31

40

30

North

calm

fine

sun

fine

21

29.65

29.37

24

44 [

1

42

S.E., S.W.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

estimated averages of march.

Barometer.

_High^
30770

Low.

PS.870

Thermometer.

High. I Low. I Mean.

66

24

43.9

Real Average Temperature of the above period.

Low.
41.58

High.
50.24

Mean.
45.91

North and N. East Winds . . 6A days.

South East •>.

South and South West 1 if

West and to North lo|

Weather and Phenomena. — February
21 — Threatening change. 2?. — Rain, occa-
sionally a good deal, in the night, 23 — Cloudy,
with drizling rnin. 24— Rainy part of night, and
in the morning. 25 — Wet day. 26— Starchy
cirro-stratus clouds in evening, after a very beauti-

ful day. 27 — Changeable, shower, red sunset.
28 — Warmest day, evening fine and starlight.
March 1 — Changeable, fine, cloudy. 2 — Generally
overcast. 3 — Cloudy, very mndy. 4 — Fine wind
and rain. 5 — Profuse rain early. G — Sunny and
drying. 7— -A hail-shower, 8— Very beautiful.

§78

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

9 — Rime, warm sun. 10 — Fine, but changeable.
11 — Fine. 12 — Cloudy till sunset ; highest eleva-
tion of the barometer, but it declined. 13 — Chilly
and threatening. 14:~Cirro-stratus cloudy. 15 —
Very vaiiable. IG — Very heavy showers; wind
chojis to north, and the cold commenced. J 7 —
Very keen, but improved. 18 — Severe early, day
mild. 19 — Very cold, but calm and bright. 20 —
Cold, far more so than at any previous period ;
equinox near midnight, Inight but thi-eatening.
21 — Great rime, followed by gloom; cold, strong
wind from S.W., and rain commenced.

Lunations. — Feb. 25, New moon, 7 h. 32 m.
afternoon. March 4 ; First quarter, 10 h, 32 m,

afternnon— full moon, 13th day, 2h. 42m. morning
— last quarter, 20th day, 1 h. 58 m. afternoon.

Remarks referring to Agriculture, —
The continuous mild weather and capital state of
the ground favoured every operation and the
growth of crops. The severe "and sudden access
of cold might check growth, but by no means
retard work. A change, however, occurred exactly
at the equinox, and rain, as it did in 1845, came on
the following day, M'ith a true south-west equinoc-
tial wind. The weather had deteriorated exceed-
ingly since the r2th. J. Towers,

Maidenliead Thicl:ef, March 21.

CALENDAR OE HORTICULTURE.— APRIL.

Retrospect. — In consequence of the very mild
character of the weather, every sort of produce has
been, throughout the present year, both fine, early,
and abundant. We must, in some degree, except
the potato ; for there, if disease has affected any
tuber, it continued to produce its consequences,
but — so far as individual experience may speak —
not to extend them. Thus certain tubers sufiered,
became mouldy and Vi-orthless ; but, among four
A'arieties of early kinds, others in close contact
with the ones infected remain to this day sound
as they were stored. It is the same with late stock,
and therefore we cannot coincide with those who
take a sombre view of future prospects. Prices do
not rise, and no one complains of any difficulty to
obtain ample supply. It may elsewhere be other-
wise.

Our article commences on the eve of the vernal
equinox (/.<?., the 19th), and registers the coldest
night of the year ; for, although two thermometers
mark the lowest depression in the early morning to
have been 26.5 («. e., SiS of frost), yet other instru-
ments not three miles distant tell of 1 1 degrees —
and certainly the cold felt was very considerable —
and, as three or four rimy mornings follov/ed in
succession (March 17, 18, and 19),the critical period
does not approach propitiously.

The bloom of wall-fruit at this period Vvas full,
and equally distributed ; that of pears in many
places expanding, and the buds of apples swelling,
and of great promise. If nothing fatal occur,
plums will abound, and with them vast swarms of
wasps. We name this concomitant by anticipation,
for it will be remembered that scarcely a wasp v/as
seen last summer. If, then, the broods should be
numerous, where are now the parents ?

Operutions.
Vegetable Garden.

The frosts of March may have changed the as-
pect, but otherv/ise circumstances will be most
favoura1)le, because the previous supjjly of rain has
been far greater than that of 1845, and the tempe-
rament of the land peculiarly excellent. The first
week should be devoted to sowing successional
crops of peas and beans ; of the former, the scimi-
tars, blue imperial dwarf. Knight's green marro^\',
and the Spanish dwarf, are not to be surpassed ;
and of broad beans, the Windsor, white and green
seeded, are the best in flavour : the long-pod is a
prolific bearer, but lias little taste ; therefore a
hybrid ])rogeny bet\^•een it and the Windsor would
be very acceptaljle. Some years ago, evidence was
afforded of success l)y the result of some rov.'s
planted by beans of each sort alternately ; for the
beans produced in the pods were larger and more
plump than those of the long-pod, and more nume-
rous than the Windsor, but partaking the character
of both. The stock saved v.-as destroyed by mice,
and thus two years were lost. The experiment is
again on foot, and a trial is suggested to others.
While on the subject of beans, it may be as well to
state that Speechl}' was perfectly correct when he
recommended cottagers and others to plant beans
among potatoes in the rows ; both do well, and in
no degree interfere. Little as we know of organic
chemistry, we have at least seen ample cause to re-
concile the fact with the chemical analysis of both,
for the inorganic constituents found in their ashes
differ so essentially, that they plainly cannot impo-
\'erish one another, potatoes liking nitrons salt of
potassa, while beans court calcarious combinations.

Sow cabhacje. The true London "York," Vanack,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

379

and Atkin's early York, are excellent hearters :
Savoys, borecole, red cabbage, Brusyell's sprouts.

Beetroot, born and Surrey carrot, parsnips ; it is
fully late, but not too much so. Carrots prefer
maiden sandy loam, no matter bow bght, provided
it be fresb, without manure or stones.

Celery and celeriac, sow, in small beds of light,
rich earth, to come in for late sujiply, succeeding to
the plants raised by heat ; those seedlings planted
on beds of leaves, after removal from the first seed-
boxes, should stand a few inches apart, in order to
render them stocky and of strong growth.

Leeks and cardoons are sown in drills, to come
on for final transplantation — silver onions, for pick-
ling, thickly, in the poorest ground.

Spinach, early, and again at the close of the
month, sow : this vegetable has been proved here
to thrive most luxuriantly by watering with a weak
solution of nitrate of soda ; it added strength and
verdure to the leaves, and most likely prevented the
liability to run to seed.

Sea-kale, in rows two feet apart, the ground
deeply trenched and enriched.

Second iveek. — Sow kidney beans, if the ground
be in free working condition, and there be sun to
warm the drills when first ojjened, because a dry,
warm bed is of great consequence ; but the greater
security is derived from sowing three l)eans in a
pot of sandy loam very early in this month, if not
done in March, raising them with little water,
in very gentle heat, and waiting for a fa\'ourable
opportunity to transplant when the true leaves have
become full and strong ; a dusting of lime will then
ward off slugs and snails.

Potatoes : These form the '"' vexed question" of
the present year. Our fears have been awakened
to a pitch of restless anxiety by the predictions of
an assured extension of the disease to all the crops.
As remedial and preventive, we venture almost
as positively to assert (with some sensible writers)
that lime, air-slaked, applied to all the cut surfaces
of sets, and dusted liberally along the planted
furrows, will succeed. Every potato left in the
ground and now raised we have observed to be
sound, and most excellent at the table. Other
stock, kept in boxes, wherever the eyes are full and
breaking healthily, are found good, unspotted, and
full of juice. We have planted such in confidence,
combining a fourth or fifth part of coal-soot with
the lime, and are not afraid to bid our readers do
the same. This may be presumptuous ; but, as we
have also discerned no mark whatever of disease in
very early tubers ])lanted in a vinery, with nothing
but moist sawdust and a small proportion of coal-
ashes, our hope is not thereby weakened.

In the last week finish potato- planting. Sou;
acfain, or plant, for a later supply of dwarf and

runner kidney beans, and sow broccoli of all kinds.

Plant slips and rooted portions of the sweet pot
herbs.

Remove asparagus plants from two-year-old
beds, and Isuckers of globe artichoke, to produce
new beds ; showery weather particularly suits the
latter.

Earth or mould up and stick peas, beans, cab-
bages, and all growing crops. Kill weeds and
frequently dredge the surface, where slugs prevail,
with fresh air-slaked lime. Lime in abundance is
the antidote for superabundant vegetable matter :
it fixes redundant humic acid, and produces fer-
tility by combining in an almost insoluble condi-
tion with what would otherwise be a poisonous in-
gredient, and barrenness is converted into fertihty.

Fruit Department,

The pine-stove produces ripe fruit in succession.
And here it becomes requisite to observe the suck-
ers ; for if there be one or two particularly robust,
great advantage is derived from retaining it or
them on the mother stock after cutting the fruit.
By transferring such plants to deep pots of turfy
loam, well drained with charcoal and bone-chips
(in Wen of the usual broken crocks), a stock of
fine and early bearers is obtained. The succession
house or pits will receive them, and this depart-
ment is always to be kept in growing condition by
warm, close atmosiihere, with full heat, 'l^he fruit-
ing house, on the contrary, demands plenty of air
and great solar power.

Vineries. — The early vinery is ripening its fruit ;
therefore water should be withheld, and air — at
least, from eight a.m. to three p.m. — given freely
in fine weather. Size of berry and figure are ob-
tained by rigid thinning out, by moist heat, and
rapid growth, prior to and during the process of
seeding ; but flavour is of very great moment ;
therefore moisture is abated, and syringing aban-
doned, while the berries colour and swell.

The second vinery will now demand the nicest
eye and steady hand so to thin out the clusters as
to leave perfect freedom with excess of space for
the utmost enlargement of berries regularly dis-
tributed thereon.

Melons, whether in brick-flued pit, ujjon trelliccs
over a chambered bed, or upon common hotbeds,
are to be trained, stopped, and the fruit duly im-
pregnated, care being taken to give abundance of
air in bright days, v,i.ih. ample bottom and atmos-
pheric heat. More seeds are to be sown ; but cut-
tings at a joint of fruitful laterals come quickly
forward, and soon produce a melon or two each.

Cucumbers must be managed with similar views
as to heat and air; but in stopping, M. Phael's rule
(always to nip back the leader at the fruitful joints,

380

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and not at the joint beyond it) conduces to pretty ^

and regular fertility. '

Flower Gaudex.

Sow annuals, biennials, and perennials early; but
still trust much to the plants of more tender sorts
raised under glass.

Propat/ate, by division of roots, polyanthuses,
campanula, and. Indeed, all herbaceous plants that
have bloomed or are beginning to grow.

Transplant from the nursery stores every kind of
plant that will support the usual weather of April,
but avoid any temptation to plant or bed out gera-
niums and such valuable stock as j^ast experience
has taught us are unable to resist a May frost.

Destroy insects, and particularly those of the
rose-tree ; these gum themselves firmly in the
leaves, involving them, and hundreds of fine buds
with bloom, in common destruction. The ajjhis
also is most destructive, but can be kept under by
tobacco-fumigations, and by dusting with Scotch
snuff.

Attend to all the I'outine required by the shrub-

bery, lawn, cleanness of flower-beds, rolling of
gravel-walks, &c., &c.

Evergreens can be successfully removed, fresh
ones planted, or stock raised by layei'ing.

The azaleas, and all bog plants usually pixrchased
very cheaply in some of the Surrey nurseries near
Bagshot or Sunning, generally are raised up, and
sent with compact balls : they are almost sure to
succeed, if heath soil, sand, and nice leaf-mould be
placed in the holes destined to receive the plants,
provided that plenty of soft water be given from
time to time, and cakes of moss be laid round each
stem to the extent of the hole. The moss keeps in
the moisture, and may be retained in its place over
the roots by two or three flint stones.

All our true evergi^eeiis — as the holly-leaved bar-
berry, Garrya elhptlca, evergreen oak, bay, aciiba,
arbutus, Portugal laurel, &c., &c., are now re-
movable, and grov/ well in loam ; but they require
much attention during parching weather. At pre-
sent we have promise of a cold, changeable spring.

March 21.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MARCH.

Notwithstanding the weather of this month has
been extrem.ely variable, it has proved unusually
mild and vegetative, the time of year considered.
Throughout the whole of our great agricultural
districts, the supply of natural herbage has been
extremely abundant ; so much so, indeed, that it
has been found impossible to consume even a moiety
of it ; yet it is very gratifying to be enabled to
assert that the young'wheat plants are suffering but
little, if anything, from premature exuberance,
although at one period great fears were entertained
lest the- mQdness of the past winter should have
had a prejudicial effect upon them. The shght
falls of snow, and the few seasonable frosts expe-
rienced since the date of our last report, have un-
questionably had a beneficial effect upon them, as
well as vegetation in general. In most parts of the
kingdom the plough has been in active operation,
and a larger portion of the spring crops has been
sown, with the land in excellent order for the re-
ception of the seed ; while, judging from present
prospects, it is fair to presume the remainder of the
seed will be deposited this year somewhat earlier
than usual.

The accounts which have lately reached us from
our flock districts state that a very large number of
lambs had been lost from the effects of tbe epidemic ;
in other respects, howe-\'er. they arc tolerably satis-

factory, as regards fat stock. The difficulties to
which we have before alluded — viz., those of pro-
curing adequate numbers of beasts and sheep to
consume the immense supplies of turnips and other
paljulum, the produce of the last and present
seasons — still continue ; hence it has been found
necessary to plough in many thousand acres of
turnips, in order to allow the land to be prepared
for spring corn. This we regard — looking at the
severe losses which most of our graziers experienced,
during 1844 and 1845, from low prices and deficient
supplies of food for their depastured stock — as a
most unfavourable circumstance, as it has com-
pletely prevented them from obtaining those pro-
fits to which they are justly entitled. As might be
expected, both beasts and sheep have for some time
past greatly improved in weight ; but the number
of the latter on most farms is far less than has been
knoAvn at the corresponding period in many jirece-
dlng years.

The position which affairs having a direct influ-
ence upon the interests of the agricultural body
have now assimied induces us, on the present occa-
sion, to offer a few remarks to the notice of our
readers, who will, we feel confident, agree with us
that we have arrived at a period when it behoves
every man to " look about him." In the first place,
if we take Sir Robert Peel's scheme for the gradual

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

381

extinction of protection to the producers of wlieat
in this country, we are struck \\'ith surprise that
any Minister — whatever may l)e his pretensions,
wliatever his ulterior views — should have been bold
enough to propose a measure, like that now under
legislative consideration, so opposed to the interests
of agriculture. We are gravely told that it has been
forced upon him by the exigencies of the times —
in other words, by the partial failure in the
wheat crop last year, and the effects of the rot in
potatoes. It is not our intention wholly to ojjpose
the fact that the growth of M'heat in 1845 was
considerably less than that in 1844 ; or that a
portion of the potato crop in the United King-
dom — Ireland, perhaps, in particular — has
not suftered from disease. But, at the same time,
it must not be forgotten that at the close of last
year's haiTest, there was a very large quantity of
old wheat on hand ; and further, that the actual
quantity of potatoes produced was large beyond
recollected precedent. We look, therefore, upon
the numerous reports which have been so indus-
triously circulated, of a very great deficiency in the
supply of those necessary articles of consumption,
to have resulted from interested motives. The
great question, however, for us to consider is —
what is really our present position? Although
consumption has steadily increased, from the la-
bouring classes being mostly well employed and in
the receipt of good wages, we have every reason
to believe, from the most extensive inquiries, that a
fair quantity of wheat, perhaps sufficient to meet
our wants until after the haiTest is gathered, is
still in the hands of the farmers. Then we have
next to consider — what are the prospects of future
quotations ? It will not, we presume, be denied
that supply and demand regulate prices ; hence
upon this simple basis we shall ground our ob-
servations. Some months since, we were assured
by the free-traders that no supplies of wheat, ow-
ing to the scarcity in the Ottoman empire, could
possibly be received hither from the Mediterranean
and Black seas during the greater portion of the
present year. But what is the fact ? Why, that
many thousand quarters have already come in, with
every prospect of a large increase as the season
advances. The free-trade journals are continually
harping upon deficient supplies of English wheat,
leaving out of the question altogether the immense
quantities of flour which are almost daily pouring
in upon us from Canada and the United States —
which, of course, have a great influence upon the
value of the unmanufactured material — and the
returns to our millers, who, for some time past,
have been selling flour at a considerable saci'ifice.
Last year, not less than 950,195 cwts. of flour
were received from abroad and oiu" colonies.

030,255 cwts. of which went into consvimption ;
and yet we have now 841,709 cwts. in warehouse!
Surely this does not look much like deficiency ;
and if we refer to the article of wheat, our item
will l)ecome one of greater magnitude. For in-
stance, the actual quantity in bond on the 5th of
March was 1,138,950 quarters ; since that time,
about 50,000 quarters have come to hand, thereby
making the present supply nearly 1,200,000 quarters.
The supplies of wheat brought for«-ard at Mark
Lane, and the principal markets in our provinces,
have been again moderate. The finest samples of
both red and white have moved off steadily, at, in
some instances, enhanced rates ; but the middling
and inferior kinds have met a slow inquiry, at
about stationary prices. The sales of free foreign
wheat — the quantity of which on offer has been
small — have been trilling ; yet the quotations have
been firmly supported. Bonded grain has com-
manded rather more inquiry. The finest parcels of
malting barley have sold briskly, at full currencies.
In other kinds exceedingly little has been doing.
The oat trade has been tolerably steady, and prices
have undergone very little alteration. Beans, peas,
and flour have moved off slowly, at late rates.

At the various cattle markets and fairs the num-
bers of fat stock have been somewhat on the in-
crease, and of very superior quality : hence the sales
have progressed slov/ly, at, in some instances,
sightly reduced figures. As foreign stock will, no
doubt, shortly be admitted free of duty, the imports
during the past month have been small.

Both hay and straw have sold heavily at low
prices, arising from the large quantities on offer.
To show the decline in the quotations, we annex the
following comparison of those during March 1845,
and the present year.

Per Load. Per Load,

1845. 1846.

s. s. s. s.

Meadow hay 70 to 110 63 to 88

Clover do. 90 to 120 88 to 120

Straw 38 to 42 32 to 36

From Scotland, we learn that the young wheats
are looking very promising. As is the case with us,
the supply of green food is very large, and the stock
is fattening under the most favourable auspices.
Store animals have ruled high ; hence the transac-
tions in them have been comparatively trifling.
The corn markets have been but moderately sup-
plied, yet the trade has been in an inactive state, at
late currencies.

The shipments of wheat, oats, and flour from the
various Irish ports have been on the increase ; yet
the supplies brought forward in the different mar-
kets have been far from extensive. Fine wheat,
oats, and flour have been in good request, at full
prices. In other articles only a moderate business
has been transacted.

383

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Since the date of our last review, the importations
of hve stock from abroad into London and at the
outjjorts have been, comjiared with those of some
preceding months, small, but quite equal to those
at the corresponding period in 1845, both as res-
pects number and quality. This falling off in the
supplies is to be solely attributed to the Dutch gra-
ziers waiting for the passing of the new tariiF, by
which foreign stock will, in future, be admitted
free of duty. This is another of those schemes
which win inevitably inflict a lasting injury upon
the interests of our graziers ; and this we say in
direct opposition to the views of those who have
stupidly contended that we have nothing to fear from
unrestricted competition. Having before explained
our views in detail upon this important question,
it would be unnecessary to enlarge upon them here ;
still we may intimate that, immediately upon the
tariflf receiving the sanction of the L^p^ier House,
immense numbers of both beasts and sheep — which
are, in point of fact, already waiting shipment at
most of the princij)al ports in Holland — will find
their way hither, and which must have a depress-
ing influence upon our quotations. It has been
asserted that no national increase has taken place
in the arrivals of foreign stock into this country
since the passing of the existing laws — at all events
such a one as ought to excite alarm for the futui-e.
That these assertions are directly at variance with
facts, we insert the following imports during the
last four years.

Head.

1842
1843
1844

1845

Grand total

5,350

2,100

8,007

34,426

49,883

Well, then, if the imports have progressed at the
above rate, imder the influence of a duty, what mav
be expected when the impost shall have been re-
pealed ? It is sheer folly to talk about the inability
of the foreigner to supply us with large supplies of
fat stock, when it is shown — and we have other in-
disputable evidence to prove — that the English
markets will continue to be heavily supplied by
them. Notwithstanding the failures in the attempt
to fatten store foreign stock in this country, we feel
convinced that ere long very extensive importations
will take place for that purpose, when the descrip-
tion of food becomes generally known upon which
the beasts and sheep are fattened in the various

distilleries in Holland. Many parties who have
purchased lean stock, imported from Rotterdam
and elsewhere, have been surprised at the rapid de-
cline in their value from a deficiency in condition,
although they have been well fed. It must be un-
derstood, however, that the Dutch brew an inferior
beer from unftrmented barley, and which is the
principal beverage of the lower classes. As this
barley, after being taken from the vats, retains a
large ])ortion of its saccharine matter, and is given
to the stall-fed beasts in that state, it is possible to
jwesume this may have produced the results to
which we have just alluded, which we have done for
the special information of our readers. From the
commencement to the close of the month, the an-
nexed supplies have arrived in London and at the
outports, viz., 749 oxen and cows, and 925 sheep.
In March, 1845, there were received into London
257 beasts and 166 sheep; hence it will be seen
the importations are still increasing.

On the whole, fair average supplies of beasts
have been on sale in Smithfield market during tiie
month, the quality of M'hich has been seldom
equalled at this period of the year. The primest
Scots, Devons, &c., have been in steady demand at
about previous quotations ; but the middling and
inferior qualities have met a slow inquiry at reduced
figures. The numbers of sheep on ofler have
been small, yet the mutton trade has ruled inactive,
and the quotations have declined 2d. per 8lbs.
Lambs have sold steadily at from 5s. 6d. to 7s. per
Bibs. In the month's early part, veal considerably
advanced ; but it experienced a decline of 8d. per
8lbs. on the 27th. The annexed statement shows
the numbers exhibited in March last year and the
present : —

1845. 1846.

Beasts 13,400 .. 12,579

Cows 600 .. 521

Sheep and lambs . 122,400 . . 77,010

Calves 396 .. 731

Pigs 2,041 .. 2,081

Tlie comparison of prices is as imder :—

Per 8lbs. to sink the oftal.

March 1845. March 1846.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef 2 4 to 4 0 2 6 to 4 4

Mutton ..28 46 36 56

Lamb 5 0 60 58 70

Veal 3 10 5 0 4 8 5 8

Pork 30 44 3 10 52

The bullock supplies from our own grazing dis^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

383

tricts have been tlius derived during the past
month :—

Norfolk, Suft'olk, &c 5,100 head.

Northern counties 1 ,050 |

Western do 2,200

Other parts of England 1,250

Scotland 780

Newgate and Leadenhall Markets have been mo-
derately well supplied with both town and country-
killed meat, while the general demand has been in
a sluggish state, and prices have not been sup-
ported. Beef has sold at from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. ;
mutton, 3s. 4d. to 4s. Sd. ; veal, 4s. 8d. to 5s.
Sd. ; and pork, 3s. Sd. to 5s. 2d. per Bibs, by the
carcase.

ARRIV.\L OF CARCASSES DURING THE IiIONTH,

Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

Scotland

124

1G80

—

IGOO

Yorkshire

145

2120

—

1910

Lincolnshire . . .

148

G40

—

480

Norfolk

91

370

—

360

Suffolk

80

270

—

240

Cambridgeshire. .

121

550

—

560

Essex

SO

500

230

650

Surrey

. 168

790

2 GO

950

Devonshire . . .

—

—

— ■

290

Wiltshire

200

380

250

435

Other ]}arts . . . .

290

1150

370

1100

Total..

1447

8450

1110

8575

—March 28.

REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF MARCH.

With the support of the Whigs, the Whig-Radicals,
and the mis-called Conservatives, Sir Robert Peel
has got his Corn-importation Bill read a second
time in the Commons ; the majorities in favour of
the measure being — for going into committee, 97 ;
and for the second reading, 88. What now re-
mains to be done in the Commons will be soon got
over; and, though considerable opposition may be
expected in the Upper House, it is too sure that
the days of protection to native industry are
numbered, and that henceforth the British farmer
must make up his mind to enter into competition
Avith the comi)aratively untaxed foreign corn-
grower. All that now remains to be done by those
interested in the cultivation of the soil is to bestir
themselves to obtain that redress they are so fully
entitled to. The notion of pecuniary compensation
cannot, we think, be reasonably entertained ; but
there are other means of relieving the agriculturists,
such as repealing the malt-tax, and removing
similar imposts bearing heavily on the land. To
expect, however, that anything is to be obtained by
passive endurance is the height of absurdity ; active
exertion can alone help the farmer in his present
unfortunate position. We hate the name of agita-
tion, but the pressvn-e from without seems the only
plan to succeed with those in power; meetings
should therefore be held in all parts of the country,
and when it shall have been determined what course
is best to be jmrsued, not a day should be lost in
pressing on the Legislature the justice and neces-
sity of granting such measures as farmers shall
deem the most likely to put them on something
like a fair footing with the rest of the community.
Union and co-operation may achieve much ; but
without meetings, petitions to Parliament, and

other steps to enforce their just claims, the landed
interest must expect to be wholly sacrificed by
Ministers, to silence the clamour of the manu-
facturers.

To suppose for a moment that wheat can be
profitably grown in this country, with all other
matters connected with the land remaining as they
are, and the duty on that of foreign growth re-
duced to a nominal point, is preposterous. In
average seasons wheat may be imported from many
parts of the Continent, with a good profit to the
producer, at 35s. to 40s. per qr., all costs of transit
included ; and when time shall have been allowed
for bringing under culture the boundless surface of
the western parts of North America, wheat will
probably be laid down here at still lower rates.
Lender such circumstances, inevitable ruin must be
the fate of the tenant-farmers of Great Britain, if
means be not taken to lessen the cost of production
in this country; and the Government is bound,
after having withdrawn all protection, to remove all
possible burdens bearing heavily on the land.

The injurious effects of the repeal of the corn-
laws wiU not be fully felt this year ; indeed we may
say not till such time as a full average crop shall
have been gathered ; but whenever this takes place,
prices must inevitably be beaten down to a very low
level. At present we see no reason to apprehend
that the value of agricultural produce will be further
depreciated, simply from this reason, that the last
crop has proved deficient all over Europe, and that
the stocks of old corn were generally reduced to a
low ebb at the princii)al continental ports in autumn.
It is true we have a large quantity of wheat under
lock in the United Kingdom, comparatively little of
what M-as accumulated during the past year having

384

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

been entered for home consumption ; but, on the
other hand, there is scarcely any free foreign wheat
in the country, and the millers are completely out
of stock ; in fact all parties have, for months jjast,
confined their jnirchases to as narrow limits as their
pressing wants have admitted, the expectation of so
great a reduction in the duty as that proposed by
Sir Robert Peel having deterred them from holding.
It is, consequently, very possible that when the
liberation of the bonded wheat does take place, a
very active demand may be experienced ; and,
though in the first instance a small decline may
take place, we are disposed to think the reduction
will be neither important nor permanent.

We are now approaching a period of the year
when the aspect of the growing crop must be
expected to have material influence on the value of
all sorts of corn. So long as appearances continue
favourable no great change is likely to occur in
prices of wheat ; for though we are still of opinion
that the last crop was deficient, it is evident that
the potato disease was considerably over-rated ; and
unless there should, hereafter, be reason to fear that
the next harvest might prove indifferent, the re-
duced duties must act as a powerful check to any
ad^'ance. Uj) to the present time the autumn-
sown wheat is, on the whole, well spoken of.
About the middle of the month there were reports
that the plant was going off yellow, and in partial
instances this was, we believe, the case ; practical
men do not, however, apprehend any danger, the
discolouration of the blade being a matter of little
importance provided the root be sound ; and we
have, certainly, experienced no weather at all cal-
culated to injure the latter. On the M'hole, we are
inclined to think that the check given to vegetation
liy the night frosts, in the early part of the month,
will, hereafter, prove to have benefited rather than
injured the wheat-crop ; and the prospects are
certainly, as far as a judgment can be formed at so
early a period, promising.

Towards the close of February, and in the
beginning of March, the weather was highly pro-
pitious for preparing the land for the Lent crops ;
and before the middle of the latter month great
progress was made with the sowing of barley and
oats, and the planting of beans and peas. Latterly
these occupations have been interruj)ted, the recent
heavy fall of snow, rain, and hail having rendered
the soil somewhat too wet to admit of its being-
worked with advantage. All field labours are,
nevertheless, fidly as forward as is usually the case
at this time of the year ; and where sowing has
been completed, the seed has been got in in excel-
lent order. Tliere is, nevertheless, a good deal of
out-door work still to be done, and for some weeks
to come we must reckon on short supplies from the

growers ; a circumstance which will assist in keeping
prices at about their present level, even if the new
law should come into early operation. For some
time past the dehveries from the growers have been
very short, and though there has been a general
want of confidence, and nothing like speculation,
prices of most kinds of grain have gradually crept
up, as well at the principal consuming towns, as at
the markets in the agriciiltural districts. On wheat
the rise, in most parts of the country, has amounted
to Is. to 2s. per qr. Barley, of superior quality, has
advanced to nearly the same extent ; and the im-
provement in the value of oats, since the close of
February, cannot be estimated at less than Is. per
qr. That prices should have advanced at all, with
the prospect of so great an alteration in the laws as
that proposed by Ministers, must be viewed as a
proof that the trade is in a very healthy state, and
shows how little it would require to cause a
material enhancement to take place.

The mere suspicion of damage, however slight,
to the grov/ing crop of \vheat, would unquestiona-
bly give rise to speculation; and a speculative
demand superadded to the consumptive require-
ments must inevitably, in the present position of
affairs, occasion a rise. Spring corn is not likely,
in the first instance, to be so much influenced by
the weather ; but from present appearances, we
are certainly more inclined to predict an advance
than a fall in prices of barley and oats, the supplies
of both articles hanng of late barely kept pace'
with the. inquiry, and stocks in the hands of mer-
chants and dealers being unusually small in all
parts of the country.

From the fact of so veiy large a proportion of the
bonded wheat being held in the port of London,
business has been kept in a more subdued state at
Mark-lane than elsewhere ; still quotations have, on
the whole, crept up in the metroi)olitan market
since our last notice. The arrivals of English
wheat have been only to a moderate extent-, and a
comparatively small portion of the supply has been
from the neighbouring counties ; by far the greater
part having been from Lincolnshire, Cambridge-
shire, and Norfolk. Most of what has been
received from these last-named counties has been
of coarse, inferior quality, which has rendered the
sale difficult; but prime parcels, particularly the
best runs of Essex and Kent white wheat, have
been in lively request at gradually improving
prices. The total rise on the latter has amounted
to 2s. to 3s. per qr., and 70s. per qr. has latterly
been obtained for really fine samples. Red wheat
has not advanced more than Is. to 2s. ])er qr. at
Mark-lane during the month, and this enhancement
has only been jjaid for the very best dry, well-
conditioned paixels, Since the 23rd instant the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

385

inquiry has become less active than it had pre-
viously been, and the extreme rates of that day
se'nnight have barely been supported.

Owing to the reduced state of the stocks of free
foreign wheat in granary, and to the inferiority of
the quahty of the httle remaining on hand, the
transactions have necessarily been on a restricted
scale, though good parcels have been much wanted.
So greatly have the millers been distressed to ob-
tain the required quantity of old wheat for mixing,
that they have been compelled, from time to time,
to buy small lots of bonded, and liberate the same.
To effect this without paying the ISs. duty, re-
course has been had to the faciUties afforded by the
Grinding in Bond Bill. Rather large quantities of
Canadian and other Flour have been ])ut into bond
to obtain the certificates thereupon granted,
enabling the parties to release a proportionate num-
ber of quarters of wheat from under lock. These
documents, which are transferable, have been freely
selling at such prices as have aaabled the buyers to
release their ^\'heat out of l)ond at the rate of
12s. 6d. to 13s. per qr. The payment of even
these rates, with the prospect of the duty being
shortly reduced to 4s, per qr., shows plainly how
very much old wheat must be wanted, and bears
out what we have said in the commencement of this
article, nz., that though the quantity under the
Queen's locks is large, a very extensive vent is
hkely to be found so soon as the corn -law ques-
tion shall have been settled ; and we have therefore
come to the conclusion that less effect will be pro-
duced by the liberation than might at first sight be
supposed.

The only circumstance which might tend to
alter our views of this matter would be large ar-
rivals from the Continent. Should these take
place, an anxiety to press sales from on board, to
save the landing expenses, would perhaps occa-
sion some depreciation. Latterly the supplies have
certainly been more liberal than we had been led to
expect, upwards of 60,000 qrs. having come to
hand during the four weeks terminating on the
28th March. The bulk of this supply has been
from the south-eastern parts of Europe, and is of
an inferior quahty to that usually received from the
Baltic.

Notwithstanding the firm tone by which the
trade in wheat has been characterized, and the up-
ward movement in prices of that ai'ticle, the millers
have experienced considerable difficulty in effecting
sales of flour, at previous rates. The nominal top
quotation of the best town-made has remained sta-
tionary, at 53s. per sack ; but this has afforded no
criterion for judging of the actual selling price, an
active competition among the millers having led to
great irregularity in quotations. In many instances

tlic article has been sold at less than the cost of
manufacture — a state of things which cannot long
continue, and we therefore expect that present rates
will be at least suj^ported, should our opinion re-
specting the proljable range of the value of wheat
prove correct. In bonded flour the transactions
have not been important, and little or no change has
occurred in prices, good brands of United States
ha\'ing been uniformly held at 28s. per brl.

The arrivals of home-grown barley have been
quite moderate, and of foreign the quantity received
has been trivial. During the first three weeks in
March a gradual and progressive rise took place in
the value of the finer sorts ; and superior malting
qualities, which were scarcely worth more than 35s.
per qr. at the close of February, could not, on the
23rd instant, be secured below 37s. to 38s. per qr.
This seems hkely to be the highest point, and since
that has been attained, the inquiry has slackened.
The rise in the value of the ordinary qualities of
barley has not been so great as realized on the finer
sorts ; but even the common runs have been sold at
prices not previously obtainable. Productive as
the last crop of this grain imquestionably was, the
stocks in the hands of fanners are now running
short, and as we shall have to depend mainly on
our own producers for supplies throughout the sum-
mer and autumn, our continental neighbours hav-
ing none to spare, there is a probability of some-
what higher terms being obtained later in the year,
particularly for feeding sorts. At present there are
only about 83,000 qrs. under lock in the United
Kingdom, a good many cargoes having at different
times been exported to Holland and Belgium. Of
the quantity in bond, 18,000 qrs. are held in
London.

The demand for malt has at no period of the
month been lively ; still the greater part of what has
been received coastwise has been disposed of, and
generally at full terms. Really fine qualities have,
all through the season, been comparatively scarce^
and have consequently commanded relatively higher
rates than the common runs.

The arrivals of English oats have been quite as
large as usual, and about the usual quantity has
also been received from Scotland ; but from Ire-
land the supplies have been rather short. On the
whole, the receipts have not been quite adequate to
the consumptive demand of the metropolis, and the
stocks in the hands of the principal dealers have
consequently been diminished. There is at pre-
sent certainly a smaller stock in London than at
any previous period for some months past ; and if
the future shipments from Ireland should (as is
presumed may be the case, o\ving to the increased
consumption of oatmeal in that countiy to make up
the deficiency in potatoes) fall off, prices woidd un-

386

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

doiibtedly rise here. Already quotations have crejit !
fully Is. per qr. on fine heavy corn, and good Irish!
feed oats have been cun-ently selling at Mark Lane
of late at 26s. per qr. ; whilst prime Scotch potato
have realized 30s. per qr., and even more.

Within the last week or two a good many cargoes
of foreign oats have been reported ; but from the
tenor of our continental advices, it does not seem
likely that these suj>plies will be followed up. The
stock in bond in the kingdom consisted on the 5th
March of 90,983 qrs., of which there were Gl,192
qrs. in the port of London. The present duty on
this article is 6s. per qr., which will, if the Ministerial
scheme be carried, be reduced to Is. 6d. ; it is con-
sequently probable that importers will wait the re-
sult before entering for consumption ; and most of
the cargoes which have lately come to hand have
been taken to warehouse v.-ith this view.

The operations in beans have been quite unimport-
ant since our last monthly notice ; indeed so little has
taken place in tlie article, tliat it is unnecessary to
occupy much sjiace in comment. Up to the 23rd inst.
prices were pretty steadily supported ; but on that
day a decline of Is. per qr. took place, which has
not since been recovered. In foreign beans, there
has been still less doing than in English, and the
few lots that have come to hand from abroad have
been landed in bond for want of purchasers. There
were altogether under lock, on the 5th March 13,415
qrs., nearly one-half of which, viz., 6,144 qrs., were
held in London.

The finest qualities of peas have met with some
attention for seed, and the best parcels have con-
sequently commanded full prices. Secondary de-
scriptions, though not in much request, have also
supported their former ^■alue; indeed, quotations
are a shade higher than they were at the correspond-
ing period of last month.

By our foreign advices it appears that the pro-
gress of Peel's Corn Importation Bill through Par-
liament has been almost as anxiously watched bj''
merchants abroad, as by those engaged in the pro-
duce of the article at home. The only difference
being that the foreigner expects to reap a great
benefit, whilst the British farmer di-eads the evil
conseqviences of the measure. The expectation of
obtaining a ready vent for all their surplus grain,
by shipment to England, and its admission here at
a mere nominal duty, has prevented that reaction
occurring in prices abroad, which would under
other circumstances most likely have been caused
by the fall of 8s. to 10s. per qr. which has taken
place in the value of wheat in the British markets
since November last, and quotations are nearly as
high abroad as ever. Tlius it will always be : when
assistance may be really required, our continental
neighbours will not fail to make us pay; but in years

when we gro^^' enough for our own consumption,
we shall be inundated with supplies till prices are
reduced to a ruinous point. The wnter appears to
have been of a very mild character all over Europe,
and the navigation of the Baltic can scarcely be said
to have been stopped. By the latest accounts we
learn that all the ]:)rincipal rivers and harbours were
so far free from ice as to admit of shipments being
made, still comparatively little activity prevailed, all
parties being anxious to learn the result of the
pending discussion in the English Parliament on
the corn-laws, ere entering into important transac-
tions.

At Danzig prices appear to have remained very
nearly stationar)^, and the amount of business done
there seems to have been trifling. Of really fine
high mixed (old) wheat, the stocks had, we are in-
formed, become very small, and for superior sam-
ples the high rate of 5Ss. per qr. free on board
had been asked, whilst fair high mixed had been
held at 52s. to 53s., and common mixed (new) at
47s. to 48s. per qr. free on board. Owing to the
political state of Poland, it was deemed probable
that the supplies from that country would be unu-
sually small, which consideration had imparted
additional firmness to holders.

The Vistula was on the l7th March free from ice,
but no supplies had yet come down. The weather
was then unusually mild, and vegetation much
more forward than in ordinary years.

At some of the Lower Baltic ports prices of
wheat have slightly receded, similar equalities to
those held at the close of February at 48s. to 50s.
(viz., superior red of 6l to G2lbs. weight) having
lately been sold so as not to stand in more than
46s. to 46s. 6d. per qr. free on board. The freight
from Rostock, Stettin, and neighbouring ports, to
England, averages 3s. to 3s. 6d. per qr. this
spring, which, with insurance and Sound dues, will
make the total cost here 51s. to 52s., less duty;
whilst similar descriptions may be bought at pre-
sent in bond, in London, at 49s. to 50s. per qr.
There is, consequently, not much encouragement
to send out orders to the other side; and it is
pretty certain that foreign merchants will not con-
sign on their own account with so little prospect of
a profit.

Quotations of spring corn are relatively higher
than those of wheat all over the Continent ; and
in the first instance no supphes of importance,
of either barley or oats, need be calculated on.

In Holland and Belgium prices of wheat are a
trifle higher than in this country ; but the differ-
ence is not sufficiently great to admit of shipments
being made from Great Britain to the Netherlands
with advantage. It is likely, however, that some
of the wheat which would in ordinary seasons

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE;

887

ha\'e been shipped to England will find its way
into the Dutch and Flemish markets, which niay
indirectly assist to support quotations here.

From the southern and eastern countries of
Europe we have nothing new to conununicate.
At Leghorn, Trieste, &c., wheat was, according to
the most recent accounts, held too high to lead us
to beheve that any shi])ments will be made from
those places to Great Britain. At MarseiUes, how-
ever, a few purchases appear to have l^een made
on Enghsh account, principally Polish Odessa,
which will stand in, here, 46s. to 47s. per qr.

The latest accounts from America inform us
that, owing to the expected reduction in the duties
here, flour had been in good request, realizing 5^
dollars at the principal shipping ports in the
United States, and at '28s. to 30s. per brl. in the
Canadian markets.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

March 23.
Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 5i

Old, red 5f5

Rye, old 34

Baiiley, Grinding, 22 31 Malting 81

Irish -.'7

Malt, Suflolli and Norfolk 58

Kingston and VV'are CO

Oats, Yorl<sli. & Lincolnshire, feed ti'i
Youghall and Cork, blacK. . 22

Dublin :a

Waterford, white 21

Beans, Tick, new ."34

Peas, Grey , 30

White 4(i

Flour, Town-made 46 5-1 Suflblk 42
Stockton ;ind Norfolk -10 41
FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLC

Wheat, Danlzic 52

Hanil^urg 50

Rostock lyi

Barley 20 2-5

Oats, Brew 22

Beans - 44

Peas 5)

Fuiuu, American, per brl 28

58

White .. 64

00

02

Do (iO

04

33

New •••■8

40

U

Clievalier S6

—

2S

P.cre ... 26

27

G3

Brown.. 50

(iO

—

Chevalier 05

—

24

Pot.ato.. 20

—

2!

Cork,white23

—

24

V.'esliiort 24

25

23

BlaoK .. 23

24

88

Old, small 48

50

Mai)Ie.. 36

—

48

Boilers.. 50
persk. of 280 lbs

-

Irish 44 40

:>VB

IN BUND.

56

fine — GO

52

64

26

24

Feed .. 19

20

PRICES OF SEEDS.

March 23,

Seed, Kape ^U. 26.'. Irish ..—/. —i. per last.

"ilto,new 25'. —/. per last.

Linseed, Baltic. 4') 41 . Odessa 45 47
Linseed, Baltic and Itiissia, 38 40, finer sorts, 43 -tS per qr
Mustard, while 10 12 brown— - per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English. . — 10/. 10s. lo 11'. Os. per loilO
Linseed, Knglish, sowing 5t 60 crusliing •15 47 p*r qt

46 new .. 48 .')0 percvvt.

13 percwt.

12 wliitc. t) 11 p. bus'i

38 per qr.
24 old.. — new 28

Cnrraway 44

Coriander 10

Mustard, brown, new. . . . 10

Hempseed 35

Trefoil 17

Mediter. ic Odessa 44 45
Canary, 48 49 per qr

T.iies, Winter

Tares, old — —

Rye Grass, English....

fine 51 52s.
Cs. oa. to Os. Od.

new— — per qr.
— — Scotch

— nominal.

PRICES OF HOPS.
BOROUGH, Monday, March 23,
The demand for Hops has rather improved, but pre-
vious rates are current. New Kent pockets, 5/. 5s. to
6/. 10s. ; choice do., 71. to 01. ; Su.sse.x pockets, 5/. 5s .
to G/. ; choice, 6/. 15s.

POTATO MARKET.
SOUTHWARK, Waterside, March 23.
The weather during the past week lias been very cold,
which is favourable to the consumption of Potatoes, and
has increased the demand. The wind continuing favour-
able, brought up the loaded ships from the northern
districts, therefore the supply has been equal to the
demand ; but there was considerable business done at
the following quotations: — York Reds, 120s. to 140s.;
do. Regents, 70s. to 100s. ; Shaws, for plants, 70s. to
80s. i Scotch Reds, 80s. to 90s.

lliillic .. —

WEEKLY AVERAGES hy
tlie Imp. Quarter, from the
O.izeile, of Friday last,
Marcli -Olh, 18.16.

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN.

AVER.40ES from the corres-
ponding Ga/.elte In the lasl
year, Friilay, March 21st,
1845.

s. ''■.

Wheat 45 1

Bakley 32 2

Oat3 21 4

Rye 31 1

Beans 34 7

Vkaa 35 S

Wheat 54

Barlry 29

Oats 21

Bye 34

Beans 35

Prar 34

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Weekending , Wheal, i Barley. Oats. , Rye. Beans.. Peas.

Feb. 7lh I 54 3

14th ! 54 0

2lst..., ..' .53 0

2>*ih ! 54 0

March 7th I 54 IC

14th 51 3

A^';;rf^alr averajje of
till- six weeks Hiiicli

fS tb(? duty. rA 7
payulile in
Lmidon till Wi-d
n.sdiiy m'xt inclu.
s:»p, anil at tlii-Out-
1.01-13 till tlif ariiral
of the mail of thai I
d.iy fii.m Lond->u . .1 IS 0
Pn. on f;Ti\\\i fromi
i:rtti:ili i»'»8btusiori6|
out uf Europe ... 5 0

D

30 10
30 G
29 11
39 7
29 8
29 4

29 11

0 0

J 6

21

7

34

•>

21

9

32

7

21

6

:i2

10

21

5

33

4

21

10

33

0

21

9

34

2

21

8

33

5

6

0

0

6

1
2

0

1

0

35 9 1
U 9 1
34 9
34 2

34 111

35 2,

35 6

35 7

34 3

35 2

33 8

34 9

34 11 84 10

S 0
0 fl'

0 6

Cattle Insurance. — The importance of in-
surance is nowhere more e^'ident than in the
examples which the Farmers' and Graziers' j\Iu-
tual Cattle Insurance Association have adduced
in a very interesting essay on Pleura Pneumonia,
which they have just presented gratis to the iniblic
with their last ])rospectus. From it we may make
the following analysis of the number of losses
which have been paid to difterent persons whose
stocks have suftered from the epidimic :— " In an
immense number of instances parties have been
paid losses by pleuro pneumonia from 1 to 3 head
each.

7 persons have been paid for -

7 " " "

6

"r (( It ((

G

5

1
3

2 » « "

4 " •' "

3

1

2

1

This speaks volumes upon the wide spread benefits
which this society have afforded to the farmer and
stockholder.

4 ho

rses

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

21

388

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRICES OF SHARES.

Div. last
Shares, half vear

2t,000

9,500
10,000
30,000

9,500
15,000

6,640

86,000
51,000

42,000

40,000

35,000

21,600
19,000
12,800
17,000
56,000

144,000
144,000

4,500
2,000

18,000

18,000
26,000
26,000

10,800

RAILWAYS.

Price ppr

"5 a i
125 a 6

(lis
83

m a J

10,918
10,918
10,918
8,000

12,000
20,000

10,000

25,000
25,000

87,500

20,000

8,000

8.000

8,000

15,000

50,000

6,000
16,000

Aberdeen ..- .lOZ pel

Amber, Notngbin , Boston, & EreTi-asli

June 2|Z pil

•21 psh Armas;h,CoIeraiiie,Portrush25?sIil|/pii

Bideford and Tsivistock Ifi pd

lOs Birmingham and GUnicesterlOOZ sli pd

Do. New, iss. T^ dis. .. 25/ sh 17^/ pd
Birmingham and Oxford Junction,
20/ sli 2/ l;d
Boston, Stamford, and Birmingh. 22spd
Brighton,Lewes, & Hastinss,50/sh20/pd
U 88 psh Bristol and Exeter .... 100/ gh 70/ pd

Ditto New 33 j/ sh 5/ pd

12s p sh Bristol and Gloucester ..50/ sh 3"/ pd
Bristol and Liverpool Junction 2.J/ pd

Caledonian 50/ sh 1 0/ pd

Ditto J Shares 25/ sh 2*/ pd|2f a ^

Do. Extension 2'jI sh 2|/ p(l'I| a |

Clieltenham and Oxford 2/ pd|

Chelmsford and Burv If/ pdl

Chester and Holyhead... 50/ sh 20/ pd;20 a lyj

Chester and Manchester 42s pd

Clydesdale Junction .5/ pd

Cor!c,Blackrock,&Passages22ssh22spd
Cork and Killarney . . . 50/ sh 2^1 pd

Cork and Waterford 25/ sh l|/ pd

Cornwall 50/ sh 5/ pd

Derby, Uttoxeter, and Stafford 2|/ pd

Direct Manchester(Remington's)20/sh

2if/pd

Do. Do. (Rastrick's) ... 51/ pd

Direct Northern 60/ sli 2,J/ pd

Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd

Dublin and Armagh 11' Pc"

Dublin ik Belfast Junction. .50 'sh 5/pd
Dublin,Belfast,&Coleraine, 50'sh 2^/pd
Dublin and Galway . . . . 50/ sh 4/ pd
Dundalk and Enniskillen 50/ sh 5/pdj
3s p sh Eastern Cou,?ties .. 25/ sh H/ Ifis pd SOf a J

iDo. New 25/ sh 8/ 16s pd 5* pm

'Do Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 1.3s 4dsh pd f pm
[Ditto ditto. No. 2 ..6/l3s4d 6/13s4d | pm
Do. York Extension.... 2n/ sh iOs pd IJ a J
lEast Dereham and Norwich . . , 1/ pd

1 Eastern Union .^0/ sh 25/ pd

Ditto Quarter Shares. ..12j/sh sa/ pd

East Lincolnshire IJ/ pd Ij a ^

East and West of England If/ pd

inOsps Edinburgh feGlasgovv .... 50/ sh pd'72| a 3

Ditto Half Shares. 6/ pd!

s 6d ps Ditto Quaiter Shares 12^/shpdl8i

|Ditto New ^ Shares 12^/ sh 10/ pd 15

iEdinburgh and Northern,25/sh 14/ pd

jEdinburiih and Perth 3/ pd

|Ely and Hunlingdon . , 25/ sh 5/ pd

lEnnisldllcn and sligo 2.^1 pd

Exeter,Yeovil, &Dorchest.,5(i/sh2f/pd If a f
Goole Doncast.&Sheffld., 20/sh 42s pd g pm

<'i a 1
31 a I
2 a If

7 a ei
I* a 2

5/ per ct
HI per cl
6/ per ct

3/ p sh

IOS p sh

il per ct
4/ per ct

1/ per ct

10/per ct
lO/perct

Grand Junction 100/ sh pd

Ditto Half Share.? 50/ sli pd

Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh pd

Grar.d Union (Notlingli.&Lynn)!^/ pd 1 a Oj
Great Leinster & Munster IOO/sh7.S/pd
Great Eastern and Western. . . 2J/ pd | a
Great Grimsby ic ShetReld, 50/sh 51 pd
Great Southern & Western (Irehind)

50/ sh 15/ pd I6J ex-d

Ditto Extension 50 sh 15/ pd

Great Munster 2i/ pd

Great North of England. . . . 100/ sh pd 215

Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd

Ditto New 30/ sh 5/pdi

Ditto New li/ pd;i3aal4i

Great Western 100/ sh 85/pd(14.>

Ditto Half Shares SO/sh pd|83

Diito Quarter Shares 5/ pd 16JaI5|

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 20/ pd!32 a J

Guildford, Farnham, and Portsmouth,!
50/i,h 5'pd

Harwich 20/ sh 1/ pd!

Hull and Selby 50/ sh pd 102al00j

Do, Quarter Sliares 12.^/ sh pd

Do. Half Shares 25/ sh 7/ pd 26 a 5^

Inverness and Elgin . . . 20/ sh 2/ pd

Irish Norih Midland 1|' pd

I'le of Axholrae 2j/ pd

Kendal and Windermere 25/ sh I^/ pd
Lancaster and Carlisle... 60/ sh 35/ pd olj a 2
Do. New 5/ pd 9^

5,100
7,908
11,475

41250001
41,250
54,450

48,000

86,000
4,500

33,000
83,000

43,077
11,136

90,000
20,000

10,000
10,000
8,000

13,000
13,0n0
19,500
108,565
24,336

80,000
30,000

4155400/
12,500

30s p sh

8s0d p sh

IOs

i dis

I dis

ii a l

217

a 18

50 a 1

27

23^

a 3

'i

623

a 3

281
21 a
9J

V

Teeds & Carlisle 2^/ id

Leicester and Birniingham20/ h 22si;d
Leicester and Bedford . 20/ sh22spd ;
Leic.,Tani.,Cov.,Bir.&Trnt.VaU.Junc.
20/sh 42spd
Limerick and Waterford 50/sh 7/ pd
4j/perctiLiverpoo! & Mancliester....lf)0/ sli pri

4^/perctjDitto Half Shares 50/ sh pd

4|/perct|Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh pd

jLiverpool & Leeds Direct 50/sh 2|/pd ■
Lpool., Manch., and Newcastle Junc-

i tion 2^/ pd

5/ perct London & Birmingham...... . Stock '

5/ per ct Ditto Thirds 82/ sh 16/ pd i

5/ per ct Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 2/ pd '

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd ^

3s London and Birmingham Extension

25/ sh 1|/ pd
London & Blackwall . . Av. 16/ 13s 46 ■

Ditto New 2j/pd

Ditto Extension 3/ pd

London and Brishton 50/ sh pd I

Ditto Consolidated Eighths50/sh 40/pd

Ditto Fifths 50/ sh 20/ pd :

London & Croydon .... Av. lS/I.5s9d
Do. Guaranteed 5 per Ct.. 9/ sh 9/ pd
London and Oxford.... 25/ sh 1|/ pd
London &c Greenwich . . Av. 12/ 15s 4d !
Preference or Privilege. ,Ar. 18/ 17s2d
London, Hounslow, & Western. .2/ pd
2/ Os psh London & South West... Av.41/ 6s lOd '
DittuConsolidatedEighths,40/pshi8/pd

Ditto New..,.. 50/shl2/pd:

Ditto New 40/ sh 10/ pd

London and York 50/ sh 2^/ pd{2? a 3

i Do. i Shares 25/ sh 2^/ pd 2|

JLondon and Windsor,... 25/sh Igl pd
London, Warwick, & Kidder. 5(1/ sh
2^/pd
London, Salisbury,&Ycovil 50/sh ^^/pd
Londonderry&CoIeraine, 50/ sh 7^/ pd
Londonderry&Enniskillen=>0/sh 7j/pd

Lynn and Ely 25/sh 10/ pd !

Lynn and Dereham .... 25/ sh 10/ pd !
Manchester & Leeds .. 100/ sh 82/ pd

Ditto Half Shares 50/sh 38/ pd;

Ditto Quarter Shares .... 2.i/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 1/ pJHU a i

Ditto Sixteenths 6|/ sh 6J/ pdl

Do. Extension 42spd 3 pm

Manchester *c Birming.. 40/ sh 40/pd 76 ex-d

Do. i Shares, A 10/ sh 4/ pd HJ ex-d

Do. Do., B 10/ sh 2/ pd 3^ ex-d

Do. Do, C l/pd7^ex-d

Do. Continuation and Welsh Junc-|

tion li^pdl

Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock,

20/ sh 4« pd Ig pm
Manchester, Bir., & Mould Junction [
Manchester to Southampton... 2/ pdjl| a 2

3/ per ctlMidland Stock, 145 a 4J

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pdl

978300/
15,000

20,000

20,000

21,000
86,000

10,256
3,136
12,208

1-1,000
19,000
19,000

2/18s5ps
25s8d p s
2s

U p sh

I

6 a 5i
43 a 2|
a2

I a i
If a

122

5.'3

123all3

Ditto New 40/sh 18/ pd 30j

46s3dpc Ditto Eirrainglian. & Derby Stock 117

MidlandGrt,West.(Irish)50/ sh 10/ pd

Do. Extension to Sligo 2^/ pd

21 p sh Newcastle and Carlisle 100/ sh pd 115 J

Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire

Junction 1|/ pd

19s6d pB r>ewcstl&Darlingt June... 25/sh 25/ pd

New l'5/sh 1 / pd !

IOs p sh Ditto New (Brandli.ig).. 25/sh 20/pd
Newcastle & Berwick .. 25/ sh 10/ pel
Newport and Abergavenny.... 2J/ pd

New Ross and Carlow 2'.is pd

Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 4^1 pd
Newark, Sheffieldj&Boston 25/sh 2|/pd

Nortli British 25/sh ',^0/ pd '

Ditto i Shares 12J'sh e/pJ

Ditto Carlisle Extension. 1 2 J/sh li/pd '■

Ditto Dalkeith 25/ sh pd

Do. Do 5/ sh pd 6

North Devon.. 2/ pd

I / I Os Northern & Eastern .... 50/ sh 50/ pd
22s 6d Do. Scrip . . iss. 5 dis. . ..50/ sh 40/ pd

7s 6d Do. i Shares 12/ lOs sh pd

Do. New 1/ pd

NorthKent&Direct Dover, 50/sh 2i/pd If a 2
North Staffordshire.... 20/ sh 42s. pd 3^ pm

North Wales 25/sh SJ/ pd

Norwich and Brandon ..2ii/sh 18/ pd|2ij a J
Ditto New 10/ sh 5/ pdj

13 a

2J

9^ a

g

36i

a a

I8J

a 19

li

26 a

Sff

Jft a

H

2i ,.

k

rrinted by Joseph Rogerson; 24, Korfolk-street, Stiaud, Loudou*

*^(W^ Jgfff^

^/^/^/7'^i

6^^

'.cidm JhiUished by Jast^ Rg^ersoii. 24.IlcrrfoiJi, Sircci., Stiand. J84S

THE FAKMER'S MAGAZUSTE.

MAY, 1846.

No. 0.— YoL. XIII.]

[Second Series.

PLATE I.
PORTRAIT OF C. IIILLYARD, ESQ.

PLATE II.

The Bubject of our second plate is a diagram given in the Government Report " On the relative
value of Barley, Malt, Molasses, Linbeed, and Bean Meal as food for Cows." It is a new mode
of demonstrating such a subject, and will require some study to be understood by our dairy farmers.
It will, we expect, be regarded by them as more scientific than practical. From this diagram it
appears that the five several articles of food enumerated, stand in the following order of value in
producing milk : — 1st, Bean Mealj 2ad, Barley and Linseed; 3rd, Barley and Molasses; 4th, Malt;
5th, Barley. See extracts from report, page 400.

C. HILL YARD, ESQ.,

OF T H O R P E L A N D S, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.

(Lale President of the Northamptonshire Farming and Grazing Society.)

ENGRAVED BY J. B. HUNT, FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY — BEARD.

At the present moment, when, if possible, in-
creased exertion and ability is so generally de-
manded from the sons of agriculture — when im-
provement, our rulers tell us, must not only be
attempted, but accomplished, and when a true sys-
tem of economy is so greatly necessary in carrying
the farmer through well-exj)erienced, practical pre-
ceptors become doubly valuable. ^len who, with-
out indidging in wild theory, clothed in fine words,
or introducing novelties that but add to expenses,
can show the tenant farmer how to improve — can
speak to him with a real knowledge and sympathy,
from having long tried all they teach, and who
write no less with a j)roud pleasure in their theme
than a good use in their effect. The great difficulty
inpreparing pul)lications on agriculture for thepress,
is the divided attention between the plough and the
pen, the hours that must be spent in the field as well
as the closet. It is a difficulty, and a grand one, that
comparatively few have the will or the way to meet,
while at the same time it embodies a benefit to the
whole class of agriculturists, that should cheer as it
elevates those who dare to contend with it. In any
calling, from the very coarsest to the most refined,
the opinion of the working man — the one who
gives his whole attention to it hour after hour and
day after day — is above all others that we should
quote and reason from : it is his par excellence we
must take as the authority, as from him it is we
have confirmation of the bad, and through his prac-
tice we trace our way to the good. In no pursuit,
moreover, is tliis more strikmg or imperative than
in that of the farmer. The continual changes that

OLD SERIES.'\

his labour, far beyond that of others, undergoes
from weather and climate, the gradual stealthy pro-
cess of vegetation, the vast difference in one soil
and another, with a thousand other things, render
the testimony of the man who has watched and
worked wth them one and all as indispensible, as
generally it is interesting. The number of worthy
witnesses who have volunteered evidence of this
kind, and published their experience for the benefit
of their brethren, we repeat, is not great — the
stronger cause for our doing honour to them and
their exertions. As, then, " a working man,"
as one who has spent his morning in the field and
his evening in the study, as one who has long con-
tended with and well-mastered the difficulties that
oppose the agricultural author — as one who has
worked in, and watched the eflect of, all winds and
weathers on his favourite occupation — and as one
who may well, from his own course, show the
tenant farmer how to improve, do we usher in the
gentleman whose portrait stands prefixed to our
present number. To many of our readers the name
of HiUyard will be assm-ance sufficient of our doing
its owner nothing more than common justice ; while
to those who as yet are not so well acquainted with
the features or the character of the man, we must give
the leading points, in a life as ably as unceasingly
devoted to practical farming and grazing.

Mr. Hillyard, now in his seventy-ninth year,
from his very boyhood had a strong taste for the
life in which he was afterwards destined to play so
prominent and good a part. His education, how-
ever, and his early pursuits, were, we believe, di-

2 c [No. 5.— FOL. XXIV.

300

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rected into a less congenial channel, and it was not
until his accession to a small estate, by the death
of a near relation, that he was enabled to enter on
those duties and pleasures which hand in hand
meet the intelligent farmer on his rovmds. Once
well established in a position he had so long
coveted, his fitness for it quickly became apparent;
while his abilities, from the very first, were to a
great extent engaged in furthering the general in-
terests of that occupation of which we have now the
pleasure of exhibiting him as so good an example
and able a member. In 1811, conscious of the
• benefit to be derived from mutually aiding and ad-
vising each other, he proposed the Northampton
County Agricultural Society, and %vith the tem-
porary support of nearly all the influential men in
any way connected with agriculture, succeeded in
forming it. This we must consider as the first piece
of pubUc good emanating from Mr. Hillyard,
though its effect was neither then in accordance
with its merit or what it would have been some
years later. At that period the whole body wanted
either the penetration or energy of its leader ; and
consequently, after languishing four or five years,
the Northampton County Agricultural Society was
suffered to drop. Little dispirited by this ill-
requited labour, in 1819 he proposed and again es-
tablished a second society, of much the same de-
scription, though leather more confined in its
object, and more directly bearing upon the tenant
farmers' cause. This was called the Northampton-
shire Farming and Grazing Society, to which Mr.
Hillyard was at once elected President — an office
which he continued to hold for five-and-twenty
years, with honour to himself and veiy available
benefit to the Society. The very fact of the founder
and President directing or managing the Society
for such a length of time, \vould of itself show
that the Northamptonshire farmers met this second
eifort on their behalf with nothing of that apathy
which had characterized their reception of the first.
We are happy, however, to add, that we have
strong reason even beyond this, to give them full
credit for appreciating the labours of their Presi-
dent from another simple fact, which we shall allowto
speak for itself, as reported in the county papers of
1837 :—

"At the Annual Meeting of the Farming and
Grazing Society, held on the 13th of September,
the members of the Society having requested Lord
Spencer to present to Mr. Hillyard a piece of plate
as a testimony of their respect, his Lordship ad-
dressed Mr. Hillyard as follows : — ' I have under-
taken, at the request of the members of this So-
ciety, a duty which is far from xmpleasing to me.
We have all been aware of the service which you
have rendered this Society : we. have considered
that you were the first to set it on foot, and that but
for your constant and unwearied exertion, great
eacrifice of time, and, I feai', to a certain extent,
great sacrifice of money, it must at times have
fallen to the ground. We feel, therefore, that you
have conferred a great benefit on this county ; and
we knovv' that your services have been rendered
with a temper and good humour as gratifying as
their, efficacy. We therefore ofifer for your ac-
ceptance this piece of plate. It is but a small token

of our satisfaction, but I know you will value it in
the highest possible degree, because we present it
as an acknowledgment of your endeavours, not
only to serve this Society, but to promote the agri-
culture of the whole country (cheers). I never
felt more satisfaction than in contributing to this
piece of plate ; and I am most happy in being the
instrument by whom the members are pleased to
convey it to you. I am sure you will feel the value
of the approbation of so large a body of your fel-
low farmers.' His Lordship, whose speech was
received with A-ery cordial cheers, then presented a
large silver bowl, very handsomely chased, and
bearing this inscription : ' Presented to Clark Hill-
yard, Esq., their President, by the Northampton-
shire Farming and Grazing Society, September
13th, 1837-'"

This speaks for itself. Few, indeed, but those
who have tried it, can properly estimate the con-
stant and unwearied exertion, the tact, the temper,
the sacrifice of time and money required to start a
society of this sort, however cordial and unanimous
the county may feel towards it. Once put into
order, and all is comparatively easy; while the
foundation, the organization — hie labor, hoc opus
est — and none, we are sorry to say, in general,
more thankless or liable to misinterpretation. Still,
with the above extract before us, we can complain
but little on this point as regards Mr. Hillyard,
the more especially when we consider the assist-
ance and countenance which the late Lord Spencer
gave the undertaking almost from the time of its
enrolling the original members. Amongst other
steps towards its advancement, his Lordship an-
nually offered prizes for sheej) and cattle ; whUe the
Society's show of animals, with the ploughing and
shearing matches, were held at his beautiful farm,
Brampton, near Althorp, the latter, by the way, being
generally filled for the occasion with noblemen and
distinguished agriculturists. So great, in fact, was
the interest taken by Lord Spencer in the Farming
and Grazing Society of his native county, that
Mr. Hillyard repeatedly offered to resign the
President's chair and yield it up to him — an offer as
often refused by his Lordship, with the remark,
that " as long as Mr. Hillyard had life and health
to hold it, the office could not be in better hands."
The first President consequently continued to ex-
ercise his functions until 1843, the year in which
Lord Spencer erased his name from the Society,
owing to his memorable speech relative to the du-
ties on corn, an absence of support which at once
induced Mr. Hillyard to withdraw from the labour
of love he had engaged on with a devotion and
judgment that promised, as it deserved, a more
agreeable termination.

The agricultural society is net the only public
institution connected with the toum and county of
Northampton, which traces its existence to the
same source. About ten years since, Mr. Hillyard
perceiving the want of, and good hkely to arise
from, an annual wool fair, determined on trying to
establish one — an attempt which, from the samples
onljfcbeing brought to market, did not at first very
generally " take." Latterly, however, since the
whole bulk has been sent in, a gradual improve-
ment in attendance and spirit has been observable,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

891

and at present the Xorthampton Wool Fair evinces
every sign of a long and active existence. Farther
testimony, again, of Mr. Hillyard's good deeds for all
his neighbours, poor asAvell as rich, may be found
in the liistory of the Northampton Savings' Bank,
to start whicb, he, in conjunction with two other
gentlemen, worked night after night in drawing
up rules and regulations. These at length finished,
a meeting of the whole coimty was convened, and,
under the direction of Mr. Hillyard, the Savings'
Bank agreed on— about the second ever opened in
this conntiy.

So much for the character Mr. Hillyard has
earned around his own homestead : his more
A\'idely-extended, though it would be difficult to
call them his greater efforts, in the cause of agri-
culture, have, as we hinted in the outset of this
paper, been chiefly made by means of the press.
Of his first work, " Practical Farming and Graz-
ing," originally written for the use of his son (a
clergy^man), we need say little more than that it has
already passed through three editions, and that it
contains matter as valuable at this moment as when
first forwarded to the printer. The st)'le in which
it is written, plain, unaffected, and somewhat con-
densed, is admirably adapted to the class of readers
it is intended for, independently of the mass of
fact and keen obsen-ation illustrating every
branch of the subject oiu' author discourses on.
Beyond this Mr. Hillyard's pen has been for the
most part employed in the periodicals representing
the interests of the farmer, formerly in contri-
butions to Riiffi/s Farmers^ Journal, and of late years
pretty constantly in letters for the Mark Lane Ex-
press. It was in Ruffifs Farmers' Journal that,
imder the signature of "A Northamptonshire
Farmer," he took part in a controversy which
excited much interest at the time, on the policy
of introducing the Merino breed of sheep as
general stock into this countr)'. Mr. Hillyard
strenuously o])posed the scheme; M'hile the fa-
ther of the late George "Webb Hall, Esq., as
" Alpha," v.-as as warm in his support of it. Com-
monly such a kind of argument ends in either party
failing to convince the other ; though in this case,
notwithstanding the acknowledged ability of their
advocate, " the Foreigners," were condemned —
a sentence which public opinion and practice has
since tended to confirm. Amongst the multitude
of other subjects on which oin- "Northamptonshire
Farmer " has ably filled up his leisui'e, we can
only find space for the names and nature
of a few of the more important : — "' Letters on
the injury done to the tenant farmer hy large tim-
ber being suffered to grow in the fences enclosing
arable land, and the bad eflfects of high and thick
hedges generally;" '* On the advantages of plough-
ing up inferior pasture-land to ])roduce grain, and
the common good arising from bringing waste-land
into cultivation;" *' On the great amount of parish
rates in populous agricultiual disliicts, from the
majority of farmers emplojing so few labom'ers,
and a proposal for a labour rate to lessen them,"
&c., &c. In the last of these Mr. Hillyard
took an immense deal of trouble, forwarding his
circulars to, and soliciting the assent to his propo-
sition from, nearly every member of the House of

Commons. In the midst, however, of his exertions,
the Poor Law Amendment Act was passed, and
stayed his proceeding fin-ther. On this point Mr.
Hillyard's practice was quite in accordance with his
precept, having employed, we beheve, tothe extent
of his holding, more regular labourers than any other
man in the county.

Any observations of ours, after this, on Mr.
Hillyard as a good, practical, and eminent British
farmer, can be little more than superfluous. One
visit to Thorpelands* would give the best proof
of its master's abihty to treat on farming and
grazing — beautifully clean and abundant crops of
grain to speak on the one part, and well-fed, well-
cared for, and well-selected stock on the other. As
regards the cultivation of the arable land — about
two-thirds, in a farm of two hundred acres — we
may more especially direct attention to the
Swede turnips and mangel wurzel (the growth of
which Mr. Hillyard was one of the first to per-
severe in), obtained with nothing but home-
made manure, and the eflficient and economical sys-
tem of ploughing with two horses abreast. In
grazing, the nature of his land has not allowed him
so great a scope, though as a stall-feeder of cattle
we believe him to be amongst the very largest in
the county, and as such, a constant exhibitor at the
principal shows, but not with that general success
which might have been imagined, from his never
having had good grazing land to get his beasts in
good condition before putting them into the stalls.
In 1838, he gained the Gold Medal, with a beautiful
North Devon ox. He has some beautiful cattle,
which he bred out of a Scotch cow, put to a pure
bred short-horned bull, which are suited to pastures
not good enough for well bred short-horns. His
crosses of the Leicester and Southdown are very
promising, although he considers them as yet
scarcely allowed sufficient time to arrive at their
real excellence. As a correct judge of stock ge-
nerally his opinion is eagerly_ sought, and as such
he frequently officiates as judge at public meetings.

Mr. Hillyard is an original Member of the Coun-
cil of the Royal Agricultural Society ; has been an
attendant at most of the leading Agricultural So-
cieties in the kingdom, and on terms of intimacy
with the majority uf our leading agriculturists:
amongst others, he long enjoyed the friendship of
the late Earls Spencer and Leicester, at whose
mansions he was ever a welcome guest, and to the
latter of whom he in 1840 dedicated his third
edition of " Fanning and Grazing." With a few
words from this said dedication, used in the same
good spirit it was first offered, but now applied o
Mr. Hillyard himself, would we close our sketch : —
" We have only to express our most ardent wishes
that the valuable life which has been prolonged
some years beyond what is called the life of man,
may yet be further spared to his own family, and to
the British agricultural community."

* Mr. Hillyard, we are informed, purchased this
property in 1814, but sold it again a fev/ years ago
to Lewis Loyd, Esq., the banker, who has also
bought the Pytchley and Overstone estates, with
most of the land adjoining in Little Bitting, Sywell,
and Abington.

2 O 2

392

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REPORT TO HER
ON THE RELATIVE VALUE OF BARLEY

B X r E R I M E N I S ON THE T A T T E N I N G OF TWO B U L L 0 C K &.

Coinineiiced 1st October, 1845.
Bullock A weighed 9 cwt. 7 lbs.

DATE.

Food in lbs.

Dung.

Weight of
Bullock.

Hay.

Barley.

Turnips.

1845.

Cwt. lbs.

October

1

10-2346

6

• . . .

9 7

jy

2

10-2346

6

32-6156

3

13-8125

9

40-2187

3f

4

9-0937

9

37-8750

9 10

99

5

13-8750

12

26-0898

3J

6

11-7187

12

29-0898

ff

7

17-6562

12

37-3125

99

8

14-9687

12

41-7851

9 93-5

835 Ibb. Increase.

5>

9

15-4843

12

46-6289

3>

10

18-4921

12

35-8750

99

11

22-4140

12

45-92I8

»»

12

22-4179

12

43-4453

9 101

7 jibs. do.

13

22-5312

12

41-5234

99

14

21-4765

12

38-1523

10 4

15 lbs. do.

3>

15

21-9765

12

37-5625

)>

16

22-1132

12

37-9375

35

17

22-6562

12

40-8515

99

18

21-6210

12

43-9648

10 14-5

lOj lbs. do.

99

19

16-8320

12

41-7187

JJ

20

7-7421

12

33-5117

J*

21

5-0625

12

27-7812

3>

22

10-8789

12

31-5976

9 104

22Hbs. Decrease.

93

23

10-9414

12

41-6210

5J

24

16-7500

12

38-6718

3»

25

9-7031

8

56

34-2031

10 I7i

loHbs. Increase.

9>

26

14-4687

8

56

43-4002

J>

27

12-8281

8

56

47-2968

J>

28

8-7812

8

56

37-7812

November

8

10-0000

8

56

28-6250

9 83

46 olbb. Decrease.

99

9

8-9375

8

56

26-6250

99

10

7-9375

8

56

J>

11

9-1250

8

56

27-6289

S3

12

13-1289

8

56

32-4687

9 104

2 1 lbs. Increase.'

13

9-4453

8

56

26-5273

33

14

5-6757

S

56

21-8125

99

15

8-6093

8

56

28.0785

10 20

18 lbs. do.

»

16

9-2109

8

56

32-6875

33-

17

11-1835

8

56

36-1835

39

18

10-8359

8

56

33-8867

99

19

10-2860

8

56

29-0315

10 18

2 lbs. Decrease.

33

20

8-0078

8

56

33-2500

39

21

13-4062

8

56

33-2500

19

22

13-0546

8

56

26-7500

10 34

16 lbs. Increase.

»>

23

11-0312

10

55

43-9375

59

24

11-5781

10

56

37-0117

93

25

4-6875

10

56

42-5000

J>

26

11-0195

10

56

35-8750

10 51

17 lbs. do.

27

11-6171

10

56

38-7500

99

28

10-7187

10

56

45-0312

29

12-0703

12

, ,

29'2656

10 49

2 lbs. Decrease.

JJ

30

10-3632

10

56

31-8750

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3on

MAJESTY'S CJOVERX:\[ENT.
AND MALT IN FATl'KXLNO BULLOCKS.

E X P E It Uf E N T S OS T U i: V \ T T r. N I \ G Of TWO TITT T, T, 0 C K ».

Commenced 1st October, 1845.

Bl'LLOCK B -WEICIIED 10 CWT. 106 LBS,

DATE.

Food in lbs.

Dung.

Weigbt of
Bullock.

Hay.

Malt. Tui

•nips.

1845.

Cwf. tbs.

October 1

8-5859

6

41-7695

10 106

2

13-8984

6

30-2578

" 3

10-0000

9

32-8867

» 'i

10-0000

9

25-2109

11 30

3, 5

15-0468

12

36-4023

6

11-0312

12

34-9296

>j 7

17-7500

12

42-6210

8

14-9687

12

41-7851

11 56

26 lbs. Increase.

9

15-3710

12

30-5585

10

18-3320

12

53-9882

n

22-3515

12

40-9101

12

21-9921

12

42-1210

13

22-5312

12

41-5234

14

22-1523

12

47-4375

15

21-6484

12

42-3828

11 84-5

2S-5lbs. do.

16

22-1132

12

37*0820

17

22-2031

12

40-4648

18

22-0742

12

46-9609

11 66

lS-5lbs. Decrease.

19

16-2265

12

42-6875

20

13-8437

12

42-0000

21

18-9296

12

47-9531

22

10-9687

12

40-6250

11 98

32 lbs. Increase.

23

16-0273

12

41-1093

24

10-5312

12 i .

32-8085

„ 25

6-8945

8

)G

24-9609

11 895

8-5 lbs. Decrease.

26

10-2265

8 :

32-3242

27

11-1250

8 :

)6

22-6250

28

9-6601

8 :

)6

25-1562

November 8

10-0000

s :

)6

29-8437

11 36

53-5 ll)fi. Decrease.

9

12-7968

8 ;

)6

27-8281

10

10-8893

8 t

)6

32-0156

11

8-9648

8 t

)6

277500

12

11-2382

8 :

)6

37-9687

11 52

16 lbs. Increase.

13

10-7734

8 t

6

38-5468

14

8-4531

8 :

6

35-5976

15

8-9531

8 C

6

39-2851

11 58

6 11)S. do.

16

12-8671

8 S

6

33-9609

17

15-0000

8 5

6

42-1250

18

13-5703

8 2

6

42-8906

19

10-2460

8 5

6

29-0312

11 6S

10 lbs. do.

20

12-2734

8 S

6

38-5625

21

13-5625

8 5

6

43-8750

22

11-7812

8 S

6

37-9414

11 90

22 11)S. lucrdase.

„ 23

13-4687

10 5

6

33-5000

24

13-7655

10 E

6

42-3750

25

11-0312

10 5

6

43-9375

2(5

14-4921

10 :

6

39'3671

11 92

2 lbs. do.

27

9-S828

10 :

6

40-6250

„ 28

10-1400

10 £

6

32-4375

29

8-5000

12

29-6875

11 96

4 lbs. do.

„ 30

14-2812

10 t

6

292421 '

394

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Expenments on the Fattening of Two Bullocks — coniiimed.
Ut'llock a.

DATE.

Food in lbs.

Dung.

We

ghtof

Bullock.

Hay.

Barley.

Turnips.

1845.

Cwt.

lbs.

December

1

8-8828

10

56

32-1406

5>

2

13-7343

10 !

56

31-8750

yy

3

13-7109

10 1

56

40-5937

10

46

3 Ibfi. Decrease.

3>

4

12-9848

10

28

40-5312

9»

5

11-1953

10

28

35-2343

99

6

7-3437

10

28

35-2812

10

.')3

7 lbs. Increase.

iy

7

7-7265

10

28

19-5156

5>

8

12-0862

10

28

30-9843

9y

9

18-0000

10

28

44-2656

■ >y

10

15-0000

10 .

28

43-7500

10

80

27 lbs. Increase.

11

15-0000

12

28

45-7031

3>

12

13-0703

12

28

37-6015

iy

13

13-4453

12

28

37-0000

10

63

17 lbs. Decrease.

3J

14

11-4804

14

28

43-6406

J>

15

10-2031

14 1

28

38-5312

99

16

7-0546

14 i

28

38-0937

5>

17

8-3906

14 i

28

18-1250

99

18

6-1562

14 i

28

18-9843

9J

19

4-3085

14

28

18-7500

99

20

2-0742

14

28

20-5937

10

86

23 lbs. Increase.

99

21

7-0625

14

28

18-1093

99

22

4-9609

14

28

25-5937

99

23

11-0078

8

••

28-5625

Oil Cake

in lbs.

99

24

14-0000

8

2

27-2500

99

25

13-8984

8

2

30-6937

99
99

26
27

15-0000
10-3359

8
8

2^
2J

80-5937

99

28

11-0546

8

2

23-6250

99

29

9-8750

10

3

17-5937

10

41

45 lbs. Decrease.

99

30

7-8437

10

3

22-5468

99

31

14-0000

10

3

21-6015

1846.

January

1

10-3437

10

3

24-2695

»

2

14-0000

10

3

20-3437

» -

3

12-5859

10

3

30-0625

10

85

44 lbs. Increase.

j>

4

13-0390

10

3

32-1250

3>

5

11-1093

10

3

.30-0546

J>

6

13-1015

10

3

29-4687

3)

7

12-7500

10

3

34-4375

»

8

13-4531

10

3

39-3906

)>

9

12-7343

10

3

30-0156

>» ■

10

97157

10

4

37-3750

10

84

1 lb. Decrease.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

895

Experiments on the Fattening of Two Bullocks— co?jfwMei.
Bullock B.

1

Food in lbs.

Dung.

Weight of
Bullock.

.^.n. A, at

Hay.

Malt.

Turnips.

1845.

Cwt. lbs.

December

1

13-9765

10

56

30-2500

>5

2

15-0000

10

56

33-7243

?J

3

14-2265

10

56

39-5000

12 36

40 lbs. Increase.

yy

4

13-2812

10

28

43-4843

J>

5

13-3476

10

28

43-6093

■

99

6

13-0000

10

28

35-6073

11 100

48 lbs. Decrease.

y9

7

14-3281

10

28

28-5000

99

s

15-0000

10

28

46-6875

9

15-0000

10

28

40-4687

JJ

10

15-0000

12

28

44-4375 •

12 40

62 lbs. Increase.

»

11

14-3359

12

28

40-8437

99

12

13-7187

12

28

45-8125

9i

13

13-3085

12

28

41-0073

12 42

2 lbs. do.

yy

14

14-0000

14

28

43-0312

}y

15

13-4062

14

28

43-3750

99

16

13-6875

14

28

41-4687

99

17

12-8515

14

28

40-0937

99

18

9-5940

14

28

42-5781

99

19

12-8164

14

28

41-1250

»

20

9-4062

14

28

32-1992

12 42

No Change.

y9

21

10-5078

14

28

29-6875

99

22

7-0937

14

28

21-2812

99

23

9-5234

8

••

25-7031

Oil Cake.

99

24

12-7890

8

2

35-2500

,

25

11-6875

8

2

34-4375

>

26
27

15-0000
17-9414

8
8

l\

60-7656

y

28

10-5312

8

2

30-5000

>

29

12-1718

10

3

28-1875

12 8

34 lbs. Decrease.

>

30

10-5546

10 .

3

30-6953

>

31

12-5820

10

3

20-5546

1846.

January

1

13-2265

10

3

35-7343

jj

2

14-4843

10

3

30-7226

»

3

12-7187

10

3

34-8046

12 36

28 lbs. Increase.

»

4

13-7382

10

3

32-3046

T)

5

13-3906

10

3

419921

»

6

14-0390

10

3

36-9531

»

7

14-0625

10

3

49-5625

»

8

14-4921

10

3

40-2500

»

9

15-0000

10

3

35-7187

»>

10

13-2500

10

4

33-7187

12 6]

25 lbs. do.

>JG

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

E:ip«iiments on the Fattening of Two Bullocks — contmwd.
Bullock A.

1

Food in lbs

Dnn^.

^^'eight of
BuUofk.

DATK.

Oil

Bean

Hay,

Barley.

Cake.

Tiu-nii)s.

Meal.

1846.

Cwt. lbs.

January 1 1

10-2031

10

4

20-453 1

12

7-1484

10

4

20-7734

13

12-8750

10

4

37-5000

14

13-0546

10

4

44-7500

15

8-2343

10

1

14

i

39-5321

16

12-3125

10

h

14

1-
■1

29*0468

Malt.

17

12-1015

10

0-75

14

0-75

30-3281

10 81

3 lbs. Decri^ase.

18

10-9531

10

I

14

1

27-7187

19

9-2656

10

1

14

1

30-12r>

20

9-9843

10

1

14

1

28-9531

21

7-8554

10

1

14

1

40-2812

22

12-2460

10

1

14

I

29-9687

23

11-4687

10

1

H

1

34-1953

Barley.

24

11-8715

10

1

14

]

38-4804

11 5

26 lbs. Increase.

25

13-2157

10

1

14

1

28-1562

26

13-6093

10

1

14

1

24-6250

27

10-1562

10

1

14

1

23-6250

28

8-2031

10

1

14

1

26-)093

29

7-3593

10

1

14

1

23-2812

30

9-7500

10

1

14

1

17-5312

31

7-9218

10

1

14

1-.^

20-3906

11 1

4 lbs. Decrease.

Malt.

Fehraary 1

2-0000

10

1

14

1-5

24-6875

2

3-3104

10

1

14

1-5

23-5625

3

4-4062

10

1

14

1-5

20-2656

» 4

6-3359

10

1

14

1-5

27-6835

5

9-0390

10

1

14

1-5

27-0000

6

8-3398

, ,

4

28

2

29-8554

7

9-4726

, ,

4

28

0

32-8085

11 5

4 lbs. Increase.

8

10-6875

, ,

4

28

2

30-0625

9

12-4531

4

28

2

30-0625

10

11-7500

4

28

2

35-0625

11

13-7460

. .

4

28

2

39-9726

12

14-3593

« •

4

28

2

40-3750

13

12-7500

4

32

2

36-2500

14

13-2812

, ,

4

3-2

2

37*3203

11 12-5

7-5 lbs. do.

15

13-2812

4

32

2

41-1718

16

15-0000

, .

4

32

2

39*4687

17

13-7890

4

32

2

42-4375

18

9-2500

. .

4

32

2

29-4335

19

12-6210

4

32

2

31-3828

20

11-5390

4

32

2

24-7343

11 16-5

4-5 lbs. do.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

397

Experiments on the Fattening of Two BvWockB-^contmied.
Bullock B.

Foo

I in lbs

Duno-.

NVeif^hi of

HATK

Oil

Bean

Bullock.

Ihiy.

Malt.

Cake.

Turnips.

Meal.

1846

1

Cict. lbs.

January

11

15-0000

10

4

40-5000

,,

12

14-3906

10

4

51-5312

jj

13

15-0000

10

4

. .

46-6250

j»

14

14-5390

10

4

41-1875

}>

15

14-0546

10

, ,

14

1

44-4375

-•'

16

13-2343

10

-1.

14

34-5312

Barley.

j>

17

12-4687

10

0-75

1-1

0-75

36-0468

12 86

25lhs, Increase.

j>

18

13-382S

10

14

1

35-9375

>i

19

13-1875

10

14

1

29'8125

»

20

12-7968

10

U

1

30-0937

>i

21

14-5390

10

14

1

31-6562

»

22

13-8984

10

14

1

35-3437

i>

23

13-8202

10

14

1

39-0078

Malt.

»

24

15-0000

10

14

1

34-2387

13 89

3 lbs. do.

j>

25

14-2656

10

14

1

30-6875

3J

26

13-3906

10

14

1

31-5937

27

11-8867

10

14

1

31-3125

JJ

28

12-2265

10

14

1

35-1562

29

13-1484

10

J4

1

33-3231

»

30

14-2359

10

14

1

337500

Barley.

>»

31

12-6640

10

14

1-5

3I-I7IS

12 89

No Change.

Febnxary

1

10-3359

10

14

1-5

30-1484

2

8-6171

10

14

1-5

30-8281

3

7-3984

10

14

1-5

28-0312

4

13-3750

10

14

1-5

25-6406

5

14-0507

10

14

1-5

28-1484

6

8-6601

, ,

28

2

31-3125

7

6-0937

, ,

28

2

15-1328

13 0

23 lbs. Increase.

8

8'1210

, ,

28

2

21-7031

9

12-0546

, ,

28

2

26-8437

10

10-7343

, ,

28

2

28-6875

11

11-0976

. ,

28

2

22-4023

12

14-6367

4

28

2

34-0859

13

15-0000

, ,

4

32

2

30-1171

14

11-6171

. ,

4

32

2

29-1718

12 71

4I lb«. Decrease.

15

13-1015

4

32

0

31-8437

16

13-8750

4

32

2

33-9375

17

12-6718

, ,

4

32

2

30-2500

Is

12-2812

, ,

4

32

2

28-5156

19

12-0356

4

32

0

31-3437

20

11-9531

4

32

2

32-2187

11 6S-5

114-5 lbs. do.

[The object

898

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The object of the experiments exhibited in the
preceding tables was to ascertain the relativeA'alue of
barley and malt when employed to fatten bullocks.

Two lean bullocks were procured, supposed
pretty similar in their constitution; they were about
three years of age each, the progeny of the same
sire, though by different mothers. We shall dis-
tinguish them by the letters A and B. The weight
of bullock A, 9 cwt. 71bs. ; B, 10 cwt. 106 lbs, : so
that B was 211 lbs. heavier than A.

They were both fed with the same food, both in
kind and quantity ; the only difference was that a
certain number of pounds of barley were given to
the one and the same weight of malt to the other.
By some prehminary trials it was found that barley
and malt alone could not be given as food; when
it exceeded a certain quantity they began to loathe
it, and left it unconsumed. We found hay indis-
pensable. At first they got it ad libitum, the
amount being ascertained before it was given the
bullocks, and the residue uneaten carefully weighed,
and its weight deducted from the original weight.
It was soon found that the weight consumed very
seldom exceeded 15 lbs. During a considerable
part of the experiments that was the quantity ac-
tually given the buUocks. B eat more hay than
bullock A ; but bullock A eat a good deal of
the straw employed for bedding, while bullock B
never touched the straw. How much straw bul-
lock A eat could not be ascertained, but it probably
compensated for the inferior quantity of hay con-
svimed by that bullock.

We began with 6 lbs. of barley to bullock A,
and 6 lbs. of malt to bullock B, which was speedily
raised to 9 lbs. and then to 12 lbs., beyond which
we could not with safety go.

The hay consisted chiefly of the dried stalks and
leaves of the LoUium perenne ; sometime there was
a mixture of clover. It was observed that the
clover was always left vuitouched, while the loUium
was eaten.

In the preliminary experiments made before the
1st of October, we tried how far the bullocks would
relish the barley and malt if given entire, simply
steeped in warm water ; but we soon found that
when taken in this state it was not capable of being
digested by the bullock ; they were, therefore, al-
ways ground into meal. In this state, when made
into a mash with hot water, the malt was eaten with
avidity, but the barley was not so much relished ;
however, on seasoning it with salt^ it was taken,
seemingly, with as much relish as the malt.

WTien barley is converted into malt, it loses, at
an average, about a fifth of its weight ; hence 5 lbs.
of barley are equivalent to 4 lbs. of malt. In com-
paring the fattening powers of both, this proportion
ought, in strict justice, to have been followed;

6 lbs. of barley ought to have been made to cor-
respond Nvith 4*8 lbs. malt. But we thought it
better to take equal weights of both, in order to
obviate any objection that might have been made to
the fairness of the experiments.

The hay consumed by bullock A, from the let
to the loth October inclusive, was 3127769 lbs.,
and that by bullock B. 31175 lbs., or very nearly
the same by each. Bullock A consumed 198 lbs.
of barley, and bullock B the same weight of malt.
I conclude that the relative fattening value will be
proportioned to the increase of weight of the bul-
locks. Increase.

A. B.

lbs. lbs.

From 1st to 4th October 3* 36'

— 4th to 8th — 83-5 26.

— 8th to 14th ■— 22-5 28-5

109 90-5

Here the bullock fed on barley increased in
weight 109 lbs., while the bullock fed on malt in-
creased 90jlbs.

This shows a decided superiority of barley over
malt when employed, weight for weight, for fattening
bullocks.

Now this first fortnight is the portion of the ex-
periment on which the greatest reliance is to be
placed. A day or two after the 15th October the
bullocks were attacked mth a malady in the feet,
accompanied by fever, at that time very prevalent
in Glasgow, and fatal to not a few cattle. My at-
tention was drawn to it on the 18th October, by
finding that the weight of bullock B. had decreased
by 18'5 lbs. On consulting a veterinary surgeon,
he explained the nature of the disease. Bullock
B was put under his care for a week, and bullock A
was treated by him in our own cowhouse. By his
advice the quantity of barley and malt was diminished
to 8 lbs. per day, while no less than 56 lbs. of tur-
nips were given daily. The turnips were boiled,
and then mashed. Under tliis treatment the fever
left the bullocks ; and their feet, though not quite
sound, were much better. But it was the 8th of
November before we were in a condition to resume
our experiments. At that time the weight of the
bullocks was as follows : —

A, 9 cwt. 83 lbs., or 76 lbs. heavier than at first ;
B, 1 1 cwt. 36 lbs., or 6 lbs. hea\ier than at first.
Bullock B had been much worse than A. Almost
all the additional weight which it had gained was
lost, while bullock A was still 76 lbs. the heavier,
and of course had gained altogether 33 lbs., though
it was not so heavy as it had been on the 15th Oc-
tober, before the malady began. Bullock A had
not been so much affected as bullock B, and re-
covered more speedily.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

399

Let U8 now obsen'e what took place between the
8th of November, when the experiments were re-
newed, and the 22nd November. The food of bul-
lock A was hay, barley, turnips ; and that of bullock
B, hay, malt, and turnips.

Food of bullock A. Bullock B.

lbs. lbs.

Hay- - - 148-8 171'34

Barley - - 120- 120. •

Turnips - - 840- 840-

Malt.

1108-8 1131-34
The quantity of turnips may appear large, but
turnips contain very little sohd matter. 1 00 parts,
dried at 212° till they cease to lose weight, are re-
duced to 9-214 parts; showing that almost nine-
tenths of turnips is water.

The following table shows the increase of weight
of the bullocks under this diet : —

A. B.

lbs. lbs.

From 8thtol2thNovemb. 21 16

— 12th to 15th — 18 6

— 15th to 22nd — 16 22

55 44

Here we stee the same superiority of bai-ley over
malt.

During the next eleven days the barley and malt
given to each bullock was increased to 11 lbs. Here
the effect of too much barley on the bullock was
very evident. Bullock A refused to take it at last.
The malt was eaten by bullock B with more rehsh.

Note. — Perhaps the diseased state of the turnips,
to be noticed afterwards, may have occasioned the
illness of bullock A.

The deranged state of the digestive organ of bul-
lock A will appear if we compare the food consumed
by each bullock during these eleven days.
A. B.

lbs. lbs.

Hay- - - 119-41 138-74

Barley - - 112- 112- ~ Malt.

Turnips - - 616* 616.

847-41 866-74
The hay consumed by A was nearly 20 lbs. less,
or about one-sixth less than by B. The weight of the
animals was thus : — A. B.

lbs. lbs.

From 23d to 26th Nov. - 17 increase - 2 increase
From 26th to 3d Dec. - 5 decrease - 44 increase

12 mcrease - 46 increase
Here there was a diminution in the weight, from
the 26th November to 3rd December, amounting
to a lbs. This, as well as the diminution of hay,
shows the deranged state of the stomach. The
quantity of dung, as will appear by inspecting the
table, was considerably altered.

Suspecting that the turnips, many of which were
infected with the disease which has destroyed 80
many potatoes during the present season, might
have disagreed with bullock A, they were reduced
to 28 lbs. per day, given four times a day, or 7 Iba.
at each meal. The hay, barley, and malt were the
same as before. From the 4th to the 20th Decem-
ber the amount was : — A. B.
lbs. lbs.
Hay- - - 176-39 226-08
Barley - - 204" 204- - Malt.
Turnips - - 476- 476-

856-39 906-08
Here the hay consumed by B exceeds that of
A by about 50 lbs.

The effect upon the weight of the cattle by this
food was as follows : — A. B.

lbs. lbs.

From 4th to 6th Dec. - 7 increase 48 decrease

— 6th to 10th — - 27 increase 52 increase

— 10th to 13th — - 17 decrease 2 increase

— 13th to 20th — - 23 increase

Total increase - 40 6

Here, as in the former cases, the increase of weight
from the barley was much greater than from the
malt. The diminution of weight of B on the 6th
December, and that of A on the 13th, we cannot
explain. Both bullocks appeared in good health,
except that A consumed a much smnller quantity of
hay than usual.

Finding anomahes which might be siispected to
be connected with the diseased turnips, they were
omitted altogether, and 3 lbs. of linseed oil cake
given each day as an equivalent ; at the same time
the malt and barley were reduced, first to 8 lbs.,
and then to 10 lbs. per day.
The food from the 29th December to the l6th

Januaiy was as follows : —

A. B.

lbs. lbs.

Hay - - 207'52 249-357

Barley - - 180* 180- - Malt.

Oilcake - - 54-5 54-5

442- 483-8

In this case the hay consumed by bullock B ex-
ceeded that by A by almost 42 lbs.

The increase of weight was as follows : —

A. B.

lbs. lbs.

From 29th Dec. to 29th Jan. - 44 increase 28

— 3d Jan. to 10th — - 1 decrease 25

— 10th — to 17th — - 3 decrease 25

40 78

In this case there was a falUng off on the part
of A, from 3rd January to l7th January, amount-
ing to 4 lbs. ; yet the food was taken readily, and
bullock B regularly increased in weight.

^0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

These trials, continued for three months, leave
no doubt that barley is superior to malt, weight
for weight, as far as fattening liuUocks is concerned.

We thought it worth while now to try whether
any difference would be perceptible if each bullock
was fed for a week with barley, and then malt sub-
stituted, the other articles of food remaining un-
changed.

Bullock A was fed for a week (from 1 7th to
23rd January) on the following articles of food : —

lbs.
Hay - - - - - 73-8746

Malt 70-

Oilcake- .... 675

Good turnips - - - - 98*

Bean meal . - . . 6"75

255-37
The food of B during the same time was —

lbs.
Hay .... - 92-79

Barley - - - - - 70-

Oilcake 6-75

Good turnips - - - - 98"

Bean meal » - - - 6-75

The result was-

274-29

lbs.

- 9

- 0

A increased in weight
B increased in weight

The trial was repeated, A getting malt, and
barley —

A increased in weight - - 4
B increased in weight - - 23

Here the barley was found superior to malt.
the first trial there was a slight superiority in the
malt.

The increase of weight after a week's feeding
was now so small that I became sensible that the

In

fattening process could not be carried farther in a
cowhouse ; and neither the season of the year nor
the nature of the experiments made it possible to
give them the superior influence of a grass field.
On consulting several experienced cow-feeders and
butchers they assured me that the bullocks were in
very good condition, and that I could not increase
their weight much farther.

Oilcake and bean meal having been much vaunted
by them for its superiority to everything else for
fattening bullocks, I thought it worth while to de-
vote another fortnight to try the value of this.

The experiments from 6th February to 20th
February were made \vith this view. The result
will be seen by inspecting the table at the head of
this report.

Bullock A.

lbs.
First week increased - - 7'5
Second week increased- - 4-5

Bullock B.

First week decreased- •
Second week decreased ■

12-

lbs.
41-
114-5

155-5

The great diminution in the weight of B, and the
small increase of A, during these two weeks, seem
to show that oil cake and bean meal are not su-
perior in fattening power to barley and malt.

These experiments, though inteiTupted and ren-
dered more difficult by the malady of the bullocks,
leave no doubt that barley is superior to malt in
fattening cattle. This conclusion corresponds with
those deduced in the following report from the effect
of barley and malt, upon the quantity of milk yielded
by cows fed on each. Thomas Thomson.

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF BARLEY AND MALT
ON THE MILK OF COWS.

Summary, including some practical conclusions.

I. — Quantity of milk produced by different kinds of food.

[It will be observed that reference is made in
several places to tables, for them we must refer
our readers to the Report itself, as they are too
voluminous to enable us to give them. — Ed. F.
Mag.]

In making inquiries respecting the amount of
mUk afforded by cows, we cannot fail to be struck
with the vague and imperfect manner in which the
attention of agriculturists is directed to weighing
and measuring; thus, for example, in Scotland,
where milk is generally reckoned by the Scottish

pint, when this measure is compared with the En-
glish system there is almost uniformly an error
made in over-estimating its capacit)'. The usual
allowance is four English to one Scottish pint ; but
the true relation between these measures is much
inferior to this — the English or imperial pint hav-
ing a capacity of 34.659 cubic inches, and the Scot-
tish pint of 103.4 cubic inches, a Scottish pint is
very nearly equal to three English pints, "When
measurements have been made according to the
Scottish system, a certain degree of cautioii

s

<
u

z

<
u

CO

o

z
<

!^uj
J u
ll to

s z

o
u

o

Eh

n
o
o

m

<

>-
u

-J

<
00

?5 .

;k_ i-_ ^. '

^

p — — '^~^ — \ ^^ — 4—:^-^ ^--

i::::::::::£:3j^!::::::::::::::::::

— U,^ — \ !!^^i^^^__^__

«. •*
I

400

These trials, continued
no doubt that barley is
for weight, as far as fattej

We thought it \\'orth v
any difference would be i
was fed for a week with l
stituted, the other artick
changed.

Bullock A was fed fo
23rd January) on the foil

Hay -

Malt -
Oil cake-
Good turnips
Bean meal

The food of B during i

Hay -

Barley - . -

Oil cake-
Good turnips -
Bean meal

The result was —

A increased in w
B increased in v

The trial was repeated,
barley —

A increased in '
B increased in \

Here the barley was fou
the first trial there was t
raalt.

The increase of vveighi
was now so small that I 1

EXPERIMENTS

I. — QUANTI

[It will be observed th
several places to table
our readers to the Rep
voluminous to enable i
Mag.]

In making inquiries re
mUk aiForded by cows, w
with the vague and imperl
attention of agriculturists
and measuring; thus, fo
where milk is generally n

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

401

must be cxcercised in converting them to the
Engheh standard. Now, as in Scotland the actual
measurements are generally made with the Scottish
pints, when the amount of milk is slated in English
pints we may almost safely conclude that the esti-
mate has been greatly overdrawn ; but, even taking
these sources of error into consideration, it is very
remarkable how great a difference exists in the
amount of milk given by cows under similar cir-
cumstances. No one will be surprised at the
Alderney cow of Mrs. Tabitha Bramble* affording
a daily supply of 4 gallons of milk, or 32 pints,
when we read, in more recent times, of a short-horn
giving 17 Scottish pints (51 imperial pints), or64i
lbs., at lOi lbs. to a gallon, and of a roan cow
yielding 30 Scottish pints (90 imperial pints), or
115^^ lbs., and requiring to be milked five times a
day, so that at each milking 2i gallons must have
been extracted from the animalf, an average allow-
ance for one cow during the whole day. All these
statements must be understood as referring to
cows which are allowed to graze at least during the
day, and must be viewed as extraordinary cases.
A nearer approach to an a\-erage will be obtained
by directing attention to the produce of an Ayrshire
cow fed in Ber\vickshire, which yielded, during July
1845, 6^ Scottish pints (lOa imperial pints,) 25 lbs.,
or to an Alderney cow in Lancashire, which sup-
plied an average amount, in June 1845, of 20 im-
perial iiints=252 lbs.; but even in such instances,
which are taken from Lowland pasture gi-ounds, the
quantity often exceeds this by several pints, and
sometimes also fells below it to the same extent,
without any very apparent cause. In moorland
pastures the average amount of milk is, however,
much inferior to what has been stated. In one
locality in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where
many cows are kept, the supply from each animal
does not average more than from 12 (loj lbs.) to
14 (18 lbs.) imperial pints per day, and in another
moorland farm the amount A'aries from 10(12f lbs.)
to 15 (19 lbs.) imperial pints. With a statement of
these data for comparison we are enabled to form an
idea of the influence exercised in the experiments
detailed. Allien the cows were at pasture in Ayr-
shire they yielded 20 imperial pints each per day
(25 J lbs.) ; then they were in full exercise, and
without any restriction in the amount of their food.
Tliey might in these circumstances be represented
as in a state of nature, and without any of the arti-
ficial conditions which must always, to a certain ex-

* " I am astonished that Dr. Lewis should take
upon himself to give away .Alderney without my
pri\ity and concurrants. Alderney gave four gal-
lons a day ever since the calf was sent to market."
— Humphrey Chnker.

•*■ Stephen's Book of the Farm, iii. 1275.

tent, interfere with the animal proces&es. An ani-
mal enjoying exercise must also consume a larger
amount of food than one shut up, or, in other
words, it must convey into the system a greater
quantity of material for producing milk than an
animal in a state of confinement.

(1.) Effect of Grass on Milk

For seven days after coming to Glasgow,
where they were confined in a roomy and
airy cowhouse, and fed on cut grass, the red
cow (the less symmetrical of the two animals)
gave a larger amount of milk than when at
pasture ; the greatest quantity of milk during the
week being 27] lbs., and the smallest amount being
24^ lbs., the mean being 26J lbs. ; there was, there-
fore, in this case a decided increase in the amount
of milk. With the other cow the result was quite
different : the quantity of milk appears to have di-
minished immediately with the confinement; the
mean of the first seven days being 22;} lbs. It is
diflicult to account for the great difference in the
result of the produce of the two animals upon any
other supposition than that the constitution of the
one admitted of confinement with less detriment to
its system than the other. The causes which have
been previously alluded to when treating of the cha-
racters of the animals may, j^robably, also supply a
solution to these apparent anomahes. But we de-
duce the important inference from these facts, that
no correct generalization can be arrived at from an
isolated example. During the seven remaining
days of the experiment the quantity of milk fell off
with both cows ; that of the brown cow subsiding
from a mean of 26^ to 22j lbs., and that of the white
cow from 22^ lbs. to 20i lbs. There was, alto-
gether, a difference in the daily amount of milk,
from the beginning to the end of the fortnight, in
the case of the brown cow of 1 lbs., and in the white
cow of 2 lbs., although the amount of food conti-
nued the same throughout.

(2). Efect of Variety of Food on Milk.
The considerable faUing-oft' depended undoubt-
edly in some measure upon the confinement to
which the animals were subjected, although, on
examining the tables, it will be found to be a pretty
uniform resiUt, that a change of food produces an
increase in the quantity of milk, and that after the
same diet has been continued for some days, the
milk begins to diminish in amount, Tliere are se-
veral exceptions in the tables, some of which, how-
ever, admit of simple explanation. In the second
experiment, which was made \vith entire barley
steeped, the quantity of milk decreased very rapidly.
In the case of the brown cow there was a difference
between the milk of the first and last day of the
experiment of 5 lbs., and in the white cow of 2^ lbs.

402

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

This arose from a quantity of the barley being
ejected by the animals without being digested.
Entire malt being given raised the amount of milk
immediately; and the quantity continued to rise
daily till it amounted, at the end of the trial, in the
case of the brown cow to an increment of the last
over the first day's milk of 3 lbs., and in the white
cow of 4 lbs. We can see at once why there was an
improvement under the malt regimen, from the cir-
cumstance that, being much more soluble than the
barley, it was not ejected by the animals ; indeed,
none of it was observable in the dung, while a large
proportion of barley ^^'as always carried to the
dung-heap. The second and third experiments do
not serve to prove any point in reference to the
dietary of animals, but they may be useful as evi-
dence to show that the more soluble the food is, the
greater is the amount of milk produced. In the
fourth experiment, with crushed barley, the brown
cow's milk decreased i^jlbs. in sixteen days, and the
white cow's 10 oz., or considerably more than half
a pound, in the same period. In the fifth experi-
ment, with crushed malt, the brown cow's milk de-
clined 21 lbs. in sixteen days, and the white cow's
upwards of 2t lbs. In the sixth experiment, with
a larger quantity of crushed barlej', the brown cow's
milk continued to increase up to the fourth day,
and then began to decline ; a similar result attended
that of the white cow. In the seventh experiment,
with molasses and barley, the brown cow's milk
reached its acme or ciilminating point on the se-
cond day of the trial, and it then continued to de-
cline till the close of the experiment on the tenth
day. With the white cow, the greatest amount of
milk was afforded on the fifth day, when it began to
decline, and gradually diminished till the termina-
tion of the trial. In the eighth experiment, made
with barley and linseed, the amount of milk conti-
nued to increase for a longer period than usual ;
the largest quantity given by the Ijrown cow was
on the ninth day, and by the white on the eighth
and ninth days. With the bean meal, in the ninth
experiment, the milk continued to increase up to the
fifth day, when the trial closed.* That a change of
diet is necessary for animals which are kept in a
confined condition is proved by the tables accom-
panying this I'eport in a striking manner, and the
results now obtained amply sustain the idea sup-
ported by us some time ago in reference to the die-
tary of human beings shut up in poorhouses and
places of confinement. It was then argued, that,
" in order to retain the human constitvitiou in a i
healthy condition, variety of food should be pro-
perly attended to,"t and different species of diet

* See diagram, miscellaneous table 4.
t Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, vol. i. p. 99-

were suggested, as well calculated to supply a se-
ries of dishes to the poor. In the Asylum for the
Houseless, and in the House of Refuge at Glasgow,
therecommendations were followed out, and, accord-
ing to the report of the treasurer, the dinner meals
being varied two or three times every week, " the
change in the dietary routine is much relished by
the inmates, and may have had some effect in the
greater degree of health which has been evident
among them of late."* The analogy subsisting
between the physical nature of human beings and
of many of our domestic animals would lead us to
the conclusion upon physiological grounds that
their dietary should be conducted upon precisely
similar principles. To prove this by exact experi-
ments is a point, it will be admitted, of considerable
importance to the agriculturist, although it may
have been, as might be expected, surmised by many
intelligent observers. Not only, however, is variety
of food requisite for an animal in an artificial state ;
it is found also to be beneficial to one in a condition
more akin to that of nature. For it is upon this
principle that we are able to account for the supe-
rior influence of old natural pastures, which con-
sist of a variety of grasses and other plants, over
those pastures which are formed of only one grass,
in the production of fat cattle and good milk cows.
To any one who considers with attention the expe-
riments which have been detailed, there cannot re-
main a doubt in the mind that cattle, and especially
milk cows, in a state of confinement, would be be-
nefited by a very frequent and entire change in their
food. It might not be too much to say that a
daily modification in the dietary of such animals
would 1)6 a sound scientific prescription.

(3 ). Ejfect of Barley and Malt on Milk.

In considering the influence of barley and malt
on the production of milk, it is obvious that expe-
riments II. and III. offer no data from which con-
clusions can be drawn, except to point out the use-
ful practical fact that grain should never be given
to cows in an entire state, but that it should always
be ground or crushed, and then steeped before
lieing presented to them. If we compare experi-
ments IV. v., we find that in sixteen days 141 lbs.
of crushed barley steeped produced in the brown
cov/ 342 lbs. of milk, and in the white 351 lbs. of
milk, and that both animals gained in weight ;
while again 168 lbs. of malt produced in the brown
cow 310 lbs. of milk, and in the white 345 lbs. of
milk, during sixteen days ; the former cow gaining
some weight, and the latter losing a little. The
quantity of malt exceeded that of the barley by 27
lbs., and yet the brown cow gave 32 lbs. leas of

* Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of
Glasgow vol i. p. 40.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

403

milk with malt than with barley, and the white cow
only 6 lbs. less milk ; hence in the brown cow 100
lbs. of barley produced as much effect as 131 lbs.
of malt, and in the white cow J 00 lbs. of
barley were equivalent to 119 lbs. of malt.
Now, as 100 parts of barley, when malted, become
80 of malt, it is obvious that 100 of barley are
equal in value to 125 of malt, for 80 : 100 : : 100 :
125. If we take the mean of the result of the pre-
ceding experiment, we find that 100 of barley goes
as far hi producing milk as 125 of malt, 119 + 131
-72== 125. Again, by a mean of three experi-
ments, the amount of nitrogen in malt was found
to be 1*52 per cent., and that of barley r96 per
cent, by four experiments, M'hich would make 100
parts of barley equivalent to 128 of malt in nutri-
tive power. These are all remarkable coincidences
of theory and practice, and cannot fail to convince
us that the proportions stated are very close ap-
proximations to the nutritive equivalents of barley
and malt, or, in other words, that malt is
about one fifth inferior to barley in its nutritive
effects. In considering the sixth experiment,
which was made for the purpose of comparing
the effect of a large quantity of barley with a
large amount of malt, it will be obsei-ved,
that the experiment commenced when the amount
of milk was declining under the malt regimen, but
that as soon as the barley was given the milk began
to increase in both cows. The weather, however^
at this time became much warmer than it had
hitherto been. The mean temperature, as exhibited
in the table, became more elevated ; but the num-
bers in the tables will scarcely give an idea of the
stagnant sultry nature of the atmosphere in the
cowhouse, in the immediate neighbourhood of which
in a room without a fire, the thermometer during
the five days stood at 660, and at one period of the
thirtieth, or first day of the experiment, rose to 70°.
The cattle were during this period very much trou-
bled with flies, which produced, as all agriculturists
will understand, much agitation, and constant move-
ment. These circumstances are calculated to ex-
plain the loss of weight sustained by the brown cow,
and it accounts for the fact that the increase of milk
wasnot so rapid as in the previous barley experiment.
This experiment may be viewed as an interesting
example of the influence which atmosj)herical causes
exercise upon the production of milk, and exhibits
a result perfectly in accordance with the experience
of good agricultural observers. From the circum-
stances mentioned it is obvious that this experi-
ment should not be taken apart from the previous
barley trial, since the conditions were somewhat
different under which it was made ; but we have
employed it along with the other trial in striking
an average, qs in miscellaneous table No. 3, and in

calculating the deductions from experiments IV., V.,
and VI.

(4). Effect of Molasses, Linseed, and Beans, in the
Production of Milk.

If we examine the Miscellaneous table No. 3, we
find the mean quantity of milk affoided by the
brown cow, every five days under different regimen^
was as follows :— barley, 107 lbs j malt, 97 ; barley
and molasses, 101 ; barley and hnseed, 102i ; beans,
99J. And by the white cow the mean quantities
respectively were, every five days — barley, 109 lbs, ;
malt, lOBg-; barley and molasses, 112i; barley and
linseed, 115^; beans, 115 0-lOths. Of all these
articles of food, in both cases, malt gives the small-
est produce. Then conies, with the white cow, bar-
ley and the other articles increase in effect as they
stand above, bean meal affording the greatest
amount of produce. It will be observed, in ex-
amining the bean meal table, that the milk increased
up to the termination of the experiment ; and that
in the case of the white cow, the quantity yielded
exceeded that supphed by this animal on any pre-
vious occasion, except in one solitary instance under
the grass diet. The quantity of milk given by the
white cow on the 18th September, under the bean
regimen, amounted nearly to 25 j lbs., thus approach-
ing closely to that afforded by both cows when they
were at pasture three months previously. This can-
not fail to be admitted as an interesting fact, and is
strongly corroborative of the propriety of the par-
tiality of cow-feeders for bean meal as an article of
nutrition for their stall-fed cattle. If we take a mean
of the produce of the two cows, as previously stated
we shall find the relative influence of each in the
production of milk to be as follows :— Commencing
with that which possesses the lowest nutritive power,
malt produces 102-66 lbs. of milk, barley and mo-
lasses, 106i; bean meal, 107-68 ; barley, 108 ; bar-
ley and linseed, 109. We think it better to state
the mean produce of the two cows, because it will
afford an average of what we might expect to meet
with in feeding a number of cattle with these various
articles of food. A comparison of the experiments
on the two cows, however, fully demonstrates that
one kind of food will produce a greater influence
on one animal than on another ; and that, as with
human beings, probably, attention should be be-
stowed on what is agreeable to each individual ani-
mal, both in reference to its palate and constitution.
For it should be always borne in mind that stall-fed
animals are not in a natural condition, and that be-
ing placed under artificial restrictions, a due con-
sideration of the adequate means of counter-ba-
lancing the adverse circumstances of their condition
can alone conduce to a true theory of humane stall-
feeding.

404

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

(6). Infuenceof QuaniUyof Grain in the Production
of Milk.

To ascertain the amount of grain best calculated
to afford the largest supply of milk it> a practical
point of no small importance to the cow-feeder.
Perhaps from miscellaneous table No. 3, the best
solution to this question may be obtained, in refei--
ence to the articles of food employed in the present
series of experiments. In the barley experiment it
will be observed, that when 12 lbs. of barley were
given daily the amount of milk was inferior, in both
cows, to that obtained when 9 lbs. was the diurnal
allowance. This result seems so decided, in both
series of experiments, that it may almost be consi-
dered as established, that no adequate advantage
appears to be attained by pushing the supply of
barley to a cow beyond the extent of 9 lbs. daily.
An increase in the quantity of malt appears some-
times to increase the quantity of milk; but in gene-
ral, the same deduction may be made with reference
to malt as to barley, that in a remunerative point of
view, 9 lbs. a day may be considered a large propor-
tion of malt to supply to a cow. It is highly pro-
bable, indeed, that a smaller amount, especially if
the animals were allowed a certain limited degree of
exercise, would be found fully as efficient as a larger
quantity. We have, in the body of the report, en-
deavoured to explain this upon the ])hysiological
principles of digestion, and to show, that, as rumi-
nating animals more especially are possessed of great
capacity of stomach, an excess of concentrated food
by failing to eftect adequately the purpose which
bulky food accomplishes — of exciting the coats of
the stomach to secrete their digesting fluid — will
tend rather to diminish than to increase the result
which we desire to gain.

(6). Rate at ichich Food is changed into Milk.

As a vaiiety of \-iews })revail with regard to the
period required 1)y the animal system for the con-
version of food into milk, i)erhaps the first series
of these tables will assist us in forming more precise
notions upon this curious physiological question.
An inspection of these tables shows us that the
largest amount of milk is supplied by stall-fed cows
in the morning. Now as comparatively a small
amount of food is consumed during the night, it is
obvious that this sujjcrior amount of milk must be
derived from the previous day's fodder. An obser-
vation which was frequently made, viz., that undi-
gested food did not a])pear in the dung till sixteen
hours after being swallowed, would tend to demon-
strate that, during tliis period at least, absorption of
the nutritive part of the food was going on ; since
we know that along the whole course of the intesti-
nal canal the soluble food continues to be taken up
through the coats of the viscera.

II. — Relative inkluence of different

KINDS OF FOOD IN THE PRODUCTION OF
BUTTER.

In the miscellaneous table No. 3. we have col-
lected the amount of butter produced by five kinds
of food during periods of five days each. But pre-

vious to these trials, thus arranged, the largest
quantity given by the brown cow was imder the
grass regimen. The first five days of the experi-
ment yielded 4*93 lbs. of butter, after which the
quantity diminished to the last five days of the trial,
when the quantity yielded amounted to 3'75 lbs.,
a proportion not superior to what was produced in
some of the sxibsequent experiments. The same
law does not appear to hold with reference to the
dimimition of the butter as pertains to that of the
milk, when the food has been continued for some
time. We find, on the contrary, frequently the
amount increasing towards the close of the experi-
ment, even when it is continued for ten or fifteen
days. The largest amount of butter was afforded
in the brown cow by crushed barley. During the
third series of five days the amount was 3'935 lbs, ;
bean meal gave the next greatest quantity, 3"69lbs.
in five days ; then comes barley and linseed, 3"689
lbs. during the first five days ; barley and molasses
3"(33 lbs., and malt 3'60 lbs. In the case of the white
cow the quantity was, beans, 376; barley and lin-
seed 3"421 ; crushed barley, 3"376 ; barley and mo-
lasses, 3'26 ; and malt, 3" 126. With both animals
\ve observe that malt is lowest in the scale, a fact
which seems in some measure to miUtate against the
idea of the origin of the butter being in the sugar of
the food. Be this as it may, however, although there
are many counter arguments in favour of the opi-
nion that sugar aflbrds such a supply, we think the
tables Nos. 1 and 2 (miscellaneous) tend to show
that there is no relation between the butter of the
milk and the wax and oil of the food, since frequent-
ly, when the oleaginous matter of the food is small,
the butter is more considerable than on other occa-
sions when the reverse happens. Since then the
facts contained in the tables, and the arguments
used in the body of the report, seem to prove that
the butter cannot be supplied from the oil of the
food, it becomes an interesting point for the agri-
culturist to learn from what element of the food it
proceeds. It may safely be inferred that it must be
formed from some other constituent of the diet by
means of the vascular system, either as a primary or
secondary stage. Sugar aflbrds the most simple
element from which it may be produced, because we
now understand how the acid of butter can originate
from sugar; but even the albuminous principles
might aftbrd butter. Upon these grounds, then, we
can infer that a certain degree of exercise would be
more conducive to the production of fat than if the
animal is allowed to remain at rest ; because, as the
source of the fat or butter is dependent on the pro-
cess of respiration, it is obvious that the more the
function is encouraged within moderate bounds the
greater the amoimt of oil-giving principle of the food
will Ije taken into the system and converted into fat.
We belie\-e that this theoretical deduction is per-
fectly in consonance with the experience of good
observers, who find that box or hammel feeding is
more conducive to the health of catttle and cows
destined for the butcher, or for the production of
butter, than close plant-like confinement, which
is foreign to the nature of every animal, and at va-
riance with the first principles of physielogical
science. Robert D, Thomson.

Glasgow, -IQth December, 1845.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

405

THE BIRCH TREE.

Tittle as this tree is thought of hy foresters or
planters in general, it possesses some qualities
which give it peculiar interest, and these I shall
endea^'our to point out, after taking a cursory view
of its botanical position.

In the Linnaean system we find it in the twenty-
first class, Monoecia, wherein the male and female
flowers are distinct from each other, but upon
the same tree ; and in the fourth order, Tefrandricr,
the stamens being four. In the natural system it
now is placed among the Amentacece, that is, with
the flowers in catkins ; and in the second suborder
as the type of the birch and alder tribe.

According to Loudon's Encyclopcedia of Plants,
the genus Betiila, or birch, comprises — two species
(white, or common birch, and " the lady," or
weeping birch), natives of the M'oods of England;
one, the smooth dwarf, native of Scotland; six
others, natives of North America, tall gi'owers,
attaining fifty to seventy feet, one of them, B.
papyracea, being the celebrated paper birch, the
tree of which the Indians construct their canoes,
and some smaller articles, such as sugar-baskets
for the table, &c. ; and four or five, of in-
ferior stature, natives of Germany and Northern
Europe.

1. Tlic common birch is disposed to grow on
poor, sandy soil ; though it does not reject that of
richer quality.

2. The pendulous, or " weeping" birch is
the ornamental tree of the European species : its
slender, graceful, dropping branches and spray
eminently qualify it to occu])y a conspicuous situa-
tion on the lawn, or Tq)on some conveniently-
situated knoll. Its young wood is smooth, brov/n,
and dotted with pearly specks. Tlie leaves are ovate,
?,3.\Y-cwt (serrate) , acute, but not taperingly ]3ointed,
rather haiiy ; the catkins pendulous.

Gilpin, in his " Forest Scenery," describes, in
the picturesque language so peculiarly his o\vn, this
graceful tree : " Of the white birch there is a very
beautiful variety, sometimes called the " lady
birch," or the " weeping birch." Its spray being
slenderer and longer than that of the common sort,
forms an elegant, pensile foliage, like the weeping
willow ; and, like it, is put in motion by the least
breath of air. When agitated, it is well ada])ted to
characterize a storm, or to perform any office in

landscape which is expected from the weeping
willow" (p. 70, edit. 1808).

'Hiere is one circumstance which has been re-
marked by observant persons, that must claim par-
ticular attention : it is said that the tree known as
the birch in parts of Scotland is peculiarly fra-
grant ; and the question has been asked, whether
the species commonly cultivated in England possess
any such odour. I have sought in vain to ascer-
tain the precise state of the case ; and, referring to
several authorities, I find no notice of the circum-
stance, excepting in the short note appended to the
genus in Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Plants, page
780, on the species Lenta, the soft or hornbeam-
leaved birch ; " The leaves, which appear early in
spring, possess a peculiar fragrance, which they
retain after being dried in a stove ; affording, by in-
fusion, an agreeable diluent, superior to some of
the teas of commerce."

By the above extract it shovdd appear that fra-
grance is attached solely to Betula lenta. Yet if so,
why should this quahty be restricted to the beeches
grown in Scotland, and so far north there as Aber-
deenshire, while we in England remain in compa-
rative ignorance of so A-aluable a property ? But
again, is the species Lenta known in Scotland ?
and on this point we obtain no satisfactory in-
formation; for, in referring to a comprehensive
account of the genus Birch, and its most noted
species, by an eminent botanist, there is no men-
tion whatever made of perfume or fragrance. The
qualities ascribed to Lenta are, however, so in-
teresting, that I cite the following passage, with a
view to recommend the tree to planters in
general : —

" Betula lenta, the soft, black, or cherry birch.
— None of the American birches produce timber so
valuable as this ; whence, one of its American names
is, "mountain mahogany." Its wood is hard,
close-grained, and of a reddish-brown. It is im-
ported into this country in considerable quantity
under the name of "American birch," for forming
the shdes of dining-tables, and for similar purposes.
It is abundant in the midland States, as in New
York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; but more to
the south it only appears on the summits of the
Alleghanies. Deep, rich soil is what it prefers.
And when it attains its greatest dimensions, which
are as much as seventy feet of height and three of
diameter, it is a handsome tree, budding remark-

2 D

406

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ably early in the spring, when its leaves are covered
with a short, thick coat of down; this disappears
later in the season, and leaves them of a bright and
lively green. Michaux says that it grows with
unusual rapidity ; and mentions an instance of a
plant which, in nineteen years, grew to the height
of forty-five feet eight inches. It is rarely seen in
this country, although it is, perhaps, one of the best
suited to our chmate. The thinness of its leaves,
combined with their oblong figure, distinguishes
this from all the other species."

If, then, it be true that fragrance is attached to B.
lenta only, the cultivators of Scotland, who all agree
that they possess the odoriferous birch, ought to
ascertain the exact state of the case ; for, combining
superior excellence of time with fragrance, they
might esteem themselves very fortunate.

Since I commenced this little article I have had
an opportunity to consult a Scotchman, but could
obtain only the general information that fragrance
was a concomitant of the birches grown in Scot-
land ; and it was taken for granted that, everywhere
when dews or light rain moistened the young foliage,
the odour might be perceived. Here, instead of

being enlightened, we find ourselves still more
perplexed ; and must be content to go on inquiring
and observing till we meet with a tree which does
possess fragrance, or with a person who can vouch
the fact.

In the mean time, as birch-trees are not much
honoured (save and except, perhaps, by sundry
eiTing neophytes), it would be worth while for some
spirited gentleman to introduce the American
" mountain mahogany," B. lenta ; and thus we
should acquire a beautiful tree, possessing superior
qualities — -fragrance among the rest — large in
stature when fully grown, ornamental in every stage
of its progress, and very useful as a timber tree.

My own experience and observation being limited,
and the living authorities I am acquainted with being
few, I may possibly have said too much on the
quality of odour. Still, however, I may be held
excused, by those who know the exact state of the
case, for endeavouring to introduce a species of the
birch which cannot fail to improve our forests and
to decorate the park and pleasure-grounds when
judiciously introduced with a view to the
picturesque. J. Towers.

ON SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

BY PH. PUSEY, M.P.

Dr. Liebeg's great discovery of dissolving bones
in sulphuric acid for the purposes of manure, has
been so clearly established by the experiments as
weU of the duke of Richmond as of other farmers,
and so fully investigated by Mr. Hannam, that
nothing seems now to be wanted but some plan for
bringing it within the ordinaiy routine of farming.
Though the mixtures hitherto prepared have an-
swered perfectly, they have mostly been supplied to
the turnip crop in the shape of liquid manure. This
mode, however, requires either tedious labour by
hand, or an expensive water-cart made for the pur-
pose ; and in neither way would be adapted, I think,
to the hurry which generally accompanies turnip-
sowing on a large farm, where on a favourable
turn of weather a hundred acres perhaps require to
be finished while the soU retains the suitable temper.

It is to the drill, therefore, I have always thought
we must look for this object ; but before stating
the simple plan of mLxing and drilling which has
answered with me in practice, I will venture to
say a few words on the theory of Dr. Liebig's dis-
covery.

Bones, it is well known, have been long used in
England for the turnip crop ; still though their
success on some soils was certain, the cause of that
success was by no means so clear ; for fresh bones
are made up of oil, of jelly, or gelantine, and of
phosphorus united with lime. But when the oil,
was boiled ovit of the bones they stiU acted, and
when the jelly was burnt out of them they still
acted even more rapidly; so that without at all
saying that either the oil did nothing, or the jelly
did nothing, it became clear that the peculiar active
principle of bones is the phosphorous combined
with hme ; and, as the quantity of lime is insigni-
ficant, that it is the phosphorus — a pale substance
hke wax, which has the singular property of giving
a faint blue light when in the dark. This curious
substance, it appears, which may be bought for a
few pence at any chemist's, is one of the main
elements with which nature works in compounding
seeds and roots serving for the food of man and of
beast.

In bones, however, the phosphorus, in an acid
state, is compounded with lime in such a propor-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

407

tion as to form a salt called phosphate of lime, which
water does not dissoh'e, and which therefore acts
slowly upon the roots of crops to which it is ap-
phed as manure. Dr. Liebig knew that oil of
vitriol {sulphuric acid), if mixed with bones, would
take to itself a part of this lime, leaving behind a
new salt containing at least a double portion of
phosphorus, and therefore called su^^erphosphate of
lime, which salt being readily dissolved by water,
he hoped would afford a more digestible food for the
young turnip, and the result has answered his ex-
pectations. Such is the simple history of this great
discovery.

Hitherto, as I said, the mixture has been appUed
as a liquid manure, diffused sometimes in fifty
times its bulk of water ; and it has been prepared in
vessels troublesome to procure and Mable to be in-
jured by the acid. Availing myself, however, of a
suggestion for dispensing even with these, I formed
a flat heap of dry mould about ten feet across, the
surface of which was scooped into a hollow basin,
capable of holding 20 bushels of ground fresh bones.
A little water was poured on, but I have since omit-
ted the water. Sulphuric acid, to the amount of
about half the weight of the liones, was gradually
poured into this basin. They soon began to heat,
seething violently, and sending out a great deal of
steam, with a pecuharly offensive stench ; presently
the whole mixture wears the appearance of boiling
blood, and swells so much from the escape of gas,
that the workmen stirring it with their hoes must
take great care to prevent it from bursting over the
sides of the earthen basin. In a short time, how-
ever, the cauldron becomes quiet, and the bones
disappear altogether, except a few fragments ; so
that the heap may be shovelled together, and might
be drilled on the same day, but this would not be
advisable, as some small lumps still half Hquid re-
main in the compost. On the first occasion the
earth and dissolved bones were left mixed together .
and though perfectly cool when so left, I learned
on returning, after six weeks' absence, that a second
heating had soon taken place, and found that the
heap was hot still. The offensive smell was gone,
and was replaced by the musky odour of rotten
dung. I mention this circumstance because I am
anxious to draw to it the attention of chemists.
This second fermentation may be that of the animal
matter contained in the bones, and may bring out
its ammonia : if so, it will be a question whether it
be desirable thus to give time for the formation of
ammonia before the manure is applied ; or whe-
ther it be better to drill the compost at once, allow-
ing the ammonia to be produced under ground,
and so be supphed to the young plant more gra-
dually.

The compost thus made was tried in July, on

some light land very much exhausted, and naturally
unkind for the growth of turnips. The trial ground
was about 2 acres. On one part the compost of
bones and acid was drilled at the rate of 4 J bushels
of bones to the acre ; on another part, bones at the
rate of 20 bushels an acre; and I added, on a third
part, a manure (purchased from Mr. Fothergill, un-
der the name of superphosphate of lime) at the rate
of 2 cwt.

The bones and acid took the lead of the bones,
and kept it throughout, I am bound to add that the
superphosjihate prepared by Mr. Fothergill not
only surpassed the bones, but also that which I had
manufactured myself. Possibly the quantity of Mr.
Fothergill's may have been too large for comparison ;
but though I think my own method of preparing
superphosphate a convenient one, when the bones
are at hand, it appears also that if we can ensure the
delivery of a genuine article, it will be still better to
buy this manure ready made. In this trial there
could be no doubt that all the three forms of bones
acted strongly, for the crop grew vigorously where
they were used, while on spots where they were pur-
posely omitted it could scarcely be said to grow at
all ; and though, from late sowing, and from being
left too thick, the turnips had not time to come to
maturity, the result was quite decisive for our pre-
sent comparison. About a fifth of an acre was
weighed on each piece, with the following re-
sults : —

Yield of
Manure per acre. Cost. Turnips,

s. cwt.

1. 20 bushels of bones 55 - - 44f

2. 45 bushels of bones with

100 lbs. sulphuric acid 2 - - 49s

3. 2 cwt. Mr. Fothergill's su-
perphosphate 14 - - 53

Present price 17

The saving of immediate expense by Dr. Liebig's
discovery is certainly very great, if we take it only
as from 55s. to 22s. per acre on the turnip land,
which should be one quarter of the whole acreage
of a light arable farm. The trouble of preparation
is shght, and of its apphcation next to nothing ; for
Mr. Hornsby informs me that his tumip-drill will
distribute equally as small a quantity as 15 bushels
over an acre; as then the 4^ bushels of dissolved
bones do not require to be mixed with more than
ten or fifteen bushels of earth, and his drill holds 25
bushels, the use of this compost would not require
more than one stoppage for filling the drill on each
acre.

Mr. Fothergill's preparation, if the quantity as-
sumed be correct, was still more successful, and
having tried it elsewhere I am enable to speak most
highly of it. A neighbour to whom I supplied some,

2 D 2

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

found that 2 cwt. of this superphosphate, costing
then 14s., answered better on his land for turnips
than 2h cwt. of the best Peruvian guano, for which
he had paid 32s.

It is a grey damp substance, partly a powder,
partly hi tough lumps like dry dough. The same
lumps are found in the compost as I prepare it my-
self. It would evidently be a great waste of manure
to drill these lumps into the land without reducing
them to powder ; but this is not easily done, for
they are so tough that no pounding will crush
them. As the point is one of importance, I may
mention the method we at last hit upon. The
whole mass, mixed with ashes, should be passed
through a large coarse wire sieve, and the lumps
then be spread about two inches thick on a hard
Hoor. A small garden roller should then be drawn
over them backwards and forwards until they are
flattened to a uniform cake. If the workmen now
work this cake with a fine garden rake, they will
find that the tough mass will crumble between its
teeth. I dwell upon this, because I think we ought
to make it a iide in the use of all artificial manures,
by bringing them into a state of powder, and mix-
ing them thoroughly with dry mould or ashes, to
spread them so uniformly in the soil that each root-
let of the futiu-e crop shall have as fair a chance of
finding its portion of food as if liquid manure had
been used.

Having tried the method described above, I ven-
ture to recommend it to farmers ; but I consider it
by no means a perfect prescription. It is not clear
whether the second fermentation should be allowed
to take place or not. It is by no means clear that
the proportion of acid (one-half the weight of the
the bones) might not be diminished. It is doubtful
whether the amount of bones, 4i bushels, be the
right dose per acre. It is very likely that jihos-
phorus should not be administered singly, but
should be combined with potash, as Dr. Liebig
advises. These are points which I beg to recom-
mend to our members for their future inquiry.

Before concluding, I must mention a process
long known in this neighbourhood, which seems
ciu'iously to agree with Dr. Liebig's treatment of
bone-manure. Mr. Brooks, of Hatford, has for
many years assured me that he could make four
bushels of bones go as far as twenty bushels by
mixing them first with peat-ashes. It occurred to
me that since many peat-ashes contain sulphate of
lime, this practice might be a welf-taught form of
the recent scientific discovery. Follomng his in-
structions, I mixed eight bushels of crushed bones
with sixteen bushels of our brick-coloured peat-
ashes, and the mixture was thrown up in a heap.
In a few days they began to heat violently, and
the heat lasted for about ten days, at the end of

which time, on opening the heap, scarcely
a particle of bone could be detected. The
whole was reduced to a fine reddish grey
powder. The fragments of bone which still
showed themselves were exactly like those which
sulphuric acid has acted on. On trying this com-
post by the side of superphosphate with a crop of
turnips the effect was precisely the same. Whether
the cause be the same, one cannot of course be
certain, until a chemical analysis has been made.
The ashes cost only 4d. for two bushels, the acid
would have cost five times as much. Tlie trial,
therefore, will be worth making for those who have
bog-peat at hand ; though peat varies so much in
its elements that there can be no certainty of suc-
cess. If it fail, there will be nothing lost ; if it
answer, it may be useful, in Ireland especially.
The ashes must be moderately damp, for dry ashes,
I found, do not exert any action iipon the bones.

Such are the assured advantages to be derived to
the turnip crop by the solution of bones ; but we
may further hope to see the use of superphosphate
extended even to corn crops. Theory certainly re-
quires it ; for, according to Boussingault, a crop
of four quarters of wheat to the acre draws from
that acre of ground at least 30lbs. of phosphoric
acid. Experience countenances it, for though bone-
manure is usually applied to the turnip crop, its
effects, as is well known are seen in the following
corn crops. But further, a direct experiment, too,
has proved its success. This was made by Mr.
Pemberton Leigh upon wheat, and published in our
Journal* last year, but is so much in point that I
must give it shortly again : —

Yield of
Cost. wheat Increase

One acre.

No manure -
Rape-dust, 5 cwt.
Urate, 6 cwt.
Dung, 30 loads
Guano, SV cwt.

per acre, per acre

£ s. d. Bush. Bush.

- — 29

- 1 12 6 38 - 9

- 1 12 6 38 - 9

- 4 10 0 40 - 11
-240 40 - 11

Superphosphate, 6 cwt.- 2 4 9 33 - 24

The increase of 24 bushels, that is, three quar-
ters of wheat per acre, by the superphosjihate, is
enormous, equal, in fact, to the whole average yield
of many farms, and covdd hardly be expected again ;
but though we must not hope for so large a return
in money as eight pounds for two, this manure is so
cheap that a much smaller increase in the wheat
crop would pay for its use.

I have drilled it in this year with wheat, but Mr.
Leigh's plan of using it as a top-dressing in March
may be a better one, because it is not wanted
sooner, being chiefly required for forming the grain.

* See account given by Mr. Strouts, vol. v.
p. 605.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

409

and if applied in the autumn is liable to be washed
down during wnter. I think that it deserves trial
on wheat, and I am sure that we ought now to give
great attention to the cheapening of artificial ma-
nures. "We have succeeded in reducing the expense
of draining to one-third of its former cost, and I do
not despair that, by equal perseverance, we may, in
three or four years, bring down the cost of manures

in equal proportion. I beheve that all bones should
now be sold to the farmer in the cheaper and rea-
dier form of manufactured superphosphate : and
that of all compound manures, though potash and
ammonia may be required in them, a main ingre-
dient must be phosphorus. — Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.

Pusey, December 29, 1845.

LECTURE ON AGRICULTURE, AND THE USES OF LIQUID MANURE.

According to announcement, Mr. Moore, the secretary
to the Metropolitan Sewage Manure Company, in
compliance with the request of several influential agri-
culturists, delivered a lecture on agricultural develop-
ment, embracing the application and advantages of
liquid manure, to a large meeting of agriculturists, at
the Institution, at Staines, on Wednesday evening.
The lecturer stated that gratitude required that he should
acknowledge the very kind manner in which he had
been received by all the parties interested in agriculture
that he had had an opportunity of meeting in that
neighbourhood during the last three weeks, and which
induced him to comply with their request to meet on the
present occasion as farmers, for the purpose of eliciting
the development of the capabilities of their profession.
There never had been a period which required tlieir re-
sources to be so fully carried out as that of the present :
the measures that had lately been laid before parliament
required this. Although there is every reason to expect
that the value of agricultural produce will be considerably
reduced by the measures referred to, he had no fear of
the result so far as the farmer is concerned. But
although the manufacturers had been the most urgent in
the forwarding of these measures, it is very likely that
ultimately they will have the greatest reason to complain
of their effects, as the capabilities of the manufacturing in-
terests in this kingdom were at present fully developed in
accordance with the present state of science ; and notwith-
standing their being so, the manufacturers of other
countries were able in several articles to compete with
and supersede them, particularly so when unprotected
by duties. But the capabilities of the agricultural
interest were not at present more than half developed
in accordance with the present state of science ; thus in
consequence of the deficiency of scientific knowledge and
inattention on the part of the practical agriculturists of
the kingdom, fully one half of the raw material available
for [the manufacture of food was lost, and the annual
present money-value of that loss is equal to the annual
profit on the foreign commercial and manufacturing
trade of the kingdom. The isolated situation of the
farmer is some excuse for this. Many persons consider
that his employment is only adapted for the ignorant
portion of the population, yet there is no employment
or profession requiring so much scientific knowledge.
For instance, every farmer before taking a farm should

know sufficient of geology and chemistry to be able to
form a correct idea of its value — even the elements con-
tained in its composition ; and, when preparing for the
production of a crop, he ought to know the elements of
which it was composed, so as by putting the same ele-
ments together in the form of manure he may be certain
to produce the article. This is the manner in which the
manufacturer proceeds, from his knowledge of science.
As a farmer, yea, a practical farmer, who had during the
last twenty-five years brought to bear on agriculture the
science of the day during that period, he was compelled
to admit that during twenty years of that period he had
been sustaining that proportion of loss on the farm
which he cultivated ; and it was only by accident that he
was convinced of his error, although he had seen the
principle upon which it was founded in Sir H. Daw's
Agricultural Chemistry many years before ; but the
principle there stated was for many years considered by
practical men as mere theory, and inconsistent with
correct practice. ■ The loss referred to is sustained by the
general neglect of the liquid manure made on the farm,
and also by allowing the solid manure to ferment and
decompose to so great an extent before it is used, that
the principal part of the most valuable portion of it
(being volatile) has been dissipated. The soil also by
improved cultivation is capable of bearing a considerable
increase of crop. He was glad to be able to admit that
many of the farms in this neighbourhood were in a high
state of cultivation, in proportion to the depth to which
they were cultivated ; but he was convinced that if land
were improved to the depth of twelve or sixteen inches,
instead of six or eight inches as it is at present,
such land would not only be less susceptible of the vicis-
situdes of the weather, but would also yield crops ap-
proaching to double in amount, for the roots of the plants
would obtain food at a greater depth, instead of being
forced to contend with each other for food near the
surface, in a limited sphere. The first step in this im-
provement is that admirable system of thorough drain-
ing and subsoil ploughing introduced some years ago by
Mr. Smith, of Deanston, and which is absolutely neces-
sary for all soils that are so adhesive as not to absorb
all the rain water as it falls upon them : this system has
more than doubled the value of most of the land to
which it has been applied. Some years back, the Right
Hon, Sir Jame* Graham published an account of an ex-

410

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

periment made by him on this principle. He had a field
of very inferior land let to a tenant at 5s. 'per acre, who
complained that it was not worth the rent, as scarcely
any animal would eat the grass that grew upon it ; which
induced the landlord to take it into his own hands, and
try the effect of Mr. .Smith's method of improvement.
It was accordingly thoroughly drained, and subsoil
ploughed, ^nd manured for a green crop ; after which itwas
sown with a corn crop and grass seed. After the crop
of corn was removed, it being then under clover, it was
valued, and let to a tenant on atwenty-one years' lease, at
a guinea per acre ; if his memory was correct, he thought
it was stated that the proceeds of the green crop and
corn crop amounted to the whole of the expense incurred
in the improvement. This proved the correctness of a
statement made by Lord Stanley, some time after, at a
public meeting in Liverpool. His lordship stated that
there was no bank so safe, or investment of capital so
profitable, as the judicious application of capital to the
improvement of the soil. Of the correctness of this, he
(the lecturer) was perfectly satisfied from practical ex-
perience, and fully expected that when his lordship and
the right hon. baronet came into office, and at a time
when the operatives were nearly in a starving condition
from the want of employment and a deficiency of food,
and an immense amount of capital in the metropolis
unemployed, a direction of such capital to the cul-
tivation of the soil would have been given (by legislative
enactment or some other mode), which would have given
employment to the people, and increased the quantity of
food for their support. Why did not this take place in
accrodance with their acknowledged experience on the
subject ? This question I cannot answer ; it is most
likely that difiiculties then insurmountable presented
themselves. I will not venture to say that the measures
lately brought forward are introduced for the purpose of
removing them. It is generally admitted that a pro-
prietor ought not to expect that a tenant will invest his
capital in the permanent and annual improvement of a
farm, without a lease for such a term of years and at
such a rent as will afford him an opportunity of getting
his capital back again, and also a profit for such invest-
ment before the expiration of his term : this may be
considered by some persons a digression from the subject,
but it is so connected with agricultural improvement that
these few remarks are scarcely avoidable. After the land
has been treated as recommended by Mr. Smith, it will
be necessary to give it an increased quantity of manure,
so that its capabilities in the production of greater crops
may be fully exemplified. It may be asked, From whence
is the additional quantity of manure to be obtained } In
reply, he not only suggested the necessity of saving the
liquid manure that is made upon the farm, and prevent
the deterioration of that which is solid, but also to
solicit the attention of the farmers of this neighbourhood
to a source of supply that is ample to the utmost extent
of their wants, and on such terms which by persons not
conversant with hydraulics and mechanics can scarcely be
credited. A company has been formed for the purpose
of transmitting the sewage manure of the metropolis
into the country to the extent of twenty-five miles, by

the means of steam power and pipes, which will enable
the company to distribute it in the fields for the farmers
at as low a price as it would cost them to cart it from
their farm-yards and distribute it on the fields. It is
intended to lay the main-pipe along the main-road
through Hammersmith, Brentford, and Hounslow, and
branch mains on to Chertsey, Staines, and Colnbrook ;
from which service-pipes will be laid at about half-mile
distances into the lands where the manure will be re-
quired : taps will be in the service-pipes at certain
distances, to any of which a hose-pipe can be attached
by the company's men for the purpose of distributing
the liquid manure in the respective fields, as may be re-
quired. The facility and economy of this mode of trans-
mission and distribution enabled the company to supply
it on such low terms. Some persons have imagined
that it is the solid part of this manure that is the most
valuable ; but this idea is inconsistent with correct
principle, and also proved to be so by practical i-esults,
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, where the liquid
manure of that city has been applied during the last
hundred years, and from which application the land is
yielding a rental of £30 per acre. This result is from
the effect produced by the manure that is held in a state
of chemical solution, and not from the solid matter in a
state of mechanical suspension. A reference to a very
simple fact with which we are all conversant will suf-
ficiently illustrate this principle : we all know the great
proficiency of the ladies in the making of tea — how do
they proceed ? They pour boiling water upon the solid
vegetable that they put into the teapot ; in the course of
a few minutes they pour out the exhilirating beverage as
clear (but coloured) as the purest water. When they
are satisfied in having thus exhausted ail the virtue of
the tea, what becomes of the solid matter ? We all
know that it is thrown away as useless. Similar treat-
ment is adopted with the liquid manure of Edinburgh :
small cesspools are made along its main course, in which
the solid matter is allowed to fall as deposit before the
liquid is put over the land ; and this solid deposit, when
occasionally cleared out, is disposed of as of very little
value. One of the very great advantages in the applica-
tion of liquid manure is, that it is Justin the very state
ready to be taken up as food by the vegetable kingdom,
as it is well known that no vegetable can take up solid
manure before it becomes in a state of solution. The
lecturer referred to several other advantages attendant
upon the application of manure in a liquid state, and
then requested that if any gentleman present saw any
difficulty or obstacle that might interfere with the opera-
tions of the company, it would be stated, that an op-
portunity might be afforded to discuss the subject im-
partially. One gentleman inquired how the pipes could
be preserved from the effects of frost .' To which an im-
mediate reply was given. By conveying them under-
ground about two feet or so, according to circumstances.
The persons present appeared greatly pleased, and a
resolution of thanks to the lecturer was proposed by the
chairman, F. Sherborn, Esq., seconded by A. Wood,
Esq., of Littleton, and carried unanimously.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

411

IS CHALK MANURE?
IMPORTANT DECISION IN FAVOUR OF AGRICULTURE.

A case of the greatest interest to agriculturists came
before the Dorset Quarter Sessions, on Wednesday, the
8th instant, in an appeal made by Isaac Rendall, the
keeper of the Hill Butts turnpike-gate, on the Wan-
borne Trust, against the decision of two county magis-
trates, who had convicted him in the penalty of 45s. for
taking toll for a waggon-load of chalk. The facts of
the case were admitted, and the only question for the
decision of the court was that prefixed to this report —
" Is chalk manure ?" Mr. Ffooks, for the convicting
justices, contended that it was, and cited two old books
as authorities to show that it had been so considered
years ago. The first of these works, published in 1718,
was entitled " Ichnographia Rustica ; or, The Noble-
man's, Gentleman's, and Gardener's Recreation ; con-
taining a General System of Agriculture," by Stephen
Switzer, gardener several years to Mr. Loudon and Mr.
Wise." In speaking of the improvement of arable
land, this writer says — " And if the country naturally
produce chalk or marl, either of them will be a proper
manure for once, by which means you have one or two,
or perhaps three or four changes." The other work,
which bore date 1727, purported to be " A Complete
Body of Husbandry, collected from the Practice and
Experience of the most considerable Farmers in Britain,"
by R. Bradley, professor of Botany in the University of
Cambridge, and F.R.S, Mr. Bradley writes — " Among
other things for the improvement of light lands, chalk
is to be used ; that is, such chalk or white clay as is
greasy or binding, or has a viscous matter in it. This
husbandry of chalk is taken notice of by Julius Caesar
in his ' Commentaries.' "

Mr. Stock, in a shrewd and argumentative address for
the appellant, said he would rather take the opinion of
a better known and more popular work than either Mr.
Switzer's or Mr. Bradley's on this matter, and that was
Johnson's Dictionary. He therein found manure thus
described : — " Manure— noun substantive, from the verb
— soil to be laid on land, dung or compost, to fatten
land," " Manure — verb— to cultivate by manual labour,
to dung, to fatten with composts, to fatten as a compost."
Now, he contended that chalk could not come under this
designation, for chalk was not a fattener of land. And,
as far as regarded the words of the Act 5 and 6 Wm. IV.,
cap. 18, which exempted manure from toll, and which
ran thus : — " That no toll shall be taken for horses con-
veying only dung, soil, compost, or manure (except
lime)." He contended that the legislature, by mention-
ing " dung, soil, or compost," intended evidently to
exclude from the exemption all substances not contain-
ing the qualities of dung, soil, or compost. The ques-
tion he submitted was, " Is chalk a manure by itself?"
He apprehended it was only useful when mLxed with
other substances ; and therefore, although it might come
in under the head of " substances used for manuring," it

could not be considered as manure by itself. Chalk was
used for many other purposes besides manure ; and if
this exemption were allowed, it would be in the power
of any person to claim that exemption, even if he did
not intend to use the chalk as manure. As far as the
justice of the matter was concerned, he should show
that the chalk waggons passing through this particular
gate were so heavily laden as to do more injury to the
road than any other vehicles ; and at this particular time
the trustees of turnpikes required protection, suffering
as they were under the formidable opposition of the
numerous railways. For all these considerations, he
called on the court to quash the conviction.

After evidence had been produced to confirm the lat-
ter part of the learned counsel's statement, the court
said they were perfectly satisfied that chalk is a manure,
and they confirmed the conviction.

Application was then made for costs, the granting of
which was in the power of the court ; and although Mr.
Stock fought hard against it, contending that, as the
matter had been contested with amity, with a view to
obtain the opinion of the court upon the question, the
appellants ought not to be punished by being obliged to
pay heavy costs. Still the court said they thought it a
very proper application, and they should grant costs, to
be taxed by the proper officer of the court.

SOOT POR POTATOES. — Not at all agreeing
with those who advise a decrease in the cultivation of the
potato, I still think it unnecessary to occupy your
columns with arguments for its continuance ; believing
that its importance will be too much felt in practice, to
admit any great danger of its being neglected. A far
more desirable object appears to me the restoration of
its health and hardiness. The history of the potato
disease, from its first appearance a hundred years ago,
is that of an increasing tendency to putrefaction and
decay ; and what else could have been expected from a
plant, set year after year, with its cut faces in contact
with fresh or fermenting dung, the juices of which thus
mix with those of the plant crop after crop. What
other vegetable has been subjected to such putrefactive
treatment ? The obvious remedy appears to be, anti-
putrescent dressings. And how have these answered,
where tried ? Peat is eminently antiseptic ; and pota-
toes grown in peat, how little comparatively they have
suffered ; and how highly they have been esteemed for
seed, for the greater part of a century ! Next, those
grown on Stinchcombe farm from soot (described in
Morton's treatise on soils), where they grow theii- own
seed successfully for thirty years. Even last year, when
the rot was at the worst, see Mr. Barnes's small experi-
ments, reported in Johnson's Gardeners' Almanac,
where potatoes dressed with soot and charred refuse,
both antiseptic, turned out mostly sound (and still con-

412

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tinued so at the last report), whilst with all other dres-
sings they took the rot. But if soot is the most pro-
mising Remedy for the present potato disease in this
country, it is also to be had more abundantly here than
elsewhere ; so that it may be used freely (say twenty
bushels per acre, with the requisite inorganic salts),
especially where growing for seed, for which purpose
peaty and high ground should be preferred ; and thus

we may reasonably hope that the tendency to decay
would be thrown off much faster, with the help of vital
action, than it has been brought on by the admixture of
putrescent dung juice with the sap of the plant. It is
needless to occupy your columns with reasoning that has
already been several times repeated. The principle is
simply the application of antiseptic dressings to remedy
the tendency to putrefaction. J. Prideaux.

THE FOREIGN HOP DUTY.

The following paper on this subject has been issued
by the West Kent Agricultural Protection Society : —

PROTEST

Against the Proposed Reduction of the Import Duty on

Hops. Respectfully submitted to the consideration

of Members of Parliament.

The hop planters of the county of Kent being se-
riously impressed with the conviction that the reduction
of the import duty on foreign hops, now proposed by
government, will have a most injurious effect upon the
interests of all parties engaged in the cultivation of the
hop, venture with great deference to lay before you a
few observations bearing on the subject.

They would commence their remarks by observing
that the special reasons set forth in justification of the
alterations in the laws affecting corn are not in the least
degree applicable to the case of hops, there being nei-
ther deficient supplies, anticipated scarcity, nor high
prices ; nor can any probability of the slightest benefit
to the consumer be adduced in support of the measure,
as it is a well-known fact that the price of beer has ne-
ver been affected by any variation in the value of hops,
that the total cost of that ingredient in the ordinary be-
verage of the people is less than two-thirds of a farthing
per quart, and that if the sonsumer reaped the whole
benefit of the intended remission of duty, it would
amount to little more than one farthing per gallon.

The statement made by Sir Robert Peel as to the un-
founded alarm on the changes proposed in 1842 is to a
certain extent incorrect, as, at the period when the
alarm was expressed, the government had not made
known their intentions respecting hops ; but upon the
planters being informed that a protective duty to the
extent of £4 10s. per cwt. would still be continued,
their alarm subsided, and a general opinion prevailed
that the proposed protection would prevent the ruinous
competition which they had anticipated.

This opinion has since been borne out by the fact that at
a subsequent period, when the prices were barely remu-
nerative, foreign hops were offered for sale by sample in
the London market at very low prices, and upon which
a large profit might have been realized if the import
duty had then been £2 5s. instead of ^4 10s. ; and it is
submitted that the inferences c^rawn from the fact, that
but a small quantity of hops have been imported, are
somewhat premature, because a plantation of hops can-
not be raised to full bearing in less than three years — a

period which has barely elapsed since the last change in
the import duty took place.

The peculiar circumstances affecting the cultivation
and the trade in hops may with much reason be urged
in suggesting a course of legislation different to that ap-
plicable to corn. All hops of home-growth are sub-
ject to an excise duty of 19s. 7d. per cwt. ; and although
the heavy expenses of cultivation are much the same
annually, the crop is exceedingly variable, being subject
to all the ordinary vicissitudes to which corn crops are
usually liable, and to many others more serious, but pe-
culiar to itself, to which facts alone the fluctuation in
prices can be attributed. As it is generally admitted
and avowed that foreign importation will tend to create
low and steady prices, and that importation can only
take place at a period of diminished home supply, it
follows that the home planter will then be prevented
from realizing that enhanced value of his produce to
which he is fairly entitled, and upon which alone he can
rely to compensate himself for the low prices to which
he must occasionally submit.

An average crop is more than sufficient for one year's
consumption ; and when large crops occur, the supply
being greater than the demand, the cultivation is usually
attended with loss, and the planter is generally com-
pelled to hold his produce in hand for a considerable pe-
riod after he has paid the excise duty, the payment of
which, because of the larger quantity he has grown, ab-
sorbs a larger portion of his capital, when from the same
cause he is under great disadvantage in the sale of his
produce. The importer, on the other hand, possesses
the great advantage of bonding his commodity until a
favourable opportunity for its disposal occurs, and of
not being called upon to pay the import duty until the
scale is affected.

The land upon which hops are produced, although not
capable of yielding larger crops of corn than the land
adjoining, has been subjected by legislation to heavy ad-
ditional taxation, being valued for the purposes of the
poor-law assessment, and also for the commutation of
tithe, fully one hundred and fifty per cent, above the aver-
age value of arable land in the same locality ; and these pe-
culiar burdens on hop cultivation, tantamount in effect
to doubling the rent on the land, were imposed at a pe-
riod when the British planter was deriving the benefit of
an import duty on foreign hops equivalent to an abso-
lute prohibition.

The following calculations are submitted in order that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

413

the extent of the interests concerned in the question
may be fully understood.

In the county of Kent alone there are now upwards of
twenty-three thousand acres of land planted with hops,
on which a capital of about two millions has been per-
manently sunk in raising the plantation and erecting the
requisite buildings, &c. ; and the additional capital an-
nually employed in the cultivation is estimated at up-
wards of nine hundred thousand pounds. A large and
increasing labouring population meet with nearly con-
stant employment at a high rate of wages in the hop
districts, and the sum annually paid for manual labour
alone is calculated at two hundred and thirty thousand
pounds annually, which exceeds the amount usually ex-
pended for the same purpose on a similar breadth of
arable land by upwards of one hundred and sixty thou-
sand pounds. Tlie extra tithe paid on the hop land
amounts to between twenty and twenty-five thousand
pounds annually ; the average excise duty paid for the
last five years has been about one hundred and fifty
thousand pounds, equivalent to six pounds ten shillings
per acre, which amounts to more than the rent, tithe,
rates, and taxes combined. These details, although pre-
pared with reference to the county of Kent alone, it is

believed would apply to the kingdom generally, in which
case the results would be doubled in amount.

Ill 1812, when the last alteration in the import duty
took place, the planters were led to suppose that no
probability of any further change existed ; and acting
upon that impression, since that jjcriod the cultivation
has been much improved, the plantation renewed and
increased, new and expensive buildings and apparatus
have been extensively erected, all of which has been
effected at a time when, from circumstances over which
they could have no control, their profits have been very
small.

Upon reviewing these and other points peculiarly
affecting their position, the hop planters consider them-
selves perfectly justified in earnestly protesting against
the proposal of government, and in asserting that it is
fraught with the greatest injustice, and must ultimately
result in most serious injury to their welfare ; and in
conclusion, they would respectfully submit that the in-
tended import duty on foreign hops be increased by the
addition of the home excise duty thereto — that is to say,
to £3 5s. instead of £2 5s. per cwt, — or that the home
excise duty may be entirely removed.

GREAT PARISIAN PRIZE CATTLE SHOW,

For six centuries the cattle market, or Smithfield, of
Paris has been held at Poissy, in the neighbourhood of
that capital, where, every year, the most enormous,
though certainly not always the most handsome beast,
has been selected from among the oxen fatted to com-
pete for the honour of displaying their proportion in the
grand cortege of the carnival, as the Bmuf-gras, to the
great delight of the Parisian population.

The narrow field for competition presented by this
species of secular encouragement bestowed upon the
greatest volume of osseus matter, not having been found
to answer the exigencies of the present day for an im-
proved culture of the cattle of France, to keep pace with
the efforts of the agriculturists of England, the French
Board of Agriculture determined, three years ago, to
supply this neglect by the serious and judicious encou-
ragement of the indigenous races of cattle, as well as of
those crossed with foreign breeds. For this purpose
prizes were instituted, and offered by the Government,
for the competition of those breeders who should pro-
duce cattle whose net weight, and presumptive quantity
of meat of good quality, and whose beauty of form,
should entitle them to that mark of encouragement by
their superior claims. To these prizes given by the
Board of Agriculture, the town of Poissy adds two more ;
and on the 9th of April the third annual prize cattle
show took place.

Notwithstanding the bad weather a great assemblage
of agriculturists, butchers, and lovers of sights repaired
to Poissy at an early hour, and the exhibition was open
till two o'clock in the afternoon . The cattle were all

ranged in good order in the spacious square of the mar-
ket, under convenient sheds, erected expressly for the
occasion. Those to which the prizes had been adjudged
were crowned in true French fashion with laurels, the
competitors being designated alone by a simple number
afiixed between the two horns. This mode of classifica-
tion was found very unintelligible to the visitors,
amounting to more than 2,000, who complained of so
inefficient a method of designation, and of the want of
some printed list, affording to each number the neces-
sary description of weight, age, breed, &c., together
with the place of birth, and the owner's name.

Apart from this neglect, and many others, much dis-
cussion, and, indeed, dispute, arose among the proprie-
tors themselves ; proving how little of unity of opinion
exists among the breeders of cattle in France relative to
the actual condition and the real merit of their indigenous
breeds, their respective perfections, the necessity or utility
of crosses with foreign breeds, represented at this show
by the Durham race, the production of our celebrated
Collins. In fact, there were almost as many opinions as
agriculturists present. The majority, however, gave the
preference to this cross, on account of its finer form
and its greater disposition to fat at an early age. On
the other hand it was averred that the Durham cross
with the indigenous breed made but bad milch cows,
were not prolific, and the oxen weak at work ; while
the flesh, though well marbled with fat, and tender, was
of a bad colour, and less adapted for the table than some
of the indigenous kinds.

This aptitude to fatten early was considered, neverthe.

414

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

less, by others, a quality of great value, and although
the ox was still employed extensively throughout France
in field-work, the time was fast approaching when the
horse would be substituted, as in England, for that
patient and docile symbol of rural industry. The early
fattening of the bovine kind was considered a subject of
the greatest importance, and it was hoped would shortly
become a practice and study with the landed proprietors
and farmers ; though, at the same time, prudence was
recommended by the committee, and the agriculturist
was cautioned against all hasty prejudice in favour of
particular foreign breeds, by which the good qualities
already possessed by the indigenous races might be ob-
literated through an injudicious admixture of foreign
blood. It was considered that many of the indigenous
kinds were susceptible of great improvement by a judi-
cious selection, and that the public money consecrated
to so worthy an object would be nowhere better employed
in the interest of the national wealth.

At this show 157 oxen were exhibited ; of which 82
alone were selected to compete for the prizes. There
were none of the elephant-oxen exhibited in the pre-
ceding year, and all the competitors were worthy of the
prizes contended for ; some, indeed, excited general ad-
miration, and all acknowledged the cori-ectness of the
judges in the distribution of the prizes. As on the pre-
ceding year, the Marquis de Tarcy (department de
I'Orne), bore away the palm. His ox, Durham-Coten-
tin, three years old, weight 900 kilos, reared and fat-
tened in his stalls, was a remarkably beautiful animal,
uniting every requisite. A Charolais ox, of the same
age, belonging to Mr. Masse (department du Cher), had
as many admirers ; and Mr. Hervien (department la
Nievre) gave another evidence of the perfection attain-
able by the fine race of the Charolais crossed with the
Durham.

Great improvement was remarked in the Salers breed
of Auvergne. The hind quarters of these, however,
were not without faiUt ; although the three specimens
exhibited possessed great merit. The flesh of this breed
is much esteemed ; it admits of fattening when young,
and produces on an average 600 kilos of net meat.

Many agriculturists demanded loudly to be informed
of the cost of all this, and the net amount of returns on
all these chefs d'oeuvres. The question was, perhaps,
not exactly an indiscreet one ; for the farmer cannot
exactly afford to produce fat for the mere love of fat ;
but it was considered rather premature. And, as a new
road was about to be opened, a certain gratitude was
thought due to those who were throwing it open at cer-
tain sacrifices, which no prize would wholly reimburse.
Mr. Ladrey, of Venille, near Nevers, for example, had
received 500 fr. (20/.) prize for some very admirable
sheep, which cost him 1,200 fr, (48/.) in travelling ex-
penses.

A handsome tent, but rather too small to contain the
spectators for which it was intended, had been erected
for the persons invited. The committee, the Minister
of the Board of Agriculture and Trade, accompanied by
a numerous cortege of patrons of the agricultural in-
terest, Messrs. Decazes, Dupin, sen., Darblay, DaUly,
de Romanet, &c., were assembled ; and, after a speech
from M. Crenin-Gridaine, whose voice, by the bye,
smothered by the lowing and bleating of the animals,
was scarcely heard, the Prefect of the Seine and Oise
pronounced a short address, when the names of the suc-
cessful candidates were called over, and the sitting was
closed rather abruptly. The public were disappointed
that the report of the committee was not read, which
upon such occasions has hitherto been usual, and is con-
sidered both necessary and desirable ; but it appeared
that M. Yvart was obliged to be absent on family aff'airs,
aiid no other member of the committee had deen selected
to supply his place. This inattention was much cen-
sured.

The highest prize for oxen was 1,200 fr. (48/.), and a
gold medal to the ox previously named. The lowest
ditto, 500 fr. (20/.) and a silver medal.

The highest prize for sheep was 600 fr. (24/.) and a
gold medal, for sheep of the Dishley-Arterien breed,
twenty-four months old, weighing, without wool, 1,370
kilos. The lowest ditto, 400 fr. (16/.) and silver medal,
for Solognote breed, twenty-four months old, weighing
830 kilos, without wool.

ON THE BREEDING, FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.

BY. T. E. PAWLETT.

It is not my intention, in offering the following
pages to the notice of your Society, to enter into a
lengthened discussion derived from a sjoeculative
knowledge of the subject in question, but I shall
endeavour to confine myself chiefly to the relation
of experiments, which have been made and tested
by myself, offering at the same time such remarks
and observations as may have occured to me whilst
they were in progress : and here I may observe,
that the trial of any of them was not left to the care

of another person, but all were begun and carried
on under my own eye, as far as circumstances
would allow. It has been my practice for more
than twenty years to weigh some of my sheep
montlily, almost all the year round, to try various
kinds of food and methods of management, and
always in the most accurate manner, by using dead
weights, and not upon the steelyard principle,
which, by weighing anything alive, is liable to
great variation. For instance ; if I were to weigh a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

iU

lot of lambs alive, which I frequently have done
with the common steel-yard, by taking two saddle-
girths, and placing them under the belly of the ani-
mal, one as near the hind legs as possible, and the
other immediately behind the fore legs, and so when
the steelyards were attached to the girths, suspend-
ing the lambs from a pole resting upon the shoul-
ders of two men, I have invariably found that they
would weigh by this method from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs.
each more than they afterwards have done (on the
same day) by scales and weights. I have also en-
deavoured to weigh my sheep as nearly at the same
time of the day as I possibly could. I believe in
all trials of animals a number should be taken for
the experiment, and never less than sLx or eight.
I generally, in the following accounts, have
selected eight lambs, as it is the average of the lot
that must be looked at, and not the individual in-
crease of any one of them. It is astonishing some-
times to find so much variation as I have seen
among a lot without any apparent cause ; some may
not have been in good health when the weighing
day came, have had a little scour upon them, and
others may not have taken so much food as usual.
The sheep with which the following experiments
were made were all of the Leicester breed, and
bred by myself. Being a ram breeder, perhaps it
will l)e received with, some suspicion when I state,
that it is of the greatest possible advantage, in order
to get a good breed of sheep, that the very best
rams should be procured ; nevertheless it is true
for I have had abundant proofs that the produce
inherit considerably more of the qualities of the
male (whether good or bad) than they do from the
female ; indeed, I consider the male almost every-
thing in getting a good animal : I do not, however,
wish to be understood that the properties of the
female are quite inactive in the process of generation,
and that the produce does not in a measure partake
of her quahties. I would recommend that the
greatest care should be taken in dramng the ewes
for the rams, so that whenever there is a defect in
the one, it may be counteracted by the others pos-
sessing good points in that particular. Great dif-
ference of opinion exists whether it is right or not
to cross animals in breeding. By crossing I do
not mean mixing two distinct breeds, but changing
from one flock to another of the same breed ; many
are the advocates for it, whilst a few persons con-
tend for breeding in and in. From a long experience
and close attention to the subject for more than
twenty years, my mind seems more disposed to
favour the latter than the former. I do not, how-
ever, recommend that animals closely allied by
blood should be put together generally ; yet I have
known very good sheep, for instance, produced by
putting the son of a ram called A to a daughter of

A, in cases where their points would suit each
other ; and I should never hesitate in doing so. I
cannot see the utihty of crossing for the sake of
crossing or changing, unless I can perceive supe-
rior qualities in another person's flock which mine
do not possess ; even in that case if my neighbour's
flock were not quite so well bred as my own, I
should long hesitate before I had anything to do
with it, as the more I see of breeding, the more I
am convinced of the advantages to be derived
from using well bred, indeed the best-bred animals.
In the breeding of sheep there is much to be at-
tended to — size, wool, constitution, quality of mut-
ton, form, &c. ; yet I think propensity to fatten of
paramount importance Having drawn the ewes for
the rams, the next point to be considered is, which
is the best method — To turn the rams loose
amongst the ewes in the common way, or put them
in stocks for the rams. I invariably adopt the lat-
ter, as I get far fewer " guest " or barren ewes by
this than I should by the former practice. It very
frequently happens that rams are put loose wdth the
ewes when they are much too fat ; many are there-
fore very idle, and will not tup an ewe unless under
favourable circumstances ; they may serve some,
and jump others, and if they cannot succeed after
two or three trials, will leave the ewe entirely and
go to another ; she misses this time, and perhaps
also when she returns again. When ewes are
served in stocks, the shepherd of course sees that
all is done right. The general opinion is, that once
serving an ewe is sufficient for her to be inlambed :
experience has convinced me that twice is much
more safe, and I wUl adduce an instance of it,
which led me to the custom which I always adopt,
of having all my ewes served at least twice by the
rams. On the 17th of October, 1835, I put 31
ewes to 5 diflferent rams ; 22 of them were tupped
twice each, a few hours elapsing between, and at
the usual time when they would have returned, had
they not been inlambed, only one did return. The
remaining 9 ewes were tupped by the same rams
only once each, and 5 of them returned or went
over again. From this it would appear, that
out of 100 ewes served twice, 95 would be inlambed ;
while out of 100 served only once, 45 only would
be inlambed ; showing a decided preference for
stocking the ewes, and having them tupped twice.
I have been accustomed for many years to set down
daily every ewe that went to the ram, and find that
they return, if not inlambed, at from fourteen to
eighteen days aftenvards ; scarcely any come again
before fourteen days, and very rarely any later than
eighteen days. I found by observations made in
the lambing seasons of 1831 and 1832, that my
ewes went with lamb as follows, and I was enabled
to come to a certainty upon this point, as I always

41G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

number my ewes, also my young lambs, and set
down every day the ewes as they take the ram : —

Weeks. Days.
The longest time any ewe went wth a

ram lamb Avas - - 22 4

The shortest time - - 21 0

The longest time any one went with

an ewe lamb was - - 22 2

The shortest time - - 20 4

This proves the general opinion to be correct that
animals go with young longer with males than fe-
males, but the difference is very trifling.

It is the custom in many parts of the country to
dress ewes with meixurial ointment in the autumn,
whether they are affected with the scab or not ; and
a question often arises in the minds of some per-
sons how late in the season, when the ewes are per-
haps heavily inlambed, such operation may safely
be performed without any injury arising to the
young lamb within. In the autumn of 1834 my
ewes were lined or dressed mth ointment in the
usual way ; but in consequence of some apprehen-
sions that they had caught the scab some time
after they were dressed, or might break out with it
in the spring, I determined upon gi\'ing them a
second dressing, which was performed on the 9th
and 10th of January, the ewes being considerably
more than half their time gone with lamb. They
were turned upon their sides as usual to be dressed
but no lines were put down the belly of the ewes.
I found that no injviry arose from the dressing, as
they lambed quite as well, and the lambs were as
healthy as usual. I had one ewe lined a third time,
to try whether the ointment would afl'ect her, being
inlambed, which was done on the 10th of February.
She yeaned a lamb quite healthy on the 23rd of
March. I believe dressing with ointment does not
affect old sheep so much as lambs. A few years
since I sustained two or three great losses from my
lambs having been dressed with mercurial oint-
ment. The weather setting in very hot some days
afterwards, the greatest part of them were attacked
with inflammation, and many died : in one case they
were lined with ointment about the 11th of Octo-
ber, and in the other about the middle of February.

When ewes are mth lamb they are very suscep-
tible of taking cold, and due attention should be
paid to them that their lair is clean and dry, particu-
larly a few weeks before the lambing season com-
mences. If they are allowed to remain in wet wea-
ther on the turnip land when it is very dirty,
in many cases the loss will be great, which I
have proved from experience. In the winter of
1832 all my ewes were put to turnips, and remained
upon them until the 1st of Februaiy. Having
bought this year a quantity of high-priced ewes, I

drew from the flock 21 of them, and kept them on
grass land, and they were fed daily \vith turnips
from the 1st of February; the remaining part of
the high priced lot of 35 were left with the flock
upon the turnip land, and fed in the common man-
ner, the land being exceedingly wet and dirty
nearly all the month of February. About the end
of that month those on the turnip land began to
cast their lambs before the proper time, and those
ewes which went their full time, many of them
brought dead lambs, and of those that came alive
many died a day or two afterwards ; whilst those
21 ewes which were kept on grass were healthy
and went on weU : 18 of them lambed by the 1st of
April, and had 16 lambs alive. From the 35 ewes
kept on the wet land 5 were guest, 30 had lambs,
and only 11 lambs were alive from them on the 1st
of April.

It is also highly necessary to keep the ewes well,
and they should have some dry food, either corn,
hay, or clover chaff, at least three weeks or a month
before lambing, to force their milk and keep them
in a healthy state, or there wiU in many cases be
much loss with the young lambs. Before I kept
my ewes well I lost many lambs when young, it
being my usual custom to keep them on Swede
turnips. A few years ago I determined to keep
them better, by giving them Avith the turnips
plenty of good hay every day for three or four
weeks before they lambed. I tried this plan with
the first 100 ewes that were to lamb, and I scarcely
lost a lamb out of the 100 ewes. The next lot of
100 ewes were kept on Swedes, which had been
eaten off to pecking during a snow by other sheep,
the ewes eating the part pecked up udthout any
other food, and the consequence was that a great
many of the lambs died. They generally came
aUve, but died in two or three days afterwards,
being weak and unhealthy in their appearance. I
lost as many as five or six lambs a-day sometimes,
and I believe from no other cause than not keeping
their dams well before lambing ; those lambs which
hved, did not thrive well being short of milk : it is
of little use to keep them well after lambing if the
milk is not forced before. When a lamb dies, and
another is intended to replace it, I let the dead
lamb remain Avith the ewe for about a day before it
is removed ; it is then skinned, and the skin is
fastened on the lamb which is intended to be put
to the ewe, which may be fitted very well if the
skin is taken off the lamb by a skilful hand. The
lamb being then put to the ewe, she will generally
take to it in a few hours if confined in a small
space.

Dipping lambs in the summer in a composition
of arsenic and soft soap is become very general, and
I beheye is very advantageous to the lambs' proT'

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

417

gress ; this should be done early in May, as the
lambs will suffer much from the ticks if delayed
until they are weaned, which often, is not before
July. Care should be taken to have the mixture
from a druggist. I have kno\\Ti much loss from
dipjjing where people have mixed the composition
themselves. As the expense is trifling, I would re-
commend that the lambs should be dipped a second
time when they are taken from the ewes, so that
they may be clean from ticks during the winter. I
never found it to be the least injurious to my lambs
1)ut think they appear to thrive much better after it.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the pro-
per time for weaning lambs. No inconvenience
would arise from weaning early in the season, pro-
vided the lambs have good, proper, and sufficient
keep ; this I proved in the year 1837. I weaned a
few lambs on the 10th of June, weighed them, and
after they had remained a few days on the land they
were accustomed to, I took them to a pasture of
sainfoin ; some green tares and water were given to
them; they were weighed again on the 10th of
July, and I found they had increased in weight 16^
lbs. each. Another lot of lambs were weighed on
the 10th of June, and continued with the ewes on
good white clover ; the lambs had, apart from the
ewes, in a pen, tares and water given to them ; these
were also weighed again on the 10th of July, and
gained only l'2i lbs. each, showing a difference for
early weaning of 3|lbs. each lamb on the average;
the weather was very hot and dry all the time.
After this trial they were put together, and con-
tinued to be fed the same through the \vinter.
Both lots were weighed again in the February
following, when I found that those weaned early
gained in weight 51 lbs. each more than the other
lot, which proves that lambs weaned early \vinter
the best.

The weaning of lambs properly, and their subse-
quent treatment, is one of the most important
branches in the management of sheep. If they are
not attended to at this critical period veiy frequently
they will soon go wrong and the loss be very great ;
they toU have a fever upon them ; many will die,
and those that survive will not get over it for many
months. I have found the following recipe (ex-
tracted from an old book on farming) of great
benefit to lambs when they scour, and I am never
without it : —

Epsom salts 6 ounces.

Nitre in powder .... 4 „
Boiling water 3 pints.

Pour the water hot upon the salts and nitre ; with
new mLlk(warm) add spirit of turpentine, 4 ounces;
bol ammoniac in powder, ^ an ounce ; mix and
shake them well together. If necessary repeat the

drink every day or two. About 3 or 4 table spoon-
fuls may be given to a sheep for a dose, and lambs
in proportion to their size.

I would recommend the manner which I adopt
with my lambs when they are weaned, which is al-
ways to leave the lambs in the pasture that they are
accustomed to for a few days, and take away the
ewes to another and a distant close, that the lambs
may not hear them bawl ; if this be attended to they
will lie quiet, and scarcely trouble themselves about
their dams, but will disperse themselves over the
pasture ; whereas in the common way, by taking
away the lambs to a pasture they have not been used
to, they will lie at the gate they are put in at, fret
and bawl, eat scarcely anything, and if the weather
be unfavourable, and the pasture not suited to them
will frequently go the wrong way. I prefer old
kee}), which has been eaten in the spring, whether
sainfoin, red clover, or grass, to any of these that
has previously been mown ; but I believe no food so
injurious to young lambs at this time as old white
clover stubble, which is generally in a dry state in
the month of July, and \vill very often cause them
to scovu- very miich, and consequently be in a fever-
ish state. Water should be given to them if the
weather be hot. Those who wish to get a few lambs
very forward for any particular purpose, may give
them some early cabbages or green tares upon the
clovers, or indeed it would pay in a general way to
keep the wether lambs well, if it is intended to get
them fat for the butcher the follo^ving si)ring ; they
will get very fat if managed in this way. It is also
very advisable to shift lambs about (I am now al-
luding to the general flock) from one pasture to
another, and not let them remain for more than a
week or ten days at a time in any one place ; by so
doing they keep more healthy, and are less liable to
scour.

It is a great advantage to the young lambs to get
them to either cabbages or turnips early in the
autumn, as they will winter much better by getting
used to their food before the wet cold weather sets
in, and some dry food should always be given to them
at this time, until at least they have sufficiently
taken to the food upon which they are to remain
for some time. Malt-comb, or clover hay cut into
chaflF are excellent for the purpose, and much better,
I think, than corn so early in the season, as the
roots early in the autumn are in a succulent state
and very feeding. If corn and cake are intended
to be used for the lambs, they ought not to be
given to them until after Christmas. Cabbages
planted out in April or May are the best food to
make lambs fat that I ever met with : but they are
an expensive root, and would scarcely pay any one
to grow for sheep in a general way, to give them
any quantity of them, or to be penned upon them

418

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

(it would answer, as before observed, to have a
small quantity to throw to them on the clover leys),
imless the land is adapted to their growth, as they
exhaust it very much.

Where cabbages are not used, I consider white
turnips the best food for lambs in the months of
September and October, provided they are not too
old, and much preferable to Swedes, which I think
too strong at this season of the year for the delicate
constitution of the young lamb. The white turnips
should be cut, as the expense is but trifling over
the old method. Now that we have in general use
Gardner's excellent machine, the work, if done by
boys, would not exceed the common expense of
pecking, nor be more than about one halfpenny per
head per week. In the year 1834, being desirovis
to test the qualities of the white turnips with the
Swede, I selected a lot of lambs, weighed them on
the 1 1th of October, and put part of them in a pen,
and fed them with cut white turnips in troughs :
the others were penned^ and had cut Swedes given
to them. Tliey were weighed again on the 8th
of November, and the result was found to be as
follows : —

Experiment, no. 2.

Lot of lambs fed on
white tm-nips gained
in a month each on the
average 10| lbs.

Lot of lambs fed on
Swedes gained in a
month each on the
average 4f lbs.

being a difference of 6 lbs. each lamb in favour of
cut white turnips in the month of October. I con-
tinued the experiment for some weeks by weighing
the lambs occasionally, and found, as the cold and
wet weather came on, that the white turnips became
less feeding. In order to prove the feeding quality
of the white turnip stiU further, as experience has
taught me not to rest upon a single experiment,
whether it relates to sheep or to different kinds of
management for corn-crops, since in the one case the
health or constitutions of the animals may be pecu-
liar, and as regards corn or grain, the influence of
this variable chmate may operate differently in some
seasons upon one sort, or method of management,
than another, I therefore resolved to try the white
turnips against cabbage, and selected on the 1st
of October, 1835, some lambs, which were weighed.
One lot was put on cabbage, with a few white tur-
nips cut in troughs daily, with clover chaff; the
other lot was fed on white turnips cut and clover
chaff only. They were weighed again, October
30, and the difference was found to be as under : —

Experiment, no. 3.

Lambs fed on cabbage
and white turnips
gained each on the
average in twenty-nine
days 12ilbs.

Lambs fed on white tur-
nips gained in the
same time
lbs.

in
each

11^

This experiment shows but little in favour of cab-
bage (a kno\vn good food), but it will be observed
that some white turnips were given with them.

Again, in the same month of October, 1835, two
lots of lambs were weighed ; and one lot was
penned and fed on cut white turnips and clover
chaff, the other was fed on cut Swedes and clo-
ver chaff, and a few white turnips. At the end
of a month they were weighed again, and the result
was : —

Experiment, no. 4.

Lot on white turnips and
chaff only, gained each
in a month 8 lbs.

Lot on Swedes and white
turnips and chaff,
gained in the same
. time each 5 lbs.

Difference in favour of using white turnips only
3 lbs. each lamb per month.

Since these experiments I have invariably used
white turnips for lambs in the autumn, and find
they are an excellent food, if not sown too early in
the season, and perferable to Swedes during the
months of September and October, equal to them
in November or until the latter part of that month,
and very inferior to Swedes in December, or when
the weather becomes cold and frosty. Lambs are
not naturally fond of white turnips, and will take
to Swedes much sooner ; and I generally give them
a few Swedes first for a few days : and when my
flock of lambs (viz. my ewe lambs) are intended to
be penned upon white turnips without cutting,
which is sometimes the case, I give them a few
Swedes first, upon which they continue about two
days ; they are then let out upon the stubbles for
two or three days more, when they are again taken
to the pen of Swedes, which they will eat more
freely ; after which I put them on white turnips,
and have no further trouble with them.

Experiment, no. 5.
October 7, 1840, some lambs were selected from
the flock and weighed : one lot was penned on cab-
bage, with red carrots given them in troughs ; the
other lot was also penned on cabbage, with Swedes
given to them cut; both lots had clover chaff.
They were weighed again on the 3rd of November,
when those on
Cabbage and

Cabbage and Swedes
gained each in a month
101 lbs.

carrots

gained each in a month

9i lbs.

Being a difference of li lb. each lamb against the
use of carrots.

Experiment, no. 6,

Again, on the 28th of November, 16 lambs were
weighed : 8 pvit to cut Swedes only, and 8 fed on
red carrots and cut Swedes. Tliey were weighed
again February 22, the result of which trial was,
those

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

419

Lambs fed on Swedes Lambs fed on red carrots
only gained each 18 and Swedes gained
lbs. each 16 lbs.

Both lots increased in weight but little, but the

difference was against carrots.

Experiment, no. f .
Being another trial of can-ots against Swedes, On
October 12, 1841, some lambs were weighed: one
lot was fed on cut Swedes only ; the other lot was
fed on red carrots and cut Swedes. Were weighed
again November 23; those fed on

Red carrots and Swedes
gained in weight each
lamb 14 lbs.

Swedes only gained in

weight each lamb on

an average 17 lbs.
Against the use of carrots 3 lbs. each

Experiment, no. 8.
The Belgian or white carrot in trial against Swede
turnips. December 22, 12 lambs were put to
keeping : 6 of them to Swedes cut and clover chaff
only, and 6 of them to the Belgian or white carrots,
with some Swedes daily and clover chaff. At the
expiration of the trial I found that those kept on

Swedes and chaff gained
each on an average 1 94
lbs.

White carrots and Swedes
and chaff gained each
154 lbs.

Being an increase of 4 lbs, each lamb in favour of
using aU Swedes.

Ha\'ing proved, by repeated experiment, and
quite to my satisfaction, the inutility of using
carrots for feeding sheep, I have discontinued
growing them ; they are an expensive root to grow,
and must iujmre the soil for some time afterwards
if it is not well adapted for their growth.

Experiment, no. 9.
Between cabbages and Swedes. In the year
1836 I drew two lots of lambs, 8 in number for
each lot ; they were weighed ; and one lot was put
upon cabbages with some clover chaff only ; the
other was fed with cut Swedes and chaff only.
After they had been kept in this manner a month,
they were weighed again, and the result was found
to be as follows : —

8 lambs on cabbages and 8 lambs fed with Swedes
clover chaff gained and chaff gained each
each 11 lbs. 8^ lbs.

The increase of weight being in favour of the cab-
bages 2j lbs. each lamb per month.

Being aware that it was the custom with some
sheep-breeders to wash the food — such as turnips,
carrots, and other roots — for their sheep, I was in-
duced also to try the system ; and, as I usually act
cautiously in adopting any new scheme, generally
bringing it down to the true standard of experience,
I selected for the trial two lots of lambs — one lot
was fed in the usual manner on carrots and Swedes
unwashed; the other lot was fed exactly on the

same kinds of food, but the carrots and Swedes
were loashed very clean every day : they were
weighed before trial on the 2nd of December, 1835,
and again on the 30th of December.

Experiment, no, 10,

Lambs fed with food un-
washed, gained each
7h lbs.

Lambs fed \vith food
washed clean, gained
each in the same time
0 lbs.

Which shows that those lambs which were fed in
the usual way, without having their food washed,
gained the most weight in a month by 2f lbs. each
lamb. There appears to me to be no advantage in
this method of management : indeed, animals are
fond of licking the earth, particularly if fresh turned
up ; and a little of it taken into the stomach with
the food must be conducive to their health, or nature
would not lead them to take it.

Much having been said and written by high au-
thorities upon the decided advantage to be derived
from folding or feeding sheep in the yard during
the winter months, I was consequently induced to
try it, as my object has always been to adopt the
very best system of management I was acquainted
with for my sheep, and not to be bigoted to any
opinion of my own unless founded upon actual
experience ; neither, on the other hand, do I adopt
the recommendations of others upon a large scale
at first. I selected, therefore, only 8 lambs for
trial, of this hughly-recommended method of yard-
feeding, which were weighed on the 7th of Decem-
ber, 1839, and put into a yard made in the foUo\ving
manner. A small plot of ground sufficient in size
for 8 lambs, contiguous to my turnip-field where
my other lambs were feeding, was enclosed around
with hurdles, or trays set double and stuffed with
straw between, not only to shelter them from the
winds, but also to prevent the lambs from seeing
any object that would disturb them. On the north
side of the yard I had a shed built, opening towards
the south, and enclosed on the other three sides,
for them to go under in wet and cold weather ; it
was kept perfectly dry, being well secured mth
thatch. I procured some deal boards, which were
nailed to ledges about 4 or 5 inches deep to keep
the boards from the ground, and sufficient space
(about f of an inch) left between them, so that the
wet from the lambs might drain through ; these
were well swept clean daily, and the yard kept
sufficiently littered. The lambs were fed as usual,
three times a day with Swedes, cut carrots, and
clover-chaff. Another lot of 8 lambs, of the same
breed and about the same weight, were weighed on
the same day as those put in the yard — viz., on the
7th of Decembei' — and penned in the field adjoin-
ing, which was stubble-land, and were fed with
the same food exactly, and by the same person as

420

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

those in the yard; heing exposed to the weather as
sheep generally are, except ha\'ing two or three
stviiFed hurdles to shelter them from the winds. On
the 11th of February following, both lots were
weighed again, after being at trial 9 weeks and 3
days, the result of which was as follows : —

Experiment, No. 11.

8 lambs fed in the yard
gained each on the ave-
rage 192 lbs.

S lambs in the open field
gained each on the ave-
rage 20^ lbs.

This experiment proAang nearly equal, I gave it
up for this season ; but, wishing not to be preju-
diced against the practice of yard-feeding after hav-
ing "seen so much testimony in its favour, I tried
it again the next autumn and winter, and made
and enclosed a yard as nearly as possible like the
one I have described, and treated the lambs just
in the same manner, putting in another lot of eight
lambs on the 28th of November, 1840, at the same
time that they were weighed ; as also penning eight
more lambs, which were upon the stubble-land
adjoining. Both lots had the same kind of food — ■
Swedes, carrots, and chaff; they were attended by
the same person, and managed alike, and were
weighed again on the 22nd of February following,
when I found the result to be as under : —

Experiment, Nov. 12.

Slambs in the yard gained
each on the average in
12 weeks 32 lbs.

8 lambs kept in the open
field gained each on the
average in 12 weeks 28
lbs.

Showing in favour of yard-feeding 4 lbs. each
lamb during 12 weeks. This difference is very
trifling, and not in the least sufficient to compen-
sate any one for the extra trouble and expense
which must necessarily be incurred by making
yards, building sheds, taking the straw to a pai't
of the farm where perhaps the manure is not
wanted, and by the heavy carriage of the turnips,
which even for a short distance, is costly.*

I think another objection arises to the plan, and
that is, if the sheep fed in yards during the winter
are not made fat enough for the butcher in the
spring, and have to be turned again to pasture, they
will suffer mtich more from the cold winds, having
been confined and kept warm in the winter, than
those sheep Avintered in the usual manner in the
fields. It is my opinion also, but I confess I have
no means of ascertaining the fact by way of experi-
ment, that the wool may be injured by yard-feeding ;

* Having formerly recommended the trial of
shed-feeding, I am bound to state that in an expe-
riment like Mr. Pawlett's, I kept ten Down lambs
in a shed and ten out of doors, weighing each lot
regularly ; but that I found the gain of weight
rather on the side of the lambs fed out of doors. —
Ph. Pusey.

for the lambs kept in that way have a more unfa*
vourable and unhealthy appearance than those fed
in the common manner. After these trials, and
finding no adequate advantage in the practice, I
have given up the system of feeding sheep in
yards.

The advocates of yard-feeding sheep allege that
they eat less food if kept in that way than others
do which are fed in the open field. During the
trial of these experiments no difference was ob-
served as to the quantity of food consumed by each
lot ; they ate as near alike as possible, the food
being carried to them in scuttles. If one lot of
sheep eat less food than another, it is a proof with
me that they thrive in a less degree — of course I
allude to slieep of the same size and breed — as I
find by weighing my sheep monthly which are kept
in small lots, that those lots which eat less food
(and this is often the case without any apparent
cause, as they are kept in the same way), generally
gain less in weight than the other lots which feed
well.

Some years ago I made many experiments be-
tween feeding sheep on grass-land in winter ; viz.,
by dividing a close of land into pens of about half
an acre each, into which were put about 10 lambs,
and taking the turnips and other food to them ;
and feeding other lambs in the field, in the usual
manner, where the turnips grew. It would take
up too much space to enumerate them, and as the
system cannot be reduced to general practice on
account of the many disadvantages arising from
it and from the extra expense, I see no advantage
in relating them. The result of my experience is,
that sheep will thrive a little faster if fed on grass-
land in vdnter, as described, than they will if kept
on the turnip-land, but the increase of weight is of
inferior importance to the extra trouble and expense
incurred.

It has been my custom for some years to sow a
field with tares immediately after harvest for early
spring feed, upon which I usually put those lamb-
hogs which I wish to get the most forward in con-
dition as early in the spring as the season will allow
me. My land being adapted to the groAvth of
tares, particularly the farm I have lately left ; by
soAving them early they grew a good deal before
the winter set in, so that I often have had my lambs
out upon the tares as early as the middle or end of
February ; but I always gave them Swedes or car-
rots with the tares, as much as they would eat, and
have found them go on, managed in this waj^ better
than in any other system of management.

In the year 1833 I made an experiment of the
feeding qualities of the red or broad clover against
the white or Dutch clover ; both sorts were well
planted, and the white clover grew very strong. I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

121

drew two lots of lambs on the 1 5th of April, and
weighed them ; one lot was penned upon the red
dover, and the other lot was penned upon the
white clo\'er, both pens being nearly equal in size ;
they were weighed again on the 1 4th of June follow-
ing, and I found they had increased in weight as
follows : —

Experiment, No. 13.

Lot of lambs fed on white
clover gained each on
the average 3G| lbs.

Lot of lambs fed on red
clover gained each on
the average 352 lbs.

From this it appears that there is scarcely any dif-
ference in the feeding qualities of either sort.

The custom of early shearing sheep is becoming
more general than it was a few years ago, and there
is a great advantage in doing so, as I am convinced
the sheep thrive much faster during the summer
if their wool is taken off on the 1 st day of May
than if it were to be left on until the first or second
week in June, as the flies will not trouble them so
much upon their breasts and flanks. In some dis-
tricts or situations much inconvenience as loss
arises from the annoyance of these insects ; and I
do not know of any dressing that will keep them
oft", except for about two or three hours, although
I have tried many of what are called preventives.
Some persons are of opinion that the wool from
the sheep never weighs better than if taken off" in
AprU, as soon as they leave the turnip field ; but I
cannot see how this can be proved, as no experi-
ment, I think, can reach it. There does not appear
to me to be any advantage in keeping the ewe-flock
in their wool longer in the season than the begin-
ning of May ; if they are shorn yearly at this time
there is stUl a twelvemonth's wool upon them ; if
the wool is left upon them until the hot weather,
they often lose much of it from their necks and un-
derneath, whilst some will peel entirely.

It is not my intention to treat upon the diseases
of sheep generally, neither to oft'er any remedies
(save one or two), for this simple reason, that I
know of no other specifics than I can confidently
recommend ; therefore, I consider it much better
to suppress them. It is unfortunately true that
sheep are not often found to be ill until the disease
has taken too deep a root to be eradicated. Various
are the remedies for the very prevalent disease the
foot-halt. I have tried verdigris, butyr of anti-
mony, vitriol, and other caustics, with success ; but
what will eff"ect a cure in one sheep, in a dressing
or two, will not always do so in others ; when that
is the case, I would recommend another of the spe-
cifics described to be applied, which will, if pro-
perly attended to, remove the complaint in a few
days, in most cases. Shepherds generally are afraid
to probe the part aff'ected deep enough, which
ought always to be done. "Whenever a sheep falls

lame in a ilork, it should immediately be taken
from the others, or more will fall, as there can be
no doubt but the foot-halt is contagious. With
respect to the recent epidemic, I am persuaded that
it also is contagious, which I had sufficient proof
of last season. My rams were perfectly healthy
until June, when I took two of them to a certain
agricultural show to compete for prizes. One of
the competitors showed a sheep in the same class
with one of mine, labouring at the time with the
disease in question. With my ram it was turned
out of the pen by the judges for their inspection,
and both were some time together ; the consequence
u'as, that in about three days after mine got home,
he fell ill with the complaint, all my other sheep
being quite free from it that were at pasture in the
same field ; indeed, none of the sheep on the farm
had it. In a day or two afterwards another in the
same lot fell ill, and in the course of a few days
about half the lot became more or less affected.
About six weeks after this I had my regular show
for letting rams, and had then nearly got rid of the
disease, having only one sheej) lame with it, for I
always took one away from the others as soon as I
perceived that it had got the disease. It being ne-
cessary at this time to put my sheep together, I in-
cautiously let the infected sheep go with the others
the day after the show : the rams which had been
let were put into two lots ; into one of them was
]Hit the lame sheep, and in a few days several more
fell ill with this much to be dreaded complaint ; the
other lot and those unlet continued healthy.

I have given no account of expenses incurred
in the trial of these experiments : I do not see how
it can be done faithfully in reference to those I have
given, as many were tried years ago ; indeed, I
cannot see how it can be ascertained what a bushel
of turnips, carrots, or cabbages can be produced
at, as much will depend upon the season and na-
ture of the soil upon which they are grown. I am
confident it may happen that one season I might
produce, for instance, a ton of Swedes at a less
price than a ton of carrots, and the next year I
could produce the carrots at the least price per ton ;
as the season and soil might vary, and the Swedes
be attacked with flies, grubs, or grape, or the carrots
with what is termed here the "■' iron-mould." With
these facts in view, I have not attempted to detail
the expenses, for if they are not given accurately,
they had better be left out altogether.

I believe I have stated all that is required (as fai"
as my experience has led me) in the management
of sheep, and as faithfully as I can do. I might
have entered more into detail, but I thought it
would be tedious and unnecessary. — Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society.

Beeston, Biggleswade,

2 E

423

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ESSAY ON GUANO;

Describing its Properties, and the best methods of its application in Agriculture and Horticulture ; with the
Value of Importations from different localities ; founded on actual analyses, and on personal experiments
upon numerous kinds of Trees, Vegetables, Flowers, and Insects, in this climate.

BY I. E. TESCHEMACHER, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.

PREFACE.

Manure is the staff, the chief dependance, of the
farmer. The first action in the examination of a
farm should be to observe the system of the farm-
er's management of his manure ; from this alone a
pretty good idea of the management of the rest of
his affairs may be gathered. Without a proper
understanding on this subject, it is impossible for
nim to excel in his cattle or his crops. Knowledge
on the matter of manui'e is therefore of the greatest
importance to him ; and ignorance of it is what he
ought to be most ashamed of. A person may travel
thirty or forty miles from Boston, in some direc-
tions, and not find one fiftieth part of the land on
each side of the road well cultivated ; while in other
parts, he would find acres from which is gathered
annually fi'om two to six hundred dollars of pro-
duce. This difference chiefly arises from applica-
tion of the article of manure, the deficiency of which
is probably the chief cause of the sterility in question.

It certainly appears rather singular that so much
prejudice should be entertained against a manure
like guano, backed as its eflficacy has been by
centuries of experience in South America, and by
an immensely increasing consumption in England,
where the utmost attention is of necessity paid to
increase the produce of the land.

It is true, the greatest objections have been
made by those who have never tried it. One is
afraid the production of luxuriant crops every year
will exhaust his land ; as if it were desirable to have
diminutive crops, and let the virtue remain in the
soil. Another will have it that this country is too
hot, and has not the damp advantages of England ;
forgetting that South America is hotter still. A
third, having applied an exorbitant quantity, against
every instruction given, and thereby killed his crop,
is unwilling to try again with a more economical
distribution of it.

I have now experimented with this article for
three years, and the number of my experiments
have been nearly two hundred. With the excep-
tion of those on a few exotic plants of peculiar
constitution, and also of those where I have pushed
the application purposely to excess, in order to test
its power, few of these experiments have failed.

This pamphlet will therefore contain chiefly the re-
sults of my own experience ; and, with those plants
on which I have not tried the effect, I shall give my
views of the best mode of applying this manure.
And here I beg to observe that, having from my
youth been practically acquainted with the opera-
tions and refinements of horticulture, and knowing
well that experiments on this subject are liable to
error when confided to unpractised hands, I have
myself performed every part of nearly all the experi-
ments, including the whole cultivation, which I
give as my own, and have carefully watched and
noted the various appearances they have offered at
different periods of the applications.

During many months employed in chemical re-
search on this subject, I have analyzed thirty or
forty specimens from various locahties. I am not
at all surprised, therefore, at the very erroneous
views taken of this manure by many professed
chemists ; so complex and varied is its constitution
and the form of its ingredients ; so numerous are
the transformations they undergo. The analysis
by exposure to heat gives only a true idea of the
quantity of potash and soda, of the salts of lime,
and magnesia; but of the most important ingre-
dients, by this method, no correct notion can be
formed. The conversion of the oxalates and the
animal matter into their gaseous constituents, and
the action thereof during this operation, entirely
mask and confound the other substances ; and, un-
less the drying, to ascertain the moisture, be very
carefully conducted, part of the ammonia escapes,
and is calculated as moisture. With all the efforts
to obtain a true estimate of the ammonia, unless the
experiment be very attentively managed, the humic
acid, &c., will still obstinately retain a portion.
Many other difficult points remain, such as the
detection of urea and uric acid, and the various
combinations of the ingredients. The investigation
of these is calculated to call forth all the re-
sources and energy of the chemist ; and, although -
the decision of many of them is not essential to the
agriculturist, they are of high interest to the man
of science. In my later investigations, I have re-
ceived much valuable assistance from Richard
Soule, Junr., formerly pupil of Dr. C. T. Jackson.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

5-23

Following the example of those whom I conyider
the best analysts, I have endeavoured, in the ana-
lyses made for agricultural purposes, not to make
too many subdivisions, particularly when the quan-
tity of an ingredient is small ; they only perplex
those whose object is practical utility.

The classification according to the agricultural
importance is more easily understood, and bears a
more true relation to the market value than any
other, and, for all purposes of seller, buyer, and
user, is therefore the best.

It has been thought that the supply of this ar-
ticle will soon be exhausted. That it will be ex-
hausted I have but little doubt. If, however, the
reports of travellers can be credited, and there is
no reason why they shoidd not, deposits are to be
found of two hundred to three hundred feet in
depth, extending many leagues along the coast of
Peru. Such a mass will bear several years' con-
sumption.

If a farmer should use guano for several succes-
sive years, he might store up his annual collection
of manure, which, with proper covering and care,
would retain its virtues just as guano does, and
become a valuable capital for him to draw upon
when the scarcity of guano rendered the price too
high for economical use. And, at all events, the
discussions to which its powers and action have
given rise have rendered services to agriculture
which can never be too highly valued.

In conclusion, I have been actuated, in my in-
vestigations of this manure, in ray earnest endea-
vours to promote its introduction into this country,
and in this present attempt to disseminate informa-
tion on the best methods of applying it, simply by
the hope of doing some sen'ice in my generation ;
and it will be a source of much gratification to me
if I can reflect that I have in any way promoted the
progress of that most useful, that most honourable
employment of man — agriculture.

G u A X o.

This substance, which has been used in South
America as a manure for many centuries, retains
there its Peruvian appellation of hiiano. The Span-
iards, not having an aspirate h in their language,
replaced it by ?ig, the nearest sound to a guttural
aspiration their alphabet possesses. Hence guano,
pronounced by a Spaniard, is in sound more like
the Peruvian huano than any thing else, and quite
difierent from our guano with a hard g. It is un-
questionably the dung of sea-birds, which have
for ages used the spots where it is deposited as
places of resort during incubation.

The SOU to which it is apphed in South America,
principally for the growth of maize, is of a sandy.

sterile nature, containing but little organic" mix-
ture. Each crop has usually three applications of
guano ; the first, in small quantity, at the time of
sowing the seed ; the second, a larger ap})lication,
when the plant is less than half grown ; and the
third, just previous to the commencement of ripen-
ing the seed. After each application, the land is
irrigated — that is, watered. From this latter cir-
cumstance, it will be seen that the first ap])lication
is of the nature of a steep in guano liquor, which,
no doubt, accelerates the germination of the seed,
while the dilution of the guano prevents the embryo
from being injured by the action of the manure,
and also causes the commencement of its decom-
position, rendering it immediately available to the
growth of the young plant. The volatile am-
moniacal salts of the first application being ex-
hausted, the second becomes necessaiy for the
increased roots forming; and this, no doubt, en-
ters largely into the substance of the plant, pro-
moting in every way its growth, luxuriance, and
production of seed. Of the benefit of the third
application, I confess I am unable to judge ; never
having tried it, because I was unable to see before-
hand the use of it. Nevertheless, I think that the
common practice of a people who have used guano
for centuries should not be slightly rejected without
experiment, and it certainly shall be tried.

It would be a folly, at the present moment, to
doubt the immense value of this jiowerful manure,
when so many have witnessed the siu'prising effects
it has produced ; but it is certain that fraudulent
adulterations, as well as improper apphcations of
it, have produced failures in many cases. To
those, however, who may yet be inclined to skepti-
cism on the subject, it may be well to observe, that
a single, well-conducted, and faithful application of
guano, which has been crowned with success — and
there are hundreds on record, beyond all dispute —
must completely prove its beneficial effect ; while a
hundred failures can only prove error in its ap-
plication, or fraud in the article. But it is fortu-
nate for agriculture that, v/ithin the last seven or
eight years, science has taken up so \'igorously the
investigation of the laws of vegetable life, and, in-
dependent of any considerations on guano, has
arrived at conclusions which enable it to prove and
exhibit, in the clearest manner, the causes and
reasons for this valuable action on plants, thus not
only placing it beyond the region of doubt, but
also aflfording ^'aluable hints respecting the me-
thods of the application to the various members of the
vegetable kingdom. Itisto these methods of apjilica-
tion that I shall chiefly devote this pamphlet. But
I wish, in order to be better understood, first to
enter into the discussion of the ajjtitude of its in-
gredients to the growth of vegetables, as well as of

2 E 2

424

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the different cjualities of this manure brought from
different locahties, holding all knowledge on this
interesting subject too valuable to be kept at home.
It is, like the manure itself, the more beneficial the
more it is spread abroad.

We are told truly, that the volatile parts of vege-
tation consist of

Carbon, obtained by plants chiefly from the

soil and atmosphere ;
Oxygen, ^ obtained by plants chiefly from
Hydrogen, i water, carbonic acid, &c. ;
Nitrogen, obtained by plants chiefly from ma-
nure, and also from rain and snow ;
besides which, they contain fixed or non-volatile
inorganic ingredients, chiefly

Silicium, in combination with oxygen, called

silica, or sand ;
Lime, in combination with phosphoric and

other acids ;
Potash and soda, in combination with acids ;
Magnesia, in combination with acids ;
and various oxides of metals, the presence of which,
however, is not very important, as they exist in
exceedingly small quantities.

Now, without going any further into scientific
discussions, which are not so interesting to the
practical agriculturist at present as I trust they will
be some years hence, it is enough to prove that all
these ingredients, with the exception of the metal-
lic oxides, exist in guano.

The ingredients of guano are as follows : —
Ammonia (formed of nitrogen and hydrogen),
combined with carbonic, oxalic, phosphoric,
and other acids.
Lime, combined with phosphoric, oxalic, and

other acids.
Potash and soda, combined with muriatic and

suljihuric acids.
Magnesia, combined A\ith phosphoric and

other acids.
Animal organic matter, containing carbon, and

also nitrogen.
According to the latest and most accurate ana-
lyses of plants, maize, (or Indian corn) contains in
the ashes of its seeds —

Phosphoric acid . . about 50 per cent.
Potash and soda , . "30 " "

Magnesia . . . u |jr <■- "

Lime .... " 1^ " "

Silica .... .«!««»

The kind of corn is not named in this analysis.
Wheat ashes contain —

Phosphoric acid . . 46 to 50 per cent.

Potash and soda . . 34 to 37 " "
Magnesia . . . . 9 to 16 " "
Lime . . . . 2 to 4 " "

Silica . , . . ito 1^"

^vith a little peroxide of iron and sulphuric acid.

The difference exhibited here in the quantities of
the ingredients arises, probably, from the difference
of soil in which the analyzed seeds were sown.

A most interesting question to be hereafter de-
cided by chemists and agriculturists is, to a pre-
ponderance in which of these ingredients does
grain owe its most valuable and nutritious quali-
ties, as well as flavour f
Rye ashes contain —
Phosphoric acid . . 47 to 52 per cent.
Potash and soda . . 30 to 3/ " *'
Magnesia . . . . 10 to 10 P' "
Lime . . . . 3 to 7 " "

Silica , . . . ;} to I " "
with a little peroxide of iron and sulphuric acid.
Barley ashes contain —

Phosphoric acid
Potash and soda

. about 41 per cent.
. " 20^"

Magnesia ,
Lime

. " 10 "

Peroxide of iron

. " 2 "

Silica

. « 22 "

The quantity of siUca is

remarkable.

Buckwheat ashes contain-

_

Phosphoric acid
Potash and soda

. about 50 per cent.
. " 29 "

Lime

c( tj a a

Magnesia .
Sulphuric
and a httle peroxide

of'

ron

. " 10^ "
. "2 "
and silica.

Turnip-seed ashes

contain-

_

Phosphoric acid
Potash and soda

. about 42 per cent.
. " 26r'

Lime

. " ur' "

Magnesia .
Oxide of iron

. " 12 "
. " 3 "

SiUca

. « U" "

Silver-fir ashes of seed contain —

Phosphoric acid . . about 40 per cent.

Potash and soda . . " 24J " "

Lime . . . . " U" "

Magnesia . . . . " 17"" "

Sulphuric acid . . . " 12 " "
with some peroxide of iron and silica.

I have given this analysis, from the curious fact
that the pollen of many of the fir tribe, clouds of
which may be seen in the forests at the proper sea-
son, contains a large proportion of phosphate of
lime. This must be extracted from the disin-
tegrated rocks on which the pine often grows — a
circumstance which led me to judge that, as guano
contained much phosphate of lime, it would be
well adapted to promote the luxuriant gro^vth of
this tree ; and my experiments on young trees fully
confirm this sui'mise.
Ashes of peas contain —

Phosphoric acid . . 31 to 34 per cent.

Potash and soda . . 39 to 47

Lime . . . . 2^ to 10 ?

Magnesia . . . 6Jtol2?

Sulphuric acid . . 3§ to 5

Chlorine, or chlor. sodium 1 to 3^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

425

with small quantities of silica and peroxide of iron.
These, it will be seen, are the fixed non-volatile
ingredients of plants. All of them are found as
constituents of guano, which contains, besides am-
monia, or nitrogen, the only volatile ingredient
required from manure ; the other three — oxygen,
hydrogen, and car])on — being obtained in suf-
ficient abundance from the soil, the atmosphere,
and from water.

It would be useless to add further to this list ;
enough have been enumerated to give a general
idea of what is necessary for their growth, and
also to show that all the ingredients of plants are
found in guano. Putting guano into the soil, there-
fore, as a manure, is clearly restoring to the earth
those substances which plants abstract from it,
and which are absolutely necessary for their gro^vth.

Now, the questions remain as to quantity, cost,
and mode of application. This last is of the ut-
most importance, as guano is a very concentrated,
strong manure. Too much would be more injuri-
ous than none at all.

From what precedes, it is beyond dispute that
guano contains the chief ingredients required for
the growth of plants. The instances hereafter ad-
duced will show that the combination and form of
these ingredients are such as to promote not only
its immediate action, but clearly to accelerate con-
siderably the progress of vegetation. One of the
numerous objections to this manure is, that, al-
though it may answer well in the humid atmos-
phere of England, it cannot produce equal benefit
in the hot, sandy soils of this country. In rej^ly
to this, it may be observed that the sandy soils of
South America are more hot than they are here ;
and, on the coast of Peru, where it is most used,
it scarcely ever rains at all. The truth is, that it
certainly requires moisture to decompose it, and
I enable it to enter into the juices of the plant ; by
no means, however, so much as is usually sup-
posed ; but, once absorbed by the roots of the
plants, it imparts that strength and solidity which
enable them to resist both drought and cold.

As many of my experiments were made with
guano from different locahties, I will, at this point,
give the most approved analyses ; taking those
J which, having been made by Dr. Ure, my brother,
and myself, for agricultural purposes, will be more
simple and intelligible to agriculturists, as well as
best adapted to illustrate the information I msh to
convey.

ANALYSES OF GUANO,

In the discussion of these analyses, my observa-
tions will be chiefly confined to the agricultural
value of the various ingredients, without at all
entering into the scientific questions which must

arise in the mind of every chemist who has studied
this chemically-complex and intricate substance.
The chief ingredients, then, of guano are-
Ammonia, in various forms and combinations
Phosphate and oxalate of lime and magnesia
Salts of potash and soda
Animal organic matter
Sand and moisture.
Let us consider their separate agricultural value.
1. Phosphate qf Lime.— This is a valuable and
indispensable ingredient in soils ; but it is the
same as bone manure, or bone-dust, except that in
guano it is in a finer powder or state of division
than can be in any way artificially produced ; and
hence it acts powerfully and immediately. Many
soils, particularly those with a large admixture of
disintegrated granite,* contain naturally a con-
siderable quantity of this substance— enough to
supply the crops of many years of corn and other
vegetables— in which a reference to the foregoing
pages will show it to be a necessary portion. In
such soils it is therefore of little comparative virtue.
In other soils, particularly those which are poor
and sandy, it is a beneficial and necessary addition;
but alone it would be of little use, and in quantity
even very injurious, being of a hot nature, as will
have been experienced by many who have used
bone manure injudiciously in their efforts to pro-
duce luxuriant vegetation, and have burnt up their
plants. Phosphate of hme, in the shape of crashed
bones, can be obtained at a cheaper rate, when re-
quired, than it can be purchased in guano. Not-
mthstanding these remarks, in combination \\\i\\
the other ingredients of guano, it becomes, in most
soils, of considerable advantage. It is insoluble in
water.

2. Magnesia is already fovmd, in most earths, in
sufficient quantity for the small demands made
upon it by vegetation.

3. The Salts of Potash and Soda are valuable,
but might also be obtained cheaper from leys and
other sources, to supply what is taken off by the
crops.

4. The Sand is evidently of little value, except in
clay soils.

5. The Oxalates are of little known general value
as manure.

It must not, however, be imagined that these
substances are of no value in the guano : quite the
contrary. I am, above, only alluding to their sepa-
rate values in any soil. For it may be easily
conceived that, if all the materials necessary for

* Some very recent and interesting experiments
seem to prove that phosphoric acid exists in many
more rocks and minerals than has been hitherto
supposed.

426

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the growth and perfection of a plant be presented
to the roots together, the growth may be more
rapid, equal, and luxuriant, and the produce more
certain and larger, than if the roots had to search
for each ingredient required, with the uncertainty
of finding them either A\ithin their reach or in a
state bringing tliera under the control of their
powers ; in which state they exist in guano.

The feeding or absorption by the roots of plants,
with their faculties of abstracting, in a hquid form,
substances insoluble in water and in many of the
chemists' liquids, is a subject on which vegetable
physiology has as yet shed but httle true light.
The above is therefore only an idea suggested by
the visible operation of this manure, and by obser-
vations on its action at various periods of growth.

There remain, then, only the Animal Matter and
the Ammonia to be considered, as the most impor-
tant ingredients. The organic animal matter, as
will be seen, is not in very large proportion ; but
what there is, is valuable : in the Peruvian and
Bolivian guano it is already combined with ammo-
nia, and in the others much of it is resolvable into
this substance.

6. Ammonia. — According to the best vegetable
physiologists, nitrogen (or azote), the chief consti-
tuent of ammonia, exists in all parts of plants ; and
it is in the form of ammonia that it enters them.
It seems to be the great agent in stimulating the
increase and propagation of all the vessels in the
plant. Hence, with an ample supply of this sub-
stance, combined with other necessary materials.
Nature can push her development of root, stem,
leaf, flower, seed-vessel, and seed, to its farthest
extent. Ammonia, therefore, in some shape or
combination, must be necessary in any manure
destined to produce luxuriant growth; and it is
the most valuable ingredient in guano, the mer-
cantile worth of which is regulated principally by
the quantity it contains of this substance.

In some of its combinations, however, it is more
volatile — that is, evaporable in the atmosphere at
common temperatures — than in others. That in
the South American guano is less volatile than that
in the Ichaboe and other African localities. This
is ovvdng partly to the Ichaboe being mixed with a
portion of the remains of dead animals, partly
from being the manure of the penguin as well as
of the albatross tribe, and also partly from its
being a more recent accumulation, and not having
lain long enovigh to undergo the same decompo-
sition as the South American. This last contains
what Dr, Ure has w^xnQA potential ammonia, which
means simply this substance in a more permanent
form, and is, in this state, contained in the animal
matter and in the uric acid, which latter is in ex-
tremely small quantity, if at all, in the Ichaboe

guano. Humate of ammonia is also a very per-
manent form, and this likemse exists in guano.

Some from Saldanha Bay, which I have analyzed,
seems to have undergone the same decomposition
as the South American, although the rain which
prevails there has washed out a large proportion of
the ammoniacal salts ; it also contains, like that, a
portion of uric acid, but not nearly so much.

To choose guano, then, regard must first be had
to the quantity of ammonia ; and it is preferable
when in the most permanent form : such is the
Peruvian. The moisture is next to be considered
— first, because it is water, and nothing else ; and,
secondly, because moisture aids the decomposition
and volatihzation of the different ammoniacal in-
gredients, which is not desirable until the guano is
in the soil. It should also be pretty free from
foreign substances, such as dirt, sand, sticks, skin,
stones, &c. The Peruvian and the true Bolivian
are the best; after these, the first quahty from
Ichaboe, such as the cargo per " Saraos"; then the
second quality from Ichaboe, and that from Sal-
danha Bay. These are the only localities from
whence cargoes have been hitherto introduced here.
The Chilian is quite inferior, and generally contains
only eight to twelve per cent, ammoniacal salts.
Numerous vessels from Europe are now searching
in every probable place in the world for this
manure. I trust and believe they will be success-
ful. I purposely omit all reference to adulteration,
as I think it has not yet been practised here to any
extent ; and the only caution I can give is, to re-
quest those who purchase to apply to men whose
characters are above all suspicion of fraud and dis-
honesty. There are many such in the trade.

Guano from South America. — The guano from
Peru is the dung of birds of the albatross tribe,
v/ho have for ages covered the islands on this coast
in countless thousands, during the time of their
annual incubation, and have consequently formed
immense deposits of this valuable manure. As it
never rains on this part of the coast, the hot sun,
with the dew, soon forms a crust over the newly-
made annual deposit. Under this, a close species
of decomposition and concentration takes place ;
and, the escape of ammoniacal gas being prevented,
it becpmes condensed into the other ingredients,
and, finally, after various probable, although not
well understood, transmutations, exists in its most
permanent form, and in great quantity.

The guano from this part of the coast is, there-
fore, the most valuable of any for agricultural pur-
poses, particularly for spreading broadcast, or
where it is in any way exposed to the action of heat
or atmosphere.

Under circumstances of exposure which would
deprive the Ichaboe guano of a great portion of its

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

427

ammonia, the Peruvian would retain the chief part.
This must be borne in mind in its application.

The best analyses of Peruvian guano give, as
ingredients —
33 to 40 per cent, of ammoniacal salts ;

5 to 7 „ animal matter ;

8 to 12 ,. salts of potash and soda;

23 to 28 „ phosphate of lime and mag-

nesia, and oxalate of
lime ;
10 to 13 „ water;

with a Uttle sand.
This guano contains from seven to twelve per cent,
of uric acid ; and this, as before mentioned, forms
an important part of its value. The Bohvian guano
is next in value to the Peruvian. It contains about
three per cent, of uric acid. Analysis gives —
About 36 per cent, of ammoniacal salts ;

„ 5 „ animal organic matter ;

„ 16 „ salts of potash and soda ;

„ 28 „ phosphate of lime and mag-

nesia, and oxalate of
lime ;
„ 14 „ water.

The Chilian guano is the most inferior of all
those from South America, and contains no uric
acid. Analysis gives —
About 1 2 per cent, of ammoniacal salts ;
„ 3 „ animal matter ;

„ 8 „ salts of soda and potash :

„ 53 „ phosphate of lime and

magnesia, and oxalate of
lime ;
„ 22 „ wa!er;

„ 2 „ sand.

African Guanoes. — Of those from the coast of
Africa, the best is unquestionably that first brought
from Ichaboe — a deposit now unfortunately exhaust-
ed. But it does not contain uric acid. The best
analyses give, as ingredients —
23 to 28 per cent, of ammoniacal salts ;
5 to 9 „ animal organic matter;

9 to 1 1 „ salts of potash and soda ;

30 to 37 „ phosphate of lime and

magnesia, and oxalate of
lime ;
18 to 25 „ water.

The ammoniacal salts here are in a much more vol-
atile and soluble form than in the South American
sorts, and therefore, in the application, it should be
quickly covered up with soil ; the ammonia then —
as the guano decomposes by heat, moisture, &c. —
combines with the constituents of the soil, and
takes a more permanent form, so that but little is
lost.

The refuse African guano from Ichaboe, that
from Pedestal Point, Algoa Bay, some from Angra
de Pequena, Possession Island, &c., are much in-
ferior to the above, and vary from ten to twenty per
cent, of ammoniacal salts ; the other ingredients
increase in proportion to this deficiency. It is pro-

bable that a large proportion of the valuable salts
have been washed out from these by rain. I have,
however analyzed, a guano from Saldanha Bay,
which, although by no means so rich in ammoniacal
salts as that from Ichaboe, seems to have lain long
enough to undergo the same decomposition as the
South American guano, and to contain some am-
monia in its most permanent form, with uric acid.
Here, as before stated, the rain has also washed
out much of the valuable ingredients, which is pro-
bably the reason why it contains so much less am-
monia than that from South America, or rather
from Peru. Vessels have gone to endeavour to find
these washed out ammoniacal salts, and, if they
succeed, will probably bring home valuable car-
goes.

It will 1)6 seen, therefore, that guano varies as
much as other manure, and that the reports of ex-
periments on guano, without a perfect knowledge of
the kind, and the exact method of apphcation, con-
vey no valuable information, give no rule which it
would be safe for the farmer to follow.

If that from Ichaboe be spread broadcast on the
surface, and no rain follow immediately, the am-
monia will evaporate, and the effect be altogether
trifling ; whereas, the same quantity under the sur-
face, where this ammonia could be absorbed by the
soil, and from this given off to the roots, would
produce immense benefit; while that from Peru
would comparatively lose little by the former method
of spreading broadcast. For using in solutions in
water, I rather prefer the best Ichaboe to the Peru-
vian, nearly the whole of the ammoniacal salts of
the former being soluble ; but, for using the whole
substance, that from Peru is decidedly more per-
manent in its effects.

The best agricultural method of making an
analysis of guano is, first to ascertain the quantity
of moisture in one hundred parts, then to ascertain
with exactness the quantity of ammonia they con-
tain. The next operation is to see how much is
soluble in water. This will give chiefly the salts of
potash and soda. The ammoniacal salts, being
kno\vn already, are burned off; the potash and
soda remain behind. There are stiU left those por-
tions insoluble in water. Such are the phosphate
and oxalite of lime, and phosphate of magnesia, the
sand, and the organic animal matter. These,
although insoluble in water, are more or less de-
composable by the action of the plant and the
matters found in the soil ; and, being in a state of
extremely fine division, this action is qviick and im-
mediately serviceable to the plant. They are che-
mically discoverable by solution in acids, and pre-
cipitation by the usual tests.

Uric acid may be discovered and estimated, as
stated by Dr. Ure, by treatment with a weak solu-

428

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion of borax, and precipitation by hydrochloric
acid ; and, for urea, by boiling the residue left after
solution by boiling water, in a very strong alcohol,
in a thick flask.

Tlae whole of these operations require extreme
care and patience to give satisfactory results, and
should always be done in duplicate.

I now proceed to give the result of my experi-
ments.

APPLICATION OF GUAXO IX CULTIVATION.

Zea Mais, or Indian Corn : the variety called
Sweet Corn. — Several hills were planted on a poor,
sandy, sterile soil. First application, one teaspoon-
ful South American guano, well mixed with the
soil when sown. Second, when tv.'elve to fifteen
inches high, the earth was drawn away from around
the hill, and about three teaspoonfuls strewed in the
circle, which was immediately covered up again.
This application was made at least five to six inches
from the base of the stem, and the trench, by the
hoe, from three to four inches in breadth, and one
and a-half to two inches deep. After this applica-
tion, water was profusely gi^'en, as the weather was
dry.

The corn from this experiment was exhibited in
the rooms of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society. The produce of one seed was three chief
stems, bearing eight perfect heads and five suckers,
each showing the silk (the mass of pistils of the
fertile heads), and weighed, the roots being cut off,
eight and a quarter pounds. The best plant from
several adjacent hills without guano had only one
head, and weighed under the same circumstances,
one pound and a quarter. I have since tried several
applications with this plant, and find the best
method as follows : —

Hollow out the hill, put in one teaspoonful and
a-half of guano, and mix it well with the soil.
Spread even, then ^iut on this about one or one and
a-half inch depth of light soil, on which sow the
seed, and cover up. When the corn is about
twelve inches high, or the time of first hoeing,
begin with the hoe about four inches from the
stems, and make the trench the width of the hoe,
ahout two or three inches deep. Spread in this
trench about three or four teaspoonfuls guano, stir
it in, and cover the trench as quickly as possible.
If this last opei-ation can be performed just before
or during rain, the action will be quicker and more

effective.

* * * * *

Some farmers have thought best to mix guano
with other substances, such as manure, muck, ashes,
loam, &c., previous to spreading it on the land.
On this point, my opinion is, that it is by far pre-
ferable to crush the lumps, and use guano by itself,

or, if it must be mixed, only to use sand, or dry,
sandy loam. The chief reason for this is, that stir-
ring it about, in mixing, exposes the ammonia to
be lost by evaporation in the air. This is, however,
more the case with the African than the Peruvian,
still even to a considerable extent with the latter.
Muck is too moist and tenacious to enable it to be
properly disseminated amongst the mass. There-
fore, whenever any quantity is together, it would
injure the sprouting seed ; and moisture imme-
diately causes guano to undergo the very decompo-
sition which is required to promote vegetation ;
therefore, this ought not to be produced until it is
in the vicinity of the plant or seed. Ashes of wood
contain the very alkalies which the chemist uses in
his analyses to sei)arate the ammonia. He also
uses lime for this purpose. Therefore ashes, or any
substance containing lime, must be an improper
mixture ; they would quickly drive off this the most
valuable part of the guano.

The object of the farmer should be to place his
guano in such a situation that, when its decompo-
sition commences, the soil should absorb the pro-
ducts of this action, and that soil be in the
immediate neighbourhood of the roots of the plant
to be manured — they will speedily find it out of
their own accord.

Manure, except when dry — and then it is not
very valuable— is open to the same objection as
muck; besides which, if guano alone will give an
excellent crop, why throw away the manure ?

Light, dry loam, and sand, are not objectionable.
The latter is highly to be recommended on a clay
soil, where the action of the guano is evidently much
impeded.

Grass and Grass Land. — The application of this
xrianure to grass land already down is, for many
reasons, often attended \vith uncertain results. The
best mode is, to spread broadcast about two hundred
and fifty pounds per acre of the Peruvian guano as
soon as the snow is off the ground. It would be
very advantageous if, after it was spread on, some
light loam could be put over it, in the manner of a
top-dressing. I state the Peruvian guano is the
best for this operation, as it contains what Dr. Ure
calls potential ammo7iia, or ammonia in a more per-
manent form ; whereas the ammonia from the Icha-
boe guano evaporates more easily, and this valua-
ble ingredient is therefore lost in the atmosphere
when it is spread on the surface. I have already
mentioned this previously, but purposely repeat it
here. Most excellent crops have been olitained,
where the grass is sown and laid down in the
autumn, on light, sandy soils, by sowing the guano
evenly broadcast, then harrowing twice, sowing the
grass seed, and rolling. But in this, as in every
case where guano should be applied Ijroadcast, it

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

429

seems to me that the most efficacious method would
be to strew a quantity in the furrow made 1)y the
plough; the soil raised of the next furrow will then
lap over and cover it up. A very small quantity,
say certainly not exceeding one hundred pounds to
the acre, may then be sown broadcast onthe surface,
and harrowed in with the seed, in order, like a
steep, to promote the luxuriance of the early growth
of the plant. When the roots have attained a
greater strength, they will then come in contact
with that buried imder the furrow, which, by the
time it is wanted, will have become thoroughly de-
composed in the soil, and be exactly fitted to the
wants of the plant.

In several cases, where sods have been laid down
for lawns or eml)ankments round houses, the most
surprising growth has been obtained by strewing
the surface with guano previous to laying on the
sod. The manure is then brought into contact
with the roots, which being strong and old — not
tender and young, like the sprout and root of a
seed — take immediate hold, and this effect is pro-
duced without injury.

I will here state that, on light lands, I consider
three hundred poimds Peruvian guano to the acre
quite sufficient ; if Ichaboe, about one fourth
more ; and others according to the per centage of
ammonia.

E. Baylies, Esq., of Taunton, sowed four hun-
dred and sixty pounds of African guano (per ship
Samos) per acre with grass seed, which yielded,
this year, one ton per acre more than that without ;
and the appearance of the guanoed grass is now much
more thick, luxiniant, and promising, for next year,
than the other.

It is scarcely necessaiy to add that I consider
wheat, barley, oats, rye, &c., as grasses, and these
methods of application to be most rational, and
give the most probable prospect of success. Every
farmer, however, must reflect a little on the nature
of his soil. I can, of course, only give general di-
rections, and exhibit the nature of the action of
this manure. A man of any judgment, then, can
hardly fail.

In the treatment of bush beans, a few pages
hence, I state a fact respecting the flavour. I will
here mention, relating to the same subject, that two
cases are reported, in English papers, where the
birds selected the fields of the guanoed wheat in
preference to those manured, nearly eating up the
first, and leaving the latter untouched ; also, that
I have the testimony of several friends, that their
vegetables grown with guano were superior in fla-
vour to any before tasted ; and this entirely coin-
cides with the whole of my own observations.

Grape Vmes. — Here my individual experience
is small, having only planted two vines, last autumn.

manured with guano, which are growing vigor-
ously. But many others have tried it on them with
the greatest possible success, both as to growth of
stem and fiiiit. This plant is a gross feeder, and
will Ijear a great quantity of this manure without
injury. Vines grown in pots will make a surpris-
ing growth if watered with a solution of guano ;
but, for the reasons given under the head of Indian
corn, I think that the guano itself, containing the
phosphate of lime, will give greater and better i)ro-
duce. The well-known success of others with this
plant renders any evidence from me unnecessary.
The best method of application is the same as for
trees, which follows.

Trees. — The experiments with guano on trees,
which have come under my observation, including
exotics, number about one hundred and fifty. The
action has invariably been to produce large foliage,
of a deep, healthy green, or with plants, usually
covered with a white powder, called glaucous, to
increase this appearance, and to shorten the joints
or intervals from leaf to leaf. This last action,
as respects fruit-trees, is of the utmost importance ;
every one being aware that long-drawn, long-jointed
shoots are the least valuable or productive, and that
the fruit-bearing spurs on trees are but branches
M'ith shortened joints. Hence the production of
short-jointed, stocky branches is the production
of so much fruitful wood ; and if, by proper prun-
ing, the sun and air are admitted so as to ripen the
wood, a])lentiful crop must be the result.

The best mode of apj^hcation to frviit-trees seems
to be, first, to consider where are the young feeding
roots — that is, at what distance from the stem, and
what depth in the ground — then to place the guano
as near them and as much around them as possible,
without being in absolute contact.

For instance, round an apple-tree of ten years'
standing, dig a trench, one or one and a half foot
deep, at about the same distance from the stem that
the branches extend ; let this trench be about one
foot wide ; then put at the bottom one and a half
inch depth of guano, dig it well in, and incorpo-
rate it with the soil ; then cover up carefully, and
press the earth down. The eftect of this applica-
tion will unquestionably be felt for several years.

I am rather inclined to attribute this shortening
of the joints chiefly to the action of the soluble
])ortions of the guano; as the pelargonium, the
orange, and many other plants which exhibited this
appearance, had only been watered with its solu-
tion. But, in all applications to fruit-trees, I re-
commend the guano itself, as the insoluble jjortion
contains the chief materials of the seed, to protect
and cover which fruit is formed. Where young
trees are to be manured, a little guano, dug in at

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the surface around the tree, as well as in a trench,
^vill be advantageous.

The use of guano for trees jn-obably combines
another advantage of inestimable value ; this is,
the destruction of the insect tribe which are buried
in ' the earth, and emerge from thence with the
warmth of spring. The coverings of these insects,
when they first come out of the ground, are not
hardened ; and, in this tender state, the contact
with a moderately strong solution destroys them.
I have tried experiments on about eight or ten va-
rious caterpillars, and some other insects, and have
invariably found a solution of gtxano kill them
quickly, except when in an advanced state ; then
it took a longer time and a stronger solution. Salt
and oil-soaj) are both apt to be injuinous to vegeta-
tion ; but, by strewing guano around the trees, and
turning it in a little depth, the plant will be bene-
fited, and the insects at the same time destroyed.
My experiments on this subject, although per-
fectly convincing and satisfactory to myself, have,
for vv'ant of time, not been conducted with that cai'e
and precision which should authorize me to lay them
before the public with requisite confidence. My
last experiment was with the destructive grub
melolontha, so well known to subsist on the roots
of grass, of which a friend kindly sent me a box.
Six of these white grubs were placed in a saucer
half full of water, in which a teaspoonful of African
guano had been put and well stirred. They imme-
diately began to feel uneasy, and, in about two
hoiu's, the whole six were dead.

Several friends, who have tried guano this year
on their pear-trees, have reported to me the result
to be greater crops; and of a much larger size, than
they ever had previously. The improvement of
the flavour of fruit is an experiment yet to be tried
on an extensive scale, previous to a final determina-
tion of this important question.

Peas. — The kinds on which I experimented were
Prince Albert, Shilling's early grotto (a dwarf pea),
blue imperial, and marrowfat.

The method I adopted with all was to draw a
deep trench with a hoe, to strew guano in the trench,
mix it up Avith the soil, over this put about one
inch and a half of earth, then sow the seed, and
cover up. In this way, I calculated that the young
sprouts of the seed, both root and embryo, could
not be injured by coming into immediate contact
with the gaano, and that, when the roots were
strong enough to bear it, they would find the guano
in that state of decomposition best suited for them.
The quantity used was about three pints of Ichaboe
guano to a quart of seed ; sown, however, much
thicker than is customary here. It will be ob-
served that, in this case, the natural moisture of the
soil, at the depth at which the guano was placed,

was suflScient to bring it to a proper state of solu-
tion, and rendered the necessity of immediate rain
not of so much consequence. When rain did
come, it was beautiful to see the luxuriance result-
ing, and I felt persuaded that none of the virtue of
the guano had escaped at the surface. The pro-
duce of the first three kinds of pea Avas five full
pecks to the quart of seed, besides a full quart of
seed gathered for next year. From the marrowfats
I obtained only four pecks and a half, and no seed.
The growth of all was extremely luxuriant. The
marrowfats were six and a half feet high, the stems
from one to one and a quarter inch in circumfer-
ence. On the blue imperials, almost every flower
bore fruit. On a stem thirteen inches high there
were twenty-two pods. This was not at all uncom-
mon, and such was the specimen I exhibited this
year at the room of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society. Many pods of the crop contained nine
or ten peas ; these would be valuable for seed. I
also exhibited very luxuriant specimens of Shil-
hng's early grotto '.n the same hall. The joints, or
distance from leaf to leaf, was very much shortened
— an effect of guano which has been remarked on
in its application to fruit trees.

I have previously observed that rain was not so
absolutely necessary as is supposed. It will be
seen that, in this experiment with the pea, the
guano was placed at such a depth that the natural
moisture of the earth decomposed it, and rendered
it fit for the plant. It is seldom that drought pe-
netrates so deep as this into the soil ; therefore, if
the application be made judiciously, dependent on
the nature of the soil, and if its capacity for retain-
ing moisture be considered, the want of rain is not
so fatal an objection to the use of guano as might
be thought. Thus, for instance, in the lightest
soils, plough and bury guano a little deeper than in
others more heavy ; the guano itself retains mois-
ture, and absorbs it naturally.

China Bush Bean. — A row was sown on each
side of my garden-walk. One was partially shaded
from the hot sun. This was tried without guano.
To the other, fully exposed to the sun, guano was
applied in the same way as with the peas. The
guanoed row bore nearly tAvice as many beans as
the other ; and, while that was turning j'ellow with
partial exposure to the heat of the sun, this, exposed
to its full influence, remained green and unscorched.
Between the produce of these two rows a marked
difference in flavour was observed by myself and
family, although the latter were not aware of the
difference in their cultivation. I need scarcely
add, that those with guano were of the most agree-
able taste.

In this experiment, particularly, the stability
given to the plant, and its power to resist the heat

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

431

of the sun, compared with the other, are remarkable.
This was evidently also the case with the peas.
There were, with these, howe\'er, no unguanoed
rows to institute a parallel, but only those in neigh-
bouring gardens. A friend of mine sowed grass,
last autumn, in the sandy soil near Taunton, with
a full quantity of manure, and an adjoining acre,
as an experiment, with four hundred pounds of
Ichaboe guano. The guanoed acre grew stronger,
and retained its full \-erdui'e the Avhole winter ; the
manured piece, on the contrary, became, as usual,
brown by the action of the frost.

From these and several other experiments re-
ported to me, it seems clear that this manure gives
a stability and strength to vegetation which enable
it better to resist both cold and heat, as well as
drought, than when the usual manure is employed.

Melons. — The two kinds tried were the green-
fleshed cantaloupe, and some seeds which I received
as the sweet melon of Ispahan. They were both
steeped in guano water, and raised in a parlour. At
the i^roper season, they were planted out on poor
soil, with the addition of three teaspoonfuls of Af-
rican guano to the hill, and afterwards occasionally
watered with a weak solution. On two plants of
the Ispahan I had five fruit, two of a good size.
They are all now (September l6th) nearly ripe,
being quite yellow. On the one plant of the can-
taloupe there was only one fruit, and that not very
large. It is naturally a shy bearer, and was unfor-
tunately placed by accident in a very shady part of
the garden. I do not think the fruit will ripen.
The roots of melons, squashes, cucumbers, and
most of the cucurbitaceous tribe, spread about at
very little depth from the surface of the ground — a
circumstance which must be taken into considera-
tion in the application of guano ; and, generally
speaking a knowledge of the natural growth of the
roots is necessai-y to decide on the best method of
using this manure. This is so evident, that nothing
further need be said on the subject.

Potatoes. — I have not made any experiment, but
must refer, in this case, to numerous experiments
of others, which are detailed in various agricultural
publications. Nearly all the comparative experi-
ments I have read on this tuber are certainly in
favour of the guano. By attending to the observa-
tions respecting the roots, in various pages of this
essaj% no difficulty can be experienced in the method
of application .

E. Bayhes, Esq., of Taunton, has kindly fur-
nished me with the following result of his experi-
ment on potatoes : —

Soil, very sandy and hght ; quantity, eight hun-
dred pounds African (per ship Samos) to the acre ;
cost, twenty dollars. Same soil, with twenty-two
loads fine compost manure, cost twenty-two dollars.

Yield, as eleven to nine, or twenty-two per cent, in
favour of guano, the potatoes with which were
larger than the others.

Celery.— I was indebted to my friends for young
plants of this vegetable ; consequently, my experi-
ments did not commence with the seed, and were
therefore hardly so early as they should have been.
After digging two trenches, in one I strewed a good
layer of Ichaboe guano, and dug it in the bottom of
the trench : then, watering well, I i)ut on two inches
of soil, and planted the celery. In the other, I
planted without any addition, for the purpose of
experimenting with guano water. This latter I
watered, three times a week, with a solution of one
pound African to fifteen gallons of water. The last
mentioned plants grev/ more rapidly than the others,
and are now more advanced than those with guano ;
but the others are rapidly gaining on them. This
experiment will be a good test of the question of
flavour.

Turnips. — I have already mentioned two experi-
ments with this vegetable. The guanoed plants are
now as large and fine as those without guano, and
are fast getting beyond them. I set otF a portion
of the unguanoed piece, and gave it, once a
week for three weeks, a copious application of mo-
derately strong guano solution. The plants on this
portion are now twice as large as those which have
not had any. It is perfectly beautiful to see the
luxuriance of all these guanoed vegetables compared
with the others.

Strawberries. — A bed of Hovey's seedhng was
planted in November, 1844, just previous to the
ground being closed by frost. As early in the
spring as the state of the soil would permit, I drew
a trench, with a hoe, between the rows of plants,
about two inches deep, put in guano, stirred up, and
covered it over, thinking that the roots would na-
turally find the guano. From this bed I gathered
a plentiful crop of fine fruit, which I believe would
not have occurred without the guano, as the soil was
in a miserable, meagre state.

I am now trying two experiments on the same
poor soil ; one, a bed of strawberries, with guano
dug into the soil, at the rate of four hundred pounds
Ichaboe to the acre ; another without guano, but
watered once a week with guano water. This water-
ing I propose to continue in the spring, and shall
then see which will produce the best crop with the
best flavour. At present, the watered plants are
much more thrifty, and larger, than the others, and
are throwing out numerous runners, which, of
course, are rem.oved.

Cabbages. — My experiments with this vegetable
have hardly been sufficiently numerous to be satis-
factory. I have only tried the late savoys. About
three weeks after planting out, I began to water.

432

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

twice a week, with a solution of guano. The plants
are now in fine luxuriance, exhibiting large deep
green glaucous foliage ; but I fear that, owing to
want of time, they were hardly planted early
enough to form large heads previous to the arrival
of frost.

Five of these plants I transplanted to another
part, for the purpose of trying the Saldanha Bay
guano, of which I gave them each about a tea-
spoonful when planted, and afterwards watered
with a solution. They are, at least, as luxuriant as
the others.

Cauliflowers. — Two experiments, one with guano,
the other with a solution. The first are fine strong
plants, particularly one to which 1 gave a larger
share than the others ; it is heading finely. But
those Avith the solution are much larger and finer.
I have been accustomed to observe the cultivation
of this vegetable, and never saw such a luxuriant
growth. They are now (September 1 5th) beginning
to show flower; and, if the season is favourable, I
expect the heads will ])e very fine. The plants are
at least four times larger than those on the same
piece wthout guano, or any manure at all, planted
on the same daj', from the same seed-bed. This
will give some idea of the poor, exhausted state of
the land on which all my ex[)eriments have been
tried.

The whole of my cauliflower plants were dread-
fully infested with the gray aphis, or louse, which
has this season been very common. As this was an
experiment, I used every possible means to destroy
them — Scotch snuff, oil-soap, and guano water.
The insects were so numerous, and so well pro-
tected by their gray powder and the curl of the
leaf, that the utmost force of the syringe was almost
unavailing. Scotch snuff killed them, but they
soon reappeared. Both oil-soap and guano water
were pretty effectual ; of the two, I prefer the latter.
Although I took great pains to eradicate them, they
unquestionably delayed the growth of the plants a
fortnight, which, I fear, may prevent their heading
sufficiently for exhibition previous to frost. The
plants are now two feet and three quarters in height
and two feet and a half in diameter.

There are many other vegetables on which I
should like to see experiments. For instance, on
rhubarb, guano would imquestionably increase the
size of the saleable part, and probably much improve
the flavour. On asparagus, I am sure the effect of
forking it in as early in the spring as possible would
be extremely beneficial ; but it should be used with-
out any other addition.

On camellias, pelargoniums, cactece, amaryllis,
Mpiisastrum, and many bulbous rooted plants —
orange-trees, pnssifloras, acacias, and a great num-
ber of other exotic plants — I have made various ex-

periments, the detail of which would hardly interest
the general readers of this pamphlet. The result,
however, is an opinion that, where size and beauty of
flowers are reciuired, a solution of guano in water is
preferable to the guano itself; but, wherever fruit
is desirable, the guano, applied with proper discre-
tion, is best. Another important observation on
this subject is, that guano, or its solution, should
never be applied except at that period of the season
when the growth of wood is proper and natural.
For instance, after the camellia has formed its full-
sized buds, if guano, or the solution, be applied
liberally, the plant will immediately begin to form
new shoots, the buds will be left behind, and the
flowers will open with diminished beauty. This^ at
least, is my exjierience.

This manure, owing chiefly to its ammonia, is of
so stimulating a nature, that it will start vegetation
at an)' period when the temperature of the surround-
ing atmosphere will permit it to proceed, and will,
therefore, become of great importance in forcing-
houses.

On roses, the beneficial effect is already well
known. If tea-roses are cut down when the bloom
is over, repotted in fresh earth, and well watered,
twice or thrice a week, with guano water, they will
immediately throw out luxuriant shoots, and be
covered with their fragrant blossoms. I have two
tea-roses in pots, which are now for the fourth
time in bloom since February.

I exhibited, this yeai', at the room of the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society, echinocactus ottonis,
three years' old from the offset, with three flowers
expanded, and eight buds, not one of which failed
to produce large, well-formed flowers ; also echino-
cactus cyriesii, in blossom, being an offset three
years old. The appearance of these plants was of
the most healthy kind. But, with all succulent
plants, in order to induce blossom, the luxuriant
shoots must be well ripened by exposure to sun and
air. I placed an epiphyllum in the annual exhibi-
tion of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society this
year, which I grafted June 17, 1844; grown chiefly
in moss, with very little soil, and watered profusely
with guano water. It had thirteen shoots, many of
extraordinary size and A-igour. The cactus tribe
will bear a larger quantity and stronger solution of
guano, without injury, than most other plants; but
then the enormous shoots must be well ripened, or
they will not produce much blossom. This, of
course, is the case with all fruit trees, A large,
soft, spongy growth of unripened wood, such as I
have seen exhibited, is of no value whatever.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The experiments I have detailed in this essay were
undertaken solely to gratify my own curiosity, and
without any idea of being published — except, per-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

433

haps, a few results in some of the agricaltural f^
periodicals of the day. They are, therefore, neither
so scientifically nor so practically complete as they
would have been, had I originally contemplated this
publication.

During their progress, however, I have been so
delighted with the unfailing and extraordinary luxu-
riance of growth and produce, on a miserable spot
of land, induced by the use of this manure, and so
struck with the numerous instances which have
come to my knowledge of erroneous applications of
it, that incomplete as my exjieriments are, I have
thought an essay like the present, circulated in the
cheapest possible form, containing the result of my
experience as it is, could not fail to convey some
valuable information to the agricultural and the
horticultural pubUc.

My other numerous a\'ocations prevent me from
])ohshing the style, or attending minutely to the ar-
rangement. I have stated it is intended merely to
convey infonnation ; and as such alone I trust it
\vill be regarded.

The quantity to be used per acre must depend
both on the quality of the guano as respects its am-
monia, and on the nature of the soil. On a stiff
clay, guano would be of httle value, except on the
surface, or an inch or two deep, unless it were con-
siderably lightened by the addition of sand, or well
broken up by exposure, in ridges, to frost, as even'
clay soil should be. A light, porous, sandy soil
would require three hundred pounds Peruvian, or
four hundred pounds best Ichaboe ; and for this
soil I think the Peruvian best adapted, as it retains
the ammonia longer, and, being less soluble in water
than the Ichaboe, its qualities are not so soon
washed out.

A more retentive, loamy soil would be as well
affected by the Ichaboe, if buried at a proper depth
to meet the demands of the roots, and to be out of
the reach of a hot atmosphere.

A wet soil should be properly drained ; but, if
this be not possible, let the guano be placed a few
inches below the surface, so that the roots ma}'
come in contact Avith the solution, and afterwards
find the more solid ingredients of the guano.

In a soil already much enriched with manure,
and at the same time abounding in phosphate of
lime, I have found the guano to produce less visible
effects than on poor, sandy soil.

Most excellent effects have been produced by
steeping seeds in guano water of moderate strength
for eight to twelve hours, dependant on the kind
of seeds, and then planting with one to three inches
soil between the seed and the guano buried. The
steep encourages the growth of the young plant,
whose roots, in a more advanced stage, find the
guano, which continues the stimulus.

It is very difficult to give precise directions for
every seed and every soil. My ^object in this
])amphlet is to make all as well aquainted with the
nature of this manure, its action and its effects, as
myself. They can then use their own judgments,
which, probably, in many cases, will be better than
mine.

I have said, above, that the quantity proper to be
used depended on the quahty, and that the chief
test of this quality was the quantity of the ammo-
nia, and, in some cases, its permanence. Thus, if
two hundred and fifty pounds of Peruvian guano,
containing thirty-three per cent, of ammonia, are
sufficient for an acre, then four hundred and fifty
or five hundred pounds of guano, containing six-
teen or seventeen per cent., would be an equivalent,
yet with this difference — that the latter would leave
nearly double the quantity of jihosphates of lime,
magnesia, &c., in the soil, after the crops are taken
off; and this we shall see, in the^foUowing pages,
is not a small advantage. Yet, to obtain a luxu-
riant growth, a certain quantity of ammonia is
requisite, and must be given by the additional
weight of the latter quality. In using solutions,
nearly the same remarks apply. The phosphate
and oxalate of hme, &c., are insoluble in water ;
the soda, potash, and ammoniacal salts, are alone
dissolved. I usually put one, one and a half, or
two teaspoonfuls of guano, according to quality,
in a quart bottle, shake up, and, when settled, use ;
then refill and use two or three times, previous to
putting in fresh guano. Or, in the large way,
from fifteen to twenty gallons of water to one pound ;
this I mix in a barrel, stir up, and leave it to settle,
taking care, however, to put a cover on, that am-
monia may not escape more than can be helped. I
haA-e always found it advantageous, with plants in
pots — with celery, cabbages, &c. — to stir the
earth frequently on the surface, the fine particles of
earth and guano being apt to form a cake round
the plants, and prevent the solution from reaching
the roots until a portion of its virtue has eva-
porated.

Besides a considerable saving in labour in put-
ting on, the farmer will find a great economy in
the labour necessary to keep his land free from
weeds ; for common manure is well known to be a
most fertile source of these pests of agriculture,
arising from the seeds which are thickly scattered
through it ; whereas in guano there are none. So
that those who are active in destroying weeds be-
fore they come to a mature state may, by the help
of guano, be enabled to keep their land clear of so
unsightly and unproductive a crop.

One of the most serous objections I have heard
against guano is, that it will exhaust the soil. I
have already discussed this question in one of the

434

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

respectable agricultural periodicals of the day, but
will repeat my arguments here, and add a few
more, all tending to show that this idea is erro-
neous. Let us take a poor, sandy soil, which
naturally produces no crop worth taking off; with
the help of guano we obtain, year after year, lux-
iiriant produce. The same may be done with land
exhausted by cropping without manure. Here,
certainly, the doctrine of exhaustion cannot apply;
and yet these are the soils on which the virtues of
guano are most eminent. Let us see how it will
apply to better lands, where, according to some,
the danger of exhaustion exists. The manure for
one acre of land now costs about twenty dollars.
Guano, for the same piece, would cost one third of
this amount, if the difference of labour in putting
on be included, and no weeds are sown. There-
fore the land can be manured for three years mth
guano, at the same expense as one year with barn-
yard manure. The first year, the produce with
guano will exceed the other, in quantity and quahty,
from ten to twenty per cent. The second year,
the diiFerence \vill be greater, as the barn-yard
manure will be partially exhausted. The third
year, the difference in favour of guano will be
greater still, very little virtue being left in the other
manure. What will be the relative state of the
soils at the end of the three years' operation ? The
great stimulant in both — ammonia — will be nearly
exhausted; the surplus quantity of potash and soda,
left in the earth after the three crops, may probably
be equal in both ; but of the great ingredients of
seed — phosphate of lime and magnesia — more than
four times as much has been put on in the guano
as in the other manure, and, as I have before stated,
in the best possible state of division for the use of
the plants. To call these phosphates into action,
little more is required than a sufficient supply of
ammonia ; and, if this be given the fourth year by
barn-yard manure, a most luxuriant crop must re-
sult, and for some years the benefit of these phos-
phates will be felt. It seems to me that this clearly
disposes of the question of exhaustion, and that
three years' use of guano will leave the land in a
much better condition for the reception of barn-
yard manure than ever it was before. This must
be strikingly the case in a soil where the natural
supply of phosphates has been much diminished
by constant cropping with corn. The reports
from Scotland are, that the beneficial effects of one
application of guano v/ere very evident the third
year; and I will here introduce the following
sketch from the Gardeners^ Chronicle of July 26,
1845.
"Penrith, Cornwall (E-ngland), Farmers' Club.
" Mr. Silvester cut, last year, four tons per acre
grass, on land dressed with guano, and this year,

without any additional supply, had more grass
than he ever grew before in any one season. Mr.
Tyackehad sown part of a field with Peruvian
guano, at the rate of two hundred weight (two hun-
dred and twenty-four pounds) per acre, and found
the wheat much superior ; it was sown in with the
seed. •■ He manured a field with four hundred and
forty-eight pounds per acre, and thought the qua-
lity of this better. Mr. N. Peimewan apphed it to
ten acres wheat, at two hundred and twenty-four
pounds per acre ; the result was astonishing. He
had also applied three hundred and thirty-six
pounds per acre to twenty acres grass ; the effect
produced was most beneficial. He had also tried it
on part of a field of thirteen acres turnips. Part
was manured with farm-yard dung and earth,
(mixed,) at the rate of ninety to one hundred loads
per acre ; but a space of seven acres, in the centre,
was manured with guano, at two hundred and
twenty-four pounds per acre. The turnips were as
good on the guanoed piece as on the other. After
the turnips, he sowed the whole with wheat : and
no one could tell which gave the best crop. Mr.
Tyacke found the poorer the soil, the better it
worked. He sowed the guano with the seed
(wheat). Last year he sowed eight acres, as fol-
lows ; — One third with bone-dust, at two quarters
and a half i)er acre — crop fair; one third with
guano, two hundred and tv/enty-four pounds per
acre — crop one third larger ; one third with farm-
yard dung, forty loads per acre — crop the worst.
This year he sowed the same piece with barley,
without any addition. At first, the piece with
farm-yard manure looked the best; then that with
bone manure ; now that with guano was better than
either."

In this last experiment, the probability, from the
action, is, that the phosphates had become ex-
hausted by previous cropping, and that, therefore,
both the bone-dust and the guano produced better
crops than the manure, in which the phosphates are
less abundant.

Science now teaches, and teaches truly, that the
atmosphere yields its portion of the growth of
plants, as well as the soil. Hence, the larger the
vegetable surfaces we can present to the atmosphere,
in the shape of luxuriant stem and foliage — and
this is eflfected by ammonia, — the more we shall
absorb from it, and the larger will be the crops;
provided, however, that we do not continue to
stimulate the growth of these surfaces longer than
the season will permit the juices of them to become
ripened by the action of sunHght and air ; and, for
this purpose, sufficient distance must be allowed,
between luxuriant plants, for a full circulation of
the atmosphere. On the necessity of this ripening
I have already dwelt long enough, and will there-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

43

fore merely add, that from errors of this nature will
be found to arise most of the favourable circum-
stances engendering smut, rust, and all those un-
sightly fungous growths which destroy the beauty
and produce of vegetation. These diseases are
generally caused by an over abiindance of the un-
ripened juices of plants, which offer favourable cir-
cumstances for the vegetation of the seeds {spores)
of fungi, which, at certain seasons, are always
floating in the atmosphei'e and being deposited on
the soil, and which attach themselves wherever
thei'e is a chance of their growing. This disease is
seldom found in dry spots, where the air and sun-
hght circulate freely, and ripen the juices, imless
these juices are produced in such quantity, and the
season is so wet, that this ripening process is im-
possible.

With respect to the action of guano in the south-
ern sections of the United States, I have no infor-
mation. It is, however, well known that it has
been very benefical in the cultivation of the sugar-
cane in the British West Indies; and I think
tobacco planters woiald find it of extraordinary effi-
cacy.

The most singular and apparently mysterious
case of the action of guano occurred on the farm of
John L. Tucker, Esq., of the Tremont House. He
had a piece of grass land which was overrun with
sorrel. Thinking guano might destroy it, he
mixed a quantity with dry loam, and spread it, this
spring, over the field as a top-dressing. The
result was a most luxuriant crop of grass, without
a particle of sorrel. This can be well understood ;
for a farmer has only to manure highly, and the
grass will soon choke off the sorrel, which only
grows on poor soils. HaAnng emptied his bags of
guano, after beating them well, they were laid down
on a piece of pine-barren, which, as is well known,
is merely a dry crust of moss and lichens, with here
and there a few diminutive strings of poor sorrel
creeping through. On removing these bags early
in September, what was Mr. Tucker's astonishment
at finding a thick, tangled mass of the most luxu-
riant sorrel, such as is in great request with him for
the elegant French cookery of his house ! I have
now before me a single turf, which he kindly sent
me, two and a half feet long, one foot wide, one
haK of which is pine-barren, the other half this
beautiful sorrel. This was a sore puzzle, that in
one case, as he thought, the guano should kill the
sorrel, and in the other make it grow luxuriantly.
I have already accounted for the first action of
guano ; and the second is equally simple. On the
pine-baiTen there was no grass, or any other vege-
tation, except the thick matting of moss and lichens,
and the small strings of sorrel. Moss and lichens,
when decomposed, form a good soil, and this de-

comi)ositiou is quickly effected by the salts in
guano. These are well-known facts. Here, then,
is a bed of soil ready for vegetation. Sorrel is a
plant containing a large quantity of oxalic acid;
and two of the ingredients in guano are oxalate of
ammonia and oxalate of lime. We have then a bed
of soil, ammonia, lime, potash, soda, and oxalic
acid, — every thing requisite to make sorrel grow,
and no grass to choke it off by rank luxuriance.
ITiese circumstances are surely sufficient to account
for the growth in question, and to reconcile this
seeming contradiction.

Since many of the foregoing remarks were writ-
ten, I have received so much unsought, yet con-
current testimony respecting the improved flavour
of many vegetables, but particularly of sweet corn,
grown with guano, that I can no longer consider it
possible for my imagination or my bias to have led
my judgment astray on this point. If true to the
extent which I suspect, the importance of the sub-
ject, both as regards fruit as well as vegetables, is
great indeed, and well merits careful and extensive
parallel experiments. These my other duties wnll
not permit me to pursue, but I trust many will be
found both able and willing to undertake them . My
opinion, as I have before stated, is, that the pre-
sentation to the roots, in abundance and together,
of all the ingredients necessaiy for the most luxu-
riant growth of every part of the plant, including
the seed, as in the case with guano, must also pro*
duce the luxuriance of the coverings, or the recep-
tacles of the seed ; these in a horticultural sense,
mean the fruit. This has been verified, in an in-
stance related to me this year, with the seckel pear,
which had always previously borne fruit of a very
small size. This year guano was liberally applied
to the tree; the fruit has been uncommonly
abundant, and of an extraordinary size. Of the
flavour I cannot speak, not having tasted it. Mr.
Tucker, has also found the same result \vith the
Baldwin apple, as compared with adjoining trees
not guanoed.

Our evidences as to the ingredients of the guano
entering the juices and seeds of the plants, though
not numerous, are simple and incontrovertible,
and therefore of great weight. Mr. A. A. Hayes,
of Roxberry, found about thirty per cent, more
phosphoric acid in the guanoed than in un-
guanoed sweet corn, calculated from the quantities
of glacial phosphoric acid obtained by the incinera-
tion of six hundred grains of each; and, had this
able chemist also searched for the magnesia, he
would, in my opinion, have found, at least, an
equal increase in that ingredient. The following
instance will support this idea.

In the Annales de Chimie, there is an account of
some experiments on fuchsia fulgens, with guano.

436

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

by Dr. A. Vogel. He found that the plants with
guano were in full bloom, while those without
were only in a bud. The t\;o plants were burned
to ashes.

100 parts by weight, of the guanoed plant, gave
6*2 ashes. 100 parts, by weight, of not guanoed
plant, gave 7"3 ashes. These ashes consisted
chiefly of carbonated alkalies, ;muriate of soda, sul-
phate of potash, and some phosphates.

The difl'erence of the phosphates in the two is
only 0'2 per cent. The guanoed ashes contained
25 per cent, carbonate lime, and 27" 1 carbonate
magnesia; the ashes not guanoed contained 40" 2
per cent, carbonate Hme, and 237 carbonate mag-
nesia ; showing that there was 3'4 more magnesia
in the guanoed ashes than in those not guanoed.

Although this seems decisive with regard to
magnesia, the experiment proves nothing respect-
ing the seed, which may be one of those not in-
tended for animal nutrition, and, consequently, in
which phosphate of lime may not be requisite. In
making experiments with the ashes of the plants
themselves, and not with the ashes of the seed
alone, it may be considered, however, that the
necessary ingredients pass through the plant in
their way to the seed.

The connection of these observations with flavour
is, simply, that the phosphates certainly, and pro-
bably magnesia also, being necessaiy to the for-
mation of flesh and blood, it is no great stretch of
the imagination to suppose Providence to have
ordered that these ingredients, in abundance, should
produce a more grateful flavour than in smaller
quantity.

The practical application of these facts is, that, in
the cultivation of fruits, and all esculent vegetables,
particularly those designed for animal nutrition, the
guano in a solid state should be used, and not a
mere solution ; for the phosphate of lime and mag-
nesia are insoluble in water, but are taken up by
the roots, and are probably the cause of the im-
provement of the flavour ; whereas, for ornamental
flowers, where seed is not required, and a fine
growth of foliage is desirable, the solution is pre-
ferable.

It is very often the case that large fruits have
not the fine flavour they have when grown small ;
in other words, that flavour is often sacrificed to
size. If this could be avoided by the use of guano,
and large size accompany improved flavour, it would
be of great importance to the fruit and vegetable
grower and eater.

Import, Stock, and Consumption, of Guano in
Great Britain since its first Introduction, in 1841.

IMPORTS. CONSUMP. STOCK.

1841. . . . Peruvian

1842

1843 "

1844....

Tons.

1,880
10,870
2,230
3,470

Tons.

500

2,000

5,500

10,450

Tons.

1,380
10,250

6,980

18,450 18,450

JjjJ"^ J g^^^]") Peruvian, 27,690 13,240 14,450

to 1st July (African, 245,510 124,410 121,100
1845 )

Supply total . ,
Consumption

291,650 156,100
156.100

Stock, 1st July, 1845 135,550

Consumption in Great Britain, from 1st July, 1844.

to 1st July, 1845, 135,550 tons.
Value, at £6h average per ton, dollars.

£881,075, or 4,291,169

And the stock on hand, 140,000 tons, 4,368,000

Aggregate expended for one species of
manure 8,659,160

THE FURNESS FARMERS' CLUB.— On the
18 th March a meeting was held at the Cavendish Arms
inn, Dalton, at which a most numerous and respectahle
body of men attended. It was agreed that each member
should pay an entrance fee of five shillings, and at this
meeting — the first meeting after the formation of the in-
stitution— no less a sum than ten pounds was taken for
entrance fees, which will be applied in procuring publi-
cations solely devoted to the different branches of agri-
culture. The following officers were appointed for con-
ducting the institution : — Mr. Drewry, land agent to the
Earl of Burlington, was elected president ; Mr. Ash-
burner, of Gleaston Park, vice-president ; Mr. J. Pat-
terson, of Hallbeck, treasurer; and Mr. Butler, of
Dalton, secretary. The future meetings of the institu-
tion will take place monthly ; and as the members who
have already enrolled their names are all hearty in the
cause of the newly formed institution, there is every
reason to believe that in a short time it will possess
amongst its members every farmer of note in the dis-
trict, and that it will receive that generous and unani-
mous support which landlords and farmers, in these
critical times, will be glad, through such an institution,
to afford each other. The officers chosen to manage
" The Furness Farmers' Club," are men who have long
occupied prominent situations as first-rate agriculturists,
having a perfect knowledge of all the various branches
of that interesting science ; and this institution will not
only increase their knowledge of farming, but will create
amongst them a spirit of rivalry, which will soon pro-
duce the most beneficial effects ; and on these grounds
we would advise every farmer in the district to enter so
valuable an institution.

THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE.

437

ON THE STEEPING OF SEEDS IN SULPHURIC ACID.

In the summer of 1814, 1 received a communica-
tion from Mr. George Dalziell, Holm of Drum-
lanrig, informing me that he had tried the steei)ing
of seed-barley in diluted sulphuric acid before
sowing it, with, as it then appeared, a very marked
effect on the luxuriance of the crop. In August,
1845, in answer to my inquiries, he farther in-
formed me, " that the difference was very marked
in all the stages of growth, and that, in the end, the
quantity per Scotch acre teas eight bushels more on
the land sown with the steeped than in that sown
with the unsteeped grain "

This fact is a very curious one, and I publish it
now in the hope that, during the present season,
the experiment may be repeated on other soils, in
other districts, by different parties, and on dif-
ferent varieties of barley, and the results com-
municated to the public either through the Asso-
ciation or otherwise.

But this experiment of Mr. Dalziell, though no
doubt original on his part, is not the only one
which has been made in regard to the effect of acid
steeps in promoting the growth of corn.

In the account of the eighth annual meeting of
the German agriculturists at Munich, in 1844,* I
find an account of experiments made in Silesia
by Tinzmann, to the follomng effect : —

Barley steeped six hours in sulphuric or mu-
riatic acids, diluted with forty waters — about 5 lb.
of acid per acre — gave one-fourth more grain and
straw. Steeping in pure water gave more straw,
but a very slight increase of grain. The same
quantity of acid diluted with water, and sprinkled
over the ground before sowing, gave very little in-
crease.

When diluted \vith forty waters, the sulphuric
acid browned the outside of the grain, but did not
prevent its groM'ing well; it ought, however, for
safety, to be diluted with fifty or sixty times its
weight of water.

Tinzmann also tried the sul])huric and muriatic
acids upon wheat, oats, and vetches, and upon
turnipt and grass seeds, and states that, in all
cases, he found the steeped seeds, especially when

* Bericht iiber die achte Versammlung Teutscher
Land und Fbrst \virthe zu Munchen von 30th Sept.
bis 7 Oct., 1844, p. 244.

t An anonymous correspondent, who some time
ago requested me to turn my attention to the
steeping of turnip seed, may take a hint from
Tinzmann's experiments.

sulphuric acid was used, do better than the un-
steeped. He adds, however, that the acid must be
used with precaution, that wonders are not to be
expected from it on poor exhausted soils, and that
it is on soils which have been long in good cultiva-
tion that its effects are most observable.

SUGGESTIONS FOR EXPERIMENTS ON
THE STEEPING OF SEED BARLEY.

The experiment suggested by the jireceding
article may be made more interesting by making
along with it a series of other experiments upon steep-
ing, which are connected with points of practical
and physiological interest. Thus : —

1. In a previous article (xiii.), I have stated that
when barley is steeped for the purpose of malting,
the water, which is several times renewed, extracts
from it a considerable proportion both of organic
and of inorganic matter. The inorganic part of
the extract is rich in alkaline matter and in phos-
phates, all of which must be lost to the seed ; and
yet it sprouts well in the hands of the maltster not-
withstanding. Is the sahne matter which the grain
thus loses necessary to its healthy or perfect condi-
tion ? Is it necessary to its growth in ordinary
soils ? Is it a provision of nature by which a store
of these substances is laid up in the seed above what
is required for its own perfect development, with the
view of meeting the emergency of its being placed
in a soil in which these substances are imusually
deficient ? Or are we to consider as only accident-
ally present the saline and other compounds which
are thus easily extracted from it by simple steeping
in water ?

These ai"e interesting questions, especially to the
chemical physiologist, and it would be very inter-
esting to solve them. If the seeds sprout and the
plants grow as well, and yield as good a crop on all
soils, after these salts are extracted by water, as
when the imsteeped seed is sown, or seed steeped
only in so much water as it can absorb, then we
may infer that what the water extracts is not neces-
sary, and that the seed would perform all its natural
functions as well without their presence. In that
case we should be justified in concluding that they
formed no part of the necessary and natural consti-
tution of a healthy seed.

2. But if, on the other hand, the seed thus ex-
hausted by water grows less vigorously and yields a

2 F

438

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

small return, then we should be justified in conclu-
ding not only that these saline matters which water
extracts are really necessary to the perfection of the
seed, but of inquiring whether the seed might not
\vith advantage be provided with a larger portion —
be beneficially steeped, that is, in a solution which
would stiU further charge it with these saline sub-
stances, before it was committed to the soil.

The answer to this inquiry would be obtained by
steeping the grain in a solution containing the same
or similar substances to those naturally present in
the perfect seed. Such a steep would be obtained
by the use of a mixture consisting of phosphate of
soda, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate of potash, com-
mon salt, and suljjhate of ammonia. One pound
of each of these substances dissolved in 10 gallons
of water vnll be sufficient to steeji 300 lbs. of seed,
which may remain in the solution from 30 to 50
hours, and should be afterwards dried with gypsum
or quicldime.

The quantity of saline matter above prescribed is
suflScient to impregnate the grain with an additional
portion equal to that which it naturally contains.

3. It is possible that after the grain has been
extracted by water it may again be impregnated
beneficially with an artificial saline solution, such
as that above described, or by a solution of one of
the substances only of which the mixture is com-
posed— of nitrate or phosphate of soda, for example,
or of sulphate of soda.

Most of these experiments bear more or less
directly upon practical operations, but they are
especially interesting to the physiologist. I would,
therefore, venture to suggest to such of the mem-
bers of the association as can appreciate the beauty
and importance of such inquiries, that advantage
might be derived, and considerable knowledge ob-
tained, by the careful performance of such a series
of experiments as the following vipon the steeping
of barley.

Seed steeped and washed in
repeated waters.

Steeped in as much water only
as it can absorb.

Steeped in
acid.

diluted sulphuric
(Art. XXV.)

Steeped in diluted muriatic acid.
(Art. XXV.)

Steeped in mixed saline solutions
as above.

Steeped first in water, and then

again in the mixed saline

solution.

Seed steeped in nitrate or phos-
phate of soda.

Steeped first in water, and then

in nitrate or phosphate

of soda.

Dry unsteeped grain.

I am certain that some of these experiments, at j tific agriculture during the ensuing season,
least, will be attended toby the cultivators of scien- 1 Journal of Agriculture.

HOPS.

The total number of acres of land m Great Britain
under the cultivation of hops in the year 1845 was
48,058 acres, being an excess over the previous year of
3,573 acres, Sussex having an increase of 1,087 acres, and
the plantations in Kent being enlarged to the extent of
2,413 acres ; but the preponderance is greatly in favour

of tlie Rochester district, that collection having an in-
crease of 2,224, while the Canterbury collection exceeds
the previous year by 189 acres only.

The following table contains, in a condensed form,
much useful information relative to the growth and ex-
tent of the plantations for the last two years.

A COMPABATIVK ACCOUNT OF THE OLD DUTY, NUMBER OF ACRES, AND AVERAGE GROAVTH
PER ACRE, OF HOPS, IN THE FOLLOWING DISTRICTS, FOR THE YEARS 1844 AND 1845.

1844. 1

1845.

Districts.

Old Duty.

No.
Acres.

Average Growth
per Acre.

Old Duty.

No.
Acres.

Average Growth
per Acre.

Rochester

Canterbury

£ s. d.
62,407 6 4
21,158 17 9

13,474
9,001

22,475

9,929

8,144

2,710

388

535

304

cwt
9
4

7
5
4
7
4
2
2

qrs.
2
3

2
2
1
2
1
3
2

2

lbs.

10

13

22
21
19
22
3
24
26

3

£ s. d.
51,486 5 5
36,165 1 6

15,698
9,190

cwt.
6
8

7
10
2
4
3
1
3

6

qrs. lbs.
3 4
0 16

Kent

Sussex

Worcester

Farnham

83,566 4 1

27,302 18 I

17,409 7 3

10,074 14 2

801 11 6

766 9 1

401 13 0

87,651 6 11

54,305 10 5

9,105 14 7

5,424 13 5

586 16 7

413 6 2

521 9 1

24,888

11,016

8,165

2,790

394

.517

288

1 4

0 23

1 6
0 2
0 9

North Clays ....
England

2 17
2 27

Total

140,322 17 2

44,485

6

158,008 17 2

48,058

3 6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

4:j9

BURTON-ON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB.

TENANT-RIGHT.

At the meeting of the club held on Thursday, March
12th, the secretary read a circular which had been re-
ceived from a Committee of the London Farmei's' Club,
appointed to investigate the subject of Tenant-Right,
wherein it is requested that this club should forward to
them such suggestions as might appear useful in carrying
out their object.

It was resolved that the subject should be discussed by
the Burton-on-Trent Farmers' Club, but that previously
a committee of the officers of the club, and eight other
members, viz. : — Mr. W. Daniel, Mr. W. Worthington,
Mr. C. W. Lyon, Mr. J. Gretton, Mr. J. Greaves, Mr
J. Falkner, Mr. A. Bass, Mr. W. Hollier, should be ap-
pointed to draw up a report to be considered at a general
meeting of members.

In compliance with the wish of the club, the committee
appointed by it met to consider the subject of tenant-
right, and having agreed on the following suggestions
and resolutions, to present them with a view to their be-
ing made the matter of discussion at a general meeting of
the club.

REPORT.

It does not admit of question that in the present state of the
law, a hmdlord has in many cases the power of inflicting a
giievous wr-jng upon a tenant who holds land under a tenancy
from year to year. Tlie landlord is invested by the law with
the power of recovering compensation for injury done to his land,
hut the tenant has no legal title to recover what he has expend-
ed in improving it while in his possession.

Not oidy does this state of things lead to uijustice and
wrong ui some instances, but it has an injurious effect upon the
interests of both landlords and tenants ahvay s, since it operates
to prevent the tenant from making such improvements as woiUd
increase liis own rate of profit, and eidiance the renting value of
the land.

It would therefore conduce much to the interests of both
landlord and tenant, if the law were so altered as to secure to
the tenant in all cases such compensation as a just landlord will
always grant to him in the event of his quitting his farmbefore
he has enjoyed a fair share of the benefit to be derived from the
improvements he has effected on the land.

It may he said that it is always competent to the landlor^l
and tenant to enter into a special agreement, by which the fair
rights of the tenant may be assured to him, and it is not to be
denied that such agreements are perhaps the best means of ar-
ranging the mutual claims of tlie two parties. But since tlie
great breadth of the land is held at will by the tenants, and
with no security but the trust in the landlord's probity, it is
manifest that if a practicable way could he found of giving fair
compensation to the tenant without in any case doing wrong
to the landlord, the tenant would not only be placed in a safer
position under the law, but such a state of things would much
assist in extending the adoption of favourable special agree-
ments.

As there has hitherto existed no legal tenant right, tlie opi-

nions which practical men hold as to the extent of a tenants'
equitable claim to compensation are various. And iudced un-
til tl>e art of agriculture had Ijccome in a part degree the pupil
of a well grounded science— until the precise effect of various
operations of husbandry, and of various manures, in adding to
the fertile powers of the sod could be ascertained it was not
easy in many cases to set a just value on the improvements
which a tenant might make.

But within these last fifty years so much light has been thrown
on the practice of ag-riculture that competent men can with suf-
ficient accuracy estimate tlie benefit which the land receives
from the operations of the tenant.

■\Miat now seems to be required is, some definite rule by which
to adjudge to the tenant his fair share of whatever improvement
the land may have received.

It might be argiied, that as a tenant who leaves his land in
a condition neither better nor worse than when he entered on it,
has done all which the landlord can fairly require, the tenant
who has improved his land ought to have a claim for the whole
sum by which the land has been increased in value during his
occupation of it.

But any enterprising tenant who takes land capable of profit-
able improvement will always be wUling to undertake such im-
provements, and render back the land in its improved state into
the possession of the landlord, provided he be secured by lease
in the occupation of the land for a certain number of years.

Hence it follows, that the tenant has not a right to the whole
value of his improvements when he has already recei\cd some
benefit by holding the improved land, but his fair right is in the
case where no bargain is made, just what he would have claimed
if an agi-eement had been entered into Ijeforehand.

In carrying out this principle, a plan has commonly beeu re-
commended and pursued, wl'.ich, though it has some advantages
when made part of a special agreement, woiUd be open to very
serious objections if it became the basis of a compulsory system
of compensation.

It is assumed that the various kinds of improvement made by
the tenant are exhausted in a certain number of years ; or
otherwise that certain kinds of improvement repay their outlay
in a longer or shorter time ; and the tenant is allowed a greater
or less number of years' interest in his improvements according
as they are esteemed to be transient or permanent. For instance,
some authorities would give fifteen years' interest in draining,
ten years in marl or lime, four years in bones or farm yard ma-
nurc, two years in rape dust, or guano, or ammonia, one year
in oilcake consumed by cattle. Scarcely two men agree in the
length of time which should be allowed for various kmds of
operations or manures.

The distinction between transient and permanent improve-
ments dues not appear in many cases to be well grounded. Not
unfrequently those manures which are accounted to be quickly
exhausted, are the cause of a permanent increase in the renting
vahie of the laud.

If a soil contain all the mineral constituents of plants in
abundance except one or two, the ad(htion of the deficient
articles becomes a permanent improvement. It has been fre-

2 F 2

440

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

queiitly observed that grass lauds manured with bone dust have
stiU retained the benefit of tlie dressing lor more than twenty
years.

In the case of coraraon farm yard manures being applied,
the benefit to the land lasts for an indefinite period, provided
the course of husbandry be judicious. If much manure be
carried on to the sod in one year the crops are larger, and
these larger crops yield more manure in the succeeding year ;
the improvement is thus renewed from year to year, though of
course the original manure laid on may have been early ex-
hausted.

To limit therefore the compensation to the tenant for manure
to the time during which the benefit would remain in the soil,
on the supposition of the crops beuig carried off, does not appear
to be just.

Neither does it appear that the distinction between transient
and permanent improvements is always sound, when viewed
with reference to tlie shorter or longer time whicli they respec-
tively require to enable a tenant to reco\er back his outlay in an
increased profit.

On one soil the benefit of drainage may be so great and im-
mediate that the whole cost of effecting it may be repaid to the
tenant in two, three, or four years. On another soil the benefit
from manures carried on to it may not be in the first few years
sufficient to repay a tenant their cost.

To adopt any arbitrary rule as to the time wliich should be
allowed for each particidar kind of improvement does not there-
fore appear likely to give a just compensation to the tenant in
all cases. If the landlord be required in all cases to pay a com-
pensation based on the absolute outlay of the tenant, it will
frequently happen that he will be required to pay for so called
improvements winch through the bad judgment of the tenant
have not really improved the land.

On the other hand a tenant may have exercised more than
common skill, and may have greatly benefited the land by a very
moderate outlay. A compensation founded on his outlay would
thus despoil him of the fair reward of his skill.

Such a mode of compensation is certainly very well calculated
to serve the purpose of tempting tenants to effect improve-
ments on land held at will, when they have at the same time
the additional security of the landlord's sense of justice. It
would be expected, first, that the landlord would not disturb
the tenant in his occupation, and secondly, that if forced to
quit, the landlord would modify the terms of agreement so as to
meet liis particular circumstances. But a compulsory arrange-
ment founded on this principle must necessarily lead to much
injustice.

The most simple and practicable way of obviating these ob-
jections seems to be, to give a discretionary power to impartial
arbitrators to judge the degree of benefit which the land has re-
ceived from the improvements of the tenant, and to award to
him such a compensation as is his due on the principle, that the
tenant has a title to enjoy the benefit of his improvements for
as long a time as an intelligent farmer would have required, if
his effecting such improvements had been made a matter of
agreement beforehand.

With regard to the question, " In what do the tenants'
rights consist ?" no very definite answer has yet been made.
It would be a tedious task to enumerate each individual circum-
stance which gives him an equitable title to compensation, but
it may be said, that whatever he does which adds to the renting
value of the land to his successor, and which he has not enjoyed
for a fair period, should be included in his rights. It does not
seem necessary that a tenant should have drained his land, or
carried on large quantities of manure, to establish a claim to
compensation. •

If a tenant grows green crops for cattle food more frequently
and thus supports a large head of stock and makes a more than
ordinary quantity of manure, nobody can doubt that he foregoes
his immediate profit in the hope of reaping a larger advantage
afterwards. His laud has been improved as much as though
he had brought on manures, and his successor would pay addi-
tional rent for the advantage of possessing such land.

If a tenant has laid down arable land to grass, he has brought
it, at his own cost, into a state in which it will yield additional
profit when again subjected to the plough.

Every person well instructed in the art of agriculture is
perfectly capable of estimating the benefit to the land from its
treatment by the tenant, but it is necessary that an arbitrator
should have accurate information of the whole of the tenant's
operations.

For this purpose the tenant of land should be made to render
an account once in every year of the manner in which each field
has been tilled and cropped, of the quantity of produce carried
away, of the quantity of produce or manures carried on to the
land, and of any such work as may he made the subject of a
claim for compensation. The arbitrator would then be able to
judge in what degree the improvement of the tenant had been
exhausted by the pursuit of a ddapidating system,and his claim
to compensation woiUd be lessened in due proportion.

If compensation were allowed on the footing now contended
for, the landlord would in no case have to pay for nominal im-
provements which do not benefit the land, nor would the tenant
even fail to receive all he his a fair claim to. Such a plan is
certainly practicable, and the efforts of farmers shoiUd be com-
bined to procure the sanction of the legislature to it, or to some
other which may secure the result of a fair compensation, not
dependent on the will of the landlord.

But though the security for a return of what is justly due to
him in the event of his leaving his farm, would place the tenant
in a comparatively independent position, yet it would not en-
tirely remove the evil of which he has reason to complain, unless
he shoidd also have security that his rent should not be raised
until his improvements have repaid him for their cost.

A tenant who has improved his farm might chose to submit
to an increase of rent rather than incur the inconvenience and
loss of quitting his farm, and he would thus be made to pay in-
terest on the money which he himself had invested.

This is an evil for which it does not appear easy to discover
a remedy which could be enforced by law, and it is one wliich, as
long as it exists, will always make discreet tenants and conside-
rate landlords prefer agreements or leases for terms of years to
the system of yearly tenancy.

Such being the opinions which your committee have
formed on the subject you have deputed them to consi-
der, they recommend the club to adopt the following, or
some similar resolutions.

Resolved, — That the Burton-on-Trent Farmers' Club is of
opinion that a tenant of land from year to year, ought to enjoy
a legal claim to compensation for such improvements as he
shall have made during his tenancy, and for which he shall not
have received the whole benefit which he is fairly entitled to
claim.

That the tenant has under a tenancy at will a f.iir claim to
the enjoyment of his improvements for as long a period as a
good farmer would require, if the length of his occupancy were
made a matter of agreement beforehand.

That impartial arbitrators chosen mutually by the landlord
and tenant would without .lifticulty form a correct estimate as
to what belonged to the tenant on this principle of adjustment.

That it appears to the club to be ad\i3able for the general

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

441

body of farmers to join in petitioning the legislature to make a
law which would give to the tenant a legal right to reco\'er from
the landlord such compensation for improvements made hy him
as impartial and competent arbitrators would decide to be Iiis
equitable right.

Mr. Govan having arrangements which prevent his
attending the next meeting to introduce the subject ap-
propriated to him, it has been arranged that the subject
of tenant-right shall be substituted on that occasion.
The meeting will be held on Thursday, the 9th April, at
the Three Queens' Hotel, at 5 o'clock in the evening.

The committee beg leave to call the attention of every
member to the opinions expressed in these suggestions
and resolutions, in order that each may come to the dis-
cussion prepared to oft'er his objections, or his approval
of the opinions they contain, the object of the meeting
being to signify to the London Farmers' Club, who are
collecting the opinions of farmers in all parts of the
kingdom, the views and wishes entertained by the far-

mers of this neighbourhood.

J. D. Greaves,

Secretary.

LORD MOUNT-EDGCUMBE AND HIS TENANTS.

Mt Friends, — At this moment, so interesting to
the agricultural interest, it would, as your landlord,
have given me great pleasure to meet you; but, as 1 am
prevented from doing so by the state of my health, I
cannot refrain from addressing you by letter.

It is not to hold out any hopes that protection to
agriculture can be longer maintained ; it is decided
that in a few years the English farmer will have to
compete with the world.

Nor can I so entirely get rid of my former opinions
as to be able to declare that we have not great ground
for alarm.

Yet, when I see, with very few excptions, every
man who can claim any title to the character of a
statesman openly commit himself to directly contrary
opinions, and consider that on a question of this kind
that of any man of acknowledged talent, who has
laboured to ascertain the facts upon which it is formed,
is worth the opinion of any number of ordinary men,
particularly when his sincerity is proved by his in-
terests being deeply involved — I cannot under such
circumstances myself despair, and I hope that yon
will not, but wait till the result is shown by ex-
perience. If, as some say, the change prove beneficial
rather than injurious, I shall most sincerely congratu-
late those who hold leases under me on their good
fortune; if the contrary, I then, after obtaining the
hest information and advice in my power, shall take
that course which, according to my judgment and con-
science, I shall deem to be liberally just. One thing
is, however, certain — all agree that to ward off these
dangers we must exert ourselves. We are started in a
race against all comers, and woe betide the hindermost.
In such a race the manufacturers have been signally
victorious, and it is well for farmers to consider by
what means they have succeeded.

That success is attributable to not only a steady at-
tention to their business, but also to an unceasing ac-
tivity of mind. Each improvement in their respective
trades is no sooner made public than it is immediately
adopted, antiquated methods are piit aside, and every
new discovery of science and ingenuity without delay
or hesitation put into practice. Those without the ac-
tivity, the talents, or the capital necessary to effect

such changes become bankrupts, and their places are
supplied by others in the enjoyment of those advan-
tages, or rather necessaries. Against all but tenants
has this last penalty been in force ; and why has it not
been against them ? Because other influences besides
the love of money-making have been allowed to ope-
rate. The landlord feels that the tenant is bound to
his estate, and he to his tenants, by ties of the
heart, rarely, if ever, known to the manufacturer, or
by those with whom he is connected. Far be it from
me to wish those feelings should cease to exist or to
exercise their kindly influence ; I deem them to be the
best source of the peace and the happiness and the
strength of the community ; and when I am told that
we are fated to become the shopkeepers of the world,
1 deplore the change, from the belief that with it must
come the diminution of such feelings.

The misfortune that has tended the most to crip-
ple the efforts of your friends (which, like most so-
called misfortunes, arises from a great fault) is, that
the agricultural labourers have not and do not enjoy
the comforts they in reward for their services are justly
entitled to. Our duty, as Christians, to society and to
ourselves, calls upon us, each in our station, to remedy
to the utmost of our power that disgraceful evil ; but
for that, none who hold happiness, morality, and
kindly fellow-feeling to be greater blessings than any
wealth alone can bestow, will doubt that the life of an
agriculturist is as much to be preferred to that of men
toiling, speculating, and gambling in dark manufac-
turing towns, as a healthful sport on the green is to a
night passed over dice at the gambling table.

The power to check the ordained course of events,
however, nowhere exists ; the agriculturists are treated
as, and now indeed are termed, " manufacturers " of
corn, and to exist must, however unpalatable, adopt
to a great degree the system, and submit to the same
fate, as their fellow-manufacturers. It must be re-
membered that now no capital produces to its owner
so small a return as that invested in land ; while in no
manufacture have science and ingenuity introduced
greater improvements than in that of food, and it is not
only the interests, but the duty of tenants, following
the example' of all other manufacturers, to use every

4J2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

exertion first to learn and then to put into practice
these improvements without delay. To tenants who
have succeeded to estates from their ancestors have
also frequently descended habits which it is hard to
cast off. The attempt, however, now must be
made. Landlords are on their part bound to take
every means in their power to make their tenants ac-
quainted with all changes in agriculture which from
time to time experience may have shown to be im-
provements, and also to give them every assistance in
their power by sharing on equitable terms the expense,
or by in any other way aiding them to carry
them out ; but in return, they have a full right
to expect the utmost readiness in tenants to take
advantage of the assistance and information offered,
and to decline a renewal of connexion with men who
refuse to perform their part in what is no more than
their duty at a time of difficulty and danger to all.
As I said before in other trades, either the want of suf-
ficient activity or of capital is followed as a matter of
course by inevitable ruin, and no aid is offered ; but a
tenant's case, as I put it, and as I hope under most
landlords it would in fact stand, is far better. For, if
he will bo hut willing and active, consideration and
assistance will be shown, to shield him from the disas-
trous consequences that naturally flow from the want
of talent and capital. But I repeat, that when advice
and assistance are offered and not readily accepted,
the fate common to all must be expected, and cannot
in justice be complained of.

I will not lose any time in determining on a system
by which information proved to be useful, and the as-
sistance you can fairly expect from me, may be af-
forded, and in the meantime confidently call your at-
tention to the advantages which are certain to be de-
rived from a great increase of the number of cattle fed
on your estates, to the better preservation of their
manure, and to under-draining. With this I should
have concluded, but that I have been assured that a
strong feeling exists among tenants generally, that
the late conduct of many of their representatives on
this question is such as to shake their confidence in the
honour of gentlemen.

Let me then state my conviction, and the reasons for
that conviction, why men unbound by positive pledges
or promises have not, under the existing altered state
of things, injured the agricultural interest, or done
more than their public duty. Mind, I am not at-
tempting to defend Sir R. Peel, for with sorrow must
I admit, that nothing I have read, heard, or been able
in my own mind to conceive, does afford a sufficient
justification for having led so large a portion of tlie
gentry and legislators of England to take the position
they are now placed in, and then, by heading himself
attack against it, rendering it equally impossible for
them to attempt to maintain it without injury to the
public interests, or to retreat from it without rendei-
ing themselves liable to the imputations they are now
exposed to. The destruction of confidence between
the people and their representatives is a great social
evil, which it is one of the first duties of a man hold-

ing his high office to guard against. He, on the con-
trary, has to an unhappy extent caused it — that is
certain; but whether unavoidably or not, I will not now
discuss. That which I now wish to convince you of is,
that after that course of conduct of Sir R. Peel's joined
in by all others (but one or two) who do or have held
high Ministerial offices — a man quite equal to the high
station of a member of the Legislature, but who has no
pretensions to the still higher position of Minister of this
great empire — still holding opinions in favour of the
corn laws, and who has sufficient determination and
self-devotion at any personal risk or sacrifice strenu-
ously to combat for them (did he think it right), may
well be induced to act upon the opinion, that a further
attempt to do so is neither in accordance with the
public interests generally nor, in one point of view,
his own honour or that of the great agricultural body
he belongs to.

Our case is less good than that of a man supporting
rights against another making equal claims to them,
for we are accused of maintaining ours by an abuse of
powers granted to us for the public good, and at the
same time violating justice aad humanity by rendering
food to the half-fed dearer.

We conscientiously believed these imputations to be
groundless, that the withdrawal of protection would
benefit none, while it would cause ruin to the many
interests connected with our own, and thus destroy
the firmest support of the Crown and empire ; and so
long as that opinion was supported by all the states-
men in whom upon every other question we reposed
confidence, we were fully justified in enforcing it.
But, as a man would be charged with forfeiting his
honour if he attempted to maintain rights when all
whom he must admit to be the best judges in the case
have declared against him, may not we be similarly
accused if we still attempt to maintain advantages
which all disinterested men — all the most talented
amongst those even who are interested, have declared
to be unjust to others, injurious to the public, and un-
necessary to ourselves ?

How can a cause be maintained in opposition to
such a vast portion of the community, including the
most distinguished of ourselves, when not a disinter-
ested judge or umpire can be found to sanction or
support it — nay, even to refrain from condemning it?
But you will ask, are members justified in acting
against opinions declared by them at the hustings ? I
say, yes, if they went not as delegates but as members
of Parliament, free to do their duty, such as the con-
stitution requires them to be, unbound by positive
pledges or promises.

(The act of resigning in the middle of a Parliament,
in consequence of a difference of opinion with consti-
tuents, is in principle more democratic than annual
Parliaments.)

I will try to make you understand my view of their
conduct, by putting for your consideration a parallel
case. A naval man undertakes the charge of a ship,
and declares his determination to avoid a certain
port. After, however, having joined the fleet, all the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

443

commanders in whom be has confidence, to his amaze-
ment, sail themselves straight into it, and assure him
that it is for the interest of his employers that he
should follow. He himself ieels that, whether it be
prudent or not, it is certain that his vessel must
eventually do so, and that her exposure in the mean-
time to the tempests can be only productive of danger
and evil. Would it not be acting upon a mistaken
point of honour, for the sake of adhering to the words
of his agreement, to do that which, in his opinion, can
only injure the interests intrusted to his charge? Such,
in my opinion, would have been the conduct of mem-
bers of Parliament on the present occasion, in con-
tinuing a resistance under the circumstances equally
impossible to be maintained, or to be productive of
any benefit, and which it may be well considered not
honourable to attempt. Never forget also that they
could have no possible object in changing their opinions
but that of doing their duty to the public. It is a
step which a timid man, or one who would rather be
dishonest than risk being thought so, would not take
— but which those justly confident in their past cha-
racter, the purity of their motives, and of receiving
ultimate justice from Englishmen, may safely (as I
have striven to show) properly take for once ; but let
Ministers of the Crown, who value the constitution —
which, to exist, must enjoy, in its several branches,

the confidence of the community, beware how they
again lead the majorities of Parliament guided by
them into a similar position. It is not the destruc-
tion of party (a comparatively insignificant considera-
tion), but the destruction of confidence in statesmen,
in members of the Legislature, in English gentlemen,
which is to be deprecated and dreaded.

These few lines on politics have I added from the
desire to soften any ill feelings that may exist amongst
us. It is most desirable that, whatever may be the
consequences, as yield we must, we should do so with
a good grace, that the agricultural body who still may
claim so high a station should not present the undig-
nified spectacle of struggles now so clearly inefiectual
as to have the appearance of impotent efforts of child-
ish anger— still less of quarrels and criminations
amongst ourselves. Let us rather determine at once
to unite all our energies to do our duty to the com-
munity and ourselves, by industriously putting into
practice those improvements which science and ex-
perience have shown will enable us to produce from
our land the greatest quantity of food at a fairly re-
munerating cost.

Believe me your very sincere friend,

March, 1846. Mount-Edgcumbe.

Plymouth Herald.

ON THE PROPORTION OF WATER CONTAINED IN SOUND AND

DISEASED POTATOES.

It has been very generally stated Avithin the last
few months, by writers and speakers upon the
potato disease, that the affected tubers of this season
contain an unusual proportion of water, while the
sound tubers contain only the average quantity.

Few persons in this country, I believe, have
made a sufficient number of determinations of the
proportion of water in sound and unsound potatoes
of different varieties in the present year, to be en-
titled to give a positive opinion on the subject. I
have, therefore, caused numerous experiments on
the subject to be made in my laboratory, and the
general result is by no means in favour of the
opinion above stated. If this result should be con-
firmed by farther examination, then any supposed
connection of the quantity of water in the potato
with the cause of the disease to which it is this year
subject, must be given up.

1°. It is of consequence, in forming a sound
ojiinion upon this point, that we should know mth
some degree of accuracy the average proportion of
v.'ater found in potatoes of different varieties in
former years, and by different experimenters. The
mean residts of 90 experiments made upon healthy

potatoes in France and Germany in former years
have been as follows : — Water per

cent.
Ktirte, mean of 55 varieties - - - 75.1
Einhoff „ 5 „ . - - 76.3

Lampadius „ 4 „ . - - 74.5

PfaflF „ 19 analyses - - - 76.6

Payen „ 7 varieties grown on the

same soil - - 74,3

General mean ----- 75.3
We cannot, therefore, I think, be far from the
tnith, in assuming that sound potatoes on an ave-
rage contain 75 per cent., or three-fourths of their
weight of water.

2° . But to guard against error, it is also necessary
to know the limits within which the per-centage of
water vai'ies in the healthy tuber. Without know-
ing this, indeed, we may be led by a hmited number
of experiments to conclude that the potatoes we
are examining are unusually rich or imusually poor
in M'ater, while in reality the pi-oj)ortion of this con-
stituent is quite within the limits M'hich are frequent-
ly met with. The largest and smallest quantities
found by the above experimenters were as follows :

444

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Maximum.

Minimum. Mean of
the whole.

Korte

- 76.0

68.0 75.1

Einhoff -

- 81.3

73.0 76.3

Lampadius

- 77.5

70.3 74.5

Payen

- 79.4

68.7 74.3

If from the above table we extract the limits of
variation in the per-centage of water and the ge-
neral means, we obtain the following num-
bers ; —

3°. The results hitherto obtained in my own laboratory are embodied in the following table : —

Variety of Potato

Where from.

By whom sent.

Sound or Diseased.

Water per Cent.

Remarks.

Hen's nest.

^ Houghton
i Castle.

j Mr. Smith.

diseased.

75.99

>■ 76.63

One week in

do.

do.

do.

do.

75.58

the labora-

do.

do.

do.

do.

78.34 ,

tory.

do.
do.

do.
do.

do.
do.

( sound part
I of same,
do.

\ 75.14 "

76.87

- 76.12

do.

do.

do.

do.

76.36 ,

Seedhng )
potato J

do.

do.

diseased.

81.09

do.

do.

do.

do.

80.85

> 10.97

Do. do.

do.

do.

do.

( sound part
i of same.

\ 79.23

Variety of Potato

Where from.

By whom sent. Sound or Diseased.

Water per Cent.

Remarks.

Purple kidney

Newton

Mr. Milne

sound

73.88 ■

1

About 4 days

White do. J

Ber\\'ick-on-
Tweed

1 do.

do.

75.23

[

in the house.

Tartar potato

Fifeshire

Mr. Duke

diseased.

77.22

BufF do.

do.

do.

do.

79.12

For about 2

Red potato

Ballochmyle

Mr. Alexander

do.

80.78

)

weeks in the

do.

do.

do.

do.

78.89

S

laboratory.
Same kind of

do.

do.

do.

r sound part
\ of same.

\ 78.13

I

potato after
lying several

do.

do.

do.

diseased.

71.28

J

weeks in the
laboratory.

do.

Lanark .

do.

sound.

77.26

}

About 2 weeks

do.

do.

do.

do.

76.07

s

in laboratory.

White potato

Drummore.

Mr. Aitcheson

do.

80.00

Same kinds of

potato, for
more than 4

do. j

diseased part of

} .., ^H

weeks in the

do.

do.

another.

; /I.//

laboratory ;

do.

do.

do. -[

sound part of
same.

\ 77.-i7

"

diseased part

dry-looking,

surface almost

like cork.

Pink-eyed

r sound part

f 71.32

1

Only 2 or 3

kidney.

Hexham

Mr. Harbottle

■< of a diseased
L potato,
diseased part of

< 72.69
L 73.08
r83.50

V 72.36
I 82.23

days in the la-
boratory.

do.

do.

do.

the same

|-< 82.09

jiotato.

r LSI -09

Maximum. Minimum. Mean.
In the sound potatoes,

or parts 80.00 72.36 78.56

In the diseased 82.23 71.28 76.87

If we were to judge from these mean numbers.

we should say that the sound potatoes, or parts
of potatoes, contained more water than the imsound.
It is true that the maximum is greater in the dis-
eased than in the sound, but the minimum is lower
also, so that the fuel of a potato being diseased does

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ub

not seem to indicate any fixed proportion of water.
It may be as low as 71 per cent., or as high as 82.
The necessity of numerous experiments, in order
to arrive at the truth, is shewn by the last set of
determinations in the table — those upon the pink-eyed
kidney. Had none been made ])ut upon this kind
of potato, we might have said that diseased pota-
toes, or parts of potatoes, contained nnich more
watei than such as are sound. It is only the trials

made U])on other varieties that shew how erroneous
such a general conclusion would have been, and
lead us to attribute the diflerence in the case of the
pink-eyed kidney to the circumstance that the seat
of the disease happened to be in the wetter end of
this peculiar potato.

Laboratory of the Agricultural Chemistry Associa-
tion, Feb. 12.
— Journal of Agriculture.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COWS.

BY THE LATE MR. J. WEBB.

(T''. S. to the Morayshire Fanning Society.)

The great value of black cattle to man is so well I farther with my remarks, I would wish to remove a
and generally known, that any comment on this I prejudice which much prevails in the northern dis-
head might justly be termed superfluous. j tricts in Scotland ; that is, if blood be taken from a

Inflammatory diseases have much prevailed of ; milch cow, and a purge given, it is supposed it will
late years, which have been principally owing to | put the cow off" her milk, or diminish it. This idea
sudden changes of weather. The seasons have i is most absurd and ridiculous, for I can prove be-
been very unsteady for several years past, and the | yond doubt that the reduction of blood, if required,
changes from excessive heat to extreme cold have | has the contrary effect. I will admit that if blood

been so sudden and frequent as to affect the animal
frame to a very great degree ; and there are few
animals of the brute creation that are more suscep-
til)le of injury from such changes than the cow.
There are many other causes which may disorder
the system : but from whatever cause it may happen,
ifacowis diseased, and the blood contaminated,
her offspring must, less or more, inherit her disease ;
for it is from the blood and the most vital fluids of

be taken from a cow while under milk, and a strong
purge given, that it will diminish the quantity of
milk for a few days, but it will afterwards return
more copious than before, and of much better quality.
I would wish it to be understood, that I do not re-
commend bleeding or purging unless there be
cause for it, and then it must be done with caution,
and regulated by circumstances. But I will insist on
this point, that if the blood be contaminated, and

the cow that the calf is supported while in the ! the animal disordered, there is no possibility of

womb.

A cow or any other animal may be disordered,
and the blood contaminated to a considerable de-
gree, and no evident signs of disease while the
blood keeps its circulation, till the inflammatory
matter strikes or takes its seat ; and many that
have the charge of cows are deluded by the supposi-
tion, that, while they are appetized for their food,
nothing of consequence can be wrong; but, as it is
from healthy mothers that a healthy off'spring can

bringing the functions of the system to their jjro-
per tone, and restoring health, but by the reduction
of blood and administering purging and purifying
medicine ; and many thousands of cattle have died
by the neglect of these means, that might have been
saved by timely assistance and proper applica-
tions.

I perceive, as I go my rounds, that the oi)eration
of bleeding is much practised by farmers on their
young cattle ; but that of giving them a purge is

be expected, I particularly recommend farmers to | seldom thought necessary, which might prove of

be careful in the management of their breeding
cows, and to preserve them as much as possible
from the inclemency of the weather, or any other
causes that may disorder them ; and when disease
cannot be avoided, means should be taken to
rectify the system before inflammation encroaches.

more essential benefit to the animal, in many cases,
than the loss of blood ; and unless the practice of
purging as well as bleeding be more generally
adopted, inflammatory and fatal diseases will prevail
and increase.

I have frequently, in urgent cases, given a strong

to the injury of mother and calf. Let it always be purge to a cow at all seasons, from the time of copu-
remembered, it is better to prevent than to cure ; | lation, till within a fortnight of calving, with per-
and a simple remedy, in time applied, may remove ', feet success ; but the time I would particularly re-
what, if neglected, would require superior skill and ] commend a cow to be purified by purging, is he-
expensive medicine to cure. But before I proceed j twixt calving and copulation. I therefore beg the

446

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

attention of those who have the management of
dahy stock, to the following advice : — •

When cows are far advanced with calf they
should be cautiously fed, and turnips should be
given rather sparingly and in small quantities ; for
an extra quantity of cold, watery food disorders the
stomach, and proves very pernicious to both mo-
ther and calf.

It is also necessary to be careful, in turning them
out of the byre, that they get no extra twist to in-
jure them : also drive them gently to watei", or to
the parkj for many accidents happen from bad man-
agement, and from very trifling causes.

The moderate use of salt Avith turnips, or any
watery food, is very beneficial for black cattle, par-
ticularly for breeding cows as they advance with
calf. When they are within about three weeks of
their time for calving, I would recommend about
four quarts of blood to be taken from the neck ; and
two ounces of nitre (saltpetre) should be given each
day, for five or six days previous to calving ; and in
about three days after calving, the following purge
should be given : —

Glauber salts, twelve ounces.

Cream of tartar, four ounces.

Nitre, two ounces.

Ginger in powder, two drachms.
(One dose.)

The salts and nitre should be dissolved in a
quart of boiling water : the other ingredients should
then be mixed in. Give it to the animal when
about new-milk warm. As the cream of tartar is
heav)', and settles to the bottom of the bottle, it
should be well shaken immediately before it is
given, that the animal may get the whole contents,
as otherwise it may cause disappointment in operat-
ing-

The medicine should be given in the morning,
and the animal should have nothing to eat for two
hours previous to getting it, nor for two hours after,
at which time a little hay should be given, and
water offered frequently. If the weather be cold,
the drink should be warmed to about summer heat.
Allow three days at an interval, and repeat the
purge.

Should the first dose not Oj)erate freely, the se-
cond should be made stronger, by adding two or
three ounces more of salts.

If these simple rules be carefully attended to, be-
fore and after calving, and the medicine be given as
directed, farmers may then expect their cows to
conceive after the bull, and to produce healthy,
wholesome calves ; for the greater part of calves,
for several years jiast, have been diseased from
their mothers, which has been the principal cause
of so many dying in infancy.

VALE OF EVESHAM AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.

A resolution having been passed at a meeting of mem-
bers of this Society, that security of tenure was essential
for the prosperity of the farmer, and would teud to the
welfare of all other classes, a committee of landlords and
tenants was subsequently appointed to draw up a Form
of Lease under which a tenant might hold his farm with
the greatest advantage to himself, and with due justice
to his landloi'd.

The committee having given due consideration to the
answers they obtained from agriculturists in all parts of
England to the " Lease Circular" they last year issued,
are now enabled to submit to the members for their con-
sideration a form of lease, based upon the experience
thus gained. It has been framed with a due regard to
both landlord and tenant. The former has full security
given him against deterioration of his property, from un-
skilful or careless husbandry — the latter has as much li-
berty and freedom from restriction in cropping as it is
possible to afford, with due regard to his landlord's in-
terests. The words in italics may be altered to suit
local or personal circumstances ; and the committee be-
lieve that the form will be found capable of adoption
upon any land, and in any part of England. If there be
an objection to granting a lease, the same principles are
still applicable to any agreement, however short the term.

Ed. Holland.

This Indenture made the day of one thousand

! eight hundred and forty in pursuance of an Act to

facilitate the granting of certain Leases, between A. B.

of of the one part, and C. D. of of the other

part,
Witnesseth — that the said A. B. doth demise and let to
farm unto the said C. D., his heirs, executors, and ad-
ministrators, all the dwelling-house, buildings, and se-
veral closes of land mentioned in the schedule hereunto
annexed, and containing by admeasurement a. r. p.
or thereabouts, to hold from the day of for the
term of hvenlij years thence ensuing ; yielding, there-
fore, during the said term the rents hereinafter men-
tioned. Except and always reserved out of this demise
all coals, mines, minerals, quarries of stone and beds of
gravel, timber, and trees likely to become timber, with
full liberty for tlie said A.B., his agent, or others by him
authorized, with or without horses, carts or other car-
riages, to enter upon the said premises or any part
thereof, for the purpose of working any of the said mines
or quarries, or of felling or taking away the timber, or
planting other trees, or for any purpose whatsoever ; mak-
ing reasonable satisfaction to the said C. D. for any in-
jury or damage which the said A. B. may cause in so
doing.

And the said C. D. doth hereby for himself, his heirs,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

447

executors, and administrators, and every of them, cove-
nant, promise, and agree to and with the said A. B. his
heirs and assigns, in manner following : that lie the said
C. D. will pay to the said A. B. by two equalhalf-yearly
payments in every year, the first being made on the 25th
day of March and the other on the 29th day of Septem-
ber in each year, the following rents, that is to say, in the
first year the sum of £ which sum constitutes the
value of bushels of wheat, according to the average
price of wheat for the seven years ending on the 1st of
January next preceding the date of this demise, made
up and published as required by law for the purposes of
the Tithe Commutation Act ; and in every other year
during the continuance of this demise the value of a like
number of bushels of wheat according to the average
price, in like manner made up and published for the
seven years next preceding ; the rent for each year vary-
ing with the average price of wheat during the preceding
seven years.

And the said CD. covenants with the said A. B. to
pay all taxes chargeable upon the said premises during
the said term, landlord's taxes excepted.

And that the said C. D. will at his own proper cost
and charge repair all the house and buildings hereby de •
mised, and also will keep in good repair all the gates,
rails, pales, stiles, hedges, ditches, fences, banks, bridges,
mounds and drains on the said lands, the said A. B. his
heirs and assigns furnishing on the said premises or
within miles thereof all rough timber, brick, lime,
tiles and all other materials whatsoever for making
such repairs.

And that the said dwelling-house and other buildings
having been valued by persons of skill at the entry on
the said premises by the said C. D. at the sum of £
which valuations are included in the schedule hereunto
annexed, the said C. D. shall and will at the expiration
of the said term or at the time of his leaving the said
premises, whether it be before or after the end of the
said term, deliver up to the said A. B. all the buildings
so valued in good repair, and shall and will pay to the
said A. B. the whole sum by which the said buildings
shall have become lessened in value by reason of his neg-
lect to repair the same ; and in case any dispute shall
arise with respect to the decreased value of the same,
such dispute shall be referred to the decision of two ar-
bitrators or their umpire, chosen as hereinafter provided ;
but the said C. D. shall not in any case be liable for any
damage caused by tempests, and a reasonable deduction
shall be made for the natural decay and wear and tear of
the premises while occupied by him.

And that the said C. D. shall not sell or assign over
this lease nor underlet the lands hereby demised or any
part thereof unless with the written consent of the said
A. B., and shall use his best endeavours to protect from
injury by cattle or otherwise all trees or quickset hedges
growing upon the said lands, and shall not lop or cut any
of the trees so growing, pollard trees excepted.

And it is hereby agreed that at any time in the six-
teenth year of this demise, or in any subsequent year,
the said A. B. may require the said C. D. to grow such
crops on every portion of the said lands as shall be pre-

scribed by the said A. B., he, the said A. B., delivering
in writing to the said C. D. the course of cropping pre-
scribed by him ; and in case the said CD. shall object
to crop the land as ))roposed by the said A. B. the point
in dispute shall be referred to the decision of arbitrators
or their umpire, chosen as is hereinafter provided.

And that the said A. B. shall at all times have power
for himself, or his agent, to go upon any part of the said
demised lands for the purpose of inspecting the state of
repair of any part thereof, and of ascertaining the state
of the management and cultivation thereof ; and in case
the annual renting value of the said demised lands shall
have suffered decrease by reason of the said C D.'s fail-
ing to repair or to cultivate the said lands according to
the rules of good husbandry, the said A. B. may give
notice to quit to the said C D. at any time before the
25th day of March in any year, and the said C. D. shall
quit and deliver up possession of the said lands on the
29th day of September next ensuing after such notice
has been received by him ; and in that case arbitrators
or their umpire, appointed as hereinafter mentioned,
shall assess the damages to the land and buildings caused
by such breach of covenant, which sum so assessed the
said C D. shall pay to the said A. B. And in case the
said C D. object to quit after receiving such notice, he
may require thai the dispute shall be referred to arbi-
trators or their umpire, chosen as hereinafter provided ;
and if they shall decide that the said lands have not been
materially deteriorated by the management of the said
CD. such notice shall be void ; and if they shall decide
otherwise the said C D. shall quit, and shall pay to the
said A. B. whatever sum the said arbitrators or their
umpire shall judge to be a reasonable compensation for
the injury done to the said lands by the said C D.

And that in the event of the said C D. becoming a
bankrupt or insolvent, or of his making any bill of sale
or assignment of his estate or effects, or refusing to pay
in full the rents herein reserved within one month after
the same shall have been lawfully demanded, the said
A. B. shall have power immediately to re-enter and re-
possess the lands herein demised, paying to the said
C D. reasonable compensation for such improvements ef-
fected by the said CD. as have increased the annual rent-
ing value of the said lands, the amount thereof being ad-
judged by arbitrators or their umpire, chosen as herein-
after provided.

And the said A. B. covenants with the said C D. for
quiet enjoyment of the herein demised lands ; and that
tlie said A. B. shall insure all the buildings upon the
said premises, provided always that in case such insu-
rance shall be rendered void by the said C D. having on
the premises goods of a hazardous nature, or by other
circumstances caused by the negligence of the said C D.,
he, the said C D, shall pay to tlic said A. B. the whole
amount withheld by the insurance office.

And that the said A. B. will effectually drain at his
own cost and charge every part of the said lands which
require drainage, and that the said C D. covenants to
pay an additional rent after the rate of £h for every j£'100
expended by the said A. B. from the time of the com-

448

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

pletion of the whole or any part of the drainage and
during the continuance of this demise.

And that the said C. D. shall and will during the time
he holds the said lands under this demise farm them in a
good and husbandlike manner, and shall not break up or
convert to tillage any of tlie land marked in the schedule
annexed as pasture or meadow land without the written
permission of the said A. B. or of his agent lawfully
authorized.

And the said A. B. and CD. mutually covenant and
agree that any dispute arising in settling their respective
claims in respect to any matter contained in this demise,
as well as the several matters herein declared to be refer-
able to the decision of arbitrators, shall be settled and
decided by persons of skill, appointed in the following
manner ; that is to say, the said A. B. shall choose one

such person and the said C. D. shall choose another
to be arbitrators, who shall upon being appointed forth-
with choose an umpire, whose decision in case the said
arbitrators disagree shall be final ; and should either the
said A. B. or the said C. D. refuse or neglect to choose
his arbitrator within a month after being required to do
so by the other, then either the said A. B. or the said
CD. shall have power to choose and appoint two arbi-
trators who shall decide by themselves or their umpire,
and such decision shall be equally binding on both par-
ties as if each had appointed one arbitrator.

In witness whereof these presents written on this and
the preceding pages are subscribed by the said par-
ties at in the county of and in the pre-
sence of

MR. NESBIT'S LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY,

Sir, — I have read with attention your report of Mr.
Nesbit's Lecture on Agricultural Chemistry ; but since
the potato philosophy was published to the hitherto
unenlightened world, I have a wholesome mistrust of all
such matters, and therefore wish to be informed on a
point which seems somewhat doubtful.

The lecture tells us that the inorganic parts of vege-
tables are derived irom the ground or the manure, and
phosphoric acid is set down as one of those. Now it
appears, by the same lecture, that wheat contains from
45 to 48 parts thereof, as will be seen by reference to
the table set forth therein ; which also shows that only
one and a-half can be had from either the Kentish or
Surrey manure.

In the analysis of the soil of Norfolk, by Professor
Playfair, also set forth therein, we see that only about
one-third of a part of this ingredient was in the soil ;
and as this is stated to be " good fertile soil," it may
be taken as a good sample of soils in general.

Now, suppose a crop of wheat to be grown on this
Norfolk or any other soil, assisted by this Kentish or
any other farm-yard manure, where is the crop to find
its phosphoric acid .'

Requesting to be informed, for of course it is all right,
I am your obedient servant, Triptolemus.

Sir, — Your correspondent, " Triptolemus," has not
paid sufficient attention to the table in Mr. Nesbit's
lecture, containing our analysis of farm-yard dung,
otherwise he woxJd not have failed to have understood
it better. Under the head "Per rentage of ash" we
have the amount of inorganic matter contained in 100
lbs. of the manure or crop. For example, lOOlbs. of
wheat contain 2Ubs. of inorganic matter. Some sam-
ples, however, which we have examined, under Mr.
Nesbit's direction, contain only 1-8 per cent., and many
wheats contain only 1-3 per cent, of inorganic matter.

The following numbers in the column show the per
centage amounts of the dift'erent ingredients in 100 parts

of the ash. Thus lOOlbs. of the grain of wheat contain
2^1bs. of ash, and lOOlbs. of the ash contain 451bs. of
phosphoric acid. By calculation, lOOlbs. of the wheat
contain lib. 2 oz. of phosphoric acid ; therefore the
grain of a crop of wheat (4 qrs. to the acre, at GOlbs.
per bushel) would remove about 2llbs. 8 oz. of phos-
phoric acid from the soil. But in general a crop of
wheat (straw and all) does not remove from the soil
more than from 25 to 281bs. of phosphoi'ic acid. This,
by calculation, you will find can be replaced by from 5
to 6 tons of farm-yard dung, of the quality of that
analyzed by us. The ashes of the dung contain nearly 3
per cent, of phosphoric acid, some portion being united
to the iron and alumina.

With respect to the soil from Norfolk, it is so rich in
phosphoric acid, that, for years to come, crops might be
taken from the land without the addition of any phos-
phoric acid. By Dr. Playfair's analysis, it appears that
lOOlbs. contain about 381bs., equal to about 6 oz. of
phosphoric acid. This amount of acid is equivalent to
12 oz. of pure phosphate of lime, or 24 oz. of bone-
dust. Supposing the soil to be twice as heavy as pure
water, and to contain the same per centage of phos-
phoric acid throughout the field, an acre of land, to the
depth of six inches, would contain 4 tons 12 cwt. of
phosphoric acid, equal to 9 tons 10 cwt. of pure phos-
phate of lime, or to 19 tons of common bone -du.st.
Your correspondent will find that this is an ample quan-
tity for years to come. But this particular soil is a most
extraordinary one, for in many scarcely a trace of phos-
phoric acid can be obtained. And even this immense
amount of phosphates would eventually be lost to the
soil (unless occasionally renewed), from the continual
disintegration of the rain, the action of the atmosphere, |
and the crops.

We remain, sir, your obedient servants,

Allen & Greenhill.'^
Agricultural and Scientific Academy,
38, Kenningion-lane, London.

THE FARMliR'S MAGAZINE.

449

ANALYSIS OF THE URINE OF THE SHEEP.

Tlie urine of animalw is now pretty generally un-
derstood to he valuable as a manure for nearly
every kind of crop : but the urine of all animals is
not equally applicable to this purpose, as they do
not all contain the whole of those substances which
our cultivated crops require. The urine of omni-
vorous animals, such as that of man and of the pig,
contains phosphoric acid in combination with the
alkalies, and with lime and magnesia ; but that of
herbaceous animals, in general, is destitute of this
imjjortant food of plants. The ox and the horse
discharge the whole of the phosphates contained in
their food along with their solid excretions, so that
their urine contains none ; and the hare is the only
herbivorous animal yet known, in the urine of which
these phosphates have hitherto been found in con-
siderable quantity.

It is probably because of the difficulty of obtain-
ing the urine of the sheep that it has not hitherto
been examined. I had recourse, therefore, to the
butcher, who furnished me with a niunber of shec])'s
bladders, containing urine in tlie state in which they
were out out of the body of the newly slaughtered
animal. The contents of these bladders I put into
the hands of my assistant, Mr. Frombei'g, with in-
structions to direct his principal attention to its
inorganic constituents, and especially to examine it
for phosj)hates. Mr. Fromberg accordingly sub-
mitted it to examination, with the following re-
sults : —

1". When evaporated to dryness, 100 parts by
weight left 7 of dry matter — or 10 gallons of the
urine held in solution 7lbs. of dry fertilizing sub-
stances.

2°. This dry matter, when burned, gave oft' am-
monia, and left a large proportion of ash. It con-
sisted, in 100 parts, of — Per cent.
Organic matter containing nitrogen - - 71.86
Inorganic or saline matter - - - - - 28.14

100.00
3°. The saline matter or ash was composed as
follows : —

Composition of the Inorganic part of Sheejj's Urine.
Sulphate of potash .------ 2.98

Sulphate of soda ---.---_ 7.72
Chloride of potassium -.-.-- 12. 00

Chloride of sodium 32.01

Carbonate of soda ----.-. 42.25
Carbonate of lime -------- o.82

Carbonate of magnesia 0.46

Phosphates of lime, magnesia, and iron - 0.70
Sihca .,-,,- 1.06

■..ij;. lu ^

100.00

The urine of the sheep, therefore, contains only a
very small (piantity of phosphoric acid in combina-
tion with lime and magnesia. It agrees very
closely in this respect, therefore, with that of the
ox and the horse, in which no trace of phosphates
has yet been detected. It abounds also, as the
urine of these animals does, in salts of potash and
soda. It is especially rich in common salt and in
soda, which, in the ash, is in the state of carbon-
ate, but which in the urine is, no doubt, combined
with some organic acid. If it be natural to the
urine of healthy sheep to contain so much soda,
we may find in this one reason ivhy they relish salt
so highly, and thrive so much belter when it is abun-
dantly supplied to ihem.

4". The organic part contained, as was to be ex-
pected, a considerable proportion of urea, a sub-
stance which, during the fermentation of the urine,
is changed into carbonate of ammonia. The follow-
ing table represents the entire composition of the
urine, both of the inorganic and ofthe organic parts,
so far as time permitted the latter to be submitted
to examination : — ■

Composition of Sheep's Urine in 1000 parts.

Water 928.97

Urea 12.62

Organic matter soluble in alcohol (sp. }

gr. 0.88) - - - _. -S

Organic matter soluble in water, insolu- }

ble alcohol - - - - ^

Organic matter soluble in weak potash >

insoluble in water and alcohol - S
Organic matter insoluble in any of these }

33.30

3.40

O.IO

liquids
Inorganic matter, consisting of —

Sulphate of potasli

Sulphate of soda

Chloride of potassium

Chloride of sodium

Chloride of ammonium

Carbonate of soda

Carbonate of lime

Carbonate of magnesia

Phosphate of lime and mag- ^
nesia, with trace of phos- V
phate of iron - J

SiUca, \vith trace of oxide of }
iron - - - 5

0.511

1.32

2.05

5.47

3.00

7.22

0.14

0.08

0,12
0.18

0.15

y 20.09

998.63

The urine of the sheep, therefore, is to be classed
along with that of the ox and the horse. It contains
a trace of phosphates ; but, like the above animals,
the sheep excretes most of the phosphates of its
food in its solid droppings. The urine of this ani-
mal, therefore, though rich in soluble saline matter,

460

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and in substances yielding ammonia, would not be
sufficient of itself to maintain the fertility of any land
not naturally rich in the earthy jjhosphates. It is
the conjoined action of the urine and of the solid

droppings of the sheep, trodden in together, which
renders this animal so valuable a servant in ferti-
lizing the fields of the practical farmer, in so many
parts of our island. — Journal of Agriculture.

LETTERS ON SCOTCH BANKING AND CURRENCY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — What hubbub is this which has awakened me ?
I had thrown away my crutches, and had laid my old
bones down, hoping to snatch some repose. But lo !
the country is stirring. A " Scotch Coercion Bill" is
on the hooks, and I am on my legs again. I could
easily alter, in unimportant particulars, what I said last
time — Peel attempted to tamper with us, taking us by the
button in a friendly way, the more securely to pick our
pockets. I could add much additional important
matter, no doubt ; but Potato Peel will not wait till I
hobble up. I must just content myself in this case with
pinning my former letters round his skirts in the form of
a philabeg, and crying after him — " Take care, my fine
free-trader (Query — free-booter), that your meditated
* Scotch Coercion Bill' does not make such a quashing
in poor Scotland as to win you the additional title of
Bankrupt Bobby ."'

Yes, yes ; you will have a Scotch difficulty, as well
as an Irish difficully to amuse you. You will soon tire
of such playthings. Master Bobby.

Some people say that the baronet of Tamworth is in
delicate health. I wish he could be persuaded to take a
trij), in quest of health, to the pyramids for six months,
or to inventory the jewels at Lahore. Sir Robert's
health sAoM/df outweigh et-ery other consideration. I am
sure all my friends would be transported. A gentleman,
recently married, was lately enjoying with his fair one an
evening walk along the beach at Musselburgh (a village
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh). " Pray, my dear,"
said the lady, " what is the difl'erence between exported
Siwd transported '" At that moment a vessel left the
harbour, bound for a foreign port. " Were you, my
love," returned the gentleman, " aboard that vessel,
you would be exported, and I would be transported !"
What could be more graphic ! The Premier's health is
above every other consideration.

I now take leave to address again to you, my excellent
friends, and through you, the appeal I made so lately to
common honesty and common sense, and which was
then, no doubt, listened to, as of this I have in my pos-
session satisfactory assurances. May it now be so again
through your columns. I am, &c.,

London, March \Uh. Obiter Dictum.

Letter I.
" It's gude to be merry and wise.
It's gude to be honest and true.
It's gude to support Caledonia's cause :
Hurra for the bonnets o' blue."

Mr. Editor, — Tlie declaration of my Lord Melville at the
mcetmg on Scotch Banking, held within the Comity Build-

ings, on Tuesday, the 21st November, 1844, that Sir Robert
Peel, in his (Lord Melville's) belief, had no intention of interfer-
ing with Scotch Banking or Currency at present, excited no
little surprise at the time, particularly after the preliminary
measures adopted by the Premier, with the view of assimilat-
ing the currency of the United Kingdom, and suppressing
joint-stock banks of issue. Great pains have been lately taken to
impress the belief that all intention of dcalinc/ icilh the Scotch
banks and currency had been abandoned. The object of this
attempted deceit has now become very apparent. Sir Robert
well knew that it was dangerous to " set the heather ou fire,"
and therefore he deemed it " expedient" to circidate a rumour
that his favourite nostrum of assimilation had been discarded.
If he persists in tiie attempt, he wiU certainly perish in the con-
flagration. But he has been questioned on the subject, and
has given such a Jesuitical reply, as amounts in fact to nothhig ;
for he has openly requested that no hference whatever may be
drawn, from it.

" Sir R. Peel, in answer to a question put by Mr. Macaulay,
askmg if he felt it to be compatible with his sense of public
duty to give any explanation of the intentions of Government
with respect to banking and cuiTency in Scotland, said he
thought it the best course to reserve all explanation until he
was actually enabled to ask leave to bring in the measure it-
self. He thought that Lord Wharncliffe's expressions on the
subject had been misconstrued ; but, added the right hon. ba-
ronet, ' I hope no inference whatever will be drawn from the
explanation now given' " (a lauf/h).

He might just as well have remained silent.

The mover of the address, Mr. Charteris, expressed himself
on this subject in the following terms. The hon. gentleman
was pleased to say —

" The Bank of England charter having been re\'ised during
the last session, the banking establishments of Ireland and
Scotland ought naturally to undergo a like revision ; but
though in ignorance of the intention of her Majesty's Govern-
ment on this point, I may, perhaps, express a hope, that in
placing the banking establishment of Scotland on what it con-
siders a sound footing, it will interfere as little as possible with
the existing currency, to which the whole nation is so firmly
attached. The. Scotch £1 notes are really dniij thimjs — if I
were the right hon. baronet I would not touch them."

In the House of Lords, on the 4th February, 1845, " a no-
ble lord, who spoke from the cross-benches, expressed his re-
gret to find that the Government meant to interfere with the
system of cuiTcncy and banking in Scotland. The whole sys-
tem of banking hi Scotland had stood a severe test. That test
had been its great practical success. The great mass of the
community, who had ample opportunities of forming a judg-
ment respecting it, had signified their complete satisfaction
with the system as it stood. There had been great meetings
of Chambers of Commerce, and of persons engaged hi trade, as
well as county meetings, all of which appeared to he actuated
by the same feelmgs of its advantages. He therefore earnestly

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451

deprecated any iiiterft'rciicewitii that system in ordei- toch;uige
what was generally approved. AVhy, at any rate, should any
change be made just now, when no one woril was put forth
against the system by anybody, when it was admitted to be
free from the evils which were complained of in the English
banking system? To him, he nmst say, it was a matter of
surprise that any Government should run the risk by interfer-
ing or substituting something whicli might not work so well.
These, he was pursuaded, were the feelings of the constituen-
cies ; they were the feelings of every one of tlie representatives
for Scotland, aiul they would, to a man, oppose any great alte-
ration of the system ; he did hope, therefore, that the altera-
tions which the Government meant to bring forward might be
of a trivial nature only, and therefore such as he and others
coidd concur in.''

" Lord "\Miamcliffe said, he had not intended to trouble their
lordships, but he could not allow the objections wliich had
fiiUen from the two noble lords M-ho had spoken last to go with-
out reply. Then, with regard to his otlier noble friend who
spoke of the anticipated change in the banking system in Scot-
laud, his noble friend had introduced the word 'cnrrency'in what
he said, that word not being contained in the speech. The pa-
ragraph his noble friend spoke of referred only to the banking
estabhshmeuts of Scotland, and not in the least to the cuiTency
(hear, hmr). But he (Lord Wharncliffe) would not say a word
more, because he shoidd be sorry that anything which fell from
liim shoidd interrupt the unanimity which prevailed."

Have we at last arrived at the truth, then? Tlie Scotch £1
notes being, according to Mr. Charteris, " realhj dirtij tlihnjs,"
neither he nor the dainty Premier, we hope, will soil their fin-
gers with them. But people have a peculiar way of judging
of men and things in Scotland. It may, no doubt, be owing to
their barbarous education and narrow views of things in gene-
ral ; but I know them so well, that I would not wonder if the
old fable of the fox and the grapes should steal upon their me-
mories, when they are endeavouring to account to themselves
for the Premier's tardy forbearance, as respects the paper cur-
rency. Bui our banking system is to he tampered with.

It is broadly hinted in high quarters, that Sir Robert's plan
is to restrict the circulation of the Scotch banks to the present
amount — tested by the same rule, and for the same period as
the English banks, with weekly returns, and regulated in all
respects in the same manner; that he \vill, in a word, propose
a lease of nine years of their existing system to the Scotch
banks, with their £1 notes continued, and their circulation res-
tricted as above ; Imt tlds must be taken as a formal warninf)
of tJie ultimate suppression of all local paper irJiatever, and of
the prospective adoption of that of the Bank nfEnr/land, as the
sole national issi'e establishment. How has Scotland deserved
this at his hands? Is it because he has found the representa-
tives of her people, and of their interests, reasonable, compliant,
or even facile on many occasions, that he means to practise a
little farther on their well-tried patience and endurance ? Is it
because Scotland has home with such exemplary magnanimity
and resignation the vile tampering with her courts of judica-
ture, conceived and executed with the overbearing confidence
and lick -spittle subsenience of ignorance and incapacity, prov-
ing beyond doubt, if such additional proof were necessary, that
her public men have made merchandise of her public interest,
gorging the hmigry maws of trumpery dependants, bartering
her fi-eedom for place, power, patronage, and parhamentary
support, with unblushing effrontery since the days of Melville
— proving, moreover, beyond doubt, that in the Imperial Ca-
binet there ought to sit a special ^luiister for Scotland, to pro-
tect her national institutions, her laws, and her interests, other
than a mere law ofiicer, whose duties should be distinct and se-

parate ? We want a statesman of large and liberal \ iews, with
sullicient expansivencss of comprehension and purpose, deci-
sion of aim, and effectiveness in execution, to accomphsh the
preservation of all that is revered and valuable ui our laws and
institutions, and to elaborate their improvement, where desira-
ble, with a steady eye to the legitimate necessities and demands
of the people of Scotland ; but never losing sight of English
connexion and English interests, and the obligations, whether
of friendly duty or of compact, which they of right impose upon
us in our deliberations. It is utterly impossible that a Scottish
lawyer, whose only aim is to scramble to the head of his pro-
fession, can have either the leisure or the opportmiity to ac-
(juire the peculiarly and characteristically lofty and far-seeing
general ami comprehensive knowledge which, at the slightest
effort of the will, when any point of difficidty occurs, can rccal
from the past, and summon for the present, existing practices
of government over Christendom, every available precedent
which may serve either as a beacon or as a guide to lead to a
just constitutional decision. Name to me the first law officer
of the Crown (and I can say it, I think, without disparagement
or offence, even taking them at their own estimate of them-
selves), acting, as such first law officer does, in fact, as JMiuis-
ter for Scotland, who, for many a day, could make any preten-
sion, or lay any claim whatever, to be regarded as possessing a
tithe of that knowledge which goes to constitute the enlight-
ened statesman and legislator. We know the wily poUcy of
England — we know it well, and have long done so. It is a
settled point that Scotland must become as a province, or a
county of Enyland ; and the juggling statesman who can most
speedily accomplish this, will be England's most favoured son.
Short-sighted England ! Vain glorious sister ! I can tell her
^Minister, however, if he persists in persecutuig conscious and
unoffending Scotland, that from the smouldering ashes of her
glory a flame may yet arise — a flame of indignation, may it
never prove of vengeance — which with its thousand tongues of
living fire will blight, wither, and utterly consume the repu-
tation of that ruthless adventurer, whatever may have been his
previous reputation, who will dare to pluck with unquestion-
ing, disrespectful, and unrelenting rudeness, or to filch away
with furtive and imworthy dupUcity, those few venerated in-
stitutions still spared to a pUlaged nation, the last remaining
shadows of native prosperity, national and distinctive.

" I say, Johnny Bull — hurrah, hurrah !

Eat and drink till you're full — hurrah, hurrah !

When the proud Scottish thistle your BuUship would pull.

Remember the prickles — hurrah, hurrah."

Is it because Scotland has stooped to the uifliction of the Jury
Coiu-t, that yawning whirlpool of destruction, which the judi-
cious litigant or conscientious agent wovdd avoid approaching
as he would another Chai-yhdis, the expense and inicertainty,
on every occasion amounting to a positive denial of justice,
which was said to resemble the garden of Eden, in that it had
been made for an Enrjlish Adam ; but in every other respect
more nearly resembling the valley of the upas tree, blasting and
withering — visiting vith ruin and destruction every luiwary
stranger who dares venture withm its bUghting influence ? Is
it because she has silently acquiesced in the abstraction and
transference to London of nearly all her public oflices for the
collection of revenue, and for other national purposes, thus
withdrawing a large amount of money which was wont to pass
through the coffers of her banks, and which powerfully contri-
buted to the general prosperity of the country ? Is it because
she contributes five millions a year to the imperial treasury,
while her public expenditure is a mere bagatelle — requiring, as
she does, neither troops nor coercion to compel an outward ob-
servaiice of loyalty and order ? Is it because she has never

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f

spoken out with revolutionary vehemence, declaring her inte-
rests, and in her own behalf, distracthig the ^Minister of the
day, and overwhebning his counsels — but has ever rejoiced si-
lently, as is her wont, yet heartily, to witness the prosperity of
her fair sisters twain (England and Ireland) ; and without mur-
mur or complaint, has ever generously contributed her own
quota to the common treasury, without enquiring very particu-
larly whether her fair sisters might not have been somewhat
extravagant in their habits, and very begrudging and shabby to
her personally, in apportioning and doling out her share of the
common income ? Is it because of all tliis they call her notes
" really dirly things," although they ha\e always been worth
twenty shillings, when those of her wealthier and fault-finding
sisters would scarcely pass for more than fourteen? Is it be-
cause Scotland managed her bank business so well, a!id kept
ill such good credit in th.e most perilous times, as always to
maintain her paper at par, even when her wealthier and fault-
finding sister was wallowing in bankruptcy, and her paper
with difficulty exchanging her fourteen shillings in the pound,
that she is now to submit to be told by that improvident sister,
with the most brazen-faced assurance, that she kuows nothing
about the matter, but must take a<lvice and example from her /
The fact is, that, after a hard struggle, this improvident fair one
has got out of the dirt; and, instead of thanking her kind sis-
ter, Scotland, who helped her out, she pouits with the basest
ingratitude to a few minute spots of mud, which necessarily
fell upon her humane sister's garments, as she laboured, with
that Christian philanthropy, that high and chivalrous daring,
that firm and unextinguishable friendship for wh ich she is re-
nowned, in the very disagreeable and perilous task of dragging
her sinking sister from out of the mire and filth of the slough
of despondency into which she had so imprudently and reck-
lessly plunged. What has Scotland done, I ask, to justify the
strong measure of depriving her of the local management of
her own affairs, tampering with her laws, her institutions, and
the procedure of her courts, which are, confessedly, both in
principle and practice, immeasurably superior to those of Eng-
land ? What has she done that yet another affront must be
put upon her ? — that after every expostulation, after the clear-
est and most convincing reasonings and expl anations, after the
formal approval of those reasonings and explanations by her
entire representative body, her entreaties are to be disregarded,
and she is to be haughtily commanded to be silent — to sit
down quietly upon her native heather, and submit without a
murmur, in all the freshness and buoyant vigour of her youth
and beauty, to the immediate extraction of the last pair of her
beautiful teeth left in her disfigured and lacerated jaws, with
which to masticate a scanty meal for the sustentation of her
sore persecuted and suffering body.

Sir Robert, I prithee, mark me weU. Thou canst not suc-
ceed in any attempt on the banking system of Scotland, with-
out a most determined, a most terrific struggle, for which thou art
little prepared, as thou knowest not what thou hast to encounter.
Scotland is perfectly on her guard. She knows her danger. She
knows, too, the subtlety and skilful practice of ihepJnjsiclaii who
would prescribe for her. But she has never called htm in.
She is in perfect health, and needs not the aid of physic.
Scotland is reasonable and patient. Scotland prides herself
on her reputation for good sense and respectability. But she
cannot — nay, will not — submit to be nuned to gratify the va-
nity or dictatorial humours of any prime minister, however she
may respect his talents or integi-ity. She may regret his
errors of judgment ; she may grieve to find that the highest
of intellectual powers and practical abilities are occasionally
subject to the temporary domination of the most palpable and
xmtenable fallacies. But while, as is only becoming her good

sense and high-miuded generosity, she is wilhng to make every
allowance for the acknowledged imperfections of humanity, she
is not such a fool as to sit still in her chair, shaking her head
and twirling her thumbs, weeping and moralizing by turns,
with ruin staring her broad in the face, when she knows that a
zealous, determined, vigorous effort, coupled with a firm, tem-
perate, resiiectful rejuonstrance, based on truth and founded
on justice, may and must succeed (if our friendship is to hold
together) in axertiug from her devoted head that weapon of de-
stniction which at this anxious moment hangs suspended over
it by a single hair. But if Sir Robert will only permit fair
Scotland to argue with the benefit of this single hair of dubiety
which intervenes betviecn her and agricultural and commercial
destruction, she has no fear whatever, as she is wont to ex-
press herself to her sons and daughters, when within her sport-
ing lodge ill Glen Tilt, that she shall have found " a hair to
raak' a tether o'."

JNIr. Charteris has had the politeness to say openly in the
house that the Scotch notes are " reall;/ clirli/ thiiujs, and thai
if he were the ri;ihl honourahle baronet, he would not touch
them!" No doubt Scotch bankers were not defaulters on an
extensive scale, like the English bankers. They cannot boast
of swindling on such a comprehensive and gentlemanly scale as
English bankers. They only did business in a petty, huck-
stering, retail way. Their notes are poor dirty notes ; theur
circulation, a poor dirty circulation ; their system, a poor dirty
system ; they themseh es, poor peddling bodies. We shall re-
late to ]Mr. Charteris what happened on a time in " Auld
Reekie." Some time ago, two culprits were conveyed to the
Grassmarket for execution ; the one was a highwayman of
high character ui his \ocation — a stately, well-dressed fellow ;
the other was a poor pitiful thief, who had been a tailor. The
highwayman mounted the cart with an air of freedom and
consequence, determined to be hanged like a (jentleman. The
thief caught his manner, and ascended the velxicle with as
much ease and dignity as if he had been something more than
a tailor, and took his seat close by the side of the highwayman.
This was too assuming. The highwayman edged off a little,
the thief edged on : at last, as a silent hint was insufficient to
make the tailor keep his distance, the gentleman, when they
arrived at the Grassmarket, spoke to him, and begged him to
standoff, for that he was "a rftWy/t'^/oic, and stunk abomi-
nably." The reflection was so provoking, that the tailor cried
out, " Hey-day ! what the devil is here to do ? Dou't be so
proud ; / have as much right to be here as you Jiace." If Scotch
bank notes are "really dirty things," will jNIr. Charteris be so
kind as to inform us whether the notes of the Bank of Eng-
land are not equally so ? The Bank of England did not think
it beneath her dignity, v;hen it suited her, to issue one-pound
notes. "Why should not the Scotch banks do the same, as it
suits them best, and has been their uniform practice for centu-
ries .' A Scotch bank note has a good right to say to an Eng-
hsh bank note, "I have as good a right as you to be here." If
the English bank note say to the Scotch bank note, " You are
a dirty fellow, and slink abominably," this would be something
like the pot calling the kettle black. This is, no doubt, a very
dirty comparison, but not nearly so dirty as Scotch bank
notes, according to ]Mr. Charteris. Oh, the odious " really
dirty things !" Never mind. They have made Scotland.

There is nothing whatever to cause alarm to the most cau-
tious and long-sighted in the prospects of Scotch banking, if
let alone. AVe have heard of people being frightened at their
oflii shado-v^s. As it has occurred to me, and that I am in the
humour, there can be no harm in telling of an occurrence of
this kind, that happened in the country parish of a reverend
friend of mine. A foolish fellow went to the minister, ancl

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4b3

told him, witli a very long face, that he had seen a ghost.
"When and where?" said the pastor. " Last night, I was
passing l).V the church, and np against the wall did 1 behold
the spectre," "In what shape did it appear V" replied the
priest. " It appeared in the shape of a r/rent ass." Go home,
and hold your tongue ahout it," rejoined the pastor ; " you
are a very timid man, rind liarc been Jnylitctied by your own

SHADOW."

I wish to heaven these English Solons would take the mi-
nister's advice !

Sir Robert and his junior skirmishers, whom he puts for-
ward as sacrifices on evcrj' occasion of danger, before the main
battle conies up, had better desist in this unprovoked attempt
at national pillage. There is no plausible pretext whatever for
picking our pockets, or robbing our money-chests. Our sturdy
banking fabric is entire, and in good repair ; and he has no
right whatever to attempt forcible entry, with his tnind mode
up beforehand to condemn U. There are those in Scotland
who will hang upon his heels with the desperate fidelity and
pertinacity of a native terrier, to gall his kibes and alarm the
neighbours, so long as he persists in attempting a forcil)le
entry ; so that it would be manifestly " expedient," in such
circumstances, for him and his burglarious myrmidons to
show a clean pair of heels, with whole skins, while it is yet in
their power.

Another word in his ear. lie and his myrmidons need not
flatter themselves that the insiguiticauce of the writer will form
his and their safeguard. He need not think that my words
will fall unheeded, like the snows of night on the height;; of
Morven, " Auld Scotia's favourite bairn" hath written in
letters of fire —

" ^Vhat though on simple fare we dine.
Wear hoddin gray, and a' that,
Gie fules their silks, and knaves their wine —
A man's a man for a' that."

I have already hinted that we have peculiar notions in Scot-
land. Jly cause is the cause of " braid Scotland ;" and "every
man and mither's son" will swell the cry, till all and every
ignorant theorist, however learned, in common phrase, they
and he may be, yet egregiously and notoriously ignorant, ot
least as regards the peculiar wants of Scotland, who plot di-
rectly or indirectly to annihilate or undermine " our sainted
mither's" prosperity, shall scamper off in terror and dismay,
and clear the border, like lusty fellows, at a single leap ; and
when they reach Whitehall, they will be relating to their as-
sessors, in a suppressed and tremulous whisper —

" They raised a wild and wondering cry
As with his guide rode Bobby by.
Loud were their clamorous tongues, as when
The clanging sea-fowl leave the fen ;
And, with their cries discordant mixed.
Grumbled and yelled the pipes betwixt."

We have not forgot how to raise the slo(jnn or circulate the
fiery cross. We have swift ij'dUes in thousands, by mountain,
wood, and stream, ready to " riu till they fa' " when their
milher is in travail. But it will be long before they " riii for
sic a howdie" as Sir Robert I'eel, unless he should adopt some
new rides of practice. When he is called in to prescribe for a
lady in travail (for instance, the fair genius of Scotland), he
has no busuiess to attempt her ruin. If he does not take care,
we shall be bound in honour to caution some other friends. I
would beg to inform the right honourable baronet that her
Majesty's post nnniers, under her Majesty's most gracioiis
sanction, are now the messengers of the fiery cross in Scotland,
and that they bear it alike to the door of the peer and the
peasant. The press of Scotland, with their assistance, when

necessity demands it, has assumed the functions, and now per-
forms the duties, of the multitudinous messengers of the fiery
emlAeni. And that authoritative and powerful pen, which ha-
bitually inculcates peace and good order, when country or in-
stit\itions are recklessly and wantonly mahgned or assailed,
will be found to have changed, as if by magic, its very cha-
racter and substance, and to cut with the uisatiable and un-
sparing keenness of a Highland broadsword.

No modern manufacturer, or manufacturer's son, the living
per.sonifiration of free trade run mad, showering her sovereigns
and silver pieces, to boot, in the face of every nation of Eu-
rope and of the wide world, without being able to show one
single sixpence on the creditor's side of reciprocal advantage to
excuse it, shall dare to trample on the prostrate body of our
venerated parent with impunity. Have a care. Sir Quixote.
AVc arc prudent ; we are patient ; but we are brave.

"Oh, ne'er on battle-field throbbed heart more brave
Than that which beats beneath the Scottish plaid.
Or when the pibroch bids the battle rave.
Or level for the fight our arms are laid :
Where lives the desperate foe that for snch onset staid ?"

I may, perhaps, proceed to show, in a very few words, what
is known to every man of average ability and information on
this side the Tweed, " and to a gude few ayont" — viz., that
our banking system, whether in theory or in practice, is equally
miassailable. Is it possible to give Sir Robert Teel credit for
ignorance on this point? No, it is not ignorance ; it is pride
and prejudice that goads him on, coupled perhaps with a half-
breathed pledge — with all his prudence, made prematurely —
with his eyes fixed on England as a prominent foregronud,
every interest of hers and their relations clear and striking ;
and with Scotland looming dimly in the background, veiled in
her nati;e mists, and therefore so distant and insignificant in
the view of the contemplative Premier, as not to be worthy,
everything considered, so long as she brooked such indifference,
of a nearer approach, to facilitate a more narrow, searching,
and perfect investigation into the interests, necessities, par-
tiahties, or, if you will, national prejudices of her loyal people.
I am, &c.,

Obiter Dictum.

Letter II.

As for the discontented fool.

Who fain wad be oppression's tool.

May envy knaw his rotten soul.

And honest men aljhor him.

May dule and sorrow be his chance,

Dule and sorrow, dule and sorrow.

May dule and sorrow be his chance.

And evils, a great store o' 'em.

May dule and sorrow be his chance,

And a' the ills that come frae France

Be his, wad lead our banks a dance,

And j)lay them snip — snap — snorum. ^

]Mr. Editor, — I now proceed to show that our Scottish
banking system, whether in theory or practice, is equally un-
assailable. Is it, then, that our persecutors envy the last
remnant of our national institutions ? or that they are the
mouth-pieces of those who envy them ? or are we to take this
projected interference with our banking system as an act of pure
unprovoked oppression ? I do not pretend to be in possession
of any secret or mysterious knowledge. I do not claim the
merit of any brilliant novelty to recommend me ; 1 am a plain
sort of person, and openly declare at the outset, that the facts
and views I am about to state are possessed and admitted by
every rational man on this side the border, who is prepared to
declare, upon his honour, that he has given adequate attentiou

2 G

454

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the subject, aud who is not led, aud has no reason to be
suspected of being led by pai-ty, or other interested bias. I
make no pretensions to discoverj', as our persecutors have done.
I have no v.ish to go either a wool gatliering, or a lumting for
mares' nests. I had thought oiu* persecutors had more pressuig
business on hand at present. As if Irish discontent aud dis-
affection were not sufficient, they have, in spite of all their
caution, drimk up the subtle poison which their false friends
had placed temptingly before them to work their destraction ;
knowing well, as those false friends did, that in spite of their
silence aud reserve, om- persecutors were in reality athirst,
and in a fever of anxiety and doubt ; and as old Joe used to
say, " must soon have som'ut to drink." I warn them that if
they should persist in draining this cup to Scotland's prejudice,
they mil certainly have good cause to date from that moment
the decline of their influence in Scotland ; and who can foretel
that this may not lead to their eventual political dissolution ?
I shall, in my present communication endeavour to show
that the Scottish public and the United Kingdom have ample
security for the amount of issues of the Scotch banks — that the
Scotch banks cannot, and never did overissue — and that the
hypocritical cry of justice to England and to the Bank of En-
gland is, without going about the bush, nothing better than
GROSS UNADULTERATED HUMBUG. If my present com-
mmiication should extend too fai- before I can accomplish so
much, I shall continue the subject, with your permission, in
your next number, and if you shoidd be disposed to afford a
place to the series, I shall not drop the subject, until, if not
from an innate sense of justice, then out of pure shame, or the
craven fear of political annihilation from the consequences of
their threatened measures, our persecutors, impelled by new
begot settled conviction, impressed by many casual warnings
from many influential quarters, shall have spared Scotland tliis
right dishonoiu-able dishonour — this discreditable aud very
bunghng attempt at administering a national emetic, with the
view of compelling us to disgorge the well earned contents of
our treasuries, both public aud private, that England may have
the filthy treat of licking them up agaiu ; in fact, with the
single purpose of surfeiting the hungry and gluttonous
stomach of insatiable England. We never heard of such
gluttonous tastes, practices, and propensities before out of a
dog kennel. We cannot contain our indignant disgust at such
hypocritical greed, such unreasonable and palpable injustice.
Do not teach Scotland to sympathise with Ireland in the cry
against the Saxon. Surely, a certain right hon. baronet must
have mislaid his caution lately.

Before proceeding to our subject, we must say a few words.
It is highly probable that the men of Scotland — "from Maiden-
kirk to John o' Groat's" — will speak out in words, to be fol-
lowed up by actions, we fear — if sufficient provocation should be
given — not to be misunderstood. We have given our per-
secutors frill warning. It is unquestionable that it is egre-
giously impolitic to concuss the Scottish nation at this moment.
If they should persist in doing so, they will speedily be told,
that they neither represent them nor their interests. Some
who do not know any better, might be led, or inclined to argue
— if their Sovereign shorJd, unfortunately, listen to them in-
stead of her loyal Scottish subjects — that they will thus be
freed from their allegiance. Do our ruthless persecutors think
there may not be danger here ? There may be some who will
say, we gave a King to England, otherwise we never should
have consented to the union, and only agreed to it on con-
dition that our reasonable wishes, as to local interests, should
be scrupulously, faithfully, and conscientiously attended to.
If there should be clandestine crime, and secret outrage in
the country, our persecutors must answer for it. If

Scotland, fr-om a peaceful country, should become another Ire-
land, om- persecutors must answer for it — ay and feel it. Oiur
interests — our prosperity— oiu: all is at stake. Will those
persecutors, then, have the assurance to say that they can justly
blame or utter a single complaint with any hope of sympathy,
either at home or abroad, after the timeous warnuig they have
received? If they should persist, an appeal will be made from
them to their Sovereign in behalf of injured Scotland — her
favourite Scotland — that uiteresting and romantic laud, which
has at length been fortunate in finding a Sovereign youtliful
and lovely — tender and noble-hearted — capable of appreciating
alike the sublimity and grandeur of her territorial features, and
the high and lofty daring of her chivalrous aud heroic sons. Vic-
toria is Scotland's idol. Will that living and loving idol pa-
tiently permit the destruction aud abstraction of the revenues of
her favourite Temple? Will she look on with apathy to see her
dutifid and loyal worsluppers despoiled ? We do fear for her
gracious reply — her gracious interposition. She must be
heartUy sick of the eternal sing song of free trade, producing
nothing more interestuig than the humilating spectacle of her
o\vn JMinisters going begging round the world, with humble
entreaty and heads uncovered, but, like many other beggars now
a-days, never a lucky penny coming into the hat; no stranger
being so simple as to pay for an old song about free trade,
when they can stand by, and listen, and enjoy the melody, with
their hands thrust deep in their pockets, wliile they whisper in
amazement, can these fooUsh minstrels be the Ministers of
England ? can these be polititians ? and, if so, of what school ?
Who suig for the benefit of the world, and when they demand
some payment, exchange, or what they elegantly denominate
reciprocity, though sternly and contemptuously refrised and
repelled, sing on more blythly and lustily than ever, in the pride
of their talents and accomplishments. The astonished nations,
exclaiming in wonderment, " we could never afibrd to do this !
Anything in the way of a fair exchange, we comprehend." I
must say that, though no man who knows my sentiments, will
accuse me of want of liberahty, pohticaUy speaking, I do not,
aud cannot, admire the residts of our free trade policy hitherto.
But which of the two is the system to blame, or its practical ad-
ministration ? I consider free trade an open subject. I con-
sider Scotch banking, the poor laws, and justice to Scotland,
open subjects ; and I firmly believe that the Cabinet is divided,
or, at aU events, is neither cordial nor heartily unanimous upon
them.

But now for our subject. When the bank charter was imder
parliamentary discussion last IMay, Sir Robert Peel proposed
and carried important changes and modifications in the regu-
lations of the English banking aud cm-rency, declaring that,
for the present, he should say nothing about the issue of small
notes, but reserved for futiu-e legislation the system of banking
in Scotland and Ireland. His avowed and declai-ed object in
making the alterations was to provide against imprudent over
issues in times of prosperity, and sudden and excessive contrac-
tions in times of panic, to the injury of the public and the im-
minent peril of the Bank of England. These precautions may
have been perfectly necessary in England, as I shall plainly
show before I have concluded my letters to you, sir, on this
subject; but such precautions are inapplicable, unnecessary,
utterly uncalled for, and therefore must be regarded as insuf-
ferably intrusive, and, if persisted in, absolutely insulting to
the entire public of Scotland. The English private aud joint
stock banks did certainly contrive to manage their issues in the
most reckless manner, spreading periodical disaster and ruin
over the length and breadth of that " merrie land." But
can any such charge be brought against the Scotch banks ?
For a century and a half the Scotch banks have enjoyed the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

455

privilege cf unlimited issue. Have they c^er abused it ? The
average ciiriil ttioii for the hist three years lias been about

TIIRKK MILLIONS for a /10;)^(?«//o;( of TWO MILLIONS AND

A JiALF ; whereas in England and Wales there has been a
t'(rei6^«^io« of nearly tiiikty millions of paper monei/ and
TWENTY millions o/' metallic cuncHcij umoMj a population
q/* SIXTEEN MILLIONS. Can our persecutors contradict this?
Tlie total circulation of )wtes in England, for the month
ending February 1, is as follows : — Bank of England,
£20,.558,920 ; private banks, £4,576,895 ; joint stock banks,
£3,134,351 ; besides the metallic currency.

The subscribed capital of the Scottish bank is upwards of
TWELVE MILLIONS, surely a w^ciPK^ guarantee hv a. circu-
lation oi TiiKEK MILLIONS. Cau our persecutors deny this ?
If not, what apology cau they possibly be prepared with, for
treating us all like bankrupts, incompetents, and sv/iudlers. Can
they be ignorant of the self imposed checks of the prudent
and conscientious Scotch bankers ? Are they aware, that this,
of itself, renders over issue impossible ? Are they aware that,
in Scotland, the moment a banker receives, iu the course of his
business, a riv al baidcer's notes, he loses no thue in excluuiging
them for any notes of his own that may be lying in that rival
banker's hands, and that have been received in the like manner,
in the course of business ; and whatever difference or balance
may remain over on either side, is instantly paid in cash, or
when the amount renders it more convenient, cancelled by the
transfer of available securities ? Do they know that it is the
interest of ri\'al bankers tlius to dinunish the circulation, and
any over issue of their rival's notes ? Is it not plain that a banker
cannot profit by holding his neighbour's notes ? They are un-
productive to him, and therefore he loses no time iu returning
them to the issuer. Are our persecutois aware, that under the
Scotch system, no provident man, within reach of a bank (and
there are banks in every considerable village), ever thinks of
keeping a spare note iu his possession over night, but pays it
into his credit that he may enjoy the interest ? This also keeps
down the circulation. So that these two checks — viz., the im-
mediate exchanges of notes which take place between rival
bankers, and the public inducement held out to all holders of
notes whatever, to pay them into the nearest bank that they
(the depositors) may enjoy the interest allowed on all such pay-
ments, are two most effective checks on over issue, depending
upon self interest for the certainty of their operation, a more
powerful stimulus, we opine, that any other which even the
fine spun uniformity theories of our ingenious persecutors can
either devise, create, or bring into useful operation. These
iugenious gentlemen, howe^•er high may be their estimate of
their o\ni powers, had better not commit the folly of setting
up a ri^•aI workshop to human nature, to fabricate cheeks and
restraints, more powerful, more effective, and of more certain
operation than self-interest ; otherwise they will make small
progress in convincnig the matter-of-fact native of Scotland,
who has long been honoured, or if not honoured, then dis-
tinguished by the title of " the canny Scot."

But, besides all these guarantees, which I have already
noticed, and which one would think sufficiently ample, we have
the farther security arising from the fact, that the whole pro-
prietary body of a Scotch bank are bound to a man, and to the
last farthing they are worth, for the debts of their company ;
and that, hi this country, where a stern sense of justice and
equity prevails, and where our laws are based on the dictates
and principles of honesty, the real, as well as the personal
property of a defaulter, is attachable by a very summary process,
and rendered immediately available by a creditor in extin-
guishhig his debts of every description. Can these ingeni-
ous—would I could say ingenuous— gentlemen, give us any

good and sufficient reason, in justice, why this should not be
the case in England as well as in Scotland ? They should set
about studying the aduiirable provisions of our Scotch laws,
before they attempt to improve upon om- institutions. They
need not, in their arrogance, pretend to sneer at this our recom-
mendation. M'e are only commending the principles of ever."
lasting truth and justice. Can they afford, as public men, to
sneer at these ? I ask them, if it is decent to see a man (as
you may see a thousand at any time in England) rioting iu
prison on the income derived from his real property, while
he defies and laughs to scorn his personal creditors ? And
this under the sanction of the laws of England ! We have no
such English justice and decency in Scotland. I may add too,
that in Scotland, the moment that bank notes are tendered in
payment of a debt, all legiJ proceedings and expenses cease ;
whereas in Engliuid an act of Parliament became necessary to
oblige a creditor to receive Bank of England notes in satisfaction
of a debt, at least to tlie extent of staying legal proceedings.
Is this, of itself, not sufficient evidence to any sane man, of the
perfect stability of the Scotch banks and of the unbouuded
confidence of the people in them? AVill our ingenious
persecutors be disposed to stidtify their common sense by
denying it ?

I have shown that the people of Scotland, and of the United
Kingdom, are amply guarded against all loss by a permanent
guarantee of tioeh-e millions of subscribed capital, to cover less
than three millions of issues. That over and above this, in
Scotland the real and personal estates of the individual pro-
prietors are attachable, by a very summary process, for the
entire debts of any bankuig company with which they may
stand connected ; affording, if it were necessary, a. farther ample
guarantee to the public, that over issuhi'j is impossible, from
the very effective, self-imposed checks I have already explained.
And if any farther check against over issuing were necessary,
it exists in the inducement held out to individuals, by the
Scotch banks allowing interest on the smallest deposits ; thus
operating as they do, in fact, as national savings banks — giving
a death blow to hoarding, and calling intelligibly on every man
to return any notes that may come into his possession, im-
mediately to the nearest bank, that they may there fructify to
his advantage. iVre all these checks not a sufficient safeguard
against over issuing ? I have also shown, by one simple state-
ment, the perfect confidence of the people of Scotland in these
banJis.

Again, then, I repeat the question with which this com-
munication opens :—/s it that our persecutors envy this last
remnant of our National Institutions? or that they are the
mouthpieces of those who envy them ? or are we to take this
(projected) interference with our banking system as an act of
pure unprovoked oppression?

As space will not permit, at present, I shall, in my next,
endeavour to show, that the hyprocritical cry of justice to En'
gland, and to the Bank of England i.s, without going about
the bush, nothhig better than gross unadt-lterated hum-
bug. Sawney has read somewhere of the protection the vulture
gives the lamb. But his persecutors will please bear in mind,
that Sawney is no sheep to have his bones picked.

In a word, this act of uniformity — this barefacetl national
pillage — will not go down in Scotland.

I am, &c.

Obiter Dictum.

(To be continued.)

2 o 2

456

THE i'ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE LONDON FARMERS' C LUB.— M ONT H L Y MEETING.
IMPROVED FORM OF FARM LEASES.

The usual iNIoiithly Meeting of the London Farmers'
Club was held on Monday, April 6, in the rooms of the
Society, at the York Hotel, Bridge-street, Blackfriars ;
Mr. Baker, of Writtle, Essex, in the chair.

Mr. Beadell, in rising to open the question, com-
menced by saying, that he thought they should all agree
in this — that of the many subjects which interested the
agricultural world, there was none of greater importance
than that which related to the bargain to be made be-
tween the land owner and the land occupier {hear, hear) ;
and it was upon the way in which that was carried out,
that much of the prosperity of both must depend
(cheers). They must admit that this bargain ought to
be mutually binding ; that was to say, that it should be
so framed as to prevent the tenant from committing
waste upon the estate of his landlord, at the same time
giving him all the liberty and all the rights that he could
enjoy short of that (hear, hear). Now, leases, as at
present drawn, did not secure this object. They found
leases teeming with reserved rents and shifts, but very
little appeared in them which had the effect of securing
to the landlord what were his just rights, and of giving
liberty and elasticity to the operations of the tenant
(hear, hear). He (Mr. Beadell) apprehended that in
dealing with the tenant, the point next in importance to
the lease itself was the term of the lease ; and they
could hardly go into any county without finding that the
terms of leases varied. They had in some counties the
term of seven, in others fourteen, in others again twenty-
one years ; and in Scotland nineteen years was the
favourite term. Why it should be so he knew not, but
so it was ; that period appeai'ed to suit very well, and it
generally secured to the landlord a good, honest, indus-
trious and improving tenant (hear, hear) . They could
not expect that the tenant would employ his capital and
go into improvements of his farm unless he had fixity of
tenure {cheern) ; and that not such as would merely
enable him to derive back the money which he had put
into it ; but such as would give him a profit, and a good
handsome profit, into the bargain. If they considered
how few years would suffice to enable the tenant to get
back his money, he did not think there would be much
necessity for legal leases. But he held, that the enter-
prising tenant who brought his knowledge to bear in
improving the property which he farmed, was entitled to
a rate of profit far beyond what the mere interest on his
money would afford him (hear, hear). In going into
this matter, the first part of the question was, the legal
matter of the lease- But as the law was not their busi-
ness, they must leave it to the lawyers to give effect to
that portion of a lease which was binding between man
and man (hear) , and go on in harmony in endeavouring to
carry out that which they had in view. They all knew

as well as he did, that the farmer was in most cases tied
down to a certain course of cropping ; very ordinarily to
four courses, namely, one-fourth to nak^■d fallow, one-
fourth to spring corn, one-fourth to clover, and one-
fourth to wheat. He mentioned this for the purpose of
showing the absurdity of the system. There were, of
course, variations from this plan ; some where green
crops, turnips, and other things were allowed to be grown
in fallow, and others where beans and peas, with clover,
were allowed to be taken. But he had met with many
instances of the plan he had first mentioned, although
they knew that the system of naked fallows was pretty
nearly exploded. He recollected an instance in which
the proviso of naked fallow appeared in the lease, and he
called upon the party in oi"der to speak to him upon the
absurdity of it ; and also to remonstrate on the absur-
dity of tying down the tenant to puc down clover once
in every four years. The reply was, that the tenant
must plant his clover, and if it did not take, he would
then be allowed to put in peas and beans. Thus, the
tenant would in that case be called upon to spend 10s.
or 12s. an acre without any benefit whatever to the
landlord (hear, hear). He mentioned this as a speci-
men of cases which had frequently come across him.
Leases containing these objectionable provisos were
drawn and persisted in time after time, and he (Mr.
Beadell) could only account for it in this way, that the
old form of lease was handed down from generation to
generation, and adopted, whether conformable to the
wants of the present day or not. The family lawyer
was called in to draw a lease, and the old, musty
record — which did all very well at a period when farm-
ers could neither read nor write — was got down, and a
lease drawn according to its prescribed form ; and
if the tenant remonstrated against any of its obsolete
provisions or covenants, the reply was, " If you do not
sign that, you can't have the farm at all," Well, what
was the consequence ? Why, the lease was signed for
the sake of getting the farm, thrown into the bureau,
and never thought of any more until the tenant was
about to quit it (hear, hear). His experience was, to a
certain degree, limited upon these points. But he
knew that frequently, when the tenant was about to
quit his farm, and when the lease was read, and cove-
nants which he ought to have observed were pointed out
to him. He remarked : " Oh ! I never looked at that"
(hear, hear). The lease, in fact, under such circum-
stances, became a dead letter until the end of the term
for which it had been taken, and the conditions were
enforced, and the tenant was made subject to covenants
to which he ought never to have been subjected. If
these objectionable clauses could, by any means which
they could devise, be substituted by more plain and un-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

457

derstandable ones, which tenants could and would act
under, why they should accomplish a great and perma-
nent good. In some leases there were covenants for
reserved rents of as much as 10/. an acre for certain
offences. Now, all these things ought to be, and should
be, got rid of: the punishment bore no proportion to the
ofience. The tenant certainly ought not to do anything
in opposition to his lease ; but if he did, he ought at
least to have the same amount of justice measured out
to him as a person would in one of the criminal courts,
where the punishment would only be proportionable to
the offence (" hear,'' and a laugh). Reserved co-
venants would doubtlessly be well got rid of altogether.
He did not think there was any great objection to the
system of imposing penalties ; for if a penalty were con-
ditionally imposed, say of 50/., 100/., or 200/., why he
did not so much object to that, as it only, in point of
fact, meant a penalty to cover the amount of damage
done to the estate by the misconduct of which the tenant
might have been guilty (hear). It was said that it was
much more easy to find fault than to mend ; however,
thinking it might be useful, he had turned his attention
to what a lease ouglit to embrace ; and he would take the
liberty of very shortly stating the sort of lease which
would accomplish the objects which they had in view,
namely, to secure the rights and interests of the land-
lord, and at the same time to give liberty and elasticity
to the operations of the tenant, and enable him to do
those things which it was so desirable to do at the present
day. In the case of every lease with which he (Mr.
Beadell) had anything to do, he should like that it should
be short ; he had in the way of business frequently to
read over leases of five, six, or seven skins, and he was
of opinion that a lawyer must be badly acquainted with
his business who could not draw a lease in one skin.
The conditions might be made equally stringent, whether
the lease occupied one skin or six {hear, hear). He
would just mention one case, which had occurred very
near to the place where their excellent chairman was
born : — A tenant had had some dispute with his landlord,
and came to consult him (Mr. Beadell) as to what he
sliould do, as there was about to be an action at law in
the case. Now his lease happened to occupy five skins,
upon ascertaining which, he said to him — " There is
only one chance for you, and that is this ; I never yet
knew a lease of five skins, the beginning of which did
not contradict the end" {"Hear," and a laugh) ; and so
it turned out, and that saved the action {hear). There
was, in almost every lease, very much more formal mat-
ter than there need be. All that was necessary might
be accomplished by two descriptions of covenant ; he
would call the first the " covenant of forfeiture" — that
was to say, if the tenant chose to offend with his eyes
open, there should be an absolute forfeiture of the lease;
because they would scarcely ever find a good farmer in
such a position. They would not find a farmer who had
a large amount of capital, and was really able to pay his
outgoings, put himself in such a situation where there
were reserved rents or penalties, as to run the risk of
forfeiture. As parts of the covenant of forfeiture (al-
though no great friend to timber), he would include the

act of cutting down any timber without the permission
of the landlord, or of breaking up any land without such
permission ; and also insolvency, assignment, or non-
residence {hear). The next description of covenant
which lie proposed should be inserted, was the " cove-
nant of compensation." In tliat he should include only
one cropping or mowing grass or clover without an extra
artificial dressing, for he did not think it answered to
mow twice ; but if the farmer chose to mow grass or
clover twice, why then he should give the land an artifi-
cial dressing {hear, hear). He should certainly also
think it an ofience if the tenant took two white straw
crops. With regard to manure, he tliought the tenant
ought to be compelled to bring upon the land a quantity
of manure equal in value to tlie hay or straw which he
took off when converted into dung. He would make
the same covenant binding as to green produce, the
neglect of scouring ditches, keeping water-courses open,
&c. Now, he was far from thinking that he had em-
braced all the matters which ought properly to come
under these two heads. He had merely shown that there
were certain acts which ought to be made covenants of
forfeiture, and certain others which ought to be matters
of compensation ; and if any damage were done, it should
be paid for by the party who did it. He thought, too,
that there should be in every lease a clause allowing the
tenant to remove all buildings which he might have
erected upon the farm during his occupancy, if the land-
lord and the in-coming tenant refused to take and pay
for them {hear, hear). He thought it would be useful
that it should go forth from this club as a principle,
that if the tenant put up bullock houses, piggeries, &c.,
with a view to making the greatest profit of the farm,
and the in-coming tenant did not see the use of them, he
should be allowed to take them away. Another which
he proposed to insert was what he should call the general
arbitration-clause ; that was to say, that in case of any
dispute arising between the landlord and tenant, that it
should become a matter for arbitration, and not a matter
of legal inquiry ; and he thought that they would find
that most of their best landlords would readily agree to
the insertion of such a clause in their leases (/icr/r). He
could not, for a moment, think that any landlord would
wish to go to law with his tenant, unless he wished to
worry, tease, and perplex him ; and on the other hand,
he could not suppose that the tenant would desire it,
unless he wished to worry, tease, and perplex his land-
lord {hear, hear). Of course this told both ways ;
and he thought arbitration was much better than going
to law {hear). He had also drawn out a form, which
he called a " cropping form ;" and which, although it
might not be such as to meet tlie necessities of all cases,
it had been acted upon without any inconvenience being
found to arise from it. It had been agreed to in several
instances, both by landlords and tenants ; it was, in fact,
a species of covenant which had been in practice in some
parts of the country for some time. He (Mr. Beadell)
usually inserted a general clause, binding the tenant to
farm according to the most approved system adopted in
that part of the country in which the lands were situated.
Then the land was divided into certain portions, it

458

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

might be four, five, or six ; he had taken one-fourth of
fallow with or without green crops, one -eighth in clover
mown only once, one-eighth in beans and peas, another
in non-exhausting crops, and three-eighths in wheat
crops. They must all know that there was much land
that was better adapted to the growth of barley than of
wheat, and he therefore thought that it ought to be left
to the discretion of the tenant, whether he chose to have
wheat, barley, or oats {hear, hear) ; and he could not,
for his own part, see that more mischief was likely to
be done to land by one crop of white straw than by an-
other. They must bear in mind that, although there
they were all good farmers and excellent fellows
(" hear" and a laugh), there were such persons as bad
tenants (hear). No lease in the world would ever bind
a bad tenant ; and a lease became a one-sided document
whei-e a tenant could not farm well {hear). He begged
also to say one or two words respecting persons who
farmed without capital ; they were the greatest enemies
the good farmer had. Tliey increased the rent which
the legitimate farmer had to pay; and, supposing they
had to go abroad to purchase corn, they just gave the
foreigner a premium to the extent in which they were
themselves deficient in growth {hear, hear). He
thought, therefore, that the bad farmer was a great in-
jury to the legitimate farmer, and wherever there were
bad farmers, he hoped there would be those that would
give them the hint : let it be remembered that where
they had less twitch, they could grow a greater quantity
of corn. With regard to improvements, there was cer-
tainly a difficulty on that point ; he could hardly see
how the subject of improvements could be dealt with in
leases (hear, hear). His notion of permanent im-
provements was, that they should be carried out by the
landlord, and not by the tenant (hear). In taking land
which required draining, and would involve an outlay of
i'3 10s. or £i per acre, it was necessary to consider
how many acres could be managed with the capital.
He was talking the other day to a large landed proprie-
tor, who told him that he was perfectly satisfied in
buying land, provided he could make 3,V per cent, of his
money. He (Mr. Beadell) said — " I don't think you
ought to be satisfied with 3^ per cent. ; I think you
ought to make more — I think you ought to make 6 per
cent. It is much better to buy less land, improve it
permanently, and make 6 per cent, of your money,
than have a large quantity of land, and only make 3^ per
cent." (hear). If a man took the worst of land, wood-
bound land, or land with water on it, and drained and
improved it, what was the consequence ? Why, the
tenant, who would not look at it before, was glad to
take it then ; and thus land which had been a byword
and a reproach, was often brought into the best possible
cultivation. He was not aware that there were any
other remarks which he need make — he had already de-
tained them longer than he intended when he first got
up (hear, hear) .

Mr. Wood suggested that Mr. Beadell should touch
upon the question of money and corn-rents (hear) .

Mr. Beadell said, he thought that was a question
which hardly came within the scope of their discussion ;
but if it did, he would rather hear the remarks of some

other gentleman upon it. He would only say, in con-
clusion, that it appeared to him, that nothing could be
more prejudicial than that any system should be pursued
which did not fairly recognise the rights of both land-
lord and tenant ; and in all questions of leases, they
must look as well to the interests of the landlord as the
tenant (hear, hear). It would be a great improvement
upon the present state of things, when once there should
be a better understanding between the landlord and ten-
ant, as to the way in which they were to go on. A bad
landlord and bad covenants were sure to make a bad
tenant (hear). One might arrive at a pretty fair cri-
terion as to the character of the landlord, by simply
riding through his land. For if we only looked to one
side of things— if we selfishly looked only to our own
welfare, our selfishness was sure to punish itself (hear).
We should always have a degraded tenantry where we
had a domineering landlord (hear). Society formed a
a chain, and not one single link could be out of order
without more or less disorganizing the whole (hear,
hear); and while, on the one hand, they were ready to
assert, maintain, and stick out for their own rights ; they
should show themselves willing to accord to others the
rights which legitimately belonged to them (cheers).
If, in the observations which he had made, it would be
found that he had been instrumental in bringing for-
ward a subject of confessedly great importance, he should
feel that he had accomplished the object which he had
in view in lending his humble aid (cheers) . He could
not sit down without expressing his regret that the im-
portance of the subject had not been the means of as-
sembling a larger number of the members of the club
(hear). By calling attention to the subject, however,
they would have sowed the seed, and he trusted they
should reap a glorious harvest (hear, hear).

Mr. Trinder, of Cirencester, said he had a form of
lease which had been prepared at a meeting held at
Evesham, and a copy of which had been sent to him.
He begged to hand it to their worthy chairman , who
would perhaps read it to the club.

The Chairman read the form accordingly, but it was
a somewhat lengthy document, and did not appear to
meet the approbation of the gentlemen present.

Mr. Edward Aitcheson pointed out that it made
no provision with respect to improvements made by the
erection of farm buildings ; but only contemplated the
improvements made in the land.

The Chairman' said he had drawn up a form of lease
for the purpose of submitting to the meeting on this oc-
casion, and as the object was to arrive at a form of lease
securing to the tenant his rights and interests, and at
the same time to prevent any deterioration of the pro-
perty of the landlord, he thought it necessary that the
lease should go principally to those two points. He had
endeavoured to show, at the meeting of the club at which
the subject of tenant-right was discussed, that there was
great injury done to the property of the landlord by
tenants endeavouring to get their improvements out of
their farms before they left them , inconsequence of their
knowing that they should not be paid for them (Hear,
hear). It must be evident that the improvements of
one tenant were the stepping-stone to those of another;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

459

and surely it must be better for the incoming tenant to
take and pay for these improvements than to allow the
soil to be exhausted by the efforts of the "outgoing
tenant to get back his capital {Hear, hear). In Essex
a tenant takes a farm for fourteen years : at the end of
seven years it will be in excellent order for producing, but
at that very period he begins to hesitate whether he
shall go on, or whether it would not be wiser
then to begin and take out the improvements ; for
if he allows them to remain to the end of the term,
they will induce others to offer a greater amount of
rent for the farm than he can afford to give ; and
he therefore, in nine cases out of ten, sets about to
reduce the farm to the same state as that in which he
found it {Hear, hear). Now, it must be perfectly
manifest to every one that both the landlord and the
tenant would be gi'eatly benefited if they could be allowed
to remain in the land, and if a fair compensation were
paid for them, the rate of compensation being governed
by the price of grain. The price of the quarter of corn
would show what the landlord or incoming tenant could
afford to pay. But if there was a fixed money rent, and
the price of corn was exceedingly high or exceedingly
low, much injury might be suffered. In the form of
lease which he had prepared he had had a special eye to
preventing this (cries of " Read it"). The Chairman
said he would, with great pleasure, read the form which
he had drawn up ; and having done so, he said he h d
had it printed, for greater convenience ; and if the mem-
bers of the club would each take a copy of it, read it
carefully over, make any observations in the margin, or
suggest any improvements, and transmit it to him again,
he should be much obliged (Hear, hear). For, being a
member of the sub-committee which had already been
appointed, ^e should have an opportunity of making use
of their suggestions.

FORM OF LEASE,

This Indenture, made the day of ,

one thousand eight hundred and forty-six, in pursu-
ance of an Act to facilitate the granting of certain
Leases, between A. B., of of the one

part, and C, D., of , of the other

part,

WITNESSETH, That in consideration of the rents,
covenants, and agreements hereinafter to be observed
and maintained, he the said A. B. doth by these pre-
sents, demise, lease, and to farm, let unto the said C. D.,
his heirs, executors, or administrators, all that capital
messuage, farm, and premises called or known by the
name of , in the county of ^

and now or late in the tenure or occupation of

, consisting of a messuage or tenement, with
yards, gardens, orchards, barns, stables, and outbuild-
ings, together with acres of arable and grass
land, lying in the several inclosures numbered in the
schedule hereunto annexed as follows : —

or otherwise, with their appurtenances, except
out of this demise, all timber and other trees, fruit,
trees, saplings, pollards, wood and underwood whatso-
ever, now being or which shall hereafter grow upon

the hereby demised premises, and reserving unto the*
said A. B., his heirs and assigns, and any person or i
persons authorised or employed by him, right of entry I
at all reasonable times upon, the said premises, to mark,
fell, and carry the said timber' wood and underwood.
And also to hunt, shoot, fish, fowl, and sport upon and
over the said hereby demised premises, and to take and
kill game thereon. To have and to hold* the said de-
mised premises (except as aforesaid) unto the said
C. D., his executors and administrators , for the term of
21 yeax"s to be computed from _ , determinable

at the expiration of the 11th or 16th years of the
said term, by either party to this demise
giving notice in writing to that effect at least
18 months previously to the determination of
either of the aforesaid terms. Yielding and paying
yearly and every year in lieu of rentf the value of
quarters of wheat, such value to be deduced from
the averages of the last six weeks, taken for the tithe
commutation purposes, as made up and published in the
London Gazette, at the expiration of the six weeks pre-
viously to the quarterly days respectively as hereinafter
mentioned, namely, Christmas, Lady Day, Midsummer,
and Michaelmas, wliich averages having been so taken as
aforesaid, shall, upon being calculated upon the number
of quarters of wheat as hereinbefore stated, constitute,
represent, and actually be the rent of each quarterly day
of payment respectively, the aggregate of which shall con-
stitute, represent, and actually become the yearly rent to
be paid and payable as in manner hereinbefore ex-
pressed.J Provided always that if it shall happen that
the said yearly rent or value of quarters of wheat

in lieu thereof as hereinbefore expressed and reserved, or
any part thereof shall be in arrear or unpaid for the
space of days and shall not afterwards be paid on

demand, or if the said C. D,, his executors or adminis-
trators, shall become bankrupt or insolvent, or shall do
or suffer any act or thing whereby the said premises
hereby demised may become assignable or liable to be
taken in execution, or if the said C, D., his executors
or administrators, shall not perform and keep the cove-
nants, clauses, and conditions herein mentioned and con-
tained, then it shall and may be lawful for the said A.B.,

* The periods of determining the lease may, if thought re-
quisite, be at the 8th, 12th, 16th, or 20th "years; but the
first period sliould not be for a less time than eight years.

t_ If the rent be fixed upon the presumption that wheat will
realize a certain price, then it may be made to vary propor-
tionately as a rent fixed on corn, for assuming that land v^liich
will grow 3^ to 4 quarters of wheat per acre, and 5 quai-ters of
barley, is wortli in wheat 3^ bushels, at 56s., 24s. 6d., and in
barley at 32s., 6 bushels per acre; And the covenant might be
that when the price of wheat shall not exceed 56s. per quarter
upon the average by the tithe conmuitation returns, the rent
shall be 24s. 6d. per acre ; and when the price of wheat shall
not exceed 52s. upon the average, the rent shall be 22s. 9d. per
acre; and when the average price of wheat shall not exceed
45s. per quarter, the rent shall not exceed 20s., and so may be
reduced or increased in proportion as the price of wheat shall
rise or fall.

t All payments by labour, such as carting timber or coal, to
be inserted if stipulated for in the agi-eement ; or the rent may
lie equalised upon the average of two or more years, by taking
the average of the whole of the preceduig year or years with
the average of the last quarter, and the average of these will
give the rent,

460

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, to entej-
into and upon the premises hereby demised or any part
thereef, and in the name of the whole wholly to eject
therefrom the said C. D., his executors and administra-
tors and all other occupiers thereof, and the said C. D.
doth hereby for himself, his heirs, executors, adminis-
trators, and assigns, covenant, promise, and agree with
the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, in manner follow-
ing : that is to say, that he the said C. D., his exe-
cutors and administrators, from time to time during
this demise,

1st. Shall pay the said yearly rent, or value of quar-
ters of wheat in lieu thereof, by equal quarterly payments,
on the days at the times and in manner as hereinbefore
in that behalf stipulated.

2nd. Shall bear, pay, and discharge the tithe commu-
tation rent charges, and all other parochial rates and
charges whatsoever (land-tax, quit-rents, and landlord's
income-tax excepted).

3rd. Shall maintain and leave the said hei'eby demised
premises,* with the appurtenance and all fittings and
fixtures thereof, and all the I'oads, fences, gates, stiles,
bridges, ditches, and drains belonging thereto, in good
and tenantable repair, order, and condition (damage by
fire and extraordinary tempest only excepted) being
allowed by the said A, B., his heirs or assigns, rough
timber, bricks, tiles, slate, and lime, and shall paint or
tar the said hereby demised premises once in every three
years upon being allowed paint or tar for the same by
A. B., his heirs or assigns.

4th. Shall not cut down, or otherwise destroy or in-
jure any of the timber or ornamental trees or saplings,
nor grub up any of the underwood now growing or to
be hereinafter grown upon the said demised premises,
but that he the said C. D., his executors or administra-
tors, shall be entitled to the wood and bushes arising
from the fences, as also the lops of the pollards when
such fences are made.-f-

5th. Shall preserve and protect the game and fish upon
the hereby demised premises for the use of the said
A. B., his heirs and assigns, friends, or servants, and
suffer notices to be given and proceedings taken in his
name against any person or persons trespassing in pur-
suit thereof.

6th. Shall reside upon the said premises during the
continuance of the term hereby granted.

7th. Shall not assign or underlet all or any part of
the said messuage and premises hereby demised during
all or any part of the term hereby granted without the
consent in writing of the said A. B., his heirs or assigns.

8th. Shall inbam or stack upon the said demised

* As to improvements — if the landlord finds tiles, &c., for
draiuage, the tenant to pay 5 per cent, upon cost of same, or
for additional l}nildings in the same proportion. Tiie landlord
shall restore the bnildings in case they shall be destroyed by
fire or tempest within six months.

t Upon tliis clause great diversity of opinion exists, and this
covenant must therefore depend upon the mutual understand-
ing of the parties to the lease. But I may be allowed to
suggest that if the landlord conceded to the tenant the right
to take hares and rabbits, reserving the winged game to liimself,
much damage to crops and ill will between parties might be
prevented.

farm and premises all the crops of com, seeds, and hay
that shall yearly grow or arise thereon.

9th. Shall expend and consume upon the hereby de-
mised farm and premises all the hay, straw, fodder,
and chaff, as well as turnips and other roots and vege-
tables growing thereon (potatoes excepted).

10th. Shall expend upon the said demised farm and
premises all the dung, compost, and manure, which
shall arise or yearly be made or brought thereon, except
that made in the last year of this demise, which
shall be left for the succeeding tenant upon being paid
by valuation for the same, together with the labour
thereon.

11th. Shall manage and cultivate the grass lands in
a good and husband-like manner, according to the most
approved system of the district in which the said here-
by demised premises is situated, and shall not break up
or otherwise convert into tillage any of such grass lands,
nor shall mow more than one moiety of the same more
than once in any year, under a penalty of \Ql. for every
acre so broken up or converted into tillage as afore-
said, such penalty to be paid and recoverable as in-
creased rent during the continuance of the term hereby
granted.*

r2th. Shall manage and cultivate the arable land in
good and husband-like manner, according to the most
approved system of the district in which the said
hereby demised premi.ses is situated, nor shall nor will
at any time or times during the term hereby granted
take from off or have upon any part thereof more
than two crops of wheat, barley, or oats, without the
intervention of a summer's fallow, being at liberty to
take one crop of clover, beans, or peas, or some other
ameliorating crops, between the said two crops of wheat,
barley, or oats, and to be at liberty to grow upon the
fallowed land turnips, coleseed, roots, or any green
vegetable crops, provided that the same shall be eaten
and consumed by cattle upon the said hereby demised
lands and premises.f

13th. Shall not in the last two years preceding each
of the periods at which the determination of the lease
hereby granted is stipulated, or after having received
notice thereof (as hereinbefore mentioned), mow any
clover more than once on any of the grass lands in suc-
cessive years, nor sell any hay or straw from off the farm
and premises hereby demised. J

14th. Shall prevent as much as possible all trespasses
and depredations on the said hereby demised premises.

* Where the farm is situated near towns, this covenant may
be dispensed mth, by allowing roots to be sold upon bringing
on an equivalent in maimre.

No restriction is made upon mowing clover more tlian once,
as this crop, if converted into hay, will be beneficial to a greater
extent thau if fed upon the land. — If reseiTation is requisite to
prevent mowing particular enclosures of grazing lands, in-
sert clause to that effect.

t This covenant will admit of variation according to circum-
stances, and may restrict so far only as to not taking more
than two grain crops between fallow and fallow, such fallow to
be made in every 4th, 5th, or Cth year.

t If the nature of the farm will admit of hay or straw being
sold, one ton of lime or good rotten mamu'e to be brought on
for every ton of hay or straw sold, and shall not during the
demise sell or carry away any gravel, clay, soil, &c.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

461

or in or upon the woods and plantations adjoining the
same, and shall uiaintain and keep the roads leading to
or from the same, also shall yearly do all necessary re-
pairs to the said hereby demised premises, within the
space of thirty days after having received notice thereof
in writing.

15th. Shall at the expiration or other sooner deter-
mination of the term hereby granted, or from any or
whatever cause the same shall or may arise, leave for
the use and benefit of the said A. B., his heirs or assigns,
or for the use and benefit of the then succeeding tenant,
one fourth jnu t of the arable land hereby demised, fal-
lowed with at least five ploughings to be given at sea-
sonable times, the first of which shall be given on or
before the first day of March, and also shall and will at
such expiration as of the term aforesaid, leave at least
one eighth part of the said arable lands in clover or
grass layer, and which said clover or grass layer shall
have been sown upon lands fallowed the preceding year,
one moiety of the said clover and grass layer not having
been mowed.

IGth. Shall permit the said A. B., his heirs or assigns,
or any incoming tenant, to enter upon and take posses-
sion of all or any portion of the lands so to be fallowed
as aforesaid on the 21th day of June, and also to enter
in and upon the farm at spring seed time for the pur-
pose of sowing clover or grass seeds upon the lands fal-
lowed in the preceding year as aforesaid, and which
clover and grass seeds shall be harrowed in by the said
C. D., his administrators and assigns, without payment
or charge for the same.

1 7th. Shall make the fallows and carry out the manure
as stipulated as aforesaid, and leave at the expiration or
other sooner determination of the term hereby granted,
all the grass and clover hay made and grown upon the said
demised premises witliin the last year, and also all the
dung, compost, and manure, made or brought upon the
said demised farm and premises in the last year of tiie
term hereby granted, and all the straw and chaff arising
from such last year's crop as aforesaid, together with all
fixtures and buildings* erected or put up at the sole cost
of the said C. D., his executors or administrators,
upon the said demised premises, and all tillages and
labour to the fallows and manure, and for all hay, dung,
compost, straw, chaff, fixtures, and buildings to be paid
for by valuation in proportion to the value and utility of
the same in accordance with the preceding covenants,
and all improvements consisting of draining and manur-
ing by any manure not produced upon the said demised
premises, together with all other permanent improve-
ments, from which the full benefit may not have been
derived in proportion to the original cost thereof, as the
same may at that time be unexpended, such valuations
as aforesaid to be made and settled by two dift'erent per-
sons, who, when so appointed and having so taken upon
themselves such reference and arbitration, shall, in writ-
ing, thereupon appoint an umpire, whose decision, in
case of any disagreement between such arbitrators, shall

* Biiikliugs that have i)een put up by the tenant without the
con sent of tlie landlor J, to be removed, or to be taken at tiie
va hie of the materials only, at the option of tlie landlord.

be final, binding, and conclusive, and to whom also
shall be referred all other matters in dispute in respect
of such occupation, and all dilapidations of and upon
the said demised land and premises, and all damage sus-
tained by tlie land and fences from unskilful and im-
proper management or otherwise, and who shall be em-
powered to deduct the amount awarded for tlie same
from the amount of the valuation so to be ascertained
as aforesaid.

18th. Shall have the use of the barns, stack yards, and
premises to thrash and dress the crops of corn and seeds
ari.sing from such last year's crop, according to the cus-
tom of the county as aforesaid, and shall be paid or al-
lowed for the thrashing out of such last year's crop, and
have the corn arising therefrom carted out by the said
A.B., his heirs or assigns, or by his succeeding tenant, a
distance not exceeding 10 miles as compensation for the
straw and chafl' arising therefrom.

And it is hereby agreed and declared that he the said
C. D., his executors or administrators, paying the rents,
and observing, performing, and keeping the covenants
hereinbefore contained, shall hold and occupy the farm
and premises herein demised for all the said term hereby
granted, without interruption by the said A.B.,his heirs
and assigns. — In witness, &c.

Another Clause for a Lease fixed upon a Corn Rent
deduced from the prices of various kinds of Corn.

Yielding and paying therefore, yearly and every year
during the said form unto the said A. E., his executors or
administrators, the rent in the manner and at the times
hereinafter mentioned ; that is to say, 50 qrs. of wheat,
,50 cp-s. of barley, and 30 qrs. of beans, to be ascertained
quarterly by the average price of wheat, barley, and
beans, sold at the corn market in Jjondon, in the entire
week next preceding the 25th day of December, the 25th
day of March, the 24th day of June, and the 29th day of
September in every year, and one fourth part of the value
of 50 quarters of wheat, 50 quarters of barley, and 30
quarters of beans, to be paid on each and every of the
said quarter days during the said term, without making
any deductions, defalcation, or abatement whatsoever out
of the same, or any part thereof.

To produce a fair equable annual payment, corn-rents
may also be based upon the average of the preceding two
or more years. Suppose it should be required to fix ij
upon the average of three years, and that during the first
vear the average price of corn had, from the Gazelle re-
turns, have been 52s. per quarter, and on the second
year 48s. per quarter, and the average price of the last
quarter 5Gs., the average to be deduced would be as

follows : —

Three Years.

1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
Last Qr.

Whenfor

52x4 = 208
48x4=192

56

}-

9)450

50s. 8d. average of Three Years,

462

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

When for Two Years.
1st Year 48x4 = 192
2nd Year
Last Year

56 = 50

5)248

49s. HA. average of Two Years.

It would be found that he had made several notes
at the foot of the form of lease, respecting buildmgs
put up by the tenant without the consent of the
landlord, and that his proposition was, that either
they should be removed by the outgoing tenant, or
taken at the value of the materials only. There
were other clauses, about hay and straw : for in-
stance, he had made no restriction regarding clover ; but
he had laid it down with respect to straw, that for every
so many tons of straw carried away, so many tons of
manure sliould be laid down. lie had mentioned tons
instead of loads, because the word " load" was indefinite
and ambiguous ; what was a load in one place was not
a load in another {Hear, hear). There had been an ob-
jection raised with regard to a corn rent, on account of
the difficulty of fixing it equitably. But all difficulty
might be obviated by taking an average of three years :
this would always form a fair basis of rent. In reply to
a question, he here stated that he proposed, in reference
to manuring, that one ton of lime should be laid down
for every ton of straw sold. There was another cove-
nant relating to a corn rent, according to which the rent
would be represented by a certain amount of produce in
corn. He had also laid down the principle that the
tenant should not exhaust the land, but receive compen-
sation for improvements effected ; and if, on the other
hand, the tenant caused any deterioration in the value of
the landlord's property, then a deduction should be made
upon a valuation ; the object being to protect the land-
lord as well as to give security to the tenant {Hear,
hear). There was one matter of considerable im-
portance upon which he differed in opinion from Mr.
Beadell and many other gentlemen, namely, that with
regard to the mowing of clover a second time. All
leases restricted the tenant from mowing clover more
than once. Now, he (Mr. Baker) had seen as good
wheat grown after mowing the clover twice as after
feeding it. There was something so peculiarly advan-
tageous to the land in the shading of clover, as to make
the second mowing fully commensurate with feeding.
There was not the amount of advantage derived from
feeding in regard to manure that was generally supposed,
for the dung deposited was nearly all evaporated by the
heat of the sun {Hear, hear). As an evidence of the
correctness of his views, he might remind them that
clover was not worth more than from 30s. to 50s., or at
the most CDs. an acre ; and he knew a case of twenty
acres having been mown twice, and both crops sold ;
they were sold by auction, and therefore did not fetch
more than a fair price — both crops sold for £365 (Hear,
hear). Now, he wished to ask whether, in cases where
they could mow, anything in the shape of feeding could
compensate for this (Hear). Why, the clover paid for
the crop of wheat itself, whereas, if it had been fed, it

could not have produced £h per acre {Hear, hear).
Clover, carried into the yard, would maintain a vast
quantity more stock than it could possibly maintain by
feeding, and therefore it was that he thought the tenant
should not be prevented from mowing twice, if he thought
proper {Hear, hear). He quite agreed in the principle
laid down by the gentleman (Mr. Beadell) w^ho had
opened the question, that no man ought to take a farm
which required capital beyond his means; but tenants
were too apt to look out for large farms. He was quite
satisfied that great good was to be done by framing
leases with an impartial eye : a lease must not be a one-
sided thing : it must not be made entirely for the pur-
poses of the landlord, or exclusively with a view to the
interests of the tenant, but for the mutual advantage of
each {Hear, hear) ; and if they could only show the
landlords that a better form of lease would be better for
them, as well as for the tenant, he could not suppose
them to be such egregious asses as not to adopt it
{Hear, hear, and a laugh). Only show the landlord
that his estate would be benefited by it, that his family
would be benefited by it, and not only his, but his
tenants' also, and he would be ready enough to accede
to it, and to accept the tenant on such terms {Hear,
hear).

Mr. HuTLEY said, he did not agree with the prin-
ciple laid down by Mr. Beadell, of tying the farmer down
to bring back upon the farm, in manure, the value of
the straw taken from it.

Mr. Beadell : I did not say that : the value of the
dung which the straw would make, was what I meant,
and, I believe, what I said (hear, hear).

Mr. HuTLEY said : in the next place, with reference
to Mr. Baker's form of lease, he could not agree to the
principle of giving up all rights to game in favour of the
landlord, which he regarded as giving the independent
tenants' right away (hear, hear). He thought they
ought to recommend that which was useful and bene-
ficial. The tenant ought to preserve and take care of
the game for the landlord, but he was as much entitled
to kill it as the landlord himself.

The Chairman said there was a covenant in his
form of lease securing the tenants' rights in this respect.

Mr. lIuTLEY said he did not understand it so.

Mr. Trinder said the form of lease which he had
handed in was silent altogether about game.

INIr. HuTLEY said it was a very serious thing to be
bound to keep game for other people. Anything which
went forth from this club ought to be for the benefit of
the agricultural body at large ; and he held that the man
who maintained the game ought to be allowed to shoot it
(hear, hear).

The Chairman said he believed it had been held in
all cases that, unless the lease reserved to the landlord
the entire right to the game, and precluded the tenant
altogether from sporting, he (the tenant) was not pre-
cluded (hear). They could not suppose that a gentle-
man who was fond of game would give up his right in
this respect : a gentleman often invested his money in
an estate for the sole pleasure of shooting ; and if lie
(Mr. Baker) had an estate which he was about to let, he
would certainly reserve this right. He would not pre-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

463

elude the tenaiit from shooting, but he would reserve the
right for himself also {tiear, hear),

Mr. Thomas next rose and said : gentlemen might,
perhaps, think him, as rather anew member of this club,
almost intruding, but no one had listened more atten-
tively than he had to the remarks which Mr. Beadell
had made in opening this question, and he would, with
the permission of the meeting, offer a few observations
on the subject before them (hear, hear). In the greater
portion of that gentleman's remarks he perfectly agreed,
and, with respect to leases, thought it quite true that it
was possible to put upon one single skin all that was
necessary (hear, hear.) In fact he happened to hold a
lease of that description, for the principle had been
acted upon in his part of the country (Bedfordshire). He
conceived that therewas no one in that room but would ad-
mit that a lease was indispensably necessary to the tenant ;
but before drawing up a lease it was very necessary to
consider what the demands of manure would be. For
he apprehended that the rent of farms which were near
enough to towns readily to obtain a large supply of
manure, should differ from those which had not this ad-
vantage. Another important point was, the character of
the person to whom the landowner was about to consign
his land ; and before he let it, it was his bounden duty
to inquire into this ; and he (Mr. Thomas) thought that
no tenant ought to regard it as any slur upon him if the
landlord inquired into his means before he let him the
farm (hear, hear). Then, as to the point that no one
ought to take more land than he had capital to farm well ;
in that he quite coincided, especially at a time when there
was so much political tergiversation, and one could hardly
believe in the professions of statesmen, or trustthemto the
length of one's arm on the extent of a tether (//ea/-)- Anew
plan had recently been adopted of letting farms on a 16
or 20 years' lease ; and the rent of the first four years
was assessed at a certain number of quarters of wheat or
barley, according to the price of the period. At the ex-
piration of the first four years, the price of corn was
taken from the averages published in the Gazette, and
the rent again fixed ; and so on at the end of each four years
until the term of the lease had expired (Hear, hear).
This plan had not been adopted without very long and
very mature consideration ; and he must say upon re-
flection, that he did not think a system more honest and
more satisfactory could be found (Hear). Now with
regard to the period for which a lease ought to be
granted, he thought it must be clear to every one, that a
termless than 16 or 20 years was scarcely sufficient to allow
the tenant to reap the reward which he ought to receive for
his exertions(Aear). He ought to have that fixity of tenure
which would inspire every farmer with hope, and give
him a pleasure, in cultivating his farm, which he could
not have if he thought it would pass out of his hands
{Hear, hear). In leases of farms upon which there was
land which wanted draining, the landlord might, in de-
fault of the tenant doing it, enter upon the farm, drain
the land, and charge him G per cent, for the outlay; and he
did not think that the tenant could complain of the out-
lay which his own neglect had caused his landlord to
make for him. With regard to the sale of straw and hay

on the farm, the practice with him was to bring back a
certain quantity of dung in lieu of it. On the subject
of mowing clover twice, he begged to say that in the
case of red clover, lie had found it more profitable to
mow it than to feed it down with sheep ; indeed, he
never in one instance found that the crops of wheat had
not been finer and larger than when fed down by sheep
{Hear, hear). Respecting the question of game, he
must say that he felt strongly : to introduce an enor-
mous quantity of game on a farm was, in some instances,
almost equal to doubling the rent ; and when a land-
lord chose to keep a large stock of game, the efforts of
the farmer must become almost paralyzed. He trusted
that he should never hold up his hand for a lease in
which the landlord kept a quantity of game, and claimed
the right of killing it all himself (i/ear, hear, and cheers).
A plan had recently been hit upon in his neighbourhood,
which was found to work very well : it was an arrange-
ment to the effect that the landlord should shoot all the
feathered game, and the tenant all the quadrupeds ;
and this appeared to give satisfaction to both parties
(Hear). He thought this was sound in principle, and
calculated to keep up good feeling between landlord and
tenant {Hear, and cheers).

Mr. Wood said that after the able remarks which they
had just had addressed to them, he felt some diflSdence
in offering any observations. He did not, however, see
the necessity in any new form of lease for tying the far-
mer down to any particular system of cultivation, al-
though it might be very well to prescribe what particular
crops should be taken so as to prevent deterioi'ation by
over-cropping (hear). He quite agreed with Mr.
Beadell's observations with regard to drav/ing short
leases so as to do away with the lawyers {hear, and
laughter).

Mr. Beadeli, : I did not say I wished to do away
with the lawyers {renewed lavghler). I said, let the
lawyers attend to the legal part of the lease. I know
nothing about law myself, and think it would be quite
impossible that a lease could be well drawn without a
lawyer. But what I was anxious to enforce was, that
a lease could be as well drawn on one skin as on five or
six {hear).

Mr. Woon : Well then, I will give it as my own
opinion, that it would be well to do away with the law-
yers in drawing leases (hear, and laughter). I think it
much more the business of a land-agent than a lawyer ;
and the fact of there being an act of parliament to allow
land-agents to do so without incurring penalties, shows
that the legislature is of the same opinion as I am {hear,
hear). With regard to a corn rent — I think there are
many means of preventing loss by increase or decrease
in the value of money. We all know that many persons
have been ruined by the fluctuations in the value of
money, and not by their own want of providence or
skill. I think it might be defined in this way— I won't
state this as my own notion : it was mentioned to me by
a friend of mine, as a plan for paying a fixed money rent
half-yearly, of a certain sum, say £"250 -At the end of
five years, take the average Gazette prices of so many
bus^iels of wheat, beans, oats, or barley, according to

464

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the nature of the land ; then strike a balance between the
amount paid in pounds sterling, and the amount accord-
ing to the value of the corn, the landlord or tenant pay-
ing the difference as the case may be (hear). I think
this would be a very good way of obviating any
difficulty with respect to manures, draining, and general
improvements of the farm ; these may easily become at ;
and the value might be arrived at with greater accuracy,
if the tenant, in carrying out his manures, sent in from
time to time an account of the same, so as to enable the
landlord to ascertain the quantity and quality ; for there
is a vast difference in manures, and in some places it is
little better than wet straw .

Mr. Beadell : Not in Essex — that is not the case
in Essex f/<ea»-, and a laugh).

Mr. Wood : It is, under present circumstances, very
difficult for the land-valuer to ascertain the worth of the
manure ; but if an account were sent in by the tenant,
as I propose, there would be a much better opportunity
of ascertaining it. Therefore, I suggest that an account
of the dung should be sent in every six months, as also
of the value of the draining, in respect of which com-
pensation would be claimed. I perfectly coincide in all
that has been said about game and farm buildings. I
have merely thrown out the suggestion for sending in
accounts in order to prevent things from being over-
valued to the incoming tenant, as they too often are,
from the fact of the valuer not having sufficient means
of judging {hear, hear).

The Chairman' : The valuer generally examines the
workmen on the farm upon these matters, and does not
content himself with the statement of the out-going ten-
ant merely.

Mr. Beadell said, he thought the suggestion of Mr.
Wood, respecting a corn rent, deserving attention, on
account of its fairness ; but at the same time he regarded
it as impracticable. A settlement after allowing matters
to run on for four years would be very inconvenient.
With respect to his proposition for having accounts sent
in every six months, it reminded him very much of a
covenant which he had found in a lease, binding down
the tenant to keep a regular " field book " — a book to
show the cultivation of every separate portion of the
farm. But when the farmer was asked for his field-
book, his reply was, "Oh, I never kept one " (hear, and
a laic(/h); and he thought it very probable that, if Mr.
Wood's suggestion were acted on, when the book was
required, the same answer would be returned,

Mr. Wood said he conceived that his plan, if tried,
would not be found quite so Utopian as Mr. Beadell
appeared to think.

Mr. Beadell said he did not think it Utopian ; he
thought it impracticable.

Mr. Wood thought the tenant would readily enough
find means of sending in such accounts ; and by those ac-
counts, and the adoption of the principle of a corn rent,
he would be able to protect himself.

The Chaiuman thought that an adjustment of ac-
counts might take place every year ; a certain sum might
be paid at the time, and an adjustment made after-
wards.

Mr. Edward Aitcheson was of opinion that that
would lead to quarrels and squabbles — the very thing
which they wished to avoid. Nothing was more objec- A
tionable than the landlord and tenants having to come to- '
gether too often ; it was sure to engender ill-feelmg, and
in the end to lead to a sort of hatred between them (hear,
hear). He would make a few observations, now that he
was up, on the question immediately before them. He
had had occasion to see a great many leases in his time,
and he never found any good to arise from a lengthened
lease (hear, hear). His own opinion was, that any man
who could read and write was capable of drawing as good
a lease upon a sheet of foolscap as upon twenty skins.
For his own part he thought he could as well draw up a
sound and clear lease for a farm of a thousand acres upon
a sheet of foolscap, as he could upon any number of
skins of parchment {hear). It had been suggested by
their excellent chairman that the incoming tenant should
be allowed to come upon the farm, and sow seeds and
green crops, before the outgoing tenant had quitted it.
Now he (Mr. Aitcheson) saw many reasons for objecting
to the interference of the two tenants upon one farm at
the same time (hear). He should much rather pay the
o^jtgoing tenant upon a valuation for doing this. The
man who held the farm ought to have an uninterrupted
right to everything until he went out {hear, hear). He
was not prepared at that moment to show them one of
his short leases ; but at the meeting of the committee he
should be very happy to produce a lease written upon a
sheet of foolscap paper, which he thought would contain
all that was necessary in any lease whatever (hear, and
cheers).

The Chairman said that allowing the incoming
tenant this privilege would often prevent a great deal of
disagreement, which he had seen between the incoming
and outgoing tenants, at the close of the term of a lease.
The outgoing tenant had the power of sowing turnips or
coleseed, judiciously or not, as he chose; and he had
known instances in which the outgoing tenant had, from
some pique against the incoming tenant, sown the seeds
upon the very lands on which they ought not to have been
sown ; and when remonstrated with, had replied, that
he could sow them where he liked, or that he had done
so to the best of his judgment (hear). To prevent
mischief of this kind, he would allow the incoming tenant
to sow the seeds himself; or at all events it might be
arranged that the incoming tenant should have the
option of selecting the ground upon which they should
be sowed ( hear) . With regard to the arrangement for
a corn-rent, he (Mr. Baker) could not help thinking Mr.
Wood's plan very objectionable, as going over a period of
four years; the difference then to be adjusted might
amount to a year's rent. He thought it was much better
that an adjustment should take place at the end of one
year than at the end of four years. If the averages were
taken at the end of each year, the matter could be settled
and done with (hear). They might always take an
average of three years in coming to this arrangement,
because in doing so all that would be necessary was, to
strike off the first, and add the last (hear, hear). The
only objection to a corn-rent was the trouble it gave ; but

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

465

the course which he had pointed out was a plaiu and easy
method for arriving at a fair conclusion (hear) .

Mr. Edward Aitchhson remarked that if upon Mr.
Wood's plan tlieie should, at the end of four or five
years, be a serious balance against the tenant, he might
not find it very convenient to pay it (hear).

Mr. Wood : But he would have bad the advantage of
it in the meantime.

Mr. Edward Aitchi:son : Yes ; but if he had been
a prudent farmer, he would have expended the money on
the farm {hear, hear).

Mr. Fisher Hobbs said he was sotry to see that a
subject of so much importance to the tenant farmer as
that which had been fixed for discussion this evening,
had not mustered a more numerous attendance of the
members of this club(/<ear); and whilst there were
many things of which he highly approved in the proceed-
ings of the night, he did not think that they had gone
far enough for the encouragement and improvement of
agi-iculture in the present day. He did think that while
every protection ought, doubtlessly, to be given to
the landlord, every possible encouragement ought to be
given to the skilful and enterprising tenant also (cheers).
He did hold that the leases brought forward were such
as were applicable to years past, and not such as ought
to be recommended for a long term of years, to com-
mence at the present time ; as agricultural knowledge
progressed, such encouragement ought to be given as
should enable the tenant farmer to go on at the same
rate (hear, hear). There was a great difference between
the old, sluggish, indolent tenant, who would not help
himself, and the skilful man and man of property, who
wished to make the land produce as much as nature
would allow it {hear, hear) ; and he thought, in recom-
mending any particular form of lease as emanating from
this club, they ought not to lay down any particular re-
strictions as to cropping, out only to lay down such
rules as would prevent the deterioration of the property
{hear). He (Mr. Hobbs) was one of those who thought
the old four-course system was very fast wearing out.
He thought that they ought never, under any considera-
tion whatever, to have two white straw crops together.
But there were so many new roots and new crops an-
nually brought forward, that the farmer ought not to be
tied down to any particular system of white straw or
pulse crops, to which these forms of lease did tie him
down ; they also compelled him to consume the roots
upon the farm. He thought they could not well farm
too high ; and that it was most advantageous to sell off
the root crops. They were often taunted about Scotch
farming. Why, in Scotland, the root crops were the
most profitable things they had. The tenant ought to
have every facility which it was possible to give him in
his operations, short of exhausting the land {hear, hear).
With regard to permanent improvements, such as drain-
age, they ought to be performed by scientific men, or
by a company of men, and not by the tenant {hear).
He thought it would be advantageous to both parties if
the landlord were to do tlie drainage, and the tenant
were to pay him a certain rate of interest for the outlay.
He could not, however, agree with Mr. Thomas, that

the landlord ought to ask 6 per cent. ; 5 per cent, was
ample and abundant, and he did not think this club
would be justified in recommending more than 5 per
cent, (hear, hear). With regard to buildings, he did
not think the tenant could afford to pay rent for his land
unless the landlord erected good farm-buildings, or en-
couraged him to erect them himself (hear). With respect
to game, he was one of those who thought that a vast
deal of injury was done to the tenantry of the country
by game ; much more, indeed, than the public were ge-
nerally aware of (hear, hear). In Norfolk, last year,
he heard of instances of the game injuring the tenant
neai'ly to the amount of the rent of the land. He was
not one of those who would say that the land-
lord should not have the right to come upon
his own land, but there should be some limit to the ex-
tent of preserving game. With regard to compensation
being allowed to the tenant for his unexhausted improve-
ments at the expiration of the term of his lease, very
little had been said ; he supposed that was attributable
to the fact of the question of tenant-right having so re-
cently come before the Club {hear). He hoped that that
would be a point which would be strongly recommended
in any new form of lease ; for he contended that the skil'
ful and persevering tenant ought, if he left unex-
hausted improvements upon the farm, to be remu-
nerated for them {loud cheers). A proper form of lease
would be a most advantageous thing ; he was perfectly
satisfied that throughout his own county, and probably
throughout England, a good form of lease would be the
means of increasing the cultivation to the extent of 10
per cent, {hear, hear.) He hoped and trusted that a
form of lease would be adopted by this Club ; for if one
were adopted he felt certain that the gentlemen of the
legal profession would be very glad to follow it out
(hear). He had talked upon the subject to legal gen-
tlemen in the metropolis, who had told him that they
should be glad to adopt such a form of lease for their
clients if they knew that it was framed upon a sound
principle (hear, hear).

Mr. Trinder impressed upon the Club that it would
be highly desirable that each member should take a copy
of Mr. Baker's form of lease, and write his observations
or suggested improvements upon it, which might be dis-
cusssed at a meeting to be called at some future day
{hear). If Mr. Baker would favour him with a copy of
it, he promised that he would do so.

The Chairman repeated that he had had it printed
for that purpose, and there were copies on the table for
all who chose to take them.

Mr. Cobb said he thought that it was utterly impossi-
ble to frame any form of lease which would apply to all
parts of the country. He was himself a Kentish farmer,
and in Kent two white-straw crops were not objected to.
They there used a great many fish as manure, and fal-
lowed only once in seven years. He was aware that the
gentleman who had opened the question (Mr. Beadell)
would not give them any great credit for the manage-
ment of stock, but he was quite sure he would say
nothing against their farming (" Hear, hear," and a
lauylt). In Kent they went upon this principle — What

466

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ought to restrict a good farmer? Nothing {cheers).
To restrict a good farmer in his operations was the worst
thing they could do {hear, hear). In the case of a farm
belonging to Sir Edward Knatchbull (a name well-known
to them all), the tenant went to him, and said he had
been doing a great deal to improve the land , and he
thought that he ought to have a lease. The result was
that Sir Edward gave him a lease ; he did not know the
precise conditions of it, but it was a continuing lease
from seven years to seven years. When Michaelmas
arrived, at the end of seven years, if the landlord and
tenant still agreed, it went on for seven years more, and
so on {hear). With regard to the rate of interest to be
charged by the landlord on improvements, he agreed with
Mr. Hobbs, that 5 per cent, was quite sufficient (hear).

Mr. Thomas said that in mentioning 6 per cent, he
had merely stated the fact as to what was paid in a par-
ticular instance, without meaning to lay it down that 6
per cent, ought to be the rate of interest generally
charged for outlays upon drainage {hear, hear).

The Chairman, in conformity with their usual prac-
tice, now submitted a resolution for the adoption of the
meeting. He said it was very easy to frame a lease for
Kent, Sussex, Devonshire, Herefordshire, or any parti-
cular county ; but what they must do was to frame such
a lease as would apply to farms generally (hear). He
would read a resolution which he had sketched. This
he did ; and after some discussion and alteration it was
at length brought to the following terms : — " That leases
should be so framed as to give the tenant the fullest
scope for the management of his farm and security for
the capital invested in improvements, and at the same
time to give to the landlord protection from undue culti-
vation or injury to the farm. And this meeting is im-
pressed with the conviction that draining should be done

by the landlord, who should charge a moderate per
centage upon the outlay ; and also that leases are essen-
tial to the cultivation and beneficial occupation of land' '
(hear, hear).

Mr. AiTCHESoN thought it highly desirable that
draining should be done by the landlord.

Mr. Thomas objected to its being laid down in all
cases that the landlord do the draining. He had him-
self had an offer from his landlord to this effect, that he
(the landlord) would be at half the expense of the mate-
rials and half the cost of the labour, or he would do it
all himself and charge 6 per cent, upon the outlay. He
(Mr. Thomas) at once embraced the first part of the
proposition, and the landlord found half the tiles and
half the labour (hear).

Mr. HoBBs said his reason for thinking it better that
draining should be done by the landlord was, that far-
mers generally understood very little of the principle of
draining ; and on that very ground he did not think it
was safe for the landlord to find the tenant in tiles. It
was a part of labour which the tenant knew very little
about, and if they employed men whose whole time
was devoted to such operations it would be found more
advantageous both to the landlord and tenant {hear).
A person who did not understand the business would
put in 10/. worth of tiles where a skilful drainer would
not use more than 21. worth [hear, hear).

Mr. Wood suggested that they should omit altogether
that part of the resolution which related to the landlord's
doing the draining, for he really believed that the land-
lords had not the money {laughter).

The resolution in the above form was, however,
moved and seconded, and

The Chairman having put it to the meeting, it was
carried unanimously.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
Hanover-square, on Wednesday, 25th of March; present,
His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., in the chair ;
Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart.," M.P. ; T. Alcock,
Esq. ; Thos. Raymond Barker, Esq. ; John Benet,
Esq., M.P. ; F. Burke, Esq. ; Col. Challoner ; F. C.
Cherry, Esq.; H. Gibbs, Esq.; Professor Sewell;H.
S. Thompson, Esq.; S. Bencraft, Esq.; H. Burr>
Esq.; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; G. Vernon Har-
court, Esq., M.P. ; E. Hussey, Esq. ; C. Miles, Esq. ;
O. Ogilvie, Esq.; A. L. Potter, Esq. ; H. Price, Esq. ;
G. H. Ramsay, Esq. ; and T. Turner, Esq.

Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, M.P. , Chairman of the
Journal Committee, having reported the essay to which
the judges had awarded the Society's prize for a report
on the farming of Cambridgeshire, the sealed motto-
paper containing the name of the author of the successful
essay was opened by the Chairman in the presence of
the Council, and the adjudication found to stand as
follows : —

To Samuel Jonas, Esq., of Ickleton, near Saft'ron
Walden, the Prize of £""50, for his report on the
Farming of Cambridgeshire.

Farm-Yard Mantire. — Sir John Johnstone, Bart.,
M.P., agreeably with the arrangement of the Council, as
proposed at their last meeting, then introduced to the
noticeof the members present M. Ouvrard, the French
financier, at present on a visit to this country, and who
had been introduced to Sir John Johnstone by a friend
who was desirous that M. Ouvrard should have an op-
portunity of laying before the Council a plan of ma-
naging farm-yard manure, submitted to him by M.
Emile Encoutre, at present residing at No. -18, in the
Hay market, London.

M. Encoutre liaving remarked that the greater
number of farmers left their manure-heaps exposed to
the rain, while the smaller number covered them with
earth, but imperfectly, and without entirely preserving
them from injury and loss, was led to conceive that this
object would be most effectually attained by covering the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

467

whole of their surface with a layer of tar mixed with
lime. This covering, he imagined, would not only be a
complete protection against the rain, but would also
tend to the attainment of the following objects : 1.
The retention of those exhalations which have nitrogen
for their chief element, and, in a manuring point of
view, are of the greatest value. 2. The watering of the
heap by different manuring liquids produced on the
farm, or furnished from other sources, should a defi-
ciency exist. 3. Tlie acceleration of the fermentation
and decay of the heaps by passing through them differ-
ent pipes heated by means of steam to a temperature
ranging from 60® to 70 ° F., and supplied by a boiler,
of which the original price would not be more than 21.
or 3/. M. Encoutre also stated that the grain, before
being sown, was immersed in a solution of gelatine and
starch diluted with brine, and then sprinkled with the
manure reduced to a dry and powdery state. Having
given this account of his plan, he proceeded to detail the
practical results which had been obtained in France by
its adoption ; from v.'hich it appeared : — 1. That only
one-sLxth of manure thus prepared would be required in
comparison with the quantity of common farm-yard ma-
nure usually applied for the same extent of surface. 2.
That the produce of corn was found to be one-fifth
greater where his manure had been used. 3. That after
two years the same land was found to require only one-
half of the original manurings to keep it in the same
condition. 4, That the expence attending the applica-
tion of this new manure was 8s. per acre. M. Encoutre,
in conclusion, requested the Council to appoint one or
more farms in different parts of the country where his
experiments might be repeated, and the value of his
plan brought to the test of practical trial, expressing bis
willingness to give his personal attendance at each of the
places selected, and to instruct the parties appointed to
make the trial in the proper mode of proceeding.

M. Ouvrard then received of the Council their thanks
to M. Encoutre, for his attention in submitting this
plan to their notice ; and availed himself of a sugges-
tion that was made to him, that on the experimental
farm connected with the Royal Agricultural College, at
Cirencester, it might probably be at once submitted to
the practical trial required by its inventor.

Gorse for Sheep. — Mr. Sandham EUy, of Elly
Walks, near New Ross, in Ireland, the author of a paper
on gorse as food for cattle, in the last part of the So-
ciety's Journal (p. 523), communicated to tbe Council
the result of an experiment he had made in feeding
sheep on that substance — the first instance he believed
either in Ireland or England of sheep sold in market
fattened on gorse. The sheep, wedders of two years
old, were put into a stall in the bullock-house in the
last week in December, in fair average condition. They
had a feed of beet in the morning, and three feeds of
prepared gorse in the everdng of each day, until the
last week in February, when they were sold fat to the
butcher, and realized 30s. on the lot. The beet was
given as a variety of food, and occupied the time during
which the gorse was undergoing preparation. The
mutton proved to have an excellent flavour, of the wild

mountain kind, and its chief excellence consisted in the
abundance of rich gravy it contained. Mr. Elly ex-
pressed himself so well satisfied with this result of his
experiment, that it was his intention next year to go
more largely into the speculation.

Miscellaneous Communications, — 1. From Mr.
Thompson, giving notice that at the monthly meeting of
the Council, on Wednesday next, he intended to propose
some arrangements regarding the lectures to be given to
the members at the ensuing country meeting at New-
castle.

2. From Sir Trayton Drake, Bart., reporting that,
on his farm at Nixtwell Court, in Devonshire, Swedish
Turnips, cut into slices by the Turnip-cutter, were em-
ployed in their raw state as an excellent food for his
horses ; and that, boiled in a copper and mashed into a
pulp, his pigs thrived on them very well.

3. From Mr. Johnson, of Farnham, stating that land
sown with White Mustard, and fed oft' with sheep, had
become perfectly free from moles and wireworms, with
which it had previously been constantly infested.

4. From Mr. Fisher Ilobbs, Mr. Jonas, Captain Gar-
land, Mr. White, Mr. R. W. Baker, Mr. Fuller, M.P.,
and Mr. H. Manning, undertaking to make trial of the
Australian Wheat and Barley sent to the Society for
that purpose, and to report the result to the Council ;
Mr. F. S. Dutton undertaking to furnish to the Council
the result of Dr. lire's analysis of each of those sup-
plies.

5. From Mr. John Towflley, papers on the Potato
disease ; and on the question, whether varieties of
plants propagated by extension wear out.

6. From the Royal Agricultural Society at Prince
Edward Island : a copy of their Annual Report, trans-
mitted through His Grace the Duke of Richmond.

7. From Mr. Milberg, of Jever, Hanover: a notice
of the new cultivator invented by him.

8. From Mr. Pusey, M.P., transmitting the thanks
of the honorary members eleeted at the previous
monthly Council, for the honour of their election, and
their desire to promote the objects of the Society ; also
Professor Graham's especial wish to promote the views
and investigations of the Society in those branches of
science to which he is himself more particularly at-
tached.

9. From Mr. Raymond Barker, a notice, that at the
next meeting of the Council, he should move an adjourn-
ment over the Easter Recess, from the 1st to the 22nd
of April.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 1st
of April.

A monthly Council was held at the Society's House,
in Hanover-squre, on Wednesday ; present, Thos.
Raymond Barker, Esq., in the chair; Sir John V. B.
Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; S. Bennett, Esq. ; T. W.
Bramston, Esq.. M.P. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; J. F.
Burke, Esq. ; Col. Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; J.
Evelyn Denison, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B. T.
B. Gibbs, Esq. ; S. Grantham, Esq. ; C. Hillyard,
Esq. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; W. H. Hyett, Esq. ;

468

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

S.Jones, Esq. ; J. Kinder, Esq.; F. Pym, Esq. ; J.
A. Ransome, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; H. S. Thompson,
Esq. ; G. Wilbraham, Esq. ; and G. H. Ramsay, Esq.
Finances.^The Report of the Finance Committee
was read and adopted ; from which it appeared that, at
the end of the month just ended, the amount of stock
invested in the public funds, in the names of the Trus-
tees of the Society, stood at 7,000/., and the current
cash-balance in the hands of the Society's bankers, at
1^598;. — Colonel Challoner also laid before the Council
the official return on the annual income of the Society,
for which he had moved at a previous meeting.

Prize Essay. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., chairman of the
Journal Committee, transmitted to the Council the
motto of the Essay on the " Drainage of Running
Sands," to which the judges had awarded the Society's
prize of 10/. for the best essay in that class ; and the
sealed motto-paper being opened by the chairman in
presence of the Council, it was ascertained that the
author of the winning essay in question was Mr. William
Linton, of Sheriff Hutton, near York, who was declared
by the Council to be the successful competitor for that
prize.

Newcastle Authorities. — Tlie agreement between the
Mayor and Corporation of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and
the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in reference
to the arrangements for the ensuing country meeting of
the Society to be held at that place in the middle of July
next, was received from Messrs. ^Uarke, Fynmore, and
Fladgate, the solicitors of the society ; and having been
read to the Council, and signed by the Chairman, the
Great Seal of the Society was affixed to the document in
the presence of the Council, and the Secretary authorised
to complete the agreement by the addition of his signa-
ture in the name and on behalf of the Society, agreeably
with the terms of the Charter.

Newcastle Lecttires and Discussions. — Mr. Thomp-
son then moved, agreea'oly with the notice he had given
at the previous Council, for the appointment of a com-
mittee to make arrangements for lectures and discus-
sions on agricultural subjects at the ensuing meeting at
Newcastle. He stated that one of the main reasons
that had induced him to make this motion was his con-
viction that, although the Society had been very suc-
cessful in bringing together first-rate exhibitions of stock
and implements, it had not yet succeeded in producing a
free interchange of opinion 'amongst practical men, or
anything approaching to adequate discussion on the
disputed questions in agriculture— one of the principal
arguments used to justify the laying out of so large a
sum annually in premiums at the Show having been
that such outlay was absolutely necessary to induce
practical men to assemble from distant parts of the
country, and that when so assembled they would as-
suredly both impart and receive benefit from intercom-
munication and discussion with each other. Mr.
Thompson, however, need scarcely ask whether this
expectation had been realised. In the Show-yard, or
at the trial of implements, the little conversation that
took place was, he believed, chiefly carried on acciden-
tally, and between such parties only as were locally

known to each other, from the circumstance of their
having come to attend the meeting from the same
county, or even from the same neighbourhood; where-
as, he conceived, the object of the Society was to induce
persons living at a distance from one another to practise
different systems, and to compare their respective
opinions, so that those who could satisfactorily show
their practice to be the best, might induce others to fol-
low their example, while they, on the other hand, might
themselves be led to abandon such parts of their own
system as could not rationally be defended against the
advocates of other views. The arrangements which
had already been made with a view to the attainment
of that object, and the methods tried by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England and other associa-
tions to render them successful, had been of three
kinds, namely — 1. Ijcctures; 2. Discussions after din-
ner or breakfast (as practised by the Highland and
Yorkshire Societies) ; 3. Sections : in the system fol-
lowed by the British Association, where each of the great
branches of science has a separate lecture room allotted
to it, in which papers approved of by a committee of se-
lection are read, and followed by discussion. The plan
first mentioned, that of giving lectures, though very
useful in imparting to many the information possessed
by the lecturer, was, in Mr. Thompson's opinion, utterly
inefficient in the equally important object of eliciting
truth by the conflict of opinion and the comparison of
facts : in other words, that discussion led to the ac-
quisition of knowledge— lectures to the diffusion of that
already acquired. Attempts, he was aware, had been
made to combine these advantages, by means of a dis-
cussion after the lecture ; but in all cases that had come
to his knowledge, that object had been defeated by the
length of the lecture; the attention was fatigued by lis-
tening for an hour or even more ; and with the exception
of a few brief questions to the lecturer, the audience
were found unwilling to recommence the subject. The
second plan, that of discussions at table, though found
to answer in cases where the numbers were limited to a
moderate amount, would, he feared, be found impracti-
cable on a large scale. The inconvenience of providing
breakfast or dinner for a large and uncertain number of
guests, and the difficulty of carrying on a discussion in a
room large enough to accommodate 400 or 500 persons
at table, were, he thought, sufficient objections to such
an arrangement. The method followed by the British
Association seemed best adapted to attain the object in
view ; and with some modifications, he thought the ad-
vantages of lectures might be combined with those result-
ing from the reading of papers and discussion. He con-
sidered that it would be one main point to have the lec-
tures short, and to have it clearly understood that such
lectures should be only the opening of the subject and
commencement of the business of the meeting. These,
however, he regarded as matters of detail only, which he
would willingly leave to the committee ; his main object
was to obtain the sanction of the Council to the princi-
ple for which he contended, and the appointment of a
committee for the purpose of working it out in its prac-
tical details. The following committee on this subject,

I'HK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

469

agreeably with Mr. Thompson's motion, wms then nji-
pointed, with instructions to report to the Council at
the next monthly meeting, on the 6th of May ; namely :

T.ori4 r'irtninii. rrcsidciit
J)uke of Richmond
liOrd Bra\ljrooke

Hciirv Hiitidlcv. Kifj.
AV. H. Hyctt/Ksq.
(i. KimbTlcT, ]i^i[.
('. K. liC'frov, Esq.
W. Miles, Esq., U.V.
I'liilip Fusey, Esq., JI.l'.
U.S. 'J'lionipsoii, Esq.
W. Youatt, Esq.

lion. K ii.cuvc, :M.r.

^k ('liark-s Ecnioii, Bart, M.V.
Sir John V. B. Jolnistonc,

Bart., M.r.
J. F. Burke, Esq.
J.W. Cliildcrs, Esq,, :M.1'.

The Council resolved that Mr. Pusey should be re-
quested to accept the office of Chairman of the Com-
mittee.

Rotation of Districts. — The Report of the Com-
mittee on the Rotation of Districts for the Country
Meetings of the Society having been read, Colonel
Challoner, in the absence of Mr. Pu>5ey, brought for-
ward the motion of which Mr. Pusey had given notice
at the last Monthly Council, on the inexpediency of
holding a country meethig in the South-Wales district
in the year 1847, as originally intended by the Council,
on account of the contiguity of that district to the one
in which the meeting of last year was held at .Shrews-
bury, and of the total absence of that railway com-
munication between South Wales and the English coun-
ties, which the Council now regard as essentially con-
nected with the success of the meeting, and the advan-
tages to be derived from it by the farmers of the district.
This motion, having been seconded by Mr. S. Bennett,
was unanimously agreed to.

Country Meeting of 1847. — That portion of the
Report of the Rotation of Districts' Committee refer-
ring to the meeting of 1847, was then adopted; the
schedule, in reference to the districts proposed for the
eight subsequent years being left for consideration at
the next monthly meeting.

The district for the County Meeting of 1847 was
then declared to be that comprised by the counties of
Northampton, Huntingdon, Bedford, Hertford, Oxford,
Warwick, Berks, and Buckingham ; and the Secretary
was directed by the Council to communicate a state-
ment of this cii'cumstance to the authorities in each of
the cities and corporate towns throughout the district.
The Council also resolved, that the President should be
requested to summon a Special Council for Wednesday,
the 22nd inst., at one o'clock, for the purpose of re-
ceiving memorials from the authorities of such cities or
corporate towns in the district as were desirous that the
Council should select one of their respective localities
as the place of holdinjr the Country Meeting of next
year ; and of referring the documents so received, with
such instructions as the Council may decide, to a Com-
mittee for the inspection of the various sites proposed
for the occasion by the authorities of the respective
cities or towns making such application to the Council,
by the date of that Special Meeting. The Committee to
consist of the following gentlemen : —

Earl Spencer W. R. Broome, Esq.

J. V. Shelley, Esq, B. T. B. Gibbs, Esq., or

T. Raymond Barker, Esq. Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.
S, Druce, Esq.

Tlie final decision of tiic que.^^tion of the particular place
of tlic Meeting lor 1847 being left, agreeably with the
bye laws, to the Monthly Council, on the Gth of March.

Plenro-Pneuinonia. — Prof. Se well, at the request of
the Council, reported a communication received from
Mr. Murray Blacker, in Suffolk, on the subject of the
prevalence of the pleuro -pneumonia amongst cattle.
Prof. Sewell and Mr. Simonds (Lecturer on Cattle Pa-
thology at the Royal Veterinary College), had fully
considered that communication, and were of opinion
that the cases alluded to by iNIr. Blacker as originating
from the introduction among his stock of two newly-
purchased cows, one of which became affected in one
mouth, and tlie other in two months, after their purchase,
were not the result of infection ; for had infection taken
place the attack would, in their opinion, have taken
place in a few days. Prof. Sewell referred to the
opinion he had stated on former occasions, that this dis-
order generally yields to early depletion, when recourse
is had to that measure in due time.

INIr. D. Robertson's letter " On the conditions under
which it would be most desirable that the prize of the
Society for thorough-bred Stallions should be oflered,"
was ordered to be reserved for consideration until
December, when the prizes for ne.\t year would be taken
into consideration and decided.

Mr. Agnew, of IManchester, presented to the Council
a framed impression of one of the first-class proofs
of h's engraving after the painting of the " Country
Meeting" of the Society, for which the Council ordered
their best thanks to be returned.

INIr. Browne called the attention of the Council to
sound new potatoes grown by INIr. Fuller, M.P., in
Sussex, from diseased potatoes planted in frames.

Mr. Holland, of Dumbleton Ilall, presented copies of
the form of lease proposed by a committee of the Vale
of Evesham Agricultural Association.

The Council then adjourned, over the Easter recess,
to ^^'ednesday, the 22nd of April.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-square on Wednesday, the 22nd April;
present — the Right Hon. Lord Portman, President, in the
chair ; his Grace the Duke of Richmond ; Earl Spencer ;
Viscount Hill ; Lord Braybrooke ; Hon. R. H. Clive,
M.P. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; T.
Alcock, Esq. ; D. Barclay, Esq., M.P. ; T.Raymond
Barker, Esq. ; John Raymond Barker, Esq. : S. Ben-
nett, Esq.; T. W. Bramston, Esq, M.P. ; W. R.
Browne, Esq. ; Colonel Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq.;

E. D. Davenport, Esq. ; C. Hiljyard, Esq. ; W. Fisher
Hobbs, Esq. ; J. Hudson, Esq. ; G. Kimberley, Esq. ;
John Kinder, Esq. ; J. H. Langston, Esq., M.P. ; Col.
MacDouall ; W. Miles, Esq., ^LP. ; R. Milward, Esq. ;

F. Pym, Esq. ; Professor Sewell; S. Solly, Esq. ; W.
R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P. ; C. Tawney, Esq.; T.
Beale Browne, .Esq. ; C'apel Cure, Esq. ; A. E. Fuller,
Esq., M.P. ; A. Majendie, Esq.; A. Ogilvie, Esq.; T.
Turner, Esq. ; and T. R. Tweed, Esq.

Prize Essays. — Mr. Fusey, M.P., chairman of the
Journal Committee, transmitted to the Council the re-

2 H

470

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ports of the Judges in the Classes of Essays on Grass-
lands and Measure Work, from \vhich it appeared that
the adjudications stood as follow :—
I. — Grass Lands.

1. Prize. — The Essay bearing the motto, " Improvements but

not Innovations."

2. Highly Commended. — Ditto " Labor omnia vincit."

3. Commended. — Ditto " Esse-posse-prodessc."

4. Commended. — Ditto "And the land shall

yield its increase."

5. Commended. — Ditto "RodericU deValerffi."

Jl.'—Mensure Work.
1. Prixe. — The Essay bearing the motto, '• Experientia Docet."
The President then opened the sealed motto-papers
containing the names of the authors, corresponding
re!^pectively with the prize essnysineach of these classes,
when the following adjudications were declared and con-
firmed : —

I. To Mr. John Bravender, surveyor, &c., of Ciren-
cester, Gloucestershire, the .'Society's Prize of 50/.,
for the best Essay on the " Advantages or Disad-
vantages of Breaking-up Grass Land."
JI. To Mr. Hugh Raynbird, of Hengrave, near Bury
St. Edmund's, Suffolk, the Society's Prize of 20/ ,
for the best Essay on " Measure Work (locally
known as Task, Piece, Job, or Grate Work), in its
Application to Agricultural Labour j detailing the
various descriptions of such work to which any
system of measure is applicable, the rates usually
paid, and the sum usually earned in a given time,
and comparing the effects of such payment with
those arising from the payment of wages by time
on the direct interest of the employer, and espe-
cially on the habits, comforts, an(l general condition
of the employed : the whole deduced as much as
possible from personal experience, and affording to
parties unacquainted with the practice the means
of estimating its advantages, and the information
necessary for carrying it out."
The Council having also confirmed the commenda-
tions bestowed by the Judges upon the four Essays on
" Grass Lands," the President stated that the whole of
those communications were highly important and in-
teresting, and reflected great credit on their respective
authors, the Juc'ges having found it a difficult task to
decide betvvfeen the competing merits of the Essay to
which the prize h id at length been awarded and the one
which they had so "highly commended."— Colonel
Challoner trusted that an opportunity would be
afforded to the members of perusing these valuable
essays which had been thus strongly commended ;
and a hope was expressed generally, by the members
present, that the authors would place their respective
papers at the disposal of the Journal Committee for pub-
lication, and the general information of the Society.

Farmiiu; Accounts. — The Judges appointed to take
into consideration the various Essays sent in to compete
for the Society's Prize of 10/. for ihe best method of
keeping Farming Acc"unts, reported to the Council that
they did not feel justified in recommending any of the
Esiays submitted to them, as possessing sufficient merit

in reference to an exposition of such a system of keep,
ing Farming Accounts as would be considered wortliy of
the prize or the approbation of the Society.

The President then stated that, having conferred with
Mr. Tawuey, one of the auditors of accounts on the part
of the Society, and with Mr. Kimberley, a member of
the Council, he would, at the next monthly meeting,
submit to the considei'ation of the Council the propriety
and desirableness of appointing a special committee on
this important subject, with a request that such com-
mittee will report to the Council the result of their deli-
beration on the best and simplest mode in which the
accounts of a practicnl farmer can be kept in the most
clear and satisfactory manner.

Newcastle Authorities. — Messrs. Clark, Fynmore, and
Fladgate, solicitors to the Society, transmitted to the
Council the duplicate agreement from Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, signed by the Mayor, and impressed with the
great seal of the corporation of that town, in final ratifi-
cation of the terms of arrangement which had passed the
great seal of the Society at the last monthly meeting of
the Coun-;il.

Mr. Grey, of Dilston, Mr. Crosby, of Kivkbyth ore,
and Mr. Johnson, of Warkworth, having placed their
services at the disposal of the Council, in reference to
the carrying out of details connected with the ensuing
Country Meeting in the northern district, the Council
ordered their best thanks to be communicated to those
gentlemen respectively for their kind offers.

Mr. Joseph Rigg, of Abbey House, called the atten-
tion of the Council to the desirableness of measures being
taken as much as possible for the purpose of enabling the
ingenious but small implement maker, of limited means,
to exhibit the cheap, simple, and perhaps in many cases
most efficient implement, invented by him, at the
Country Meetings of the Society.

Conveyance to Newcastle. — The Secretary reported
to the Council the steps he had taken, pursuantly to the
order of the Council, for the purpose of obtaining in-
formation on the subject of conveyance by railways and
steamers from different parts of the kingdom to New-
castle-upon-Tyne. The various communications con
nected with tliese inquiries were laid before the Council,
who directed that when replies from the whole of the
parties to whom application has been made shall have
been received, the Secretary be requested to include the
points of information thus obtained, in the classed form
of schedule, to be transmitted to the several exhibiters
of stock and implements for their guidance.

Raihcay Liberality. — The Secretary then called the
particular attention of the Council to communications
he had received from Mr. Creed, secretary of the London
and Birmingham Railway Company; from Mr. Herbert,
secretary to the London and Do\er Railway Company }
and from Mr. Swan, secretary of the Newcastle, North-
Shields, and Tynemouth Railway Company, conveying,
in the most liberal and handsome terms, the great satis-
faction it gave to the chairman and board of directors of
their respective companies to be enabled to promote the
disintcrestecTand national objects of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, by granting a free transit

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

471

along their respective lines of railway to the stock and
implements intended bond fide for show at the country
meetings. The Duke of Richmond expressed the grati-
fication it gave him to hear of the great liberality which
these railway companies had thus shown towards the
Society, and he had much pleasure in moving that a
vote expressive of the best thanks of the Council, for
these communications, and of the high sense they enter-
tain of the value of these most liberal concessions, be
conveyed to the chairman and board of directors of these
railway companies respectively. This motion was car-
ried unanimously.

Naked Barley. — Tlie President laid before the Coun-
cil a communication received from the Horticultural
Society on the subject of the Hordeum tegoceras, a kind
of Naked Barley, raised in the Chiswick Gardens from
seeds transmitted to England by Captain JNIonro, who
stated them to have been obtained from " the finest
Barley grown by the Chinese Tartars." The seed thus
placed at the disposal of the President had not only
been distributed by him for trial among parties capable
of testing the value of the plant, but having himself re-
ceived from China, three years ago, a supply of the
sauie kind of seed through a relative of his neighbour,
the Earl of Ilchester, he had dibbled the two supplies
alongside each other, and in autumn he would I'eport to
the Council the result, and furnish seed for further trial.
In the mean time, he might state that as this Barley was
unfit for malting, he did not anticipate that it would be
of any further use in this country than as an early green
feed.

Chinese Itapesced and Oil. — The President also laid
before the Council a communication from the Horticul-
tural Society on the Brassica Chiuensis, or Shanghai
Oil-plant, a hardy annual, grown for the sake of its oil
over the whole country round that city, but which may
be cultivated in almost every kind of soil ; and though
of no importance in an horticultural point of view, may
be I'aised by farmers for feeding cattle, or on account of
the oil which it so abundantly yields. He had likewise
placed portions of this supply of seeds in the hands of
the Rev. A. Hucktable, and other parties, for trial, and
would report the result. The Council ordered their best
thanks to be transmitted to the Horticultural Society for
these communications, and for the supply of seeds, and
the first two parts of the Jounial of that Society, with
which they were accompanied.

Potato Experiments. — The President took that op-
portunity of communicating to the Council the results of
experiments on the growth of Potatoes from diseased
tubers, of which he had on a former occasion reported
the progress. Tiiese highly interesting and important
experiments will be detailed in all their circumstances
in a paper which his lordship expressed his intention of
preparing for publication in the Journal of the Society.
Among the results obtained by Lord Portman in tliese
experiments, the following striking facts may be briefly
stated : —

Where ej-es were planted which luul been scooped out,
but allowed to become stale, the greater part of them
have failed ; but where fresh eyes were planted, all of

them are growing. Of the autumn-planted potatoes all
are doing well in dry ground, but only half are doing
well in ground less friable, the other half proving rotten,
the same effect resulting under the latter condition, both
on and under farm -yard dung;, as well as in the case of
no farm-yard manure at all. All the produce of dis-
eased potatoes has proved to be sound and good ; even
that experimental portion of it which for the lact six
weeks prior to ripening has been exposed to a moist
beat, such experimental portion, instead of exhibiting
any tendency to disease under such condition, furnishing
on the contrary finer potatoes — not only sound and
mealy, but much superior both in size and quality.
From the tubers planted in a box in October, in dry
heat, five sprouts have been taken five times successively
from each tuber, and planted along with the original tubers
in the open ground for a crop : all the plants of this
multiplied crop are now growing luxuriantly.

Cretaceoio) Gypsum. — Mr. Moyle, of Western
Canada, addressed a further communication to the Coun-
cil on the subject of the results obtained by him in that
part of the world with the cretaceous gypsum, to which
he had refen-ed in his previous letters ; with an opinion,
that to the use of this cheap dressing he attributed the
great fertility of Canada, and a statement that on one of
his own fifty-acre fields, chiefly Wheat, he had last sum-
mer grown 40 bushels per acre ; the land of his farm
having been through the usual rotation of crops for the
previous nine years, and the portion on which this
Wheat was growir never having had any dressing what-
ever, excepting one bushel per acre annually of the cre-
taceous gypsum in question. At the suggestion of the
President, it was arranged that Mr, Moyle should be
requested to send a ton of tliis manure to the Society,
which would be tried by individual members of the
Council, and the practical result of its applicability to
the soils of this country ascertained.

Mr. Fuller, M.P., transmitted from the Rev. James
Williams one of the Potato-eye scoops used in North
Wales, along with a statement of his experience in the
improvement in the bulk of the Potato as food after the
extraction of the eye, around which the development of
the vegetative piinciple being the strongest, the removal
of such portion along with the eye removes, in his
opinion, the cause of that "strong" flavour found ia
the Potato at this season of the year,

Mv. Rogers, of Liverpool, transmitted a communica-
tion, suggesting the trenching of ground this year for
Potatoes.

Mr, Forsyth, gr. to the Earl of Shrewsbury, trans-
mitted a Pamphlet on the Culture and Economy of the
Potato, and also a communication on the subject of
Hay-making.

Tlic Commissioners of Excise presented 00 copies of
the Parliamentary Report on Feeding Cattle vath Malt,
for which mark of attention the Council ordered their
thanks to be returned.

TIic -Members of Council and Governors present then
proceeded to the business of the Special Council,

Special Council. — The Right Hon, Lord Portman,
President, in the Chair.

2 H 2

472

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The Secretary laid before the Council the various do-
cuments he had received from nine of the cities and cor-
porate towns situate within the district for the Country
Meeting of the Society in the year 1847, in consequence
of the communication into which, pursuantly to the in-
structions of the Council, he had entered with the
authorities respectively of those places.

The Council having taken into due consideration the
whole of these documents, at length selected such four of
the localities as appeared from the evidence furnished to
the Council to be the best suited for the purpose of the
Country Meeting of that year, to which the personal
visit of the Committee of Inspection should be directed,
and on the respective capabilities of which for such pur-
pose the Committee should be requested to report to the
2iIonth]y Council on the 6th of May next, when the
final selection of the place of meeting will, agreeably
with the bye-laws, be made.

Official agreements. — Mr. Miles, M.P., gave notice
that, at the next Monthly Council, he should move,
' ' That, in future, no agreement which may be entered
into with local authorities relative to the place of the
Annual Country Meeting shall be held good unless the
corporate seal, attested by the signature of the Mayor,
be applied to such document."

The Weekly Council adjourned to Wednesday, the
29th inst.

NEW j\IEMBERS.

Armstroug, Joseph, Higham-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Bmtou, Thomas, jun.,Thurton, Norwich
Cookson, Thomas, Swiuburne Castle, Hexham
Comins, Richard, Tiverton, Devoushirc
Crosby, John, Kirk-by-Thore, Appleby, Westmorelaud
CiUhbert, WilUam, Beaufront, Hexham, Northumberland
Darby, George, IMaskelye, "Warbletou, Sussex
Davison, William, Seatoa-Delava], North Shields, North-
umberland
Firth, John, jun., Weut«'orth, Rotlierham
Gibson, John, Hayes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tync
Gray, Alexander George, Newcastle-ou-Tyue
Greenfield, James, Brynderwyn, Usk, Monmouthshire
Haddon, Tliomas, Hampton-Lucy, Warwickshire
Hannam, John, North Deighton, Wetherhy, Yorkshire
Haselwood, William, Hoddesden, Hertfordshire
Hawkes, Mathew, ]\Ielton-Constable, Dereham, Norfolk
Hawks, George, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Johniou, T. C, Notton, Wakefield, Yorkshire
Lamothe, Frederick J. D., Ramsay, Isle of IMan
Lax, William, Kirkbridge, Stanixick-park, Darlington
Lnmsdeu, John, ^Moussen, Belford, Northumberland
Mansel, Lieut.-Colonel, Smedmorc, Corfe Castle, Dorset,
Mansel, John Clavel, Smediiore, Corfe Castle
Malins, George WalUngton Rich., Tlielsford, "\\'ellcubouraf,

'War'nickshire
Maughan, William, Harewood, Yorkshire
Milburn, John, Crawcrook, Ryton, Newcastle-ou-Tyue
Mitchell, John Hofife, Deans-Leaze, Witchampton, Wimbonic,

Dorsetshire
Moore, John, High House, Morpeth, Northumberland
Moor, J., Ackworth, AVakefield

Myers, Henry, Goldsboroxigh, Knaresborough, Yorkshire
Nixon, William, Uniou Hall, Newcastle-on-T^Tio

Pettat, Rev. Charles Richard, Askc Rectory, Overton, Hants

Potts, Forster Charlton, Whorlton, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Plummer, ^Matthew, Sheriff Hill, Newcastle-on-Tj> ne

Severn, John Percy, Penybout Hall, Radnorsliire

Smith, Thomas George, Toyston, Alnwick, Northumberland

Sower}-, Stephen, Shieldfield-house, Newcastle-ou-Tync

Stanton, John, Hayward's-field, Stroud, Gloucestershire

Tanner, A. O., Brook House, Edmonton, Middlesex

Taylor, Charles H., Bamburgh, Belford, Northumberland

Taylor, Hugh, Cramlington, Newcastle-ou-Tync

Woods, Richard, Osberton, Worksop, Notts. '■" ~

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S
MAGAZINE.

Sir, — A letter appears in the Farmer s Magazine
for April, written by Mr. James Main, the latter
part of \\'hich states a great error, in saying that
" at the present time the expenses of the miller and
baker constitute nearly seven-ninths of the cost of
the 4 lb. loaf;"' whereas, any practical man knows
that only two-ninths constitute the expenses of the
miller and baker, and seven-ninths the cost of the
wheat. I do not suppose any mistake was intended
by Mr. Main, and flatter myself this will show a
more correct statement.

A Constant Reader.

COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF THE SEVERAL
APPLICATIONS or IMILK.— .\llow mc to call your atten-
tion to the following extract from ]Mr. Morton's report of a
Gloucestershire '^'ale Farm, in a work published some years
ago, by the Society for the Ditfiision of L'seful Knowledge.
He says : — " In feeding cah es for the butcher, it generally takes
seven w eeks to feed tlicni to about a cwt. each ; and they con-
sume the following quantity of milk in the sc^en weeks : —
About 10 gallons the first week, 16 the second, 20 the third,
24 the fourth, 27 the fifth, 30 the sixth, and 32 the seventh ;
so that it takes 159, or say 160 gallons of milk, to produce
1 I21bs. of veal. The a^■erage mouey value of the various modes
of converting milk into a marketable commodity will stand
thus : —
100 gallons of milk prodnce 112 lbs. of

cheese, at 6d. per lb 2 10 0

And 5 lbs. of whey butter, at 8d. per lb.... 0 3 4

2 19 4

100 gallons of milk }idd 34 lbs. of butter,

at lOd.perlb 1 8 4

And of poor cheese 74 lbs. at 3d. per lb... 0 18 6

2 6 10

160 gallons of milk produce 112 lbs. of

veal, at 7id. per lb 3 10 U

But calves newly dropped are worth

(deduct) 0 10 0 ■'•

^'alue of 160 gallons of milk to make veal 3 0 &:'JV/Oiir-.
Therefore 100 gallons of milk to make veal

are worth 1 17 0

Tims making cheese is more profitable than making either butter
or veal."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

478

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

1 Thermometer.

WlXD AND

State.

Atmosphere.

Day.

8 a.m.! 10p.m.

j Mill.

1 Max.

10p.m.

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p. m.

10 p. m.

March 22

in. cts.
29.20

in. cts.

29.20

34

i
49

37

1 W. by South

gentle

fine

sun

fineR.

23

29.20

29.30

; 32

52

40

1 W. by Soutli

brisk

fine

cloudy

fineH.

- 24

29.30

29.30

i 37

50

39

S. W., W.

brisk

fine

cloudy

cloudyR

25

29.37

29.37

i 33

48

39

1 W. N. W.

variable

fine

cloudy

cldvHR

26

29.47

29.68

36

50

40

! W. N. W.

brisk

fine

sun

fine R.

27

29.79

29.77

36

52

40

\V. by N.

variable

fine

sun

fine R.

28

29.64

29.50

36

53

37

Every way.

brisk I

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

29

29.50

30.10

35

47

40

i North

gentle j

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

30

30.11

30.00

33

50

38

S. East

brisk !

fine

sun

cloudy

31

29.75

29.63

35

55

43

I E., S. by W.

lively

fine

sun

fine

April 1

29.64

29.58

43

50

48

S. ;West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

fine R.

0

29.30

29.16

46

56

48

S.W. to W.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

fine R.

3

29.33

29.45

40

51

'45

W. to N.W.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

4

29.57

29.20

41

50

49

S.E. to S.W.

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

5

29.23

29.18

43

55

47

S.E. to S.W.

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

6

29.12

29.00

40

51

41

S.W. to N.

var. gen.

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

7

29.09

29.15

37

45

43

N. We.st

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

8

29.20

29.40

41

50

40

N. by West

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine R.

9

29.60

29.69

36

53

43

N. by West

gentle |

fine

sun

fineR.

10

29.83

29.7S

35

56

45

S. to S.W.

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

11

29.45

29.38

42

55

47

East

gentle 1

cloudy

cloudy

fine R.

12

29.36

29.50

42

60

50

Easterly

gentle '

fine

sun

cloudyR

13

29.50

29.73

47

58

48

S. West

hvely

fine

cloudy

fine R.

14

29.73

29.64

43

59

48

S. East

calm ;

fine

cloudy

cloudyR

15

29.64

29.78

48

58

49

E. by N.

gentle i

cloudy

cloudy

cloudyR

16

29.94

30.00

48

58

49

E. by N.

gentle

fine

cloudy

fine

17

30.00

29.90

43

5.3

44

S.W.— var.

variable

fog

cloudy

cloudyR

18

29.90

30.00

42

50

45

N. by W.

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

19

30.03 '

30.13

41

50

40

North

lively

cloudy

cloudy

fine

20

30.10

30.09

35

50

42

N. East

lively

fine

sun

fine R.

estimated AVERAGE.S of APRIL.

Barometer. I Thermometer.

High.
30.54

Low.
29.2

High.

74

Low.
29

Mean.
49.9

Real Average Temperature of the period.
High. I Low. j Mean.

32.66 39 I ^5.83

North and N. East Winds . . 5^ days.

East and to South 6A

South and South West 67}

West and to North 11

Weather and Phenomena. — To chroniclethe
above singular period, the rainy days are marked
by capitals. 22, very fine early; 23, variable; hail
showers ; wind; 24, showery, after a fine morning;
25, fine morning; hail ; 26, generally fine ; 27, some
thunder; 28, compoimd arrangement of clouds,
heavy showers; 29, fine gleams, overcast afternoon;
30, fine morning; changeable; 31, very beautiful.

Lunations.— New moon 27th day, 5h. 50 m,
morn.

April 1, changeable; 2, windy — almost storm j
3, cool ; fine forenoon ; showers ; 4, exceedingly
wet ; night windy ; 5, gloom ; profuse showers ; 6,
similar ; 7, wet almost entirely; 8, damp; mistling
rain; 9, beautiful and sunny; a hint of rain; 10,
very fine, spring-like ; 11, changeable; 12, warm,
starchy clouds, and bad evening; 13, changeable;
showers; 14, fine forenoon only ; 15, again rainy;
16, cirro stratus; clouds; mild; 17, fog, followed
by close rain; 18, brisk, drying air; dry day; 19,
a second dry day ; 20, very fine till noon ; cold,
with some hail, or light showers ; cold, fine night.

Lunations. — First quarter, 3rd day, 5 h. 12 m.
afternoon; full moon 11th, 5 h. 55 m. afternoon,
last quarter 8 h. 24 ra. afternoon.

John Towbbs, jj
Maidenhead Thicket.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

477

iGALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— MAY.

Retrospect. — Since the date of our last the wea-
ther assumed an entirely diti'erent character.
The Equinox occurred on the '20th of March,
previous to which there were four nights of the
keenest frosts of the year. On the '2()th evening,
beautiful and brilliant, with the thermometer at
30'^ (receding to •24'^' by sunrise of the following
morning), a change of wind took place; and on the
21st clouds came up from south-west, with a rise
of 20 degs. from the lowest temperature, and rain
fell before night.

The weather then, at that most critical period,
was In-oken up. and underv.-ent an entire revulsion.
Subsequently to the time when we now commence
this calendar, there have been twenty days with rain
to a greater or less extent. On the whole, rain has
fallen in excess, so as to impede gardening in some
of its nicest operations ; for among these are to be
reckoned the proper loosening and pulverisation of
the soil, especially at a time when all the temporary
crops ought to be sown or planted.

April then, to its first half, has been more than
showeiy — absolutely wet — affording a complete con-
trast in its weather to that of late years ; so far it is
propitious, but no faither; since the precursors of
this rainy visitation- — the l)iting and rigorous frosts
of the third week of March — had done a good deal
of mischief to the bloom of apricots, and of wall-
trees generally, and, we fear, to the berry-bearing
shrubs. A dry March is a great blessing to field
and garden; but we do not consider as such frosts
in the third and fourth weeks, which ought always
to be bland and sunny. We must now wait results;
but much of good, experience does not permit us to
anticipate.

Broccoli has been fine, and extremely early ; 1)ut it
is not destined to continue long this year. Cab-
bage also is early. Asparagus is rising, and, if the
weather become more sunny, will be plentiful by
the first of May. But we see a probabilit)' of nu-
merous failures in spindle-rooted plants and let-
tiices, because very little good seed was raised lastyear,
owing to the wretchedly cold and wet weather of
July. One circumstance of precocious development
is worthy of record : the exposed A'ines were in
complete bud by the 25th of March, the Hamburgs
on a S.E. wall being more forward than any other
sort, and equally so as those in the latest vinery :
this we ne^'er before witnessed.

Vegetable (Jarden.

First Week. — Sow small salads immediately;
and if in request, repeat the sowing every week ;
always recollecting that as cress is more tardy than
mustard, its seed shoidd l)e sown three days sooner :
sow lettuces also.

Peas. — Sow the tall-growers, giving plenty of
manure at the bottom of a six-inch deep trench,
over which the soil ousht to be raised in the form
of a low rounded ridge. Soil for jjeas ought to be
rich in old manure added in the autumn — that at
the bottom may be applied now. These remarks
^re founded upon the practice of a grower, who

produces most surprising crops, by choosing ground
(loam) wherein, for years, he had cultivated dahlias
for show : replete \vith vegetable and very old nitro-
genous matter, his peas received from it nutriment
so ample, that l)Oth foliage and fruit were splendid,,
the latter three times perhaps more abundant than
what is usually obtained.

Broad-beans. — Plant again ; and also insert the,
second crop of kidney-beans and runners. Tlie
seeds of each ought to go into three inch drills,
prenously opened and warmed by the sun. Both
like ground in good heart ; but the runners ought
to be on ground trenched, and manured at bottom.

Carrots, parsnips, and beet. — If the early sow-
ings have failed — and we fear this will be the case
in too many instances, because so little seed was
saved in 1845 — sow again immediately, soaking
the seed overnight.

Borecole, and Scotch kale, Brussels sprouts,
savoys, and the first crop of purple cape broccoli,
should be sown, or in the —

Second Week. — Sea-kale. — Clear the beds of
weeds ; cut and make even the surface of the stools,
so as to ensure a number of young eyes, which wil
not lie so apt to run to seed ; cover the beds with
river sand, mixed with decayed manure, and a
sprinkhng of pure guano ; and then make the plat
level by the rake : it may be very proper to scatter
salt over the intermediate spaces, but not within a
foot of the plants.

Asparagus-cutting will proceed; always select the
best head, and leave smaller successions, so as not
to deprive any root of all its shoots. Some advise
to pour guano-water along the rows as the plants
grow, and to use abundance of salt. Our experience
is as yet inconclusive ; but in watering, we M'ould
ne\'er venture at first to add more than one ounce of
the former to a gallon of water, which will suffice
for three yards of a single row. As. to salt, a])ply it
in the alleys ; and then, in rainy M'eather, it will be
washed down to, and among the dung that was put
into them last autumn, and thus wll kill insects,
and become safe as a top dress, at the removal of
the manure next autumn.

Sold radishes of every sort now, and again, if re-
quired; also lettuces.

Third and Fourth Weeks. — Repeat kidney-
beans for the August supply. Caiiliflowei-s are now
sown for October and November ; and onions, to
draw young.

If beans be in bloom, and begin to show the
abortive tops, nip the latter off", and hoe the ground.
Hoe and stick peas, and destroy weeds eveiywhere.

Cucumbers, either for pickles, or for late open
ground supply, may be sown over a hole containing
a barrow of warm dung, covered with six inches of
very nice soil. The spot ought to be sunny, so as
to admit the full exposure of the shoots to its light.
Till the seeds push, and the young plants be strong,
a hand-light over them will be \'ery serviceable.

Fruit Department,
Melons ought to come on well; but if rainy, dark

478

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

weather continue, they will have neither colour nor
flavour : in such seasons, when clung beds and
linings are liable to be suddenlj' chilled, the advan-
tage ol hot water in tanks and tubes must be per-
ceived. Cucumbers also are equally favoured with
this most equal and ever certain appliance. The
benefit of it extends to nurse and succession pines,
though we admit that the sweet steam of dung and
leaves is very beneficial to their herbage.

Strawberries in pots are gone by ; but when
grown in the open soil of a large brick range of pits,
set in rows afoot apart, the plants about six inches
asunder, extending from back to front, and the
spaces covered with flat tiles, a glorious crop is
secured, provided care be taken to give plenty of
air. £20 have been realized in a season, by selUng
the fruit in May to fruiterers who go from place to
place, and purchase at from 5d. to 8d. per ounce.
In the open air this crop is looking v/ell ; the cen-
tres are full and the leaf fine ; short grass or fine
straw, ought to be laid under and about the trasses
to prevent dirt and splashing by heavy rain. If
time be allowed to pass a string attached to sticks
about the height of the tallest trusses, they would be
kept erect, and some persons scruple not to assert,
with the advantage of more than twice the quantity
of good fruit.

The.^/'s/ vinery ripens its fruit, and moisture is
withheld, but sun and air are vital ; not, however,
by the direct ray of the former, for though its
power be felt, it should always be moderated by
the natural screen of an ample foliage. The later
vinery of Hamburgs will be coming on to fruit, and
may be mainly assisted by a moist atmosphere.
West Saint Peters is, and should be, very late ; fire
is of no use to it, unless the season be very cold,
till September. The Muscats ought to be very
warm at the periods of blossoming and stoning, and
every cluster should be severely thinned when the

berry is of the size of a small pea. Worse economy
does not exist than in permitting a crowd of berries
at the cost of size, colour, and flavour ; moreover,
thickly loaded clusters, and too many of them, task
the tree too severely.

Green-house, and Plant-pits.

Air, and plenty of it ; the removal of dead and
mouldring leaves; an ample supply of water, so
as to sustain growth ; due potting when the roota
want more room : these are the general essentials.
Charcoal drainage appears the best; it cannot be-
come putrid, and retains moisture, v/hile it purifies
the water.

Pleasure-grounds.

Sow and transplant annuals of every favourite
kind. At the middle of the month, having pre-
pared the parterres by fresh soil and appropriate
manure, plant the geraniums, verbenas, lobelias, and
other rich ornaments, which now render our fine
gardens so eminently beautiful. Heaths and hair-
rooted plants . require bog or heath soil ; lobelias
obtain colour from leaves nearly decayed ; rich fresh
loam, and leaf mould, or the reduced droppings of
old mushroom beds, are excellent for roses, fuchsias,
pelargoniums, and most other plants that are to be
removed from pits, &c., with balls entire.

Gravel-walks should always be cleared of short-
grass, sagina, and other rubbish, before they be
fresh gravelled and rolled. Lawns ought to be
made free of daisies, dandelion, and the like, and if
poor, should be dressed with a httle soot, fine sandy
earth, with a hint of guano, or nitrate of soda, es-
pecially in showery weather. Sweeping, rol-
ling, and moning, ought to be regularly attended
to. The weather, as we close, has to the last been
wet, but the barometer on the iGih gives promise of
improvement.

16th April.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR APRIL.

The frecjuent fluctuations in the weather since
the date of eur last report have had the effect of
causing some of the wheats to look somewhat un-
promising; still, however, our general advices in
this particular are tolerably satisfactor)\ It would
be premature to offer any observations upon the
probable produce of the next harvest, yet vve may
intimate that our prospects in this respect are
favourable. Spring corn in genei'al is progressing
well.

In some parts of the country the ejndemic has
again made its appearance amongst both beasts
and sheep : yet, as it has been only in a modified
form, the losses actually sustained by the flock-
masters and others have been by no means alarm-
ing. The unusual abundance of pasture and other
herbage has caused the stock to fare extremely
well.

The principal corn markets have been but mode-

rately supplied with both English and foreign
wheat. Fine dry qualities have commanded a
steady sale, at an advance in the quotations of from
Is. to 2s. per qr. ; in the middling and inferior
kinds comparatively little business has been trans-
acted, at previous currencies. The demand for all
kinds of barley has fallen off; yet prices have un-
dergone no change worthy of notice. Malt hag
come somewhat freely to hand ; fine parcels have
sold steadily, other kinds slowly, at late rates. The
shipments of oats from Ireland having fallen off,
the oat trade has ruled firm, at an advance in value
of from Is. to 2s. per qr. In beans and flour very
little doing ; but peas have sold on higher terms.

For hay and straw the inquiry has been extreme-
ly inactive the whole of the month, and prices have,
in some instances, had a do^vnward tendency.
Meadow hay has produced £3 3s, to £4 8s. ; clover
do., £4 Bs. to £6; and straw, £1 12s. to £l iCs.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

479

per load. The stocks of both hay and straw are ] v/ithout producing any material eflfect upon the
unusually large. i value a1)road. To illustrate the rates at which we

Our advices from Ireland and Scotland are to ] may be readily supplied, we shall take the above
the effect that farm labours are sufficiently forward, importation, to which v/e have particularly alluded.
and that the wheats are looking remarkal)ly strong j la the first place, we find that the actual cost of the
and healthy. On the vvholethe corn trade has {beasts in Prussia was £12 per head; the expense of
ruled firm, yet we can notice no material improve- i droverage to the place of shipment, about Ss. ; that
ment in the quotations. | of conveyance by steam hillier, £3 xOs. ; the inci-

] dental outlay, such as landing, commission, &c.,

and the duty, £1. To make this important

the annexed return,

from an undoubted

Per Head.

Ss. ,
REVIEW OF THE CA'nXE TRADE DURING 1 point more clear, we give
THF PVST MONTH {which we have obtamed

Notwithstanding comparatively little progress has !
been made in the past month in the discussions in {
the House of Commons upon the proposed changes
in the tariff affecting the importation of live cattle
from abroad for our markets, the arrivals of both
beasts and sheep from Holland and elsewhere into
London and at the outports have been again exten-
sive, though — as many of the shippers are awaiting
the abolition of duties — not quite equal to those of
some previous months.

The actual numbers have been as under : —

Cost in Russia . .
Droverage . .
Steam boat to London. .
Landing, Commission, &c.
Customs duty . .

£

s.

d.

12

0

0

0

8

0

3

10

0

0

8

0

1

0

0

Total expense to the speculator £l7
Sold in Smithfield at an average of £20

LONDON.

ou

TPORTS.

Beasts

707

300

Sheep . .

1201

210

Calves. .

8

—

Pigs ..

—

.

20

1916 530

At least four-fifths of the above arrivals have
come to hand from Rotterdam, Schiedam, and Har-
lingen ; the remainder chiefly from Hamburgh, by
steam-vessels. The most novel importation has
been that from Prussia, whence we received 30

i Balance in favour of the importer £2 14 0
jThat many thousand head of really good beasts
can be purchased in Prussia at the above quotation,
I and disposed of here at a corresponding profit, we
! have no doubt whatever. The Dutch trade still
remains in the hands of comparatively few persons,
though we are aware of many parties, knowing as
they do, that' almost every head of beast imported
for some months past has produced a profit of at
least £l, are preparing to invest their capital in
these speculations, and which they will do the
instant the measure now before parliament is pas-
sed. The care exercised at the Custom Houses

oxen for the Smithfield market, held on the 27th ^ in inspecting the stock, before and after it has been
of this month, and which, from the admirable con- j landed, has prevented the introduction of diseased
dition in which they came to hand, and their appa- 1 cattle ; indeed, we ha^'e the best authority for stat-

rently good weighing qualities, were readily dis-
posed of at from £19 to £21 each. This is the first
occasion we have had to report of any arrival from the
interior of the continent ; yet it fully bears out the
truth of the remarks which we offered to the notice
of our readers some time since, that it was highly

ing that very few losses have been sustained abroad
for some time past, from the effects of the so-long-
coraplained-of epidemic. The foreign sheep which
we have lately inspected have been by no means
first rate animals, and we are of opinion that some
time has yet to elapse ere any extensive numbers

probable stock would, in the course of time, arrive { can be received fit for our cutting butchers We
hither from that quarter during the present year — I may apply the same remark to the few cah-es which
perhaps in large numerical strength. As this spe- ! have lately come in. The difficulties which we have
culation has turned out a most profitable one— as j frequently noticed in fattening foreign stock in this
we shall presently show— we feel convinced that | country appear to have greatly deterred our gra-
the moment cattle is allowed to belauded free ziers from purchasing the animals for that purpose;
of duty, immense numbers will be forwarded to our ; indeed, at the present time, there are not 100 beasts
markets, and thereby will be produced a depression | in this country, either depastured or in the stalls,
in the general quotations of home-fed stock. It , being thus experimented upon. As we have before
has been argued, that the moment we create a de- remarked, the change in tlie food and the climate
mand abroad the prices will rise there so as to I are matters which cannot be overcome ; hence, we
prevent any very extensive exports. This, in some would not advise our readers to invest their money
instances, may be true ; but the great question for , in such a doubtful speculation. We understand
us to consider is to what extent can the foreigner i that in most of the large distilleries in Holland,
supply us? And, further, what are the present ; large numbers of beasts are still being fed for our
rates current abroad ? From information which i markets, and which will gradually find their way
has lately reached us, we feel confident in stating [ hither as the same advances,
that the surplus numbers of both beasts and sheep | The accounts which continue to reach us from

, — not only in Holland, but in Prussia — are, at this
Ttime, large almost beyond recollected precedent.
Hence it is fair to presume that, ere long; our mar-
kets will exhibit considerably increased supplies,

our various counties are to the effect that both
beasts and sheep are thriving remarkably well.
The lambing season having been an extremely
good one, fewer complaints of the scarcity of stock

480

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

on some farms have come to hand than heretofore ;
yet it is quite e\ndent the actual supply is not
large, the time of year considered.

Up to Smithfield Cattle Market, the arrivals of
beasts from our own grazing districts, arising, in a
great measure, from a large portion of the turnips
having at length been consumed, have been con-
siderably on the increase, and of unusually fine
ciuality, compared with those of the month of
March, current year, and that of April 1845.
The numbers of sheep have also improved, though
they have fallen short of those last season, as is
thus shown —

SUPPLIES.

Apinl, March, April,

1846. 1846. 1845.

Beasts 15,224 12,579 12,800

Cows 587 521 600

^T^^^\ Nl.620 77,010 110,400

Lambs S

Calves 905 731 600

Pigs 2351 2081 1,600

The bullock supplies for the month have been
derived as under : —

Norfolk, Suftblk, &c 7,600 head.

Northern counties 500

Western and Midland districts 2,230

Other parts of England 1,150

Scotland 6,620

Ireland 200

Abroad 707

The remainder have been principally derived from
the neighbourhood of the metropohs. From the
Isle of Wight the number of lambs has been
small — namely, 783 ; and this, too, notwithstand-
ing the comparatively high rates at which lamb has
been selhng during the whole of the month. The
importation of 80 sheep from the Cape of Good
Hope, on the l6th, gave rise to the supposition
that they were intended for sale in the above mar-
ket. Such, however, has not been the case, the
sheep having been purchased for breeding purposes.
From Scotland, about 1,800 e.xcellent sheep have

reached us, and which have mostly sold at fair
prices.

As might be expected from the increase, both in the
number and weight of the animals exhibited since
our last review, and which exactly bears out the
truth of the obsen-ations which we have from time
to time offered on the subject, a slight falling off
has been observed in the general demand, and
quotations have had a downward tendency ; those
of beef having declined 2d., of mutton 6d., of in-
ferior lamb 4d., of veal 4d., and of pork 2d. per
8lbs. So far as our experience carries us, we have
no hesitation in saying that the prices of mutton
will recede considerably before the end of July.

Up to Newgate and Leadenhall, the aiTivals of
slaughtered meat from Scotland and various parts
of England have been moderately extensive, and of
improved quality. Generally speaking, the demand
has ruled inactive, on the following terms : —
Per 8lbs. by the carcass.

Beef ....

2

4

Mutton .

3

4

Lamb. . . .

5

4

Veal ....

4

4

Pork . . .

. 3

4

to

In addition to the arrivals given in the annexed
statement, about 1,000 carcasses of lambs, together
with 300 do. of foreign beasts and sheep, have been
disposed of at fair currencies.

ARRIVAL OF CARCASSES DURING THE MONTH.

Beasts.

Scotland 210

Yoi'kshire 255

Lincolnshire .... 350

Norfolk 270

Suffolk 200

Cambridgeshire. . 270

Essex 110

Surrey 200

Devonshire .... 10

Wiltshire 240

Other parts 580

Total.. 2695 11130 2190 12250

Sheep.

Calves.

Pigs.

2420

—

2160

2450

—

2650

770

—

620

450

—

480

490

—

550

610

—

620

390

370

900

930

710

1300

40

—

340

580

410

630

1000

700

1000

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL.

No farther progress has been made with the
corn importation bill through the House, the third
reading having been repeatedly adjourned. This
delay has been caused by ministers themselves, in
consequence of a determination to push the Irish
coercion bill forward a stage, before proceeding
with their commercial policy.

We cannot view this course of proceeding on the
part of the Government in a favourable light, as
there can be no question that whichever way the
matter may be ultimately di.^posed of, afinal settlement
would be infinitely better than protracted uncertainty.

Doubt on a point of such importance as that re-
garding the laws which are in future to regulate
duties on corn, must proA-e injurious to the com-
munity at large.

The landowner, the farmer, and the merchant,
are ahke at a loss how to act ; and business in all
its ramifications is perfectly paralyzed. We have
repeatedly given it as our opinion, that the bill of
1842 worked well, and that no real reason for its
repeal existed ; but her Majesty's advisers having
once determined to make an alteration, we think
the interest of the country demanded that the mat-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

481

la should have been proceeded with before any-
tlung else was attempted.

Some of our readers may perhaps ditler with us
in this view, but we think it must be allowed that
to temporize and procrastinate will be of very little
avail, as the ultimate fate of tlie measure must now
rest with the lords, who are not very likely to come
to a dift'erent decision in the month of June or
July to that which they might have arrived at in
March or April.

Meanwhile there is no knowing whether foreign
wheat will hereafter have to pay l(3s., 17 s., or only
4s. per qr. duty — a position of aft'airs calculated to
prevent operations in anticipation ; all parties, whe-
ther sellers or buyers, being anxious to know the
result before entering into anything like extensive
operations. Under these circumstances the trans-
actions of the month ha\-e been merely from hand
to mouth, and but little fluctuation has occurred
in the value of wheat. The present state of aft'airs
renders it impossible to foresee the probable range
of prices ; for, independent of the difficulties which
in ordinary times must always attend this consi-
deration, when little or nothing can be really known
relative to the productiveness of the next harvest,
political affairs may still have great weight one way
or the other. "With respect to the growing crop of
wheat, the reports from different parts of the coxxn-
try have become less fa\ourable this than they were
the preceding month, the generally cold and ex-
tremely wet weather experienced during several
weeks having detracted from the previously pro-
mising appearance of the plant. On heavy clay
soils and all imperfectly drained lands, the colour of
the blade has certainly changed for the worse ; but
we are inclined to think that no mischief has liitherto
been done which an interval of w arm diy weather
ndiglit not remedy.

' The breadth of land under wheat is not, we be-
lieve, so great as last year, which would render any
acreable deficiency of more importance than usual ;
and as the stocks in farmers' hands are far less
than they were at the correspondin"^ period of 1845,
whilst millers hold comparatively nothing, the pro-
gress of the outstanding crop is likely to be watched
with more than ordinary interest throughout the
season. At present it would be folly to venture on
predictions, but as the summer advances we shall
not neglect to collect the best information from all
parts of the kingdom respecting the aspect of the
crop, and hope thereby to be enabled in some de-
gree to guide our opinion as to the probable pro-
duce.

Notwithstanding the uneasiness created by the
proposed alteration in the corn laws, the farmers
have manifested no particular anxiety to realize,
and the deliveries from the growers have been very

far from hbcral. Considenng the efl'ecf likely to
have been ])roduced on the minds of the agricul-
tural body by the prospect of so great a reductioti
in the duties as that contemplated ])y the premier's
new l)ill, it may be reasonably inferred that holders
of wheat cannot feel much disposed to meet tlie new
state of things with large stocks ; we therefore ar-
rive at the conclusion that the yield of 1845 was
really deficient, and that the growers have already
disposed of the bulk of their wheat.

There has, nevertheless, up to this" time been no
appearance of the scarcity and want so generally
predicted in the winter by the supporters of the
Anti-Corn-Law League, and there are now about a
million and a half of quarters of wheat in bond in
Great Britain. This large quantity would long ere
this have found its way into consum})tion, if affairs
had been allowed to go on in the regular way ;
whereas the prospect of ultimately being enabled
to liberate the same at 4s. per qr. has induced
importers to hold back : the outcry about scarcity in
England must therefore be viewed as an invention
of the free-traders, as wicked as it was false. The
evil effects of ministers having covmtenanced these
misrepresentations have lately begun to develop
themselves in Ireland. The constant predictions
of famine have at length caused the evil the parties
professed to dread. It cannot be questioned that
the stocks of grain in the Sister Isle are at the pre-
sent moment considerable (perhaps not much less
than usual at the corresponding period of the
year) ; but the bulk of the corn is held by parties
able to wait the expected scarcity and high prices ;
and by the regular supplies ha\'ing been withheld,
together with the partial failure of the potato crop,
the poor have been plunged into the utmost misery.
In several parts of the island the peoj^le have
been driven, by want, to attack the mills and flour
stores ; and it is greatly to be feared that the riots
will not be altogether put down without blood be-
ing shed. If ministers are really anxious to relieve
the starving poor in Ireland, they have certainly
gone a curious way to work to gain their end.
Uji to the present time little more has been done
than lamenting the evils under which that country
labours. If it were deemed necessary to import
foreign grown grain, a short bill might have been
passed months ago, which would have met vvith the
support of all parties in Parliament, to open the
Irish ports for a limited time, so as to meet a tem-
porary evil by a temporary remedy. This, how-
ever, would not have suited the enemies to protec-
tion : because the potatoes failed in Ireland, the
whole system of laws relative to corn, introduced
only a few years ago as a final settlement, is to be
repealed.

As already remarked, little can be said in the

483

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

existing state of uncertainty regarding the proba-
ble future range of prices, and the want of anima-
tion v.'hich has characterised the trade of late does
not afford much scope for comment in I'espect to
the transactions of the month j our review can
therefore scarcely be expected to prove of much
interest, and we shall confine our observations
principally to what has taken place in the metro-
politan market, as the transactions there will be
found to afford a fair type of the proceeding in
other parts of the kingdom.

The arrivals of wheat of home growth into the
port of London have on the whole been moderate,
and the greater proportion of what has been re-
ceived has been from Lincolnshire, Cambridge-
shire, and Norfolk. Most of this wheat has gone
direct to the millers, who have purchased it free on
board at the different shipping ports on the east
coast. The business actually done at Mark-lan9
has therefore been very circumscribed. The scanty
nature of the supply from the home counties (com-
paratively httle having been received from Kent,
Essex, or Suffolk), and the superiority of the quality
of the samples as compared with the growth of the
counties first named, have, however, caused the
millers to take off what has been brought forward re-
gularly as it has come to hand, and on the whole
prices have rather tended upwards, more particu-
larly for the finer kinds of white wheat. The total
rise since the commencement of the month may be
estimated at about 2s. per qr.

The indifferent condition in which the great bulk
of the last crop was harvested, and the absence of
frost during the past winter, ha\'e, up to the present
period, rendered a mixture of old with the new
wheat absolutely necessary to manufacture good
flour; and supplies of English old having long
since ceased to come to market, the finer descrip-
tions of foreign have been in request for the pur-
pose named. So long as the stocks of free held
out, very little was taken out of bond ; the better
kinds having, however, become exhausted, and
vWiat remains in granary being wholly imfit for
the purpose required, it has been necessary of late
to release small quantities from imder the queen's
locks. This has been chiefly done by certificates
granted under the provisions of the grinding bill,
by which it \nll be recollected it was enacted that
for a given quantity of flour or bread exported or
placed under lock, a proportionable quantity of
wheat might be entered for home consumption.
Until the want of old foreign wheat became urgent,
certificates were jn'ocurable at prices equivalent to
] 2s. per qr. ; but as the demand for them increased,
they soon rose in value, and within the last week
or two 16s. per qr. has been freely paid for them.

Beyond what has been taken by the millers to

supply their immediate wants, there has been verj'
little doing in bonded wheat; the disposition to
make speculative investments seems to have wholly
subsided ; and, as the ai'rivals from abroad have
been liberal, previous quotations have not been
supported. At the close of March good Lower
Baltic red wheat was worth about 50s. per qr. in
bond, and fine Danzig 56s. ; lately the former kind
has been sold at 4Ss., and, in one instance, a cargo
from Griefswald of good quality, but not in first-
rate condition, was parted with at 46s. per qr. Tlie
recent sales must have been at a serious loss to the
importers ; the cost, free on board on the other
side, having been almost as high as the prices ob-
tained here, leaving nothing to cover the expenses
of freight, insurance, &c. From the commence-
ment of January up to the close of April, 33,000
qrs. of wheat have been liberated out of bond. At
the port of London by certificates, and at Liverpool,
Bristol, &c., entries have been made through the
same means ; but as flour has been substituted for
the wheat released, the quantity of bread-stuff imder
lock has not been diminished. It is evident that
the supply of certificates will not much longer keep
pace with the demand, and that millers will be
compelled to pay the duty. The probable range
of the averages has, therefore, become a matter of
some interest. These have lately been gradually
creeping up, and the duty, after haAdng remained
stationary for several weeks, fell from 18s. to 17s.
per qr. on the l6th inst., with the prospect of its
receding another step in the course of next month.
A considei'able proportion of the wheat lately re-
ceived is from the Mediterranean, of a quality not
well suited for this market. A few cargoes have,
therefore, been re-shipped to Bristol, and one or
two to Ireland : there was, nevertheless, on the
5th inst. no less than 481,491 qrs. in bond in the
port of London, and 1,227,374 qrs. in the kingdom
altogether.

The flour trade has, throughout the month, been
dull, and prices of the article have, notwithstand-
ing the rise in wheat, remained nearly stationarj'.
The millers complain that they are scarcely paid
for grinding ; but competition among themselves
has hitherto induced them to continue to sell at the
old prices. Flour in bond has fallen in value
since our last ; and United Stales, which was then
worth 28s., has lately been sold at 26s. per brl.
The stock under lock in the kingdom consisted on
the 5th April of 940,871 cwts., of which 128,696 cwts.
were in London. There is, we believe, some quan-
tity of flour now on passage from the United States,
most of which was bought at comparatiA'ely high
prices, and will probably have to be sold at a loss
upon arrival.

The supply of home-grown barley into London

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

483

has been small, noi have the arrivals of this grain
from abroad been of much consequence. During
the interval of rather warm weatiier experienced in
the early part of the month, the demand from the
maltsters slackened, and in some instances a de-
chne of Is. per qr. from the extreme rates of March
was suhmitted to. Lately the inquiry has again
improved, and the top quotation for malting sam-
ples is now much the same as it was at the close
of last month, viz., 3Cs. to 37s. per qr. Distilling
and grinding qvialities have, throughout the month,
been in moderate request, and have maintained their
former value. It is not improbable that low des-
criptions of barley may hereafter meet with increased
attention for feeding ; the price of the article, tak-
ing weight into consideration, being relatively
cheaper than oats. The stock in bond is by no
means large, there being only 18,041 qrs. in
London, and 88,002 qrs. in the kingdom ; nor is
it likely that any quantity of importance will be
received from abroad, this grain being scarce and
dear at most of the continental ports. The trans-
actions in malt have been on a very restricted
scale ; sellers have, nevertheless, displayed consi-
derable firmness ; and though the ordinary kinds
have, in partial instances, been sold a trifle below
former rates, the old brewers have been compelled
to pay full terms for choice samjjles of Ware, and
other favourite sorts.

The subject of a repeal of the malt tax has re-
cently engaged a good deal of attention. This is a
measure well deserving the most strenuous sup-
port of the farmer, as a modification or a total
abolition of the excise duty would cause an im-
mense increase in the consumption of barley. An
association has been formed, with a view of obtain-
ing a total repeal, under the patronage of some of
the first agrlcultuiists ; which, we trust, will meet
with all the support it so eminently deseiwes.

Though the last crop of oats was generally (and
we believe correctly) estimated at rather over an
average at the time of harvest, the article has lately
become decidedly scarce. This has no doubt been
caused by the great falling oft' in the supplies from
Ireland. What the stocks in that country may at
present be it is not easy to determine ; but in Eng-
land and Scotland farmers certainly do not hold
much more than they will require for their own
consumption.

The failure of the potato crop in Ireland has,
probably, caused oatmeal to be more extensively
used than in ordinary years ; still we are inclined
to think there must be a large stock remaining on
the other side of the Channel. High, however, as
prices now are in the English and Scotch markets,
the rates demanded at the prmcipal Irish shipping
ports are relatively higher ; any immediate increase
in the supplies from thence cannot, therefore, be
reckoned on. To show how great has been the
deficiency in the arrivals into London, it is merely
necessary to state that, against 321,102 qrs. received
during the six months pending 28th March last,
419,829 qrs. came to hand from Ireland in the
corresponding time of 1845. For some weeks
past the weekly receipts have been inadequate to
meet the consumption ; and the stocks in the hands
of the dealers have, therefore, been reduced to a

very low ebb. Prices have, under these circum-
stances, gradually crept up, and quotations are at
))resent about 2s. per qr. higher than they were at
the close of March. Whether the upward ten-
dency is to continue will depend on the arrivals
from Ireland, atleastuntil the month of June. About
that time or a little later we shall probably have
rather large arrivals from the continent; orders in
antici})ation of high prices having lately been sent
out. The quantity in bond is only moderate ; it
consisted on the 5th inst., the latest date to which
the ofHcial return is made up, of 109,120 qrs. in the
kingdom, of which 71,515 qrs. were in London.

Of Enghsh beans the arrivals have been small ;
the demand, however, has hkewise been restricted;
and the supplies brought forward have proved
fully equal to satisfy the wants of buyers. In
point of price very little variation has occurred ; the ,
trifling change which has taken place has, how-
ever, been in favour of the purchaser. Several ra-
ther large cargoes of Alexandrian beans have lately
come to hand ; and a further quantity is still on
passage from the same quarter.

White boiling peas have met with very little at-
tention, and their value has scarcely varied. Grey
and maple have been taken pretty freely for ship-
ment to Scotland, and have brought enhanced
terms, as much as 34s. to 35s. per qr. having been
realized for fine parcels. Of peas there vv-ere under
lock on the 5th April 14,067 qrs. in the kingdom,
and 6,427 qrs. in London.

The delay in the passing of the new Corn Impor-
tation Bill, and the consequent stagnation in busi-
ness in grain in the British markets, have not been
without influence on the value of wheat on the
Continent; and by the latest advices from the
Baltic it appears that holders had become more
reasonable in their pretensions. The foreign mer-
chants have long ere this discovered that the
famine outcry raised in this country some months
ago, to sen-e party purposes, was a gross exaggera-
tion. So long as they had reason to expect that
Great Britain was likely to need assistance, wheat
was held at extravagant prices abroad ; but since
they have become convinced that we shall require
comparatively little aid, they have shown more dis-
])osition to let us have what we may want on more
reasonable terms. Y\'ithin the last few vv'eeks
prices of wheat have tended downwards at all the
leading continental ports. Letters from Danzig, of
the 21st instant, state that though the suppfies
from the interior had been moderate, previous
prices had not been supported, fair high-mixed
qualities having been in vain oftered at 47s. to 48s.
per qr. free on board. Parcels in granary had been
held relatively high, but it occurs to us that if the
British demand should not improve, sellers on the
other side mil have to come down in their de-
mands considei-ably. L^p to the present time very
little Mdieat has been shi])ped from Danzig, scarcely
half-a-dozen cargoes having been despatched from
thence to English ports since the opening of the
navigation.

From the Lower Baltic ports the accounts are
also dull ; quotations are nevertheless much too
high in that quarter to render it likely that orders
to any extent will be sent out by our merchants,

484

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

similar (i'laliiies of n-hcat to tliosc snip[)e(l from ihe
respective ])oits being actually cheaper in London
and Liverpool than at Rostock, Stettin, &c. At
the places last-named, good heavy samples were,
according to the latest advices, still held at 46s. to
4rs. per qr. free on board ; but it was expected that
when farmers had finished s])ring sowing (with
which they were tlien busily occupied), and larger
supplies were brought forward, jjrices would gi\'e
way, i)rovided the export demand did not in the in-
tei'val inci'ease.

At Hamburg red wheat has lately been sold
cheaper than at any other continental port, very
good Waren, weighing 62 lbs. per bushel, having
been parted with at a ])rice rendering the cost, free
on board, little over 45s. per qr. Even this leaves
no margin for ])ro(it, if destined for the London
market ; and imtil the value of the article recedes
further on the other side by rises on this, the im-
portations cannot be very large.

From the United States the accounts reach up to
the beginning of April : the export demand for
flour had then become somewhat dull, and at New
York good Genessee was offering at 5^ dollars,
being about equal to -iSs. 6d. per barrel. Rather
large shipments appear to have been made, and
some quantity must now be on passage to this
country, mostly bought too high to yield a profit to
importers .

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

AriiiL 27.

Whbat, Essex and Kent, new, red 54 58 63 While. 60 C6 70

Old, red C,i CO Do 64 0(3 70

Rye, old 84 88 New hS 40

Barley, Grinding, M 31 Malting 34 b.'i Chevalier 30 —

Irish '27 28 Bere... 20 27

Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 68 03 Brown.. 56 60

Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 —

OArs,Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 24 27 Potato.. 20 2S

Youuhail and Cork, blacN.. •->) 24 Cork,white24 25

Dublin ;'4 25 V.'estport 20 27

Waterford, white 21 23 Black.. 28 24

Newry 27 .10

Galway 20 21 22

Beans, Tick, new 84 88 Old, small 48 51

PEAS, Grey 30 — Maple.. 36 —

. White 38 44 Boilers.. 42 44

'^Flouk, Town-made 46 53 Snflblk 42 — per sk. of 2801bs.

Stockton and Norfolk 40 41 Irish 44 46

Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Pulse,
and Flour imported into the United Kingdom, in
the month ended the 5th April, 1846; the Quantities
upon which Duties have been paid for Home Con-
sumption during the same mont]i, and the Quantities
remaining in Warehouse at the close thereof.

I Ouantitv Q"*"*''? '^"-' Quantity
Species of Grain. imuorted I *'-''''^'^ ''"'^ remaining in

I " ■ 'consumption.! warehouse.

STOCK OF GRAIN IN BOND IN LONDON
APRIL 5.

Wlieat. Barley. Oals. Beans. F'eas. Miii^e. Flour.

ijvs. qis. qrs. <|rs. (if. qis. cwts.

481, 4!a l'i,041 71,515 9,9U 0,4.'7 6,654 128,«G6

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ondiiiu , Wheat.

Baricy.
29 4

Oats.
21 9

Hye,
84 2

Bea
35

DS. PcHS.

March 11th , 5t 3

2 .S4 0

21st ; 55 1

29 10

23 0

S3 In

84

4 33 4

2iSlh , 55 .T

80 2

22 1

34 0

85

0 33 3

.April 4lh 55 U

30 7

22 6

;w 7

84

10

34 2

Illh 50 0

30 0

22 <J

33 4

35

1

33 8

I8tli 1 55 10

3J 6

22 9

35 5

34

9

34 5

A (?!?■•<•»; a t'' HVrniKK of

the six weeks wliicli
ntrulutes tlie liuly. 65 5

30 2

22 4

34 1

34

10

33 11

Duties iittyuMe in'

Liiii.Ioii tin Wed-I

n»'8(itiy next iitclu-i
«ive, >..h1 .It flieOi.t-'

port." till the nrrival

of the n.oil i.f th.u,

d«v truBi LoihI )u . .: 17 0

8 0

6 0 8 6

8

6

9 6

Do. oil f^raiu from'
BritiKh piissrsaioiis
out of Europe ... 4 0

1 0

16 0 6

0

a 1 0

PRICES OF SEEDS.

.\pnn, 27.

Seed, Kape '-HI. 26'. Irish ..--/.—/. fer last,

Uitlo.new 25. — '. per last.

Linseed, Baltic 40 41 Odessa 45 47

Linseed, Baltic and IJussia, 38 40, liner sorts, 43 "JS per qr
Mustard, wliite 10 12 brown— — per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English. . — 10/. lOs.lo III. Os. per 1000
Linseed, English, sowing 54 60 crushing 45 47 pfr qr

Carraway 44 40 new .. 48 .50perc\vi.

Coriander 10 13 percwt.

Mustard, brown, new.... 10 12 white.. 9 11 p. bus'i

Hempseed .35 88 per qr.

Trefoil 17 24 old..— nesv 29'

Medilcr. & Odessa 4 4 45

Canary, 48 49 per qr. lino 51 52s.

PRICES OF HOPS.
BOROUGH, Monday, April 27.
The hop market has been so dull since last October,
and the sales have been so limited, that, as we have
freriuently remarked under this head, it has at times
been difficult to give prices. At present the rates are
from 25s. to 30s. under those of that month, but at this
reduction there seems now to be something like a firm
market. The principal portion of good or colourc
hops have been sold, and there is a good demand fc
them, the quantity left being of low quality and a
colour. Sussex pockets are now 100s. to 120s. ; and
Wealds, 105s. to 1 20s. per cwt.

British

qrs.

bush.

Wheat, from

Possessions .

BiArlev, do | —

Oats, do I —

Peas, from do I —

Wheat, foreign [ 116281

Barlev, d< 6207

Oats, do 12962

Kye —

Peas, do ! 7077

Beans, do j 17344

Indian Com, do -38016

Buck Wheat, do 89

|cwta. qrs.lbs.
Flour from British Pos-;

sessions '■ 5516 2 9

Flour, foreign jlSl.:e3 3 2

619 4

qrs. bush.
3341 5

881 6
84 3
447 2

370 2

890 5

46998 4

200 3

owts. qrs.lbs.

27fi00 2 7
1325 0 17,

qrs. bush.
2872 0

1224502 7
88002 0
109120 3

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHWARK, W.itkrside, April 27.

Tliere being a continued supply of Mangold Wurzel

and White Carrots, at unprecedentedly low prices, the

cov,- keepers can do without potatoes ; if they take them,

it is at their own prices.

Pkice.';. — York reds, 100s. to 140s. ; do. Regents,

I 50s. to 90s. ; do. Shaws, 20s. to 60s. ; Scotch reds,

85s. to 100s. ; Montrose Buffs and Blacks, 75s. to SOs. ;

Fraserburgh Blacks, Buffs, Blues, and Mixtures, 60s.

to 70s.

163

12182

29998

83438

207

cwts. qrs.lbs.

432J58 1 10 :
897613 I 14

NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.

"A West Country Farmer," will find his first
query fully answered in the present number.
With regard to the second, a portrait of the
Duke of Northumberland bull appeared in the
Farmer's Magazine for September, 1839; and
one of Hecatomb a year or so earlier. Tliey can
only be procured in copies of the magazine.

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London.

^
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THE FAEMER'S MAGAZIE'E.

JUNE, 1846.
No. 6.— Vol. XIII.] [Second Series.

PLATE I.

SHORT-HORN HEIFER.

Snowdrop, three years and ten months old ; bred by the Right Hon, Lord Sherborne, of Sherborne,
near Northleach, Gloucester, by Harold, d. (Rachael, bred by Mr. J. Booth, of Gotham, near Newark),
by Cedric (3311), g. d. by Nimrod (4571), gr. g. d. by a grandson of Blyth Comet (85), gr. gr. g. d.
by Crispin (.174), gr, gr. gr. g. d. by Meteor (431), gr. gr. gr, gr. g. d. by Meteor (431). Harold by
Waverley (5613), d. (Juno) by Favourite (1028), g. d. by a son of Blaize (76), gr, g, d. by Coelebs (897),
gr. gr. g, d. by Neswick (1266), gr. gr. gr. g. d, by Mr. Fisher's Old Red Bull (3799). Snowdrop was
fed and exhibited by Mr. W, Trinder, of Wantage, Berks, at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in
December, 1845, where she obtained the first prize of Twenty Sovereigns, and Silver Medal for the best
heifer under five years old j also the Gold Medal as the best animal in the sixth, seventh, and eighth classes.

PLATE 11.

A DEVON BULL.

This animal, two years and five months old, was bred by Mr. James Quartly, of MoUand, near
South Molton, Devon; was exhibited by him at the country meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society, at Shrewsbury, in July last, and obtained a prize of Twenty Sovereigns.

THE OAK AND THE ASH.

Both these trees have been noticed in previous
numbers, so far as refers to their culture and uses ;
I recur to them again in order solely to call the at-
tention of the curious to a meteorological phenome-
non of great interest at this particular time.

Allusion has formerly been made, in more than

came entirely unsettled, with a tendency to rain, so
frequent as to challenge comparison. Whatever
may be said or thought of the equinoctial prognos-
tic, no one, who has carefully observed it, can rea-
sonably doubt that such as the weather actually
is at, or within two or three days of the sun's transit

one periodical, to the unpromising prognostic of | of the equinoctial line, so it wiU remain, on the
the late vernal equinox, when (as in 1845) at al- 1 whole, throughout the summer or winter following,
most the precise point of time when the sun entered i But exceptions there are, as in all other conditions ;
the spring signs, the atmosphere changed from I and now, without farther preface, I shall come at
brilliancy to clouds and gloom, and the weather be- j once to the subject of the present article.

OLD SERIES.} 2 I [No. 6.— VOL. XXIV.

486

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

In 1844 a correspondent in a Cambridge paper
adverted to the long-noticed fact — that in any year
when the oak expanded its buds and became
clothed with leaves, while those of the ash remained
entirely or comparatively dormant, the succeeding
summer would be early and warm, congenial to
husbandry and farm crops.

There are few agriculturists — especially those
upon grazing farms — who do not feelingly recol-
lect the premature aridity of that spring, by which
grass and fodder crops were rendered almost un-
productive ; and as the summer retained the same
character (no rain having fallen till the end of June),
many persons were constrained to feed their cattle
upon the green boughs of trees.

I had no faith in the prognostic abstractedly; yet
as the facts of that year could not be controverted,
I noticed them in the Farmers' Magazine. The ex-
act resemblance of the two last vernal equinoxes
led me to converse upon these subjects with many
persons ; and about three weeks since, one who re-
sides in the west of England, and who heard me
express some fears upon the too probable condition
of the summer, recurred to the state of the oak
and the ash, saying, that during more than 20 years
a dry warm summer had always followed the early
expansion of the oak-leaves. At the present time
(and in fact from the middle of April), the difference
is almost striking. Both trees vary in a trifling
degree, and some oaks are naturally later than
others ; but in general they are now fully three
weeks, if not more, in advance of the ashes. The
former began to expand their buds before the mid-
dle of April, and were quite verdant at the close of
the month ; but the ashes were black, as in winter,
at the beginning of May, and even now (May 14th)
are very partially excited.

Whatever can by any means be construed into
even an appearance of blind superstitious prognostic
ought to be impugned at once — it should be met by
every sound argument that philosophy can bring to
bear against it : but the phenomena attached to the
oak and ash have nothing in common \vith supersti-
tion, they cannot be referred to it. No one, it
would seem, has taken a philosophic view of the
subject ; therefore it appears indispensable to pay
some attention to certain facts which are equally
curious and undeniable — they are the following :
On some occasions the oak, as in the present spring,
becomes far in advance of the ash ; and then, they
who think that they have correctly noticed results,
assert that the following spring and summer will,
in almost every instance, be dry. At other times
the ash takes the precedence, and the oak is tardy;
and then the prognostic is said to indicate a wet
and unpropitious summer. Finally, both trees

come into leaf almost simultaneously, and then th^
following summer vAW be doubtful, and subject to
alternations of rainy and dry weather. If such
things are, or if experience and carefully registered
data appear to confirm them, it behoves us to in-
quire into the natural agency which can induce
phenomena so extraordinary. The science of elec-
tro-magnetism becomes every day more important ;
and that which was treated lightly, and with indif-
ference only a few years ago, is now admitted to be
the interpreter of nature's obscure secrets.

A remarkable article appears in the last- published
number of the Edinburgh Journal of Agriculture,
headed " The Electro-culture of the farm," written
by Mr. Sturgeon, now Lecturer at the Manchester In-
stitute, &c., &c.,&c. It is safer to appeal to authority
so high, than to confide in any oral testimony, how-
ever great and sincere the zeal of the party ; and
therefore I extract the following lines. The author
premises that this active element of nature, called
electricity, is so universally diffused throughout
eveiy part of the teirestrial creation, that it occupies
every part of the earth's surface, and of the shell of
air which surmounts it. He adds — " This leads to
the inference that all the various objects which clothe
the surface of the earth, such as trees, shrubs, plants,
flowers, and crops of every kind, partake of this
electric distribution, and that each individual object
is possessed of more or less of this extraordinary
element, or in electrical language, that each is pos-
sessed of its natural share. It must not be under-
stood, however, that this natural distribution con-
fers upon different objects an equal share, either in
proportion to their magnitude, weight, or shape ;
but on the contrary, that each object contains a
share peculiar to itself, according to its degree of
susceptibility of receiving the fluid, or as some
writers say, 'according to its capacity.'"

I sto}) here merely to remark that although the free
avowal of these doctrines proves a great advance in
the science of electricity, and in the boldness of its
professors, it by no means interprets the theory it-
self, or explains the cause of those changes of con-
dition horn plus to minus, from, positive to negative,
which are here implied in the terms " susceptibility
or capacity." As the sun is the fountain of the two
modifications of elementary fluid, which we con-
ventionally term " electricity " and " magnetism,"
would it not appear more reasonable, as well as
consonant with admitted phenomena to presume the
existence of two or more fluids (solar elements)
which act interchangeably, as disposed by the
agency of the dominant orb of day ?

But this is not an electrical essay, neither do I
conceive that our imperfect instruments are prepared
to elucidate the causes of meteoric disturbances i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

487

therefore I return to the observations of Mr. Stur-
geon, at p. 271 of the magazine, so far as they apply
to the subject in hand :

" The various objects which constitute the vege-
table clothing of the land are never in precisely the
same electric condition, being continually positive
and negative with regard to each other. An oak
and an ash tree, for instance, though both in their
ordinary or normal-electric states, are not endowed
with the same degree of electric force, one being
positive to the other, and, consequently, the latter
negative to the former. A similar inequality of
electric force occurs amongst other growing plants,
and their manures, and even amongst the various
elements which constitute the latter, no two of them
being precisely ahke at the same time."

i have advocated during several years the theory
of manuring upon the principle of electric distur-
bance, and may now unhesitatingly re-assert that
there do not exist two or more atoms throughout
the entire range of nature which tend to, or do ac-
tually unite, otherwise than as they are actuated,
that is attracted, by the peculiar electric condition
of both. If we restrict our ideas to the presump-
tion that in one atom the fluid superabounds
{plus or positive), while in the other it is either ab-
sent or defective {minus or negative), then in sup-
posing that the air is generally positive to the earth,
and therefore the earth negative to the air, we would
ask, what can — on the instant — be the cause which
shall induce a contrary state, and invert the agency
of both ? Let us, however, refer exclusively to the
sun as the primary agent, and to water as the grand
medium of operation ; then, little as we know, and
imperfect as may be our perception of the glorious
machinery, we still have hold of that great principle
which, while it satisfies the mind of the all-
sufficiency of natural causes, fails not to urge it on
to patient investigation.

Mr. Sturgeon mentions the ever opposed condi-
tions of the oak and the ash ; he therefore furnishes
a popular clue whereby to pursue the subject now
under inquiry. Therefore as the oaks are singularly
in advance of the ash trees, no period can be more
opportune than the present to bring the truth or
the futility of the opinion at once to the test ; be-
cause, not only has the weather subsequent to the
vernal equinox been rainy beyond example, but it
continues fickle and unsettled.

If the electric, or electro-magnetic condition of
the oak, under solar influence, be always opposed to
that of the ash, and if we possess, or can obtain, ex-

pcrimcnlal proof that, under such a condition as the
present, a fine maturing season is guaranteed to us,
then we obtain an index truly natural and philoso-
phical, pointing to the future, enabling the husband-
man to form some rational conjecture of what he
has a right to expect, and to adopt precautionary
measures.

Mr. Sturgeon a})peals to an authority which was
once in high repute, and ought never to have been
lost sight of^that of Father Beccaria, Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the university of Turin,
whose experiments were carried on from 1756 till
1775. He wrote a treatise on atmospheric electricity,
and among others Mr. Sturgeon cites the following
passages :

"The electricity which obtains in clouds and
rain, when carried to a certain degree, serves to pro-
mote, with regard to vegetation, the effects of com-
mon heat. It even seems that electricity succes-
sively supplies common heat itself with that mois-
ture, by the help of which it actuates and animates
vegetation, which, if heat acted alone, would be in-
evitably stopped. In fact, it is the electric fire that
gathers the vapours together, forms clouds with
them, and afterwards dissolves them into rain. It
is the same fire, therefore, that supphes the earth
with the nutritive moisture which is necessaiy to
plants ; and this moisture by melting the terrestrial
sahne particles it meets with, by diflFusing them
along with itself into the inmost pores of plants,
causes them to grow and vegetate with such ad-
miralile and incomprehensible regularity."

The foregoing passages allude to the moist growth-
producing condition of the atmosphere, coincident
with a showery season, such an one as the present,
and which, therefore, ought to test the validity of the
prognostic. The opposite is that condition wherein
the atmosphere being positive, and its particles in a
state of repulsion, the air is dry and serene, the
weather warm, sunny and highly favourable to the
maturation of grain and fruits.

From all that has been said, we perceive more rea-
son to dread the reahzation of the equinoctial prog-
nostic, than to rely with ho])e upon that offered by
the early advance of the oaks.

After the profuse and fertihzing rains which have
fallen, and still continue, a warm and Ijriglit sum-
mer would be a consummation of the j^reatest na-
tional importance.

J. Tow K us.

\%tk May.

2 I 2

488

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ON THE ANALYSIS OF THE HOP, AND THE NATURE OF THE MANURES
BENEFICIAL TO ITS GROWTH.

BY J. C. NESBIT, F.G.S.; M.C.S.L., &C. ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL,

KENNINGTON, NEAR LONDON.

The cultivation of the hop being one of the most
important items in farming, in the counties of Kent,
Sussex, Surrey, Hampshire, and "Worcestershire,
and requiring at the same time a greater capital per
aci'e than anj' other crop, it seems a matter of some
surprise that no one has hitherto engaged in the
analj^sis of the ashes of this plant, in order to dis-
cover the quality and weight of the mineral ingre-
dients removed from the soil by the hop.

It is well kIlo^^'n to all hop farmers that hoi)s
require more manure for their proper development,
than any other jjlant which they cultivate.

Being anxious to render the cultivation of this
plant less expensive, I undertook the analysis of the
produce of four hills of the Golding hop, kindly
furnished me by John Paine, Esq., of Farnham.

These hops were picked in September, 1845, and
together with the leaves and bine, were sent to me
in the latter end of that month ; the hops of the four
hills, dried, weighed 2 lbs.; the dried leaves, 9b oz. :
and the dried bine, 1 lb. 2^ oz.

1. — Analysis of the Ashes of the Hop.

The 2 lbs. of hops, when dried at a steam heat,
lost 3 oz. of moisture, and left 1 lb. 13 oz. of diy
hops.

The dry hops were burned to ashes in a large
earthen crucible, and furnished 1,282 grs. of ashes,
being at the rate of 9-tJj per cent. These ashes were
analyzed in the usual manner, and every hundi-ed
parts contained as follows : —

1. — Ashes of the Hop.

Silica (or pure sand) . . . . 20'93

Chloride of sodium (common salt) . 7'05
Chloride of potassium . , .1*63

Potash 24-50

Lime 15.56

Magnesia ...... 5*63

Sulphuric Acid (oil of vitriol) . . 5" 27

Phosphoric acid ..... 9.54

Phosphate of iron .... 7'26

Carbonic acid 2'6l

lOO'OO

2. — Analysis of the Ashes of the Leaves of the Hop
plant.

The 9i oz. of leaves, dried at a steam heat, lost

lioz.of moisture, and left 8 J oz. of dried leaves.
The dried leaves, burned to ashes as before, gave
572 grs., being at the rate of I6J per cent.

The ashes were of the following composition in
tlae hundred parts : —

Ashes of the Leaves of the Hop plant.

Sihca

,

10-14

Chloride of sodium (common salt)
Soda

7-92
0.32

Potash

12.48

Lime

41-40

Magnesia
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Phosphate of iron
Carbonic acid

1.99
4-20
2-02
2.93
16-54

100-00

3. — Analysis of the Ashes of the Hop Bine, or

Stalk.

The 1 lb. 2 J oz. of the bine, dried at a steam
heat, lost li oz. of moisture, and left 1 lb. 0^ oz. of
dry bine.

The dried bine burned gave 353 grs. of ashes,
being at the rate of nearly 5 per cent.

The ashes gave the following result in the hun-
dred parts.

Ashes of the Bine of the Hop.

Sihca ....
Chloride of sodium (common sa
Chloride of potassium
Potash

t)

4-64

4.95

7-38

18-62

Lime ....
Magnesia
SiUphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Phosphate of iron
Carbonic acid

29-59
3-15
2.63
5-22
0-31

23-51

100-00

4. — Composition and per centage of the ashes se-
parated from the carbonic acid.

The carbonic acid, combined ^vith the lime, &c.,
in the ashes, was produced during the burning 01
the plant, by the oxydation of the carbon of the ve-
getable matter.

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

489

It is therefore not a mineral ingredient of the soil,
and in order to arrive at the real j)er centage of in-
organic matter, it is necessary to withdraw the car-
bonic acid from the foregoing tables. This we have
done in the following tables.

Table 1. — Quantity per cent, of mineral ingredients
in the Hop, Leaves of Hops, and Bine, dried at
the temperature of boiling ^\'ater.

Hop. Leaves. Bine.

Percent 9'87 13-6 374

Table 2. — Composition in one hundred parts of the
inorganic matter.

Silica

Chloride of sodium .

Chloride of potassium

Soda

Potash

Lime

Magnesia

Sulphuric acid

Phosphoric acid

Phosphate of iron

Hop.

Leaves,

21-50
7-24
1-67

25-18
15,98

5-77

5-41
9*80
7-45

12.14
9-49

0-39
14-95
49-67
2-39
5-04
2-42
3-15

100-00 100-00 100-00

Bine,

6-07
6-47
9-64

24-35
38-73
4-10
3-44
G-80
0-40

5, — Quantity of inorganic matter taken from the land
by four hills of Farnham Hops.

In order to obtain practical benefit from the fore-
going analysis, it will be necessary, in the next
place, to ascertain the whole amount of inorganic
matter removed by the four hills of hops, and like-
wise the amounts of the separate ingredients.

The following table gives us the actual weight in
(/rains Troy, of the various ingredients removed
from the soil by four hills of hops.

Actual weight of Mineral ingredients Removed from
the soil by four hills of Hops.

Silica

Chloride of sodium

Chloride of potassiumj

Soda

Potash

Lime

Magnesia

Sulphuric acid

Phosphoric acid

Phosphate of iron

Total weight

Hops

Leaves.

Bine.

268-11

59-24

16-63

90-28

46-31

17-73

20-82

—

26-41

—

1-90

—

314-00

72-96

66.72

199-27

242'39

106-12

71-95

11-66

11-23

67-46

24-60

9-43

122-21

11-81

18-63

92-90

17"13

rio

1247-00

488'00

274-00

G. Amount of Mineral ingi-edients Removed from
the soil, by an acre of hops.

The numl)er of hills of hops to an acre, varies in
different localities. In some places 1000, in others
1260, in others 1440 hills go to the acre.

In the present instance I believe about 1000 to
be the number of hills contained in an acre.

Therefore by multiplying the numbers in the
preceding table by 250, we shall have the actual
weights of the various inorganic ingredients of the
soil, removed from an acre of land by the hop.

For the convenience of agriculturist, I give in the
following tables these weights in jjound and ounces
avoirdupois.

Amount of various Mineral ingredients Removed
from an acre of Land by the Farnham Hop.

Silica
Chloride of sodium .
Chloride of potas-
sium .
Soda
Potash .
Lime
Magnesia
Sulphmic acid
Phosphoric acid
Phosphate of iron

Sum Total

O

CO ClO

,a a,
^ o

gK

<4-4

o

CO
(U

%

O

03

o

GO
CI

6

Total in Hops

Leaves

and Bine.

lb. oz.

lb.

oz.

lb.

OZ.

lb. oz.

9 9

2

2

0

9^

12 4i

3 3J

1

10

0

10

5 1h

0 12

0

0

0

15

1 11

0 0

0

1

0

0

0 1

11 3^

2

10

2

6

16 3i

7 H

8

10

o

13

19 8i

2 9

0

6

0

6i

3 5^-

2 6f

0

14

0

5i

3 10

4 6

0

7

0

9^

5 6h

3 5

0

10

0

03

3 15?

44 8

17

6

9

11-i

71 9*

By a comparison of the amounts of the various
inorganic constituents taken from an acre of land
by the hop, with the amount of the different mine-
ral ingredients supplied to an acre of land by dif-
ferent manures, it will at once be apparent that
POTASH is the most important ingredient necessarj'
for the hop.

The average quantity of potash contained in
guano is 3 lb. per cwt.

The straw of wheat contains on an average 5 per
cent, of ashes, and every lOO lbs. of the ashes con-
tain about 13 lbs. of potash.

Farm-yard dung contains on an a\'erage 7 per
cent of mineral ingredients. These contain about
3 1 percent, of potash.

The following ta])le which gives us the weights
of different manures necessary to furnish 17 lbs. of
potash to an acre of land, will make it apparent
that the large quantity of potash taken out of the
land by the hop, is the main reason for the neces-
sity of manuring this plant highly.

490

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

7. — Quantity of Guano, Farm-yard Dung, or Wheat
Straw, necessary to furnish the 17 lbs. of Potash
taken from the Soil by the acre of Farnham Hops.

Hops, leaves, and
bine, of one acre of
hops, containing
500 lbs. hops,
146 J lbs. leaves
289 lbs, bine.

935i lbs.

Guano.

7 c\vt.

Wheat.
Straw.

23 cwt.

Farm-
yard
Dung.

61 cwt.

It is evident from the foregoing table, that though
2 cwt. of guano is amply sufficient to supply the
acre of hops with its phosphates, yet, that it requires
7 cwt. to supply the potash. Consequently the 5
e\rt. of guano might have been replaced by a cheaper
manure destitute of phosphates, l)ut containing 12h
lbs. of potash.

Hitherto we have spoken as if the hops, leaves,
and bine of the acre of Farnhams were of the usual
or average weight. But this was not the case.
Owing to the vmkindly weather, the yield was very
deficient. It is no uncommon thing in some dis-
tricts to grow a ton of hops an acre. We will sup-
pose a farmer to grow a ton of hops per acre, and
that the mineral ingredients of the hop are in the
same proportion as in those which were analysed.

We will suppose that the bine and leaves were
double in quantity, but containing the same i)er
cent, of inorganic matter as the others.

The following table will then show us the weight
of guano, wheat straw, or farm yard dung, per acre,
necessary to be put on the land, to replace the
potash withdrawn by the hops, bine, and leaves.
8. — Quantity of Guano, Wheat Sti-aw, or Farm-yard

Dung annually necessary to replace the G4lbs. of

Potash taken from an acre of Land by a ton of

Hops, with bine and leaves corresponding.

Hops, leaves, and
bine of one acre of
hops, containing
240 lbs. of hops,
293 lbs. of leaves,
578 lbs. of bine.

Guano.

3111 lbs.

ltn.5cwt,

A\Tieat
Straw.

4tn. 7cwt.

Farm-
yard
Dung.

lltnlSct.

Now as the whole of the above methods of fur-
nishing the necessary amount of ])otash are enor-
mously expensive, we are necessitated to look to
other and cheaper sources for this valuable sub-
stance.

Several salts of potash are well known in com-
merce, and hkewise to the agriculturist. Nitrate
of potash or saltpetre is one, and common pearlash
is another.

Saltpetre contains about 47 per cent, of potash,
and pearlash about 68 per cent. By calculation,
therefore, we find that 64lbs. of potash taken from
the land by a crop of hops, would be replaced by

1361bs. Saltpetre at a cost of about 32s., or by
94lbs. Pearlash at a cost of about 33s.

The weights of saltpetre or pearlash given above
would supply the deficiency of potash supposing the
whole crop, including bine, leaves, and hops, were
removed from the land. But if the bine and leaves
be allowed to rot on the ground about one-sixth less
than the preceding amounts would be sufficient. The
impropriety therefore of removing the bine, &c.,
from the land, as is too often the case, is very ap-
parent.

One of the most important points to be deduced
from these analyses, is the preparation, at a reason-
able expense, of a manure which shaU contain all the
necessary ingredients for the growth of the hop.
Being engaged in the analyses of various other
samples of the hop, I am now unwilling to present,
as perfect, a manure for the hop, until the compa-
rison of different varieties shall have shown that the
hops in divers locahties agree in the per centage of
their various constituents.

It will be seen by reference to the analyses, that
besides potash, the hops contain phosphoric acid,
lime, magnesia, common salt, and silica. About 3
cwt. of guano would supply the necessary amount
of phosphates. The chloride of sodium would be
amply supplied by 1 cwt. of common salt. Lime
and magnesia, are doubtless found in sufficient
quantities in the land. The silica, perhaps, may be
found in sufficient quantities in the land, but it would
be better to supply both silica and potash together
in the shape of silicate of potash. Tliis compound,
however, is not at present an articie of commerce,
but there is a probability that it will soon be manu-
factured on a large scale. The sulphuric acid can
be supphed by gypsum.

Either of the following mixtures will, without
doubt, be found exceedingly beneficial for the
growth of the hop.

No. 1. — Manure for an Acre of Hops.

3 cwt. guano, at 8s. per cwt.

1 c\vt. common salt, at 1 s. per cwt.

1 h cM. saltpetre, or 1 j cwt. sihcate

of potash, at 26s. 6d. per cwt.
^ cwt. of gypsimi, at Is. 6d. per cwt.

£

s.

d.

1

4

0

0

1

0

1

19

9

0

0

9

Cost per Acre

- £3 5 6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

491

No. 2. — Manure for an Acre of Hops

£
1 cwt. guano, at 8s. per cwt.
1^ cwt. superphosphate of lime at 8s, 6d.

per cwt. - . _ _

1 cwt. common salt, at Is. per cwt.
1 cwt. pearlash, or equal value of silicate

of potash, at 38s. per cwt.
^ cwt. gypsum, at Is. 6d. per cwt.

It may be to the purpose here to observe, that

il^ the constant stirring of the hop ground in the win-

-080 ^^^'> cannot but be beneficial to the hop ; as by this

means the atmosphere and water penetrate and dis-

]'2 9 , integrate the earth, and thus set free and render

I 0 soluble large quantities of potash, which would

otherwise continue to e.xist in the soil in an insoluble

18 0 ' state.

0

Cost per acre - - £3 0 6

Experience will prove whether the above manures
are adapted for the end proposed.

0 Some other interesting points respecting the hop,
— I and the values of the various manures which are

considered beneficial to its growth, will be made
public as soon as the necessary analyses are com-
pleted.

WINGERWORTH FARMER'S CLUB.

(abstract of report of discussion on "tenant right.")

Mr. Holland said : Sir, — The subject for this
night's discussion is of so much impoi'tance to the
tenant-farmer, that I could have wished some other
and more able person had brought it forward. The
tenant right of the farmer is at present so un-
defined and obscure, that the valuers themselves
are at a loss to know how to act. Tliey take
different views, which lead to disputes and pro-
tracted settlements ; and the tenant only knows he
has had so much money to receive, and the other
so much to pay, but not a word of what it is for.
{Hear.) Now one inducement for a tenant to im-
prove his farm is a certainty that if he leaves it,
that investment is secured, and that investment, i
contend, is labour, and material draining is the
foundation of good farming, and the present mode
of valuing it, I believe, is to extend it over eight
years. But if drainage is done well, it ought to
last forty years. {Hear, hear.) I contend, there-
fore, that eight years is not sufficient, and it ought
to extend to sixteen years at least : indeed, it was
the custom some years ago ; why it is altered, I am
not aware. The next thing is tillage ; and I think
that where the work is done weU, tillage and half
tillage ought to be allowed, as it is evidently the
tenant's right. {Applause.) The manure, also,
ought to belong to the farmer, and then he has an
interest in making as much as possible, which will
be to the advantage of the in-coming tenant.
Buildings, too, if erected with the consent of the
landlord, the tenant ought to be remunerated for.
{Hear.) Bought manures he ought to be paid for,
one or more years, according to the quahty and
durabihty. There are many other things, such as
stubbing fences, road-making, occ, wliich the tenant
had a right to receive compensation for, on leaving
his farm, if done within a certain period; because.

the in-coming tenant profits by this outlay of
labour. {Hear). I will not go into any argument
to prove the tenant's rights to these claims, because
the justice of them has been admitted by all
farmers that I have had conversation with upon the
subject; and I feel assured they will not be dis-
puted here. The law of tenant right (if law it may
be called where the custom of the district or the
will of the valuers constitute it) is so obscure and
undefined, that it calls loudly for some legislative
enactment to make it clearer ; and when we see al-
most every agricultural society and farmers' clul) in
the kingdom taking up the subject, I do not see why
the Wingervvorth club should be the last to speak
out, when their interest is immediately concerned.
{Applause.)

Chairman. — I will teU you what is the tenant-
right in this district. Seed and labour only is al-
lowed. Tlie tenant is entitled to dressing, bought
manures, seed, and sowing. Eight years is allowed
for draining. There is no compensation for build-
ings or road-making ; he is entitled to all fixtures.
The tenant is bound to leave all his buildings in
complete repair, and all fences and gates ; therefore,
when a tenant takes a farm he takes it in complete
repair, and leaves it so. But it varies very much.
In limestone districts, all manure belongs to the
tenant, and they have tillages and half tillages. In
Leicestershire there is none at aU. The manure
should belong to the tenant, and then he has an
inducement to cultivate his land. {Hear.) He should
have the manure and a way-going crop, or not more
than one-fourth part of the whole farm — that is to
say, he would have the amount of money in his crop
and would be entitled to his valuation on it : it
would produce more compensation than tillages, and
half tillages, because it would be his own property

492

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

that he was increasing?. It was for this reason they
found the land better cultivated on hmestone-soils
than in this district, because they were always safe.
(Hear, hear.)

Several other speeches were made by the Chair-

man, Mr. Bacon, Mr. Riggott, Mr. Denham, the
Secretary, C. Binns, Esq.; Mr. Giles, &c. Almost
all the speakers agreed with Mr. Holland.

Mr. Denham only contended that the landlord
ought to have the tillages.

ENGLISH AND SCOTCH FARMING.

Dear Sir, — You requested me to send you some
remarks upon the farming in Warwickshire, and I have
much pleasure in doing so.

When you asked me to report on English farming, I
believe both of us thought that my report must be all
against English farming, particularly in this and other
central counties, when compared with Scotch farming.
We were both very much mistaken. In passing hur-
riedly through these central counties of England, as we
have formerly done on our way to London, we see
little of the details of farming, and form our opinion of
the state of agriculture chiefly from the great clumsy
waggons, the heavy and inefficient ploughs, and the
expensive misapplication of horse-power, which meet
our eyes on all sides, and which we hastily conclude
must belong to an age of prejudice and general igno-
rance. But these are only the outside defects of the
machinery; and a minute examination of the farms leads
to a very different conclusion as to the details of Eng-
lish farming. I hesitate not to say, that the farming in
many parts of Warwickshire is as good, or better, than
in Wigtovrashire or Ayrshire— though it is much in the
game way as I would say a man is a good walker if he
beats another on a road, at a great cost of physical
power, although loaded with his great-grandfather's
boots, which happened to weigh each a hundred-weight.

I do not mean to say that an English farmer is able
to pay more rent for his farm than a Scotch farmer
would do — quite the contrary; but he grows better
crops on the same quaUty of land, feeds better, raises
more manure, puts on more compost, keeps his land
more clear of weeds, and his houses, farm roads, and
fences in better order ; so that, in my opinion, the Eng-
lish farmer only requires to throw off his grandfather's
great cumbersome implements to beat us both in neat
and profitable agriculture.

I cannot better point out in what we are inferior to
English farming than by quoting a criticism upon us by
an English farmer. He told me, last night, that a friend
of his, a gentleman who had farmed 2,000 acres in
Lincolnshire, went to reside in Scotland ; that he had
there an opportunity of seeing a good deal of Scotch
farming, and the distinguishing characteristic of it was
slovenliness. If slates were blown off the houses, he
said there was no repair till the houses were half-ruined,
and perhaps cattle injured by cold and wet, unless the
landlord made the necessary repair ; the windows and
doors never painted, but allowed to take water and be-
come rotten in a few years ; fences neglected, and open-
ings left, when a trifle would have repaired them, till the

crops are damaged, or cattle injured by wandering, to
ten times the amount which would have repaired the
fence, or even have made a new one ; farm roads neg-
lected, or no farm roads, when a day or two of the farm
horses at an idle season would have saved ticenty days'
work at the busy season, and much tear and wear both
of horses and carts — (true, most true !) ; slovenliness in
cleaning fences and cutting down weeds, and also about
the houses and courts, where a very little taste and exer-
tion at odd hours would add very much to the comfort
and health both of bipeds and quadrupeds. There was
a further catalogue against us, but I will now conclude
with one more item — our slovenliness in a great many
little things, as stepping over a tool, or a stone out of
order, without putting it in its proper place, and follow-
ing in fact "a well enough system," which you may
understand ; or as an Englishman would say, we want
the activity and taste required to carry out that order
and cleanliness on our farms which an Englishman de-
lights in.

You will think my English friend a little severe in his
criticism, and of course it does not apply to half a dozen
top farmers in every district ; but I fear, if we take the
mass of Scotch farmers, there is too much truth in all of
it. At least we will all do well to look at home, and,
throwing aside our Scotch prejudices, consider each of
us how far we are liable to the criticism. Every system
of farming has its good and evil points, and our study
should alw ays be to consider the details and results in
the good as well as the ill farmed districts of both Eng-
land and Scotland ; and in my experience I have never
failed to find something to adopt from ill farmed districts,
as well as something in Norfolk or the Lothians inferior
to our own practice. By bringing the above criticism
before your readers, they may see something to adopt or
correct, but I am not sure that the instruction will come
home to them with such force as it did to me from an
intelligent English farmer, with English neatness and
order, and convenience of farm roads, &c., all laid out
before me.

But now for the other side of the picture, and to show
in what our Scotch farming has the advantage — this may
best be done by pointing out the evils of the English
system ; and

1st. The great hindrance to profitable English farm-
ing is the unwillingness of landlords to grant leases for
a term of years. To a Scotch farmer it appears wonder-
ful how much some tenants have expended under so
discouraging a system ; but the general and only possible
result of short leases is to check improvement— 'to cause

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

493

draining and other expensive improvement to be either
neglected or imperfectly executed ; and no inducement
is held out to the great body of farmers to forsake the
clumsy implements and expensive system of working
of their fathers, the effect of which would be to put all
the profits of the change into the pockets of their land-
lords within a year or two after the improvement is
adopted. A great part of their clay lands are undrained,
and, on the veiy best managed farms, the draining is
quite inefficient — the drains being perhaps 36 feet
asunder, and only two feet deep, where they sliould
have been placed at every 16 or 18 feet, and 2 J feet
deep.

2nd. This insufficient draining, or the wetness of
the land, forms an excuse for a great misapplication of
horse power in ploughing the land. A Scotch plough-
man would be amused to see five horses in a plough
going one before the other in the furrow, under the
management of two men, turning over a furrow, which
we could do much better in Scotland with our well-formed
light plough and two horses abreast ; and when this
regiment of cavalry comes to turn at the land, and gets
into close column, he would hardly avoid breaking into
a broad Ao;ie-laugh. The ploughs are no doubt gene-
rally of a bad construction, formed to resist draught
rather than to throw it off, and with short ill-formed
arms, which must make them difficult for the ploughman
to hold, even with the aid of two wheels in front, which
all the ploughs here seem to have. I saw some new
ploughs at a maker's near Warwick of a better construc-
tion, but all too heavy for efficient and economical work.
I have no hesitation in saying that a Scotch ploughman,
with a pair of good horses, will do as much work, and
certainly make a better seed furrow, than the two Eng-
lishmen will do with their five horses.

3rd. So with their great waggons, drawn by four or
five horses, in universal use, there is an immense loss of
horse-power, as well as of man's labour. The only pur-
pose for which their immense waggons are at all suited
is to carry manure from the towns, or heavy loads to
distant markets ; and even for that work they are far
from economical : they draw in them, with five horses,
probably four tons or four and a-half tons of manure; and
the hand labour in loading these monster waggons, throw-
ing the stuff to such a height, must be enormously greater
than what is required to load our Scotch one-horse
carts ; the horse power cannot be equally or effectively
applied ; and the unequal burden thrown occasionally on
the wheel horse must often strain and injure it. I know
from experience that five horses in our single-horse
carts will with great ease draw from six to seven tons,
and are filled at piobably half the expense, so that even
for long carriages our one-horse carts have greatly the
advantage. But when we compare the English waggon
with the Scotch single-horse cart, in ordinary work on
the farm, they bear no comparison at all. On the farm
the large waggons are unmanageable, and with four or
five horses are hardly more than equal to the work of a
single-horse cart. An intelligent English farmer in
this neighbourhood admitted the superiority of our one-
horse carts, and said that if he were beginning now to

farm he would decidedly adopt them in preference to the
English waggon.

4th. The English farmer suffers a great loss, both in
the cost and dispatch, in preparing his grain for the
market, from the want of thrashing machines ; and this
evil is not reduced by occasionally hiring a clumsy, ill-
constructed machine, which is done even on farms of a
considerable extent. In Scotland, and even in the north
of Ireland, now almost every farm of 100^., or even
80/. rent, has its well constructed thrashing-machine,
drawn by two horses, if water power is not at com-
mand, completed at an expense of 30/. or 35/., or, with
winnowing-machine attached, a few pounds more. The
English farmers must adopt this improvement ; and
they, or the labourers, need not fear that they will find
eveiy economy to the farmer produces increased em-
ployment and benefit to the workman.

5th. [ may observe that while I greatly admire the
neatness of the English stackyards, I think unnecessary
expense is incurred in raising such very large stacks,
containing generally 900 or 1000 bushels of wheat, and
also in the very large barns required to receive them. I
would recommend the extra expense thus thrown out in
a large barn being laid out in the erection of additional
cattle houses, enabling the farmers to keep more stock,
and to consume part of their straw for fodder along
with turnips, in place of sinking their whole straw for
litter in their houses or strawyards. Experience shows
in Scotland that with turnips cattle require little fod-
der, and do very well with wheat-straw.

From the remarks thus hastily thrown together, you
will see 1 blame the English farmer for unnecessary ex-
pense or extravagance in his management, and the
Scotch farmer for ztnwise economy in many things, or
niggardliness, and to cure our mutual faults may yet
take some time ; but there is that spirit abroad now
which will, I have no doubt, tend to the improvement
of both countries. An Englishman, for odd work,
might bring neatness and order to our Scotch farms ;
and the alarm among English landlords on account of
the proposed change in the corn laws will force them to
grant leases, and tend to a more economical manage-
ment on the part of English farmers. If a Warwick-
shire farmer can work his farm with half the number of
horses he now employs (as I am convinced he could do),
here would be a source from which he could draw
security for a very considerable fall in the price of
grain. If such were to be the result of the change in
corn laws, the possession of a farm for a lease of nine-
teen or twenty years would certainly lead to such safe
means of realizing profit. The great objection is the
expense of purchasing new carts and ploughs, and the
difficulty of getting workmen to go heartily into the
change. As to the mere expense, I believe the saving
in one year would pay for all the new implements ; and
one or two Scotch ploughmen brought in by intelligent
farmers, would shame the ploughmen from these old
clumsy ploughs, and induce them, too, to compete in
the march of improvement. The ploughmen of War-
wickshire seem a superior race of men physically ; and
they might depend upon it the more economically and

494

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

profitably farm labour is done, the more labour will be
done, the more hands employed, and the better wages
given.

Again, for a few hints for the improvement of our
Scotch farming from the detail of English practice : we
do not, in the west of Scotland, use the drill machine for
wheat so much as we should do- Here almost all wheat
is sown with the drill machine ; and the workers are now
busy with the hoe, cleaning between the drills, and cut-
ting down all those seed weeds with which our fields are
so often disfigured, and at the same time breaking the
hard crust, allowing the air and moisture to get into the
ground, and thereby increasing the growth of the wheat.

A dibbling machine is also lately got into use here, to
dibble in the seed. Wherever this has been used, the
grain looks much more fresh and forward than where it
has been sown either drilled or broadcast. I have not
yet seen the machine, and am unable to report further
about it at present.

Some of the farmers here, immediately after harvest,
use a scuffle with very broad soles, to cut under the
stubble and seed weeds, which are harrowed and ga-
thered to put into their feeding yards or muck heaps.
This serves the double purpose of cleaning their land
and raising manure, and in some lands with us might be
done with considerable advantage.

The English farmer is indefatigable in raising manure
and making up compost heaps ; along all his fences and
all his roads, every particle of earth, even pure clay, is
mixed up with lime or farm-yard dung, and his pas-

tures from such top-dressing have a depth and richness
even on very second-rate land that would surprise and
delight a Scotch farmer.

I shall be glad if these remarks are of any use to the
farmers in your district, either by suggesting any im-
provement in their management, or exciting to greater
neatness and order in their farms.

I am, dear sir, yours faithfully,

G.

Leamington, 2blh April, 1846,

P.S. I see you have noticed in your last paper two
subjects intimately connected with agriculture. With
your views on one of them 1 entirely agree ; while I
entirely differ from you regarding the other. I feel that
the importance of having better houses for our farm-
labourers, and raising their general status — both for the
sake of that important class and for the interests of
agriculture— cannot be too much pressed upon both
landlords and tenants. But I think you are quite
wi'ong in recommending Mr. Davis's theories about thin
sowing. I have made the experiment cautiously, and
find truly that to sow sparingly, as Davis recommends,
we must expect to reap also sparingly ; and I am aware
that a family of farmers in Wigtownshire, who have
been the most enterprising and successful, have, for
many years, proved that sowing a bushel or two an acre
more than the tolerable allowance of seed usually given
in Wigtownshire is highly remunerative, — Galloway
Advertiser and Agriculturist.

NORTON FARMERS' CLUB.

The monthly meeting of this flourishing institution was
held in their room, at the Bagsha.ve Arms, on Monday
evening, May 4. W. J. Bagshawe, Esq., the president
of the club, presided. After the usual preliminary
business, connected with the library, &c., the secretary
suggested that the question on turnip sowing, put down
for this evening, should be postponed, owing to the
absence of several members at neighbouring fairs, who
were expected to take an active part in the discussion.

Mr. Rogers read a letter which he had received from
W. Shaw, Esq., a member of the Farmers' and Graziers'
Mutual Cattle Insurance Association, in London, wherein
the advantages of cattle insurance were pointed out. In
alluding to the projected formation of a similar institu-
tion here, it was shown that nearly all local associations
of the kind in Cheshire, Derbyshire, and other places
have been broken up, owing to the inadequacy of the
funds to meet the numerous losses. The Farmers' and
Graziers' Association had paid three persons for eleven
losses, two for twelve do., four for thirteen do,, three
for fourteen do., one for fifteen do., two for sixteen do.,
and one for the loss of no less than twenty-one head of
cattle, besides a great many others for smaller numbers.
There was another institution, too, which had been ad-
vertised in the Independent, offering similar advantages
to the above. He (Mr, Rogers) thought it his duty to

mention the above facts, in order that members might be
in possession of information for their guidance.

Mr. T. Hazard stated that it was his intention to
withdraw his motion respecting the formation of a cattle
insurance society. He was now convinced that the
insurance of cattle could be more easily accomplished in
certain existing institutions than they could be by any
local associations in the country, without incurring
considerable labour and expense.

Mr. Rogers, since no other matter was on the no-
tice paper, read an admirable lecture of Professor Play-
fair's, recently delivered in the Athenseum, at Man-
chester, on the chemistry of vegetation, which gave rise
to an interesting conversation, the president taking an
active part. Lime being an article in extensive use
here, as tillage, the attention of members was more par-
ticularly drawn to the following extract from the able
lecture alluded to, which we have no doubt will be ac-
ceptable to many of our agricultural readers. The Pro-
fessor said —

" When a chemist, in his laboratory, wishes to liberate the
potash or silica from a soil he is analysing, he mixes it with
lime, and heats them together. By this means he renders
soluble, in acids or in water, all tliat was insoluble before.
The farmer performs exactly the same operation as the che-
mist, wkea. he lilies hia laud. He Uberattes by its me&m the

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

496

silica, the potash, and the phosphates from the soil, and en-
ables them to administer to the wauts of vegetation. But by
this operation he has furnished to his land no equivalent for
that removed by crops ; and, therefore, it must infallibly hap-
pen that the continuance of tlie system is merely a continuance
of a rapid system of exhausting the soil. It was true that a
rich clay, abounding in potash, might long survive the treat-
ment ; but it was as certainly going on to exhaustion as a
granary of corn, out of wliich was taken every year a certain
amount of grain, and there was merely put in its place the key
with which we opened the granary door. The lime is merely
the key with which we open the magazine of food contained iii
the soil. Not unfrequently, however, the lime itself might
supply an absent constituent of the soil, especially in eases,
such as for clover and grasses, which experience much benefit
from a top-dressing of Ume. He did not say that the former
use of lime was altogether illegitimate, because he had shown
that clays often contain potash enough to last for thousands
of years, if nothing more than this ingredient were required ;
but at the same time it must be remembered that the lime
aids the plant in removing the phosphates, sulphates, and other
ingredients, which may be required for the purpose of their
organism, without restoring what is abstracted. He had fre-
quently found, on examining some limestones, lauded for their
superior excellence, that their action seemed to be due to the
presence of some adventitious ingredient, such as magnesia,
which could have been much more effectually supplied by other
means. There was no manure more benejicially used, or more
disgracefidhj abused, than Ume. In its principal action, it had
no right to be called a manure ; for a manm-e consists in the
restoration to the soil of ingredients taken from it. But lirae,
affords a key so easily applied, to rob tlie soil anew, that a far-
mer, who works slovenly, often contents himself with the ap-
phcation of lime, and by its means attains the same result (ac-
companied, however, by a destruction of property) that he
would by the drainage of laud, and by a proper system of ro-
tation. Hence it was often substituted for the drain ; for the
disintegration which tlie air should effect in a drained field, was
obtained by lime in one undrained. But the system in the lat-
ter case was a ruinous one to the landlord, and even to the
tenant if he remain on the soil ; and the cause must be obvious,
as he applies the lime witliout the knowledge of the quantity
which shoidd be used ; and, as he does not foUow it up by a
proper rotation — first, to take up the Uberated potash, aud then
the liberated silica and phosphates — a large part of the valuable
ingredients of the soil are washed away without benefit to it.
A favourite mode of applying lime was to mix it, while stdl
hot, with earth, and, after it has slacked itself, to spread the
mixture over the field. Thus used, a powerful effect was pro-
duced by the lime, in liberating the alkalies of the earth with
which it was mixed ; so that, when spread over the field, there
was spread with it a stock of nutriment in immediate readiness
for the plant. All tlie processes he had hitherto considered
were methods with one object in view — the rendering soluble
the nutritious ingredients ofthesoU; not the supply of mate-
rials which that soil may want."

There is another short extract worth giving, for the
information of those who are discontented with guano, : —

" When the farmers use guano as manure for corn, they are
robbing the soil, in the grain, of large quantities of sdicate of
potash, which they do not replace. Then was guano not to be
used ? Certainly it was ; but it must be used together with
silicate of potash, which was obtained from decaying straw,
but much more conveniently from manufacturing refuse, and
it might be manufactured with great ease. He happened lately
to be in a c<jach with two farmers who were talking of guauo ;

and one said it was a capital manure, and the other asserted it
was good for nowt." On asking what sort of soils they had
tried it on, he found that the one who said it was a good manure
had tried it on a clay soil ; and tlie other, who condemned it,
had put it on a soil almost wholly sand, which contained but
httle silicate of potash. This farmer had no right to blame
the advance of science, which had brought guano into the
country ; for, if he had consulted science, he would have found,
that, though good for some soils, the guano could not supply to
his land the place of the decaying straw. Science was now
beginning to make its way into the farmer's home. So far
from an ounce of practice beuig worth a ton of theory, it was
beginning to be found that an ounce of theory would produce a
ton of practice ; and the farmers who did not keep up with the
present state of science would be left far behind. Experience
had done much, but had not generahsed its practice. It was
for science to explain that experience ; and then the farmer
would be enabled to cultivate his soil, however different from
that to which he had been accustomed. The farmer, then,
should not look suspiciously upon science, but rather hold out
the right hand of fellowship to it."

In answer to a question from Mr. Hazard, Mr. Veale
said he would recommend about three tons of lime to the
acre on fallow, aud a less quantity for grass. A pro-
longed conversation followed, in which the President,
Mr. E.. Linley, Mr. Bingham, Mr. Veale, and others
joined, and the meeting concluded by proposing a vote
of thanks to the President for his valuable services. —
The next meeting will be held on the 8th of June, when
Mr. John Greaves has announced his intention of giving
a paper in vindication of the present system of tenure, &c.

HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB.— Sixth Meeting
FOR 1846.— May 6th.— Subject, " The breaking up of old pas-
ture land : its advantages aud the best process." Resolved : —
Tliat it is highly desirable to break up a large portion of the heavy
land pastures in this district, thus adding to the sources of labour
and increasing the produce of the soil. That thin paring and
burning the flag is the best process of converting such lands
into tillage, spreading at least two-thirds of the ashes on the
new soil, and carrying the remainder, if desirable, on to the old
tilled lauds. The Club not only considers that the first should
be a root crop, for which the ashes will be an excellent prepa-
ration, but recommends that the succeeding crop or crops
shoidd be roots also. Aware of the prejudice which most laud-
lords entertain against the breaking up of old pasture land, it
is beUeved that making it compulsory to crop new lands with
roots for the first two or three years (for the growth of which
they are so well calculated) will tend to diminish their ob-
jections, and be at the same time advantageous to the tenants,
as the manure from the extra root crops wOl be more beneficial
to the old lands than the manure from the extra straw crops
would have been, and the whole farm will be thus improved in-
stead of impoverished. Draining aud claying in the interim
will prepai'e the land for the corn crops at the expiration of the
limit, and by breaking up annually a portion only of the pas-
tm'e intended to be converted, the whole will come regularly
into course with the old ploughed lauds. It is believed that
permission thus given to break up inferior pasture land will en-
courage good farming amongst the tenantry by increasing the
fattening of cattle and reducing the stock of cows, which it is
well known, as .hey are generally kept, impoverish the land as
much as cattle and sheep improve it. — Robt. B. Hakvey,
Secretary.

496

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

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(glRiOgiSCOLL^g [P^TIIMT (g[L©[2)°(gKy§[Kll[^ I^M® \P.@l,LEU.

At no period of the history of British agi-iculture was the necessity so great as it now is, for
enlisting in its service every development of mechanical science that can be economically brought to
bear on the cultivation of the soil. The varied processes of tillage must be carried out with in-
creased energy and intelligence ; no needful operation must be omitted, or negligently performed;
and when we consider the vast power of machinery, its adaptation to the most dehcate as %vell as the
most laborious tasks, the rapidity with which by its agency large surfaces can be operated upon,
and the consequent saving of time, which in our variable climate is of the highest importance, we
feel justified in re-enforcing that which experience has long established, namely, that by the aid of
machinery a greater amount of labour can be performed in a superior manner, and at a less cost, than
hy manual exertion. It will be evident, then, that we are not advising a larger, but a more judicious
outlay of the capital em})loyed in husljandry.

To pulverize clods and reduce a strong soil into a fine tilth, in dry seasons, has always tasked the
powers of manual labour beyond its strength; nor have the almost endless variety of i^loiighs, drags,
iron and stone rollers, that have from time to time been employed for that purpose, been much more
successful. The operation, therefore, even where practicable, has always been expensive, until the
introduction of an implement on the principle of that shown in our engraving, which we know to be
a most valuable and effective crusher and roller, and which, whether required to prepare the land
for seed, or for rolling the young plant when it is from three to eight inches out of the ground,
or to check the destructive ravages of the wire-worm, grub, or snail, it is decidedly more efficient
than any other implement now in use for such purposes.

498

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

EARL TALBOT'S PLAN OF STALL-FEEDING SHEEP.

Our columns have frequently contained evidences of
the great anxiety of Earl Talbot, the highly-esteemed
Lord Lieutenant of this county, to promote to his ut-
most, both by precept and example, the improvement of
agriculture in all its departments. His lordship's In-
gestre estate presents a most beautiful specimen of land
brought into the highest state of culture ; but perhaps a
greater triumph of the combination of science, capital,
and skill, is exhibited in the wonderful change which has
been effected on his lordship's Birchwood Park Farm,
which a few years ago was comparatively valueless,
though it is now producing every year large and luxuri-
ant crops. This estate is in the parish of Leigh, about
six miles beyond Ing^estre, not far distant from Frads-
well Heath, and, before his lordship commenced his
improvements in 1841, corresponded very much in re-
gard to sterility with the adjoining common. The soil
is naturally a cold, wet clay ; but by adopting a com-
plete system of drainage, and by the application of suit-
able manures, its capabilities have been so greatly im-
proved, that iast year fifty acres of turnips, of great
size, and which turned out perfectly sound, were grown
upon it ; and a rickyard, containing about seventy
stacks of wheat and other grain, attest how successfully
Lord Talbot's intentions have been carried out by his
intelligent and indefatigable resident bailiff, Mr. Craven.
Improvements on this estate are yet in progress, and
Lord Talbot himself bestows a great deal of personal
attention upon them. The land is still too cold and
moist to allow of sheep to be fed out of doors upon tur-
nips ; and this circumstance induced Lord Talbot to
despatch Mr. Craven to the Rev. Mr. Huxtable's farm
in Essex (if we remember rightly), and to Sir Richard
Simeon's, in the Isle of Wight, to make some inquiries
into a plan of operation on those farms for feeding
sheep within doors. Mr. Craven, profited by his obser-
vations, returned to Birchwood Park, and, improving
upon the practice of Mr. Huxtable and Sir R. Simeon,
though borrowing important parts of the plan of each,
has adopted a system of stall-feeding for sheep, which
promises to be attended with most satisfactory results.
The building which has been erected for the purpose at
Birchwood Park is a parallelogram, sixty feet long by
fifty wide. The sheds for the sheep occupy three sides,
and the fourth is intended to be used as a store for tur-
nips. The sheds are fifteen feet in width. On each
side are the stalls, which are two feet wide, thi-ee feet
long, and are separated from each other by a wooden
partition two-and-a-half feet high. Each stall is sup-
plied with a feeding trough or manger; a light chain,
nine inches long, is attached by a ring to a staple about
the same length, which allows the chain to move up and
down ; and to the other end is affixed the strap, which is
buckled round the neck of the sheep. The stalls are not
wide enough to allow the sheep to turn round in them.

A tank or gutter, two feet wide and two feet deep, built
of brick, grouted with barrow lime, runs down each
side of the shed, immediately behind the sheep ; it is co-
vered with a wooden grating, the spars, which are two
inches in width, being only three-quarters of an inch
apart, and therefore allow the sheep to stand upon them
with their hind feet without being entangled. The use
of this tank is to receive the droppings from the sheep.
A passage down the middle of each shed, three feet six
inches wide, paved with stone flags, has a very neat ap-
pearance. The sheds are entirely closed on the outer side
to the roof ; but on the inner side the wall is only breast
high, the space to the roof being left open to admit air
and light. The roof is formed of a framework of wood,
covered with the patent asphalte felt, and has a light and
suitable appearance. The building altogether is ad-
mirably adapted for its purpose, and is by no means of
an expensive style. It is calculated for the feeding of
150 sheep. The sheep, which are at the present time
fed upon sliced turnips, are served with their food three
times a day ; and a little sawdust strewn behind them,
and swept with the manure into the tanks, serves to
keep the sheds perfectly clean. The tanks are emptied
when occasion requires, the wooden grating, in lengths
of only about six or seven feet, being easily removed for
the purpose. When this operation is in progress, the
sheep can be removed to the yard or area between the
sheds, which is also intended to receive them when it is
necessary they should occasionally feel the use of their
legs and feet. This system of stall feeding sheep, it is
believed, will answer many valuable purposes. As in
the case of Lord Talbot's Birchwood Park Farm, where
these useful animals cannot be fed on turnips out of
doors, though the land grows the food in abundance,
they can be fattened in these sheds. The economy of
food will be great, as none will be wasted, and smaller
quantity will suffice for animals kept in a state of quiet-
ude. It is also expected that the sheep will fatten in a
much shorter time. They will not be liable to foot-rot,
a disease so detrimental to sheep, and so common on
wet farms. The manure collected in the tanks will be
exceedingly valuable. When dropped in the fields its
strength is wasted by evaporation ; here it will retain its
virtues, and form a highly concentrated and pungent
manure, equal in point of utility, it is thought, to the
richest guano. Perhaps a point of greater importance
than any to which we have adverted is that the moun-
tain sheep, which are found so difficult to feed on ac-
count of their rambling propensities, will become quiet
feeders, and thrive in an extraordinary manner. Welsh
sheep can scarcely be induced to feed upon turnips out
of doors ; but at Birchwood Park they may be seen in
the stalls, and Cheviots likewise, enjoying their meal of
turnips, and submitting to discipline with as much gra-
vity as our English Southdowns and Leicesters. It is

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

499

quite surprising to obsei*ve how fully reconciled the
sheep become to this new mode of life. Timid as they
proverbially are, they do not seem alarmed by the ap-
proach of strangers ; and when the attendant uses his
besom close at their heels, they remain undisturbed.
After feeding, they lie quietly down ; and this state of
repose has unquestionably a tendency to encourage their
rapid fattening. We had the opportunity, a few days
ago, of seeing this new system in operation at Birch-

wood Park, and have given the result of our observation
for the information of our agricultural friends ; and we
have no doubt that any of them, desiring more fully to
inform themselves on a subject of so much importance,
and to witness this novel and interesting sight, will be
treated with the same civility and attention which were
shown to us on the occasion of our visit. — Stoffordshire
Advertiser.

MONMOUTH FARMERS' CLUB, March 4.
ON " LANDLORD AND TENANT RIGHTS."

After Mr. Crawfurd had concluded, J. G. George,
Esq., delivered a short lecture on the above subject : —

" The subject which it has fallen to my lot to intro-
duce to your notice, is one of vital importance to the
agricultural interest ; for upon the temperate discussion
of the question, and the clear understanding of the
rights ol Landlord and Tenant, as settled upon equitable
principles, must depend chiefly the well-being of both
classes. To discuss thoroughly all the different rights
of Landlord and Tenant would occupy many evenings ;
and I would, therefore, call your attention upon the
present occasion to the question of Tenure ; and I wish
it clearly to be understood that I myself do not pretend
to lay down any fixed rules upon the subject. My ob-
ject as a landlord is merely to raise tlie question, and to
ascertain, as far as possible, from the practical farmers
their opinion upon the subject. I am fully persuaded
that the best chance for a landlord to obtain tenants
with capital and skill is to grant leases, say for twenty-
one years ; but before a landlord can be called upon to
part with the control over his land for so long a period,
he ought to be satisfied that the tenant has the required
skill and capital. Now, gentlemen, I would call your
attention to the fact that the great bulk of the farmers
in this part of the county of Monmouth occupy small
farms with small means ; and I much doubt whether they
would like to run the risk of binding themselves to pay
a fixed rent for a long period of years. It may be
asked. Why not turn three or four farms into one, and
then offer leases of twenty-one years, and you will get
a superior class of tenants .' This may probably be the
result ; but then comes the important question. What
will you do with the old tenants ? — would it be right to
deprive a great number of honest, hardworking men of
the means of getting a living ? I am sure you will say,
certainly not. And I much donbt whether, even if we
could make arrangements to enlarge our farms, stran-
gers to our soil would thrive amongst us ; and I would
quote the remarks of Mr. George Buckland, in his
excellent essay ' On the Farming of Kent,' R. A. J.,
Vol. vi., p. 283, upon tliis subject, as well worth your
consideration :

" ' Amongst improvers of weald-clay land, Mr. Schreiber, of
Henhurst Lodge, may be honourably mentioued. It is impor-
tant to mention here that when Mr. Schreiber commenced his

improvements he brought with him most of the approved
modern implements of the eastern counties, which after re-
pepted trials and untiring perseverance, he has by degrees
almost abandoned, and has adopted the implements and mode
of culture common to the district. This fact leads us to re-
mark, whatever theorists may say to tlie contrary, how im-
portant it is that a man should practically understand the
nature of his soil before he steps very far from the beaten path
of cultivation. It is generally found that those who have been
brought up to farming in the weald succeed much better than
strangers.'

' ' My opinion is that any lease for a less term than
ten years is a disadvantage to a tenant, as many land-
lords who grant leases, say seven years, consider they
have a moral right to make a fresh bargain at the expi-
ration of the term ; and if the farmer has ventured to
invest his capital in the improvement of the land, he
will run the risk of paying interest upon such capital in
the shape of increased rent ; and probably the same
landlords would not on any account give a yearly tenant
notice to quit, unless they had good reasons, such as
great arrears of rent, or negligent farming.

" The farmers will probably say, ' Having pointed out
the difficulties in granting leases to us, tell us what sys-
tem of protection you would propose for us if we are
able and willing to invest our capital in permanent im-
provements of our farms.' In reply to the question I
would state as my opinion that the best and most equit-
able system that could be introduced in this neighbour-
hood would be agreements by which the tenants' right
to unexhausted improvements shall be fully provided
for. This system has been found to answer exceedingly
well in North Lincolnshire, and is also recommended by
the Loughborough Agricultural Society ; and I would
direct your particular attention to two letters on this
subject in the sixth volume of the R. A. J., p. 44, the
one by Mr. G. M. Williams, agent of the Earl of Yar-
borough, and the other by "Mr. George Stokes, and both
directed to Philip Pusey, Esq. ; and as probably some
of my hearers may not have an opportunity of referring
to these letters, I will, with your permission, read them,
as they will fully explain the system which I venture to
recommend to your serious consideration. And I would
also call your attention to what Mr. Baugh Almack, in
his Essay on the Agriculture of Norfolk, vol. 5, R.A.J.,
p. 346, says upon this subject :

500

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

"'Indeed I woidd venture to submit, that if Great Britain '
were divided into three parts, and each let separately under
cue of the following agreements, all the laud might be culti-
vated in the highest possible manner ; for, although this
division would allow each owner and each tenant to select the
one agreement best suited to his own feelings, all would be
so far founded on justice to the party who expended liis capital
for the improvement of the soil as to insure the most liberal
outlay of it.'
"'1st. Leases.'

" * 2nd. Insert a clause in the lease gi-anted, under which the
owner should have the power to cancel it, on giving eighteen
months' notice, and paj-ing to the tenant such sum as two
arbitrators (one for each party) should think a fair compens a-
tion to the tenant for his permanent improvement, bearing in
mind all the circumstances of the case affecting landlord and
tenant.'

" ' 3rd. By giving the tenant a clause, imder an agTeement
as a yearly tenancy, by which he would be entitled to a fair
and equitable allowance for all permanent improvements made
at his expense, but with the sanction of the owner, on VTitten
notice of such intended improvements having been given to
the latter or his agent, and not having been answered within a
given period, or in time to prevent that outlay which the
owner of the land would not sanction.'

Gentlemen, I have frequently referred to the Royal
Agricultural Journal ; and I would earnestly request
every farmer who wishes to go-a-head to carefully
peruse it. He will there find the very best system of
farming different soils clearly explained ; and he will, by
a careful perusal of the valuable essays upon the agri-
culture of several counties in England, also discover
what a vast improvement cau be effected in the science
of farming by energy and perseverance.

" Before I conclude, allow me to call your attention
to a rock upon which many an industrious farmer has
been wrecked, and just at the time that he has consi-
dered himself in smooth water. I mean the too great
eagerness to get into a larger farm. I would caution
every farmer, before he much increases his farm, to cal-
culate his increased liabilities, and clearly ascertain
that he will be able to provide for such increase, not
only in fair weather but in foul. Depend upon it that a
farmer, in a moderate-sized farm, with a few pounds at
his banker's to meet his half-year's rent, is much better
off than he would be in a larger farm with all his capital
invested in his stock. In the former case it is true he
has small interest, but it is certain : in the latter case, he
may probably be compelled to sell, just at the time that
he ought to hold ; and these forced sales, by depressing
the markets, not only injure the farmer himself, but his
brother agriculturists."

valuable matter chemically combiued with the water ; and,
secondly, the condensing and solidifying the noxious effluvia
which, imder ordinary civcumstauces, woidd contaminate the
atmosphere. We cordially recommend the plan, not only to
the capitalist, to whom it promises an ample return, but to the
enlightened philanthropist, who is anxious to improve the con-
ditions necessary to health in towns. — Minmg Jom-ual.

LoxDON Sewers, — We understand that a company is
in course of formation, for the purpose of collecting, by chemi-
cal means, the whole contents of the metropohtan sewers, with
a view to their application to agricultural purposes. The inten-
tion of this company is, to work out the patent lately granted
to Mr. William Higgs, whose labour as a lecturer in this de-
partment of science we have several times had occasion approv-
ingly to notice. His plan seems to embrace several points of
importance, two of wliich deserve particular attention — first,
the separation and precipitation of the phosphates and other

TENANT-RIGHT.

MARCH FARMERS' CLUB.
The following are the Teuant-Right that they consider the
tenant farmer fairly entitled to : —

1. Leases clear of restrictions for not less than 12 out of 14
years would leave a tenant at liberty to exercise skill and ex-
pend capital for the first period of liis lease ; whilst restrictions
for the latter part would secure the interests of the landlord,
who in return should allow compensation for occupiers' improve-
ments in the event of death or leaving at the end of a lease.

2. It would at the same time be desirable that an under-
standing should be had, or agreement entered into previous to
the expiration of the lease, as to whether the lease is to be con-
tinued in his occupation after the expiration thereof.

3. That compensation should be made to the tenant for all
unexhausted improvements to the land, such as claying, liming,
hoUow or other draining, use of purchased artificial manures,
and substantial and necessary farm-builduigs ; and those only
in proportion to the actual value thereof at the expiration of
the tenancy, by a valuation of the same by disinterested persons.

4. This part of the comitry not being stocked with game,
there appears no necessity for a statement of tlie injuries to a
tenant thereby. T. T. Elliott,

Secretary to the March Farmers' Club.
March, Cambfidgeshire, Feb, 20th.

TENANT-RIGHT.

EXMINSTER FARMERS' CLUB.

March 16th, 1846. — At a meeting of this Club, held on this
day, the following resolutions with regard to tenant-right were
unanimously agreed to.

1st. That it is the opinion of this Club that tenant-right is
a prmciple which must be admitted in future in all agreements
between landlord and tenant.

2nd. That this right consists in his having secured to liim
an adequate return for his expenditure of capital on his farm,
by the length and certainty of his temu-e, or by a fair compen-
sation for his outlay and improvements on quitting it.

3rd. That to secure this object, it appears desirable that
leases should be granted for 21 years, renewable at the end of
14 years, and also that a series of general rules should be
framed for the guidance of both landlord and tenant, with a
view to effect a definite settlement of tenant-right.

4th. Tliat to prevent the deterioration of the soU, every te-
nant should be required to cultivate liis estate to the end of
his term, the same as he would do if about to continue it, and
thereby prevent a loss to the community by a diminution of
produce.

5th. That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the
Secretary of the London Farmers' Club, with a suggestion that
the series of rules about to be prepared by the Committee of
tliat Club, should be forwarded to the various local Clubs for
their opinion before being finally adopted.

John Drew, Sen., Secretary.

Powderham Castle, near Exeter,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

501

REMARKS Ox\ THE AGRICULTURE OF ABERDEENSHIRE.

No. II.

CLIMATK.

Hanng in my last pajjcr adverted at some length
to the nature and quality of the various soils met
with in Aherdeenshire, I now proceed to make
a few ohservations on the character of its climate.
It may he supposed that this county, in conse-
quence of its high latitude, and of the niunber of
lofty mountains and extensive wastes with which it
abounds, is subject to a much more rigorous and
ungenial climate than is actually experienced. The
fact is, that the low-lying parts of this district enjoy
even a higher degree of temperature during winter
than many of the southern counties of the island.
In the vicinity of the sea-coast snow seldom lies
long upon the ground, and the frost is rarely so
intense as to interrupt the operation of ploughing,
which is obviously of great advantage to the farmers
in that locality. It is considered that in ordinary
winters the temperature is seldom so low, or the
frost so intense or protracted, as in the county of
Middlesex ; indeed. Dr. Anderson has recorded
that in the year 1762, when the frost was so severe
in England that the Thames at London was frozen
over for many weeks together, the weather was so
mild in Aberdeenshire as scarcely to interi'upt the
ordinary operations of agriculture ; and though a
little snow lay for some weeks upon the surface of
the ground, there was not a day during the whole
season that a ])lough could not have gone. As a
proof that the climate is not uncommonly Ijackward,
he mentions having had, on the 4th June, 1779,
a dish of ripe peas, which were grown in the field,
within a few miles of the sea-coast.* The compara-
tive mildness of the climate of the lower parts of
this county obviously arises from the large extent
(upwards of sixty miles) of sea-coast on the north
and east sides. The great disadvantages attend-
ing the climate of Aberdeenshire, compared with
that of more southern districts, are the lateness of
spring, owing to the i)revalence of easterly winds,
and the frequent occurrence of fogs and rain at
that season, whiclr often render the seed-time both
late and precarious, 'llie spring frosts and fogs
also prove more or less injurious to newly-blos-
somed fruit trees. In general years, the summer
is colder and more humid than in the southern
quarters of the kingdom, there being less variation
in the temperature at dift'erent seasons.

But from the remarks that have been made in

* Keith's Survey of Aberdeenshire.

my former article regarding the extent and di-
vcrsilicd surface of Aberdeenshire, it will Ije appa-
rent that the climate is exceedingly \'arious in dif-
ferent parts of the county. For example, the
climate experienced in the mountainous regions ef
Mar and Strathbogie must be widely difl'erent from
that enjoyed in the vicinity of Peterhead, where the
peninsula of Buchan projects a considerable way
into the German ocean. In fact, the several moun-
tain ranges and inteiTening vales possess climates
corresponding to their respective altitudes and
situations. It is obvious, also, that the drained and
well-cultivated parts of the country enjoy a more
genial and salubrious atmosphere than those, at the
same elevation, which abound -with swami)y marshes
and inhospitable moors. The upland farmers
usuall)' experience, every winter, from one to t^vo
months of either frost or snow, or both associated,
during which period all operations on the soil are
necessarily .suspended ; which is certainly a great
disadvantage, but one inseparable from elevated
situations. But on the other hand, it has been ascer-
tained that the heat is sometimes greater in summer
on the south sides of hills, and in sheltered valleys in
the higher parts of this county, than it is immediately
adjoining the coast. A great difterence has of late
years been obser\^ed in regard to the period at which
the severity of the winter sets in. Snow-storms
now seldom occur till about the beginning or the
middle of January, at which time ploughing and
other farm operations areusually far advanced; but
frost generally sets in much earlier than is desirable,
and in the vales and low-lying grounds in particular
potatoes are very liable to suffer from its influence
at an early stage of their growth. This also fre-
quently hapj)ens on the banks of slow-winding
rivers, the reason of which is conceived to be too
apparent to require any explanation in this place.

The occurrence of hoar-frost so early as the
month of July is not an uncommon circumstance in
some parts of this county, on wliich occasions the
potato crop is, of course, considerably damaged ;
but when not seriously attacked till about the
middle of October, as is most generally the case,
the frosts which may then occur seldom commit
more injury than blackening the haulm, and ter-
minating rather prematurely the growth of the
tubers. Numerous instances of this have happened
during the past autumn. In many jjarts of this
county, particularly in the upland vales, oats and bear
! are likewise very liable to be attacked by frost before

2 K

502

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

attaining maturity, and sometimes so severely as to
render the grain altogether unfit for seed. It is
always a A'ery serious loss to the farmers of this
district when frost arrives immediately before the
oat crop becomes ripe, as the vegetative powers of
the grain are thereby completely destroyed, and
there is no extei-nal mark by which the damaged
seed can be distinguished. It may, however, be
recognized at once, by carefully stripping the husks
from the kernels, when the longitudinal groove in
the breast of the latter wiU be observed black and
carious, and the kernels may be crumbled
with facility between the fingers. It has been ascer-
tained that grain, in a very green and milky state,
sustains no injury from these sUght frosts ; but
that if it approaches very nearly to maturity, it be-
comes quite unfit for seed. The hoar-frost gene-
rally occurs during some part of the month of
August in the sheltered vales and glens, and it is
then that the grain is most liable to injury : it never
happens but during a calm, with a clear sky ; the
freezing cold is confined to the surface of the earth,
or to within a few feet of it ; for a thermometer,
raised only five or six feet into the air, will indicate
a temperature of 39" or 40°, when serious mischief
is going on below. The injury is strictly limited
to the lower and more sheltered lands, as all the
higher and more open lands escape. No injury is
sustained in very narrow gorges, through which
water flows rapidly ; although patches of land in
tkem are otherwise low and sheltered. Spaces
round mill- sluices, and other small M-aterfalls, are
also free from injury, and margins of from twenty
to thirty yards in breadth on both sides of the
larger and more rapid streams. If a breeze sets in
before sun-rise, no evil follows, although at some
pi'evious hour of the night it has frozen at the sur-
face of the ground.*

Notwithstanding the frequent occurrence of these
hoar-frosts towards the end of summer, the climate
of Aberdeenshire is, in general, sufficiently favour-
able for ripening oats and bear. Wheat and barley
are grown in some parts of the Buchan, Garioch
and Dee-side districts, in which the soil and climate
are better adapted to the production of these grains
than in other parts of the county. Oats and bear
are, however, the princi]3al cereaha cultivated in
Aberdeenshire. The culture of beans and peas is
attempted in the parish of St. Fergus, and other
places in Buchan, where the soil is chiefly composed
of adhesive clay ; but in general seasons the har-
vesting of these crops is peculiarly hazardous in our
changeable climate. Potatoes and turnips are raised
in full perfection wherever the soil has been relieved

* See New Statistical Account of the parish of
Alford.

from the baneful influence of superabundant
moisture.

It may not be out of place to notice here the
heights abo\'e the le^'el of the sea, at which some
of the cultivated plants succeed in this county ; —

FEET.

1,200 Larch. This valuable tree appears to find,
in our region of primitive rocks, a soil
well adapted to it ; it thrives well at the
inferior heights, and ripens its \^'ood
early.
1,100 Birch.
1,050 Scotch fir.
1,000 Broom.
950 Oats ripen fully here, and are attended by
all the plants of our common husbandry
in full perfection, including potatoes,
greens, and some cabbages ; white peas
and flax also succeed.
900 Ash, elm {UlmusMo7itana). Gooseberries

ripen.
800 Cherries, jargonelle pears, raspberries,

ha^A'thorn.
750 Beech, Quercus sessiliflora.
700 Quercus rohur (dwarfish).
500 Ribstone pippin apple.
450 Achan pear, lime, Salix alba, liburnum.
420 Silver fir. One fine specimen at Haughton
deserves notice, as it shows that the spe-
cies is well adapted to our soil and cli-
mate. It is 92 years old, more than ten
feet in girth, and seventy-six feet in
height, measuring upwards of 200 cubic
feet.*
In ordinary seasons, the sowing of oats and
barley occupies from the last week in Maixh to
the end of April. In some springs, however,
sowing is not begun until about the 1st of April;
while in others it is not unusual to have the oat-
sowing completed in the low and dry parts of the
county by the first week in that month. The pre-
sent season being unusually mild, the solving of
oats was commenced in some places about the 20th
of February. Bear so\ving is commonly finished
by the 1st of May ; ])otatoes are planted from the
middle of April to the same period of the following
month ; but earlier ])lanting is now recommended,
and partially adopted. Swedish turnips are
generally sown from the IStli to the end of
May; common turnips from the 1st to the
20th of June. The subjoined statement of
the dates at which the sowing of oats was
begun and finished for some years back, on an ex-
tensi\e farm in the low part of Aberdeenshire,

* See New Statistical Account of the parish of

Alford.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fi03

which is rather above the average in point of earli-
ness, may be interesting, as ilhistrating the cha-
racter of the cHmate : —

YEARS. COMMENCED. ENDED.

1838,

April 4

. . A])ril 29

1839,

March 21

. . . „ 18

1840,

24

,,1(3

1841,

,, 27 .

. . „ 22

1842,

„ 26 .

. . ,, 19

1843,

„ 22 .

» 14

1844,

April 4 .

» 24

1845,

March 20

,.15

1846,

1

„ 3

.■• _ _ _r

. . . Mai-ch 28

n__

The han'esting of grain crops usually begins
about the last week in August, but does not become
general throughout the county till near the 1 0th
of September. It occuj^ies from four to six weeks,
according to the state of the weather. In the up-
land parts, the han'est is always comparatively
late, and often very precarious, owing to the
changeable character of the chmate. The following
ai'e the dates at which harvest was begun and
completed for some years past on the fami above
alluded to : —

YEARS. COMMENCED. ENDED.

1838, August 22 . . . October 6

1839, „ 18 . . . September 22

1840, „ 20 . . . October 16

1841, „ 21 . . . „ 12

1842, „ 14 . . . September 26

1843, „ 18 . . . „ 28

1844, „ 20 . . . October 4

1845, „ 28 . . . ,, 4

The winds from the north and north-east are the
coldest and most chilling ; the Avnnd from the
east conveys rain and fogs, and is peculiarly
disagreeable in harvest. Its effect in raising
the barometer, or in preventing its fall on the ap-
proach of rain, is very frequently to be observed.
The south and south-west winds are the most
genial.

At Aberdeen, the thermometer has occasionally
been observed as low as IS'' or even 10° below zero ^
though not for any long continuance. In summer
the temperature scarcely ever rises above 70° or
75° (Fahrenheit) in the shade during the day, while
during the night it is very seldom below G0° Fahren-
heit. The average temperature of the seven years
ending in 1838, has been 46.7. The extremes of
heat and cold, as observed at Alford (420 feet above
the level of the sea, and twenty-six miles inland
from the coast at Aberdeen) during a period of 15
years, have been 84° Fahrenheit the highest, and
4° degrees below zero the lowest. The mean tem-
perature of the seven years ending in 1839, has
been 45.0784. At St. F"ergus, in the division of
Buchan, and immediately adjoining the coast, the
mean range of the thermometer in summer is stated
to be from 52'' to 57°, and in winter from 38'' to

48° Fahrenheit. At Aberdeen, the fluctuations of
the barometer are not in general either very great
or very sudden ; it scarcely ever rises above 30.5
inches, or sinks below 28. The greatest rise ob-
served during the seven years ending in December
1838, was 30.2718, in January 1833; the lowest
monthly mean was 29.3920, in December of the
same year. 'J'he mean of the whole period of seven
years was 29.87. The mean range of the barometer
at St. Fergus is, in summer, from 29.49 to 29.56,
and in winter from 29.40 to 29.47.*

The quantity of rain that falls in a year Aaries
from 20 to 38 inches in depth. The average an-
nual fall at Aberdeen during the seven years ending
in Dec. 1838, was 21.1 inches; while at Alford the
annual mean of the five years ending in 1839, was
38.57 inches. Subjoined is a statement of the average
depth of rain which fell at three different stations
(Girdleness, Rubislaw, and Leuchar) in this county,
during the six months from April to September,
1845, both inclusive, as observed by Mr. John
Stratton, of Aberdeen. To afford a comparison, I
annex the mean monthly depth of rain which fell
at Chiswick during the same period, as given in the
" Gai'deners' Chronicle" : —

MONTHS. ABERDEENSHIRE, CHISWICK.

April . . .
May . . .
June . . .
July . . .
August . .
September

1.7 inch

1.2

4.4

2.2

3.5

2.4

0.95 inch

2.89

1.36

2.31

2.79

1.77

Amount in 6 months 15.4 12.07

The climate of this county has been vastly im-
proved within the last twenty years. Tlie great
extension of drainage, the reclamation and planting
of large tracts of waste ground, the general adop-
tion of improved cultivation, and the increased
gro^vth of turnips and other agricultural plants,
have all conspired to render the climate more sa-
lubrious, and better fitted for maturing the culti-
vated crops, than it was before these improvements
were effected.

CONNECTION BETWEEN LANDLORD AND
TENANT.

It is admitted by all, that the connection sub-
sisting between the proprietors and the occupiers of
land exercises a most material influence either in
accelerating or retarding agi'icultural improvement,
according as it may be adjusted on liberal and
equitable principles, or the contrary. And as very
much of the acknowledged superiority of Scottish
farming is doubtless to be ascribed to the mode in
which the relation bet^veen landlord and tenant
has long been regulated, it is hoped the following

* Statistical Account.

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504

THE FARxMER'S MAGAZINE.

observations on Aberdeensshire leases, &c., may
])rove interesting to southern readers. It is allowed
that some of the covenants and practices about to
be noticed are not altogether faviltless ; but most of
them ai'e, I think, judicious, and favourable
alike for jiroprietor and occupier. The points
to which I purpose adverting imder this head are :
1st, The duration of tenure ; 2nd, The mode of
letting farms ; 3rd, The usual covenants of leases ;
and 4th, The rent of land in different jiarts of the
county, with the various modes of payment, &c.

1. Tenancy- at-will, or letting from year to year,
is now almost entirely unknown in this county.
All parties seem to be thoroughly convinced of its
many and serious disadvantages ; indeed, I am sa-
tisfied that it would be as difficult to induce the pre-
sent proprietors of Aberdeenshire to let their farms in
this way, as to get intelligent tenants to occupy
them on such insecure terms. Until within a com-
paratively recent period, however, life-rent leases
were very common in this, as well as in other parts
of the country ; but being now universally regarded
as a bar to improvement, they are rapidly falling
into desuetude. Although never granted at pre-
sent by any landlord, yet they are not hkely to
become altogether extinct in this county for some
time to come, at least not until the demise of the
existing holders of such leases. The most simple
form of this ancient mode of tenure was a lease for
a definite period, and after its expiration during the
life of the lessee ; but the life of the landlord, or of
some other indi\idual, was also occasionally taken.
The modifications of the system were veiy various,
but they need not be here adverted to.

All the leases that have been granted for a con-
siderable time past terminate on the expiration of
a certain number of years. Some time ago their
endurance was commonly much longer than at
present, extending not unfrequently to a period of
from twenty-three to thirty-thi-ee years. Very
much of even the low-lying lands of this county
was then, however, unenclosed and unimproved;
and hence a comparatively long lease was requisite
to warrant any considerable outlay of capital by the
farmer in executing such costly but essential and
useful improvements as fencing, draining, reclaim-
ing, &c. — imjjrovements, too, which generally re-
quire a lengthened period to reimlmrse the neces-
sary expenditure, or to remunerate the tenant. It
is almost needless to remark, that in all unimpi-oved
districts the lease ought to be considerably longer
than the ordinary endurance, as much of it will be
expired before the land can be put in proper con-
dition for cropping it systematically. In Aberdeen-
shire, no lease is now granted for a longer period
than either nineteen or twenty-one years and crojjs ;
the former term being by far the most general

throughout the county. It is obvious, however,
that neither of these periods is of sufficient length
to induce or warrant any tenant to expend much of
his capital in executing permanent im])rovements ;
but the great majority of the landlords now defray
the expense of erecting suitable offices, constructing
stone dykes, and other fences, &c. ; the farmer
being required to perform the carriage of the neces-
sary materials gratuitously ; and, as shall hereafter
be more particidarly noticed, a considerable pro-
poition of the cost of draining, reclaiming waste
ground, and other expensive undertakings, is like-
wise borne by the proprietors. The principal
exceptions to the ijeriods of nineteen and tvventy-
one years occur in the vicinity of a few of the burghs,
where the proprietors are prohibited from letting
their farms for a longer term than five years ; but
instances of eviction or removal are exceedingly
rare, the leases being renewed as long as the tenants
continue to fulfil their stipulated engagements.
Many of the small heritors of these burgh lands
farm the whole of their respective properties
themselves.

2. As there exists some jieculiarity in the manner
of letting or renting farms in Aberdeenshire, it will
not be improper to advert briefly to the usual modes
of proceeding on such occasions. On some of the
larger and best managed estates, such as those of
the Earls of Aberdeen and Kintore, it is customary
to take an accurate valuation of each farm towards
the end of the current lease, whether it is intended
to be renewed by the j)ossessing tenant or not. If
the farmer, whose lease is about to expire, agree to
the rent so fixed by a professional valuator, he
continues in possession on a renewed lease ; other-
wise the farm is advertised to l)e let, and all who
choose may make application for it. From among
the candidates who accede to the landlord's terms,
he, of course, selects whomsoever he pleases. This
is obviously a fair and judicious practice, especially
when a valuator of experience and probity is em-
ployed to fix the rent, and receives such instructions
as those given by the late Earl of Kintore on all
similar occasions, which were, " Now remember
the maxim — ' Live, and let live." " It is much to
be regretted that this system of letting farms is not
more general than it is in Aberdeenshire and other
districts ; the reprehensible custom of inviting com-
petition by pubhc advertisement, and preferring
the highest offerer, being still but too prevalent.

According to the latter practice, when the en-
durance of a lease is within a short period of ex-
piration, and the possessing tenant is either unable
or unwilling to effect its renewal, the factor or
manager of the estate advertises the farm in the
local newspapers, for letting. Candidates come
from different localities, and not unfrequently from

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

505

the adjoining counties, to inspect the land and
offices previous to the day which has been hmited
for taking in proposals of rent. The landlord thus
receives offers up to a specified date from variouo
imlividuals; and, after consulting with his factor,
selects one of the number to be his tenant. If the
candidates for a farm are of equal reRpectal)ility,
and all possessed of sufficient capital for the con-
cern, he who offers the highest rent is most
generally, but not always chosen, and shortly
thereafter the competing parties are duly apprized
of the decision, A missive, containing the prin-
cipal clauses of a lease, with the amoimt of rent
offered and accepted engrossed therein, is then
signed by both the landlord and tenant, and forms
the basis of their agreement until a regular lease
be drawn up. This agreement is, however, as
binding on the parties as the lease itself.

Although this latter method of letting farms,
viz., by inviting and taking in offers of rent from
various individuals, is moi-e or less general through-
out Scotland ; yet it is certainly, in many respects,
highly objectionable. It is true, indeed, that very
many of the Aberdeenshire landlords make an offer to
the possessing tenant before advertising the farm
to be let, and in a subsequent competition he may,
if a good farmer, be in some measure preferred to
strangers ; but it too often happens that he is
obliged to occu])y precisely the same ])osition as
other candidates. Should a higher rent than he
feels himself warranted to pay be offered by any
unexceptionable person, he, in most cases, loses
the farm, however desirous he may be of retaining
it on the former terms. But this system of letting
is productive of other evils. At the present time,
when notwithstanding the loud and imiversal com-
plaints of the agricultural body, so much anxiety
is manifested to obtain farms at almost any hazard,
the rent is screwed up to the starving point by
such keen competition among the farmers them-
selves. It is proper, however, to remark, that
some at least of the Aberdeenshire proprietors do
not invariably accept the highest offer of rent that
may be tendered for a vacant farm, if it exceed what
they consider the land to l)e actually worth, from a
comaction that the over-rented farmer is frequently
unable, however disposed, to do justice to the soil
in the way of manuring, &c., and that it conduces
ultimately to their own interest to have their farms
moderately rented and well cidtivated. It is an
established, though oft-neglected truism, that the
real interests of both landlord and tenant are iden-
tical ; and hence, whatever tends to paralyze the
exertions, to damp the energy, or to shake the
confidence of the latter, must of necessity he pre-
judicial to the interests of the former, as well as to
the prosperity and happiness of the nation.

The periods of entering farms throughout Scot-
land are at the terms of Whitsunday and Martin-
mas ; the former being by far the more common,
though in general it is rather an inconvenient season
for taking possession. When the in-coming tenant
has a free right to the new grass, straw, and dung
of the last year of the lease, an entrance at Whit-
sunday is i)erhaps unobjectionalile, otherwise a
Martinmas entry is considered to be more suita1)lc'
to the tenant, and more agreeable to all parties
concerned. When the former term is ado])ted,
possession is given of the houses and all the grass,
except that of the preceding year's sowing at AVhit-
sunday, and of the cultivated land at the separation
of that year's crop from the ground.

3. On most of the larger estates, regulations for
general management and cropping are printed, and
a copy is furnished to any person that becomes a
candidate for a vacant farm, so that none may be
ignorant of the conditions of lease before tendering
his offer. Strict conformity to the rules and
customs of the estate is commonly required of
all ; but sometimes a tenant entering on a new
lease may succeed in obtaining a modification
of some objectionable covenant, or he may secure
more favourable stipulations in regard to the
allowances for draining and other improvements.
The farm-buildings may need some essential re-
pairs or additions ; new fences may be necessary ;
the roads through the farm may require to be ex-
tended or improved, &c. ; all of which, of course,
constitute objects of negotiation between the parties
preparatory to the lease being drawn up and signed.
The restrictive clauses in Aberdeenshire leases are
not \'ery numerous ; and, as referring chiefly to the
last few years, when the tenant becomes less in-
terested than ]n'evious]y in the adequate manuring
and tillage of his land, they cannot be regarded as
objectionable, and do not by any means operate as
a bar to the introduction and adoption of useful
improvements. Proprietors in general now appear
to be impressed with the fact, that whatever tends
to deter the tenant from expending his capital and
exercising his skill and industry in the cultivation
and improvement of his farm, must, at no distant
period, operate prejudicially to their own interest,
as well as to that of the nation at large. Hence,
comparatively few of the tenantry in this district
are fettered with absurd or unnecessaiy restrictions,
or burdened with vexatious obligations, at least
not nearly to the extent complained of in other
quarters.

The management of most of the estates being
conducted on the same general principles, thei'e
exists a consideral)le degree of uniformity in the
terms and covenants of the leases granted by dif-
ferent proprietors ; but, as already observed, neces-

506

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sary modifications of tlie usual conditions are not
unfrequently allowed in peculiar instances. I shall
now give an epitome of the usual clauses in Aber-
deenshire leases, the principal of which are tliose
that relate to the landlord's privileges or reserva-
tions, the time and mode of paying the stipulated
rent, the cropping and general improvement of the
farm, the buildings and fences, and the arrange-
ments between the in-coming and the out-going
tenant.

It is customary for the pro])rietor to reserve to
himself, by a clause in the lease, all stone-quarries,
mines, metals, marls, or other minerals found
within the grounds, with power to search for, work,
and remove the same, paying the occupier surface
damage only. Power is also reserved, without the
consent of the tenant, to take ground, as well as the
necessary materials, for forming new roads, large
drains or watercoixrses, and to \\'iden, shut up, or
alter the existing ones j aUowng compensation for
the surface damage of the season only in which
these operations may be performed. The landlord
further reserves power to straighten " marches" or
meerings, and for that purpose to '' excamb" or
exchange land with any contiguous proprietor or
tenant, on compensation being made to the tenant
for any land thereby taken away, or additional rent
received from him for land thus annexed to the
farm. Power is hkewise reserved to plant trees on
any ground that may be considered by the landlord
to be unfit for tillage, on enclosing the same, and
allowing deduction of rent for the portion of land
so occupied. The amount of compensation, in
either of the foregoing cases, is estimated by two
competent persons, mutually chosen. Reservation
is likewise made by the proprietor of the whole of
the game of e\'ery kind, as also of the fish in the
rivers and "burns" (rivulets) mthin his estate;
with power to himself, and others having his per-
mission, to hunt, shoot, or enjoy the same in the
most ample manner ; the tenants not only being
prohibited from shooting or kilUng game them-
selves, but expressly bound by their leases to
inform against all trespassers, and, as far as they
can, to protect the game. This obligation is very
general throughout this county ; though there are a
few exceptions, as some proprietors now allow
their tenants to shoot tlie redundant game on their
respective farms.

Formerly, it was a general custom for tenants to
furnish, annually, in addition to their rent, a cer-
tain number of poultry of diflferent kinds, and also
to dehver a stipulated quantity of coals at their land-
lord's residence ; but these antiquated obhgations,
though not altogether extinct on some estates, are
very properly becoming obsolete throughout Aber-
deenshire. Tenants are still, however, in many

instances, obliged to perform gratuitously a certain
amount of carriages to the proprietor's dwelling-
house and offices, to the minister's manse and
offices, and also to the parish church and school-
house, whenever called upon to do so. In all the
old leases the tenants were " thirled" to the gi'ain-
mills to which their respective farms had been by
long use astricted, and obliged to pay " multures,
miU-dues, and mill-services, according to previous
use and wont." By this absurd regulation, the
farmer was bound to give the miller a fixed, and
by no means an insignificant proportion of the
whole grain annuall)' grown by him, without re-
ference to the qiiantity of meal he may require ma-
nufactured, and was not exempt by getting his
corn ground elsewhere ; but the thirlage system,
which until a recent period was very generally
established throughout the whole of Scotland, is
now almost entirely abolished, or greatly modified
in Aberdeenshire.

Every tenant is bound to personal residence on
his farm ; subletting the whole or any portion of the
lands is strictly proliibited ; and all assignees
(whether legal or voluntary) are expressly excluded.
Heirs-portioners are also excluded ; but a tenant
having children may appoint one or more of his
sons, or one of his daughters, to succeed him in
his lease. The clause prohibiting the sub-letting
of land does not in general prevent the tenant
from accommodating a few of his regularly em-
ployed servants with cottages and attached gardens,
but the number is in many cases limited.

The candidate for a vacant farm is commonly
required to accompany his offer Avith a letter from
one or two of his friends, pledging themselves that,
should he be chosen, the first year's rent shall be
duly paid, and the farm be fully cropped and
stocked at the outset. The tenant himself is bound
to keep the lands at all times sufficiently stocked
during the currency of his lease.

But perhaps the principal clauses are those that
relate to the cropping and management of the
farm. The tenant is always bound to cultivate his
land accox'ding to the most improved system of
husbandry, and to leave it in good heart and con-
dition at the expiration of the lease. It is obvious
that this rather indefinite obhgation allows the most
perfect liberty to the intelligent farmer to adopt every
well-authenticated improvement, as well as to cul-
tivate his crops in whate\Tr manner he finds from
experience to be best adapted to the nature and
situation of his land ; while it is sufficiently exphcit
and stringent to prevent the unskilful or the un-
principled tenant from mismanaging, exhausting,
or over-cropping his land. The tenant is further
obhged to consume, with cattle on the farm, the
whole of the turnips and straw raised thereon, ex-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

507

cept the straw of the last or away-going crop, and
to apply to the ground all the dung made on the
farm, none of it being on any account allowed to be
sold or removed ofl" the lands ; the hay and potato
crops are, howe^'er, usually permitted to be dis-
posed of. On some estates the tenants are still
prohibited from growing flax oftener than once
during a nineteen years' lease, from an apprehension
that that valuable plant is exceedingly exhausting
to the soil — an opinion which is no^\', however,
ascertained to be destitute of foundation, when the
crop is cultivated according to the most approved
system.

Although every tenant is enjoined by the terms
of his lease to practise some rotation of cropping,
yet on many estates he is not restricted to any par-
ticular course at the outset. The choice of either
of two or three different shifts is not unfrequently
allowed him at the beginning of the lease ; but to
the one which is then decided upon he is obliged
afterwards to adhere. Until within a recent period,
the tenant's choice was restricted to the five and
seven course rotations (which are those most com-
monly practised in this county), and he is usually
allowed three years, after entering on the farm, to
determine which course of cropping is likely to be
the most eligible. Due notice of such decision
must be given to the proprietor, or his factor, prior
to a specified date, othei'wise the landlord considers
himself entitled to fix the rotation ; and whatever
one may be so fixed, the tenant is bound to adopt
and adhere to it during the remaining years of the
lease. The six-course shift has recently been in-
troduced, and being regarded by all intelligent
agriculturists as best adapted to the soil of which
the greater part of this county is composed, and
most agreeable to the principles of correct hus-
bandry, it bids fair to supersede the above rotations
at no distant period. When either the five or the
six-course shift is adopted, the tenant is strictly
prohibited from growing two corn or white crops
in succession on the same land — a restriction which
is acknowledged by all to be as advantageous to the
farmer himself, as it is in most cases essential to
the maintenance of the land in proper condition.
In the seven-course rotation, however, the tenant is
permitted to grow two grain crops in succession
after three years' grass. This is, undoubtedly, an
impolitic allowance, but one of which not a few
farmers are disposed to avail themselves. Its inju-
rious eflfects are more or less apparent in eveiy dis-
trict in which the seven-course shift is pursued, as
the diflliculty experienced in adequately cleansing
the ground for turnips, or other green crop, involves
more expense and labour than most farmers are
willing to incur, in consequence of the faciUty aflforded
to the growth of couch-grass (Triticum re/je«s), and

other root weeds, by the second year's oat crop. I'he
land is thus infested with :;-ceds during the whole
of the rotation, not to mention the necessary ex-
haustion of the soil by growing two corn crops
without an intervening green or restorative crop.

On farms containing a proportion of '•' outfield"
as well as of " infield" land, the tenants are usually
required to follow a different rotation on each. The
following is an abstract of the article relating to
this subject, in the printed condition of leases on
an extensive estate : —

'' On all outfield land the following rotation of
cropping and managing the same shall be ob-
served : — The dung and manure annually made
and collected on the farm shall be laid on land that
has carried a crop of grain the preceding year, the
same being always timously and properly fallowed,
cleaned, and prepared (and limed when necessary)
for raising turnips and other green crops ; or, failing
there be sufficient dung, the land shall be summer
fallowed ; after which green crop or fallow, a crop
of grain may be taken, sown out with good and
sufficient clover and perennial rye-grass seed ; and
thereafter, the land shall remain at least three years
in grass, the first of which only to be cut for hay,
and the remaining years pastured. In case the
grass be not cut, but pastured the first two years
after being sown out, the land may be broken up
after two years' grass ; but in any case when broken
up, only one grain crop to be taken ; after which,
the land is again to be dunged, cleaned, and dressed
for green crop, or summer fallowed. On infield
land, this rotation may be altered so far only as
that two grain crops may be taken in succession
when the land is broken up after three or more
years' grass. The tenant is to observe strictly the
above rotation of cropping during the whole lease,
otherwise to pay £4 per acre of additional rent for
any land cropped otherwise any year, and which,
in such case, shall be immediately exigible,"

Although the great majority of the Aberdeenshire
landlords appear disinclined to impose severe or
unjust restrictions on their tenantry, further than
is considered necessary to prevent them from mis-
cropping or injuring the land during the last few
years of the lease, yet, in binding a tenant strictly
to adhere to a particular rotation of cropping, after
such has been decided upon, a loss is sometimes
sustained by him. For example : should the pe-
rennial rye-grass seeds, sown along^^dth the first grain
crop in the rotation for hay and ])asture, turn out
to have been spurious or annual (as has not unfi'e-
quently occurred in this district of late years, to the
vexatious disappointment and loss of many farmers),
the tenant is not, in most cases, permitted to
break up the land till the regular period it should
be in grass has expired, although the pasturage

iOB

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

may be almost entirelj' worthless after the first
year.

Some diversity of practice exists in reference to
the farm-buildings. The most approved arrange-
ment, however, is for the proprietor to pifi;
the dwelling-house and offices in suitable con-
dition, by means of repairs, or any requisite
additions, and to dehver them over to the tenant
at " Inventory and Valuation ;" the valuation
to be made by competent tradesmen mutually
chosen. In this case the tenant is not called upon
for any payment at the period of entrj' on account
of the buildings, but is bound to maintain during
the currency, and lea\'e, at the expiration of his
lease, the whole houses on the farm worth their
appraised value at the commencement. Should the
tenant, on his remo^'al from the farm, lea-\'e the
Iniildings of greater \'alue than when he entered
into possession, or should he, with the proprietor's
ajiproval and consent, have erected any additional
offices, he is entitled to compensation for " melio-
rations." On the other hand, if the houses at the
term of remo\-al fall short of the value put upon
tliem at the beginning of the lease, either the land-
lord or the in-coming tenant has a claim against
the out-going tenant to the extent of such deteriora-
tion, I may remark, that the foregoing arrange-
ment lias given much satisfaction, and is becoming
general throughout this coimty. On several estates
the houses and buildings on the respective farms
are erected wholly at the proprietor's expense, the
tenants being bound to perform the carriage of the
necessary matei'ials. In general, no allowance is
given to tenants for additional buildings erected by
them during the currency of their leases, or for
improvements on the existing offices, imless special
consent for effecting such additions or repairs has
jneviously been obtained. Many proprietors now
require that the houses on each farm be insvrred
against fire for their full value during the lease, and
at the tenant's expense. Conditions similar to the
preceding bind the tenants on most estates to main-
tain the stone-dykes and other fences upon their
res)>ective farms in a proper state of repair, com-
]>ensation being allowed at the expiration of their
leases for such as may have been constructed on
lines approved of by the proprietor, and at their
own expense.

Every lease includes one or more clauses intended
to facilitate the ai'rangements, and to prevent dis-
putation between the oiit-going and the in-coming
tenant. Expensive and unpleasant litigation has not
unfrequently arisen between these parties, in con-
sequence, chiefly, of their respective obligations not
ha\nng been definitely specified in tlie lease. Most
proprietors are now, however, sufiiciently strict in
regard to the cropping an(^ management of the

farms on their estates for a few "years previous to
the term of removal, in order that the lands may be
transferred undeteriorated to the in-coming tenants ;
and that the proper proportion of grass of different
ages, and of fallowed or manured ground, &c,, be
left for their use. The particular number of acres
stipulated to be in grass, or to be appropriated as a
fallow-break for green crop at the exjiiration of the
lease, depends of course on the extent of the farm,
and the rotation of cropping piu-sued. The in-
coming tenant has in most cases to pay his pre-
decessor for all the new or first year's grass, as also
for the proportion of turnip ground, and for
ploughing or other^vise working the latter ; he has
likewise to take at valuation all the dung that has
been made on the farm during the autumn, wintei',
and spring preceding the term of removal ; and on
leaving the stipulated proportion of grass and of
turnip land at the end of his lease, he becomes en-
titled to similar allowances from his successor. The
jiroprietor usually reserves jiower either to himself
or to the in-coming tenant to sow clover and rye-
grass seeds with that portion of the last grain crop
which is grown on land intended to be sown down
to grass, the out-going tenant being bound to har-
row and roll in the same. The in-coming tenant
occasionally is obliged to take over from his pre-
decessor, at a valuation, the threshing-machine,
with its usual appendages ; and the landlord or the
next tenant is bound in like manner to take the same
oft' his hands at the period of his removal, if left in
good working condition. Either the proprietor or the
in-coming tenant has a right to take the whole or
any portion of the last or away-going croj) at a
valuation ; but neither of them is bound to do so if
disinclined. In the latter case the crop is disposed
of by public roup (or auction) some time Iwfore
harvest.

The instances are very few in which the in-
coming tenant has a right, without purchase, to
the straw and dimg on the fann at the period of
entry, as is now the established custom in many
parts of the south of Scotland, In the Lothians, for
example, the dung and straw veiy frequently de-
scend free to the new tenant, both commodities
being the property of the landlord, and held by him
msteelboio. This practice is eminently deserving of
being more generally adopted than it is, A suf-
ficiency of manure, and of the materials for its
formation, are thus permanently retained on the
farm, which is obviously a most valuable boon to
the in-coming tenant, as being in effect equivalent
to his possessing as much more capital on his entry
to the farm as the straw and dung he receives are
worth ; besides, when the out-going tenant expects
that all the dung he accumulates will be purchased
by his successor, he is naturally more mindful of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

509

augmenting Its quantity than of attending to its
quality; and it is hardly necessary to remark that
one cart-load of good farm-yard dung is more
valuable to the farmer than twice the bulk of an in-
ferior article. The " steelbow" system may easily l)e
adopted in any other quarter of the kingdom as well
as in the southern Scotch counties, by having thejjro-
prietors purchase the straw and dung from their
tenants on removal, for the purpose of delivering
them over gratuitously to the succeeding occupiers
of the same farms. This useful practice is, at
length, beginning to find its way into Aberdeen-
shire.

As the subject of temu'e is now engaging a good
deal of public attention, it is hoped no apology is
necessary for having dwelt so minutely on the sys-
tem of leases which is established in this part of
the country. Besides the covenants to which I
have adverted in the preceding pages, every lease
contains a few others ; but being of a local nature,
and not interesting to general readers, I shall omit
further reference to them in this place.

It may not be improper to conclude this account,
or summary of the Aberdeenshire leases, with a few
observations on the amount of encouragement
which is commonly given to tenants for executing
useful and permanent improvements on their farms.
The allowances for these purposes vary on different
estates. As has been already observed, " meliora-
tions" for repairing or extending the farm-buildings
are never allowed the tenant till the period of his
removal from the farm, and he then receives com-
jjensation according to the valuation of two persons
mutually appointed. On most of the estates in this
county, the proprietors defray the whole expense of
erecting new oflices, except the carriage of the ma-
terials ; but on some others, such as those of the
Earls of Aberdeen and Errol, the tenants have to
erect and keep in repair all the houses on their
respective farms, a half-year's rent being allowed
for the same at the end of the lease ; slates and
stones are, however, I understand, given fi-ee of ex-
pense by both those excellent landlords. The allow-
ance for constructing new stone dykes and other
fences, on lines sanctioned Ijy the proprietors, is ge-
nerally regulated in the same manner as that for
buildings. Their value is ascertained by two persons
mutually chosen ; but in most instances the allow-
ance for dry stone fences does not exceed sixjience
per hneal or running yard.

There are few counties in Scotland that stand so
much in need of draining, or in which that fundamen-
tal improvement is now so vigorously carried on, as
Aberdeenshire. The proprietors, in general, are
daily becoming more alive to its vast importance to
themselves, to their tenantry, and to the nation at
large. For necessary drainage, performed to the pro-

prietor's satisfaction, the tenant usually receives a
considerable proportion of the expense while the ope-
ration is Ijeing executed, or, at least, immediately
after its comjiletion. It is customary for some
landlords to defray the cost of cutting or ojjening
the drains, the tenant being obliged at his own ex-
pense to cart the material employed in filling, and
to finish the work in a proper manner. Other
proprietors, again, allow their tenants to disburse
the entire cost of the drainage in the first place,
and at the next jj.iyment of rent they are refunded
a certain proportion of the expenditure — generally
from one-half to three-fourths of the outlay, ac-
cording to previous agreement.* This is a very
common practice. Another arrangement, which is
becoming general in Aberdeenshire, deserves to be
noticed in this place, as it has uniformly given
much satisfaction. According to this plan, the
landlord executes the drainage required on each
farm entirely at his own expense, exce])t the cartage
of the stones used in filling the drains, and charges
the tenant a certain per centage (generally five per
cent, per annum) during the remaining years of the
lease, on the money thus expended. This is im-
qnestionably a most judicious practice, and one
which is well calculated to benefit both landlord
and tenant. The former, who may be said to
])ossess a permanent interest in the land, and to
whom its drainage eventually becomes more ad\''an-
tageous, is thus enabled to get this, in most cases,
essential and highly remunerative operation sub-
stantially and efliciently executed ; whereas, when
the whole or greater portion of the expense is borne
by the tenant, it would obviously be unreasonable
to interfere with his mode of accomplishing the
work, which will naturally be the most economical
he can devise. Again, to the tenant who has just
entered on the occupancy of a farm requiring much
drainage, such an arrangement as that under con-
sideration is of unquestionable utihty. Draining,
though the i)rimary operation on all wet soils, is by
no means the only source of more than ordinary
outlay, which a tenant is called upon to meet during
the first few years of his lease. It is not uncom-
mon, even in well-cultivated districts, to enter on a
farm more or less infested with weeds, and not in
the highest state of fertility ; hence the necessary
cleansing of the ground for green crops, and the
ajiplication of enriching manures, demand no in-
considerable expenditure at the very outset, in ad-
dition to the claims of the preceding tenant.

* On one estate, with the management of which
the writer is particidarly acquainted, the tenants are
allowed 128. Gd. per lumdred yards for small
drains, and iGs. 8d. for main drains executed on
the Deanston jjlan, which nearly covers the whole
expense of cutting and filling.

510

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A similar arrangement is occasionally agreed to
by pro])rietors and tenants for trenching, or other-
wise reclaiming waste ground, of which a very large
proportion of this county consists ; but this species
of improvement is frequently effected piece-meal
by the farmers, as favourable opportunities occur,
on the condition of paying for the land so reclaimed
only a nominal or very insignificant rent during the
unexpired period of their leases. Of course, such
costly undertakings are commenced as early as
possible after the farms have been entered upon.
In a subsequent article I shall give some account of
the various methods, as well as the results of re-
claiming the unproductive, or rather hitherto neg-
lected wastes, with which this county abounds.
There is hardly any farm that has not some portion
of waste ground attached to it.

4. Having thus adverted to the usual covenants
in Aberdeenshire leases, I now proceed to consider
the rent of land in different parts of the county,
and also the public and parochial burdens generally
borne by the farmers.

The soil being, as stated in a preceding article,
exceedingly diversified in character and quality,
the rent is consequently very unecjual in different
localities; it varies, of course, with the situation
and productive capabiUties of the land. The moun-
tain pastures are let at a merely nominal rent, a
right of grazing upon them being, in most cases,
enjoyed in common by all those who possess arable
land in the neighbourhood under the same pro-
prietor. Many thousand acres of bog, moor, and
mountain do not bring a shilling of rental to the
owners. Thebetter description of moorish ground in-
terspersed throughout the lower parts of the county,
and which afford a rough pasturage to cattle and
sheep during the summer months, lets at from six-
pence to one shilhng and sixpence per acre. The
rent of arable land varies very much with its situa-
tion : in the immediate vicinity of Aberdeen, where
the productive powers of the soil have been vastly
augmented by means of trenching and spade cultiva-
tion, coupled with the facility of obtaining at all times
an abundance of excellent street manure, the rent
is of course high. The holdings are of the
smallest size (varying from one to ten acres), and
are occupied principally by tradesmen and market-
gardeners. The rent of these patches varies from
£3 to £7 per acre, according to their quality and
proximity to the city ; and where the ground is
suitable for and appropriated as nurseries and
vegetable gardens, it is not uncommon to pay from £8
to £l4 per Scotch acre. In the vicinity of the burghs
of Kintore and Inverury, where a number of small
holdings also exist, the rent varies from £2 10s. to
£4 per acre. The rent of the best land in the
neighbourhood of Old Meldrum is £4 10s.; that of

inferior quahty from £3 to £3 10s. per Scotch acre.
In the vicinity of the town of Peterhead, in the
peninsula of Buchan, the rent of land varies from
£2 to £6 per acre, according to quality and situa-
tion. It is to be recollected that by far the greater
number of holdings in the neighbourhood of these
towns are of very limited extent, and that small
possessions are always proportionably higher
rented than large farms.

In order to enable my readers to form some idea
of the amount of rent paid by Aberdeenshire
farmers, I shall here give a statement of the average
rent per acre of the arable land in a few parishes in
each division of the county, which is compiled from
the " New Statistical Account," the ^\Titers of which
had access to the most authentic sources of in-
formation. The rents given according to the Scotch
measure I have reduced to their equivalents per
statute acre in the subjoined statement : —
Mar.
Parish of Strathdon . . .£019 0
„ „ Alford .... 0 15 0*
„ „ Aboyne .... 1 2 6
„ „ Kildrumy ... 0 19 0
„ „ Monymusk ... 0 14 0
„ ., Midmar ... 0 19 0
„ „ Kincardine O'Neil 0 16 0
„ „ Skene .... 0 15 0
„ „ Peter Culter . . 1 0 G

B'ORMARTIN.

Parish of Fintray . . . .£017 0

„ „ Tarves .... 0 15 0

„ „ Newmachar . . 0 16 0

„ „ Belhelvie ... 1 10 0

„ „ Udny .... 0 19 0

„ „ Auchterless . . 0 15 0
Buchan.

Parish of St. Fergus . . .£018 0

„ „ Old Deer ... 0 19 0

„ „ Aberdour . . . 0 15 0

„ „ Longside ... 0 13 0

„ „ Logie Buchan . . 0 12 0

„ „ Crimond . . . 0 17 0

„ King Edward . . 0 13 0

„ „ Slains, from £1 to 4 0 0

Strathbogik.
Parish of Drumblade . . .£015 0

„ „ Ptynie 0 12 0

„ „ Forgue ...
,, „ Huntly . .

Garioch.
Parish of Insch .... 0 15 0
„ „ Culsamond ... 1 2 0
Parish of Chapel of Garioch, "infield" land, £1 to

£1 18s. ; " outfield," 6s. to 12s.
Parish of Oyne, infield land, £1 10s. to £2 5s. ;

outfield, 8s. to 15s.
Parish of Rayne, infield land, £1 10s. ; out-
field, 9s. to 18s.

0 11 0
2 12 6

* A considerable proportion of the land in the Vale
of Alford is let at from £1 10s. to £2 10s, per acre.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

511

Parish of Bremney, infield land, £1 10s. to
£1 ISs. ; outfield, 15s.

I shall only observe further under this head, that the
valued rent of Aberdeenshire is £235,605 8s. lid.
The annual value of real })roperty, as assessed in
1815, was £325,218; and in 1843, £603,908.

The public and jjarochial burdens borne by
Aberdeenshire, in common with other Scotch
farmers, are income-tax, window-tax, commutation
road-money, schoolmaster's salary, poor-rates, &c.
Owing to the prevalence of small holdings, many
of the farmers are ^\'holly exempt from some of
these imposts. Until very recently the Scottish
paupers were supported by voluntary contributions
at the church doors ; and where these were inade-
quate, an assessment was laid on the proprietors
and tenants, who paid equal portions. There are
very few parishes in this county in which an assess-
ment was required for the support of its poor. As
the new poor-law has not yet fairly come into
operation, the farmers aie still uncertain of what
they may have to i)ay. The commutation road-money
varies from twopence to eightpence in the pound
of rent. Tlie subjoined statement of the sums
actually paid for a farm of 300 acres, whose an-
nual rental is about £430, will illustrate the preced-
ing remarks.

Income-tax £4 9 7

Window-tax 3 9 0

Road-money 15 0

Riding-horse 18 9

Schoolmaster's salary ..150

£11 17 4
Rents are paid either wholly in money to an
amount agi-eed upon at the beginning, and fixed
during the currency of the lease, or partly in money
and partly in grain or meal computed by the fiars-
prices of the county. It appears that this mixed
mode of payment has been practised to a greater
or lesser extent in this county from a very remote
period. In most of the old, and in many of the
modem leases, it is stipulated that " the meal and
Ijear rent is to be paid betwixt Christmas and
Candlemas, all next after reaping the crop ; and the
\ictual to be transported by the tenant, at his own
expense, when required, to Aberdeen, or any place
of sale the same distance. The meal to be of
clean, great oats, free of fault ; the bear sound, well
dressed, and marketable." This mode of payment
is still very common in Aberdeenshire. The grain-
rent system was, at one period, very popular in this
county, and, indeed, is so still in many parts of it,
as being the most secure and equitable for the tenant
in the majority of years. Nevertheless, the prac-
tice of paying rent wholly in grain, or rather its
price computed by the annual county fiars, is
falling into disrepute among many intelligent agri-

culturists. Although a rent fluctuating with the
price of farm produce is unquestionably the most
beneficial to the tenant in the majority of seasons,
when proi)erly regulated and fairly determined, yet
the system is certainly open to some weighty ob-
jections under its present defective arrangement.
Besides, a rent exclusively dependent on the varying
price of grain is obviously inapphcable to this
county, where the rearing and fattening of hve
stock is so extensively pursued. Aberdeenshire,
as is well known, is one of the principal grazing and
cattle-exporting counties, and on many farms the
greater portion of the tenant's income is derived
from this source ; hence it is manifest that, in a
" produce-rent" adjusted on equitable principles,
the price of cattle or of beef should constitute an
element as well as that of bear or oats, which at
present is not the case ; nor is it very likely to be so
for some time to come, owing to the supposed im-
practicabihty of striking the annual average price
of live stock. Until, therefore, some arrangement
be adopted for ascertaining and including the price
of the animals reared or fattened on the produce of
the farm, as well as that of the grain disposed
of in the market, the mode of adjusting rent under
consideration cannot be regarded as strictly equi-
table, or generally beneficial to the majority of
tenants in Aberdeenshire.

Again, when grain alone forms the basis of the
rent, the farmer is not unfrequently obliged to pay
most when he is least able to do so, as when prices are
high in consequence of diminished production or
unfavourable harvests ; on such occasions, too, the
proprietor's rent-roll is unduly magnified at a time
when his tenants and the community may be suf-
fering unusual privations. These observations in
reference to the chsadvantages of an exclusively
grain-rent are pecuharly applicable to the upland
parts of the county, where the harvest is often ex-
ceedingly precarious, owing to the coldness and
humidity of the climate, and the UabiUty of the corn
to be seriously injured by early frosts. It is mani-
fest that a rent regulated by the annual fiar-prices
would sometimes be ruinous to the farmers in the
higher districts of such a mountainous county as
Aberdeen. A maximum and a minimum price are
now frequently agreed upon for the particular grain
payable as rent, a practice which has been found of
great utihty to both landlord and tenant, and has
gone far to ob\'iate some of the disadvantages
alluded to, as protecting the proprietor in years of
unusual abundance and low prices from the unplea-
sant consequences of an undue reduction of his
receipts, and the tenant from an oppressively high
rent in seasons of scarcity. Most farmers,
especially in the low parts of the county,
seem to prefer a mixed rent, viz., about one-half in

512

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

money, to a fixed amount, and the remainder in oats
or bear, or both grains conjointly ; which, when fair
maximimi and minimum prices are determined on,
is considered to be more beneficial than any other
mode of payment yet devised, taking one year with
another. The maximum for oats varies on difi^erent
estates from 22s. to 25s. per quarter, the minimum
from 17s. to 19s. per quarter; for bear the maxi-
mum is commonly 28s., the minimum 24s. per
quarter, according to agreement.

Rents are paid in two equal moieties at the terms
of Candlemas and Lammas ; but sometimes also at
those of Whitsunday and Martinmas, The former

1840

are undoubtedly the most favourable terms for the
tenant, and are accordingly by far the most general.

The fiars-prices, to which allusion has already
been made, are " struck" or ascertained during the
first week in March, which is certainly too early,
as only a limited portion of the crop is disposed of
before that period. This has long formed a ground
of complaint by farmers whose rental is regulated by
the fiars-prices. They are ascertained by the
sheriflf of the county, and a jury composed of pro-
prietors, farmers, and corn dealers.

Subjoined is a statement of the Aberdeenshire
Fiars-prices for the last six years, and crops : —

Grain, per Imp. Qr.
Oat-meal, per boll of 140 lbs.

Wheat, with fodder

Do. without do

Barley, with fodder

Do. without do

Bear (farm or market) with fodder
Do. do. do. without do.

Oats 1st, with fodder

Do. do. without do

with fodder

without do

do.
2nd
do.

Do.

Do.

Beans

Peas

Malt (duty included)
Oatmeal, 140 lbs. .

^. d.

29 0

25 0
28 0
24 0

26 0
21 0

32 0
32 0

15 0

1841

s. d,

36 0
27 0

28 0

17 0

29 0

15 0

1842 I 1843

s. d. s, d

33 0
25 0
30 6

16 6
25 0
15 0
24 0
23 0
43 9
11 9

57 0
48 0
35 0
29 0
32 6
26 9
25 8
18 6
24 0
16 10

25
25

48 0
13 0

1844
s. d.

33 0
27 3
31 0
25 3
24 0
18 3
23 0

49 6
14 4

1845 [Average.
3. d. s. d.

60 0

32 6

27 0
30 9
25 3

28 3
22 6
27 3
21 6
30 0
30 0

18 6

33 1

26 84

31 Oi

24 8i

26 7*

19
25

2^
3i

17 lOj

28 2

27
48
14

9i
U

T. S.

EXPERIMENT ON THE ACTION OF DUNG, AND OF SOME ARTIFICIAL
M.\NURES, UPON BEET-ROOT.

By Ph. Pusky, M.P.

Being desirous to try the comparative effects of
certain manures for my own guidance, I made an
experiment upon 5 acres of mangold-wurzel — or
beet-root, as it would be more convenient to call
that root. There were several questions to which
it seemed to me that the answers, if I could
obtain them, would be interesting, and might be
useful. To what degree, for instance, one may
increase the dressing of dung, with corresponding
benefit to the crop, and what is the limit beyond
which an increased quantity of dung ceases to act,
or again, whether it be better to dress with dung
only, or with a combination of dung and of arti-
ficial manure. The latter question is the more
practical, because some writers maintain that a farm
ought to supply its own manure, and that the pur-
chase of artificial aids is a proof of imperfect ma-
nagement. In order to investigate these and other
points, I applied to 5 acres of yellow globe beet-root.

in the first week of April, diflferent dressings at the
follo\ving amounts per acre : —

Dung. Artificial Manure.

26 loads of good dung.

13 ditto ditto.

Lot 1 .
'2.
3.

4.

13 ditto and
13 ditto and
13 ditto and
13 ditto and

7 cwt. rape-dust.
14 bush, bones.

7i cwt. rags.

3 cwt. guano.

7 cwt. rape-dust.
14 bush, bone-dust.

3 cwt. guano.

9. . . .

10. No manure.

Having found that when manures are tried by
being spread upon distinct portions of the same
field, some uncertainty is cast ujion the result by
differences in the crop, which evidently do not
arise from the action of the respective manures, but
from variation in the depth or quality of the soil.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

513

from previouH manurings, from the depredation of
insects, or some cause that cannot be detected, I
apportioned the manures to be tried in a new me-
thod, which increased the trouble indeed, but
which I thought would make the result trust-
worthy. The rows were opened 3 feet apart upon
the whole piece. In the three rows I put the heavy
dressing of dung ; in the next two rows, the lighter
dressing; in the two following rows we added rape-
dust to the dung ; and soon until, in 19 ridges,
all the trials had been prepared. "NVe then began
again as before with the heavy dressing of dung
and completed another set of 19 ridges like the first.
The extent of 5 acres allowed 6 sets thus to l)e
made ; which might be regarded as six repetitions
of the same experiment, and as therefore deserving
greater confidence. Thus the rows which received
artificial manure only, of whatever kind, were of a
darker green than the rest until some hot weather
came in August. Their leaves then blistered, and
many of the leaves withered suddenly off. If this
had occurred on one patch of ground only, it might
have been imputed to accident ; but no one who
saw it rejjeated on these particular rows, in six
different stripes across the field, could doubt that it
was caused by the absence of dung, which on such
sandy land thus appears necessary for carrying a
crop through to harvest. The land, as I have said,
was very hght, being in part a shifting sand, so
that in one part the seed was Ijlown out of the
ground ; but the dripping summer was favourable,
and the crop was a very good one.

At the end of October the roots were taken up,
and the produce ascertained by weighing the yield
of half an acre, measured across the six sets of
rows at one end. The yield was as follows : —

Tons of cleaned
Dung. Artificial Manure. Roots, per Acre.
No. 1. 26 loads .... 28 J

2. 13 loads .... 27^

3. 13 loads 7 cwt. rape-dust. 27

4. 13 loads 14 bush, bone dust 26

5. 13 loads 7 cwt. rags . 36

6. 13 loads 3 cwt. guano . 36

7. . .7 cwt. rape . 20A

8. . .14 bush, bones . 20

9. . .3 cwt. guano . 20^
10. . . . . . 15J

By comparing the two first lots, it appears that
in doubling the dose of dung we had gained only
1 ton per acre, which is in fact gaining nothing.
It is proved, therefore, that on some land, though
poor, if in high condition, there is a point beyond
which even a large increase of mere dung ceases to
act. But the clearest mode of examining the result
of the trial will be to divide the lots into classes,
according to the amovint of produce, and it will be

found that they full easily into classes — an agree-
ment which can hardly be accidental, and leads to
the belief that some uniform cause have been at
work.

First we must of course take the soil in its actual
state, not its natural state, for it is naturally })oor,
but in its then state of productiveness as it stood
without further assistance.

Soil unmanured 15^ tons of field-beet.
This will of course form the standard by which to
judge the effect of the other manures. The artifi-
cial manures evidently follow next, their produce
rimning very even. Rags used singly were acci-
dentally omitted from the trial, but having used
them in the same field and seen their yield, I
should put them at the same amount with the rest.

The second class then will stand thus ;
Artificial Manures alone.

Tons.

7 cwt. rape .... 20^

14 bushels bones. ... 20

3 cwt. guano .... 20-3

7 cwt. rags, {estimated) about . 20

The agreement, by actual weighing, between the
thi'ee first artificial manures is very close. The
effect of all is but weak, and the increase of crop
would barely pay for their use, being only 5 tons,
worth 30s. to consume on the land.

TTie third class evidently marks itself out as fol-
lows : —

Artificial Manure Tons.
13 loads dung .... 27i
13 loads dung . 7 cwt. rape-dust 27
13 loads dung , 14 bushels bones 26
26 loads dung . . . . 28^^
These amounts again may be taken as practically
the same. No advantage is gained by exceeding
the single dressing of dung. It seems a confirma-
tion of the inference that there is a limit to the pro-
fitable use of dung, to find that bones and rape-dust,
each efficient when used alone, fail equally with the
additional dose of dung in raising the produce above
the standard amount, in which there certainly is a
striking agreement between the four lots. In the
second class, then, the artificial manures gave each
about 5 tons additional produce per acre. In the
third class, the single dressing of dung give about
1 2 tons, which is not increased by the further
use of bones, rape, or sensibly even by doubhng
the dung.

The remaining class shows a different result : —
13 loads of dung 7 cwt. rags 36 tons

13 loads of dung 3 cwt. guano 36 tons

Here we obtain a very large increase by adding two
different artificial manures separately to the full
dose of dung. The question arises, why these two

514

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

manures should act so much better ; a question I am
unable to answer. But in the interesting work on
" Rural Economy," which Boussingault has lately
published;, and Mr. Law has translated, there is a
very copious table in which the value of manures
is stated according to the quantity of azote which
they contain. In that table the manures we are
now deaUng with stand thus ; —

Azote.
Rape-dust . . , 5^

Bones . . . 6j

Best guano .... 15|
Woollen rags .... 20^
Possibly therefore a chemist might find the answer
in this superabundance of azote, but I am not com-
petent to say how this may be. In fact the two
leaders in agricultural chemistrj% Leibig, and
Boussingault, are at variance on this very point.
The two principal results of the experiment seem
to be — one, that there is on some soils a limit be-
yond which an additional dose of dung is of no use.
This result, if confirmed, would be interesting in
theory. In actual farming there is not much dan-
ger of our erring in that direction, as to our dres-
sings of dung; and in some parts of the country

this would not, perhaps, be a very safe doctrine to
dwell upon. The other inference, a more practical
one, is that it is more profitable to use some arti-
ficial manures in conjunction with dung, than to
use either singly. Thvis guano and woollen rags
used singly, added to my crop only 5 tons per acre.
The single dressing of dung added only 1 1 tons,
and doubhng that amount of dung did no good ;
but guano combined with the same amount of dung,
and rags combined with the same amount of dung,
each gave an addition not of 16 tons of roots, ac-
cording to their effects when used singly, but of
20 tons, yielding each 36 tons, a produce very large
indeed for land which, four years ago when I took
it in hand, was said to be incapable of growing a
turnip. I will only add, that I am not insensible to
the risk, in drawing general rules, from single ex-
periments, however carefully made; but as this
experiment was a careful one, I state what appear
to me to be the legitimate inferences from it, in tlie
hope that they m.ay be confirmed or refuted by
other observers, so that at last the truth may be
kno\vn. — Join-nal of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety.

Piisey, November 24, 1845.

THE COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MANURES.
By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esa., F.R.S.

THEIR GASE.S — OXYGEN.

[Continued.)

In a former section of this paper I have given a
few facts which relate to the organic part of ma-
nures ; intending by that term the portion of ferti-
lizers which is, by the effects of decomposition,
reduced to the state of gases.

Having already spoken of those whose principal
value consists in their nitrogen and hydrogen, I
now proceed to the examination of that portion of
the organic fertilizer which is composed of oxygen.
Entering as oxygen gas does so extensively into
the composition of all animal and vegetable sub-
stances, it of necessity is present in the various
organic fertilizers. Urns, of vegetable matter
found in the manure of the farm-yard, 1,000 parts
of the following substances contain of oxygen gas

Clover hay . . . . 389 parts.

Clover seed . . . . 350

Oats.. .. .. 367

Peas.. .. .. 401

Wheat . . . . 431

Potatoes . . . . 439

It constitutes of Gluten - -

„ Starch - -
Sugar - -

„ Gum - -

„ Bees' wax -

„ Woody fibre

„ Acetic acid -

„ Oxalic acid -

„ Tartaric acid

„ Citric acid -

„ Benzoic acid

„ Gallic acid -

,, Olive oil

„ Train oil

,, Gelatine

15.70 per cent.

49.

50-63

50-84

5-544
41-78
46-82
66-534
59-882
54-831
20-43
38-36

9'43
15-03
27-4

Forming, therefore, so essential and so considerable
a-portion of all vegetable substances, it would be
reasonable to conclude, even before we appealed to
the Chemist's magic assistance, that the oxj^gen of
the atmospheric air contained in the earth, afforded
a portion of the supply. It is certain, in fact, that
whenever even the seeds of plants begin to vegetate,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

516

that tliey absoil> oxygen fi-om the atmosphere in
which they are i)laced ; and as I have elsewhere
observed, this essential use of oxygen gas to
vegetation, is not confined merely to the germina-
tion of their seeds ; for after the seeds have become
plants, if oxygen is withdrawn from the atmosjjhere
in which thej' are placed, they cease to vegetate,
their leaves can no longer perfonn their functions.
But this use of oxygen, by the leaves of vegetables,
it is remarkable is confined to the night : it is only
in the dark that they absorb it. During this ab-
sorption the leaves of some plants, such as the
cactus opuntia, and the semper vivum tectorum, do
not emit any portion of carbonic acid gas ; but the
great majority of plants, such as the quercus rohur
and the sedum refiexuin, emit a considerable portion,
bvit not equal in amount to the oxj'gen gas which
has been imbibed ; and this absorbed oxygen enters,
there is little doubt, into immediate combination
with other substances, and forms vegetable mat-
ters in other shapes. A variety of experiments
have, in fact, been made to ascertain this. Thus,
the lea^^es of plants which have but recently ab-
sorbed a portion of oxygen gas, have been exposed
in the exhausted receiver of an air-pvunp. Other
leaves have been submitted to the greatest heat
they could bear without undei'going combustion,
but in neither case was any oxygen gas extricated
from them. And it has been noted that those plants
which absorb the greatest portion of oxygen during
the night, are precisely those which evolve the most
considerable quantity of carbonic acid gas during
the day.

Plants of chflferent kinds vary much in the quan-
tity of oxygen which they absorb. Fleshy-leaved
plants, which emit little or no carbonic acid gas,
absorb very little oxygen ; and these plants, it may
be remarked, says Dr. Thomson, can vegetate in
elevated situations, where the air is very rarefied.
Next in order come the evergreen trees, which,
although they absorb more oxygen than the fleshy-
leaved ])lants, yet require much less than those
which lose their leaves during winter. Those plants
which flourish in marshy ground like^^'ise al)sorb Init
little oxygen.

M. Saussure made many experiments upon the
uses of oxygen gas to vegetation. He found that
it was essential to many of its functions ; that it
was absorbed, not only by the leaves, but by the
roots of plants ; that it was there combined with
carbon, and the carbonic acid gas thus formed was
thence transmitted to the leaves, to be decomposed.
The very stems and branches of plants absorb it,
and its presence is essential to the expansion of
flowers ; in its absence seeds will not germinate ;
and hence one reason why they will not vegetate
when placed beyond a certain deptli in the soil.

Tlie quantity of oxygen gas consumed during tlieir
germination by equal weights of different seeds,
varies considerably. Wheat and barley consume
less oxygen than peas, and peas less than common
broad and kidney beans ; the latter consuming
1- 100th part of their weight, while wheat and barley
during their germination only absorb from 1 -1,000th
to 1 -2,000th of their weight of oxygen gas. Recent
experiments have also shown that the more water
is impregnated with oxj'gen gas, the more excel-
lent are its effects, when emjiloyed for the purpose
of watering plants ; and hence one of the causes of
the superiority of rain-water. Some experiments
by Mr. Hill were decidedly in favour of this con-
clusion. Hyacinths, melons, Indian corn, and
other plants, watered for some time with water
impregnated with oxygen gas, all grew \vith in-
creased beauty and luxuriance. The melons were so
improved in flavour ; the Indian corn increased
in size, " so as to equal in size most of those im-
ported from North America," and all of them grew
more vigorously.

It is true that when animal, and vegetable sub-
stances, are slowly allowed to decompose in the
soil, oxygen does not appear in an uncombined
state, being usually in the form of carbonic acid
gas, or combined with carbon. Yet in this com-
bination, it is essential to the growth of plants ; by
hardly any other mode in fact can the carbon of
plants be assimilated than by its combination with
oxygen. We have seen, how essential to the
growth of plants, is a free access of the oxygen of
the atmosphere to their roots ; now although the
organic manvures do not directly furaish this sup-
ply, yet by their presence, they certainly promote its
access, by rendering the soil less close, and conse-
quently more permeable to the atmospheric gases.
Every farmer is aware of the fact, that seeds sown
on the best pulverized soils, are ever the first to
vegetate ; he gives perhaps an erroneous explana-
tion when he says, it is because of such soils being
so much io«n«er, than the more biicJcward soils;
but he is still aware of the advantage of keeping his
soil " open," although he may have mistaken the
chemical explanation. It is impossible for the cul-
tivator to examine the sources of supply from
whence the gaseous substances of vegetation are
derived, without interest, and instruction. To
trace the first absorption of oxygen gas, by the
roots or the leaves of plants, to note its combination
with hydrogen and other carbon, in the endless
forms assumed by \egetable substances ; its
emission in an uncombined state, form the leaves
of plants growing in the light : its evolution com-
bined with carbon from the same leaves, vegetating
in the dark, or its final combination with carbon,
M'hen it arises in the gases of putrefaction, to be

516

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

again absorbed and assimilated and tlie mystic pro-
cesses of vef(etation, are all facts full of interest,
and abounding with instruction to the intelligent
farmer. Davy saw these things, and Davy rea-
soned upon them with all the grateful wannth of
the chemist, who sees the finger of God in every
vegetating substance. He truly enough told the
large and intelligent class, who used to crowd liis
lectures on agricultural chemistry, when speaking
of the subject of this paper, that the doctrine of the
proper application of manures, from organised sub-
stances, offers an illustration of an important part
of the economy of nature, and of the happy order
in which it is arranged. The death and decay of
animal and vegetable substances tend to resolve or-

ganised forms into chemical constituents ; and the
pernicious effluvia disengaged dining the process
seem to point out the propriety of burying them in
the soil, where they are fitted to become the food
of vegetables. The fermentation of organised sub-
stances in the free atmosphere are noxous pro-
cesses ; beneath the surface of the ground they are
salutary operations. In this case the food of plants
is prepared where it can be used : and that which
would offend the senses, and injure the health if
exposed, is converted by gradual processes into
forms of beauty, and of usefulness ; the fretid gas
is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower,
and what might be poison, becomes nourishment to
animals, and to man.

{To be continued.)

MARTOCK DISTRICT FARMERS' CLUB.

The usual monthly meeting was held at the
George Inn, Martock, on Monday, April 6 : Robert
Leach, Esq., in the chair.

The preliminary business having been dis-
posed of.

The Chairman said that at their last meeting
Mr. Williams had proposed a subject for discus-
sion on the utility of draining generally, which had
been fixed for that evening's discussion. He
thought the subject a good one, as no good crops
coidd be grown on some land without draining.

Mr. Joseph Williams said that the subject
they were about to discuss was one of great im-
portance to all who were occupiers of heavy land.
He would say that all arable land which rested on
a strong clay subsoil would not only be bene-
fited by draining, but actually required it before it
could be cultivated to advantage. This description
of land was generally ridged up, so as to leave open
furrows to carry off* the water, but that did not
pre\ ent the land from being very wet in a rainy
Bcason ; by the excess of moisture, and thinness of
soil near the furrows, a great portion of a field was
often cultivated unprofitably, and labour and seed
expended without any return. He began draining on
a small scale three years ago. His system of drain-
ing was an inexpensive one, being the plug system.
His land was lying in large ridges, about eight yards
wide, and he had put a drain in every furrow at the
depth of three feet. It was generally of a strong
subsoil ; but where he had found a soil of a lighter
description, he had used thorns, and rammed
the earth on them in the same manner as
on the plug. The cost of draining after this system
was 3d. per rope, or about 22s. per acre. The land
e had drained had been perfectly dry ever since.

He had at present a piece of wheat growing after
peas, where he had put drains in every alternate
furrow last winter, and he now found that by and
in those furrows over the drains the wheat was
looking as well as in other parts of the ridge, while
there was no wheat within two or three feet of the
furrows that were not drained ; the seed was rotted
before it could germinate. He had another field
partially drained, which was also sown to wheat ;
where the land was drained the wheat was excel-
lent, but where not drained the grub had destroyed
all of it within three feet of each furrow, notwith-
standing that he had sown quick lime, and trodden
the ground well \ni\\ sheep to prevent it. He had
put in more seed by these furrows early in Feb-
ruary, and the wheat came vip well, but the grub
had destroyed nearly the whole of it a second time.
He thought that was a convincing proof of the
necessity of draining wet lands. He had not said
anything about other methods of draining, because
he had mostly used the plug ; but he thought pipe-
draining was greatly superior to stone or tile. The
cheaj)ness of pipes was a great advantage, but he
thought they should soon get them at a still lower
rate, for he had found that one-Inch pipes, made by
Cottam and HaUen's machine, were selling in other
parts of the kingdom at r2s. per thousand.

Mr. JoiiN' Cave thought they ought to come to a
conclusion as to which was the best mode of drain-
ing. He should say that by which it coidd be per-
formed cheapest and in the most substantial
manner. He had recently superintended the drain-
age of a field Avhere the material used was pipes,
and he had found this description of draining to
answer effectually in carrying oft' the superfluous
water. He had made an estimate of the expense.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

517

His field measured four acres, and he had put liis
drains longitudinally up the furrows, at a distance
from each other of 24 feet. He had dug them 3
feet 4 inches deep, l)ut he thought hy the time the
ground was levelled they would be 4 feet from the
surface. It took 80 rope of drains per acre. He
used 'i-inch pipes, which cost him 6d. per rope, and
which was £2 \)er acre ; the cost of digging and
putting in, at 4.\d. per rojje, would be £l lOs. per
acre ; the cost of carriage he computed at 5s. per
acre, as two waggon loads would be sufficient for
three acres. ITius the total cost was £3 15s. per
acre. He perfectly agreed with Mr. WilHams in
what he had said respecting the cost of pipes, lie
thought they were at ])resent giving exorbitant
prices for them, and he had no doubt but that when
machinery was used in their manufacture they
should be able to get them at about 4d. per rope.
He thought no one could bring forward a cheaper
and more substantial method of draining than this.
Thei'e was no doubt at all of its efficacy ; he would
bring forward an instance to prove this. Mr. Cuff,
of Merriott, recently put some pipes imder ground
to cany water from a stream to some part of his
premises ; these pipes fitted into each other, and,
to prevent any water from getting into them but
what came from the stream, everyjoint was cement-
ed. Mr. Cuff did not turn the water from the
stream into these pipes as soon as they were laid
down, but waited for the cement to dry ; but great
was his surprise to find that the pipes threw out a
continual stream, which could only be derived from
the land ; so that if the joints were cemented, the
porous nature of the pipes would be sufficient for
drainage. His mode of putting in the pipes had
been to dig the first two sjjits of earth with a com-
mon wide spade, and then use a narrow channel
spade, so that the pipes fitted close in the gutter.
Mr. Williams had recommended plug-draining,
but he thought there was a great danger of the
moles getting down and choking the drains. He
thought pipes possessed a great advantage over
stone for draining. It was in the winter that they
wanted to drain most, that was the jjcriod of the
year when they had most leisure ; but how in-
jurious was often the hauling of stone to the land
in that season of the year. Pipes here were an ad-
vantage, for the carriage of them was comparatively
nothing. So much for the material to be used.
He would now inquire which was best — to cut the
drains up through a field the wrong way, or across
it ? People used to be very much prejudiced in
favour of cross-draining, but it now seemed fast
getting out of fashion. There was one great evil
in the system, and that was — the water coidd only
get into the drains at one side ; for water would
run down hill, but not up. His father, about four

)ears ago, had put in some drains after this fashion ;
they were put 23 feet apart, and dug 3 feet deep,
but the ground was now found to be wet midway
between the drains. He came now to consider
what ought to be the depth of draining ; he was an
advocate of Mechi's system, which was " to tap the
barrel at the bottom." lie thought all draining
ought to be from three to four feet deep. He had
noticed when his gutters were digging that there
was no water with the two first sj)its, biit when they
dug further they had plenty of it. Many said that
the u'ater would not get through the clay, Ijut he
would ask, if such is the case, how is it the clay is
so wet when you come to it ? Land was greatly in-
creased in value by being drained, and any good
tenant would be glad to give 4s. per acre more per
annum to have that imi)rovement effected.

Mr. Job ITallett said, there was no improve-
ment he valued so much as draining. He advocated
it when he came to Martock first, but what was
he then told? — "You'll drain your own pocket, as
well as your landlord's." But he was glad that the
opinions of his neighbours had changed since then ;
every one now was disposed to admit the benefits of
draining. He had heard of a great many different
methods, all of which had their advocates. He
had heard of one instance where straw only was
used, and that had lasted thirty-five years, and
answered well : but he thought the state of the sub-
soil ought always to be taken into consideration, as
what would answer for one description of earth
might not for another. He had tried plug-draining,
and found it to answer well on one sort of soil ; but
he would earnestly recommend all who were about
to follow that system to cut their drains about a
foot from the old furrow, because there was a great
danger of the moles making holes down to the gutter.
There were in that parish at least five or six differ-
ent sorts of subsoil, which, he thought, required
nearly as many difterent methods of draining. He
Iiad tried thorns, and found it to answer for a time ;
stone he had also tried, in different ways. He
would strongly recommend all who were about to
drain not to let their work, for he was confident there
was no species of agricultural labour which could be
shghted more than this ; he believed he was pounds
the worse for trusting this work to labourers. He
would, therefore, say to e\ery one — " See the work
done yourselves." He thought that if pipes were
found to answer in their tenacious clay, that that
was the best method yet offered to notice.

Mr. E. Burt observed, that though there \\'erc
many farmers of the olden school who looked on
almost all improvements with disdain, yet scarcely
an individual will be found but will admit the bene-
fit of taking useless water ofi" the land ; therefore,
in all probability, the subject they had chosen for

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THE FARMER^S IklAGAZINE.

discussion that evening would be genercilly ap-
proved of. They might culti\^ate, they might ma-
nure, they might farm after tlie best systems, but
unless the land was in a fit state to receive these
operations all their labour and expense v\'ould avail
nothing. So that draining, effectually accomplished,
must be admitted to be the ground-work of
all agricultural improvements. He thought a
great question for decision was, v/hether deep or
shallow draining was best. He had, in the course
of his experience, assisted in draining about fifty
acres on the shallow system; but he was sorry to
say he could not speak favourably of it, for he had
since found most of it to be much too wet, although
the material used was stone. He had had an op-
portunit)', since the last meeting of the club, of
witnessing some deep draining at Melbury, on the
property of the Earl of Ilchester ; the depth was
thei'e about 4^ feet — the material used was pipes,
and the distance of the drains apart was about 30
feet. A man who was at work there informed him
their deepest drains had been found to answer best.
Thinking that he should probably iUicit some useful
information, he had, on Thursday last, sent to Mr.
Mechi a letter, stating to him the character of the
soil in that neighbourhood, and asking hiin his
opinion on the best mode of draining it. He re-
ceived from him an answer, which he would read : —

"TiPTREE Halt., April 1, 184G.

" Dear Sir, — In reply to your favour, I have
forwarded some of my letters on the subject of
draining, and you will find two subsequent ones in
the Gardener's Chronicle of about three weeks
Bince.

" My system of draining answers perfectly well,
which is about 5 feet deep in the hill, and about 3
feet near the ditch : the distance from drain to
drain is 33 feet.

" I use pipes of one-inch bore in drains up and
down the land, not exceeding 300 yards in length-

" I pay 15s. per thousand for my pipes--, v.'hich
are 15 inches long.

" I find that in strong wet clays it is the depth
influences drainage more than closeness. Deep
drains, still running, will show the land drj'er tlian
shallow ones that have done discharging.

" I hope you will come and see my farm some
day.

" Yours, truly,

•^ To Mr. 1-:. Burt, xMontacute. J. Meciii."

Mr. Burt tlien produced the published letters
which he had received from Mr. Mechi, and re-
quested the secretary to read one of them, which
was very applicable to the subject in hand.

The letter having been read, and no other person

rising to speak on the subject, the foUowmg reso-
was given from the chau-, and carried unani-
mously : —

Resolved : " That a great portion of the land in
this neighbourhood will more than amjily repay the
outlay and expense of draining. That some of the
members of this club have found the plug-system
to answer well on heavy clay lands ; stones, tiles,
thorns, arid other sorts of material they have also
used to advantage : but, in their opinion, the difi'er-
ent methods of draining must be varied according
to the state of the subsoil. That a member who
has tried pipe-draining has strongly recommended
it for cheapness and durability. The members
generally are of opinion that the system is a good
one, but cannot speak with certainty from want of
experience. That the members of this clul) are of
opinion that the depth of drainage generally should
be from 3 feet to 4i feet deep."

AVe must not forget to observe that a fine sample
of new potatoes were produced by Mr. Gould.

After the usual vote of thanks to the chairman,
the meeting adjourned until the lltli of May, when
the subject of discussion will be on the best mode
of cultivation for root crops, proposed by Mr.
Josiah Hebditch.

HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB— Fifth Meeting
for 1846, April 8th. — Subject : " The Cost and Value
of Protection to the Farmer ; the Statistics of the Ques-
tion rather than the Principle." Previous to the dis-
cussion it was decided, at the unanimous wish of the
members present, that the terms of the question should
be altered. It was considered that any arguments
founded on a comparison of protected with free trade
prices of corn would probably be deceptive, because it is
not accurately known what portion of the former have
been owing to the law, or what share of any depreciation
in the latter may be due to its repeal. The principles of
free trade in general, and of free trade in corn in parti-
cular, with the past effects of protection on agriculture,
and particularly on the tenant farmers, and the probable
future effects of free trade on these interests, were there-
fore discussed, instead of the cost and value of protec-
tion statistically considered. After an interesting and
protracted debate, it was unanimously decided— That a
free trade in corn will benefit tiie nation without injuring
the agricultural interest, provided those requests of the
farmers for the repeal of the malt-tax, for an improved
tenure embracing more liberal covenants, and the other
just claims on the legislature and the landowners which
this club has always advocated, be at the same time con-
ceded. The club desires also to express its opinion,
that the proposed Government measure errs in not
making free trade total and immediate, believing that
the delay of three years will act injuriously in deferring
the settlement of these necesf=ary arrangements.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

619

AGRICULTURAL AND SCIENTIFIC TRAINING SCHOOL,

KENNINOTOX LANE, LAMBETH, NEAR LONDON.

LECTURES ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTUEB.

Lecture IL — On Oxygen.

by j. c. nbsbit, esq., f.g.s., m.c.s.l., icc.

QeiitlemeiJ, — I shall have the honour of cUrocthig
your attention this evening to one of tlic most interest-
ing of the chemical elements. In the prosecution of
our agricultural course, it will be necessary to take
notice of those bodies which enter more or less into the
composition of vegetables ; and you will recollect that
in my introductory lecture, I informed you that a certain
portion of the elements of vegetables was taken from
the soil, and that another portion was taken from the
air. I also mentioned to you that the portion which
was taken from tlie soil was called inorganic, and that
taken from the air, organic. The organic elements are
four — oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon ; and
we shall commence this evening by taking into con-
sideration Uie properties of the most imj)ortant of these
four, namely, oxygen: the considei'atlon of hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon will be reserved for another
occasion.

Oxygen is found in the greatest abundauce through
the whole of this planet. It is found in the air, iii the
water, in the clouds, in the earth, and in minerals of
every variety. It forms a considerable portion of all
sand-stones, and clays, and oxides (or rusts) of iron.
The fact is, all the oxides or rusts are merely combina-
tions of this substance with different bases or metals;
and its very presence in such quantities throughout
nature, will sufficiently show the importance of its
action. The affinities of oxygen for other bodies are
more powerful, perhaps, Uian those of any element we
know; of its action we shall have occasion to speak as
we proceed.

The air contains one-fiftli of its bulk of oxygpii,
which, in that case, assumes the character of a gjis :
every five bushels of common air contain one bushel of
oxygen. Oxygen, asagas, is carried round the world,
and penetrates every part ; and the substances which
require it are always sure to find something from wliich
they can abstract it. Water, which is the next uni-
^ei'sally extended medium, contains a large quantity
of oxygen : every nine tons of water contain eight tons
of oxygen — not as a gas, but as a liquid ; and in this
way it is al^o (h"sseminated over the world. In the
generality of earthy matters, from one- third to one-lialf
is composed of oxygen.

Having thus seen how generally oxygen is diffused
through nature, the next point to consider, is the

method of preparing it. You may naturaliy ask, if
oxygen be so extensively distributed iu combination
with other substances, can you not separate it from
some of them and present it to us ? It can be done :
for, by taking some of the earthy matters, and acting
upon tliem by means of heat, we can separate the
oxygen and the base : and when separated wc can
examine their properties. If you take the black oxide
(if manganese (which is a compound of oxygen and a
metal called manganese) and bring it to a red heat, it
will part with some of its oxygcu. One pound of
oxide of manganese will, in this manner, furnish about
1,200 cubic inches of oxygen gas.

In this way oxygen may be prepared in large quan-
tities, because oxide of manganese is very common.
It is to be found in all parts of the world, and is to be
had as an article of commerce in great alnindauce,
being much used in the north of England to make
chlorine for bleaching. Oxygen may be procured from
other oxides : — If you take red lead (wliich you know-
is a combination of lead and oxygen) and bring it to a
red heat, a portion of the oxjgen will be driven off,
and you can then ascertain its character. If you take
an oxide of mercury, which is commonly called red
precipitate, and heat it in a gla>s tube, a similar result
takes place; you will get the oxygen liberated and the
mercury likewise.

It is not necessary to show you all these experiments.
I shall, however, show you the one with the red,
])recipitate, because wc shall obtain not only oxygen,
but mercury also ; the two elements of which the
oxide of mercury is composed.

Now, I will take the oxide of mercury, or red
precipitate, and heat it over a lamp in a small test-
tube; and as the o.vygen is given off, it will drive the
airoutof tlie tube, because oxygen is heavier than air.
\A'e can now detect it by putting a bit of ignited wood
into the opening of ihe tube; the wood will instantly in-
flame, foro.xygcn has a very great affinity for combus-
tiblc bodies. Oxygen, intact, is iu nature the great
supporter nf flame and combustion.

By means of other substances, oxygen may be easily
procured in the most simple mimuer. Many of these
substances consist of various salts, which arc combina-
tions of acids with their bases. Ail tlie nitrates furnish
oxygen in abundance. Tlius the nitrate of soda con-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tains a large quantity of oxygen, as does also salt-
petre.

If I heat saltpetre to a red heat, I get in place of it
potash, and oxyyen and nitrogen liberated ; and in
this way you can get from one pound of saltpetre
12,000 cubic inches of gas, two-thirds of which
will be oxygen. If you employ the saltpetre, and
do not urge the heat very much, you will have the
pure oxygen, but not more than 2,000 or 3,000
cubic inches. When the heat is urged, the nitric
acid is decomposed, and its constituents, nitrogen and
oxygen, are both set free. When large quantities of
oxygen are required, saltpetre will be found very eco-
nomical. I used it myself for that reason many years
since, for the exhibition of the oxy-hydrogen micro-
scope, in the Mechanic's Institute, Manchester.

However, the best substance for procuring the oxygen
gas is the chlorate of potash. This is a beautiful, white
salt, consisting of oxygen, chlorine, and jiotassium.
When this compound is heated red hot, the oxygen is
liberated} and the chlorine andjpotassium having com-
bined together, remain behind in the form of a white
salt, called chloride of potassium.

I will place a little chlorate of potash in this test-
tube. On applying the heat of a spirit-lamp the salt
will first melt, and then eiFervesce, from the gas es-
caping. The heavier oxygen will drive all the com-
mon air out of the tube. If now a small piece of paper
or wood be lighted, and the iiame be blown out, so as
to leave a little portion of the end red hot, and then be
introduced into the tube, the paper or wood will im-
mediately burst into a flame.

If a small piece of ignited wood, such as a piece of a
lucifer, be dropped into the melted chlorate of potash,
a most powerful action, attended with a vivid light,
takes place, and the wood is, as you see, entirely con-
sumed.

Fig. 1 represents the mode of performing this expe-
rinitnt, and the action vhich takes place.

(Fig. I).

All experiments with the chlorate of potash should

be carefully conducted, as it is apt to explode with
combustible substances even in the cold.

When oxygen is required to be made from chlorate
of potash in large quantities, it is preferable to mix
about one-fourth of oxide of copper or oxide of man-
ganese with it ; as the gas is then liberated at a much
lower temperature.

Oxygen gas is also given out in nature, from the de-
composition of some of its combinations. Tlie vege-
table world is the great source of oxygen. Vegetables
possess the power of decomposing two compounds of
oxygen, carbonic acid and loater, and of retaining the
carbon of the one, and the hydrogen of the other, to
form their own tissues. This operation, liowever, only
goes on in the light of the sun or in the effulgence of
day. The process is this : — Plants have roots and
leaves. By the roots they take up moisture from the
soil, aiid in this moisture are dissolved those substances
which plants require for their subsistence. To form
the organized parts of plants, however, it is necessary
to have the assistance of the leaves, through the vessels
of which the juices of plants must always pass, before
they become converted into the substance of the plant.
The leaves of plants have a peculiar function, namely,
that of separating the carbonic acid from the other
constituents of the atmosphere, of retaining tiie carbon
of this carbonic acid, and setting its other ingredient,
the oxygen, free. After the sap has thus been mixed
in the leaves, with the carbon which the leaves derive
from the atmosphere, it goes to increase the growth of
the plant. The water taken up by the root undergoes
a somewhat similar decomposition, its hydrogen being
returned and its oxygen liberated.

In some of the products of plants, such as turpen-
tine, all the oxygen of the water and carbonic acid
have been liberated.

Oxygen is chiefly remarkable as a most powerful
supporter of combustion : it is the substance wliich in
natural operations, consumes and burns up all vegetable
and animal matter. It is tliis oxygen which, by
its action upon the carbon and hydrogen of our
wood, coal, oil, &c., produces that light and heat wliich
we feel to be so iicccsLiiiry. It is oxygen which ca\iscs
this candle to burn at the present moment : if deprived
of oxygen, it would be extinguished ; but if the supply
be augmented, its brilliancy will be much increased.
I will immerse the lighted candle in this jar of oxygen.
In a moment you see the flame becomes brilliant, and
burns with so much splendour as to dazzle the eyes.

A similar increase in the intensity of the action is
seen, when other combustible substances, such as
sulphur and phosphorus, previously ignited in the air,
are brought into contact with pure oxygen gas. I will
I put some sulphur in this copper spoon, and will then
i ignite it over the spirit lamp. The combustion in the
I air is only slow ; you will see the difference the mo-
ment I immerse the spoon in this jar of oxygen. You
perceive the intensity of the beautiful blue flame of the
sulphur is much i^cretl^e■l, and that it tinges all the
sm rnuiuling objects. Fig. 2 reprtsonts the method of
pcrrorniing this experiment, and also shows the beau-
tiful ctiect produced.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

621

The burning of phosphorus in oxygen giis, is perhaps
one of the most brilliant experiments tliat chemistry
can j)roduce. Piiosphorus (the base of bones) is well
known as the powerful s'lbstance used in tlie manufac-
ture of lucifer matches. It burns with great velie-
mence in common air ; but when introduced into oxy-
gen its eombustion is increased to such an extent
that it is quite impossible to behold the beauty of
the flame with unshaded eyes. I will put this
piece of phosphorus, which I have previously dried
between folds of blotting-paper, into a cold cop-
per spoon, ignite it with a hot wire, and then
quickly introduce it into the jar of oxygen. The
brilliant light produced is such as to iUuminatc the
whole room as if by the light of the sun. Fig. 2 will
represent also the manner of performing this experi-
ment. Phosphorus ought always to be carefully
handled, and it must be kept in a bottle filled with
water. It has so great an attraction for oxygen that
it takes fire on the slightest friction. It must, there-
fore, always be cut in pieces in a saucer filled with
water.

Iron, zinc, and other metals will burn in oxygen
with great ease, as I shall have occasion to show you
towards the close of tbe lecture.

It will not be difficult for you to understand why
chemical action or combustion should be so much
more intense in pure oxygen than in air. In the
pure oxygen there is nothing to prevent the intimate
contact of the two bodies which are uniting with one
another, that is, the burning body and the oxygen ;
and as fast as one portion of oxygen has acted on the
combustible body, its place is supplied by another
portion, which in its turn will be wholly expended on
the burning body. In common air this is different.
Before the combustible body can be acted upon by
one cubic inch of oxygen, five cubic inches of the
atmosphere must be presented to it, which, of course,
will take up five times the time. But the four cubic
inches of nitrogen have also the effect of cooling the
burning body in passing through the flame with the

oxygen. The amount of light an<l heat produced de-
pends on the quantity of chemical action which takes
place in a given time. It is quite evident that the
greatest action in the least time will take pla^^e with
the pure materials. If we, by any artificial means,
can contrive to make common air pass in large quan-
tities through the interstices of combustible bodies, as
charcoal, coal, &c., previously in a state of ignition,
we shall in a measure increase the action as if we em-
ployed pure oxygen, because we shall cause a greater
action in a given period of time.

It must now be apparent to all of you that the
more oxygen we can get through a common fire-place,
or the more that can be brought in contact with the
fuel in a given time, the greater will be the combus-
tion, and the greater the heat. In the open air coaU
burn dull, and do not give out much heat or light in a
given time. If coals be put in a fire-place, more air
gets through them in a given time, and a great heat
will be produced ; but then the coals will burn sooner.
If you want to get more heat yon must enclose the
coals in a furnace connected with a high chimney, so
that all the air is obliged to pass into the furnace
through the bars at the bottom. You will thus have
in the chimney a column of hot air, which is lighter
than cold air. The cold heavy air will therefore force
upwards the light air of the chimney, and endeavour
to supply its place : and as tbe air can only get into
the chimney by passing through the furnace, a large
quantity of oxygen is in this way supplied to the fuel
in a short time. But though you get more heat in a
given time, you consume more coals. I will give you
another instance — the common blacksmith's forge,
where, I have no doubt, you have often seen the work-
men blow the bellows till they were almost tired.
The object is to send a greater amount of air (that is
to say, to send more oxygen) among the coals, and by
this means to produce a greater amount of heat in a
given time ; but in proportion to the rapid production
of this heat will be the quantity of coals consumed.
Now there is one fact in connexion with this which you
will do well to note. A pound of charcoal, in uniting
with oxygen, gives out always the same amount of heat,
whether burnt quickly or slowly ; and the same may
be said of hydrogen and other combustibles ; and
whether the union be quicker slow, or whether a given
amount of fuel be consumed in five minutes or five
hours, the sum total of heat evolved will be the same.
But it is evident that if the fuel be wholly consumed
in five minutes, the heat in this case will be very intense
during its short continuance; but if it last five hours,
the heat will not be intense, but low and continuous.

Now, wherever oxygen is absorbed, that is, when it
comes into union with another substance, heat is given
out. I will give you an instance where common ve-
getable matter will ignite spontaneously, merely from
the fact of its being brought in contact and union
with oxygen. If you take a pound or two of cotton,
and mix it with linseed-oil or olive- oil (the best is
boiled linseed-oil), and then lay it in a corner, the
mixture will be on fire in twentv-four hours. The

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cotton exposes a great surface of the oil to the action
of the oxygen of the air ; and is at the same time,
from its porous nature, a bad conductor of heat.
Very well ; the oxygen and oil begin to act on one
another; a little of the carbon and hydrogen of the oil
is slowly consumed, and a small quantity of heat is
generated, which slightly raises the temperature of the
whole mass ; for the uon-conductiug nature of the
cotton will not allow the heat to escape as it is pro-
duced. More oxygen acts on the oil, more heat is
given out, and this goes on till the whole gets to a red
heat; light is evolved, and the mass is set fire to.

In the nortli of England, where a deal of oil is
used In niachinery, and where it is cleaned by waste
cotton, many mills were at one time burned down
from the cause f have mentioned. The dirty oiled
cotton waste was thrown into a corner on Saturday
night, and the mill was burned down before Slon-
day ; and it was frequently believed to be the work
of an incendiary. Persons have been blamed for the
crime; while the real cause was that which I am
now telling you. The manufacturers are now more
cautious, and take care not to allow tlie oily waste
cotton to accumulate.

Agriculturists are liable to accidents of a similar
kind. How much money has been lost from the
storing of hay in a wet state instead of in a dry !
Wet operates like oil : it enables the oxygen to get
hold of the woody matter of the hay, upon which it
does not act in the dry. The hay is stacked in a
great hurry, without being properly dried. Being
damp and porous, the oxygen is absorbed and u
little heat given out, which cannot readily escape; a
little more oxygen is absorbed, and a little more
heat given out, till a red heat is attained, and
then fire breaks out. Xow the difference between
the oil and the cotton and the damp hay is only
this ; that in the first case the fire breaks out in a few
hours (from twelve to twenty-four will be sufficient),
while in the stack four or five days or weeks may
sometimes be required.

I can show you another ease. When farmers want
to make manure, they heap up great masses of straw,
litter, and excrements ; and what lakes plnce ? It be-
gins to smoke and gets heated. And whore does the
heat come from ; how is it generated ? The mass de-
creases in bulk very much ; in eight or ten mouths it
will have diminished at least a-half. But what is the
cause ? Don't you see this ? The active and energetic-
oxygen is at work. Yon have vegetable matter moist-
ened with water, you have oxygen absorbed, and it
consumes the dung ; but more slowly than in the case of
the hay. 1 told you that hay may take fire in four
or five weeks; but good farmers so manage it that the
lieat shall not exceed from 80*^ to 90". The farmer also
•wants his dung to decompose mildly and quietly. But
what would take place if, instead of keeping the dung
pressed down, he was to separate it, and let the air
come in? Practical men will tell you that the heat
would be largely increased ; instances, indeed, have
been known of such heaps taking fir.>. In fact, if
these dung-heaps are not properly attended to, they

will readily take fire. You see, from this, that oxygen
has a deal to do with manure ; for it is by this sub-
stance that the farmer gets his heaps diminished in
bulk. He gets the most worthless portion taken away ;
that which is left is more easily carted and more valu-
able. Y'ou see, therefore, what an active agent oxygen
is. It acts, too, upon all metals exposed to the air.
If you take a knife or a spade, and expose it to the
action of the air all night, you will find it next morn-
ing of a red colour. And what is this red substance ?
It is a compound of oxygen and iron, called the oxide
of iron.

There are many other combinations which spontane-
ously take fire and give out heat from the absorption of
oxygen. Iron pyrites, a compound of sulphur and iran,
is found in large quantities throughout the globe. It is
very bright and metallic, looking something like gold.
When exposed to air and moUture, oxygen is absorbed,
which, uniting with the sulphur, forms sulphuric acid,
and with the iron, oxide of iron. These two again
unite, and form the sulphate of iron, or common green
vitriol. As oxygen is absorbed by the pyrites, you
are also sure that heat is produced. In the manufac-
turing districts, where sulphate of iron is largely made
from pyrites, care is taken not to allow it to get over-
lieated ; and if it should get too hot, water is thrown
upon it. Bishop Watson, the celebrated chemist, tells
a curious thing in his chemical essays. A man at El-
land, in Yorksliirc, collected a quantity of the pyrites,
under the idea that it was gold, and put it into his
barn in a heap. The barn, as was common enough in
those days, was made of wood, and moreover the roof
was a little leaky, and by this means rain was intro-
duced. This generated a heat, and in the course of a
few weeks the heap took fire, and burned down the
barn. Y'ou see, therefore, how important it is that
such things should be borne in mind.

Thei-e is another thing very closely related to what I
have mentioned. Any of you who have been in the
north of England must have seen, all round the great
coal- pits of Newcastle, Durham, and other idacos,
large heaps of small coals, covering mjny aorce.
These coals have been deposited there, owing to their
small value; and you will find that they are always on
fire. Perhaps you will imagine that the coals were set
on fire ? No such thing : they took fire by themselves.
Wlien I state to you that tlie coal contains sulphuret
of iron (iron pyrites) you will be at no loss to ascertain
the cause. 1 he action of oxygen on the sulphuret of
iron is such as to produce heat, and the continued
action of this heat causes the coal to take fire. Many
singular phenomena of which we occasionally hear, as,
for instance, smoking and burning cliffs, near the sea,
are due to the action of oxygen on recently-exposed
iron pyrites.

But more still. This oxygen, this universally-acting
busybody, has something to do with volcanoes and
earthquakes. We find that these volcanoes burst out
with tremendous force in some places, emitting large
bodies of fire. Whence does this arise ? This fire Is
doubtless the product of combustion. And what an
enormous power must he generated to produce such

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

623

awful results as the overthrowing of Herculaneum and
Pompoi!, the awful visitation of Calabria, or the
dostruction of the city of Lisbon !

In connection with volcanoes, it should be borne in
mind that they are always near the sea. You know
that when you look for their positions on liie map, you
keep your eye to the coast. Etna, Ilucla, Vesuvius.
Stromboli, the burninnf mountains of Ihe Andes, and
the volcanoes in the East Indies, are all to be found
near the coast. There can be no doubt that water has
something to do with them ; and water, recollect, con-
tains a great deal of oxygen.

It has been supposed that the matter of the interior
of the globe consists chiefly of the metallic bases of
the earths : and these, it is well known, have the power
to decompose wafer, uniting with its oxygen and libe-
rating the hydrogen.

Now, if by any means the ocean water penetrates
to these metallic bodies, most intense action will be
the result ; heat will be liberated, and effects produced
quite sufficient to account for the plienomeua of vol-
canoes and earthquakes.

There are a few other points which I wish to bring
before you. This oxygen is the agent appointed fiu-
the destruction of all vegetable and animal substances.
Every one of us is undergoing its action. We breathe
it, but we return less of it to the air than we took
from it. Wliat we inhale produces heat, and this is
the reason why your bodies are warmer than the stone
walls around you. Without any very great stretch of
the imagination, or any very forced comparison, your
bodies may be likened to little steam-engines, or black-
smiths' fires. Your lungs operate as a pair of bellows,
your month is the chimney, and the food is the coal.
Your bellows are always going ; if you are prevented
from breatliing for two minutes you will die. Yet, if
it were not for the action of the oxygen on your body,
you could not live; for from its continual consumption |
of the muscles of the body, you derive your physical
energy and power. If you did not eat, what would be
the consequence? Would the bellows cease to work ?
No; they would go on working till every particle of
available fuel (flesh, fat, &c.) was consumed. This
shows that, ifyou take nofood to supply the waste of the
muscles, you must, like a fire, ultimately go out. If
food be withheld, the parts of your body, such as the
fat, the muscles of the cheeks, of the breast, and all
other available parts, would be consumed by the action
of the inspired air before the bellows would cease to
work ; and, lastly, the brain would be attacked, and |
you would die. Now, this always takes place when, by
any means, food is not taken or not properly digested.
On the other hand, if the blacksmith overloads his
fire, and does not blow his bellows euougli, the flame
goes out; and you, if you arc always eating and never
blowing your bellows enough, you are still liable to go
out. You are putting on too many coals, and that is
the reason why I recommend you to enjoy yourselves
at play, without which you can never expect to grow
strong. Our life, and the life of all animals, therefore, I
depend on the action of oxygen and the supply of food. [
When these two are in a state of equilibrium or balance, '.

we are in a state of healih. When either one or the
other are in excess, our normal state of health ceases,
and various maladies ensue, whicli continue until the
cause is removed. Eventually, however, the oxygen
obtains the mastery, and these bodies of ours, like those
of our ancestors, will be overcome by this powerful
agent, and their elements will be returned into the
great laboratory of nature, to furnish the principles of
life and existence to succeeding generations of animated
beings.

All vegetable matters undergo a similar change, and
they also are eventually decomposed, to furnish again
the elements of vegetable life.

All animal and vegetable substances, therefore, unless
preserved in some peculiar manner, are resolved into
their original elements. But, if protected from the
action of oxygen, they may be preserved for an indefi-
nite period of time. Wood is painted to preserve it
from contact with the oxygen of the air, and it thus
lasts much longer. Again, coal is the remains of im-
mense forests of primeval periods, and it has not yet
Ijeen decomposed into its elements. These immense
deposits of vegetable matter were, when deposited,
covered with soft mud, so that the oxygen was pre-
vented from coming in contact with them, and by the
constantly- increasing pressure from superincumbent
deposits, the mud became a rock, and the action of the
oxygen became less and less for each succeeding year.
The consequence is, the mass has been preserved for
an immense period of time.

Animal mattt-r may also be easily preserved out of
contact with air. The finest salmon of Scotland, the
most beautiful soups, game, fowl-i, and fish of all kinds,
are now packed in air-tight tin cases, and can thus be
sent to all parts of the world. The travellers across
the desert of Suez, in their journey to the East Indies,
often enjoy the luxury of fresh Scotch salmon.

Oxygen, then, is one of the most important elements
that we know: everything else yields to it in import-
ance; it is found to pervade all nature ; it is necessary
for the existence of animal life, and is an essential of
vegetable growth ; and, in order that you may be able
to trace its effects, forpracticul purposes,in theeconomy
of the farm, I have endeavoured to explain its proper-
ties and action, not only on vegetables and animals,
but also on many elementary bodies not directly con-
nected with vegetation.

Before I conclude, I shall submit a few interesting
experiments, showing the very powerful affinity which
oxygen lias for some substances, and likesvise the in-
tense heat produced when oxygen and hydrogen gases
are burned together.

Wlicn the two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, are mixed
together in any vessel, a most violent explosion will
take place, on the application of a light. This arises
from an immediate union between the two, and the
vapour of water is the result of the combination. If
you try to cause the mixture to burn silently, like
common gas, by means of a jet, the flame will
immediately retreat through the jet, along the in-
tesior of the pipe, to tlie magazine of the mixed
gases, and a most frightful explosion will be the

694

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result. Mr. Hemming has, indeed, in a measure pre-
vented this, by filling the interior of the brass pipe
through which the mixed gases pass, with thin copper
or brass wire ; but still accidents may very easily arise
in unskilful hands. It is, therefore, much better to
burn the gases by means of the jet contrived by Mr.
Maugham : by this conti'ivance, the gases are only
mixed just as they issue from the mouth of the jet, so
that it is impossible that any explosion should take
place. Each gas is confined in a separate gas-bag,
made of the strongest India-rubber cloth or Mackin-
tosh, and a pressure is given by the application of
weights on the boards which rest upon the bags. I
will now turn the stop-cock connected with the hydro-
gen, and ignite the gas as it issues forth. You will ob-
serve that the flame burns in an irregular manner, and
that its edges are jagged. I will now turn on the
oxygen. Observe the immediate difference : the jagged
edges are at once gone, the flame is now sharp and
pointed. We have in this little flame the most power-
ful heat that chemists can produce.

The most refractory clays, and gems of various kinds,
as the ruby, the sapphire, the amethyst, Sec, melt with
thp greatest ease in this flame. The diamond is imme-
diately dissipated and lost. The metals all burn with
remarkable brilliancy in this flame. I have here a
piece of steel wire. I will introduce it into the flame,
and you will see it immediately melt, and burn with
the most vivid scintillations. I will now turn off the
hydrogen, and allow the oxygen only to play upon the
white hot metal. You perceive the scintillations are
immediately increased, and that the effect is most
brilliant.

Figure 3 represents the combustion of the steel wire
in the jet of oxygen.

Fig. 3.

(Mr. Ncsbit then exhibited the combustion of various
metals, such as zinc, copper, bismuth, tin, lead, anti-
mony, &o. ; the whole of which burned, in the gas, in
the most brilliant manner, at the same time exhibiting
as they burned various and beautiful colours.)

Mr. \esbit tlien proceeded : — The flame of this
bh)W-plpe exhibits very little light, though it produces
so great a development of heat. You may be surprised
at this; but it only requires the presence of some solid

matter to produce the most brilliant light. Gases by
themselves cannot be made to exhibit light. If you
pass common air through red or white hot tubes, the hot
air issuing exhibits no light ; but any solid body im-
mersed in the current becomes red or white hot imme-
diately.

The common candle and gas exhibit their light in
consequence of the particles of solid carbon which exist
in their respective flames.

I will allow the jet of gas to play upon a piece of
common tobacco-pipe. An intense light is immediately
produced, and the pipe is melted, and converted into a
sort of sapphire, which cuts glass with the greatest ease.

If we had any solid substance which could stand the
heat of this flame without melting, we should then be
in possession of the means of making the light continu-
ous. Common lime happens to be a substance so re-
fractory that it withstands very well the action of this
flame.

I will now allow the jet to play upon a cylinder of
lime. The light produced is most intense. The whole
room is illuminated. But perhaps the best insight
into the intensity of the light may be had by observing
that the flame of the candle is actually shadowed
against the wall.

Figure 4 represents the oxy-hydrogen or Drummond
light.

Fig. 4.

<"^BiBpiiiiiiiiiii III III! II I fniiiip'ii<iiiiiyiPiM—&"ii

Tliis light has been proposed to bo used for ligiit-
liouses; and, with proper reflectors, can easily be dis-
tinguished at the distance of twenty or thirty leagues.

Tliough my subject is not half exhausted, I must
ilraw my lecture to a close. I have to thank you fcr
your attention, and I trust you will endeavour to get
practically acquainted, by reading and experiment, with
all the properties of oxygen. Many things wliich I have
found necessary to present in this lecture may app(ar to
you not quite relevant to the subject of agriculture;
but allow me to state, that if at any time you wish to
know tlie real boundaries of a kingdom or a county,
you must constantly have recourse to a point of view
from a neighbouring district;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

TENANT-RIGHT.
BURTON-UPON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB.

We attended a meeting of this Club on Thursday,
April 9, whinh was called for the purpose of discussing
the important subject of Tenant-right. The meeting
was attended by many influential practical farmers.

In the Reporter and Chronicle of the 3d instant, we
published the report of a committee appointed by the
club to make such suggestions on the subject of tenant-
rights as they deemed proper ; to that report certain
resolutions were appended, and afterwards circulated
among the members of the club, with a view to their
being made matter of discussion at a general meeting
which was called for the 9th instant.

Mr. Daniel, in the absence of the president, took
the chair, and called upon the secretary to commence
the proceedings.

Mr. J. D. Greaves read the proceedings of the last
meeting, and a copy of the report and resolutions above
referred to. Mr. Greaves stated that, as the members
of the club were well aware, the attention of the mem-
bers was called, at a former meeting, to a circular which
he received from a Committee of the London Farmers'
Club appointed to investigate the subject of tenant-
rights, wherein it was requested that the Burton-upon-
Trent Club should forward to them such suggestions as
might appear useful in carrying out their object. He
then read a letter received from the Secretary of the
Wingerworth Farmers' Club, stating the views of its
members on the subject ; after which —

The Chairman called upon Mr. Abraham Bass to
open the discussion.

Mr. Bass then rose, and spoke to the following effect :
— As a member of the committee appointed by you to
enquire into the subject of tenant-rights, I feel called
upon to offer a few observations on the suggestions and
resolutions which you have just heard read. I ought,
perhaps, to apologise for interfering in a matter in which
I have no apparent interest, and of which I cannot be
supposed to be a competent judge. Although I am not
a farmer, and, what I much more regret, I am not a
landlord {laughter), many of the farmers belonging
to this club requested me to introduce the subject of the
best mode of tenancy during last year ; because, although
I was not one of them, they gave me credit for having a
very sincere regard for their welfare {Hear, hear). I
shall not pretend to be able to pronounce any decided
opinion as to the best means of carrying out the principle
embodied in the resolutions ; it would require a more
practical acquaintance with agricultural affairs than I
possess, to form a correct judgment on that point ; but
as to the principle itself, that it is both just and expe-
dient for a tenant to have a legal right to receive com-
pensation for improvements, I think 1 may be allowed
to speak with freedom {Hear). I am not, indeed,

quite sure that a person not immediately interested in
the question is not full as likely to come to a sound con-
clusion on the subject as a farmer or a landlord ; more
especially if it be one who, like myself, has something to
do with the business of both {Hear). It must be
obvious to every one that within the last few years many
circumstances have occurred to place landlords and far-
mers in a difl'erent position towards each other than they
used to stand in. The landlords, as a body, are not
now-a-days willing to let their land at less than its real
value, in order to secure the many services which used
to be required of their tenants under the feudal system,
a system under which the whole of the land in this
country was for many centuries held. It is now nearly
abolished. When not a remnant of its practice or spirit
prevails, so much the better will it be for the best inte-
rests of both landlords and tenants. It is generally
admitted, and I don't think it will be denied, at least
by farmers, that I'ents are full as high as tenants can
afford to pay (Hear, hear). Agriculture, as Lord
Francis Egerton has well observed, is a species of
manufacture, of which the land forms the machinery,
and this machinery the landlord lets to the tenant at the
price it will fetch in the market. If this machine is
lessened in value whilst in possession of the tenant, it
seems but reasonable that he should make up the damage
it has received, and in such a case the law does give
compensation, and the landlord has a power to recover
for dilapidations. On the other hand, if the machine
(the land) be improved by the tenant, so as to be worth
more to rent to the next possessor, is it not equally
reasonable that the landlord should pay a compensation
for such improvement ? (Hear, hear). Now, in the
latter case, the law falls short of the desired end, and
does not give a legal right to the tenant to recover for
improvements {Hear, hear). There is always, I admit,
an implied engagement to leave the land in possession of
the tenant without increase of rent, until he has had time
to reap the benefit of whatever outlay he has incurred in
improving the land ; but I boldly appeal to the general
body of farmers, and ask them, whether improving
tenants, compelled from the force of circumstances to
quit their farms before they had time to reap the benefit
of their improvements, ever do receive fair compensation
for them? {Hear, hear). When a tenant leaves his
farm, it is generally under circumstances which do not
conciliate towards him the good will of his landlord or
his agents, and his claims are, therefore, considered in a
spirit which is seldom the most friendly. It is a common
remark among farmers, that everything is denied to an
out-going, and everything granted to an in-coming
tenant ; and the effects of " before and after," so often
experienced in the different relations of life, nowhere

526

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

meets with a more marked illustration than in the cases
of "in-coming" and "off-going" tenants {Hear, hear).
Now, what tenant can feel safe that he shall not be
obliged to quit his farm, or that his landlord will grant
him compensation when he does quit it ? He may have
0 perfect trust in his landlord's character, but can he
be safe that his successor will resemble him ; and how
can he tell how soon his landlord may die, or sell his
estate ? It may be convenient for the tenant to quit
his farm ; he may fall into misfortune and be obliged to
quit ; he may offend his landlord ; or he, too, may die.
Numerous other causes leading to doubt and uncertainty
could be named without any great stretch of ingenuity,
but it would be useless to weary you with them. Is it
to be wondered at, therefore, that the general body of
tenants are become impressed with the idea that some
stronger guarantee of their equitable claims is necessary
to their prosperity ? The state of agriculture is chang-
ing every year, and new modes of culture are discovered
by which land may be made to grow a larger amount of
produce, and at a less expense, than is possible until
these new means are tried. The farmer who adheres to
the old system is brought into competition with others
who have abandoned it, and his profits are every year
becoming less. To enable him to keep pace with the
forward movement, he must begin by investing addi-
tional capital on his land. Without reckoning such
improvements as draining, the merely increasing the
fertile power of the soil by manures caunot be done
without considerable outlay. Without a stronger gua-
rantee than he now has, the tenant-at-will cannot pru-
dently incur a large outlay, and without such outlay he
cannot prosper {Hear, hear). If the evil be admitted,
we should seek a remedy. It is said that the relation
between landlord and tenant is a matter which nobody
else has a right to interfere with, and tliat legislative
interference would destroy the good feeling between
them. I cannot agree with this objection, and I believe
nothing would so much tend to improve the good feeling
of tenants towards their landlords, as the knowledge
that they could receive nothing but benefits at their
hands (Hear, hear) . That kind of feeling which arises
from a fear lest injury should be done to him, it does
not appear advantageous to the landlord to cultivate in
the tenant. There is no tie so binding as that of mutual
self-interest {applavse). As a friend of mine, known
to many of you, once said to me — " Self-interest is the
only true perpetual motion ; it is a machine that never
wants winding-up" {laughter avd cheers). It may he
said that injustice would be done to the landlord if he
were compelled to pay for improvements of his land,
when perhaps he might have no desire to have his land
improved. In such a case, if the law gave the tenant
a power of recovering compensation, the landlord might
modify the law by any kind of agreement which he chose
to exact before the tenant entered on the land. The
only difference would be, that whereas now it requires a
special agreement to give a tenant any kind of compen-
sation for improvement, it would then require a special
agreement to prevent him from claiming what the law
should say was his just right. At present there is a law
which gives the landlord compensation for damage, but

which gives nothing to the tenant for improvement
(Cries of ^^ Hear, hear"). In this arrangement there
is evidently a kind of Irish reciprocity which cannot be
too soon done away with {Hear, hear). If the inter-
ference of the law is good for the landlord, why not
extend its benefits to the tenant ? {cheers) . If it be
not just to extend the law to compensate the tenant,
repeal that law now in favour of the landlord, and then
the dependence on good feeling or implied arrangements
would be mutual, or the i-ecourse to special agreements
would be essential (cheers renewed). The longer I
attend to the subject, the more I become convinced that
the many impediments to proper agreements between
landlords and tenants will not be overcome, except by
giving the tenants a legal claim where there is no special
agreement. There are impediments on both sides.
Though many landlords are desirous of having their
land highly fanned by their tenants, and are willing to
give secui-ity for the capital invested in improvements,
yet there are too many who are careless, or even averse
to putting the tenant in an independent position. On the
other hand, there are many tenants too timid to under-
take leases, and many others occupying small farms with
small means to whom it would not be advisable to grant
them. Nothing but agreements from year to year, with
clauses providing for compensation for improvements,
would be accepted by this numerous class of tenants. I
feel no doubt that thegreatbody of farmers would rejoice
in attaining a legislative provision for compensation, and
I must confess my inability to see any reasonable objec-
tion on the part of the landlord to such a measure. If a
landlord tempts a tenant to improve his land, he incurs
a moral obligation to take no advantage of him (Hear,
hear). What possible objection then can he urge, if the
law should compel his successor to give what he would
willingly have granted ? But, as I have said before,
whatever the law may be, it will always be in the power
of the landlord to declare by a special agreement whether
he would compensate for any improvements, and the
tenant would then know what he was trusting to, and
would act accordingly. A legal title to improvements
is no novelty in legislation. If a tradesman erect
buildings for the purposes of trade, they are his own.
He may either remove them, or sell them to his land-
lord, or to the tenant who succeeds him. But the im-
provements of a tenant of land cannot be removed ; yet
they differ from buildings erected for purj)Oses of trade
in this respect : in the case of trade buildings, a landlord
might not find another tenant to pay an increased rent
for the money laid out, and therefore it is but just that
the tenant should have the power of removal rather than
a power to compel the landlord to take to them at a
valuation. But it is not possible to conceive a case
where increase of the productive power of land does not
also increase in like proportion to its renting value.
Now, as the new value given to the land cannot be taken
away by the tenant, what possible reason can exist why
the tenant should not enjoy a claim to be paid for it .'
Can any one give a good reason why farm buildings
erected by the tenant should not either be removed or
paid for like trade buildings ? If their erection has
increased their renting value, the tenant should have

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

527

compensation or the power of removing them. I have
observed that in the discussion of this subject at the
London Farmers' Club, none of the eminent farmers
who spoke seemed to have any doubt that a just valua-
tion of tenants' rights could always be made by compe-
tent land valuers. If a farmer has a beneficial interest
in a lease, and is at liberty to dispose of it to anotlier,
there is never any difficulty in estimating its worth ; and
in what does this case differ from that of a tenant leaving
unenjoyed improvements in a farm lield at will ? (Hear).
I do not think there will be any dispute about the prin-
ciple which should be observed in making the valuation,
and that the principle embodied in the report that has
been this evening read here is the proper one, namely,
that a tenant should have what an intelligent farmer
would have required as a matter of bargain. As the
circumstances vary in every district, and almost on every
farm, I do not think any fiiir valuation can be made
unless the arbitrator has the power of awarding compen •
sation according to the peculiar circumstances of each
case. It seems to me that the whole subject relating to
the mutual claims of the off-going and in-coming tenants,
and of the landlord, requires a thorough revisal by the
legislature. In claims of the landlord for dilapidation,
or for which the tenant claims remuneration, the custom
of the country is followed ; and this custom varies in
almost every county, and is, more or less, in all, at vari-
ance with the present state of knowledge of agriculture
{Hear, hear). The amount of compensation is never
that which an intelligent valuer, estimating the worth of
a tenant's improvements, or the damage caused by his
negligence, according to his own standard of what is
fair, would arrive at. I should be very reluctant to
attempt to excite any ill-feeling towards landlords. I
think them, as a body, a class of men of which this great
nation has every reason to be proud. It is not the men
I complain of — it is the system {Hear, hear) ; and there
is not a farmer, placed in the same circumstances, who
would not have acted in the same manner as they have
done (a laugh). It is for placing checks upon the infir
mities of our nature which I advocate {Hear-, hear).
We are told not to trust in princes, nor in any man.
What man can trust himself ? I could not ; and there
is nothing so calculated to place us out of temptation as a
fair and clear definition of our mutual rights {cheers).
If I were a landlord, I should be so afi-aid of being a
hard one, that I would bind myself in writing to be a
good one {cheers and laughter). If any wealthy indi-
vidual will make the experiment and give me a large
estate (laughter), I will at once enter into a written
agreement to give my tenants long and liberal leases at
corn rents, and then we shall fairly row in the same boat
{cheers). Not in a boat with a nice snug warm cabin
for myself to retreat to, whilst ray tenants and fellow-
voyagers were outside passengers, exposed above to the
storms and tempests ; but we would share sunshine and
rain, fair and foul weather together, and I have no doubt
that our joint efforts would then bring our vessel and
cargo prosperously and safely into port (applausej.
Mr. A. Bass concluded by moving the subjoined resolu-
tions : — ■

" That the Burtou-ou-Treut Farmers' Club is of opiniou
that a tenant of laud, from year to year, ought to enjoy a legal
claim to compensation for such improvements as he shall have
made during liis tenancy, and for wlik-h he shall not have
recei^■ed the whole benefit which he is fairly entitled to claim.

" That the tenant has under a tenancy-at-\vill a fair claim to
the enjoyment of his iniprovenients for as long a period as a
good farmer would require if the length of his occupancy were
made a matter of agreement beforehand.

"lliat impartial arbitrators chosen mutually by the landlord
and tenant woidd witliout difficulty form a correct estimate aj
to what belonged to the tenant on this principle of adjustment.

" That it appears to the club to he advisable for the general
body of farmers to join in petitioning tlic legislature to make
a law which would give to the tenant a legal right to recover
from the landlord such compensation for improvement* made
by him as impartial and competent arbitrators would decide
to be his equitable right."'

The Chairm.\n requested Mr. Chawner to favour
the club with his sentiments.

Mr. Richard Chawxer (of Wall, near Lichfield)
was the next .speaker. He said, in effect, as follows : — ■
Mr. President and Gentlemen — I have much pleasure,
as a member of this club, in as.=!isting at a discussion on
a subject so important and so happily timed as tenant-
right.s. Howeve.' numerous and important the subjects
proper for us to discuss, the present one ought, in my
opinion, to take precedence of all others {Hear, hear).
We come prepared in some degree to consider this sub-
ject, by the excellent report which the committee has
circulated amongst the members. I must, however,
make one objection to that report ; and the same objec-
tion will apply to the manner in which this subject is
generally discussed. It is placed on too narrow a basis.
Tenant-rights should not only include the relations of
landlord and tenant, but should recognise the responsi-
bility of the tenant to the consumer — the public at
large. Every man to whom a portion of the soil of
this country is allotted for cultivation undertakes to
apply sufficient capital and skill to enable that soil to
yield its utmost increase. This, at least, is the obliga-
tion upon him. Some may think these observations
irrelevant ; but reflect for a moment upon the present
position of the tenant-farmer. We are told, and pro.
perly so, to call no longer upon Jupiter, but to put our
shoulders to the wheel. Is not this time the time to
discuss our present subject— tenant-rights ? for unless
the position of the tenant be secure and satisfactory, it
is vain to call upon him to expend his capital and skill
in the cultivation of tlie soil {Hear, hear). In discuss-
ing this subject, I shall endeavour to keep this principle
in view, namely, the responsibility of the tenant not
only to the landlord but to the consumer— in other
words, the good cultivation of the soil. If the farmer
be (according to the authority of Lord F. Egerton) one
of the highest order of manufacturers, he must of ne-
cessity consider his citstomer— the coyisumer. In what
position, then, ought the tenant to be placed ? First of
all he requires security of tenure {Hear, hear). He
must have the security of a lease for j'ears, say twenty-
one, renewable every seven with the consent of the
contracting parties. A long connexion with College

628

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

property has satisfied me upon this point. No prudent
man will expend his capital — no skilful man can have
the opportunity of carrying out his projected improve-
ments (the result frequently requiring years for its deve-
lopment) unless he be insured in the possession of his
farm for a certain term of years (cries of " Hear,
hear"). The next point of importance relates to the
conditions of the tenure, the covenants in the lease ;
and here the same principle must be kept steadily in
view, namely, the good cultivation of the soil. This
may be called the landlord's right ; and in order to se-
cure it he should have the power of entering by himself
or agent to inspect the state of cultivation, and of re-
ferring any question of dilapidation or neglect of the
rules of good husbandry to competent and impartial
authority Ci/earJ. The schedule which should be ap-
pended to every lease, containing the system and state
of cultivation of the farm, would be a very sufficient
guide to any competent arbitrator between the parties.
In addition to the respectability and capital of the
tenant, the ever-ruling principle of self-interest is a
security to the landlord ; for it is notorious that in the
good cultivation of the soil, and in that only, can the
tenant hope for any adequate return for the expenditure
of his capital and labour (Hear, hear). On the other
hand, the tenant ought to be allowed the uncontrolled
power over his own skill and capital : he must be al-
lowed to cultivate his farm as he thinks proper {Hear,
hear). We talk of confidence in landlords ; but where
is the confidence in the tenant, who is required to cul-
tivate his farm according to a certain and unvarying
system, to jnirsue the same course of cropping under
all circumstances ? {Hear, hear.) We have but to re-
flect upon our changeful climate, our " weeping skies,"
the change in markets, the facility of procuring manures
suitable for certain crops, to be convinced at once of
the absurdity of the present system (Hear, hear) . And
here I would ask those objectors to the ignorance of
the English farmers to reflect upon the restrictions and
difficulties under which the tenant-farmer has hitherto
pursued his useful avocations. And now, gentlemen, I
would gladly pause, but that it is necessary to consider
that worst of all tenures, tenancy-at-will (Hear, hear).
Unfortunately there are cMrcumstances under which this
system will be continued : I deeply regret it ; because
the soil never can be cultivated according to its capa-
bilities under such a system of tenure (Hear, hear)-
Some members of our club may consider that 1 lay too
much stress upon the good cultivation of the soil ; but
I ask you to contrast well-cultivated districts with neg-
lected ones. Compare Lincolnshire and parts of Nor-
folk with Wilts and Dorsetshire. In the former case it
is well with all interests — the owner, the occupier, and
the labourer ; but in the latter how true, miserably
true, is the reverse ! The unsatisfactory state of tenant-
rights may be illustrated by what takes place in courts
of law. Evidence is produced for the plaintiff" as to
the custom of the country : equally respectable is the
evidence for the defendant ; but how conflicting, how
totally opposed each to the other ! The learned judge,
in despair, declares there is no law in the case ; it must
be referred ; and it is — to a gentleman as remarkable

for his impartiality as for his total ignorance of the
subject in dispute {cheers and laughter). Can it be
said then, gentlemen, that tenant-rights are now upon a
satisfactory basis.' (No.) If this miserable system of
tenancy-at-will must be continued, I would venture to
make a suggestion, which if it please neither landlord
nor tenant, may at least protect the soil. It is this —
As the off-going tenant seeks to do as little as possible
for the farm which he quits, so the on-coming tenant
schemes to pay as little as possible, and the soil («. e., the
consumer) suffiers ; and, as every practical man knows,
the farm where the tenant is frequently changed requires
a constant increase of capital to restore its cultivation,
" to stay the plague," I would place the landlord as the
in-coming tenant. Let him pay the q^-going tenant
liberally for his cultivation up to the end of his term,
and tlien charge the outlay upon the succeeding tenant
in the shape of rent. The tenant will thus have his
capital in hand to proceed at once with the cultivation
of his farm (Hear). And here I would ask you to con-
sider the diff"erence of entering upon a farm in a good
state of cultivation, and one in a dilapidated condition.
I have trespassed too long upon your attention. The
importance of the subject must be my excuse. It must
be sifted to the botton ; it must be discussed at every
farmer's club — aye, and at every market table in Eng-
land {cheers). We take no selfish view of tenant-
rights ; we desire, above all things, the good cultivation
of the soil. If we succeed in placing tenant-rights upon
a secure basis, we shall equally protect the rights of
landlords, and promote to the utmost of our ability the
prosperity of the land we live in {much applause).

Mr. WoRTHiNGTON having been called upon, said he
agreed with every word of the resolutions. In his
opinion nothing was more unjust than that the landlord
should have power to come upon the tenant for dilapi-
dations, and the tenant should have no power to en-
force a consideration from the landlord for improve-
ments (Hear, hear). He (Mr. W.) was an Englishman,
and as such was an enemy of injustice {Hear, hear).
" Sauce for the goose, sauce for tlie gander ;" but in a
general way he thought the landlord got both goose and
gander {laughter and " Hear, hear''). He was aware
that many landlords were disposed to act fairly, but
then they should be bound to do so in all cases, and
have no unjust privileges (Hear, hear). A law ought
to be made to place the rights of landlord and tenant
on an equality (Hear, hear).

Mr. GovAN coincided with the views that had been
expressed by Mr. Worthington and other gentlemen.
He hoped to see the day when landlord and tenant
would be placed on a footing of equality. He never yet
saw an agreement that he was disposed to sign, because
agreements were generally all on one side (Hear, hear) ;
and he was satisfied that the day was about to dawn
when one-sided things could exist no longer {cheers).
He thought the club had done wisely and well in taking
up the subject ; and he would only add, that he trusted
it would lead to a favourable issue {Hear).

Mr. C. Stokes (of Kingston, near Loughborough,
who attended the club for the purpose of hearing the
discussion) was next called upon. He said he had

THE FxVRMER'S MAGAZINE.

pleaEure in having an opportunity of attending on tlie
present occasion to hear the discussion upon the subject
of tenant-rights, having had considerable experience in
valuations of this description. He had invariably found,
where the land was in a state of good cultivation, the
tenant, upon quitting his farm, had been injured by
leaving his unexhausted capital (for which the custom
of the country allows him no claim) for the benefit of
those who succeed him {Hear, hear). It is, therefore,
impossible to expect that tenants from year to year will
expend their money in improving their farms, unless
security is given to them for a fair valuation of the im-
provements they have made when they quit them (Hear,
hear). What has produced the superior farming in
Norfolk and Scotland but the farms having been let
under lease for fourteen or twenty-one years, thereby
inducing men of capital and skill to embark in agricul-
tural pursuits ? (Hear). Mr. Pusey is of opinion that
the best farming in this country is in the county of
Lincoln, under liberal tenant-rights, binding the tenants
to a certain mode of management in applying bones,
&c., &c., and the landloi-ds to repay them a fair propor
tion of that from which they have not received the
benefit when they leave their farms (Hear, hear). This
question was asked a tenant, whose farm was in a high
state of cultivation — "Will you accept a lease for
twenty-one years, and leave your farm in as high a
state of cultivation as it is at the present time?" to
which he replied that he would not, as he should
be injuring his family by leaving several hundreds of
pounds upon his farm for which he could claim no com-
pensation under a lease ; and therefore he (Mr. Stokes)
could not agree with Mr. Chawner that leases were in
all cases the best system of letting land. The land let
under lease is generally reduced to the same state as it
was at the commencement ; and this he thought was the
reason why the farming of Lincolnshire had surpassed
that of Norfolk and Scotland. In conclusion, Mr.
Stokes said, it is desirable that this subject should be
discussed with the greatest respect to the landowners,
and that nothing should be said or done which will pre-
vent them uniting with the occupiers in producing im-
proved agreements between them, their interests being
inseparable (applause) .

Mr. Pratt, Mr. Dicken, Mr. Faulkner, Mr.
Cope, and other members expressed briefly their cordial
concurrence in the resolutions.

Mr. Aruen had experienced great satisfaction in lis-
tening to the excellent addresses that had been given,
and fully concurred in the resolutions.

Mr. George Gre.wes said— I ought, perhaps, to
make an apology for venturing to take part in this dis-
cussion ; we who are not farmers may seem not t© have
any title to interfere in it. I cannot, however, help
offering my congratulations to the club on the ground
they have taken in reference to this important subject of
tenant-rights. I have viewed witli great pleasure the
progress of the movement towards a better system of
farming ; but much as I rejoice in our advance in the
practice of farming, I am much more pleased to see that
the farmers are likely to win for themselves a better and

more independent position. At present the question of
tenant-rights is a novel one, and there does not prevail
an apparent unanimity of sentiment with regard to it
among farmers. But I believe this want of unanimity
is only apparent. All want to have an assurance that
the capital they invest in improvements will not be lost
to them — but they differ about the means of ettecting
their object. It is thought by some that the tenants
should have by law a lengthened tenure of the land ;
but though I am sure that long leases are best for the
landlord and tenant, I do not see how they could be en-
forced by law without unjustifiable interference with tlie
rights of property. The utmost extent we can go to
seems to be, to give a tenant a legal right to compensa-
tion for improvements when no special covenant is
entered into (Hear, hear). A law declaring the tenant
to be entitled to just compensation for unexhausted im-
provements would at once effect more than would be
effected by fifty years' agitation of the subject by far-
mers (Hear, hear) . I am not prepared to deny that
the common system of tenancy-at-will is favourable
to a certain class of tenants where they hold land under
the best landlords ; but I take the liberty to say that it
is only in the case of the best landlords and the worst
tenants that it is the most favoui-able (Hear, hear). I
have conversed with a good many people on the ques-
tion, and I have never met with one who did not
acknowledge that a tenant ought to have compensation
on leaving his farm, provided it could be done without
doing injustice to the landlord (Hear). This seems to
me to be the only question — Can the tenants' rights be
fairly ascertained ? I have not the least doubt that
they can ; and I agree with the report of our committee
that this can only be done by a valuation made by arbi-
trators having a discretionary power to award compen-
sation according to the particular circumstances under
which the improvements have been made (Hear). It
is sometimes said that a tenant's permanent improve-
ments alone ought to be allowed for ; but as the report
of our committee very justly argues, all improvements
are more or less permanent, for there are none for which
the tenant is immediately repaid. If a tenant took land
for two or three years, would he expend money in ma-
nures, or lay part of it down to grass, or subsoil it, or
even give it a thorough cleaning .' The tenant has just
as good a claim to compensation for such improvements
as he has for buildings erected, or for drains laid in the
soil. In one respect I think the report of the com-
mittee falls short of what is required to insure good
farming in all cases. It only recommends compensa-
tion in the case of tenancy from year to year ; but it
was very properly remarked at the London Farmers'
Club, that in the case of a lease farmers were obliged to
remit their improvements towards its termination, and
get back all which they could, and thus injuring the
land and tlieir landlords ; while if they were allowed for
improvements made during the latter part of the lease,
the interests of all would be better cared for. By the
law, as it now is, the landlord can recover for dilapida-
tion of his land; but everybody acquainted with farm-
ing must be aware how very unequally and unjustly the

530

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

law operates. A tenant may have improved his laud to
the amount of many hundreds of pounds ; but if he has
omitted to crop a single field according to the custom
of the country, or has failed to repair a barn, or clean a
ditch, or mend a fence, his landlord may recover from
him ; although, if a fair balance were struck, a large
compensation would be due to the party who was ac-
tually obliged to pay it (Hear, hear). Whatever
objections may be made to any of the plans of esti-
mating the mutual claims of landlord and tenant, none
can certainly be so bad as the present system {applause).

Other Members gave in their concurrence ; and the
feeling in favour of the resolutions was quite unani-
mous.

Mr. A. Bass, in answer to Mr. Chawner, remarked
that the question as to the best mode of tenure was de-
cided by the club long ago in favour of long leases.
The sole object of the meeting that night was to take

some specific act, and to coalesce with other clubs in
petitioning the legislature to place the tenant on an
equal footing with his landlord. For himself, he was
of opinion that the whole law of landlord and tenant
required revisal (Hear, hear).

Tiie Chairman then put the resolutions, and every
hand was held up in favour.

Mr. Chawner suggested the propriety of sending
a formal notice to the landlords of the district, inform-
ing them of the decision of the club, and requesting
their co-operation in petitioning the legislature. He
had heard many landlords express themselves favourably
to the resolutions.

Mr. A. Bass remarked that they were, in fact, a club
of landlords and tenants.

The suggestion was agreed to. It was ordered that
petitions be prepared for signature, and the meeting
broke up. — Derbyshire Reporter.

THE POTATO DISEASE.

Sir, — The subjoined extracts from a letter recently
received by me from a gentleman (J. E. Teschemacher,
Esq., of Boston, Massachusetts, United States of Ame-
rica), whose practical experience, as well as scientific
attainments as a botanist and chemist, entitle him to the
highest respect, seem to me of such great importance,
that I beg leave to place them at your disposal.

Respectfully, your obedient servant,

56, Charing 'Cross, Henry Colman.

April 20.

'^Boston, March 25, 1846.

" You are aware that, in the winter of 1844, I pro-
mulgated my views on the potato rot and the remedies
for it. I have heard of many cases which supported
these views, and although T have sought diligently, I
have not heard of a single one where the remedies sug-
gested were tried without effect; but, except in the follow-
ing two cases, I have not been able to obtain such minute
and authentic details as would warrant me in giving
them general publicity. The first case is that of Levi
Bartlett, of Wamer, New Hampshire, whom you well
know as a most straightforward, respectable, and intel-
ligent farmer in that section. He informs me that he
suffered very much by the potato rot in 1844. In 1S45
he manured as usual ; cut out all the sound pieces he
could pick from his rotten potatoes, and planted them.
Having read Mr. Teschemacher's articles on the causes
and remedy for this disease, he made a mixture of e(j[ual
parts of lime, salt, and ashes ; at the first hoeing, when
the plants were a few inches high, he put a large ladle-
full of this mixture to each hill, and incorporated it
thoroughly with the soil, which is light and stony, from
a granite disintegration. He has not had, until the pre-
sent time (March, 1846), twenty rotten potatoes in the
whole crop ; most of his neighbours have lost the greater
part of their potatoes by the disease. He attributes his
escape to the mixture above applied.

" The second case is that of Matthew Green, of Rox-
bury, a most honourable and intelligent man. In 1844
he bought very cheap a quantity of damaged glauber
salts, and, as matter of experiment, advised to try it.
His account is as follows : —

" ' West Ronhury , March 17.

'* ' My potatoes the last year (1845) were planted the
24th of April, upon ground (a little more than an acre)
naturally wet and springy, but which I had thorouglily
drained the year previous— a good soil, but very full of
small stones. The manure was taken from the barn-
yard, long and unrotted, and dropped by the fork m the
furrows ; the sets were taken from good potatoes, cut
in halves, and, after being rolled in ground plaster, were
dropped upon the manure, two in each hill, and the
hills were made three feet apart each way. A sharp
frost, on the night of the 24th of May, cut the tops all
down. On the 9th of June, at the first hoeing, I ap-
plied a very large tablespoon-full of glauber salts and
air-slacked lime, mixed in equal parts, to each plant; and
this was immediately covered up with the hoe. The
season will be long remembered as a very dry one, and
I obtained only ninety-eight bushels from the piece ;
but, although the quantity was small, the quality was
remarkably good, as you may satisfy yourself from the
sample I send you. They were kept shaded from the
sun as much as possible while being dug, and have been
kept in a bin, in my vegetable cellar, out of the way of
frost. The rot has been prevalent in my neighbourhood,
and of the crop in the next field a large proportion has
been lost.' [Does this show atmospheric influence ? —
J. E. T.] ' As it was owing to your suggestion that I
first used the salt, I should have given you the result be-
fore, but I thought it most prudent to wait until the case
was placed beyond doubt.'

" I think it not improbable that this disease may be

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

631

exhausted, and not again appear ; but when I call to
mind the small fungus which, as you know, has for
years infested and destroyed the St. Michael's pear, I
should be unwilling to act on that idea, when so simple
a remedy as salt and lime would seem to be effectual.
If this information be promulgated without delay, I
think it may decide many on your side of the water to
apply the remedy. I have now spent much time, for
two years, examining this disease, and should certainly
change my opinion immediately if I could find it wrong.
I have not the least doubt that the cause of this disease

is the vegetation and propagation of a minute fungus
on the walls of the cells of the potato near its stem —
that it first attacks the stem, and passes down into the
tube — that the spoxes of this fungus are tiom dissemi-
nated generally throughout the atmosphere and on soils,
and that the only remedy is to render the potato unfa-
vourable to their germination by the application of salt,
lime, and various chemical salts : of the effect of this
remedy I have seen reported several examples, and the
two preceding ones have finally fixed my opinion."
— Morning Chronicle.

ON THE UTILITY OF MOLES.

Sir, — Some few years since, I sent to the Pennij
Magazine tlie result of Bome observations and ex-
periments I had made on the usefulness of moles,
which the editor very kindly inserted, and I had
the satisfaction of seeing copied into many other
publications. I promised also, at the same time, to
write again on the subject, should I obtain any ad-
ditional or confirmatory information : but as that
periodical has now ceased to exist, I should be
obhged if you would do me the same favour, and
insert this letter in the Farmer's Magazine. I am
the more anxious for you to do this, because by
that means it will be read by the gentlemen of the
Great Oakley Farmers' Clul), of which I myself am
a member, and several of ^^'hom have adopted my
views.

In the communication to which I have alluded I
shewed, and I think satisfactorily, to many the
folly and M-anton cruelty of destroying irrational
living creatures without previously having endea-
voured to ascertain for what purpose they were
created, being convinced myself that " nothing
was made in vain ;" but I confined my objections
chiefly to tlie destruction of moles. Without, I trust,
being an enthusiast in a wrong sense, I will observe
that I myself kill nothing, not even what is called ver-
min, but rats and mice ; and even them I should
not have occasion to destroy, if my neighbours
would leave things as God had made them, and
not kill polecats, weasels, hawks, and owls. But
then they tell me that these things are ^•ermin,
and if they did not destroy them, they would eat up
their poultry and game. To some extent this ex-
cuse may seem to l)e tenable, and I will give them
the full benefit of it; I will grant that polecats,
weasels, and hawks, at least, are fond of ducklings,
chickens, and game : but I can give examjjles of
individual farms at which rats and mice in a single
year have done more injury than the profits of all
the poultry yards in my parish would repay in
twenty ; but rats are as fond of young chickens as

the most voracious polecats, and the very last brood
of ducks I ever had was carried away by them; in-
deed, they are truly vermin, and nothing comes
amiss to them from an egg to a gosling.

But two years ago, I had a stack of wheat which I
could not thrash out for want of barn room ; it
i)ecame full of mice, so much so, that it stunk of
them all over my premises, and with all my efforts
I could not destroy them. But one evening I
caught a fresh servant-man I had, lying in a ditch,
near the stack of wheat, Avith a gun before him ;
and on m.y asking him \\'hat he was about to do
with it, he said he had seen two "mouse-hunters"
(weasels) about tlie stack, and he was trying to
shoot them, as they were always killed where he
lived before he came to me. I, of course, took
the instrument of death from him, and locked it up.
Some time aftenvards I took the stack down : it
exhibited sad havoc and destruction, the middle
being all eaten a\\'ay ; but two li^-e mice at the ^-ery
bottom alone M'ere fovmd, but tliere were several
dead ones, and several dead Ijirds, whicli thcAveasels
had killed, and carried in, but not eaten ; so com-
pletely had the weasels done their work !

But my object in troubling you is to write about
moles. Prior to my coming to reside in my parish,
the land I occujiy had been for many years in the
occupation of a \ery old man, who, like most
others, was a determined enemy to every living
creature of which he, in his ignorance, could not
discover the benefit ; but especially his enmity, or
rather ignorance was directed against moles. In
my barn, as a kind of heir-looin, hung a bundle of
mole traps, which I at once consigned to the fire;
then came the mole-catcher for his salary, as he
caught my moles, he said, by tlie year. I paid him
his money, and made him stare like a lunatic when
I told him, rather than kill them, he would do me
a favour if he would bring me a cart load of live
moles, and turn them down in my fields. But my
fields, being near a village where rooks could not

532

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

come, swarmed with ware-worms : every year one-
third of my crops were quite destroyed by wire-
worms, and sometimes much more ; one long nar-
row field surrounded with trees was nearly useless
from them. But at length relief came ; 1 had long
hoped to see my favourites the mole-heaps, and at
length, as if by a simultaneous agreement, that
little long field was full of moles, which set-to
manfully upon the destroyers of my crops, and
after some time completely destroyed them. They
then passed over into my next field, one-third of
which had been worse than useless to me from the
same destroying pests, even since I had had it ; but
these in their turn shared the fate of the others. I
now verily believe I ha^e not a wire-worm in my
fields ; and as the moles have entirely done their
work unsohcited, they have gone off to my neigh-
bours with the same good intentions to them as
they had to me ; but I fear their fate with them will
be different to what it was with me : whilst with me,
it was delightful to see their works in those parts
of my fields where their presence was Avanted :
where there were worms, and where my crops were
destroyed, there were the moles at work ; and where
there were no wire-worms, there were no mole-
hills.

And now to the excuses which farmers make for
destroying them. Tlie first of these is, that the
mole-hills look unsightly ; and the second, that
the moles injure the crops. Now, as to the unsight-
hness, I wish farmers had nothing more unsightly
than mole-hills ; to see all the essence of their ma-
nure heaps running down ditches into the nearest
brooks, is a thousand times more unsightly to me
than a whole field full of mole-hills. And as to the in-
jury that moles do to corn, I can affirm positively
that they do none whatever. I have had a field of
wheat full of moles all the year, without doing it
the least possible injury ; but on the contraiy, I
verily believe that up to harvest they did my crop
good. Again, it is said that moles eat the seed-
corn ; but this again is a mistake, for I have ex-
amined the stomachs of semes, but never foimd a
single grain of corn in one of them.

It is said, and I believe on good authority, that
60,000 bushels of seed-corn are annually destroyed
in this country by wire-worms ; how absurd, there-
fore, is it to bowstring moles, which are evidently
designed by a wise and kind Providence to keep
them down ! Last year I had one of the finest
crops of wheat in this neighbourhood, in a field
which but for my moles would not have been two-
tliirds of a crop ; and this year I have the finest
l)Ossible appearance for a crop in the aforesaid small
field, which years ago, when full of wireworms,
would have been nearly destroyed. But should
any of my neighbours still be sceptical, I hope they

will examine my fields : and should any strangers
be so, I hope they will make the same trials for
themselves as I have, and be convinced.

In conclusion, Mr. Editor, I wish further to add,
for the information of horticulturists, that ants live
upon the aphis, or American bug, and therefore
that it is nearly as great a want of wisdom to ir-
radicate ants from orchards as it is to kill the moles
in fields.

I am, sir, your obedient and humble servant,

Geo. AVilkins.

Farsoiiage, Wix, near Manmnytree,
April 22, 1846,

PARLIAxMENTARY PAPERS.

HOUSE OV LORDS.

Whkat and Flour. — A return of the quantities
of wheat and wheat-flour imported, exported, and re-
tained foi" home consumption during each year from
1815 to 1815, inclusive; also the quantity remaining in
bond at the close of 1845 ; and the annual average
prices of wheat for the same period. The following is an
abstract of the results : —

Retained
AveraRe for home

Years. price Iinportetl. Exported. uonsiiinp-

per qr. tioii.

s. d. qrs. qrs. qrs.

1815 ...63 8 384,475 227,947 116,382

1816 76 2 332,491 121,611 225,263

1817 94 0 1,089,955 317,524 1,024,443

1818 83 8 1,694,261 58,668 1,596,511

1819 72 3 625,638 44,689 122,000

1820 65 10 996,479 94,657 34,275

1821 54 5 707,385 199,846 9

1822 43 3 510,602 160,499 2

1823 51 9 424,019 145,951 12,137

1824 62 0 441,591 61,680 15,778

1825 66 6 787,606 38,796 525,231

1826 56 11 897,127 20,054 315,892

1827 ,56 9 711,868 57,323 572,705

1828 60 5 1,410,300 76,489 841,828

1829 66 3 2,190,095 75,097 1,363,847

1830 64 3 2,205,751 37,149 1,700,548

1831 66 4 2,867,860 65,875 1,487,807

1832 58 8 1,254,351 289,558 375,788

1833 52 11 1,166,457 96,212 83,691

1834 46 2 981,486 159,482 64,552

1835 39 4 750,808 134,076 27,525

1836 48 6 861,156 256,978 30,096

1837 55 10 1,109,492 308,420 242,593

1838 64 7 1,923,400 158,621 1,821,151

1839 70 8 3,110,729 42,512 2,652,552

1840 66 4 2,526,645 87,242 2,284,522

1841 64 4 2,910,263 30,390 2.515,597

1842 57 3 3,118,833 68,047 2,826,156

1843 50 1 1,482,988 71,236 965,289

1844.. 51 3 1,761,031 80,800 951,882

1845 55 10 1,912,674 64,961 308,492

The quantity of which remaining in bond at the close
of the year 1845 was 1,106,874 qrs.

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

6'6'A

THE LONDON FARMERS' CLUB.— MONTHLY DISCUSSION.
THE ECONOMY OF MANURES— THEIR MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATION.

The usual Monthly Meeting of the Farmers' Club was
held on Monday evening, 4th May, in their rooms, at
the York Hotel, Bridge Street, Blackfriars.

Mr. Bakkr, of Writtle, Essex, occupied the chair,
and stated that the subject of their discussion for this
evening was "The economy of manures, as regarded
their manufacture and application." At the time the
matter had been selected for discussion, Mr. Cuth-
bert Johnson, who, from his scientific acquirements,
was more conversant with all its bearings than any other
member, had been requested to take the lead in the
question, and he had very handsomely condescended to
do so (hear). He was quite sure they would listen to
him with a vast deal of pleasure, and be highly gratified
in having a gentleman of such distinguished talent to
bring the question before them ; for they must all be in-
terested in the chemical analysis of substances relating to
agriculture, and in the preparation of manures for the
improvement of the soil {hear, hear):

Mr. CuTHBERT Johnson immediately rose, and said
— Mr. Chairman and gentlemen, I respond to the call
made upon me to bring the subject of this evening's dis-
cussion before you with every possible feeling of alacrity
(cheers) ; but I wish to state at the beginning that when
the card was put into my hands, and when I came
to examine the terms of the question, I was rather
puzzled as to how I should best direct my attention to the
subject. My difficulty arose not from a feeling that I
should not find enough to say upon such a subject, but
rather in arranging it so as to bring it within the limits
of any ordinary discussion of this club. According to
the terms in which the question is drawn up, the economy
of manure is made the leading part of the subject. Now,
that, if strictly construed, takes in the whole subject of
manures, and includes the examination not only of or-
ganic manures, but thoseof a mineral orpermanent nature,
saline manures, those which are applied by the drill, and
those ofa liquid nature. Finding, therefore, it impossible
to enter tlms fully into the merits of this important theme,
I resolved to confine myself to the preparation of farm-
yard manure, because I thought that this was a ques-
tion of the most vital importance to every farmer, and
concerned the interests of every occupier of the soil
throughout the country. For although some have the
power and the intelligence (and that is not a small num-
ber) to employ fertilisers of an artificial nature, every
one has the farm yard, and the valuable contents of the
farm yard ; and any suggestion which I could offer which
would excite discussion, and any advantage which might
be derived therefrom, I knew would be spread into the
remotest parts of the kingdom {cheers). The subject is, in
fact, of equal importance to those who only hold one field,
and to those who hold their fields by the hundred.
Therefore, by your permission, I will confine myself to

the consideration of the manure of the farm yard, its
economy and application {hear, hear). The question
then, gentlemen, which the Committee of the Farmers'
Club have adopted for discussion this evening is one
which they have justly considered to be of the highest
practical importance, a cnnclusion in which I beg most
warmly to concur, because it must be quite evident to
eveiy one connected with the cultivation of the soil, that
upon the proper manufacture and the economical appli-
cation of the manure of the farm yard rests the success
of all great agricultural efforts. It is with much pleasure,
therefore, that I take upon me the task of opening such
a discussion ; and I do this not with the feeling that I
can propound any new discoveries of startling importance,
but with the anxious diffidence, which must be felt by
every one who addresses, on any agricultural subject, the
great and accomplished farmers who grace the list of
this influential and highly important club {hear). My
attention this evening shall be directed to a few chemical
results which have been recently obtained, relating to
the subject, and to the illustration they afford of the
farmer's practical operations. The subject of this even-
ing's discussion having been divided into two sections,
the " manufacture" of the manure of the farm yard first
demands our attention. We shall, in furtherance of our
object, simplify our investigation, if we divide this ex-
amination into two sections — First, the vegetable por-
tion of the manure, and, secondly, that which is com-
posed of the excrements of animals. Now, as regards
the vegetable portions, it is evident to every one that it
is the straw of various grain that forms the largest por-
tion of these — substances of little value as fertilisers,
until mixed with the excrements of animals. It has been
found, however, that the same quantity of the straw of
different cereal grasses, consumed as food by live stock,
produces very different weights of manure. This is of
the highest importance to be known. It has been a com-
mon phrase that " straw is straw," and many do not
know that if a given weight of rye straw, or hay, or corn
is used, there is a material difference in the weight of
manure produced, as has been determined experimentally
by M. Block. He ascertained that 100 lbs. of chopped rye
straw, given as food to horses, will yield about 42 lbs.
of dried excrements (fluid and solid), 100 lbs. of hay
will yield about 45 lbs., 100 lbs. seeds of oats 51 lbs,,
100 lbs. seeds of rye 53 lbs. The proportion of excre-
ment produced by various animals naturally varies with
the size of the animals, and the food on which they are
fed ; but it has been calculated from results of various
experiments that an ordinary bred cow, fed in the usual
way, produces about nine tons of solid dung in the course
of the year. Upon this part of the subject you will find
much valuable information in a blue book recently printed
by the Government, the real object of which is to support

2 M

534

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the continuance of the INIalt Tax, with the ostensible one
of aftbrding information to the farmer. Throwing, how-
ever, to the winds the real object for which the volume
has been published, and the arguments it is intended to
support, to which a complete answer might readily be
found ; throwing to the winds, I say, that object,
there yet remains in the hundred folio pages of which
the book consists, a great deal of instruction, highly
valuable to the accomplished agriculturists of Eng-
land. I therefore recommend those who are
managers of Farmers' Clubs to apply to the proper
office, and they will doubtlessly be furnished with a
copy for the use of their institutions ; a book so full
of valuable information, relative to the respective quali-
ties of excrements, that it will well repay a perusal — I
mean in a scientific point of view, and not as having any
relation to the Malt Tax (hear, hear). In the recent
experiments of Dr. Thomson upon the fattening pro-
perties of malt and barley, he found that in fourteen
days a cow, consuming 142G lbs. of grass, produced
exactly 1000 lbs. of dung.— (Par/. Paper, p. 45.) But
when the same cow was fed for sixteen days on 3 lbs. of
barley, 168 lbs. of malt, and 472^ lbs. of hay, she pro-
duced 1259 lbs. of dung. — (Ibid., p. 47.) Again, the
food of this cow was varied ; she was fed during ten
days with 90 lbs. of barley, 27 lbs. of molasses, and
274 lbs. of hay : the dung she now produced weighed
866 lbs. — (Ibid., p. 49.) She was then fed for ten days
with 80 lbs. of barley, 40 lbs. of linseed, and 249^ lbs,
of hay, she now produced 785 lbs. of dung. — (Ibid., p.
49.) This gives the proportion of solid excrement voided
by a cow. M. Bousingault has experimentalized upon
the same subject, as may be seen from the following
table of the component parts of the food consumed by
and of the excrements of a horse and a cow, during
twenty-four hours (Liebig's Organic Chemistry), The
weights in this table are given in grammes — a gramme
being equal to 15'44.

Articles of Food.

BY THE HORSE.

Hay

Oats

Water t :-

Total

Total excretions in same
time

BY THE cow.

Potatoes

After grass «

Water

Total ..
Total excretions in twenty
four hours ,

Weight, Weight:
in fresh' in dry Carbon
state. I state.

7,500j

2,270

16,000'

6,465 2961-0
1,9271 977-0

25,770,

15,580|

]5,OOo'
7,5001
6,000,

8,392| 3938-0

3,827| 1472-9

4,1 70| 1839-0
6,315(2974-0

82,500
45,152

10,485| 4813-4
6111-4 2601-6

Nitro-
gen.

97-0
42-4

139-4

115'4

50-0
151-5

201-5
174-5

Other persons have, in various experiments, inves-
tigated the amount of dung produced from a given
v/eight of food and fodder taken together, and the re-
sults of one of these series of experiments have been given
by Professor Johnston, in his valuable work, "The

Elements of Agricultural Chemistry," p. 140. From
these it appears that one ton of dry food and straw gives
a quantity of farm -yard dung, which weighs.

When recent, from 46 to 50 cwt.

After six weeks 40 to 44 ,,

After eight weeks 38 to 40 , ,

Half rotten 30 to 35 ,,

When pretty rotten 20 to 25 , ,

So that we see from these experiments that when only
half rotten, farm -yard dung does not weigh more than
one half of what it does when in the recent state. This
loss of weight is caused partly by the evolution of a
quantity of the gaseous matters of putrefaction, and
partly by the aqueous matter drained from the heap, or
emitted in the shape of steam ; a loss which can easily be
diminished in amount, although not prevented even
then in a considerable degree, by employing the manure
of the farm yard in as recent a state as possible. The
condition in which manure ought to be applied to the
land, in what state of putrefaction or decomposition, is
a point of the very highest importance, one well worthy
of investigation by this society, and upon which the
more knowledge there is brought to bear the better
(hear, hear). There is a very practical question, namely,
the state in which the farm yard should be kept dur-
ing its manufacture, and as to the value of the resulting
compound produced. A great many of the farmers in
my neighbourhood, m the county of Esses, believe that
the farm -yard cannot be kept too dry ; and that was
the opinion of a great farmer in Dengy Hundred, a
tenant of the celebrated Mr. Clinc, the surgeon, for
he covered in the whole of the farm yard with a
roof. He, therefore, was clearly of opinion that to
have manure in as dry a state as possible was most pro-
ductive, and that it insured a manure of the most fer-
tilising description. Others, however, are of a very
different opinion (hear, hear). This leads me to ano-
ther portion of the inquiry, as to the most desirable state
of dryness or of moisture in which the dung of a farm
yard can be kept while preparing. On this important
point I have received very discordant opinions from
practical farmers : many contending that it can hardly
be prepared in too dry a state ; whilst others have stated
to me as their decided opinion, that if the escape of all
drainage from the farm yard is prevented, that then the
dung can hardly be kept too wet. There is certainly in
favour of this latter conclusion the results of some
recent experiments by the celebrated German chemist,
Sprengel, which would lead to the conclusion that at
least the putrefied urine of the farm yard becomes very
considerably richer in ammonia when previously mixed
with a considerable portion of rain water. This dis-
covery shows the value of experiments, even when it
may be thought that those researches can hardly lead to
much good. For if any chemist had been asked, if by
mixing a quantity of water with urine andthen putrefy-
ing it, such a process would add to the bulk of ammonia,
that chemist would most unhesitatmgly have answered,
"No." But that it does increase the bulk of the am-
monia, and that not to a small, but to a very considerable
extent, is beyond dispute (hear, hear). Now, upon the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

535

quantity of ammonia contained in farm-yarcl manure, [ thrown about the yard increases the value of the manure ;
its fertilising powers to a very considerable degree de- it also attracts the pigs to the yard ; these rout the straw
pend. J\I. Sprengel analyzed urine in three different and dung about, in search of grains of corn, bits of
states— 1. When fresh. 2. After being putrefied by Swedish turnips, and other food, by which means the
itself. 3. After being putrefied and previously mixed manure in the yard becomes more intimately mixed, and
with its own bulk of water. When fresh, 100,000 is proportionately increased in value. The feeding
parts he found to contain 205 parts of ammonia ; but after | troughs and cribs should, for obvious reasons, be shifted
putrefaction this proportion of ammonia was increased j frequently. The horse dung is usuaUy thrown out at the
to 487 parts, or considerably more than doubled ; and ' stable doors, and there accumulates in large heaps. It
when watered previously, it was then found to contain, is sometimes spread a little about, but more generally

after putrefaction, 1622 parts of ammonia, or nearly
eight times the quantity it did when fresh. The follow-
ing are the results of his analysis : —

Fresh.

Putrid.

Watered.

4,000

10

190

90

516

256

205

664

554

36

2

4

I

36

272

405

70

92,624

1,000

'■io

250
500
165
487
664
554
5

1

*22

272

338

26

1

1

180

95,444

600

*30

120

500

1,533

1,622

664

554

8

30

Potash

Soda

Silica

Alumina

Oxide of manganese ....

272

Sulphuric acid

Phosphoric acid

332
46
20

Sulphuretted hydrogen. .

Insoluble earthy phos- "1

phatesand carbonates J

Water

30
150

95,481

100,000

100,000

100,000

These experiments seem to me to bear directly upon
the question of the dry and wet preparation of manure
— a point so important to be well understood that I
should be glad to hear the opinions of those who will fol-
low me in this discussion upon it. The more carefully
in fact that we investigate the question which is the sub-
ject of this evening's discussion, the more important
does it appear, and the more numerous the sources of
loss to be guarded against. For, as I have elsewhere re-
marked— Nothing appears at first sight so simple as the
manufacture and collection of farm-yard dung, and yet
there are endless sources of error into which the culti-
vator is sure to fall if he is not ever vigilant in their ma-
nagement. The late Mr. Francis Blakie, in his valuable
little tract upon the management of farm-yard manure,
dwells upon several of them ; he particularly condemns
the practice " of keeping the dung arising from several
descriptions of animals in separate heaps or departments,
and applying them to the land without intermixture.
It is customary," he adds, " to keep the fattening neat
cattle in yards by themselves, and the manure thus pro-
duced is of good quality, because the excrement of such
cattle is richer than that of lean ones. Fattening cattle
are fed with oil cake, corn, Swedish turnips, or some
Other rich food, and the refuse and waste of such food

not at all, unless where necessary for the convenience of
ingress and egress, or perhaps to allow the water to
drain away from the stable door. Horse-dung lying iu
such heaps very soon ferments, and heats to an excess ;
the centre of the heap is charred or burnt to a dry white
substance, provincially termed fire-fanged. Dung in
this state loses from 50 to 75 per cent, of its value. The
diligent and attentive farmer will guard against such pro-
fligate waste of property by never allowing the dung to
accumulate in any considerable quantity at the stable
doors. The dung from the feeding hog- sties should also
be carted, and spread about the store cattle yard in the
same manner as the horse dung."*

I have ventured to read the remarks of Mr. Blakie,
because they come from a man who was a thoroughly prac-
tical farmer, and in the district in which he long excited
considerable attention and exercised very great influ-
ence he did more for improving the preparation of the
manure of the farm yard than any other man in the
north of Norfolk (hear, hear). I do not think it desi-
rable in this discussion to attempt to exhaust the widely
extending theme now before us. There are many ques-
tions regarding the economical manufacture of manure,
which can hardly be comprehended in one evening's dis-
cussion. Of this class is the enlargement of the bulk of
the farm-yard compost by mixing it with peat, tanners'
bark, and other slowly decomposing vegetable substances;
a practice very advantageously followed in favourable
localities, and easily available by the Lancashire farmers
where they have access to the extensive cesspools of
the manufacturers, yet the practice does not come
within the reach of the majority of the farmers of
England. As to mixing these substances with
ordinary manure, I think there are considerable doubts
whether the practice has ever answered the purpose of
those who have employed it. I therefore, from the
causes I have assigned, venture to leave these branches of
the inquiry out of this evening's discussion, and pass
on to a still more important branch of the subject, viz.,
the enrichment of the farm-yard manure by improving
the food of the live stock kept in it. This is a question
peculiarly interesting not only to the tenant farmers, but

* There is no doubt of the superior fertilizing effects of horse
dun". In au experiment with beans, iu which six acres were
mainiretl with horse diuig and nine with that from a cow-yard,
the six yielded more beans than the nine {A(jri. Report of Es-
sex vol. ii., p. 280). The same observation was maile in Lin-
coliishire {Sinclair's AijricuUure, p. 214). The heat produced
bv the fermentation of the dung of dilferent animals has been
uiade the subject of repeated experiment {Farmers Ma(juzine,
vol. iv., p. IGO). AA'hcn the temperature of the air was 40 deg.,
that of eounnon farm-yard dung was 70dcg.; a mixture of Ume,
dung, and earth, 65; and a mixture of swhic and fowls' dung, 58;

2 M 2

536

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the fanners' landlord. For when it is generally known
amongst the landlords of England how much the qua-
lity of the manure is improved by the use of superior
food, they will then see very speedily that it is the most
wretched policy to discourage, or restrain, by a covenant
in the lease, the exchange of straw and hay, for good dung
made by corn-fed animals, one which in very many in-
stances the farmer could effect with equal advantage to
bis own pocket and to the high cultivation of his land.
Now the questions of the highest importance which are
originated and discussed by this club are questions
which should aid in the diffusion of knowledge not only
among the farmers of England, but among the farmers'
landlords ; because I am perfectly aware that whatever
goes on in this club, will, through the usual public chan-
nels, find its way into their studies ; and I hope that every
niggardly landlord in this country (that is, supposing
that such a person as a niggardly landlord does exist in
England) — (hear, and a laugh) will consider whether it
will not tend to the eventual enrichnient of his own pocket
if he omit all covenants from his leases which prevent the
farmer from exchanging straw or hay for far better ma-
nure than he can readily make, and whether it would
not be to that landlord's own interest to increase the
quality of the manure now made in the straw-yard by
the employment of oil cake and other food which would
produce manure of a highly superior nature (hear, hear).
Of course, when the landlord is once convinced of the
soundness of this policy, this result will follow ; he will
take care to have no covenant introduced in his leases
which will militate against such a practice, but see that
if the tenant has not, by the custom of the district, a
right, to be paid for any outlay for oil cake, such a cus-
tom ought at once to be adopted ; and if he cannot pre-
vail upon his fellow landlords to give to their tenants
what for shortness are called " rights," that he will at least
provide that his own out-going tenant shall not be dis-
couraged from employing oil cake manure, from the fear
that when he leaves his farm he will not be compensated for
it. I earnestly hope these discussions will lead to a better
general feeling on this subject on the part of landlords, and
lead them to perceive that the more liberally they agree to
pay their tenants for any unexhausted improvements with
regard to manure, the better it will be for their own in-
terests (hear, hear). Gentlemen, I was just saying
tiiat it was the most wretched policy to discourage or
restrain by covenants in the lease the exchange of straw
and hay for good dung made by corn-fed animals, and I
need hardly remind the farmers assembled in this room
of the inferiority of the manure made by the lean stock
of the straw yard to that produced by the corn or cake-
fed stock of the stable or the bullock-houses. The in-
creased value of manure made by stock fed with oil cake
is considered by the farmers in my neighbourhood in
Essex to be equal to one-half of the oil cake employed ;
and so well convinced of the importance of encouraging
the farmer to enrich the manure of the farm yard are
Lord Yarborough and many other of the great and en-
lightened landlords of Lincolnshire, that they have wisely
encouraged their excellent tenants to use oil cake, by al-
lowing them for one quarter of their outlay for all the cake
used for fattening their stock during the two last years

of their tenancy (hear, hear). They wisely avoid the
error into which by far too many landlords are at present
led in the valuation of the manure belonging to an out-
going tenant, viz., that of regarding as of little conse-
quence the quality of the food consumed by the stock
which produced it ; a delusion which I hope will speedily
pass away when the landlords of England shall better
understand, as regards the preparation of manure, their
own true interests (hear, hear). To assist in this very
desirable object, I would earnestly refer the landlords to
a very valuable paper, which both the farmer and land-
owner can hardly read too often, by Mr. Williams, Lord
Yarborough's agent, on " The Tenant's Right to Com-
pensation for unexhausted Improvements ;" for its pe-
rusal will not only suggest several acts which it would
be well if those connected with the tenure of land more
constantly kept in view, but it will also give valuable
support to one of the questions I am so anxious to im-
press upon the farmers of England, viz., the false eco-
nomy of preparing only straw-fed manure. Mr. Wil-
liams's paper is inserted in the " Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England," vol. vi., p. 44. He
remarks, when speaking of what he well describes as the
increasing importance of the subject, " The allowance
(founded not on custom, but on special agreement) is
based on the assumption that the manure is improved to
the extent of half the value of oil cake consumed ; but to
get a fair average of both quality and price it is made to
extend over the last two years, and the allowance is two-
sixths of the cake used in the last year, and one-sixth of
that used in the previous year, making together the half
of a year's consumption." Phis clearly shows that
among the noblemen and gentlemen to whom I have al-
luded no doubt is entertained of the advantage of encou-
raging an improvement in the quality of the manure of
the farm yard (hear), and 1 think it is a question which
can hardly be discussed too often, or be too frequently
brought under the attention of the landlords {hear, hear).
Having thus rapidly glanced at some of the chief
sources of improvements to be adopted in the manufac-
ture of manure, the next division of my subject includes,
according to the terms of this examination, the economy
of its application. This is a division of my subject which
is of the highest importance to the cultivator ; it is one
great branch of the farmer's endless avocations in which
great losses are necessarily sustained, yet still more are
incurred by needless neglects and want of consideration
(hear, hear). For amongst the many sources of loss, we
find that in too many instances the application of the
manure is delayed until putrefaction has generated and
evolved a large portion of the richest ingredients of the
manure. Surely in many instances this loss might be
prevented, but the practice unfortunately does not end
here ; the manure is carted from the compost heap, co-
piously emitting a stream of gaseous matters, which
would if evolved in the soil prove highly fertilizing to the
growing crops (hear, hear). Its exposure to the at-
mosphere, when spread over the land, adds still more to
the mischief ; the sun and the winds conspire to reduce
its value, until, when it is at length ploughed beneath the
surface, its best, its most fertilizing portions have de-
parted ; and if this is the loss sustained by manure applied

to arable soils, how much is that loss multiplied when
the compost of the farm yard is spread over the surface
as a top dressing to grass lands ! How small a portion
is absorbed by the growing crop, how large a portion
destroyed by the combined action of the sun and the at-
mosphere ! Now it appears to me that a remedy may be
found for this loss ; some implement surely can be pro-
duced, somewhat similar to the sub-turf plough, which
shall by some simple improvement enable the^ holders of
pasture lands not only to loosen the soil of grass lands,
but, at the same time that this beneficial operation is ef-
fected, to deposit either well rotted compost or some of
the drill manures beneath tlie surface of the land. By
this plan the decomposition of the manure being rendered
much less rapid, and applied in immediate juxta- position
to the roots of the grass, its elements are as gradually
absorbed and assimilated by the growing plants as they
are produced ; protected from the action of the sun and
winds, every product of decomposition is turned to good
account, and consequently a much smaller portion of the
fertilizer employed is needed to produce a required re-
sult than by the common wasteful mode of spreading it
on the surface, even aided as it commonly is by the very
imperfect and ineffectual attempts to bush -harrow or
roll it into the land. By such a mode of application too
as that to which I have alluded, the use of the manure is
very materially economized, for it is a means of extend-
ing a given weight of manure over a much more consi-
derable extent of land than is practicable on the ordinary
surface-dressing mode. And when we reflect upon the
small proportion per acre of bone dust, of rape cake,
and of other finely divided organic fertilizers, which are
successfully applied by the drill, we can hardly avoid the
conclusion that it is more than probable that by new and
more economical modes of application great improve-
ments are yet to be made in respect to the use of farm
yard manure {hear, hear). I have been induced to lay
great stress on the wasteful application of farm yard ma-
nure when used as a top dressing for grass, by having my
attention drawn to the wasteful manner in which such
manure is applied in my own neighbourhood. It is
brought down from London in large quantities, and after
being put in a pile and turned over is then spread upon
the land ; the attention of those who are farmers and of
those who are not is drawn to it by the odious stench
which it emits (for it is mixed with a great quantity of
the night soil of London an admirable dressing for grass
lands) and they are soon acquainted through their noses
that an agricultural operation is going on (hear, and a
laugh). This smell shows that a mixture of ammonia and
sulphuretted hydrogen is being evolved from the ma-
nure, which by being dispersed is lost to the land, and
lost to the grass, to which it is naturally so admirable a
food (hear, hear). Now, if that ammonia, that sul-
phuretted hydrogen, could by any process be brought
under the surface, the roots of the grass would ab-
sorb it as it was evolved, decomposition would be re-
tarded, the gas would be evolved more slowly, and
consequently evolved in such quantities as are not
beyond the powers of the growing crops to consume. I
therefore venture again to suggest that surely some im-
plement may be constructed, that something like the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 537

sub- turf plough might be contrived, which would not
only loosen the soil (a most excellent operation in the
case of grass lands), but should also at the same time
bring and bury under the surface the well rotted manure
of the farm yard— some of which might be prepared on
purpose for the operation ; and although it is commonly
believed that organic manures must, to produce benefi-
cial results, be strewed on the land in large quantities,
yet long continued experiments have convinced m
that the usual amount of organic manures, may, to
the interest of the farmer, be very materially re-
duced in bulk {hear). I am quite sure indeed, from
experiment, that the application of manures to grass lands
in particular may be very materially improved in the
way I have suggested {hear, hear). I have, Mr. Chair-
man, thus rapidly touched upon the chief points in
the manufacture and economy of farm-yard manure
which appeared to me to be most likely to be productive
of good in a discussion by the members of the Farmers'
Club, and I trust that these imperfect observations will
be the means of drawing forth the practical observations
of those whom I see around me. The importance of the
subject, I feel, can hardly be overrated ; it branches out
into so many divisions, that I have ventured to touch
upon one or two only, leaving it to others to enlarge
upon my imperfect notices, and to supply my manifold
omissions. In conclusion, I have only to thank the
members of this club for listening so patiently to me
during the time I have occupied their valuable attention,
and if the observations I have made should have the ef-
fect intended, viz., that of drawing forth the remarks of
the able practical men present in this room, my very
humble efforts will be most abundantly rewarded {loud
and hearty cheers).
After a short pause,

The Chairman rose and said, Gentlemen, as you
seem at the present moment to be at a stand still ujjon
the subject which Mr. Johnson has so ably opened to us,
I will take this opportunity of offering a few observa-
tions (Hear, hear). That gentleman has given us what
I think may be called a scientific account of the matter
before us. But there is one other view in which farmers
must regard the subject, namely, the practical manner
of carrying it out ; and perhaps when these two views
are brought into contact and considered together, some-
thing more beneficial may be devised than by considering
either separately (Hear, hear). I have long been in
favour of the principle of using raw manure ; indeed, I
was the first to start it in my own neighbourhood, where
it is of 25 years' standing {Hear, hear). It had always
been my custom to compost the manure, turn it over
and over again, and then clamp it with perfect neatness,
so that all the valuable qualities were retained. By
putting a sufficient quantity upon the land I got very
good crops, but, at the same time, at a vast expense of
material. This was obvious to me upon expeiiment.
In the first year I put equal quantities of good com-
posted manure, reduced 50 per cent, by composting,
and which ought to have contained double the fertilizing
properties of that which was not so composted ; but,
upon applying 20 loads of manure, merely thrown up to
get into better mixing order, I found that an equal

538

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

quantity of this manure taken from the yai'd produced a
better crop of turnips than that which had been com-
posted {Hear, hear). In the one case I was manuring
■with half the quantity that I was applying in the other
( Hear) . We all know very well that any new modes
of application in farming are always received with doubt.
Now, I mentioned this matter at our parish meeting,
and at our little convivial meetings, and I found that it
was generally disbelieved. I invited a number of gen-
tlemen to come to my house and judge for themselves,
some of them saying it might be beneficial for turnips.
Well, aparty came, and the result was, that they werequite
satisfied that the succeeding crop was better with long
manure than with composted (Hear). At my farm I
have not to remove a load of manure. I still retain it
in the yard, and shall do so until I require it for the
turnips. I am now feeding on green food, and the
manure is making in a ten-fold degree as compared with
winter when we fed with turnips ; all the droppings are
retained upon it, and it is highly benefited thereby.
The main object is just to keep it moist enough to pre-
vent its getting into that dry state which Mr. Mechi
advocates, as alluded to by Mr. Johnson. I do not
mention it to that gentleman's prejudice, for he has
manifested talents and energies which would be exhibited
by very few emerging as he has from the shop. I have
great respect for him ; he has certainly directed his
energies very beneficially ; but, at the same time, upon
the point of keeping manures in a dry state, I must beg
to differ from him (Hear). When so kept, all the most
beneficial parts pass off in gas. I always found that to be
the case with the clamps if carted out in a dry state ;
there is, in fact, very little good in it as compared with
manure in a moist state. As far as I can form an
opinion, with my little scientific knowledge, I attribute
it to this— that the ammonia is not so likely to be vola-
tilized when fastened down as when it gets into a state
of fermentation (Hear). Immediately upon manure
getting into a state of fermentation decomposition goes
on rapidly, and the ammonia fast passes off. But if
you can keep it in a consistent state, you will lose none
of those parts which would otherwise fly off in fermen-
tation or in a volatile form (Hear). Before using
manure for turnips, I throw it up in heaps in the farm
yard, and these heaps soon enter into an active state of
fermentation ; and my main object is to cover it over as
quickly as possible after removing it. In that way I do
practically what Mr. Johnson has pointed out to you
scientifically. The covering it over is of very great
importance, for the eyes and the nose tell you that the
gas is passing off very rapidly, and the sooner you fix
it the better {Hear, hear). You all know practically
that it is very inconvenient for manure to remain in the
farm yard in a solid state. The question then is, what
is the best mode of applying it to the crops ? My
opinion is, that it is better to cart it out, not in too
dry nor too wet, but in a medium state, and to cover it
closely over with earth ; immediately upon being depo-
sited it should be turned over and covered completely
with the soil. Another method is to turn it out upon
the land, drive the cart over it, in order to consolidate

it with the soil ; and then stir it over, in order to get it
into an active state of fermentation. This is a simple
process of applying manure to the land ; and it was the
best we could adopt under the circumstances. The
gentlemen present will no doubt give us their different
views upon the subject ; and it is by discussions of this
description that we arrive at proper conclusions. For
my own part I am quite satisfied that the system of
making manure under cover will never answer. I hap-
pen to be intimate with the person who manages the farm
alluded to by Mr. Johnson, where a spacious yard is all
covered in, and I know that in spring and summer there
is too much dryness ; the manure does not get into a
state of fermentation, nor remain in that consistent state
which is necessary to preserve the gases {Hear). I
think it is quite unnecessary to have any buildings in
which to make manure ; it can be made in the best
possible condition without them. I had an opportunity
of inspecting Mr. Cline's farm yard, and I could see
the liquid manure coming down and running off very
copiously. I joked him upon it ; and his reply was,
" We have got so much we cannot help it." I do not
approve of manure tanks ; if you convey the water from
the buildings by troughs, or by under ground draining,
there will be no necessity for manure tanks. I am
indeed quite opposed to the use of manure tanks, although
I have one or two myself : we have carted out the liquid
manure upon the grass and arable land, but never found
in the results that it was worth carting out (Hear).
I think, however, that the fact is to be attributed to this,
that we do not sufficiently prepare it previously to cart-
ing it out. It appears that in the Belgian system of
farming they use a good deal of liquid manure ; but the
animal fseces are collected, and put into the tank in the
corner of the field, covered up, and kept for many months
until in an active state of fermentation and the ammonia
is perfectly formed ; a large quantity of rape cake is also
broken up, and put in as a mixture with it. Now, it
appears evident to me, that we do not keep the liquid
manure long enough to get into a state of fermentation,
or, if I may use the term, long enough for the ammonia
to become formed ; if we did this, it might possess very
superior fertilizing qualities. That is a subject upon
which Mr. Johnson has given us some information.
The application to the land of the drainings from the
farm yard does very little good as at present applied ;
but as the Belgian farmers apply this liquid, it appears
to be very beneficial. Mr. Johnson is of opinion that
manure is wasted by being put to grass lands in the
present mode ; but there is something in the practice of
applying manure to grass lands and clover which I
know, although I cannot explain the reason, operates
very beneficially ; and at times when we suppose it
would be of least benefit to the crops, it will, in the
result, give the greatest (Hear, hear). Clover will,
sometimes, under these circumstances, be produced most
abundantly ; and the same will take place in some cases
with wheat crops in a most eminent degree. By the
system which we have adopted, we generally get a fair
average crop of wheat without its running to any great
extent of straw, which it often does under other circum-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

639

stances. I think manure never does so much good to grass
lands as when applied immediately after the hay has been
severed and carted from the field ; at no other season
of the year does it appear to be anything like so beneficial
in its effects (Hear, hear). And this is not a little
extraordinary, because that is generally about midsum-
mer, when we should think that the heat of the sun
would dissipate and dry up the more valuable qualities.
I account for it in this way, tliat it gets speedily covered
in and buried by the growth ofthegrassj and, thei'efore,
that the greatest possible amount of the manure may be
thereby retained just at that precise period. The benefit
is seen to a still greater extent the next year, from the
grass thus immediately receiving the manure and pre-
paring itself for the shoot of the ensuing spring ; and the
result is a much larger crop of hay in the following
summer (Hear). These are merely a few observations
which I have to offer on the manufacture and economy
of manure. The manufacture of manure is unquestion-
ably a matter of the first importance in the management
of a farm ; and every means should be resorted to to
increase the manure heap. But I scarcely go upon a
farm without seeing that that is neglected, instead of any
efforts being made to increase it. As far as my own
practice goes, everything which can be converted into
manure is brought together for that purpose ; all kinds
of vegetable matter, and even that which we harrow up
out of the land is carted to the farm yard, rather than
burnt. All are mixed up together with the dung, and
help to increase the quantity of the manure. The
moistui'e which escapes from the stable is spread over it,
and the whole carted away day by day. The dung should
never be allowed to accumulate at the stable door ;
it is better to cart it away each day than to allow it
to accumulate in any particular place. Exactly the
same rule should be observed with the bullock houses.
We frequently see beasts kept in stalls for the sole pur-
pose of producing manure ; you may see the manure
piled up all along the back of the sheds steaming away,
and the ammonia passing off as fast as it can pass. Some
people say it keeps the cattle warm (hear, and a laugh).
I have heard farmers say — " I know I am giving away
my oil cake and turnips, but I must make manure"
(hear, and laughter). What is the consequence ? Why,
the most valuable qualities of the manure are lost. This
is a very common practice, but it should be guarded
against. It should each day be carted from the sheds
and trodden into the land ; and by nothing is this ope-
ration better performed than by a donkey, a cart, and a
boy ; in fact, nothing is more useful on a farm than
donkeys in connection with horses. A friend of mine
uses a considerable number of them ; he carts his dung
with these animals, and employs them in various ways ;
they are kept at very little expense, and as an aid to
horses they are certainly very useful (hear, and a laugh).
Throughout Suffolk the system prevails of carting out
the manure into the middle of the field ; I have seen
masses as high as this room. From this practice the
loss must be considerable. In conclusion, I hope I have
said something to elucidate the matter before us, and to
confirm that which Mr. Johnson has very kindly given

us ; and I now beg to say that I shall be very glad to
hear the opinions of any gentleman present who may
have given his attention to this important subject (hear,
and cheers).

Mr. Turner: I did not, sir, intend to have taken
any part in this discussion when I first entered the room
this evening ; but the subject being one to which I have
devoted a great deal of study, and in which I have had
some experience, I cannot refrain from offering a few
observations on the practical parts of the question, to
which my attention has been called upon my own farm
(hear). It is a general rule with me to issue an order
to all my men that they will make this their maxim —
" Never to waste a bundle of straw, and never to want
one" (hear, hear), which in plain English means, never
to suffer a single truss of straw to be used which is not
absolutely necessary, and on the other hand never to
spare one when it is wanted to lick up the fluid portions
of the manure (hear) . And with regard to the manage-
ment of manure, this is the plan I adopt : — Every fort-
night I cart out all the different manures, from the
horses, from the cow houses, from the piggeries, from
the beast stalls, and, in short, every description of ma-
nure ; 1 cart it all out, and put a layer of each upon the
same heap ; I then suffer the cart to be driven upon the
heap, in order to press it down as tightly as possible.
This done, I put a layer of earth over all, in order to
prevent any of the gases from escaping from the heap ; I
also put something under it to prevent anything from
going away below. So far I store my manure ; and I
continue this operation through the winter. I select
some place with a hard bottom, where nothing can es-
cape, and there the manure is deposited for the most
part during the winter (hear). With respect to liquid
manure, I for one do not see any very great good it does
by being carted out upon the land (hear, hear). It has
been my custom to have a place under the farm yard,
from which all the liquid was carried over the meadows ;
of course you expect the land to be benefited by this
liquid. Whether it runs equally or not I do not know,
but not more than an acre or two are to be found better
than the rest. Therefore I think that liquid manures do
not do that good which many people suppose. I think it
is better not to suffer anything to escape from the farm
yard. In almost all farm yards there are drains or tanks,
or something to catch this liquid. In these tanks it has
been my practice to keep some sort of rubbish, such as
the stalks of potatoes, the stalks of turnips, or the stuff
cleared away from the sides of the fences, and upon all
this I pour the liquid manure. I think I cannot employ
a boy and a donkey better than to fill the tank with rub-
bish of this description ; and in following this practice I
take care that nothing escapes from the farm yard ;
everything is carted on to the mixen. If you adopt this
plan, you will find that in the course of a year you will
collect a vast quantity of manure from this source alone.
With respect to the use of manure, and the manufacture
of manure, I do not say that mine is the very practice
which ought to be resorted to ; I only tell you what I
find best calculated for my purposes (hear, hear). After
what ha3 fallen from Mr, Johnson this evening upon the

540

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

subject of grass lands, I think there can be no doubt but
that it is very desirable in carrying manure to do so at a
time when the grass will grow quickest over it (hear).
If you do that, you wont want to put it under ground.
If you put the manure on the land the moment you have
cut your hay, it is quite astonishing what a difference
you will see. I cannot reason on the matter any other
way than by supposing that it makes the grass at once
begin to grow more quickly and speedily gets co-
vered over (hear). 1 do not agree with our excellent
chairman with regard to carting manure out in the win-
ter ; I think that wlien the spring showers are falling, or,
in fact, whenever the grass grows most quickly, that is
the proper time at which to manure grass lands. The
few practical observations, gentlemen, which I have ven-
tured to oifer to you are the results of my own know-
ledge and experience (hear, hear).

The Chairman : It is not ray practice to cart the
manure upon clover, but it is in the case of other grass-
lands, and I have found it answer remarkably well.

Mr. Johnson : I think I understood you to say that
it not only succeeded with the clovers, but also with the
succeeding crop of wheat.

The Chairman : I did say so, sir (hear).

Mr. Wood : I cannot, sir, say with Mr. Turner, that
when I first came into this room this evening I had no
intention of speaking upon this question, because I al-
ways come here with the intention of taking some part
in the discussions of the club (hear, and a laugh), al-
though I never take much pains to prepare myself be-
forehand, but just make such observations as may occur
to me at the time. If I were to confine myself to doing
so, perhaps there are many occasions on which I should
not speak at all, whereas it is my practice to say what I
think (cheers, and a laugh). It was, however, only
my modesty and diffidence which prevented me from
rising when there was a pause in the earlier part of the
evening (renewed laughter). With regard to iising
manures on arable and grass-lands, in the first place, I
beg to say I consider that no grass ought to be allowed
to grow on the land ; it is all very well for lawns and
parks (hear, and a laugh) —

Mr. HoBBS : What ! wouldn't you have the artifi-
cial grasses ?

Mr. Wood : Oh, yes. I don't object to the artificial
grasses. With respect to permanent dressing of grass-
lands, I expected to have heard more upon the use of
liquid manures. Some persons have tried the Dutch
plan of manure, but not finding the crop of grass com-
mensurate with the expense, have given it up. I agree
with Mr. Johnson's view that the failure very probably
arises from improper management of the manure. I do
not, however, think we ought to allow any rain-water to
be mixed with manure at all. If water be mixed with
it, you will increase the expense of removal by increas-
ing the bulk of the manure ; and the advantage to be
derived therefrom will not, in my opinion, be adequate
to the increase of expense. I have tried this in various
ways. I have found runriing it out of the yard of very
little benefit to the land, in proportion to the quantity
•which necessarily must run out ; and I think it very

doubtful whether carrying liquid manure is of sufficient
benefit to pay the expense of doing so. At the same
time, when we know that it answers to apply manure to
the roots of grass, I think it ought to be applied in the
liquid state. I cannot see how any plough can be made
to convey manure to the roots of grass ; but I can easily
conceive that if a shower comes after manuring, it
should be more beneficial than if the manure dries in
the sun. So far, my opinion is, that dressing grass-
lands is beneficial, if the dressing is laid on ; but as to
applying liquid manure to agriculture, I don't consider
growing grass agriculture, mind (hear, and a laugh) —
I think it perfectly different — unless in sandy soils,
such as are seen in Bedfordshire ; and even then I doubt
whether you can get the tank emptied at all times, and
whether the advantage is equal to the expense. My
system is decidedly opposed to making the farm-yard
manure depend at all on the quantity of rain-water. I
have adopted Mr. Warne's system, not from his recom-
mendation, but from actual experience ; and I decidedly
think it will have the advantage over all other plans for
manuring arable lands (hear). My plan is to keep the
bullocks six months in their litter without removing it,
every day turning over the manure that has dropped,
and covering it with straw ; and that I can do without
raising its level more than two feet in a box ten feet in
length (hear). There no doubt will always be gentle-
men who prefer their own long experience to anything
new. I have heard what Mr. Johnson and the chair-
man have said about dry manure ; now, I find
in my boxes that the manure is never dry. If I
were to begin making it in March, and were to
keep it until the following Michaelmas, it would
not be in a dry state. The plan which Mr.
Warne recommends is to make it under cover, not
to carry it after made. I cannot conceive how it is pos-
sible to go to expense to obtain that which is the refuse
of the whole farm. I find that the manure, as 1 make
it, auswers on my clay soil much before any other. My
observations go to showing the practical effect of it. A
friend of mine, in driving from one part of Sussex to
another, passed my farm, and a farm about ten miles
beyond it, belonging to Sir Charles Burrell ; and he told
me that the piece of wheat he saw on my farm, and the
piece he saw on Sir Charles's, were the two best pieces he
saw in a drive of thirty miles (hear, hear). Now, it
was a singular fact, bnt these two pieces were both
manured on the system recommended by Mr. Warne
(hear). It is a singular fact that this should have been
the case, but I think it rather goes to show that for that
description of soil (a clay soil) manure made in that way
is more powerful and better adapted than any other. I
observed, in cleaning out, that there was no smell what-
ever ; and manure made in that way remained without
heating, while that made in boxes would heat imme-
diately. I beg to say that I am no chemist ; and my
observations relate simply to matters of fact ; and from
what experience I have had, I should recommend every
gentleman to try the system which I have adopted my-
self. There is not only the advantage of the manure,
but the great ease and comfort in which his cattle thrive

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

541

(hear). I know gentlemen may think it impossible an
animal could thrive living for so many months in the
midst of his own excrement, but there is no offensive
smell ; in this respect my boxes are altogether different
from the stalls which are cleaned out once or twice
a-day. Why, in the " bullock palaces" of the Duke of
Bedford, atWoburn, I was quite surprised at the smell;
the quantity of ammonia — we call it by a difierent name
in Sussex {laugftter) — the quantity of ammonia that was
escaping was extraordinary. In fact, people are great
losers by continually poking the manure about {hear,
hear). I cannot go into any statement as to weight of
food, weight of straw, &c., but it has always been my
impression that the higher the animals were fed, the
more strong and valuable was the manure (hear, hear).

The Chairman. — Can you give us an idea, Mr.
Wood, of the relative quantities of manure made in the
yard and made in the boxes ?

Mr. Wood. — There is greater quantity in the yard,
but greater quality in the boxes (hear). I consider
three cart loads of yard manure equal to only one of
box manure (hear).

Mr. HoBBS. — Not more than equal?

Mr. Wood. — Not more than equal; it is astonishing
how slowly it rises in the boxes. My practice is to mix
it with mould, and plough it in. There is another point
of view in which these boxes may be regarded favour-
ably : there is an astonishing advantage of putting the
animals separately, each in a box by himself. In this
case, a bullock may be considered his own master, and
does not, under any circumstances, come off second best.
The advantages of feeding, on this plan, are very great.
If, for instance, there is an animal in a yard with several
others, which refuses his food, and the others partake of
it, the consequence is that they won't take their next
meal ; but you won't find it out. There is also another
great advantage in this system : you can have cattle of
different ages, and can put them in at all times of the
year. The manure will keep in the state which I have
described from its being well trodden down, and you
will save all the expense of stirring about ; you only
have to remove it once, which is a matter of great im-
portance (hear, hear),

Mr, Edward Aitcheson. — I will offer a few obser-
vations, gentlemen, after Mr. Wood, especially as I
come from the same neighbourhood. He has said a good
deal about expense. Now, I would suggest a plan,
with regard to manure, which I have carried out myself.
I take all the drains from the different yards to one
given spot. Then I collect all sorts of refuse, couch,
&c., and with a little mould dam it all up together.
That I call the yard for grass lands alone ; rubbish of
every kind is carried there. Now I think my system
may not be amiss to observe; refuse of every kind is
manure for grass lands, I think it wrong to carry out
anything of this kind upon land intended for the pro-
duction of corn ; because the seeds of weeds may
germinate. I therefore suggested the remedy of making
one hole for the manure for grass lands, and another for
the manure of arable lands ; saving the whole of the
manure from cattle eating hay, straw, and turnips, as

well as all the straw, for the arable land. By using these
manures I have carried very large crops : my practice
has not exceeded two years' duration, I would suggest,
with respect to the period for manuring grass lands,
that there is no time equal to the month of June, when
the manure can be well worked into the roots of the
glass. I have applied twenty-live loads per acre of the
manure out of the refuse hole, and found that it did much
more good than if the manure had been carted away
upon the land from time to time. The plan I have re-
commended is also one way of obviating expense when
the landlord will not go to the cost of making us tanks
(hear).*- I have had some experience with regard to
liquid manure, and I must confess that I do not think
much good is derived from carrying it out, especially in
clay soils. I have given the lands a coat of liquid manure
in November, and another in the spring ; but the fol-
lowing year the crops from the manure carried out
about the end of June, or beginning of July, has been
double that from the second coat of liquid manure.

Mr. HoBBS : I will, sir, make a few practical obser-
vations upon this subject, which I consider one of im-
mense importance to the practical farmer, and at the
same time more neglected than any other branch of agri-
culture (hear, hear). I do not quite agree with some of
the remarks which have fallen from our friends this
evening, with regard to the state of dryness of manure,
and also with regard to the subject of tanks, I have

* The remarks of Mr, Dixon, of Hathershaw, in Lin-
colnshire, appear to strongly confirm the advantages of
the plan adopted by Captain Aitcheson, In the year
1826, remarks Mr. Dixon, (Journal Roy. A. S., v. 1,
p. 135,) "my attention was first directed to raising
compost heaps from urine. This I now do frequently,
without the help of dung from the cattle- stalls. The
same occasion called my mind to another matter, well
worthy every farmer's attention. I allude to the great
superiority of the manure raised in summer soiling, to
that produced in the stalls during winter. I verily believe
the difference is fifty per cent., unless stock are fed in a
great measure, during winter, with artificial food. In
an arrangement for making compost heaps from urine,
I would recommend a receptacle to be made at the back
of the cattle-stalls, just outside the building ; this should
hold about twenty cart-loads of mould, or any other
matters to be employed ; if its situation were a little
lower than the cattle-sheds, all the urine would pass
into it, and remain there until the mass is completely
saturated, which will be sufficient ; when the earthy
matters are covered over, the compost may then be
thrown out, and the proceeding again renewed. In
order to show part of the benefits of this practice, I beg
here to observe, that the most foul or weedy mould may
be used ; the action of the urine, if not reduced by
water, is so powerful, that wire-worms, the black slug,
many other destroying insects, and all vegetables,
weeds, &c., when in contact with the urine for a time,
are deprived of their living functions. The situation for
raising this compost should be protected from the
weather by a covering similar to a cart-shed ; indeed,
the deteriorating influences of rain, sun, and arid winds,
on all putrescent manures or compost, are so serious,
that, in my humble judgment, it would be worth while
to have places under cover where these are usually laid
down. TThe ordinary method of conveying manures on
land, admits of much improvenient,"

542

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

had considerable experience in the drainage of manure,
and also in catching that drainage in tanks, and applying
it to the land — more especially to grass lands. Some
years ago I went to considerable expense in erecting
pumps and building tanks for the purpose of applying it
to the lands. First of all I troughed all my buildings.
Still there are parts of the year, after wet weather and
rapid falls of snow, when the yards will have a superfluity
of liquid in them, v.hich requires to be taken care of, and
afterwards applied to the soil. For I do consider that
when the drainage of the farm-yard has not been found
advantageous, it has arisen from our want of knov/-
ing the proper application of it {hear, hear). 1
certainly did at first, particularly in the case of grass
land, find it of little or no use ; but I find now, by
mixing it with earth, that it is most advantageous (hear).
I think most of us, at present, are entirely in the dark with
respect to the application of liquid manures. I believe
that if we were to mix sulphuric acid or other chemical
substances with it, we should find it far more beneficial
than we now do. But we must look to our friend Mr.
Cuthbert Johnson to enlighten us upon that point (hear,
hear). I cannot agree with Mr. Aitcheson that avc ought
to allow the liquid of the farm yard to run off, and be
absorbed in a collection of vegetable matter, and so on.
I think, also, that we ought not, in the first place, to
allow rain water to be mixed with it, but that we ought
to catch it in the strongest state we possibly can (hear) .

Mr. AiTCHKSON : I said that when the landlords
would not build tanks, that was the next best process.

Mr. HoBBS : I hope the landlords will meet the
tenants by building troughs and making tanks. I beg
also to say that I do not agree with the observations
made by some gentlemen with regard to the propriety
of keeping manure in a moist state. I think that Mr.
Wood is pretty right as to manure being made in boxes.
I think it is much better made in sheds than in the open
air. I think most farmers are sufficiently acquainted
with the matter to know when to apply liquid manure
or water, if they find it come into a too dry state from
extraordinary fermentation or other cause (Hear J. I
think any one who has travelled in the country within
the last three weeks must agree with me in saying that
there has been a ten times greater loss from the manure
being washed and soaked, and having all the goodness
running away, than there could have been from its being
kept dry {Hear, hear). I quite agree that fermentation
will be the result of its being kept too dry ; but if it is
well trodden down by the cattle in the boxes it will never
get into a dry state (Hear). I don't quite agree with
Mr. Warne's plan of feeding in boxes ; a person who
bred a large quantity of stock would have to lay out an
immense sum of money to build these boxes ; but it is a
better way of keeping cattle than the manner in which
they are generally kept (Hear). One thing appears to
have been forgotten in this discussion, and that is the
greatest possible economy in making manure. I think
with the old saying, that it is a bad piece of roasting beef
that won't find gravy to baste it ; and depend upon it,
it is a bad farm that won't supply sufficient manure with
which to keep it in condition {Hear, hear), A great

loss is sustained by feeding animals on straw and a few
turnips ; where that is the case we need not be surprised
that there is a deficiency of farm-yard manure. Our
chairman has alluded to a top-dressing for grass ; I
quite agree with him that the autumn, and early in the
autumn, is the most proper time for dressing clovers and
grass ; and the difterence which exists between Mr.
Baker and Mr. Turner I attribute to this fact, that the
one lives in the east and the other in the west ; the latter
does not suffer from the frost (Hear). I cannot agree
with the opinion that two coats of manure ought to be
applied to pastures. I have been in the habit of manur-
ing pastures in the early part of the autumn with unfer-
mented manure, and always found from eight to
ten tons so applied much better than a larger quantity
of rotten or fermented dung at any other time {Hear,
hear). I think grass grows much more rapidly when
the dung is applied in an unfermented state, or when in
the early process of fermentation, than when it is in a
decomposed state. My plan certainly is that of applying
it in a state of fermentation, by first of all carting it out
from the farm yard and laying it in clamps from four
to five yards wide, and four feet deep, treading it well
down, and, about ten days before applying it, having it
turned over. That is my mode of proceeding for root
crops at this season of the year. I generally prefer, if
the manure is in an unfermented state in November and
December, to plough it in, and at this period of the
year apply artificial manure. I have found this to have
a most beneficial efl'ect, and it is my intention to pursue
the plan as much as possible. I have no doubt that
manure will be more generally applied in an unfermented
state, when the farmer begins to see that it is not his
interest to grow weeds; in fact, as farming generally
improves, so also will the modes of manuring {Hear,
hear).

Mr. AiTCiiKSON : Will you allow me to ask you,
Mr. Hobbs, this question — Are you in the habit of
sowing artificial grasses, rye, and clover, on land which
you don't think capable of bearing you a good crop next
summer ?

Mr. HoBBS : That is not my general habit. The
only difference is, you apply your manure for wheat ;
our system is barley after fallow, then clover, then
wheat {Hear).

The Chairm.vn : In Essex, we consider we cannot
mend the lands too highly.

Mr. Hobbs : What does it cost you to build the
houses to which you were alluding }

Mr. Wood : I can build them for about £& each.
I construct them with bricks, timber, and felt ; they
have felt roofs. With regard to what has been said
about feeding cattle on straw, I beg to say that there
are a great many cattle sent to Smithfield which are
fed on straw, with the assistance of a few turnips or
pudding made of linseed and corn {Hear, and a laugh).

Mr. Johnson : The observations made by Mr. Wood
about feeding cattle on straw reminds me of a story
of the late Lord Leicester. He had a very capital
bullock yard, and endeavoured to persuade the farmers
how much better it was to introduce *• Devons" than

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

643

any other breed. He had invited some cool-headed jolly
farmers to inspect some of his bullocks, which he said he
had found, upon calculation, consumed exactly 23^ tur-
nips a day each. The farmers thought it was a very
nice calculation, and one of them in looking about found
a quantity of peas-meal. He immediately exclaimed,
" How is this? Why here is peas-meal!" " Wliy,"
replied one of the attendants, " we find that giving them
a little peas-meal assists the operation of the turnips
amazingly" (Hear, hear, andlaughter). This discovery,
of course, rather spoilt the story. With regard, how-
ever, gentlemen, to the subject of this evening's discus-
sion— a discussion which, after hearing the opinions of
the able and practical men around me, has given me
great satisfaction — I think we pretty much agree in our
general views. For, although some gentlemen appear
to have given rather discordant opinions upon some
points, yet, if the question be looked upon calmly, and
with the assistance of scientific evidence, these discor-
dant statements will be easily reconcilable. First, with
regard to the preparation of liquid manure ; some gen-
tlemen have stated the advantages of the use of liquid
manure, and others have denounced it as not productive
of any good results {Hear). Now the veiy essence of
a discussion of this nature is the inquiry " What is
meant by liquid manures ?" Having assisted at a great
many experiments in agriculture, and suggested many
such experiments, I feel that the first part of the story
is, to know what the farmer regards as liquid manure.
It is more generally found that among farmers a little col-
oured water is often dignified by the name of ' ' liquid ma-
nure;" as some people put water, in which eggs or cabbage
are boiled, into the pig trough with the idea that it will
help to make the food richer {laugJder), Now in those
countries where liquid manure is applied to the land by
practical, acute, and calculating farmers, that which they
call by this name is prepared with very great care {Hear).
It is not similar to that thin watery stuff which drains away
from the farm yard after a fall of rain ; but this is mixed
carefully with the animal excrements, and, above all, it is
never applied to the land until it has undergone the pro-
cess of putrefaction, and has come to the consistence of
cream, and by this process a large quantity of fixed air
and ammonia has been generated. I am not going to
inflict this stoiy upon you a second time, but as one or
two gentlemen have entered the room since I read the
i-esxilts of M. Sprengel's experiments, allow me to repeat
that portion of my opening statement which related to
the experiments on the urine of animals in three diff'erent
states : — First, when freshly voided ; secondly, after it
had undergone putrefaction, but without mixing; and
thirdly, after putrefaction, but mixed with a considerable
bulk of rain water. (Mr. Johnson here repeated the
results of the analysis, which will be found in his opening
speech, and proceeded) : I read this because it appears
to me to bear upon the application of manure, either in
the wet or dry state. The result you will see was that
100,000 parts of fresh urine contained 205 parts of
ammonia ; after putrefaction the 100,000 parts of urine
contained 487 parts of ammonia, or more than double;
but after putrefaction, and mixing with its own bulk of

rain water, 1G22 parts of ammonia — the ammonia, in
fact, of the second experiment being nearly quadrupled
by the third experiment {Hear, hear). Now surely
we cannot help feeling that the result of this analysis
ilkistrates and renders clear the reason why it is that
the farmers of Belgium so extensively, so universally,
use tanks ; why they so carefully mix their manure with
water, and allow it to undergo the process of putrefac-
tion ; and tliey all agree in this, that it is of no use until
it is putrefied {Hear). I think the analysis of M.
Sprengel quite clears up this point.

Mr. Turner : In Belgium they have very little litter;
consequently nearly all their manure runs liquid, and is
much more valuable than it is in England.

Mr. Johnson : The Belgian farmers do a great many
things which the English farmer would do well to
imitate them in. I take it that the analysis of the
chemist throws considerable light on the subject ; it
shows us w-hy we have so many discordant statements
respecting this liquid manure ; one party finding ex-
cellent results from its use, and the other condemning
it as producing no beneficial effects at all. There are
two great causes for this : one is, that the manure is
too poor ; and the other, that it is not allowed to un-
dergo the process of putrefaction before it is applied.
In some experiments made in the neighbourhood of
London with a view to the use of the town sewage,
it was thought very desirable to ascertain the strength
of that sewage, and discover whether it was water dis-
coloured with various organic matter, or whether it con-
tained a very large proportion of foreign substances.
Now, in those experiments we found what we were not
at all prepared to expect, namely, that the sewage of
London is often from two to three times the strength
of sea water. A gallon of sea water usually contains
about four ounces of vavious salts ; but it is very
often found that the water from the common sewers of
London contains from twelve to fourteen ounces per
gallon {Hear). The salts from urine, the matters
from night soil and soap suds, and all the various sub-
stances which can be supposed to mix in the waters
of the common sewer, contribute to this large per
centage. Now, in point of richness, the drainage
from the farm-yard never approaches this {Hear,
hear). Those that I have examined never contained
more than one ounce per gallon, and frequently not
more than half an ounce of organic matter. If the
farmer use liquid manure at all, he must either employ
it for the purpose of irrigating the land, or apply it at
the rate of about one ton per acre, in much greater
strength than at present, and not until after it has under-
gone the process of putrefaction. This, if well con-
sidered, explains many of the discordant statements we
have heard upon this point, and throws some light
upon the question as to the mode in whicli manure
should be prepared, I find that one or two gentle-
men who have addressed this meeting, and especially
Mr. Wood, rather advocated the box system of preparing
manure {Hear, hear). I confess that, reasoning upon
the matter on scientific grounds, and approaching the
question with that caution with which I endeavour to

644

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

approach all questions of a practical nature, for I
consider the great value of science to agriculture to
be in the endeavour to explain the processes of the
farmer as a guide for future operations, and that
if men of science have not their eyes to the practice
and pocket of the farmer, their efforts will be of little
value (Herir, hear). Approaching, then, the considera-
tion of the subject in this cautious spirit, I think the pre-
paration of manure in the dry state is pretty well illus-
trated by these experiments (Hear). Because, if the
product of the decomposition of manures in their wet
state is a larger crop of ammonia than when prepared in
a dry state, then I am at a loss to know how in a dry
state it can be most advantageous ? (Hear, hear.) I
am perfectly aware that, when, by neglect of troughs
and drauiage, the farm-yard is allowed to be inundated
by a quantity of water, to such an extent that a con-
siderable part of the manure prepared in the yard is
washed away — I can easily see that that is not the right
way. But still I am rather inclined to the opinion that
the manure of the farm-yard, prepared with a moderate
degree of moisture, and where drainage and soakage are
carefully prevented, by means well known to the farmer —
under these circumstances, I think manure prepared in
the moist way more enriching than that produced in
covered buildings {Hear, hear). There is one fact
which has been elicited this evening by these practical
observations, which I consider very interesting, and will
no doubt lead to future examination, and that is the ad-
vantage of applying manure to grass lands in the autumn
{Hear). I have been struck with the unvaried testi-
mony which has been produced to the fact that it is
more beneficial to apply manure to grass lands just after
the hay has been cut, and perhaps even under the burn-
ing sun of July, than at any other time (Hear). Now, I
confess that, as at present advised, I do not see my way
clearly into the reason of this ; but that is no argument
against its being the fact {Hear, hear). I remember
(to give an illustration of my meaning) that when
gypsum was first introduced, it was stated by persons
who had examined the matter scientifically, and
among them the great Sir Humphrey Davy, that it
must be a manure for particular crops. Well, it was
tried by the late Lord Leicester, and other still more
able farmers, but it was found that it did not answer.
Sir Humphrey was puzzled, but was obliged to be sa-
tisfied with the fact that it did not. At last, a Kentish
farmer discovered that it would do if applied in a parti-
cular way : that it must be strewed from a basket upon
the land, in a dry powder, and that it answered best
early in the spring on a wet morning {hear, hear). This
came to the ears of Sir Humphrey Davy, and he was
asked to explain it, but he could not ; neither can any
chemist now explain it. But so it is ; if applied as I
have stated, it is of great benefit to sainfoin and clover,
but otherwise it is of no use at all {hear).

The Chairman : I think it is accounted for in this
way : the gypsum has an affinity for the ammonia dis-
charged from the clouds, and that I believe is the way
in which it operates {hear).
Mr. Johnson : I should agree with you in that so-

lution of the matter, were it not that I know the quantity
of ammonia in rain water is so minute that the chemist
can only just detect it. You may find some ammonia in
the atmosphere of a large town like London, but if you
go on the downs of Sussex, where the air is pure, and
where everything is good and honest— {hear, and a laugh)
— you will find very little. The question which we have
discussed this evening, with regard to the preparation of
liquid manure and of solid manure, in boxes or other-
wise, will no doubt be canvassed in other rooms and
other clubs besides that to which we have the honour to
belong ; and I cannot but express my satisfaction at the
very clear way in which it has been conducted. So long
as the discussions of this club are thus conducted, they
will tend to add to the information of the farmers of
England , and at the same time render the landlords of
those farmers better acquainted with the wants and the
necessities of their tenants, and the most politic treat-
ment which they ought to receive at their hands {loud
cheers).

Mr. AiTCHESON : What is your opinion of the appli-
cation of common salt to farm-yard manure ? Is it be-
neficial or not ?

Mr. Johnson : I should think the application of
common salt very good, where you considered that you
had a quantity of insects, or the germs of insects, or the
seeds of weeds which it was desirable to kill. But fur-
ther than that, if common salt be applied at all, I thmk
it is better applied directly to the land alone, or with
a certain quantity of lime.

Mr. AiTCHEsoN : Then the application of salt would
not assist the ammoniacal qualities ?
Mr. Johnson : I think not.

Mr. HoBBs : What ingredient should you recom-
mend to fix the ammonia in liquid manures ?

Mr. Johnson : I fear. Sir, it is very difficult to
recommend anything of a practical nature that would
fix the ammonia. I have conducted experiments in a
great variety of instances with a view to this inquiry.
But between the experiments of the chemist in his labo-
ratory, and those which come within the practice of the
farmer with his hundreds of acres, from which ammonia
is evolved in large quantities in every direction, there is
a wide difference. It is impossible for him to fix the
ammonia by the use of sulphuric acid as the chemist
would do ; sulphate of ammonia is an admirable ma-
nure, and it is all very well to say sulphuric acid would
do it. But then I know that a farmer cannot go over
his farm sprinkling the land with sulphuric acid {hear,
and a laugh). A sprinkling of lime or gypsum is,
however, a very good thing, and gypsum is exceedingly
cheap. If powdered gypsum be spread under the litter
of a stable, the strong smell disappears ; that is a proof
that the sulphate of lime has combined with the am-
monia ; sulphate of ammonia is devoid of all smell, it is
not volatile like the carbonate of ammonia.

The Chairman : It is our practice, gentlemen, to
come to some resolution upon the discussion of the
evening. It is difficult, perhaps, to do this in reference
to so extensive a discussion as that of this evening. We
must endeavour, however, to embody generally the ob-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

64{

setvations of the speakers upon the various points to
which our attention has been directed (hear). Mr.
Johnson made some observations as to a difference of
opinion upon the application of manure to grass lands,
and I think (inadvertently no doubt) misrepresented my
views. I said the proper time for the most beneficial
application of manure to grass lands was immediately
upon the removal of the hay crops (hear).

Mr. JoHNSox : I did not, I think, state that there
was any difference of opinion upon that point, at least I
did not mean to do so. My observations went to the
difierence of opinion which existed as to the preparation
of manure, whether it was better wet or dry (hear, hear).

The Chairman : As to the manufacture of manure,
I think it has been shown that it is best not to be made
in the dry state ; that it loses very many of its good
qualities when it enters into a dry state of fermentation.
We find practically that it is so ; so that we are decided
upon that point. Then there is the question whether
it is better made under cover or in the farm-yard. We
have come to the conclusion that just as much moisture
is necessary as will prevent its entering into a state of
fermentation. With regard to making it in stalls, I
think you have the concentration of manure by so doing ;
you have less in quantity, but it is highly concentrated
(Hear). Every farmer, in the application of manure,
measures it not by quantity, but by quality {Hear,
hear). After a few other observations, the Chairman
concluded by saying : The great question before us is

the manufacture of manure ; and keeping to this point,
I have drawn up two or three resolutions, as follow: —

1. That in the manufacture of manure there should
be sufficient moisture, and no more than is required to
prevent its entering into too active a state of fermen-
tation ; and that the greater the extent to which it is in-
corporated and compressed the better.

2. That the economy of manure depends upon its im-
mediate application to the soil from the farm-yard so far
as is practicable, and ploughing it quickly into the land.

3. That it appears, from the observations which have
been made, that the proper time of application to grass
lands is immediately after the hay crop has been re-
moved.

4. That the rendering it portable by the process of
composting materially diminishes it both in quantity and
quality ; and that this process should not be carried
further than is absolutely necessary to facilitate its ap-
plication.

5. That such liquid manure as is usually discharged
from farm -yards is better when applied to dunghills or
collections of earth and vegetable matter than by an im-
mediate application to the soil (cheers).

After a short conversation as to the precise words of
the resolutions, they were agreed to as above.

Votes of thanks were then passed to Mr. Johnson,
for his admirable lecture, and to Mr. Baker, for his
conduct in the chair ; and both gentlemen having
briefly returned thanks, the meeting separated.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF NEW BUILDINGS ON THE HEALTH OF HORSES.

BY M. VILATTE, SURGEON, PARIS.

The Stables of M. Eugene Cremieux, dealer in
horses, are spacious, and well exposed to the air ;
nevertheless, the horses frequently fall ill in" great
numbers. Half of them are occasionally most seri-
ously aftected ; and, in fact, death is regarded im-
minent from the moment that disease begins to ap-
pear. The same forage is given to them the year
round — the oats are of the best quality — all the water
is drawn from the Seine — and the care and manage-
ment of them are as minute as can by possibihty be
conceived.

Well assured that the discovery of the causes of
one malady, which rages over a great number of
animals in the same stable, is of the highest impor-
tance, I neglected nothing to arrive at it ; thinking
that it was infinitely preferable to prevent the
disease than to overcome it by force. I will enter
into this subject at some considerable length.

The stables of M. Eugene CremieiLx are gene-
rally known to have none but Enghsh horses of the
greatest value, all of them of a sanguineous tempe-
rament, nen'ous, and naturally predisposed to in-
flammatory affections. I had nothing to do but to

combat the apoplexies, congestions, or acute affec-
tions, of the most intense character, which sur-
rounded them.

, On the 5th of November a grey horse was
mounted at 7 o'clock in the morning for the pro-
menades and j)as. The rider perceived^ that the
animal went feebly. Having arrived at the avenue
NeuiUy, the animal broke out into a general cold
sweat, and an infectious diarrhcea followed, so
abundant, that the rider told me that he evacuated
as frequently as if he had taken the most active
medicine.

The horse was brought home mth much e^ndent
pain, and the moment that he arrived he lay down,
rolled himself about, regarded his flank, continually
rose and laid himself down again, fought with his
hind limbs, agitated his tail, and could not rest him-
self a single moment.

On my arrival I found him lying on his right
side, frequently looking round at his flanks ; the
tail was contracted towards the left side. I made
him raise himself, but he fought violently, and was
continually up and down. He made numerous ef^

546

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

forts to stale — his eyes were fixed — tlie pupils dilated
• — the conjunctiva and the mucous membrane of the
mouth were of a pale yellow — the mouth was dry
and cold — the pulse small, feeble, and soft, and
jsresented a peculiar kind of intermission ; but after
two or three pulsations the respiration was short,
or only half an inspiration seemed to be executed.

The contractions of the heart were strongly felt,
and even tumultuously so — the skin was cold — the
abdomen painful — the flank hard and corded.
There were some horborigmi, but they were feeble.
The emollient lavements which were administered,
and which were returned almost immediately, had
an infectious odour.

What was to be done when the animal seemed to
be almost dying.

The diagnosis was plain. It was a sanguineous
congestion and an intestinal apoplexy.

Exciting frictions, hot and dry vesture were spread
over the whole of the body. After an hour's friction
the warmth of the skin became elevated a little.
The pulse feels much better — the contractions of
the heart are less tumultuous — the respiration is
freer — there is a slight evacuation of urine of a deep
yellow colour and an oily appearance. The horse,
however, left at liberty, torments itself still more.
The colic continues.

I thought this an opportune period for practising
phlebotomy. The blood ran in a considerable
sti-eam, but it was very black. Placed in an ordi-
nary glass the blood was black and thick, especially
when in the temperature of the stable.

Some hours after the bleeding, an improvement
was manifested. Tlie colic had ceased, and every-
thing seemed to pronounce a considerable improve-
ment, and to give promise of its continuance : I
thought we had triumphed over the evil that we were
far from abating in the morning.

At ten o'clock at night there was an evident im-
provement, and in the morning I thought that the
animal was out of danger ; but it was not to be so,
for the implacable and incessant disease continued
to exercise its ravages, and I found the horse in a
desperate state at six o'clock in the morning.

The animal had extreme feebleness — the pulse
was small, and scarcely to be felt — the conjunctive
and the buccal membranes were pale — the mouth
was diy and cold — the skin also cold — the respira-
tion short and painless — the contractions feeble and
tumultuous — the dorso-lumber region insensible —
and the walk staggering. I could not explain
changes such as these after having left the patient
so well ten hours before. I saw that the close of
the affair was at hand, yet I wished once more to
endeavour to be of sen'ice.

The examination took place eight hours after the
death of the animal. I have already remarked that

the organs of the chest were perfectly sound. The
lungs resembled those of animals destroyed by ef-
fusion of blood. The heart was pale, and did not
contain in the right ventricle more than a small
quantity of black blood, without any that was
white.

On opening the abdomen, I observed a slight
appearance of sanguineous blood. The liver was of
a pale yellow — the stomach did not present any-
thing peculiar — the mesentaiy was strongly injected,
especially the portions of the meso-colique, and me-
so-rectal. The small intestines oflfered nothing re-
markable; but the colon coecum were strongly
coloured, and the mucous membrane through its
whole extent was separated by a sero-sanguinolent
body. It was of a black character, and easily torn.

The large intestines contained a red liquid fluid
of an infectious odour.

Some time afterwards, I was called early in the
morning to a horse who was said to have a frequent
and feeble cough, and to refuse all aliment. I found
that the conjunctiva, pituitary, and buccal mem-
branes were of a deep red — the mouth warm and
dry — the respiration diflficult, short, and dry — the
horse appeared at certain times as if menanced by
suffocation — the expired air was hot — the pulse was
full and quick — the urine in small quantity, of a
yellow colour, a strong odour and an oily appearance.
The diagnosis was not doubtful. There was con-
gestion, mth threatenings of apoplexy. I announced
that in probably less than twenty-four hours the
business would be completed.

Two bleedings were practised in less than eight
hours. Exciting frictions were had recourse to —
acidulated drinks were given with ojiiates, and laxa-
tive and diuretic medicines continued to be had re-
course to in the night, unremittingly for ten hours.

On the follomng morning, at seven o'clock, the
symptoms were more exasperated ; the blood was
again black, thick, and formed into abundant coag-
ulum. Vesicatoiy ointments were administered.
As the day passed on, the respiration was more freej
but this lasted not long, and was only kept up by
the influence of some unknown cause.

At seven o'clock in the morning the state of the
animal announced the near approach of death. The
respiration was plaintive and laborious — the spumus
rale was well characterized. Tlie ])ulse was scarcely
to be heard— the contractions of the heart were tu-
multuous.

At nine o'clock the animal could no longer sus-
tain himself, and he fell. In this position, respira-
tion became impossible : he made some vain efforts
to relieve himself — he altered his position in a slight
degree— he half lifted himself, and fell again imme-
mediately. He neighed three or four times — he
made various efforts— his eyes rolled in their orbits.

THE FARMER»S MAGAZINE.

547

By one strong I'espiratory eflbit he looked around
him — his hmbs became contracted — one respiratory
sound was heard — and he died. All that remained
was some bloody discharge from the nostrils.

The autopsy was eight hours after death. I re-
marked a great quantity of black blood in the chest;
the lungs were voluminous, filled wth 1)lood, and
unusually large in quantit)'. Towards the posterior
and diaphragmatic portion of the right lobe or pleura
a clot of very thick blood was observed. The

pleursc were of a deep hue— the ventricles soft and
discoloured — the right ventricle contained black
blood without any yellow clot. The interior of the
ventricles and some large arterial tnmks have a vio-
let tint and smell. The bronchi, the trachea, and
the larynx, not only contain a red and spumy blood,
but they have also a deep red.

The abdomen does not ofter anything remarkable.

In the last month many other horses have been
affected with piUmonary complaints. — Veterinarian,

THE MAIDSTONE FARMERS' CLUB.

At the last meeting of the club, the subject for
discussion was the use and best method of apply-
ing lime. Mr. C. G. Wbittaker, the chairman, hav-
ing been obhged to leave early,

Mr. W, Barnes, the vice-chairman, presided,
and, in inti'oducing the subject of discussion, said
that some years since, he had been in the habit of
purchasing a considerable quantity of hme. At
length, however, he thought of testing it, to see
whether its effect was sufficient to warrant the ex-
pense of it. On the land which he farmed, the
Weald clay, he had tested it in every way, having
tried fields half limed, and the other half left with-
out lime ; and also he had left shps unlimed in limed
fields. He had tried this for three or four years,
and for his own part he could never discover any
good that hme had done. Since he had satisfied
himself of this, he had never purchased a single
carriage of hme, and he would not now put lime
on his land, if he could have it at a gift. He had,
however, seen it do considerable good where the
land was first broken up from lying in sheep walk.
He knew one case at Appledore, where a very rough
piece had been broken up for beans ; and, in putting
on a given portion of lime, the labourer had laid it
on too thickly in one part, and had been o])liged to
leave a small portion wholly unlimed. He (Mr.
B.) afterwards saw the crop, and remarked on the
great difference between the limed and the unhmed
portions. Where it had been limed, there was a
very good crop; but where it had been left un-
hmed, there were scarcely any beans at all. On
inquiiy, he had discovered the cause. This was
the most faA-ourable instance which he had ever met
with, of the a])plication of hme. Such being the
case, it might be asked why so much lime conti-
nued to be ap])lied to the sort of land on which he
had satisfied himself that it was useless? The
answer was, that farmers had done it because their
forefathers had done it before them. Lime had
been continually put on many soils, till all the ve-

getable matter they contained had been exhausted;
after which it had done the farmer no more good
than if he had thrown his hat on it. He wished to
be understood that he spoke of such soil as he him-
self cultivated. Now that he was addressing the
meeting, he might perhaps be permitted to state
the result of some other experiments which he had
made some time since, in which he had apphed
different manures to a piece of Swedes, which had
been followed by oats. He would now mention the
results. He had put upon each acre an equal cost
of manure, excepting the horse dung.

Bushels. Swedes,

90 loads of horse dung . 300 bushels.

8 cwt. Peruvian guano . 640 "

1 ton of rape dust . , 460 "

1 ton of urate. . . 380 "

40 bushels of bones . 480 "

The whole piece of land was put in with oats in
the following spring, and the acre which had been
dressed \vith guano was the best piece, by from four
to six bushels per acre. The oats had been fol-
lowed last year with clo\'er, in which crop the por-
tions dressed with rape and guano were the best.
This showed that those manures had not been
exhausted till the third crop. In this case, the
dung which had produced the least, had lost half
as much again as the other manures.

Mr. G. Powell said that he had used lime for
some years, without receiving any benefit from it.
He had, however, known a gentleman at Boughton,
who farmed very highly, and whose land was a
sandy soil on the ragstone, who had tried guano,
sulphate of ammonia, bones, and other artificial
manures, but had never been able to get Swedes so
good as with Hme, He had an excellent piece of
turnips this year, on land, part of which had been
dressed with bone-dust six years back, and on
which he had tried lime, by way of experiment.
WTiere the bone-dust had been placed, he had got

548

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

good turnips ; but, where there had been no bone-
dust applied, no turnips had been grown. On ano-
ther part of his farm, the gentleman had used no-
thing but lime for turnips for the last twelve or
thirteen years.

Mr. ViNEY said that he had paid as much as
£50 per year for hme, some years since, at which
time it was the constant rule of all the fanners in
his parish (Headcorn) to use lime ; but now, he be-
lieved, there M'as scarcely a farmer in the parish
who continued to do so. The last lime he had
apphed had been given to him, on the condition
that if it did any good, he was to have it for no-
thing ; and that if it did harm, he was to be paid by
the limeburner for the damage (a laugh). It cer-
tainly did no good the first year, and the lime-burner
said, " WeU, let us see what good it will do next
year." He (Mr. Y.) said, " Well, perhaps I may
get something for damage," when he said, " I think
we may as well let it go." This was rough lime,
and had done no good either on trefoil or clover.
He (Mr. Y.) had, however, sometimes seen lime
do good upon old meadows.

The Chairman asked if any gentleman could
explain why old rubbish, and mortar from old
buildings, scarcely ever failed to do good in land
where fresh lime might be useless ?

Mr. Whiting said that it had almost always been
found that the mortar of old buildings, probably
on account of the animal excretions which they had
absorbed, were always found to contain a large
portion of nitrogenous salts. Indeed, at one pe-
riod, the French obtained a portion of their nitre
from this source, for the manufacture of gun-
powder.

Mr. Hatch said that having had some lime
brought to him, carriage free, at 128. jjer load, he had
applied it as a top dressing for ho])s ; but he could
not see that it had in this case been of any benefit.
He had, however, seen it beneficially applied to an
old meadow.

Mr, Hayes said that Mr. Wickham, of Goud-
hurst, who had always used lime, had said that he
had never seen any benefit from lime in the field^
but that he had always fo und the benefit of it in
the barn : he had never been able to detect the be-
nefit of it by the eye, but had always felt it in his
pocket.

Mr. Barnes said that he had been asked to
try lime on his farm in Essex, and had authorised
the limeburner to put on whatever quantity he hked
to some grass land, and to treat the land in his o\vn
way. It had done no good there, when the lime-
seller said that perhaps it might do some good if it
were to be tried on the ploughed land, but it was
equally unsuccessful there. He(Mr.B.)had not tried
Hs eft'ect in the bam, but had been quite satisfied

with what he had seen. He had tried it against dung,
and in the first crop the hmed part had been conside-
rably inferior to the other. In the oat crop which fol-
lowed, the limed part had not produced so much
by two-thirds as the dunged part. In the following
year the same piece of land was in seeds, and the
limed part certainly did not produce half so much
as the other.

Mr. YiNEY said that he knew a gentleman (now
in America), who had spent £1000 in lime, and
whose lime had one year actually cost him more
than the value of the wheat which he had grown
with it — he having grown one quarter of wheat per
acre, and used three loads of lime.

Mr. Hayes said that he had kno\vn an instance
in which lime had succeeded — whether or not in
consequence of any diflference in the soils, he could
not say. He had had two pieces of v/heat ; one,
wliich had been limed, had been set at harvest-time at
3^ quarters; whilst the other piece, which had not
been limed, had been set at four quarters. When,
however, he came to thrash them out at harvest
time, they both yielded four quarters.

Mr. Beard said, that he had used lime ^vith
hops, and thought that the lime induced them to
fruit better.

Mr. W. P. Shirley said that he had experi-
enced the same effect from the use of lime on hops.

Mr. Beard asked if any gentlem-an had found
that the use of hme had brought the mould on
hops.

Mr. Elvy said that he had proved it. He had
put twenty loads of lime on a piece of hops of foiu:
acres, four years ago. The year before the hops
had been limed, they had been free from mould ;
but in the year following they became mouldy.

Mr. Hatch said that he had heard it said that
horse dung was a bad thing for the mould. He
had known a gentleman, howe^-er, who, having had
a very mouldy crop of hops, which had been scarcely
worth picking, had given them a heavy dressing of
horse-dung. His neighbours told him that he was
adding fuel to fire ; but he persevered, and in the
next year he had as fine a crop of hops as anybody
in the parish.

Mr. Shirley related several instances in which
he had grown productive crops of hops without
mould, after lime.

Mr. Boucher said that he had a neighbour, who
always limed his hops, because he would not have
the mould.

Mr, Whiting, in calling the attention of the
meeting to the chemical effect of lime, reminded the
members that although it mostly happened that the
soil had sufficient lime for the purposes of the crop,
yet that it might happen to be deficient in this in-
organic ingredient of plants. One use of lime was

TilE FARMEH^B MAGAZINE.

649

to decompose the organic matter which existed in
the soil, so as to render it sohihle, and availahle as
the food of plants. Lime also acted mechanically
hy lightening stift" soils ; and it must never be for-
gotten thathme formed an important ingredient in the
composition ofthe most valuable croj)s. Clover, lu-
cerne, and sainfoin had been classed by Liebig as
essentially lime plants. In the state of phosphate
of lime, that substance entered largely into the com-
position of Swedes and wheat ; and Mr. Nesbitt, in
his analysis of the hop, had shown that every hun-
dred pounds of hop, leaf, and bine, contained no
less than — lbs. of lime.

Some further conversation ensued respecting
chalk : in which

Mr. Georgk Powell, stated that a dressing of
chalk invariably killed that troublesome weed, the
mountain flax.

'Vhe following resolution was unanimously
adopted : —

" Resolved, that on many clay soils, which have
been long cultivated, and frequently dressed with
lime, this dressing is believed to be of little value ;
bvit on fresh broken land, and also on hop lands,
where a lai'ge quantity of imdecomposed vegetable
matter remained in the soil, or where land has not
been limed for some years, it has been found highly
beneficial."

The subject for discussion at the next meeting
mil be — the cultivation of root crops.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House,
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 29tli of
April — present, the Right Hon. Lord Portman, Presi-
dent, in the chair. Earle of Erne ; Hon. Captain
Howard, M.P. ; Sir John Y. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ;
Sir John Ogilvy, Bart. ; Colonel Austen, M.P. ; D.
Barclay, Esq.," M.P. ; T. Raymond Barker, Esq.; F.
C. Cherry, Esq. ; E. D. Davenport, Esq. ; A. E.
Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; John Kinder,
Esq. ; Rev. C. E. Keene ; Colonel Mac Douall ; Pro-
fessor Sewell ; S. Solly, Esq. ; W, R. C. Stansfield,
Esq., M.P. ; George Wilbraham, Esq. ; Henry Wilson,
Esq. ; Colonel Hulse ; J. A. Knipe, Esq. ; A. Ogilvie,
Esq. ; E. Parkyns, Esq. ; H. Price, Esq. ; Major
Pugh ; J. P. Severn, Esq. ; Rev. J. R. Smythies ; W.
Staffurth, Esq. ; C. T. Tower, Esq.; T. Turner, Esq. ;
and T. R. Tweed, Esq.

Railway Liberality. — The Secretary laid before the
Council letters received from Mr. Saunders, Secretary
to the Great Western Railway Company, and Captain
Mark Huish, General Manager of the Grand Junction
Railway, conveying in the most handsome and liberal
terms the pleasure it gave to the Chairman and Board
of Directors of their respective companies, to promote
the disinterested and national objects of the Royal Agri-
tural Society of England, by granting a free tansit along
their lines of railway to the stock and implements
entered for exhibition at its Country Meetings. The
President and Council having expressed the gratification
they felt on being made acquainted with these instances
of public liberality in favour of the Society and its
objects, a vote of their best thanks to the Chairman and
Directors of each of those Companies was moved re-
spectively by Mr. Wilbraham and Mr. Raymond Barker,
and carried unanimously, for the favour of their com-
munications, and the high sense the President and
Council entertain of their most liberal concessions.

Newcastle Meeting. — Mr. Manning, Contractor of
Works to the Society, reported the satisfactory progress

of the various arrangements for the ensuing Country
Meeting, to be held in the middle of July next, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, connected with the erection of the
Pavilion, the enclosure of the show-yard, and the supply
of 1,600 iron hurdles for the construction of pens for
the stock.

The Secretary reported to the Council that numerous
applications had been already made by intended exhi-
bitors at Newcastle, for leave to enter implements and
stock for the forthcoming show.

Mr. Glover, Secretary to the Local Committee at
Newcastle, announced the intention of its members to
offer special prizes for poultry on the occasion.

Adulteration of Manures. — Mr. Tower and Mr.
Davenport having called the attention of the Council
to the great extent to which artificial manures in this
country are adulterated, and consequently the serious
loss and disappointment experienced by the practical
farmer in adopting recommendations connected with
their trial, — Sir John Ogilvy remarked that in Scotland,
the establishment of the Chemical Association, of which'
he was a member, had exercised a most salutary in-
fluence in checking the progress of these dishonest
practices, from the dread of exposure it impressed upon
the guilty parties. — Mr. Kinder then gave notice that,
at the next Monthly Council, he should move the ap-
pointment of an "Inspector of Manures" to the So-
ciety ; and as his intelligent neighbour, Mr. Lawes, of
Rothamsted, who had that day been elected a member
of the Society, had long been engaged in the chemical
investigation of manures, and of their practical effects
under given circumstances on his own experimental
farm, and had expressed to him his willingness to under-
take, on his election into the Society, such honorary
oflSce, and examine in that capacity, free of all charge
to the members who might apply to him, all samples of
suspected manures from time to time submitted for his
inspection, reporting to them in due course the results
of his investigation in each particular case ; being amply

2 N

550

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rev.arded far sucli services by the honour of the appoint-
ment, and the opportunities it would give him of beuig
useful — he should propose the election of that gentleman
to the office in question.

Flax Cultivation.— Mr. Warues having attended the
meeting for the purpose of presenting to the Council a
copy of his work, recently published, on the " Cultiva-
tion of Flax," and received their best thanks for such
mark of attention, communications on the same subject
were read from Mr. Dickson and Mr. Beale Browne,
when an interesting discussion ensued on the informa-
tion detailed by the President, the Earl of Erne, and
Mr. Stansfield, M.P., in reference to practical results,
in the trial of ilax, obtained under different circum-
stances of its cultivation and management ; and the
Council accepted the offer of Lord Erne to furnish the
Society with a statement of the various plans which
had been adopted for the growth of flax in Ireland,
and the success or failure which had in particular eases
attended their trial ; on the receipt of which, the Coun-
cil ordered that the whole of these papers should be re-
ferred to the Journal Committee, with a view to their
consideration of the propriety of offering a handsome
prize for the best essay on the subject.

German Agriciilttire.— 'Di-. Zeller, Privy Councillor
to the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and Perpetual
Secretary to the three Agricultural Societies of that
Duchy, transmitted to the Council a valuable collection
of works, of which he was the author, on the following
subjects : —

1. On Agricultural Book-keeping. 2. On the Public
Laws for the Improvement of Meadows in the Grand-
Duchy of Hesse. 3. Account of the Proceedings of
the Agricultural Societies of the Duchy from 1842 to
1845. 4. Account of the Proceedings of the Great
General Meeting, held at Mayence in 1840, of the Vine
and Fruit-tree Growers in Germany. 5. On the most
Useful Agricultural Implements of the South of Ger-
many. 6. Fifteen Sheets of Designs for Agricultural
Buildings. 7. On the Science of Agricultural Propor-
tions (Elementary Data and Statistical Facts alphabeti-
cally arranged) : Part I. Cultivation of Plants.

The Council ordered that these Works be severally
bound and placed in the Library of the Society, and
that a copy of the Journal be seat to Dr. Zeller, along
with the best thanks of the Council, in acknowledg-
ment of the present he had so kindly taken the trouble
to transmit to the Society.

Miscellaneous Communications.

1 . Letter from Mr. Bray, Town- Clerk of Birming-
ham, on the subject of the Annual Country Meeting of
the Society for 1847.

2. Letter from Mr. John Clarke, of Long Sutton,
placing his Essay on the Breaking up of Grass- Lands,
"commended" by the Judges, at the disposal of the
Journal Committee.

3. Letter from Mr. Hincks, suggesting the publica-
tion of the Names and Pedigrees of Cattle exhibited at
the Country Meetings of the Society, in the Catalogues
of the Show.

4. An account, from Dr. Vacy, of the Details of Mr.
Gurney's Experiments on the subject of " Gurneyisra."

5. Paper from Mr. Townley on raising new varieties
of Potatoes from Seed.

6. Welch Potato-eye Scoop, from the Rev. J. Wil-
liams.

7. Specimen of a Weed from Mr. Fuller, M.P., over-
running his Wheat plant, and which he had been unable
to eradicate from his land.

8. Statements and Plans, from Mr. Harrison, of De-
vizes, in reference to the constructions of Cottages, &c.

9. Proceedings, from Mr. Pearsall, of the Hull Phi-
losophical Society.

10. Model of a one-horse Cart, from Mr. Graham, of
Bersted Lodge, Sussex.

11. Specimens of " hollow iron," from Mr. Stratton,
of Bristol.

The Council then ordered their best thanks for these
several communications, and adjourned to Wednesday,
the 6th of May.

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 6th of May;
present : the Right Hon. Lord Portman, president, in
the chair ; Duke of Richmond, Marquis of Downshire,
Earl of Aylesford, Earl Spencer, Earl of Erne, Earl of
Ducie, Earl of Lovelace, Viscount Hill, Viscount Newry
and Morne, Lord Braybrooke, Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P. ;
Sir Hungerford Hoskyns, Bart. ; Sir Matthew White
Ridley, Bart. ; Sir John V. B Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ;
Sir Charles Douglas, M.P. ; Colonel Austen, M.P. ; D.
Barclay, Esq., M.P. ; T. Raymond Barker, Esq. ; S.
Bennett, Esq. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq.;
Colonel Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; E. D. Daven-
port, Esq.; John EUman, Esq.; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B.
T. B. Gibbs, Esq. ; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; W. Fisher
Hobbs, Esq. ; John Hudson, Esq. ; S. Jonas, Esq. ;
Rev. C. E. Keene ; George Kimberley, Esq. ; John
Kinder, Esq. ; Colonel Mac Douall ; R. Milward, Esq. ;
E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P. ; Philip Pusey, Esq.,
M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq., J. Allen Ransome, Esq. ; Prof.
Sewell ; J. V. Shelley, Esq. ; W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq.,
M.P. ; C. Stokes, Esq. ; H. S. Thompson, Esq. ; C.
Hampden Turner, Esq. ; George Turner, Esq. ; George
Wilbraham, Esq. ; and Henry Wilson, Esq.

Finances. — Col. Austen, M.P., Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented to the Council the Re-
port of the Committee on the state of the funds of the
Society at the end of the previous month ; from which
it appeared that, on the 30th of April last, the invested
capital of the Society stood at 7,0t)0/. stock, and the
current cash balance in the hands of the bankers at
1,482^. The quarterly statements of receipt and expen-
diture, estimated income and liabilities, and permanent
investment, were also duly laid before the Council by
the Chairman of the Committee, and approved.

Prizes for Essays. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of
the Journal Committee, submitted to the Council the
following schedule of subjects for essays and reports, to
be competed for as prizes in 1847, agreeably with a
detailed statement of conditions and dates of delivery,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

651

which would be drawn up and presented for publication
at a future meeting, namely —

On the Farming of Northumbei'laiul £50

On the Farming of Suffolk 50

On the Farming of Somersetshke 50

On the Management of Sheep 20

On the Cultivation of Wheat 20

On the Cultivation sf Mangold- wurzel 20

On Paring and Burning 10

On Flax 20

On die great Level of the Fens : history of the drainage,
view of its present state, and account of the defects

which still require to be remedied 50

For an account of the best Manure for Wheat, com-
pounded of chemical ingredients ; to be tried by

Judges appointed by the Society • 30

For an account of the best Manure for Turnips, com-
pounded of chemical ingredients ; to be tried by
Judges appointed by the Society 30

Chemical Analysis. — Mr. Pusey also laid before the
Council the Report of the Committee on the Analysis
of the Ashes of Plants, in which were detailed the pro-
gress made by the Committee in carrying out the views
of the Council in reference to the question submitted
for their consideration, the division of the subject pro-
posed by the Committee for adoption, and the appoint-
ment of a Sub-Committee to confer, previously to the
final arrangements of the Committee, with parties into
whose hands it is intended that particular branches of
the investigation shall be placed. The following are
the sLx heads into which it is proposed by the Committee
that the inquiry into the Ashes of Plants should be di-
vided— namely : —

1. White Crops — Wheat, Barley, Oats, and Bye.

2. Root Cz-ops -Turnips, Swedes, Beet, Carrots, Parsnips, Po-
tatoes, and Jerusalem Artichokes.

3 Leguminous Crops — Beans, Peas, Vetches, Lentils, &c.

4. Fodder Crops— The Clovers, Saintfoin, Rye-grass, and the
Natural Grasses.

4. Crops n-ith Oily iScerfs— Hemp, Flax, Rape, Gold of Plea-
sure, Sunflower, &c.

6. The Woods of various trees.

The Council having confirmed this report, resolved
that in addition to 350/., the sum already placed at the
disposal of the Committee for carrying out the investi-
gation, the further sum of 250/. should be granted, in
order that 100/., as suggested by the Committee, may
be placed to the account of each of the six heads of the
inquiry, for the period of the ensuing two years, during
which it is intended that the investigation shall be carried
on, and for the exigencies of which, in their opinion,
that sum will in each case amply suffice.

Newcastle Practical Discussions. — Mr. Pusey further
submitted to the Council the Report of the Newcastle
Discussion Committee, containing the following recom-
mendations ; —

1. That Professor Johnston, one of the Honorai-y Members of
the Society, should be requested to read a paper before the
Members at \ewcastle-upon-Tyne, at five o'clock in the evening
of Tuesday, the 14th of July, on the Chemical Principles involved
in the preparation of Manures, and their action upon Crops :
with chemical demonstrations.

2. That Mr. Parkes, the Consulting Engineer to the Society,
should be requested to read a paper before the members, at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, at five o'clock in the evening of Wednes-
.cl»y, the 15th of July, on the subject of Draining,

?. That ti.c r(;ading of each of Uicsu p.ipcrs be foUo'.\cd by a
discussion on the practical bearings of the respective subjects,
and the cumraunication of individual experience in reference
to their details, under such regulations as the President may
decide.

4. Tliat (he discussion, after Mr. Parkes's paper, on Wednes-
day, be closed by the reading of the Judges' award of Prizes.

5. That all persons attending on these occasions be admitted
by free tickets, to be obtained of the Secretary ; it being left to
the consideration of the General Newcastle ConnniUce in what
manner regulations may be best effected for the admission of
strangers, after due provision shall have been made for the
accommodation of the members of the Society.

This report was adopted and confirmed by the
Council.

Exhibition of Poultry. — The request of the Newcastle
Local Committee, for space in the Show-yard at the
ensuing Country Meeting of the Society at that place
in July, having been read, the Council resolved that such
space should be allowed for that purpose as may be re-
quired, and that the notice, entry, and adjudication in
reference to that portion of the exhibition in the Society's
Show-yard, should be made agreeably with the 27th
regulation of the Show.

Ejchibition of Wool. — Mr. B. Gibbs having called
the attention of the Council to the question of the entry
of wool in competition for the prizes in that class offered
by the Society for adjadication at Newcastle, on the mo-
tion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, the Council agreed to the
following resolution : — " The fleeces exhibited shall have
been taken from the same flock, fed together during the
six months prior to the time of shearing ; such flock
having during that period been bond fide the property of
the exhibitor, who shall be required to specify on his
certificate whether the sheep have been kept in a house
or not."

Auctioneers. — The Council having decided that it
would this year be desirable that the sale by auction
should be divided between two professional parties, on
the motion of Mr, Milward, seconded by Mr. Fisher
Hobbs, they unanimously appointed Mr. Wetherell, of
Durham, to be the Society's auctioneer at the New-
castle meeting for the sale of cattle and horses, and Mr.
James Chrisp, of Newcastle, to be the Society's auc-
tioneer on the same occasion, for the sale of sheep, pigs,
and implements : on the condition of each party's agree-
ing to abide by the established regulations of the So-
ciety in reference to the sale by auction.

Corporate Agreements. — The Duke of Richmond
then moved the following resolution, of which Mr. Miles,
M.P., had given due notice at a former meeting,
namely : — " That in future no agreement which may
be entered into with local authorities relative to the
place of the annual Country Meeting, shall be held
good, unless the corporate seal, attested by the signature
of the mayor, shall be affixed to such document." This
resolution was agreed to accordingly.

Annual Country Meeting of 1847. — Earl Spencer,
Chairman of the Local Inspection Committee for the
Country Meeting of 1847, having laid before the Council
the report of the Committee on the result of their per-
sonal inspection of the various localities they had visited
in accordance with the instructions of the Council, Mr,

2 N 2

552

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Raymond Barker, Mr. Bennett, and iMr. Brown pro-
ceeded to explain in detail the accommodation respec-
tively aflbrded by each of the towns which as members
of the Committee they had visited, and the nature of the
sites proposed in each case by the authorities for the
purposes of the meeting ; and the Secretary laid before
the Council the whole of the documents he had received
from the authorities of cities and corporate towns
throughout the district of that year's meeting. The
Council then received the deputations who had come to
town for the purpose of advocating the claims of the
localities they respectively represented, and who, having
guaranteed to the Council the authenticity and accuracy
of the memorials and other documents transmitted by
their respective authorities, afforded such further in-
formation as the members present required. The Pre-
sident expressed to each of the deputations who had
thus favoured the Council with their attendance, the
best thanks of himself and the Council for the honour
they had done the Society in the several invitations they
had given to the members at large to hold their Country
Meeting in one of their respective localities, and for the
kind trouble they had taken in preparing and transmit-
ting the >arious plans and reports required by the
regulations of the Society, prior to the selection of any
particular city or town as the place of the Country
Meeting.

The deputations then withdrew, and the Council pro-
ceeded to the consideration of the relative capabilities of
each of the localities proposed for the occasion of the
ensuing meeting, as well as the largest amount of accom-
modation offered by each of them for the purposes of
the meeting, and the general convenience of members
of the Society, and the visitors attending on the occasion.

The Council finally decided that Northampton should
be selected as the place of the Country Meeting of 1847,
for the district embracing the counties of Northampton,
Warwick, Bedford, Buckingham, Berks, Oxford, Hun-
tingdon, and Hertford, subject to a due execution within
the ensuing week of the formal agreement required by
the rules of the Society. The President stated that he
should order a Special CouncQ to be summoned for Wed-
nesday next at 1 o'clock, to receive and ratify that
agreement, and resume the consideration of the Report
of the Rotation of Districts Committee, in reference to
Districts for the Country Meetings of 1848-55.

General Meeting. — The Council decided that one
o'clock in the afternoon should be fixed as the hour of
the General Meeting on Friday, the 22nd instant. They
also agreed to the house list of the Council, required by
the bye-laws of the Society, and gave orders for the pre-
pai"ation of a provisional prize sheet for 1847, to be laid
on the table for the inspection and suggestions of the
]\Icmbers who might attend on that occasion. The
President stated that a Special Council would be held on
Wednesday, the 20th instant, at one o'clock, for taking
into consideration the Report of the Council to the
General Meeting.

Judges. — The Council then appointed the following
Committees for the recommendation to the Council of
such Judges as they might select from the lists of nomi-
nation transmitted by members to the Secretary, or de-

livered by them personally to the President on the day
of the General Meeting : all members of the Society
being invited to nominate accordingly such Judges as
they may wish to recommend for particular Classes of
the Show, agreeably with the privilege granted to them
by the bye-laws.

Committee for Jiuhjes of Stock. — Earl Spencer, Mr. Stokes,

Mr. Druce, Mr. H. Gibbs, and Mr. Shaw.
Committee fur Judges of Implements. — ^Ir. Tliompsou, Mr.

Pusey, Sir John Johnston, Jlr. Miles, and ]\Ir. Shelley.

The Council ordered that the Committee, appointed
Nov. 5, 1845, to consider the best mode of providing
for the accommodation of the Judges, and regulating
the rate of their remuneration, be directed to meet for
business.

The President laid before the Council a collection of
papers received from Sir John Ogilvy, Bart., connected
with the proceedings of the Chemical Association in
Scotland and the Potato disease ; the Earl of Erne re-
ported the steps he had taken to obtain the information
on Flax requested by the Council ; and Mr. Thompson
presented 76 full-sized heads of Wheat grown from one
grain, and 160 heads of Barley also from one grain, by
Colonel Croft, in his garden, at Stillington, Yorkshire.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 13th
inst.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's
House in Hanover square, on Wednesday, the 13th of
May. Present — The Right Hon. Lord Portman, pre-
sident, in the chair; Duke of Richmond; Hon. R. H.
Clive, M.P. ; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P. ; Sir
Matthew White Ridley, Bart. ; Sir John V, B. John-
stone, Bart., M.P. ; Colonel Austen, M.P. ; T. Ray-
mond Barker, Esq. ; H. Blanchard, Esq. ; F. C. Cherry,
Esq. ; Colonel Challoner ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; C. Hillyard,
Esq. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; John Kinder, Esq. ;
J. H. Langston, Esq., M.P. ; Colonel MacDouall ; E.
W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P. ; Prof. Sewell ; George
Turner, Esq. ; Geo. Wilbraham, Esq.; T. B. Batard,
Esq. ; Colonel Blagrave ; Capel Cure, Esq. ; A. E.
Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; W. Hervey, Esq. ; Rev. C. E.
Keene ; A. Ogilvie, Esq. ; E. Parkyns, Esq. ; G. Par-
sons, Esq. ; H. Price, Esq. ; J. Roddam, Esq. ; H.
Smith, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; and T. R. Tweed, Esq.

Tussac Grass. — Viscount Palmerston, M.P., trans-
mitted to the Council the following communication on
the subject of Tussac Grass, addressed to his Lordship
by Lieut. Moody, Governor of the Falkland Islands :-•-

" Governmeni-lioiise , Port William,

" Falkland Islands, 8th Jan., 1846.

' ' I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of a
note from your lordship, dated 5th April, 1845, and
have much pleasure in attending to the wishes there n
expressed. I beg to state that the person who collects
the Tussac seed is a poor man, named C. J. DettlefF (a
native of Hamburgh), whom I am encouraging to make
a trade with it. I am forwarding 8!bs. of the seed by
the merchant brig "Hebe," C. S. Anderson, master,
bound for London ; agent for the brig in England, Cap-
tain Faith, Lloyd's Coffee House, London. I have

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

553

given the master ample directions to insure the delivery
of the seed to your lordship. Dettleff's charge for the
seed is 21. 10s. per lb. I beg to suggest that the best
way to pay Dettleff for the seed would be for your lordship
to cause the sum, namely 20/., to be paid to my account
at my agents, Messrs. Cox and Co., Charing Cross, and
advice of the same to be forwarded to me. I will then
pay over the amount to the man, and forward the re-
ceipt to your lordship's agent,

"The price charged at present for the seed appears to
be high, but it takes a long time and much care to col-
lect, as well as considerable personal inconvenience to
the poor man under the present circumstances of the
colony.

" The portion of your lordship's property described
in the note appears to be well suited for the growth of
this grass, if the blowing sand be not more than two
feet deep near the beach, and fortunately rest on peat
or peaty soil, no matter how thin. If the shore be
bold, and the sea bank high and rocky, I should choose
the most exposed points. If the spray, but not the
actual wave, dashes over it, so much the better. I do
not think that sowing it in the shifting sand would
answer in the first instance, though when the grass
once takes root in any soil, the drift sand blowing over
it, amongst it, and almost burying it, does not seem to
injure it. I would try some in the sand that has been
fixed by the bent, but as near the sea as possible. The
Tussac loves the spray, and the finest plants are almost
growing in the water. If the breezes from the sea
carry a great quantity of moisture to the peat bog be-
hind the tract of sand, I conceive the Tussac grass
would answer extremely well in it. We have Tussac
grass gro^'ing on peat bogs on exposed islands in the
Falklands, in places 800 and 1,000 feet above the sea,
but these sites are exposed to the westerly gales, which
are laden with moisture. Some of the finest young
plants I have seen grew from seed sown in rich mould
in my garden, 300 yards from the shore of a deep in-
land harbour, and jirotected from the winds by a high
turf wall. This artificial mode seems to contradict
what I before stated. Nature prefers the first men-
tioned places, but as the latter is a fact, I would recom-
mend both to be tried. In the garden I was so suc-
cessful with the plants from seed, that I proceeded to
transplant suckers from the wild ones on the rocky
shore to the rich mould in the garden, and I found
them to thrive vigorously. I took suckers from these
again, also from the plants raised by seed, and planted
out more rows. Every plant answered admirably. I
cut them down, and they grew more bushy and spread,
throwing out fresh suckers. I should soon have filled
a paddock with the plants, but as it was necessary to
change the site of the chief town, I had to abandon my
garden, and begin new and arduous labours, which have
occupied the time of all hands too much to spare any
for experimental agriculture. In laying out a piece of
ground for Tussac grass, the following circumstances
must be borne in mind. The plant grows in bunches,
occupying from 2 to 3, and sometimes even 5 feet in
diameter, and the blades of grass, when full grown.

are 7 or 8 feet long. The roots seem forced up from
the ground, and I have been in patches of fine full-
grown Tussac, in which a man on horseback is al-
most concealed. I should, therefore, sow the seed in
rows 2 feet apart, some in a garden, and some on ex-
posed points of peaty soil close to the sea, and within
reach of the spray, carefully weeding between the
plants as they grow up. When they are 9 inches or a
foot high the suckers might be separated and planted
out 3 feet apart in rows. As the plants grow large
every alternate row should again be planted out, in
order to leave room for a man, cow, or horse, to pass
between the rows without treading down the plants.
To raise from seed appears a more uncertain and much
slower method than that of planting out suckers from
the finest plants.

" With regard to the value of Tussac as a fodder, par-
ticularly for winter, I will mention a few facts that may
be interesting. It is green all the year round. Frost
does not appear to injure it, nor does snow cover it. It
is a soft, succulent, and highly nutritious grass, extremely
relished by all animals, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs.
Cattle and horses fatten upon it in a surprising manner.
They eat the whole blade down to the root, which, by
the way they relish most. They will eat old dry Tussac
thatch from oft" the roofs of houses. The tracts of wild
cattle and horses in the Falklands extend from many
miles inland to the exposed sea-beaten points covered
with Tussac. There is an island in Berkeley Sound that
can be reached at low water from the main. The area of
this island is as nearly as possible 800 acres, and there
are about 400 acres of Tussac Grass upon it ; the re-
mainder of the island is thinly covered with coarse wing
grass and rush, on peat bog, a very wretched piece of
pasture land, afi'ording scarcely any nutriment. Last
autumn I caused the Government herd, consisting of
800 head of cattle and about 60 or 70 horses, to be
placed on this island for the winter months. A small
house is at the extremity of the ford, in which I placed
a guard. The animals remained on the island nearly six
months, with no other nutriment than what the island
afforded. Towards the end of that time they began to
get poor, and the Tussac was eaten down to the roots.
By next autumn it will have entirely recovered. I am
compelled to let the cattle graze the Tussac from want
of hands and means to make different arrangements ; nor
do I consider any other plan a matter of sufficient mo-
ment in the present state of the colony, as to warrant
the outlay requisite to economise properly this invaluable
food. But in England, where labour is cheap, I would
act differently. The cattle could be folded in an adjoin-
ing paddock to the field of Tussac, and fed over the wall
or fence by men cutting the Tussac in bundles, com-
mencing with the upper row and passing regularly-
through the field ; by the time they had cut the last row
the first would be ready to cut again. Had such a plan
been adopted by me in the island I mentioned above, I
feel confident the 400 acres of Tussac would have amply
supplied the 800 head of cattle for twelve instead of six
months ; it is incredible how much is injured by being
trodden down and eaten too close, and the horses, from

654

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

preferring the root, do more mischief thaa the cattle. I
have uo data to say decidedly how many animals one
man could cut food for in a day, and to attempt to do so
might only mislead your lordship. I ought to mention
that the plant is of slow growth, and would probably be
three years in coming to perfection, during which period,
however, it might be cut annually with advantage.
When once full grown it springs up rapidly after being
cut down, the blades reaching their full height of seven
feet by the end of summer, though cut down in the
spi-ing. I kept up a favourite horse in a loose box one
winter, and had him fed entirely on Tussac cut for him
and given green. He ate it greedily, and vv'as always in
excellent condition ; but, as a general rule, I should con-
sider it soft food for a horse doing any work.

" When it is remembered that this invaluable provi-
sion of Nature thrives luxuriantly where scarcely any
other vegetation will exist, that it is most nutritious and
much relished by cattle, it is impossible to resist feeling
the most earnest desire to see it extensively tried in those
portions of the United Kuigdom which, in climate and
soil, bear some resemblance to the Falkland Islands. I
might easily expatiate on the extreme beauty of its
vegetation, covering rocky, storm-beaten promontories
and small islands with a dark rich verdure, always re-
minding me of tropical luxuriance ; but its importance
in a practical point of view is what I am desirous of
making fully known to your lordship, and to all inte-
rested in agricultural pursuits. I should wish to send
a large quantity of Tussac seed to England every season,
but the settlers here are, as yet, far too few in number,
and far too busy to spare time to collect it. It appears
to me it would be money well laid out if one of our
leading Agricultural Societies were to send here an in-
telligent person, to remain the sLx summer months,
collecting seed. He would be absent from England about
a-year, and the whole expense would not exceed 300/.
He should bring either a wooden or iron house, ten feet
Square, with a small stove ; three tons of coal ; provi-
sions, such as biscuit, pork, coffee, and sugar; gun-
powder, shot, warm clothing, bed and blankets, a
folding table, two stools, and a military canteen. More
things would be an incumbrance. Dettleft", whom I
have mentioned above to your lordship, usually goes
from the settlement on foot, and takes only a good dog
and a stick. He is absent about two months, sleeps
under a rock, lives on wild geese and rabbits, and occa-
sionally a calf, and invariably returns in the best pos-
sible health. A person from England might, however,
fix his little residence on a small Tussac island, close to
the settlement, and at present reserved by Government,
and in one summer coUect such a quantity of seed, with
Dettleff's aid, as would more than cover his expenses,
to say nothing of the advantage of having a good autho-
rity at home that could be referred to at any moment.
I have given a close attention to this Grass for four
years, and though at first it may appear a dreamy kind
of enthusiasm, I do not hesitate to say that, should it be
found, on trial, to succeed in the United Kingdom as
well as it does in the exposed portions of the Falkland
Islands, it will raise the annual income of many landed

proprietors from hundreds to thousands, A Tussac-fed
ox is in the finest order here at the end of the winter,
though never housed or cared for in any way. In the
Falmouth Packet and Cornish Herald newspaper of
23d August, 1815, I have been shown a paragraph,
stating that I, Matheson, M.P., of Lewis and Achany,
sent some Tussac Grass seed, procured from the Falk-
land Islands, to Stornaway, and that Roderick Nicolson,
Esq., tackman of Colb, has been perfectly successful
in raising Grass from the seed. I should be glad to
hear of some of the seed being sown in the salt-water
marshes near Southampton, Dungeness, Isle of Sheppey,
the fens near the Wash in Lincolnshire, the banks of the
Thames and south shore of Essex round to Harwich ;
in short, anywhere near the sea, preferring, as a general
rule, marsh and peat bogs to sand hills or downs, al-
though I would always try both. I would also be glad
to hear of some having been tried on inland bogs, as the
bog of Allenand, Chalmop. I have forgot to mention
that I would sow the seed very early in the spring, and
not too deep. I need not say that it will be a source of
pride to me to be of any service to your lordship, either
in procuring seed or affording information at anytime."
"(Signed) "R.C.Moody."

Lord Palmerston, as a member of the Society, par-
ticularly called the attention of the Council to that part
of the communication which had reference to the col-
lection of the seeds of the Tussac grass, and thought
that if the Royal Agricultural Societies of England and
Ireland considered it worth while to act upon Governor
Moody's suggestion of sending out some person to the
Falkland Islands for that purpose, they might make an
arrangement together for sharing the expense and di-
viding the produce of the expedition proportionally be-
tween them.

The Duke of Richmond favoured the Coimcil with
the result of his own trials of the Tussac grass on dif-
ferent soils in the north of Scotland, on his estates near
Gordon Castle. The seed had been furnished to his
Grace by Sir Wm. Jackson Hooper, of the Royal Gar-
dens at Kew, and was sown in garden mould, sandy
soil, and peat. The peat consisted of a waste marsh or
bog, covered in easterly gales with spray from the sea,
on which nothing grew, and where snipes were the only
tenants. It was found that not a single blade of the
Tussac grass grew excepting in the peat, where it was
found to succeed well, and appeared a good grass.
Colonel Mac Douail stated that his own trial of the
Tussac grass had furnished a result exactly correspond-
ing with that obtained by the Duke of Richmond, none
of the plants coming up excepting in peat.

The Council ordered their best thanks to be conveyed
to Lord Palmerston for the favour of his communica-
tion, with a request that his lordship, as well as the
Duke of Richmond and Colonel Mac Douali, would
from time to time lay before the Society the progress of
their respective experience in the cultivation of the
grass in question.

Clovei' Hay. — Mr. Joseph Blundell, of Maidenstone
Heath, near Hound, Hampshire, transmitted to the
Council a sample of white Dutch clover hay, stacked

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

555

in 1841, along with the following explanation of the
advantages which he had found it to possess as a
fodder, in conjunction with turnips, for his early
lambs: — " Being a member of the Royal Agricultural
Society, I have taken the liberty of sending for inspec-
tion a sample, or a specimen, of white Dutch clover
hay ; and although taken from the centre of a stack,
and being a little too much heated to be a good sample
of well-made hay, still I consider it a perfect specimen
of the herbage and kind of clover requisite for the
making first-rate hay for the purpose of feeding early
lambs in conjunction with turnips, &c. This sample
was taken from a stack of 16 tons, the produce of 11
acres of land, and grown in the year 1841 on my farm
at Maidenstone Heath, Hound, Southampton. I shall
feel obliged if you will present this sample ot hay to the
Council at their next meetmg, my object being to in-
form them of the sort of hay which I have found to be
highly beneficial in the fatting of early lambs, for which
purpose I have used it with great success for some
years past. Should this communication be deemed
worth notice by the Council, and any statement be re-
quired regarding the cultivation of the clover, or the
making of the hay, I shall feel happy to furnish it at
any time." — The best thanks of the Council were or-
dered to Mr. Blundell for this letter and the sample of
clover hay which accompanied it.

Weeds among Wheat. — Mr. Fuller, M.P., of Ash-
down House, near East Grinstead, transmitted fresh spe-
cimens, in yellow bloom, of a weed which proved very
troublesome in his wheat land, and remained still in pos-
session of the soil, having resisted all his efforts to effect
its extirpation. It is known locally as the " hedge hog,"
or " periwinkle" weed, and is of so vigorous a character,
that unless the wheat plant is very strong, it soon over-
runs it. The weed comes up along with the wheat, and
stands the winter equally well, its growth in summer
being of corresponding amount to that of the wheat, to
the plant of which it is very injurious. The seeds are
very rough. Mr. Ogilvy i-emarked that he had found,
as the result of his own experience, that wild mustard,
and all other weeds likely to infest a crop of wheat, may
be destroyed previously to the sowing of the grain, by
having the land ploughed several weeks before sowing,
in order to give the weeds an opportunity of vegetating
by such exposure of the under-soil to external influences ;
the weeds, at the time of sowing, having become so far
advanced in their growth as to be irrecoverably injured
by the harrows passing over them.

Prizes for Sheep. — As the Society's prizes for moun-
tain sheep, to be awarded at the ensuing Newcastle
Meeting, are not exclusively designed for any particular
variety of mountain breed of established celebrity, but
open without exception to the general competition of
" sheep best adapted to a mountain district," Mr.
Glover, Secretary of the Newcastle Local Committee,
addressed a communication to the Council, on the part
of that committee, recommending that the general cha-
racter of the Society's prizes should be changed into an
exclusive one in favour of the Cheviots, and that the offer
of prizes now made to the Council by the members of

such committee for the black -faced breed should be ac-
cepted ; and Mr. Robson, as Secretary of the North-
Tyne and Redesdale Cheviot Sheep Show, conveyed the
wish of its members that the Council would accept their
offer of a first, second, and third prize for the best pen
of three fifteen months old or shearling rams, of the pure
Cheviot breed. The Council decided— 1. That the So-
ciety's object is to have tlieir prizes awarded, without
distinction, to such sheep as, in the opinion of the
judges, are the best adapted to a mountain district. 2.
That, by the bye-laws of the Society, no alteration can
now be made in the prizes offered by the Society. 3.
That, by the 27th regulation, namely — " In case any
gentleman, or number of gentlemen, should wish to
offer a prize for any class of stock not distinctly spe-
cified among the prizes offered by the Society, he or
they will be allowed to offer such prize at the meeting
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The stock which may com-
pete for that prize shall be exhibited, subject to the con-
ditions that shall be decided upon by the Council, and
the prize awarded by such of the judges as the Council
shall select. Animals exhibited for that prize shall not
be prevented from competing for any of the prizes
offered by the Society for which they are qualified:" —
the gentlemen composing the two bodies in question are
allowed to offer the prizes for Cheviots and black-faced
sheep. The Council then instructed the Secretary to
communicate with Mr. Glover and Mr. Robson accord-
ingly, informing them at the same time that by the rules
of the Society, June the 1st would be the latest day on
which certificates for the entry of any stock whatever for
the Show could be received.

Glass Milk-Pans. — Messrs. Edwards and Pell, of 15,
Southampton-street, Strand, presented to the Council
two glass Milk -pans of their manufacture — one of a
dark, and the other of a light green colour. The ma-
nufacturers informed the Council that hs the Milk-pans
were cleaned with so much ease, the use of scalding
water for the purpose of cleansing them was found to
be unnecessary ; and also that they were of such strength
of material as to be enabled to stand a very severe blow
without breaking. The average weight of the pans of
dark green glass was 81bs., and the price 3s. 9d. ; that
of the light green glass lOlbs., and the price at the rate
of 8d. per lb.

Mr. Wetherell communicated his acceptance of the
appointment of Auctioneer at the Newcastle Meeting,
subject to the regulations of the Council. — The Rev.
John Barlow, Secretary of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, signified his willingness to give a free
admission to Members of the Society on the occasion
of the Rev. E. Sidney's Lecture in the theatre of that
establishment on the 15th of May, " On the Nature of
certain Fungi attacking the Agricultural Produce of
this Country." — Communications on the growth of sound
Potatoes from diseased tubers, from Mr. Fuller, M.P.,
and Mr. Wing, of Fordingbridge ; and on the storing of
Potatoes of the " hen's-nest" variety in fine Lynn
sand, from Sir M. W. Ridley.— A paper from Mr.
H. B. Morris, of Ramsgate, on the Keeping of Farm
Accounts ; which the Council referred, along with all

556

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

other documents on this subject, to Colonel Challoner,
Mr. Tawney, and Mr. Kimberley, as the Committee ap-
pointed by the Council to report on the best mode of
Keeping Farming Accounts. — The Weekly Council then
adjourned to Wednesday next, the 20th of May, and the
Members of Council and Governors present proceeded
to the business of the Special Council.

Special Council. — Lord Portman, President, in the
Chair.

The agreement of the Society with the authorities of
Northampton was duly ratified by the Council, and
completed in duplicate agreeably with the terms of the
Charter.

The following arrangements were made for the Dis-
tricts of the Country Meeting: —

1848.— The Yorksliire District (comprised of the County of
York).

1849. — The Eastern District (comprised of the Counties of
Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridge).

1850. — The Western District (comprised of tlie Counties of
Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall).

A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 20th
May ; present, the Right Hon. Lord Portman, Presi-
dent, in the chair; Duke of Richmond; Earl Spencer ;
Earl of Egmont; Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P. ; Hon. J.
Carnegie; Sir M. W. Ridley, Bart. ; Sir Robert Price,
Eart., M.P. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ;
W. R. Browne, Esq. ; Col. Challoner ; S. C. Cherry,
Esq. ; E. D. Davenport, Esq. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; C.
Hillyard, Esq. ; J. Kinder, Esq. ; Col. MacDouall ; W.
Miles, Esq., M.P. ; R. Milward, Esq. ; E. S. Chandos
Pole, Esq. ; P. Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq. ; E.
A. Sanford, Esq. ; Professor Sewell ; R. A. Slandy,
Esq.; W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P. ; W. B. Win-
gate, Esq. ; B. Almack, Esq. ; T. B. Browne, Esq. ;
H. Burr, Esq. ; G. Darby, Esq. ; C. Eyre, Esq. ; Dr.
Fownes; A. E. Fuller, Esq., MP.; J. B. Glegg, Esq. ;
H. Hudson, jun., Esq.; E. Hussey, Esq.; Rev. C. E.
Keene ; H. Price ; J. Roddam, Esq. ; S. Solly, Esq. ;
T. R. Tweed, Esq. ; D. C. Webb, Esq. ; J. Wood,
Esq.; and Francis Woodward, Esq.

On the motion of the Duke of Richmond, seconded
by Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., the thanks of the
Council were voted to the Railway Companies who
had granted a reduction on their usual charges in favour
of exhibitors at the Newcastle meeting of the Society.

Communications were received from Mr. Chrisp, of
Newcastle, accepting the oflSce of one of the auctioneers
at the ensuing Country Meeting of the Society, under
the regulations prescribed by tlie Council ; from Mr.
Dickson, presenting a copy of his work on Flax ; from
Mr. Glover, Sec. to the Newcastle Local Committee, on
the subject of Prizes for Poultry and Black-faced Sheep ;
from Mr. Curtis, R.N., on a manure composed of fishy
matter and lime ; from Mr. Milward, a present of a work
on Keeping Farming Accounts ; from Mr. Parkinson, of
Leyfields ; from Mr. Purchas, on results in the employ-
ment of Acid and Bones as a Manure; and from Prof.
Sewell, a Specimen of Salts which having been sold as
"Glauber's Salts," had poisoned three cows, the salts
proving to be not Glauber's Salts (sulphate, of soda).

but the nitrate of soda. Interesting discussions and
statements of facts having followed the presentation of
these several communications, the Council adjourned to
Wednesdsy, the 3rd of June,

A Special Council was then held, the Right Hon.
Lord Portman in the chair, for the purpose of agreeing
to a report of the Council to the General Meeting.

The General May Meeting was held on Friday,
May 22, at the Society's House in Hanover Square ;
present, the Right Hon. Lord Portman, President, in the
chair. EarlofDucie, Viscount Torrington, LordCamoys,
Hon. J. Carnegie, Hon. H. W. Wilson, Sir Matthew
White Ridley, Bart. ; Sir Richard Paul Jodrell, Bart. ;
Sir Trayton Elliott Drake, Bart. ; Sir Robert Price,
Bart., M.P. ; Sir Henry Dymoke, Bart.; Sir John
Ogilvy, Bart. ; Sir Samuel Hancock, Knt. ; Colonel
Austen, M.P. ; Colonel Blagrave, Colonel Challoner,
Colonel Elwood, Colonel Scudamore, Colonel Smith,
Rev. D. Gwilt, Rev. C. E. Keene, Rev. James Linton,
Rev. J. R. Smythies, Professor Sewell ; Messrs. B.
Almack, R. Archbold, M.P. ; J. Ambrose, T. Raymond
Barker, J. Barton, S. Bennett, N. Blake, J. Brown, T.
B. Browne, W. R. Browne, T. Carpenter, A. H. Cherry,
F. C. Cherry, G. Curteis, James Dean, W. Dickinson,
Jos. Druce, S. Druce, Edwin East, John Ellman, C.
Eyre, W. Flack, A. E. Fuller, M.P. ; H. Gibbs, B. T.
B. Gibbs, H. J. Grant, S. Grantham, J. B. Glegg, W.
Greaves, G. Heneage, J. Hercy, C. Hillyard, J. H.
Hippisley, John Hudson, E. Hughes, H. Justice, T.J.
Kelsey, John Kinder, T. Knight, A. Lawson, M.P. ;
J. B. Lawton, J. Laycock, H. Martin, R. Milward,
D, Neave, C. Newman, A. Ogilvie, J. Pakington, W.
Pinney, E. S. Chandos Pole, Peter Pole, H. Price, H.
Putland, R. Randall, E. A. Sanford, M.P.; S. Selmes,
T. Severne, R. A. Slaney, S. Solly, W. R, C. Stans-
field, M.P. ; M. Stevens, C. Stokes, W. Stutfield, H.
Strafford, C. Smythies, T. D. F. Tatham, S. B. Taylor,
W. Trinder, C. Hampden Turner, T. Turner, W. B.
Turner, T. R. Tweed, Jonas Webb, J. A. WiUiams, F.
Woodward, and R. Worthington.

On the motion of Lord Camoys, seconded by Colonel
Challoner, the Earl of Egmont was unanimously elected
President of the Society for the year ensuing the rising
of the Newcastle Meeting, on the 18th of July next.

On the motion of R. A. Slaney, Esq., seconded by J.
Dean, Esq., the Vice-Presidents, and on that of R,
Beiens, Esq., seconded by T. Raymond Barker, Esq.,
the Trustees of the Society were unanimously re-
elected.

E. A. Sanford, Esq., James Dean, Esq., and Thomas
Knight, Esq., having been nominated Scrutineers for
the election of 25 members of Council, the House List
was unanimously adopted by the meeting; 18 of the
members who went out this year by rotation being
re-elected, and the following new members of Council
elected, for the ensuing two years, namely, John Bell
Crompton, Esq., of Duffield Hall, near Derby ; Samuel
Druce, Esq., of Ensham, near Oxford; Lord South-
ampton, Whittlebury Lodge, near Towcester, North-
amptonshire; Richard Garrett, Esq., of Leiston, near
Saxraundham, Suffolk; William Shaw, jun., Esq., of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

557

Far-Cotton, near Northampton: Robert Smith, Esq.,
of Burley, Rutlandshire ; and Thomas Umbers, Esq.,
of Wappenbury, Warwickshire.

REPORT.
The Secretary, by direction of the President, then read
the following Report from the Council :

" The economy of remunerative farming is one of the
great objects of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, and at the same time one of the principal means
through which that science included in the terms of their
motto is to be derived and regulated ; the observation of
well established facts, and the results of actual experi-
ments, being the only ground-work on which they admit
that improvements in agriculture can be successfully
based ; while a clear knowledge of cause and effect under
given circumstances, and a detail of the particular cases to
which such knowledge is applicable, is, in their opinion,
the only safe science to be recommended to their mem-
bers. The theories of chemical agency, physical forces,
and organic action, under the varying conditions of local
circumstance or the control of vital influence, are in
themselves important objects of inquiry for the philo-
sopher ; but it is only when the practical application of
their results becomes apparent, that they assume a form
in which they can be submitted to the test of trial, or be
rationally expected to lend any aid in promoting the im-
provement of practical agriculture. Accordingly, whilst
calling in the aid of science to agricultural practice, the
Council have felt it their duty to discourage every at-
tempt to introduce vague theories, especially when it has
been found by experience that much steady progress
may be made in the improvement of agriculture, by the
obvious means of applying to one locality that system of
management which has been proved to be successful in
another similar locality.

" In order to maintain a knowledge of the most ap-
proved systems of husbandry, practised in different loca-
lities, the Society not only holds its Country Meetings,
from year to year, in various districts, but incites anl re-
munerates by its prizes for County Reports, and Essays
on distinct topics of inquiry, that communication of
practical experience which, by publication in the ' Jour-
nal,' becomes accessible to the agricultural community.
At those Meetings, the knowledge of local excellence, ac-
quired on the spot, is repaid by the exhibition of what-
ever has been found most desirable in breed of stock, or
economical in the construction of implements ; and that
mutual interchange of opinion amongst farmers them-
selves which tends to establish a good understanding
among all parties connected with agricultural pursuits,
and to remove those local prejudices which have so long
retarded its progress.

" Since the last General Meeting in December, the
Council have had under their consideration the details
connected with the following general subjects : —

1. The Finances of the Society ;

2. The Annual Country Meetings; and

3. The Prizes for Reports and Essays for 1846 and 1347.
" Finances. — The FinanceCommitteehaveprepared,

agreeably with the order of the Council, the first return
of a quarterly statement of the receipts and payments.

estimated income and liabilities of the Society, which
will in future be made at the end of every three months.
They have also submitted to the Council their Report
on the funded property of the Society, and the arrears
of subscription, as well as their final balance-sheet of the
Shrewsbury Meeting account.

'• The Finance Committee reported, at their last
monthly meeting, that the invested capital of the Society
consisted of 7,000/. stock, and that the current cash-
balance in the hands of the bankers amounted to 1,482/. ;
and that the arrears of subscription on the 31st of Decem-
ber stood as follows : —

iQii T. "^ CJoveriiors at f>l. each ... £ 15

^''^^ J 321 Members at \l. „ ... 321

"1 4 Governors at 5/. „ ... 20

J 617 Members at 1/. „ ... 617

1 10 Governors at 5/. „ ... 50

J 1094 Members at IL „ ... 1094

,,\ 18 Governors at 5/. „ ... 90

^'^'^■^ / 1582 Members at li. „ ... 1582

1 Q 1 - I '^7 Governors at 51. „ ... 235

^'"^^ J 2702 Members at 1?. „ ... 2702

1842
1843

Total

£6726

" 76/. has been discharged from the arrear account
between the last general meeting on the 3rd of Decem-
ber, and the end of that month ; and a further reduction
of 33G/. has been effected during the present year. Ac-
cording to the bye-laws all subscriptions for the current
year remaining unpaid on the 1st of June become in ar-
rear, and no member whose subscription is so in arrear,
is allowed to enjoy any of the privileges of the Society.
" Since the last General Meeting in December, 243
new members have been elected, 30 have died, and 81
have been struck off the list, and the Society now con-
sists of —

life Governors . . .

Ainnial Governors

Life Members ...

Annual Members.

Honorary Members

92

201

554

6105

19

Total.

6971

' ' The Auditors of Accounts on the part of the So-
ciety have presented, through the Finance Committee,
their report of the Society's accounts to the end of the
last half-year, which will be read to you by the Chair-
man of the Committee.

" Country Meetings. — The Council have decided
that the Annual Country Meeting of the Society to be
held this year at Newcastle-on-Tyne, shall take place la
the week commencing the 13th of July ; Thursday, the
16th of that month, being the principal day of the show,
and the day of the Pavilion dinner ; and in order to in-
crease the interest and usefulness of the occasion, they
have been led by the success of their weekly Council
Meetings in London, at which discussions and commu-
nications of important matters have so frequently oc-
curred, to give up the Council dinner on the Wednes-
day, for the purpose of adopting in its place discussion
and interchange of opinion, having reference to agricul-
tural topics of practical interest, on a more extended
scale, and under distinct regulations, for insuring to the
members present the opportunity of both acquiring and
communicating information. The Council have accord-
ingly arranged that on the evening of Tuesday, the Htb

658

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of July, at 5 o'clock, Prof. Johnston, of Durham, one
of the honorary members of the Society, will read a pa-
per ' On the Chemical Principles involved in the Prepa-
ration of Manures, and their Action upon Crops ;' with
chemical demonstrations : and on the following evening,
at the same hour, Mr. Parkes, the consulting engineer of
the Society, will read a paper on the subject of ' Drain-
ing;'each of these papers being intended to form only
preliminary introductions to the practical discussions
which it is hoped will follow their perusal, under such
regulations as the President may at the time decide to
adopt. The Judges' award of prizes will be read at the
close of the discussion on Mr. Parkes's paper.

" In addition to the Society's Prizes for ' Sheep best
adapted to a Mountain District,' the Newcastle Local
Committee have offered special prizes under the 27th
rule of the Prize-sheet, for Sheep of the Black-faced
Breed; and the North -Tyne and Redesdale Cheviot
Sheep Show, also special prizes for Sheep of the Cheviot
Breed under the same rule.

" By a distinct regulation, the Council have made it a
condition with the exhibitors, that they shall execute all
orders for Implemens given to them in the Show-yard,
at the price stated in their certificates.

" The Newcastle Local Committee have undertaken
to place the land for the trial of implements under the
cultivation desired by the Stewards ; and are actively
engaged in carrying out the various details connected
with other departments of the trial.

" The mode adopted last year for the appointment of
Judges for the Show was found so satisfactory to all par-
ties, that the Council have decided again to act upon it.
They have accordingly requested the members of the So-
ciety at large to send to the Secretary, or deliver per-
sonally to the President at the General May Meeting their
nomination of persons to act as Judges in any or all of
the several departments of the Show ; and have appointed
two Committees— one for Judges of Stock, and the other
for Judges of Implements — to select from these nomi-
nations, and to report to the Council for confirmation,
the names of those gentlemen, who, in their opinion, are
best qualified to perform those important duties.

" The great amount of actual expenses, independently
of personal charges and loss of time, incurred by the
exhibitors at the Country Meetings of the Society, has
frequently engaged the attention of the Council. Last
year these expenses were diminished by the liberality of
the London and Birmingham, and the Grand Junction
Railway Companies, who carried imijlements and stock
to and from the Society's Country Meeting, free of any
charge whatever ; and the Council have this year the
gratifying duty of announcing to the members of the
Society, not only a renewal on the part of those two
companies of the same most liberal concession, but a free
grant of similar privileges in favour of the Society's ex-
hibitors, made by the Great Western, the South-Eastern,
and the Newcastle, Shields, and Tynemouth Railway
Companies. Other companies, though not granting so
entire a freedom of gratuitous transit along their res-
pective lines of railway, have made certain concessions,
under special conditions, which the Council have directed

to be communicated to the several exhibitors for their
information ; namely, the South-Western Railway Com-
pany consent to convey stock or implements for the So-
ciety's show at one-half the usual charges each or either
way, an arrangement which that Company considerately
remarks in conveying the grant, ' will give the exhibi-
tors the benefit of the reduction, should they sell any of
their stock or implements previously to returning from
the show :' the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway Com-
pany agree to convey all stock and implements, as well
as the persons in charge of them, at half fares, either
going to or returning from the Show ; also, in case the
Council decide to have any ploughing- match, or other
exhibition of practical trial, a few miles from Newcastle,
they are willing to convey the ploughs and horses, to-
gether with the ploughmen and attendants, to and from
the place of such exhibition, free of any charge what-
ever : the Newcastle and Darlington and the Midland
Counties Railway Companies decline to accept half-
fares, but are willing to give a free back-passage to such
implements or stock as shall have already paid the full
charges in proceeding along their respective lines to the
Show.

" In order to complete the schedule of information
required by the exhibitors, the Council have directed a
statement to be drawn out of the various conveyances
and rates of charge by Sea from every point of embark-
ation along the eastern coast to Newcastle-upon-Tjrne,
where the authorities have obtained for the Society cer-
tain reductions in the port dues in favour of exhibitors
at the meeting.

' ' At the date when the Council arranged their first
succession of the rotation of districts for the Country
Meetings, ending with the South Wales district as the
one intended for the meeting of 1847, they had not as-
certained by actual experience the indispensible neces-
sity of railway accommodation. With a knowledge of
the absence of adequate railway accommodation through-
out South Wales, and the consideration that the Bristol
Meeting of 1842, and the Shrewsbury Meeting of 1845
had been held within the reach of the Principality, the
Council have felt themselves compelled to abandon their
intention of holding the meeting of the Society for 1847
in the South Wales district.

" The Council have decided on the following as the
districts of the Country Meetings for the ensuing four
years, and have resolved that every year a new district
shall be added in advance to compensate for the one
which will annually elapse : —

1847.— The South Midland District (comprised of the comi-
ties of Bedford, Berks, Buckingham, Hertford, Huntingdon,
Oxford, and Warwick).

1848.— The Yorkshire District (comprised of the county of
York).

1849.— The Eastern District (comprised of the counties of
Essex, Suffolk, Norfork, aud Cambridge).

1850. — The Western District (comprised of the counties of
Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, aud Cornwall).

' ' The Council have accepted the invitation of the
authorities of Northampton to hold the country meet-
ing of the Society for 1847 at that town; and already
the Mayor and Corporation, under the great seal of the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

599

borough, have granted to the Society such liberal ac-
commodation for the occasion, as to give reason to hope
that the Northampton Meeting will provide in every
respect a most successful and important one. In order
to ascertain more fully the local feeling on the subject of
the prizes oft'ered for any particular year, the Council
have, by an alteration in their bye-laws, postponed the
final settlement of their prize-sheep from June to De-
cember in the year previous to that of a Country Meet-
ing at which such prizes are to be awarded. Accord-
ingly the prizes for the Northampton Meeting will not
be finally settled until the month of December, 1846.
In the meantime a preliminary prize-sheet for that oc-
casion is laid before the members at their present Gene-
ral Meeting, for the purpose of receiving from them
such suggestions as they may think proper to make to
the Council.

'^Report and Essay Prizes. — The Journal Committee
have reported the several Essays, required to be sent in
for competition by the 1st of March last, to which the
judges have awarded the prizes offered by the Society ;
namely : —

To Thomas Rowlaxdson, of Liverpool, the Prize of
Fifty Sovereigns for the best Report on the Farming of
Nortli Wales.

To Samuel Jonas, of IckletoUj Cambridgeshu-e, the Prize
of Fifty Sovereigns for the best Report on the Fanning of
Cambridgeshire.

To John Bravender, of Cirencester, the Prize of Fifty
Sovereigns for the best Report on the Advantages or Dis-
advantages of Breaking up Grass-land.

To George Nicholls, of Hyde Park-street, London, the
Prize of Tliirty Sovereigns for the best Essay on the Im-
provement of the Condition of the Agricultural Labourer
so far as it may be promoted by private exertion without
legislative enactment.

To Hugh Raynbird, of Heugrave, Suffolk, the Prize of
Twenty Sovereigns for the best Accoimt of Jleasure-
Work, locally known as Task, Piece, Job, or Grate work,
in its application to agiiculturiU labour.

To TV. C. Spooner, of Southampton, the Prize of Ten
Sovereigns for the best account of the use of Superphos-
phate of Lime produced vnth. acid and bones for manure.

To T. C. BuRRouGHES, of Gazeley, Cambridgeshire, the
Prize of Ten Sovereigns for the best Account of the Cul-
tivation of White Mustard.

To W. LiNTOX, of Sheriff Ilutton, Yorkslure, the Prize of
Ten Sovereigns for a description of the best method of
Draining Rmniing Sands.

" The judges on the 16 Essays on the Keeping of
Farming Accounts, having reported that none of the
Essays are worthy of the Prize offered by the Society
in that class, the Council have appointed a Committee
to report on the best mode in their opinion in which a
practical farmer may be enabled in the simplest manner
to keep the requisite accounts connected with his farm-
ing establishment. The Council are indebted to the
kindness of Mr. John Clarke, of Long Sutton, Lincoln-
shire, in having placed at the disposal of the Journal
Committee his Essay on Grass Lands, commended by
the judges.

' ' The Council have adopted the following schedule of
subjects and amount of prizes for the Reports and Essays
of next year, subject to such conditions as will hereafter,
in due time, be published : —

Ou the Farming of Northumberland ,,, ...

On the Fai-ming of Suffolk

On the Farming of Somersetshire

On the Management of Sheep

Ou the Cultivation of Wheat

On the Cultivation of Mangold Wurzel

On Paring and Burning

On Flax

On the Great Level of the Fens, historj' of the drainage,
view of its present state, and account of the defects
which still require to be remedied ...

For an account of the best Manure for "\\1ieat com-
pounded of chemical ingredients, to be tried by
Judges appointed by the Society

For an account of the best IManure for Turnips, com-
pounded of chemical ingredients, to be tried by
Judges appointed by the Society

£50
50
20
20
20
20
10
20

30

30

" The Council have adopted the following regulations
in reference to any question of disputed patent-right
that may be made by exhibitors of such implements as
may be selected by the Judges for trial, namely : —
' That the Stewards of the Yard, on receiving a notice
in writing that any invention is considered to be an in-
fringement of the right of another party, shall be directed
to inform the exhibitor that he will be at liberty to direct
the trial, under the inspection of the Judges ; and if,
on such trial, his invention should be found to merit
the prize, the prize shall be awarded, subject to the
condition of payment being suspended for a reasonable
period, to allow the trial of the rights of the parties at
law ; and that if no steps at law ai-e taken in the next
term, the award shall be absolute,"

" The Council, judging from the entry of stock and
implements already made, have every reason to antici-
pate an extremely good meeting at Newcastle ; and, in
conclusion, have not only to report the continual ac-
cession of new Members from every part of the king-
dom, but to congratulate the Society on the steady pro-
gress made in the gradual development of its estab-
lished principles, and in the attainment of a more exact
knowledge, derived from experience of the means best
adapted to ensure their advancement. The Council
rely with confidence on the continued support and co-
operation of all the Members of the Society, and trust
they will thereby secure the prosperity of this great
national institution.

(Signed) ' ' By order of the Council,

James Hudson, Secretary."

The President took that opportunity of taking a
review of the proceedings of the Council during the past
half year, and concluded by expressing his confident
hope that the Society would eventually attain a steady
amount of from 8,000 to 10,000 members on its list,
and reminding the Meeting that the Society was estab-
lished for the promotion of practical agriculture, aided
by that science which is gained by experience.

On the motion of Sir Richard Jodrell, Bart., seconded
by the Hon. H. W. Wilson, the Report was then unani-
mously adopted by the meeting.

Colonel Austen, M.P., Chairman of the Finance Com-
mittee, having read to the Meeting the Auditors'
Balance-sheet and recommendations, and the Balance-
sheet of the Shrewsbury Meeting, on the motion of
Viscount Torrington, seconded by E. A. Sanford, Esq.,

560

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the thanks of the Meeting were voted to Charles Taw-
ney, Esq., C. Hampden Turner, Esq., and Thomas
Knight, Esq. , the auditors of accounts on the part of
the Society.

On the motion of Richard Milward, Esq., of Thur-
garton Priory, seconded by John Kinder, Esq., Sand-
ridgebury, the thanks of the Meeting were voted to the
Railway Companies, for their liberal concessions in
favour of the Exhibitors of the Society.

On the motion of the Earl of Ducie, seconded by
Peter Pole, Esq., of Drayton Hall, the best thanks of
the Meeting were voted by acclamation to the Right
Hon. Lord Portman, the president, for the invaluable
services he had already rendered to the Society by his
devoted attention to its interests.

The Meeting then broke up.

NEAV MEMBERS.
Viscount Newry and Morne, of Morne Parke, Co.
Down, Ireland, and Eaton Place, Belgrave Square,
London, was elected a Governor, and the following
gentlemen members of the Society : —
Aichison, William, Hazelridge, Belford, Northumberland
Anderson, Robert, Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Anderson, Robert, Weston, Gateshead, Durham
Arrowsmith, W. L., Island of ilalta
Bagot, Lord, Blithfield, Rugeley, Staffordshire
Bell, Richard Hansell, Deckliam Hall, Gateshead, Durham
Barkus, William, Eighton Lod^e, Gateshead, Durham
Bates, Edward, Snipe House, Alnwick, Northumberland
Besely, Rev. Dr., Vicarage House, Longbenton, Newcastle-on-

Tyne
Blayds, John, Oulton Hall, Leeds

Boulay, Rev. Francis Wm., Rector of Lawhitton, Launceston
Brewer, John, 8, Upper Bedford-place, London
Bryan, Frederick Thomas, Knossington, Oakham, Rutland
Bullock, Benjamin, Spittle Hill, Morpeth, Northumberland
Burrell, WiUiam, Broome Park, Alnwick, Northumberland
Burrell, Bryan, Bolton House, Alnwick, Northumberland
Butler, Thomas, Walwick, Hexham, Northumberland
Champneys, Rev. P., Hunton, Maidstone, Kent
Charleton, Charles Forster, Alndike, Alnwick, Northumber-
land
Chrisp, James, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Colbeck, Henry, Low-Weetslid Farm, Benton, Newcastle-on-

Tyne
Colquhoim, J. C, M.P., 8, Chesham-street, Belgrave-square,

London
Crallan, Thomas, Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Cheshire
Crawford, William, Newton-Purcell, Bicester, Oxon
Dew, Tomkins, Whitney Court, Hereford
Dixon, Dixon, Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Northumberlaud
Domville, Rev. WiUiam, Winforton, Hereford
Donkin, Armorer, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Downes, William Henry, New House, Much-Wenlock, Salop
Drewry, George, Holker-house, CartmeU, Lancashire
Dunn, Mathias Wm., Hedgefield, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Dunn, George, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Dunbar, Hon. Robert, Millfield Hill, Wooller, Northumberland
Dutton, T., Villa-Real, Hylton Grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Easton, James, Nest House, Gateshead, Durham
Eastwood Richard, Brimshaw, Burnley, Lancashire
Elliott, Eustace, Smeaton-Pillaton, Landulph, Cornwall

Finlay, James, Summer Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Frost, Saml. Merryue, jun., BuUocksteads, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Forster, Geo. Cariiaby, White House, Gateshead

Gibson Wm., Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Grace, Edward Nathauiel, Byker Hill, Newcastle on-Tyne

Grace, Edward, '\VaUs' End, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

Gran\'ille, Earl, Aldenham, Bridgenorth, Salop

Greville, Algernon, North Lodge, Potter's Bar, Herts

Harding, Richard, Warren Farm, Finmer, Buckingham

Hippesley, John, Stone-Easton, Wells, Somerset

Hobson, Dr., Park House, Leeds, Yorkshire

Horlock, Frederick, Guestling Lodge, Hastings, Sussex

Hunter, WiUiam, Loroiue Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne

Ingham, Robert, Weston, South Shields, Durham

Jackson, John Somerville, Eastham, Chester

James, Robert, Chalkside, Wigton, Cumberland

James, John, Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

Kirk, Richard, Gale Bank, Laybomi, Wensleydale, Yorkshh-e

Lawes, John Bennett, Rothampsted Park, Harpenden, Herta

Lorame, Edward, Crocadon, Callington, Cornwall

Loraine, John Lambton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

Lowndes, Robert, Tattenhall, Chester

Malcolm, Colonel George, Warfield, Bracknell, Berks

March, Jolm, Greenside, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

iMellor, James, Hunter-street, Liverpool

Mercer, James, M.D., 50, Northumberland-street, Edinburgh

Nairn, Henry, Newcastle-ou-Tyne

Newry, Viscount, 63, Eaton-place, Piralico

Nutt, John W., York

Palmer, Jolm, Stockton-on-Tees, Durham

Patterson, John, Holbeck, Ulver stone, Lancashire

Preston, Henry, Moreby Hall, York

Riddell, Sir Walter Buchanan, Bart., Old Square, Lincoln's Inn

Robinson, Joseph, Taufield, Chester-le-Street, Diurham

Roods, WiUiam, Littlington, Lewes, Sussex

Rowlandsou, Thomas, 59, St. Ann's-street, Liverpool

Russell, Sir Robert Frankland, Bart., 15, Cavendish-square,

London
RusseU, George GreenweU, WiUington, Northumberlaud
Selby, Charles, Earle, WooUer, Northumberland
Selby, Leopold, Pelton CoUege, Chester-le-Street, Dinham
Shafto, Rev. John Duucombe, Brancepeth Rectory, Durham
Smith, WiUiam, Longbenton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Smith, Hemy, Maid's-Moreton Lodge, Buckingham
Smith, Timothy, Hoyland HaU, Sheffield, Yorkshhe
Smith, H., Stamford, Lincolnshire

Smith, Alexander, Gallate House, Norham, Berwick-on-Tweed
Stable, George Waugh, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Stevens, Alford, Tougham Manor, Farnham, Surrey
Steevens, John, Oxford

Straker, John, Eldon Square, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Stretton, Alexander, Adbolton, Nottingham
Stubbs, Frederick, Wetmoor, Ludlow, Salop
Sowerby, Thomas, SaltweU-vale, Gateshead, Durham
TaUant John, Little Houghton Lodge, Northampton
Tawney, A. R., Banbury, Oxfordshire
Thomas, John, jiui., Ynissiwnd, Neath, Glamorganshire
Thorold, Richard, Weelsby Hall, Grimsby, Lmcolnsliire
Tucker, Henry, Coleraine House, Stamford-hill, JNIiddleses
Unett, J. W., Smethwick, Birmingham
Walters, Robert, Charlotte-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Ward, WiUiam Squire, WeUow HaU, OUerton, Notts
Whittle, Edward, ToUer-Fratrum, Dorchester, Dorset
WUhams, Hugh, Kineton, Warwickshire
WUson, Joseph, Crackeuthorpe Hall, Appleby, Westmoreljiu
Wright, William, Gresford Bank, Chester.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

561

LETTERS ON SCOTCH BANKING AND CURRENCY.

Letter III.

" Tlie kettle o' our Bankbiy luds,
If e'er a claiit sudfuil in't,
ITie de'il a Saxon tinkler loon
Shall ever ca' a nail in't.
Our father's blude the kettle bought,
And wha wad dare to spoil it,
By heaven, the sacrilegious dog
Shall fuel be to boil it."

Mr. Editor, — I sliall now proceed to show, in a
few words, that Justice to England and to the Bunk of
England! is, without going about the bush, gross, un-
adulterated hunibug ; and shall farther endeavour to
show that the other standing argument — that, in
case of emergency, as the occurrence of famine, and
the providing for foreign subsidies, to be prepared
with a reserve of gold, we must have a gold circu-
lating medium — is equally gross, unadulterated lium-
bug.

For a century and a half has Scotland managed her
paper currency so admirably as to excite the admira-
tion and compel the wonder of friend and foe. I
have shown that the paper currency is amply secured
and guarded, that over-issue is impossible ; and I now
state what is equally well known — that her bank paper
is convertible into bullion at the pleasure of the
holder, A million and upwards in gold. Bank of
England notes, and Exchequer bills, «&c., is kept in
constant reserve for this and similar purposes of
safety. By this arrangement half a million at least —
and who will venture to deny, positively, that an
amount more nearly approaching a million — is saved
to the country ; and this, in the computed probable
loss in coinage, tear and wear, shipwreck, fire, ex-
pense of transport, and other accidents, inconve-
niences, and charges which are inseparable from the
employment of a metallic currency. Besides, as we
stand at present, the three million sterling represented
by our paper currency is set free, to be employed in
profitable investments. Our cash credit system, and
the allowance of interest on deposits, I may speak of
hereafter. But it is undeniable that it has been under
our present banking system, with our paper currency,
our cash credits, and the allowance of interest on de-
posits, that Scotland has made such prodigious ad-
vances in agriculture, manufactures, and trade, as to
command the admiration of the world. But Justice
to England ! is the cry. How has England lost any-
thing by our employing a paper currency of three
millions, which has saved the nation the expense of
coinage, tear and wear, &c., on that account? How
has England lost anything by the increasing capital
and the accumulation of wealth and substance which
have enabled Scotland, year by year, to enlarge her
trade with her sister ©f England? How could the

growing trade with England have been benefited by
the withdrawal of three millions of Scotch capital, to
be invested in the purchase of Kold to supply a new
circulating medium ? Scotland would thus have been
competing with England in the bullion market. Is
it not evident, besides, that the trade of Scotland with
England must have been proportionally circum-
scribed? AVould this have hcen justice to England?

But the Bank of England, we are told, has to retain
in her coffers seven millions or eight millions, to
meet the possible demands of foreign exchanges ; and
this is a mighty hardship inflicted on her ! Does she
not receive ample compensation for this hardship ?
She receives as part compensation fourteen or fifteen
millions of deposits, for which she pays no interest^
and of which Scotland contributes her full share! Is
this any hardship? She has to keep the one -half of
this amount in bullion. Is this any mighty hardship?
She is permitted to issue her notes free of stamp duty,
paying a trifling sum by way of compromise. Is this
any hardship ? She receives a very large annual pay-
meiit from the Government for the management of
the national debt. Is this any hardship? Now, of all
these advantages conferred on the Bank of England,
Scotland contributes her full share. Does Scotland
complain of so doing as any hardship? Then, in face
of these truths, in the name of justice, what man of
common honesty will presume to raise the cry ef
Justice to the Bank of England ! Does not Scotland
render her ample justice? Then why should England,
or the Bank of Englatid, show any disposition to be
unjust to Scotland.' Scotland, from her employing a
paper currency, not only saves the nation the expenses
of coinage and wear and tear, &c., attendant on, and
inseparable from, three millions sterling of a gold cur-
rency ; but the expense of the English gold currency
is borne not by England alone, but by the nation ; and
of tliis national expense Scotland bears her full share.
Is this not rendering ample justice to England and
the Ba It of England?

My words have been few. But is it not plain that
the cry of Justice to England and to the Bank of
England! is, without going about the bush, gross, un-
adulterated humbug?

Our persecutors would ruin Scotland, without being
able to plead the very unfair excuse even oi benefiting
England at her expense. On the contrary, I have
distinctly shown above, that by the discouragement of
a growing trade, and the profitable interchange of
commodities, they would, by their hair-brained non-
sense, inflict an incalculable injury on the sister
country, as well as on Scotland.

But I have another great argument of theirs still to
deal with. In case, say they, of the occurrence of

562

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cases of emergency, as famine, and the providing for
foreign subsidies — as during the war — to be prepared
with a reserve of gold, we must have a gold circu-
lating currency.

Well, suppose our Scotch notes abolished, and gold
substituted in their stead, as the common currency of
Scotland. An emergency occurs — a famine. Gold
must be exported, we shall say, for three millions'
worth of food. Answer me, is it possible to withdraw
the circulating coin of the country on a sudden, to
collect it from head banks and branch banks, the
castle, the cottage, the shop-till ; to demand the un-
reserved and immediate revelation and production of
every tea-pot and stocking-heel, charged with coin,
and secured with palpitating eagerness, by every fur-
tive miser in "braid Scotland," in order that this
hoarded aggregate treasure may be sent to some fo-
reign country to purchase three millions' worth of
grain ? Is it not plain that this would put an end to
buying and selling in Scotland ? For the circulating
medium will be withdrawn ; and who could purchase
without money ? This is all very absurd, no doubt.
Then what better could we be of a gold currency in
case of famine, or the necessity of providing for fo-
reign subsidies ? Would not any sudden demand
equally derange the currency, whatever it might be
composed of? Does this not hold equally true in the
case of famine or of foreign subsidies ?

I could tell what would prevent our suffering from
some of these supposable emergencies ; but most as-
suredly the existence of a gold circulating currency in
Scotland can never prevent it.

In my next I shall proceed to show the loss that
will accrue to Scotland from any vile tampering with
her banking or currency.

I have heard of the proceedings of some vile traitors
in Scotland's cause, and of their sea-et traffickings in
high quarters, as they, no doubt, thought them secret.
I say to them beware, or exposure is certain.
For the present, I am, &c..

Obiter Dictum.

Letter IV.

" So proud, I am no slave ;
So impudent, I own myself no knave ;
So odd, my country's ruin makes me grave."'— Pope.

Mr. Editor, — Before proceeding to show the loss
which must accrue to Scotland from any attempt against
her system of banking or currency, I shall add a iew
words respecting defective harvests, and procuring
grain from foreign countries.

The truth is, that when a defective harvest occurs,
the Scotch merchant like the English merchant— for
both merchants, be it observed, proceed precisely in
the same manner — sends his order for a cargo or car-
goes of grain to the foreign merchant; the foreign
merchant, ivho pays for the grain in the currency of
his own country, draws bills in London for price, profit,
and charges; and the Scotch merchant provides for
these bills when due through his Scotch banker, who

has always ample available funds lying in the hands of
his correspondent in London.

No doubt, if very many cargoes are simultaneously
purchased, and a corresponding number of bills are
thrown upon the market at the same moment, the ex-
changes will be unfavourably affected ; but this state
of things is anticipated, provided for, and speedily rec-
tified by dealers in money and brokers, who study the
fluctuations of exchanges, and who, by remitting di-
rectly through a favourable channel, and by prompt
shipments of gold where required, speedily restore the
par of exchange between one point and another. These
fluctuations of exchanges would occur as certainly and
unavoidably icith a metallic, as with a mixed or sim-
ple paper cxirrency. No part of the existing currency,
or whatever it be composed, can at any time be with-
drawn on an emergency, for exportation. The supply
for export must be drawn from the reserved capital of
the bankers — not in any case from the circulating cur-
rency ; and this reserved capital they must be provided
with, whether the circulating currency be paper or
gold.

But it may be asked still more particularly, whence
is this gold for shipment derived 1 I admit that it will
be chiefly obtained by presenting the promissory notes
of the Bank of England — her own promissory notes,
remember — and demanding gold for the amount. But
the Bank of England, like other dealers in money, and
brokers in bills, should be able to anticipate such emer-
gencies, though she cannot prevent them, and provide
against the consequences. Is not this her especial bu-
siness ? Should the Bank of England grumble at being
called upon to pay in cash her oion notes ? What is
the understanding between this National Bank and the
Government ? The Bank of England enjoys certain
privileges which we have already glanced at; and in
return, that Bank — besides performing other ])ublic
services, sufficiently light compared with the remune-
ration— becomes bound to pay in gold her own notes
when demanded. Is this a mighty hardship ?

Let us see whether this public arrangement has not
all along been most unprofitable to the Bank of Eng-
land, even during the period from 1809 to 1830, both
inclusive, when commissions of bankruptcy against
country bankers of England were issued to the num-
ber stated in the following table : —

Years.

Commissions.

Years.

Commissions

1809

4

1820

4

1810

20

1821

10

1811

4

1822

9

1812

17

1823

9

1813

8

1824

10

1814

27

1825

37

1815

25

1826

43

1816

37

1827

8

1817

3

1828

3

1818

3

1829

3

1819

13

1830

14

Exclusive of the above, many banks stopped pay-
ments, to the great injury of the creditors and the pub-
lic, that afterwards resumed them, at the same time
that the affairs of some bankrupt concerns were ar-
ranged without a commission.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

663

DtTRINO THE WHOLE OF THIS PEHIOD NOT A

SINGLE Scotch Bank gave way. How can any
English statesman have the effrontery to condemn
Scotch banking and currency after this triumphant
practical vindication of its stability and excellence?
To our Saxon persecutors we would say, with Gay : —

" Ere you remark another's sin.
Bid thy own conscience look within ;
Control thy more voracious bill.
Nor for a hreakfust nations kill."

The following is an account of all distributions made
by the Bank of England amongst the proprietors of
bank stock, whether by money payments, transfer of
5 per cent, annuities, or otherwise, under the heads of
bonus, increase of dividends, and increase of capital,
betwixt the 25th February, 1797, andSlst March, 1832,
in addition to the ordinary annual dividend of 7 per
cent, on the capital stock of that corporation existing in
1797, including therein the whole dividend paid since
June, 1810, on the increased capital ; stating the pe-
riod when such distributions were made, and the ag-
gregate amount of the whole.

Denomination and periods of distribution.

Amount.
In June, 1799 — £10 percent, bonus, in 5 per cents.

1797, on £11,642,400, is ... ... ...£1,164,240

May, 1801 — £5 per cent, ditto, in navy 5 per

cents., ditto ... ... ... ... 582,120

Nov., 1802— £2 10s. per cent., do., do., do. ... 291,060

Oct., 1804— £5 per cent, do., cash, do... ... 582,120

Oct., 1805— £5 percent, do., do., do. ... ... 582,120

Oct., 1806— £5 per cent, do., do., do. ... ... 582,120

From April, igo?, [1™^%°^ ^i"'^™'^^ f the

to Oct., 1822 J "^^t^ "^ ^^^^^\1?1J^'

bothhiclusive. 1 annum on £11,642,400 IS,

L 16 years ... ... 5,588,352

From April, 1823, f Increase of dividends at the

to Oct., 1829, J '""^^ °f ^V//Lo']nnP''
both iaclusive. ] annum on £11,642,400, is,

L 7 years ... ... 814,968

In Jxme, 1816. { ^"^"^^f .^^ ^^P'^^^ ^t 25 per

' l cent., is ... ... 2,910,600

From Oct., 1816, to f Dividend at the rate of £10

Oct., 1822, bothJ ?."■ fn^finn^"' '""'''!? °"
mclusive. | f'^^^f^' "''-Teased cap-

L ital is, 64 years ... 1,891,890

From April, 1823, ["Dividend at the rate of £8

*« f\ni- 1QQ1 J

to Oct., 1831,<' f.^?f,''*n P-' ^""T °"
both inclusive. 1 £2 910,600 increased cap-

L ital, IS, 9 years ,., 2,095,632

Aggregate amount of the whole

17,318,070

Annual dividend payable on bank stock in 1797,
on a capital of £11,642,000, at the rate of £8
per cent, per annum ... ... ... 814,986

Annual dividend payable since June, 1816, on a
capital of £14,553,000, to October, 1822, mclu-
sive, at the rate of £10 per cent, per annum ... 1,455,300

Annual dividend payable from April, 1823 to 31st
March, 1832, both inclusive, on a capital of
£14,533,000, at the rate of £8 per cent, per
annum... ... ... ... ... 1,164,240

William Sjiee, Dept. Acct.
Bank of England, June 27, 1832.

Now, I request particular attention to this official ac-
count of distributions during a long period and em-
bracing the period to which I have above alluded. Let
it be compared with the above disgraceful list of Eng-

lish bankruptcies, evidencing such wholesale swindling,
and involving such wide-spread havoc and general
distress. Does it not appear that the privileges ac-
corded by the British public to the Bank of England
have enabled her to accumulate wealth in the most ca-
lamitous times ? Surely, then, she should not grumble
at being asked by that generous public to exchange
gold for her own promissory notes on demand. When,
as Swift says —

" Many a wretch in Bedlam,
Though perhaps among the rout
He wildly flings his filth about,
StiU has gratitude and sapience
To spare the folk that (jive them ha'pence."

It is only in emergencies that the conversion is re-
quired to any inconvenient extent. It is only the oc-
currence of such emergencies that enable her to prove
that the perpetuation of her monopoly is really, in
any respect, a national benefit. She should rejoice in
such an opportunity of proving her usefulness in these
levelling times, when all monopolies are at a discount
in popular estimation. And let her remember, as well
as our remorseless statesmen persecutors, that during
the whole of the period from 1809 to 1830, both inclu-
sive, when the above disgraceful number of commis-
sions were issued against English bankers, besides
many others who stopped payments and resumed
them, and some bankrupt concerns which were ma-
naged without a commission, thus deranging the cur-
rency of the country to an unheard-of extent, involv-
ing the man of honour and the knave in one common
ruin, NOT A single Scotch Bank gave avay.

Does this plain statement furnish any reasonable ar-
gument for assailing our sound and stable Scottish
banking system and currency, which has stood the test
of a century and a half, including periods of panic and
famine, internal rebellion and foreign war ? Ye theorists
of England, how can you deny facts patent to the whole
world ? In mercy spare our last monuments of fame
and strength, and leave us not to moralize over their
ruins, in words like those of Milton's —

" And here let those who boast in mortal thuigs,
Learn how their greatest monuments of fame.
And strength, and art, are easily outdone
By reprobate spirits."

Meantime, I am, &c.. Obiter Dictum.

Letter V.

" Destruction hangs o'er yon devoted wall.
And nodding Ihon waits the impending fall."

' May no such storms

Pope.

Fall on our times, where ruin must reform."

Sir John Denhaiii.

Sir, — If our paper currency is condemned, cash cre-
dits and allowance of interest on deposits must be dene
away with. A masterly exposition and defence of these
systems are embodied in the report of the Lords in
1826, when they were formerly assailed with such im-
potent rashness.

With respect to Scotland, said theii" lordships, it is to be
remarked, that during the period from 1766 to 1797, when no

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

small notes were by law issuable in England, the portion of the
currency in Scotland in which payments under five pounds were
made, continued to consist almost entirely of £1 and £1 Is.
notes, and that no inconvenience is known to have resulted
from difference in the currency of the two countries. This cir-
cumstance, amongst others, tends to prove that uniformity,
however desirable, is not indispensably necessary. It is also
proved, by the evidence and by the documents, that the banks
of Scotland, whether chartered or joint stock companies or
private establishments, have, for more than a century, exhibited
a stability which this committee believe to be unexampled in
the history of haiil-iitr/ ; that they supported themselves from
1797 to 1812, without any protection from the restriction by
which the Bank of England and that of Ireland were relieved
from cash payments; that there was little demand for (/old
during the late embaiTassments in the circulation ; and that,
iu the lohule period of their establishment, there are not more
than two or three instances of bankruptcy. As, during the
whole of this period, a large proportion of their issue consisted
almost entirely of notes not exceeding £1, or £1 Is., there is
the strongest reason for concluding, that, as far as respects the
hanks of Scotland, the issue of paper of that description has
been found compatihle with the highest Jeijree of solidity ; and
that there is not, therefore, while they are conducted on their
present system, sufficient groimd for proposing any alteration,
with the view of aldding to a solidity which has been so long
sufficiently established.

This solidity appears to derive a great support from the
constant exchange of notes between the different banks, by
which they become checks on each other, and by which any
over issue is subject to immediate observation and correction.

There is also one part of the system, which is stated by all
the witnesses (in the opinion of the committee very justly
stated) to have had the best effects upon the people of Scotland,
and particularly upon the middling and poorer classes of society,
in producing and encouraging habits of frugality and industry.
The practice referred to is that of cash chedit.s. Any
person who applies to a bank for a cash credit is called upon to
produce two or more competent securities, who are jointly
boiuid, and after a full inquiry into the character of the appli-
cant, the nature of his business, and the sufficiency of his
securities, he is allowed to open a credit, and to draw upon the
bank for the whole of its amount, or for such part as his daily
transactions may require. To the credit of this account, he
pays in such sums as he may not have occasion to use, and
interest is charged or credited on the daily balance, as the case
may be. From the facility which these cash credits give to all
the small transactions of the country, and from the opportuni-
ties wliich they afford to persons who begin the world with
little or no capital but their, character, to employ profitably the
minutest products of their industry, it cannot be doubted that
the most important advantages are derived to the whole com-
munity. The advantage to the banks who give those credits
arises from the call which they continually produce for the
issue of their paper, and for the opportunity which they afford
for the profitable employment of part of their deposits. The
banks are indeed too sensible that, in order to make this part
of their business advantageous and secure, it is necessary that
their cash credits should (as they express it), be frequently
operated upon, that they refuse to continue them unless this
implied condition be fiihilled. The total amount of their cash
credits is stated by one witness to be five millions, on which
the average amoimt advanced by the banks may be one-third.

The manner in wliich the practice of deposits on receipts is
conducted tends to produce the same desirable results. Suras
to as low an amovujt as £10 (and in some instances lower) are

taken by the banks from the depositor, who may claim thfem
at demand. He receives an interest, usually about one per
cent., below the market rate. It is stated that these deposits
are, to a great extent, left uncalled for from year to year, and
that the depositors are in the habit of adding, at the end of
each year, to the interest then accrued, the amount of their
yearly savings ; that the sums thus gradually accumulated
belong chiefly to the labouring and industrious classes of the
community ; and that, when such accounts are closed, it is
generally for the purpose of enabling the depositors either to
purchase a house, or to engage in business.

It is contended by all the persons engaged iu banking iu
Scotland, that the issue of £1 notes is essential to the con-
tinuance both of their cash credits aud of the branch banks
established by the poorest and most remote districts. Wliether
the discontinuance of £1 notes would necessarily operate to
the full extent which they apprehend, in either of these res-
pects, might perhaps admit of douljt ; but the apprehemimis
entertained on this head, by the persons most immediately
concerned, might, for a time at least, have the same effect as
t\\e actual necessity; and there is strong reasons to belieTe,
that if the prohibition of £1 notes would not ultimately over-
throw the whole system, it must for a considerable time >««-
terially affect it.

The directors of the Bank of England, who have been
examined before the committee, have given as their opinion
that a circidation of £1 notes in Scotland or Ireland would
not produce any effects injurious to the metallic circulation of
England, provided such notes be respectively confined witliin
the boundary of their own country.

Notwithstanding the opinions which have been here de-
tailed, the committee are, on the whole, so deeply impressed
with the importance of a metallic circulation below £5 to
England, not only for the benefit of England, but hkewise for
that of all other parts of the empire, that if they were reduced
to make an option between the establishment of such a metallic
circulation in Scotland, or the abandonment of it in England
they would recommend the prohibition of small notes in Scot-
land. But they entertain a reasonable expectation, that legis-
lative measures may be devised which will be effectual in ren-
dering the introduction of Scotch paper into England ineffectual
in practice ; and unless some new circumstance should arise to
derange the existing system in Scotland itself, or materiaUy to
affect the relations of trade and intercourse between Scotland
and England, they are not disposed to recommend that the
existing system of bankmg and currency in Scotland should be
disturbed.

Now everybody knows that a Scotch note never
crosses the Border in practice, and that no netocircutn-
stance has arisen to derange our system of banking iu
Scotland. In the name of common honesty, then , why
is this impudent attack made upon us ? The prohibi-
tion of those credits alone would ruin Scotland. When
the former attempt was made against our banking sys-
tem, what was the consequence ? The banks resolved
on refusing any new applications for cash credits, and
on withdrawing those in existence with as little delay
as circumstances would permit of. The proprietor of
land had to stop in the middle of his progressive, though
incompleted, and therefore valueless improvements;
the merchant, who depended on his bank cash credit
for the prosecution of his business, saw nothing before
him but inevitable and irretrievable ruin and destruc-
tion; the manufacturer had to sacrifice his large in-
vested capital in building and machinery, and the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

560

(luMisamU he eiiij'loycfl were 1 11 rued out of doors to I a!ternati\e but the extension to Scotland of the principle
rob, to murder, to burn, and to starve. i wliicli the Legislature has determined to apply to this country.

.\nd would tliis not certninly recur n'^un willi the I " The other circumstances to which your committee meant to
revival oflhc former provocative cnufe? The former at- '"efer. «s hearing materially upon their present decision, \vill
tempt against our national prosi^critv was as for- j arise in the event of a considerable increase in the crime of
midable as the prescnt;-but it failed." If Ministers if"'':'"'"- . ^'°"^- committee called for returns of the number of
])rocccd to advocate and carry into practice this

sweeping change, they have been sufticicntly warned of
the danger, and they v.dll have their own obstinate
rashness alone to blame for the consequences. Scot-

passing forged notes, during the last twenty years, in Scot-
land, which returns will be found in the appendix. There ap-
pear, during that period, to have been no prosvcvlions for the
rriine of foryenj, to ha\e been eighty-six prosecutions for the
L.VND, as regards old recollections and bitter memories, I otTcnce of issuing forged promissory notes; fifty-two couvic-
IS XOT DEAD, BUT SLEEPETH. Is it not fool hardy i tions, and eight instances in which capital sentence of the law
to shake lier thus rudely awake? I has been carried into effect."

It is evident that the Lords, in 1820, thought so, and

what did the committee of the commons then say on
the subject?

Upon a review of the evidence tendered your committee (say
the Commons), and forming their judgment upon that evi-
dence, vour committee ciuniot advise that a law should be now
passed,"prohibiting from a period to be therein detcrn)incd, the | *''^ ^'""'* ^'"^ Commons of the present day wiser in
future issue in Scotland of notes below £0. ♦'■ei'' generation ? Whatever they may think, if they

There are, in the opinion of your committeo, sufficient | Pcrsist, they will soon know what the people of Scot-
grounds in the experience of the past for permitting auothet

As we have already stated, not a single Scotch note
ever crosses the Border, and there ajjpear to have
been, during ticenty years, no jiroseeutlons for the
crime of forgery.

Thus spoke the Lords and Commons of 1826. Are

trial to be made of the compatibility of a paper circulation inr
Scotland with a circulation of specie in this country.

Looking at the amount of notes ciuTcnt in Scotland below
the value of £.), and comparing it with the total amount of
the paper currency of the country, it is veil/ difficult to foresee
the consequenres of a latr which should prohibit tlte future issue
of notes constitutinyso large a proportion of the whole circulation.
Your committee are certainlj' not convinced that it would
affect the cash credits to the extent apprehended by some of
the witnesses; but they are unwilling, ^cilhout stronger proof
of necessilij, to incur the risk of deranging from any cause
whatever, a system admirably calculated, in their opinion, to
economise the use of capital, to excite and cherish a spirit of
useful enterprise, and even to promote the moral habits of the
people, by the direct inducements which it holds out to the
maintenance of a character for industry, integrity, and prudence.
" At the same time that your committee recommend that
the system of currency which has for so long a period prevailed
in Scotland, should not, under existing circumstances, be dis-
turbed, they feel it to be their duty to add, they have formed
a judgment upon a reference to tiie past, and upon the review
of a state of things which may hereafter be considerably varied
by the increasing wealth and commerce of Scotland, by the
rapid extension of her commercial intercourse with England,
and by the new circumstances that may affect that intercourse
after the te-establishment of a metallic currency in Ibis
country.

" Apart from these general observations, bearing upon the
conclusions at which they have arrived, there are two circum-
stances to which your committee must more particularly ad-
vert.

" It is evident that if the small notes issued in Scotland
shoidd be cuiTeut beyond the border, they would have the
effect, in the proportion as their circidation should extend it-
self, of displacing the specie, and even in some degree the local
currency, of England. Such an interference with the system
estabhshed for England would be a manifest and gross injus-
tice to the banker of this part of the empire. //' it should tale
place, and it should be found impossible to frame a law con-
sistent with a sound and just principle of legislation, elfectually
restricting the circulation of Scotch notes within the limits of
Scotland, there will be, in the opinion of your committee, no

and think. Scotch courage and Hibernian hate will
come pouring on with irresistible volume ; and we shall
be the first to cry, Agitate! agitate! agitate!
The majority of ninety-five will vanish like a dream ;
and our lending persecutor will be told that, althou"-h
his family fortune was doubled by the currency revo-
lution of 1819 and subsequent events, yet Scotland
will not submit to be bled when she little requires it
even although it should be the means of curino- his
financial monomania, or that of his bachelor knitrhts-
errant.

Jlr. Gilbert, in his " Practical Observations on
Banking," remarks that, "were the English banks,
like the Scotch banks, to receive deposits of £10 and
upwards, and allow interest upon them at one per
cent, less than the market rate, they would confer an
immense advantage on the community, and open a
source of profit to themselves. This is, in fact, a
part cf the proper business of a bank. A banker is a
dealer in capital, an intermediate party between the
borrower and the lender. He borrows of one party,
and lends to another ; and the diflference between the
terms at which he borrows and those at which he lends
is the source of his profit. By this means he draws
i!)to uetivc operation those small sums of money which
were i)reviously unproductive in the hards of private
individuals, and at the same time furnishes accommo-
dation to another class, who liavc occasion for addi-
tional capital for carrying on their commercial trans-
actions.

In further corroboration, Wr. J. G. Gibson Craio-
stated before the Lords' committee, in 182G, that the
deposits with Scotch banks at that period amounted
to about £24,000,000, of which more than a half
consisted of sums from £10 to £200. Jilr. M'CulIoch
considers this a convincuig proof of the importance of
the system, and thinks that perhaps it is not going
too far to affirm that, but for the receiving of deposits
by the banks, and the allowing of interest upon them,
not one-thinl of the sums under £210, and not one-

•> u

566

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

liaUof those above it, would ever have beau accumu-
lated.

A well-informed witness being questioned before
the committee, and asked, " What class of the coni-
niuiiity is it that makes the smallest deposits ?'' an-
swered, " They are generally the labouring classes in
a town like Glasgow ; in country places, like Perth
and Aberdeen, it is from servants and fishermen, and
that class of the community who save small sums from
their earnings till they came to be a bank deposit.
There is now a facility for their placing money in (he
provident banks, which receive money till the deposit
amounts to £10. When it comes to i,10, it is equal to
the minimum of a bank deposit. The system of banking
in Scotland is an extension of the provident bank sys-
tem. Half-yearly or yearly those deposits come to
the bank, and add the savings of their labour, with the
interest that has accrued upon the deposits from the
previous half-year or year, to the principal ; and in
this way it goes on, withoat being at all reduced, ac-
cumulating (at compound interest) till the depositor is
able either to buy or build a house, when it comes to
be £100 or £200 or £300, or till he is able to com-
nience business as a master in the line in which he has
hitherto been a servant. A great part of the depo-
sitors of the bank are of this description, and a great
part of the most thriving of our farmers and manu-
facturers have arisen from such beginnings."

Now, how could the Scotch banks possibly continue
the incalculable advantage of cash credits and inter-
est on deposits, without the profit arising from their
£1 notes? I apprehend that this would be impossible,
without imposing a heavy charge, if it should not
prove a prohibitory one.

The cash credits are taken at £7,000,000 sterling.
the small notes circulation at £2,250,000, and to sup-
ply the amount necessary to be in transitu to and
from the head offices, for a constant interchange,
would be kept up to prevent unnecessary accumula-
tion at any one point, we might fix on double that
amount, to afford the same accommodation as at pre-
sent. This would give £4,500,000 as the necessary
amount of gold to be provided, or bought in by the
Scotch banks.

The profit of the Scotch banks, on a circulation of £

X2,250,000 of small notes, at £1, has hitherto
amounted to, at 3 per cent 67,500

With a gold circulation, this profit would be en-
tirely lost. We must add to this loss the cost
of £4,500,000 worth of gold, wliich, had it been
applied to some lucrative investment (instead of
being merely used as a measure of exchange),
when it would have added to the active capital
of the country, encouraging and promoting its
prosperity, or even invested in 3 per cent, stock,
would yield 135,000

Add charge for insmauce, freight, carriage, tear

and wear, counterfeits, &c., 1 per cent 45,000

Together £247,500

From this deduct interest to be charged on
£2,250,000 gold advanced as above, at 3 per
cent 67,500

Leaving a loss, to be made up to the banking

companies of Scotland, of £180,000

Now, to make up for this amount of loss — viz.,
£'180,000, as stated above— the banks would require
to exact a charge of more than 2^ per cent, on cash
credits ; that is to say, that the charge on every cash
account of £1,000 would require to be (so as to in-
demnify the banks for the loss of profit on the £i
note circulation, and the substitution of a gold cur-
rency) at least £25 sterling, which, in fact, would
come short considerably of a full indemnification.
How this will be relished, it is not difficult to tell.
It will involve hundreds nnd thousands in misery and
ruin. But we have not done yet. There are many
other losses and inconveniences that must follow on
any tampering with our banking or currency.

The substitution of a gold for a paper currency, £

then, would appear to involve, in the depart-
ment of cash credits aloue, a loss to the banks —
and, tln-ough them, directly to the public — of... 180,000

But the deposits of the Scottish public witli the
various Scotch banks is stated correctly at
the sum of £30,000,000 sterling, on which the
banks, from various other inconveniences, risks,
and heavy charges attendant on this change,
and which we cannot pause to specify, will not
be able to afford interest ; and this, at 2 per
cent., woidd produce 600,000

Together £780,000

Is it not clear, then, that by the expensive arrange-
ment of an introduction of a gold currency into Scot-
land, the industrious classes would be defrauded and
pillaged to the extent perhaps of £780,000 per annum?
What a woful revolution would this produce in the
character of the working classes of Scotland ! How
efl^ectually would it check habits of industry, economy,
and thrift ! And does the IMinister suppose that the
people of Scotland are to submit to be fleeced, for no
better reason than this — tbat he has made up his
mind to try a financial experiment upon them? We
can tell him there will be two words about this.

The valued rent iaf the whole Scottisli counties in
1674 was £3,804,221 Scots, or £317,018 8s. 4d.
sterling ; in 1770, it is believed not to have exceeded,
at the very utmost, £1,200,000; about 1795 it had
increased to £2,000,000 ; and it is now stated, in the
return lately ordered by Mr. Villiers, at £5,586,527,
and including mines, minerals, railroads, canals, &c.,
at £9,481,762; and manufactures, commerce, and
trade have increased in proportion. The Bank of
Scotland was instituted in 1695, the Royal Bank in
1727, the British Linen Company in 1746; and they
were followed at some little distance by others. Now,
as the whole amount of coined money in Scotland at
the period of the union did not amount to more than
one million sterling, we leave it to the candid and un-
prejudiced reader to say if it can be denied that this
mighty improvement in the face of the country, in the
gross rental, in commerce, manufactures, and trade,
has been produced mainly, if not entirely, by the
ample accommodation afforded to the proprietary and
industrious classes of Scotland by her stable and judi-
cious sy8.tem of banking and currency } Through
what other channel could the available capital have
been obtained in this proverbially poor country 1

i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

667

The committees of the Lords and Coniinon.s of 1820
attested this truth, and yet the Minister of the day,
trusting to his majority of ninety-five, and with the
perfect knowledge of all I have said, still entertains
the idea of attacking our banking and currency sys-
tems, and, of course, of ruining Scotland. Resting on
his majority, he no doubt concludes that

" The pliant populace,
Those dupes of novelty, will bend before us."

But he will please to remember that

" There was never yet philosopher
Tbat could endure the tooth-ache patiently."

Wo intreat that the right honourable gentleman will
pause and consider, and we have no doubt that his
practical judgment will produce self-conviction; and
let him remember, as well he knows,

" That self-conviction is the path to virtue ;
And honourable caudoiu* thus adorns
Ingenuous minds."

We intreat that he will pause ere the peaceful people
of Scotland are provoked to wrath by insolent in-
difference to their feelings, wishes, and prejudices, and
reckless tampering with their vital interests. If they
are once provoked to insubordination and outrage, in
what they will undoubtedly deem a just and honour-
able defence of their rights, then shall I cry to the
Premier —

You WERE WELL AND TIMEOUSLY WARNED J

Go, rash man, and now

" Preach patience to the sea, when jarring winds

Throw up the swelling billows to the sky ;

And if your reasons mitigate her fury,

My soul will be as calm."

I am, &:c.

Obiter Dictum.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — Under " Notices to Correspondents" — " Ve-
getative Principle" — in your paper of May 4th, I ob-
serve a remark that no fermentation in the manure heap
will destroy the vitality of seeds. Could you or some of
your practical correspondents inform me if the vegetative
principle is injured in the seed of hay, which has heated
or fermented in the rick, and if it be safe to sow some
for a grass crop ? Hay-seed is here generally thrown
out as useless if it has heated in the rick, thereby entail-
ing considerable expense in purchasing, which would be
saved to the farmer, who could use his own if your an-
swer be favourable to A Subscriber.

Water ford, May dth.

SULPHURIC ACID AND BONES.

Sir, — Will any of your correspondents have the kind-
ness to inform me whether boiled or raw bones are most
effectual when mixed with sulphuric acid — and whether
this manure is best adapted for any particular soil ? And
so oblige, sir, your obedient servant, R. B.

Whitchurch, Salop, May 6th,

Sir, — As a manure, in the neighbourhood where I
reside, chalk is much used; but, as we follow the old-
school practi;'e, and some of us prefer tlie chalk pro-
cured from a di.stance to that dug at home, I should
much like to know in what way there can be a difference
in the kinds of chalk, and what really are the best ways,
the best time, and the most proper land and crops for
applying chalk to as a manure. Perhaps you can help me
to some of this information, and so oblige
Yours, truly.

May 13. A Yorkshireman,

Sir, — You would oblige me and othei's by inquiring
through your paper the most effectual and cheapest
mode of destroying hemlock plants in grazing and mea-
dow land. I have fields of good sheep-grazing land
(soil, hazel loam) that are much injured by these roots.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,

April 28, 1846. A Lincolnshire Farmer.

Sir, — Having realized by professional pursuitsa suffi-
ciency to enableme to retire altogether from office-life, and
having recently purchased a residence, with an estate of
about a hu' dred and forty acres. attached to it, which it
is my intention to occupy and cultivate, I should feel
favoured if some of your indulgent readers would oblige
me with what they practically consider to be the first
principles of agriculture, and also with the names of
one or two of the best modern treatises on the science of
agriculture. Feeling assured that he v/ho is above ask-
ing for information will always remain ignorant,
I am, sir, yours truly,

May 1, 1846. Exquirer.

Sir, — Having never yet met with a satisfactory solu-
tion to the following question, I should feel obliged if
you or some of your correspondents would enhghten me
on the subject. It is not an uncommon thing on a well-
cultivated farm for the land now and then to become
sick or tired of clover ; and when this crop fails, the wheat
which succeeds it to a considerable extent fails also.
What is the cause of this deficiency ?

I am, sir, yours truly,

May Sth. A Farmer.

ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

London Sewage.

to the editor of the mark lane express.

Sir, — The subject of " London Sewage " of late
years has been many times before the public both as a
sanatory question, and one also as bearing upon the in-
terests of agriculture ; in the latter case, from the fact
that an immense quantity of one of the finest enrichers
of the soil is allowed to run to waste, which might be
turned to profitable account if scientific means were re-
sorted to for husbanding it up, and the matter thus
obtained was afterwards employed as a manure to the
land. In your paper of the 20th of April, " T. H. B."
made reference to a report by ?.Ir. Hawkins ou the

2 0 2

568

THE FARMER .S MAGAZINE.

average discharge of sewage, in reiilj- to a former cor-
respondent, and gave several extracts fro;n it ; but as
the amount of discharged matter into the Thames,
which he quoted, seemed extravagantly great, I have
been induced to refer to a cojjy of it myself, and find
from some simple explanations by Mr. Hawkins, which
" T.II.B." in the brevity of his letter did not give, that
the statement of discharged amount coes not now ap-
pear to me an exaggeration. With jour permission I
■will therefore give those explanations of Mr. Hawkins's,
and then carry out the results : so that any misgivings
in the minds of others on the subject may, like to my
own, be removed. Mr. Hawkins states that a number
of experiments were made in the months of May, June,
and July, in tine weather, on twelve sewer outlets, drain-
ing an area of about 7,000 acres ; the mean discharge
ded»icible from these experiments being about 2jG cubi^
feet per acre, in twenty-four hoiirs. " If," says Mr.
Hawkins, " the district to which th) accompsnying ob-
servations refer, be a ft ir type of that included within
the whole of the Metropolitan Commissions of Sewers,
and taking the extent of ihe active jurisdictions of those
on the north side of the River Thaiines at 43 scpiare
miles, and the jurisdiction of the Surrey Commission at
15 square miles, the ordinal y daily amount of sewage
discharged into the river on the north side would be
7,045.120 cubic feet, and on the south side 2,457,000
cubic feet, making a total of 9,5C2,720 cubic feet, or a
quantity equivalent to a surfacs of more than 30 acres
in extent, and G feet in depth,

I am, sir, yours, !<.c.,
April 27, 1840. A Constant Reader,

SULPHURIC ACID AND BONES.
Sir, — " R. B., of Whitcl;Urcli, S'alup," inqirires which
is best to mix with sulphuric acid — raw or boiled bones ?
There are various opinions at the present day as to the
propriety of boiling bones or not before they are used :
this is certain, that, in all manures you apply to the
soil, they should contain certain elements of the plants
you wish to produce from the land, as well as stimulants
to vital action, IS'ow, in the oil and fat, &c., in and
about bones, and which are removed by I)oiling, are
found carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, elements that are
also ever present in all vegetable matters ; by combining
this oily and fatty matter with sulphuric acid, you do
not destroy these elementary principles, you only cause
them to form new combinations ; and when they are ap-
plied to the land, either in the original form or the new
state, the vital process of vegetation remodels just suffi-
cient from them of the different elements w hich the plant
requires, and no more ; therefore all your chemical
changes induced by preparing artificial manures, if they
be good, only tend to make this food for plants in a
more ready state for being absorbed into the plant it-
self. I would refer R. B; to tlie rcj-ort in your paper
on January 5th, 1846, of the Sturminster Agricultural
Society, and recommend him to read carefully the prac-
tical and scientific address of Mr. Huxtable, on manage-
ment of manures ; he will there find that Mr. H.
recommends sulphuric acid to be poured on (tnimal

matter, for making an artrfical manure equal to guano.
The land apparently best adapted for receiving tlie bones
with sulphuric acid is the same as that where bones in
the simple state are found to be most beneficial, viz., on
light, dry, sandy soils, peaty soils, light loams, &;c.
I am, Mr. Editor, yours.
May IG, A Wold Farmkr.

Sir, — The botanical name of the plant, about which
yourcorrespondent " Rusticns" inquires, is Chtnopoilium
honvss Uenricus ; and the English name is Mercury
Goosefoot ; it is of the Linnjean class and order Penlan-
dr'ia Digynia, and in the natural order of C/ienopodi<e.
It is the only species of the Chenopodiums wild in Eng-
land, which is perennial, and may frequently be met
with in waste ground and by roadsides. I have many
times gathered it in the neighbourhood of London. It
may be eaten, when ynmi'j, like spinach, and is culti-
vated for the table in some parts of Lincolnshire. It is
insipid and mucilaginous, rather mawkish, and soon
becomes tough and fibrous. It is in no way comparable
to the common spinach ; but de guslibus noii ^t. It
certainly may be somewhat improved by being grown in
a rich soil. I am, sir, yours, &c.,

Lynn, April 28, 1840. " F. L. S.

Sir, — Allow me to inform yourcorrespondent, " Rus-
ticus," who has made inquiries after the vegetable known
in Lincolnshire by thenameof Mercury, that it is difficult
to find it in cultivation muchaw^LSy from that part of the
country, spinach having superseded it in most gardens ;
it is still a very general vegetable in the kitchen gardens
of Lincolnshire, and is by many preferred to spinach :
its botanical name is C/ienopodium honvs Henricus. Its
mode of cultivation and management is simple, being
jtropagated from the seeds, which are easily gathered :
it is a perennial plant, and is cut for the table very early
in the spring; after it has flowered, it is no longer fit for
that purpose. It is mown down early in the summer ;
and a little rotten manure forked in just previously to
the plant beginning to shoot completes the whole system
of management. I remain, sir, yours.

May 1, 1810. A Fen Farmer.

Sir, — Among your correspondents I observe one who
signs himself " Enquirer," who wishes to have his ig-
norance enlightened concerning the " first principles of
agriculture." The first principles of agriculture are said
to be contained in the two words " arare etstercorare;"
and farmers concisely sum up these principles by drain-
ing their land when it is wet, cleaning it when foul, and
manuring it when poor. This is the sum total of farm-
ing ; but the description of these apparently simple ope-
rations would occupy too much space, and therefore I
beg to refer " Enquirer" to such books as " Loudon's
Encyclopaedia of Agriculture," " Stephen's Book of the
Farm," Professor Low's works, the " Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England," or to the
" Transactions of the Highland Society. '*

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

3Iay \2th. H.

* Also tlie " Farmer's ^lagaziiie."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

mo

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— JUNE.

Retrospect. — Since the year 1799 — that year
which spread desolation through Britain, and raised
the quartern loaf to Is. lO^d. in London, and to
above 2s. in some parts of the countr}' — we can find
no corresponding example of a fall of rain so con-
siderable as that which has been witnessed since the
period of the last vernal equinox. But then the
winter was propitious, and the season forward ;
whereas in 1799 all had been adverse.

'riie ground has been, and is now, by the return
of copious rains, rendered extremely wet : but this
is not the worst concomitant — slugs and snails
superabound; and these began their ravages early in
the month, devouring carrots, parsnips, onions, let-
tuces, and the seed-leaves of brassicas ; so that we
know of instances where three sowings have pe-
rished. Peas too have vanished by the row, even
long after they were midway up their sticks.

As to fruits, the promise remains pretty fair : the
plums, however, which promised so abundant a crop,
have just suffered (May 18) a dreadful blight, in all
l)robability originating with the fierce north-easterly
current that tore along the ground on the 14th and
1 5th, parching and scattering the leaves and young
spray of trees. This wind preceded, and marshalled
in, the ])rofuse rain, thunder, and hail showers of
the I7th to 21st days. No great mischief is yet
produced, up to the day when these remarks are
penned j but the futux-e must become the subject of
solicitude. The operations now to be described are
what we hope may be easily performed.

Vegetable Garden.
First Week. — Cucumbers for pickl'mg. — Open
a trench in the centre of a warm plot of ground,
sloping a little, if possi1)le, towards the south; make
it of dimensions sufficient to contain about two good
barrows of warm manure; cover this with light rich
earth, made very fine. Then plant in spaces, each
about a yard apart, 3 cucumber seedlings, raised
previously in a pot, with the balls of earth undis-
turbed. Three sets of such plants, if properly grown
and trained, will supply a large family not only with
girkins, but with many table cucumbers. The
plants when moved should be showing their first
rough leaves, and a hand-glass ought to be placed
ovej them, as a protection from cold and accidents.

Peas, beans, kidney beans. Sow these imme-
diately for succession. In most situations, these
will be the last that can succeed ; though in some
very fine well-drained gardens, wherein there is al-

ways a good supply of ground moisture, later sow-
ings may be made.

Celery. — Remove the best regular-sized plants to
trenches. In order to succeed, the ground ought
to be rich in the first instance, and each trench
should then be manured at the bottom to the extent
of three or four inches, burying the rotten manure,
and forking it with the soil till thoroughly incorpo-
rated. The trenches must be cut by line, fifteen
inches wide, and four feet asunder ; the plants to
stand in them six or eight inches asunder.

Lettuces. — These can be sown in the richest
ground, but they can also be transplanted from seed
beds. ^lost lettuces, so treated, fly to seed; but the
" Paris cos " is said not to do so, hence it is a bad
seeder. Choose moist weather ; or if that be not
possible, draw shallow drills Math a three-corner
hoe ; water them freely ; repeat the watering ; then,
about sunset, smooth the sides of the drill by the
flatof the hoe, plant a foot asunder, not too deeply,
and make each lettuce quite firm. If guano (of
first quaUty) succeed at all in the garden, it is when
applied in a fluid state ; therefore, to do this safely,
bring the guano to a powdered state, breaking up
the lumps, and add one ounce to one gallon of soft
water. Water from the nozzle (not the rose), and
give from about a \\'ine-glass to half a pint of the
brown fluid to each plant according to its size ; re-
peating, with caution, twice or three times, with in-
tervals of a few days.

It is a great pity that we are not equally acquainted
with the inorganic constituents of all cultivated crops
as with those of the guano. Pending experiments
which our colleges of Cirencester and elsewliei'e
ought to institute, we must proceed discreetly,
recollecting that sound guano should contain about
30 per cent, of salts soluble in water — namely, «re«
(the base of urine), phosphate of ammonia, sulphate
of potassa, muriate of soda, and also all these inter-
changeably both as to bases and acids ; sometimes
also oxalates are traced. The solid matters com-
prise much bone-phosphate of lime in the most use-
ful state of impalpability, a still greater bulk of or-
ganic animal matter (call it animal humus), 14 or 15
per cent, of urate of ammonia — both the latter de-
structible by fire, and of slow decomposition in the
ground. With the bone-jihosphate, when separated
by coml)Ustion, we have never failed to detect iron
as a per-oxide, some magnesia, carbonate of lime,
some trifle of tilumine, and from 1 to 3 per cent, of

670

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sand. The chemical reader will perceive at a glance
what an agency he has at command in this wonder-
ful epitome; and to encourage the prudent gardener,
we can assure him that, although the writer claims
no extent of practical knoivledge, he has produced
the most decisive eftects upon the cabhage — lOO
plants that have received certainly less than lib. in
weight, being some of the most luxiu-iant. Straw-
berry jilants, berry-bearing shrubs, asparagus, and
rows of peas have had proportionate waterings,
care being taken to avoid the leaves ; and in no in-
stance has any mischief followed the application.

Sow liadish, small Salad, round Spinach at any
time, remembering always to water the drills first,
if the weather be dry.

Red-beet, Carrots, and Parsnips, thin them to
convenient distances; hoe, and clean the ground
from weeds.

Onions also should be attended to. The hoe
does great service to this bulb, even in the dryest
seasons, as that of 1S44, when by this tool alone,
without a drop of water, fine beds were secured.

Second week to the end of June :

Cmilifloiver seedlings. — Transfer them to a small
bed of the richest earth, digged or forked very fine.
Set the plants in' regular order three or four inches
apart, preparatory to final removal. For more for-
wai'd plants coming to perfection, one or two ef-
fectual waterings with a quart or so of the drainage
of a dunghill or tank, still further enriched by a
quarter of an ounce (a teaspoon full) of guano,
would be sufficient for each, particularly if about
a pint of plain water were poured around the stem,
to wash away and carry down from it the strong
liquid.

Endive for blanching. — A few plants of the first
sowing ai'e to be set in a spot of chosen ground ;
it is too early for the main stock.

Borecole, Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Savoys,
and Cabbages are planted out now, either where
they are to remain, or some, especially broccoli,
into nursery beds to obtain sticky roots. Sow
cabbage, for coleworts.

Asparagus. — Cease cutting by the 21st, and al-
ways leave one shoot at least to each plant. Ob-
literate weeds, and water with guano.

Gather Mint and all the sweet herbs, for drying.

Potatoes. — Closely examine the stems, to be svu'e
upon the subject of disease. Hoe deeply between
the rows, to give aU freedom to the lateral processes.
Earth or ridge only where it is seen that the variety
tends to bring its tubers to the surface. Wherever
possible, it might be a preventive of disease to
scatter recently slaked lime, mixed at the same time
with a tenth part of coal-soot, over the surface after
hoeing. The lime and ammonia would quickly act

upon the plants — the lime itself more durably
within the soil.

FRUIT DEPARTMENT.

Apricot, Peach, and Nectarine. — Go over the
trees, and if the work were not done before, re-
move iU-placed, superfluous shoots and fruit. Let
the latter be moderately numerous and equally dis-
tributed. Wash the trees thoroughly ^vith the
garden engine, and lay mulch over the roots to
prevent drought.

Apple, Pear, Plum, and Cherry, on walls and
espalier. — Many regulate these trees for spurring,
at two operations, beginning now. We prefer to
wait another month, but would thin the fruit.

Vines require frequent jirunings. All the fruit-
ful shoots ought to be stopped at a joint or two
beyond a cluster. Nail in the retained shoots.
Displace those that are superfluous.

Strawberries. — Water, in dry weather, freely and
to the roots, or not at all. If fine, growing showers
and warm sun alternate, all fruit will be early ;
grapes and strawberries also, and abundant.

The early Vinery will be out of work. Give air,
or rather, if possible, expose the vines. The later
house \vill recjuire no fire, and little close vapour
after the stoning process, but plenty of front and
back air to sweep through the fohage, without
admitting rain.

Keep Pines always moist and growing. The
fruiting-house dryer, and more aired during hot
S-in.

Melons want no bottom heat : plenty of air,
sprinkling over the leaves three or four times a
week, and immediately closing the pits while the
sun shines warm on them, are the chief requisites.

FLOWER GARDEN.

If possible, keep the Heaths, Camellias, Epacris,
and similar hard-wooded plants, in a house that has
a north aspect. Give air, and water freely. Cool,
deep, shaded pits answer well.

Order and regularity in culling flowers, remov-
ing old stems, and whatever is unsightly, are the
chief duties. With these, the raking of surface-
earth, sweeping and rolhng lawns, and gravel
walks, should go hand in hand.

Transplant Annuals. Plant out Balsams, Stocks,
and other favourites — old as well as new— to keep
the mixed beds and borders always well furnished.

Theparterres of selected, single masses, comprise
many of the greenhouse plants ; and all such
pelargoniums as are not intended to be kept over
the winter, should be placed in masses.

As Bulbous plants wither, remove them ; dry
the roots in the air, and pack them in bags or
drawers; tigridias in perfectly dry sand: thus
treated, few are lost.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

671

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

Wind and

State.

Atmosphere.

Day. j 8 a.m. 10p.m.

Min.

Max.

10p.m.

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p. m.

10 p. m.

in. cts.

April 21 30.09

in. cts.

29.99

36

52

42

N.West

variable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

■22 29.89

29.88

37

54

42

E. by S.

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

23

29.86

29.80

38

53

46

S.byE.

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

24

29.80

29.85

42

53

45

S. East

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

25

29.88

29.87

43

55

46

Every way.

gentle

fine

cloudy

cloudy

26

29.80

29.80

41

48

36

N. by W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

27

29.88

29.89

32

48

41

N.West

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

28

29.88

30.00

36

55

40

Westerly, N.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

29

30.18

30.20

33

54

48

N. AVest

gentle

fine

sun

fine

30

30.27

30.30

43

58

47

, N. AVest

gentle

fine

cloudy

cloudy

May ]

30.30

30.29

45

58

53

: Var.— AV.byS.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

2

30.27

30.17

50

6.3

56

N. W.

^entle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

3

30.11 30.00

51

65

56

East

arisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

4

29.89 29.78

51

63

53

S.E. by S.W.

brisk

fine

cloudy

fine

5

29.77 1 29.60

52

61

53

, S. West

brisk

fine

cloudy

fine

6

29.57 j 29.57

49

60

52

Westerly

gentle

fine

cloudy

fine

7

29.65 1 29.75

48

60

52

AVesterly

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

8

29.85 : 29.94

49

63

50

N. AVest

gentle

fine

sun

fine

9

29.97 29.90

48

66

54

S. West

lively

fine

sun

cloudy

10

29.80 29.99 1

48

61

48

W., AV. by N.

variable

fine

cloudy

cloudy

11

30.10 30.09

43

60

47

S.W., E.toN.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

12

29.99 29.90 ;

42

63

52

Easterly

gentle

fine

cloudy

cloudy

13

29.90

29.75

49

59

52

N. East

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

14

29.98

30.02 i

48

58

48

N. East

strong

fine

sun

fine

15

30.00 1 29.90

41

58

47

S. East

brisk

fine

cloudy

cloudy

16

29.74 29.40

41

58

50

N. to S.E.

A'ariable

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

17

29.27 ' 29.22

46

54

4t

S.AA^, AV.

gentle

j cloudy

cloudy

fine

18

29.10 29.10 1

42

57

48

W. S, W.

strong

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

19

29.46 29.57 i

41

58

51

, E.byS., S.

brisk

fine

cloudy

cloudy

20

29.48 I 29.55 |

49

62

46

' S. AV., N. E.

hvely

fine

cloudy

fine

21 1 29.64 29.98 i

4]

68

49

E. by North

gentle

cloudy

sun

fine

estimated averages

OF MAY.

Barometer. j Thermometer.

High.
30.380

Low. ; High.
P9.160 1 70

Low.

34

Mean.
54

REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

OF THE PERIOD.

High.
58.22

Low.
43.7

Mean.

50.645

Noi'th and I
East and to

vT. East Winds.
South

7 days.

. 8h

South a
AVest ai

QdS
id to

outh West

North ...... o

. n-

. Si

AVeather and Phenomena. — 21, gloomy, with
gleams; 2-^, cheerless, hints of rain; 23, fine, very
drying ; 24, some rain early ; 25, thunder at times ;
much gentle rain ; 26, profusely wet night; clear
after 1, A.M.; 27, just frosty; fine cool day; 28,
fine, changeable, a shov.-er; 29, sunny and warm ;
30, fine early, then cloudy.

Lunations.— New moon 25th daj^, 4h. 48 m.,

P.M.

May 1, rain early, cloudy and mild ; 2, warm,
and growing gleams ; 3, changeable, exceedingly

close forenoon ; 4, changeable, streamers at night
5, some rain, fine gromng weather; 6, shght rain ;
7, fine; 8, finer; 9, again changeable; cirrus
streamers and stratus; 10, fine, though cloudy ;
tlumder at times ; rainbow at simset; 11, very fine
and cold ; 1 2, changeable ; 1 3, wndy, cold, wet
day; 14, drying; fine and fresh; 15, same, but
parching wind ; 16, drizzling, rainy evening; com-
pound starchy clouds; 1 7, profuse rain early; cold
18, very showery; 19, many showers; some hail
thunder at a distance; gleams; 20, again showery
2 1 , very much improved, with some promise.

Lunations. — First quarter, 3rd day, 11 h. 52 m.
morn ; full moon 1 1th, 6 h. 6 m. morn ; last quarter
18th, 1 h. 27 m. morn.

Remarks concerning Agriculture. — The
crops are even, regular, and promising ; but the
cold rains, and long-protracted even temperature
has checked the promised precocity. All the fodder
crops are wonderfully luxuriant near our vicinity ;
and if the weather take up, with warm nights, everj'-
thing will go on well. John Towers,

Maidenhead Thicket.

573

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

f./(i^ J.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY.

Like that of many pre^'io•as months, the weather,
since the date of our last report, has been extremely
changeable, yet, on the whole, fa^'ourable to the
growing crops, as well as vegetation in general.
Although botli the winter and spring sown wheats
have not made that progress which might have been
anticipated, they are seasonably forward on most
soils, especially on the Ught lands, and present, with
some exceptions, a favourable and promising ap-
pearance. Still, we must not forget to mention
that, in some districts, the blade assumed a very yel-
low complexion about the middle of the month,
but which has since, from the fine showers which
fell between the 18th and 22nd, become more
healthy. Although many contradictory reports
have reached us on the subject, we have no hesita-
tion in saying, from the inquiries we have made in
our large grain counties, that the breadth of land
under wheat culture this year exceeds that of many
preceding seasons. So far this is gratifying ; as-
suming, as we do, that the ])roduce of that descrip-
tion of grain ought to be the great means of su aport
to the agricultm-al body ; but passing events in the
political world fill our minds with fear for the
future in this respect. The measure which has re-
ceived the sanction of the House of Commons, for
the admission of grain and flour for home consump-
tion at low duties, cannot, in our opinion, in the
generality of years, but have a prejudicial effect
upon the interests of British growers. Even the
free traders themselves admit that future prices of
corn must rule considerably lower than at present,
and the cpiestion now mooted by the consumers is.
Has it become necessary to tamper with the e fisting
Corn Laws on the ground of scarcity ? Upon this
all-important topic of consideration, viz., whether
the available supplies of bread stuffs are really de-
ficient, we shall here offer a few remarks. It will
be recollected that, at the period the harvest of 1845
was brought to a conclusion, great was the outcry
raised by the League that its produce was extremely
deficient, both as respects quantity and quality;
hence unusually high prices were jjredicted. In
our capacity as public journahsts we felt it our duty
to endeavour to disabuse the minds of our readers
on the matter ; plainly telling them, as we did, that
though partial deficiencies in the wheat crop were
observed in some parts of England, the crop was
nearly an average one ; and the positive falling oft"
in quality, so strongly urged by some parties as an

earnest of famine quotations, was nearly, or quite,
made good by the then large quantities of old wheats
on hand. That our obseiTations and predictions
respecting future supplies and prices have been
verified, is jiroved by passing events, as we find that
the quantities of most articles of grain on sale, for
some time past, in our various markets, have been
fully adequate to meet the wants of the dealers ;
but prices have suffered a considerable depression
duringthe past month. These changes in the features
of the corn trade are, we perceive, principally attri-
buted to the unwillingness on the part of the trade
to increase their stocks so near the time when the
whole of the bonded siipplies of foreign grain and
flour will be taken out of the bonded warehouses at
a low duty, and which (if we include the latter ar-
ticle) will fall little short of 2,200,000 quarters, ex-
clusive of those now on their passage. What
stronger arguments could we make use of to prove
that low import duties must act prejudicially to the
British yeoman ? Again, we have been informed,
in the usual " soft sawder" fashion, that a revival of
demand and value will take place immediately after
the passing of Sir Robert Peel's measure. Such
may be the case ; but we incline to the opinion that
the j^rincipal millers will act with that degree of
caution which has so long characterised their trans-
actions, and thereby keep prices at about their pre-
sent level, especially when they consider that we
have more corn in the country than we can con-
veniently consume between th:s and the close of
harvest operations.

S])ring corn, especially beans and peas, is looking
remarkably strong and healthy, with every prospect
of good crops. The stocks in the hands of the
growers are quite as large as we have had occasion
to report at this time for some years past.

The show for fruit in the whole of our large dis-
tricts is an excellent one, ])articularly in Devonshire
and Kent, notwithstanding the blight has attacked
many important plantations.

Owing to the great abundance of pasture and
other herbage, the demand for both hay and straw
in our markets during the whole of the month has
ruled very dull, and the quotations have experienced
a decline of from 4s. to 6s. in those of the former,
and fully 2s. per load in those of the latter.

The crop grasses are well represented, and in
some quarters hay making has partially commenced,
under the most favourable ausjiices, the jn'oduce

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

578

being considered large. Some time must, however,
elapse ere this department of field labours can lie-
come general.

It is very gratifying to be enabled to state that
the epidemic amonjjst cattle, which we stated in our
last report as ha\ing somewhat increased in vio-
lence, has greatly sul)sided, and that scarcely any
losses worthy of mention have come under our notice
within the last three weeks.

As we have long predicted, the imports of live
stock from abroad, under the operation of the new
tariff, have considerably increased, though we can-
not report quite so favourably of the general quality
of stock lately received from Holland as on some
previous occasions.

Our advices from Ireland and Scotland state that
full average supplies of corn have been on sale in
the various markets of consumption. Generally
speaking, the demand lias been in a very inactive
state, quotations have declined from Is. to 3s. per qr.

Potatoes, as has been the case in the metropoli-
tan market, have risen in value ; yet the supphes,
large portions of which have been in a very dis-
eased state, have lieen rather extensi\'e. The re-
ports respecting the appearance of the new sorts are
by no means satisfactory, the disease having made
its appearance on many newly-planted soils. The
few shipments made to this country from the
Azores, Spain, &c., have turned out most unprofi-
table speculations.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Having long watched, with intense interest, the
effect likely to be produced by the new tariff upon
the value of the property of the agriculturists we,
as practical men, feel it incumbent upon us to offer
a few observations upon a statement which has
lately found its way into the columns of the " Times"
newspaper, respecting the results likely to arise
from the admission of foreign cattle into our mar-
kets, free of duty, for consumption here. The
writer of the statement in question, who, we are
informed, is an Enghsh gentleman, who has, for
upwards of twenty years, farmed his own estate in
Northern Germany, sets out with the following as-
sumptions : — ■

" My decided conviction is, that no quantity of
stock which can now, or for many years to come, be
spared from the home consumption of Germany,
can in any degree lessen the profits of the English
farmer, or produce any percejjtible fall in the
markets ; and I ground my assertion on the follow-
ing data: — 1st, whilst the imj)ortation of foreign
cattle into England during the last three-and-a-half
years has (with exception of the panic period)
caused no diminution whatever of English prices,
the small number of 8,000 head removed from our
consumers has produced so sensible a rise in our
markets, that good meat noto fetches in this country
very nearly as much as in England ! .'"

Now, though this said con-espondent may be a
most wise pei'sonage in his way, we plainly tell him
his "facts" are directly at variance with the truth.
What ! are we to be told that no quantity of stock
that can be spared from Germany will lessen
the profits of the English grazier ? and that no fall
has taken place in the quotations here, consequent
upon the arrival of foreign cattle ? The idea is
preposterous ; it is against the general rules of
trade ; consequently, imworthy of credit for a

single moment. If our readers will do us the fa-
vour to watch narrowly the reports which we give
from time to time, they wdl find that, during the
present year, beef has declined in Smithfield market
6d.; mutton, 8d. ; lamb, lOd. to Is.; and veal, 6d.
to lOd. per 8 lbs. : and yet our understanding is to
be insulted by the remark that no fall has taken
place in prices in this country ! Nov/, since the
1st of January, current year, not less than three
HUNDRED AND FIFTY beasts, on an average of
weeks, have appeared on sale in the above market
from Holland, Germany, and Prussia ; and which,
as a matter of course, have displaced an equal
number of home-fed animals. These supplies, be
it understood, have diverted from the hands of the
English grazier to that of the foreigner not less
than ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND POUNDS; and
that amount has been Avithdrawn from the country
within five months ! Supposing, then, the profits
of our breeders to be five per cent., we here show
an actual loss to our graziers of not less than five
thousand pounds ! As to the assertion that the
value of stock has advanced abroad, we here give
this wise-acre's lucubration the flattest contradic-
tion ; knowing, as we do, that such a remark is im-
founded in fact. But, if good meat produces nearly
as high a price in Germany as with us, why is the
speculation continued ? for it is self-e\ddent if the
owners could obtain such prices at home as are
here referred to, they would not be disposed to risk
the " chances" of our market, and probably incur
considerable loss.

But there are one or two other points in this said
epistle demanding our attention. For instance, it
is asserted —

" When the inferior class of animal bred in Ger-
many is taken into account, with their heavy heads
and foreheads, their long legs, and their light hind

674

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

quarters, it will, I think, be granted, that such can
never be classed higher than with second-rate beef
in England."

Without wishing to prejudice this wise man in the
estimation of his readers, we here boldly assert that
he has neve?' seen any of the animals which have been
recently imported into this country from Prussia,
and which have found buj^ers in the Metropolitan
market. Having ourselves seen the whole of them,
we may stale, without fear of contradiction, that
they have equalled, in quaUty and condition, some
of our best breeds; and, to show that we are cor-
rect in this important particular, we may state that
many of them have sold as high as £21 each, with-
out weighing more than 115 stones each ! Be it
observed, those who visit Smithfield are not all
" green-horns ;" hence it is not very likely they
would give more than the value for either beasts or
sheep. Tlien this scribe favours us with a long
dose about the difficulty of getting the beasts over
the " arid sands" of Prussia to the place of ship-
ment; and he asks, " in what condition will they
arrive in England ?" So far as ovu- observation has
extended, v.e maintain that no beasts could come
to hand in better condition than those which have
been received from Prussia via Rotterdam, although
they have had to travel over those " arid sands" to
the extent of nearly two hundred miles ! But what
is required to improve these said sands, but English
gold ? Let that be obtained, and the sandy plains
Avill speedily become the most fertile spots in Ger-
many, and our markets will be inundated with their
produce.

During the month just concluded, the annexed
imports of beasts have taken place from abroad into
London : —

Whence. Head of Beasts.

Hamburgh 54

Rotterdam 660

Harlingen 122

Prussia 121

Total

957

The numbers of sheep have amounted to 975, of
lambs 24, of calves 10, and of pigs 58 ; while at
the outports nearly 600 beasts and sheep have
come to hand from Holland. At the correspond-
ing period in 1845, tbe arrivals of beasts into
England amounted to 900, and of sheep 200 head ;
consequently, it will be perceived, a larger increase
has taken place this year.

From our own grazing districts, the receipts of
both beasts and sheep, up to Smithfield market,
have been considerably on the increase, and of
unusually fine quality; indeed, the exhibition of
stock on each day, as to condition, has seldom or
never been surpassed on any previous occasion.
As might therefore be expected, the trade has
ruled heavy, and the general quotations have had
a downward tendency, and clearances have not

been made. The following is a comparison of the

supphes : — May, May,

1845. 1846.

Beasts 14,117 14,287

Cows 520 541

latnSs \ 13^'9^« 123,970

Calves 1,436 1,267

Pigs 2,501 2,380

Totals 149,504 142,445

Although the numbers have not quite equalled
those of May, 1845, they have carried a much larger
quantity of meat and fat, consequently the show in
these resjjects has been very inferior ; and we hesi-
tate not to say, that as the season advances, a con-
siderable increase in the numerical strength of the
droves will be apparent.

The beasts have been derived as under : —

Norfolk, Suffolk, &c 7,200 head.

Northern counties 1,250

Western and Midland districts 2,300

Scotland 1,600

Ireland 800

Total 13,150

From the above, we find that Norfolk has sent
us about 1000 beasts more than at the same time
last year, when the number was 6,300 head. The
remainder of the supphes have been derived from
abroad, and the neighbourhood of the metropolis.
A larger number of lambs, viz., 1,870 head, has
reached us from the Isle of Wight.
Prices have been as under : —

Per 8lbs. by the carcass.

May 1845.

May 1846.

s. d. s.

d.

s. d. s.

d.

Beef from 3 0 to 4

6

2 6 to 4

0

Mutton ..34 5

0

3 4 4

4

Lamb . . 4 10 6

0

5 0 6

0

Veal 4 0 5

2

3 10 5

0

Pork .... 3 0 4

2

3 8 5

0

LTp to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, in which
have been exhibited about 150 carcasses of foreign
beasts, and 400 do. of sheep, the arrivals of
slaughtered meat have been moderately extensive,
and of fair average quality. Generally speaking,
the trade has been in a very sluggish state, at de-
pressed currencies ; beef having sold at from
2s. 4d. to 3s. 6d.; mutton, 3s. to 4s. 2d.; lamb,
6s. to 6s. 2d.; veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s.; and pork,
3s. 4d. to 5s. per 8 lbs., by the carcass,

ARRIVAL OF CARCASSES DURING THE MONTH.

Beasts.

Scotland 112

Yorkshire 150

Lincolnshire .... 205

Norfolk 100

85

180

90

210

Suffolk

Cambridgeshire.

Essex . ..

Surrey

Devonshire . . .

Wiltshire

Other parts . . .

100
210

Sheep.

1560

1740

540

370

380

370

270

450

30

370

550

Calves.

270
270
10
200
360

Pigs.
1100
1350
390
400
390
350
390
530
190
330
600

Total.. 1442 6630 1110 6020

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

675

REVIEW OF THE COUN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF MAY.

The new Corn Importation Bill has passed the
tliird reading in the House of Commons, by a
majority of ninety-eight, and was read the first
time in the House of Lords on the 18th instant.
The discussion on the second reading commenced
on the 25th, and had not been brought to a termi-
nation when it was necessary for this article to be
put in ty])e. There is, however, very little doubt
but that Ministers will again succeed in obtaining
a majority ; but it is not so certain that the bill will
go through committee without alteration, and many
are still sanguine that it may be rejected. We
must confess that we cannot hold out strong hopes
of such an occurrence, and fear that the days of
protection to native industry are numbered. The
Premier has not been very gently handled by the
leaders of the country party ; and though we are
decided enemies to personal invectives, it must be
acknowledged that the conduct Sir Robert Peel has
l)ursued in deliberately throiving overboard the
party who brought him into power, and espousing
the cause of the opponents to the principles he was
returned to uphold, has richly merited the treat-
ment he has received.

Previous to the first reading of the Irish Coercion
Bill, it was generally deemed doubtful whether the
incongruous materials of which the present minis-
try is composed would hold together, and a hope
was felt that an appeal to the country would be-
come necessary. Even now this notion is pretty
generally entertained, it being thought probable
that alterations in the Corn Importation Bill may
be suggested in the committee of the Upper House
which the Commons may refuse to sanction, in
which case a dissolution of parliament would
follow. Farmers do not, however, appear to place
much reliance on this their last chance, and within
the last few weeks they have manifested much greater
anxiety to clear out the remainder of their stocks
than had been previously shown, confidence in the
present laws being maintained having been wholly
lost. At the same time merchants and millers have
from day to day become more unwilling to pur-
chase beyond what they have required for imme-
diate use, calculating on prices being materially de-
pressed if the free-trade policy of the Cabinet
should be carried out.

In this position of affairs the value of all species
of agricultural produce has been depreciated, and
wheat — the article of first importance — has, within

the space of three weeks, fallen at least 8s. per qr.
in all parts of the kingdom. So great a fall we
were hardly prepared to expect ; but a species of
panic seized holders, about the time the bill passed
the third reading, and the effect which this was cal-
culated to produce was considerably heightened by
the interval of fine weather experienced towards the
latter part of April, and the beginning of May ; for
though there was a want of that genial warmth so
requisite at this period of the year, the weather was
on the whole propitious up to the 12th inst. : on
that day we had a return of wet, which lasted till
the 20th, but since then it has been fine. The
quantity of rain which has hitherto fallen may not
have done actual mischief to the growing crops,
still it has given rise to some uneasiness, more es-
pecially as respects wheat, which is said to have
run up speedily without tillering. The colour is
also a good deal complained of, and the prospects
for the future are certainly less promising than they
were in the early part of the spring. A great deal
will, however, depend on the weather during June,
that being usually the month when atmospherical
changes are productive of the greatest influence.
With a hot dry June little or no ill consequences
would, in our opinion, result from the late heavy
rains ; indeed, in that case it might in the long run
prove a benefit ; but it is certain that the crop is
not in a position to stand much more wet without
being in some degree injured. We have now
arrived at a time of the year when a few wet or
fine days produce so great an effect on the minds
of buyers and sellers that it would be absurd to
pretend to predict the probable range of quotations j
but leaving the weather out of the question, we
certainly think circumstances do not warrant the
expectation that the value of wheat will be lower
than it now is.

Much stress has been laid, by those who calcu-
late on extremely low prices, on the stock of foreign
wheat in bond in the kingdom ; and a million and
a half of quarters, it must be confessed, seems a
large quantity to be liberated. On the other hand,
it must be remembered that millers and merchants
have long been looking out for the release of the
lock wheat, and have, in anticipation of that event,
allowed their stocks to run to an unusually low
ebb; if, therefore, the farmers do not hold more
wheat than in ordinary seasons at the correspond-
ing time, the release of what is in bond \v\\\ not, in

676

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

our opinion, liave any permanent effect on quo-
tations. It is estimated that the millers ought
never to be without a sufficient quantity of wheat
on hand to provide for two months' consumption ;
and to do this requires between three and four
milhons of quarters. At the present moment, we
much doubt whether there is a miller in England
who could carry on his business for ten days with-
out completely exhausting his stock; it follows,
therefore, that if the entire quantity of wheat now
under the Queen's locks was distributed (as it soon
would be, were it liberated) among the manufac-
turers of flour, they would still be more slenderly
provided than in common average seasons.

It seems, therefore, to us that no further fall in
the value of the article can well occur, unless the
weather should hereafter become of so propitious
a character as to give rise to a belief in an unusually
early and abundant harvest. Very favourable
prospects for the next crop would render farmers
less disposed to retain any portion of last yeai-'s
wheat, and large home supphes coming fonvard
about the same time the bonded may be expected
to be freed, would unquestionably tend still further
to force down pi-ices.

Within the last week or two the dehveries from
the growers have, however, again decreased, and as
the hay harvest must now soon engage the atten-
tion of farmers, we do not think it probable that
the supphes wU for some time to come be parti-
cularly large.

The most striking occurrence during the month,
in connection with politics, has been the meeting
in London of the Central Protection Society. The
number of agriculturists who assembled on this oc-
casion was so great, and the different resolutions
passed condemnatory of the new Corn Importation
Bill were carried with such earnestness, that many
are sanguine that a beneficial effect may be thereby
produced. At all events, the assertion which has
on several occasions been made by those in power,
that tenant farmers had become indifferent as to
what might be done with the corn laws, was at this
meeting proved to be untrue. AVe much regret
that the country party allowed affairs to go on so
long before they made a demonstration of their
disapproval of the ministerial scheme ; but even
now it may not be too late to do some good should
the first step be followed up with spirit and energy.
Ministers are unquestionably in a precarious posi-
tion; and should the present Cabinet be upset — a
circumstance by no means improbable — an appeal
to the country would enable farmers to return such
representatives to the House of Commons as to
stay the march of free trade.

In taking our monthly retrospect of the transac-
tions at Mark-lane, we shall have to date the com-

mencement of the important fall which has taken
place in the \'alue of wheat from the period that a
majority was obtained in the House of Commons
on the first reading of the Irish Coercion Bill. An
opinion had become very prevalent, that this mea-
sure and the Corn Bill might cause such an en- .
tanglement as to defeat the object of both ; and
many had begun to beheve that the existing corn
laws were safe, at least during the present session.
The resumption of the debate on the Corn Importa-
tion Bill, and the second and third reading which
speedily followed, tended greatly to weaken this
impression ; and in jtroportion as the probabilities
of the duties on foreign grain behig reduced in-
creased, sellers of Enghsh became anxious to get
out of stock. The first great fall occurred on Mon-
day, the 11th inst. ; something very like a jianic
seemed to have seized sellers, and sales were forced
at a reduction of 5s. to 6s. per qr. The wet wea-
ther which prevailed during the succeeding week
had not the effect of restoring confidence; and
though the show of samples at Mark-lane was by
no means large, a further abatement took i)lace on
the Monday following : even here the retrograde
movement did not stop, most of the business done
in Enghsh Wheat on the 25th inst. being at prices
8s. to 10s. per qr. below those at which sales were
made just one month before.

Hitherto this immense reduction has not had any
influence on the averages ; but in the course of a
week or two the low sales must come into the
returns, and the aggregate average for the king-
dom, which is at present above 56s. per qr., will
shortly be reduced several shillings. This is in
so far important, as it will, in case Ministers should
succeed in carrying their jjlan, cause a higher dutv
to be levied on foreign wheat than appeared, when
the measure was first introduced, probable. The
projjosed scale is, it will be recollected, as follows :
\Vhen the average price shall be 48s. per qr. or
under, a duty of 10s. per qr. is to be charged; and
for every Is. per qr. the price rises, the duty is to
fall Is. per qr. until the former reaches 54s.; at
and above which point the duty is to remain fixed
at 4s. per qr.

Until recently, it seemed, therefore, that in the
event of the new bill being carried the wheat in
bond would be liberated at the minimum duty of |
6d. per bushel ; but this is now no longer so cer- '
tain ; indeed, if no rally takes place in prices, and
the returns be made with fairness, it is by no means
improbable that in the course of a month the aggre-
gate average for the kingdom may have receded
to 50s. or even 48s. per qr., in which case either
an 8s. or 10s. duty would be chargeable even under
the proposed new scale.

So much uncertainty still exists as to the future,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

JT7

thai we do not fed at all surprised that there should '
have heen little or no inclination to make sjjecula- i
tive investments in honded wheat ; indeed, up to •
the present time there has heen nothinj^ to en-
courage speculation, and the operations in foreign
have consequently heen very unimportant through-
out the month. j

Till very lately, imj)orters calculated with certainty '
on sooner or later heing enabled to liberate their
stocks from under lock at an expense of 4s. })er qr.,
a conviction which imparted sufficient confidence j
to prevent any fall of consequence occurring in i
({notations ; still the tendency has, on the whole,
been downwards.

The business done in bonded wheat has been
principally confined to what the millers have
been compelled to take for mixing with the inferior
quahties of Enghsh. What has been bought
has, therefore, been immediately released, not in
the ordinary way, by paying the duty, but by sub-
stituting floiu' for the wheat required, under the
provisions of the Grinding-in-Bond Bill. This
mode of liberating wheat has been much in use of
late; the power of transfen-ing the certificates,
granted on placing a given quantity of flour under
lock, afibrding facilities for this kind of business
which would not have existed if the docinnents had
not been made transferable. The selling and buy-
ing of certificates has lately constituted a sepa-
rate branch of trade ; large parcels of flour have
been placed under the Queen's locks at Liverpool,
Glasgow, and other ports, for the express purpose
of obtaining certificates ; these have been sent to
London, where they have met a ready sale at prices
rendering the cost of liberating a quarter of wheat
10s. 6d., and the whole of the bonded wheat which
has lately been entered for home consumption has,
therefore, been rendered free at a lower rate by
some 5s. or Gs. per qr. than the actual duty.

In addition to the vent thus afforded for lock wheat
a few cargoes have been taken during the month for
export to Antwerp, consisting mostly of inferior
qualities received from the Mediterranean ; still the
stock in bond has increased, the arrivals from abroad
having been on a more liberal scale than might, from
the little encouragement the English markets have
held out to consign, have been expected.

From the official return of the quantities of grain
under lock in the United Kingdom just published,
it appears that there were 1,399,555 qrs. of wheat
on the 5th inst., besides 1,119,927 cws. of flour.

The sale of the last named article has been much
influenced by the depreciation which the value of
wheat has undergone. For some weeks the nomi-
nal top price of town-made has been unsettled, it
having been variously quoted 49s., 52s. to 53s. per
sack by diflferent millers. The first of these prices

ma}' now be considered an extreme quotation, and
secondarj- qualities of flour, whether of town or
coimtry manufacture, have recently been selling at
very low rates.

Fi"om Canada no supjjlies ha\e yet reached us ;
])ut from the United States the arrivals have been
very large : on one or two occasions upwards of
20,000 barrels have been received in the course of
a single week at the port of London alone ; whilst
at Liverpool, Glasgow, and other places, the arrivals
have been on a still more extensive scale. Bonded
flour has become nearly unsaleable : at Mark-lane,
fair l)rands have been in vain offered at 26s.; and at
Liverpool, Western of fine quality has been sold at
the low rate of 25s. per barrel. Those i)arties who
some time ago put free flour under lock, mth a
view of getting certificates, are not likely, therefore,
to derive much j)rofit from the experiment.

The malting season having some time ago ter-
minated, there has been little or no demand for the
finer kinds of barley. Had it not been for the un-
certainty felt as to the corn laws, maltsters might
perhaps have been tempted by the lowness of prices
to buy to hold over ; but under existing circum-
stances the favourite policy appears to be to act on
the reserve. Notwithstanding the smallness of the
supplies coastwise, and the absence of any arrivals
of this grain of importance from abroad, prices have
gradually receded, and towards the end of the
month really good malting samples were sold at
32s. per qr., and other descriptions on propor-
tionably reduced terms. The fall has not been so
great on grinding sorts as on the finer kinds, and
sweet feeding parcels have not Jieen offered below
26s. to 27s. per qr.

The operations in malt have been on a strictly
retail scale ; the value of the article has in con-
sequence of the languid nature of the inquiry, and
the depression in the price of barley, given way Is.
to 2s. per qr. ; but this decline has failed to tempt
buyers, who have I'efused to take more than
their wants have rendered necessarj'.

During the first half of the month of May,
comjiaratively large supplies of oats arrived in
London from our own coast ; and though the re-
ceipts from Ireland were about that period only
moderate, the total quantity received was sufficient
to prevent any scarcity of this grain being felt ; in-
deed, the supplies have, taking the month as a
whole, been more than have been required for the
consumption of the metropolis. Tlie dealers have
meanwhile displayed the gi'eatest unmllingness to
add to their stocks, prices have consequently re-
ceded week after week, and are at the close about
2s. per qr. lower than they were in the beginning
of the month. It is now pretty certain that the
shipments from Ireland will be greater than Ave

878

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

were led to believe, and as prejiarations are in ac-
tive progress at many of the near continental ports,
to ship this grain to Great Britain, it may be ques-
tioned whether even our present quotations will be
long maintained, unless fears should hereafter
arise resj^ecting the growing crop.

The abundance of all kinds of keep for cattle,
throughout the spring, has unquestionably caused
a decreased consumption of oats ; and the promise
of an unusually heavy hay crop has also had its
influence,

English beans have come sparingly to hand,
and although the demand has, as is usually the
case during the spring and summer months, been
on a restricted scale, the limited character of the
supply has prevented prices giving way, and quo-
tations are much the same at the close as they
were in the commencement of the month. In
foreign beans next to nothing has been done ;
those which have arrived from abroad have Ijeen
warehoused in bond, importers having been un-
willing to pay the existing high rate of duty.

In the early part of the month there was a good
demand for peas for shipment to Scotland, but
latterly the inquiry has slackened, and neither
white, grey, nor maple peas are now quite so dear
as they were at the close of April. A few parcels
have recently been received from the north of
Europe ; still the stock under lock in the kingdom
is trifling ; the prospects for the next crop being,
however, generally regarded as promising, prices
are more likely to recede than advance.

We shall here close our notice of the home
trade, and devote the remainder of our space to
record the changes which have taken place in the
wheat trade at the principal foreign markets.

Less influence seems to have been produced on
prices abroad, by the important fall which has
taken place in the value of wheat in the Enghsh
markets, than might have been expected; the
confidence of foreign merchants, like that of the
holders of bonded wheat at home, has been
upheld by the hope of a 4s, duty. Very few
British orders having, however, been sent out,
business has been extremely inactive for some time
past, at the leading continental ports .

The latest accounts from Danzig state that the
shipments had been quite unimportant ; but with
scarcely any foreign demand, and comparatively
httle speculation, quotations had been nearly sup-
ported. This had been partly caused by the insig-
nificance of the supplies from Poland, and the be-
lief that the arrivals down the Vistula wovdd,
throughout the summer, be on a very restricted
scale. The best high mixed wheat in granary, the
growth of 1842, had at no period been oflfered be-
low 50s. to 5 Is. per qr. free on board ; and mo-

! derately good high mixed had brought 47s. to 48s.

' per qr. Freights had rather risen, and for first

class vessels, 3s. fid. to 4s. to London and the

east coast of Great Britain, and 4s. fid. to 5s. for

Liverpool, had been asked.

From Konigsberg the advices are altogether
without interest ; quotations being relatively higher
there than at Danzig.

At the Lower Baltic ports there appear to be very
trifling stocks of wheat generally ; and as the far- J
mers had brought forward rather scanty supplies, i
prices of wheat had beenkeptu]) too high at theprin-
cipal markets, as compared with the value of the
article here, to admit of the few orders sent out by
our speculators being executed. Good hea\y qua-
lities of wheat, such as have lately been obtainable
at Mark Lane at about 48s. per qr., have been held
on the other side at 45s. to 46s. per qr., free on
board. Taking one port with the other, the freight
to London would probably average 3s. fid. per qr. ;
and further charges would have to be incurred for
insurance and sound dues ; the London market is,
therefore, by far the most advantageous for those
disposed to speculate in foreign wheat. The case
is similar as regards Hamburgh ; and there can be
no doubt that all the wheat recently imported
would, if sold at present prices, entail a rather heavy
loss on importers. The period for which the ex-
port of wheat from Holland and Belgium was for-
bidden in the autumn of last year will exjiire in
July ; but, as prices of the article are higher in
both countries than in Great Britain, and shipments
of bonded wheat continue up to the present time
to be made from hence to Rotterdam and Antwerp,
there seems little prospect of supplies reaching us
from the Netherlands. In some of the south eas-
tern countries of Europe, prices of wheat have,
within the last month or two, gradually declined ;
and Polish Odessa and similar quahties were, ac-
cording to the most recent accounts, obtainable at
the principal ports in the Mediterranean at 35s. to
37s. per qr., free on board. At Odessa the value
of the article had also given way at the date of our
last letters ; the best parcels being then obtainable
at a price, rendering the cost on board 30s.
per qr.

From America we have reports of recent dates
by the Great Western steam ship. The dull ad-
vices from Great Britain, together with the gene-
rally favourable weather for the growing crops,
had caused rather an important decline in the price
of flour at the chief markets in the United States.
At New York good brands of western had been
sold at 4 d. 68 c, or rather under '20s. per brl.; and at
Baltimore the price of Howard-street flour had
faUen to four dollars. These rates are certainly
low, and we shall probably receive a larger quan-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

579

tity of flour from the other side of the Atlatitic
than usual during the summer.

From Montreal we learn that the shipping season
had commenced in earnest, and that large con-
signments to the English markets were in progress
of being sent off.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

May 25.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 48 54 White.. 56 fi2

Old, red .. 50 56 Do 59 62

Rye, old 84 88 New &8 40

Bakley, Grinding, 26 27 Malting 80 ;i2 Chevalier 83 —

Irish 24 26 Bere . . . 25 26

Malt, Su Hoik and Norfolk 58 63 Brown.. 56 00

Kingston and Ware CO — Chevalier 65 —

Oats, York6h.& Lincolnshire, feed 24 27 Potato.. 26 28

Youghall and Cork, blacR.. 22 21 Cork,wliite24 25

Dublin 24 25 Westport 26 —

Waterford, white 21 23 Blacii .. 28 24

Newry 27 28

Galway 19 20 21

Scotch, feed 27 28 Potato.. 27 28

Clonmel 25 26 Limerick 25 27

Londonderry 28 — Sligo . .. 24 26

Beans, Tick, new 84 88 Old, small 48 50

Peas, Grey , 36 — Maple.. 36 —

White -38 44 .Boilers.. 42 44

FLOUft, Town-made 50 53 Suffolk 42 — per sk. of 280 lbs.

Stockton and Norfolk 40 41 Irish 42 44

FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic 62 54 fine — 58

Hamburg 48 50

Rostock 48 53

Barley 20 22 24

Oats, Brew 22 24 Feed ...19 20

Bbans 27 28

Peas 32 —

Flour, American, per brl 25 20 Baltic.. — —

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Weekending , Wheat. j Barley. Oats, i Rye. Beans. Peas.
22 9 i 33 4 85 1 33 8

April llth 56 0

18th 1 55 10

25th
Mav 2nd.... ..'

9lh ;

16th j

Agj^re^ate average of
the Bix weeks w'hichi
rtgulates the duly.l
Duties payable in
London till Wed-,
nestlay next inclu-i
sive, and at the Out-;
porta till the arrival'
of the mail of that!
day from London . .',
Do. on graiu from)
British posseasions
out of Europe .. .

22 9 85 5 34 9

23 4 1 33 7 3t 10
32 5 84 11

23
23

33 5 .35 8

24 1 33 5 35 11

34 5
33 10

33 M

34 7
84 11

29 U 23 4

7 35 2 84 3

.3 0

5 0 9 6

0 6 1 0' 0 6, 0 6

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Imp. Quarter, flora the
GazeKe, of Friday last,
JMay 22nd, 1846.

AVERAGES from the corres
ponding Gazette in the lasl
year, Friday, May 23rd,
1845.

Whbat 67 0

Barley 29 4

Oats 24 1

Rye 83 5

Beans 85 11

Pbas 34 II

g. <l
45 y

.. . BO 0

21 9

Rye

29 7

37 3

Pbas

37 0

Carrawny 44

Coriander 10

Mustard, brown, new.... 10

Hempseed 85

Trefoil 17

Mediter. & Ode.ssa 4 4 45
Canary, 44 47

PRICES OF SEEDS.

May 25.

Seed, Rape 24Z. 26/. Irish .. — I. — t. per last.

Ditio, new 25/. — /. per last.

Linseed, Baltic. 40 44 Odessa 45 46

Linseed, Baltic and Russia, 38 40, finer sorts, 43 45 per qr
Mustard, while 10 11 brown — — per bush.

Linseed Cakes, English..— 10/. 10s. to 11/. Os. per 1000
J^inseed, English, sowing 54 60 crushing 43 45 per qr

46 new .

13 percwt.
1 1 white.

88 per qr.
24 old.

48 percwt
1 p. bush

— new 28

POTATO MARKET.
SOUTHWARK, Waterside, May 25.

There were no fresh arrivals to this market during the
week ; notwithstanding, there was but little demand, ex-
cept for the very best samples ; all inferior samples were
a complete drug. Owing to the high prices, the warm
weather, and the abundant supply of vegetables to the
various metropolitan markets, the consumption of Po-
tatoes was considerably diminished.

The prices ranged as follow: — York Reds, 140s. to
180s., ditto Regents, 40s. to 120s.; Perth Reds, llSs. to
120s.

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, May 25.

The market for Hops is rather firmer, as the advices
from the plantations notice an increase of fly. To these
rumours, however, not much importance is attached, as
the appearance of fly is usual at this period. There is
but a limited quantity of Hops on off'er. Mid. and East
Kent pockets, 5/. 12s. to 9/. ; Weald of Kent pockets,
5/. 5s. to 6/. 10s. ; Sussex pockets, 5/. 5s. to 6^. 6s. per
cwt.

WORCESTER, (Saturday /as^j— Within the last
few days the Hop plantations throughout the district
have been attacked with fly, the bine in many gardens
being already swarming with the insect, which has
caused considerable apprehension in the minds of the
planters as to the fate of the crop, which has so often
suffered by the ravages of these little animals. These
unfavourable appearances have given life to the market,
and caused an advance in prices of 4s. to 6s. per cwt.
since last Saturday, and several planters and speculators
have withdrawn their hops from sale for the present, in
anticipation of shortly realizing higher rates.

MAIDSTONE, May 21.— For more than a week
past we have had a succession of very wet, cold, and
squally weather, quite unusual for the latter part of
May, attended in some places with heavy hailstorms,
which have cut and battered the bine to some extent.
The hops have thus been considerably checked in their
wild career, and perhaps beneficially so, for they were
twining round the poles at a railroad pace, producing
strong, long-jointed, and unfruitful bine, and getting
much too forward. The extreme wet and cold nights,
with strong winds, have turned the hops very yellow ;
but this, we trust, is only temporary, as, with a little
warm, genial weather, they will soon resume their
wonted healthy hue. We hear of fly generally. At
some places a considerable increase has appeared within
the last day or two ; but, with a continuance of such
weather as we have lately experienced, it is not probable
that they will do much execution. The fly seldom
makes a successful attack on hops when the atmosphere
is low in temperature and the bine yellow. It has made
its appearance this year at an earlier jjeriod than usual,
which is also in favour of the hops. This afternoon
(Thursday) the weather is warmer, and a favourable
change appears to be taking place.

6H0

THE FARMER'S xMAGAZlNE.

"WOOL MARKETS.
BRITISH.

LEEDS, ^'.lay 22. — There lias not been any change in this
branch of trade during the present week. The demand is
steady but not brisk, and prices are firm.

AVAKEFIELU, May 22.— There lias been more life in the
wool trade within tlie last two or tliree weeks, and extensive
sales have been made on rather better terms than could have
been realised for some previous weeks, and the aspect of the
market mav be reported firm.

PONTEFRA.CT, M.\y 16.— This being the first mar-
ket of the season there was very little wool shown, and
the greater part being hog met ready sale at 15s. per st.

LIVERPOOL, May 23.

Scotch. — There has been a little more doing in Laid
Highland this week, without any alteration in price.
White Highland is still neglected. There is a moderate
demand for good Crossed Cheviot, at about late lates.
Inferior of both kinds continue neglected.

s. cl. s. d.
I.a'.d Hiihlau'l Wool, per 241bs .... 8 9 lo 9 3

White Highland do 13 0 12 6

Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 9 9 11 0

Do. do., washed 11 0 13 0

Do. Ciieviot eio. unwashed .... 10 0 12 6

Ko. do.. washed 12 6 16 6

White 1)0, do 22 0 24 0

FoREiGX. — The public sales are progressing in
London, where the attention of the trade is directed at
present ; there is, consequently, little doing here at
present.

FOREIGN.

The wool sales have been on daily since our last, and
have gone of!" with tolerable freedom as regards the
business done or the biddings, though not at higher
rates than those current privately during the past month,
or Id. to Ijd. per lb. lower for colonial, and Id. for
Spanish, than at the last series of public sales. The
auctions will continue, it is expected, all this week.

The following sales have been held since our last : —

On Saturday, the 16th, Mr. H. P. Hughes offered
1,181 bales. Of this quantity 242 bags Austi-alian sold
at Is. 6id. to Is. 11 ad. for sheep's clean, and as high as
2s. lO^d. for lambs' ; 140 bags Van Diemen's Land
realized Is. 45d. to Is. 7^d. for sheep's, and Is. 5d. to
Is. 6d. for hoggetts ; 168 bags Port Philip went at Is.
S-^d. to Is. 5M. for washed sheep's, and at Is. 6d. to
Is. S^d. for lambs', 351 bags Cape, fine, brought Sad.
to Is. 6^d. for clean sheep's, and Is. SM. to Is. 6^d.
for lambs' ; 182 bags South Australian sold at Is. l^d.
to Is. b^d. for clean sheep's, and Is. 22d. to Is. 6d. for
lambs'. Some GermaAized Odessa, damaged, sold at
Is. Hd.

On Monday Messrs. Marsh and Edenborough put up
1,094 bales; 191 bales were South Australian, sold by
order of the Court of Directors of the South Australian
Company, the quotations realized being ll^d. to Is.
5Jd. for clean sheep's ; 404 bales Australian for account
of the importers, went at lid. to 2s. '6^d. for snow
white, and at is. 8d. to 2.s. for lambs' ; Van Diemen's
Land, 111 bales, brought Is. l^d. to Is. 8d. for clean
sheep's, and lOd. for greasy; Cape, 388 bales, sold at

7^d. to Is. Gd. for clean sheep's, and at Is. 2Jd. tO
Is. Gjd. per lb. for lambs'.

Messrs Southey and Son oftered 1,431 bales on
Thursday last ; 635 bales Van Diemen's Laud sold at
Is. 2id. to Is. 9d. for sheep's, and Is. 2d. to 2s. 2^d.
for limbs'. Australian clean sheep's brought Is. Id.
to Is. 8d., and 3lU bales Port Philip at Is. 2d. to 2s.
3d. for washed sheep's, and Is. 5^d. to Is. lid. for
lambs' ; United States Merino sold at Is. 5d. to Is. O^d.
for sheep's, and Is. Hd. to Is. 5d. for damaged.

On Friday Messrs. J. T. Simes and Co. offered 1,639
bales of wool, and 58 dozen of sheep skins ; Cape sold
at 8d. to Is. 5d. for clean, and lambs' atj lO^d. to Is.
4d. per lb. ; Van Diemen's went at Is. l^d. to Is. lO^d.
for clean sheep's, and at Is. lOd. to 2s. 4d. for lambs' ;
Port Philip brought Is. Id. to Is. 9d. for sheep's clean.
Is. O^d. to 2s. 2d. for lambs', and Is. to Is. l^d. for
greasy ; United States Merino brought Is. 22d to Is.
4d., and sheep skins Is. lOd. to 2s. lOd. per lb. There
were 253 bales Australian, 461 of Van Diemen's Land,
506 of Port Philip, 299 of Cape, 12 of New Zealand,
and 28 of the United States comprised in the total of
1,639 bales.

Mr. William Hull sold 466 bales on the same day.
There were 85 bales Van Diemen's, which sold at Is.
S^d. to Is. lid; 35 of Sydney, which brought Is. to
Is. Id. ; 287 of Spanish, which realized lid. to Is. 8d.,
and 2s. Ijd. ; and 11 Buenos Ayres, 3^d. to 3fd.
per lb.

LEEDS, jMay 22. — The demand for foreign wools has been
more active this week, and a fair quantity changed hands.
Prices may be quoted the same as for the last few weeks.

MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of
Manure : —

Agricultural Salt, 32s. per ton
Alkalies, 2ds. and 4Ws. percwt.
Boast and Co.'s (Bow) Inor-
ganic Manures, from 6s. to

lis. per cwt., according to

crop
Boast's Guano, SI. 9s. per ton
Carbon, 12s. per qr.
Chie fou, 21s. per cwt.
Chloride Lime, 28s. per cwt.
Clarke's Compost, 8/. 1 2s. 6d.

per hhd., sufficient for three

acres
Fothergill's Gypsum, S.ls. pe

ton.
Fothergill'sPhosphafeof Lime,

14s. per cwt.
Graves, 6/. 10s. per ton
Guano, Peruvian, 10/. 10s.;

Bolivian, 91.; African, 6/.6s.

to 71. 10s. per ton, according

to analysis
Gypsum, at the waterside, 35s.

per ton
Highly Concentrated Manure,

30s. per qr.
Humus, 14s. per qr.
Hunt's Bone-dust, — s. per qr.
Hunt'i Half-incli Bone, — s.

per qr.
Hunt's StufFGraves,3s.6d. cwt.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d.

per qr.
J. T. Hunt's Artificial Guano,

91. per ton
Manure Powder, I6s. per qr.

Muriate of Ammonia, 20s. to
21s. per cwt.

Muriate of Lime, Os. per cwt.

New Bristol Manure, 8s. per qr

Nitrate of Soda, 16s. per cwt.

Nitrate Potash (salcpetre), S6s.
to -iSs. per cwt.

Patent Disinfected Manure
lOs. 6d. per qr.

Petrc Salt, il. 10s. per ton

Potter's Guano, 10/. per ton.

Preparation for Turnip Fly
10s. 6d. per pakt., sufficlen
for three aci'es

Rags, 4/. to 4/. 10s. per ton

Rape Cake, 61. per ton

Rape Dust, 6/. 6s. per ton

£oap Aslies, 10s. per ton

Soda Ash, Hs. to 16s. percwt.

Sulphate Soda, 6s. per cwt.

Sulphur for Destroying Worm
on Turnips, 12s. per cwt.

Sulphuric Acid, l^d. per lb.

Superphosphateof Lime, 8s. per
cwt.

The Liverpool Abattoir Com-
pany's Animalized Manuring
Powder, 21. 10s. per ton

The Urate of tlie London Ma-
nure Company, 4/.4s. per ton

Willey Dust, 4/. 4s. per ton

WolverhamptonCompost(Alex
ander's), 12s. perqr., subject
to carriage to London, or
forwarded from Wolver-
hampton

END OF VOLUME XXIV.

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London,

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