\,__ -^ ^ ^■" ;t:s^ Mm ^T^ .!>" r ^... .^\- ^. J^.. /;■ \i .^ ^^ " ^ ■'^^55w. ■7 LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE NO.. 76_a_v5^___ _ DATE.6..-Jde^,. SOURCE H, 511, 512,543 .381 . il). . 391 . 396 437, 439 . 475 . ib. . 483 , 530 ■_^-'t> ^U'f''9T^-^^. /^^A^J ^z^jS'n^^rn^^ a/^6i£^^. e^^<3t^^c^^^<^^l^^<^y^ c^;'^^- ^^i.€^^ir?zj_ ■^ta-Tza^ ^.Zi>^U^_ e^e€-^c€^ (^y>C^^ -fici/m^c^ i^-df-tAjC^, 4- We^jdeJ i:^^^^^^^^^ ^ ^.e^ 4-'. /^t^^j^ (^^M-ct^aUTt^ HIGH TABX£. THE DUKE OF RICHMOND, presioent. VICE PRESIDENT'S TABLE. THE EARL OF DUCIE. president-elect. STEVABltS OF THE PAVILION I>INNER. THE HON. ROBERT HENRV OLIVE MP.- SIR JOHN V.B.JOHNSTONE Bt M? SHAW, OF LONDON - M? VILLIERS SHELLEY. STEWARDS OF THE TABLES z- ^isFla/L ofi' tAe^ Tail&i to wkuA' iA^' fua^ieerv respedo'dfr appointed'. LONDON, Jim£ ^, tSSI I g> I a,'a |2 .3 ^^ a -2 S a ^ ■S a -a ja CO t- 1 1 !^-a s § g a-g -g I a" :a B ° ^ =* 3 ail 3 ■§ ^ ^ s g .a - I t ^ I ^ li-a S Oh ii 's a S «*! .S ■ -3 ■s S.SPg ^ O t. J ;o c i;-2 • ,; gS >; til 2 1b i s 3 s V o c- '< THE FAKMBR'8 MAGAZINE. JULY, 1851 No. 1.— Vol. XXIV.] [Second Skries. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF THE LATE JOSEPH ROGERSON, Esq. PLATE II. THREE S O U T H - D O W N SHEEP, Bred and fed by Mr. John Williams, of Buckland, near Farringdon, to which were awarded the first prize of £20, and Silver Medal as the breeder : also the Gold Medal as the best pen of South Down Sheep exhibited at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December, 1850. PLATE III. PLAN OF THE PAVILION DINNER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. THE LATE MR. JOSEPH ROGERSON. " One instance more, and only one I'll bring, 'Tis the great man, who scorns a httle thing — Whose words, whose acts, whose feelings, are his own. — " Franklin. Success in this life is proverbial for the many channels which lead to its attainment. With one man, grateful assistance at the commencement of his career, eligible position, or influential introduc- tion, will encouragingly lead the way on to it. With another, a happy chance hit, or the right turn of the hazard, will lay the foundation of a fortune, while the simple straightforward line of good con- duct may more leisurely gratify the bounded wishes of a third. But in any of these instances there is little actual OhB SERIES.] triumph to dwell on. It is not the man born to place and power, the wild speculator, or the dull plodder, whose progress excites our sympathy and admiration. The mind requires something more to grapple with, to own a truly great and suc- cessful man. Such a one, rather, who has advanced against difficulties, that only served to more fully develop his real energy and talent, and who, while he cut bis way through them, did so in no blind terror or confusion, but with an eye still coolly fixed on the haven his judgment and determination B [No. I.— VOL. XXXV. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. assured him might yet be reached. To these it is Fortune gradually relaxes that frown with which she first receives their advances ; bestowing at last, like a true mistress, her favours oa, that courage, enterprise, and ability, which really deserved and fairly earned them. In this spirit of manly independence, relying for all on his own exertions, did Mr. Joseph Roger- son commencelife,and in this spirit did he overcome the many difficulties that marked the early part of his career. Born in a county now famous before all others for the pursuits of agriculture, Mr. Rogerson himself came of a family even then renowned in the annals of the period for their breed of stock and system of farming. It is not surprising, then, that the subject of this notice should have de- termined on adopting the same kind of life, and in the same county (Lincolnshire) where his rela- tives had so long followed it. He was, in fact, in every way singularly fitted for the occupation : his natural taste, as well as education, gave him a lean- ing towards it ; while his acknowledged excellence as a judge of cattle, of sheep and horses, as well as of beasts, warrant us in believing that he must have eventually succeeded, had circumstances allowed him to persevere in the business he had entered on. This, however, was not ordained to be. The worst of all difficulties —those which meet the young man at his start in life— soon crowded on Mr. Rogerson. His best energies were cramped ; the benefit of the improvements he had effected denied him ; and, in a word, his hopes and aspira- tions of succeeding in the life of his fathers harshly dealt with. In a spirit of determination, highly characteristic of the man, he himself pronounced them at once destroyed ; and, with equal prompti- tude of action, he bade adieu to his native county, resolved to begin the battle of life again in London. There was httle encouragement for this step. His means had necessarily decreased, and there was not one friendly hand in the wide metropolis held out to welcome him. But his own counsel was his adviser — his own genius and activity his only patrons. With their aid he soon engaged in an entirely new occupation, in which, with fair play here, he in comparatively a short time found him- self eminently successful. Still the pursuit was not without its drawbacks, and obstacles again in- tervening, he was induced to attempt another change, and enter on the business of a printer. How, without any previous preparation, he proved himself equal to the duties of this station, it is scarcely requisite to dwell on. The same quick perception, sound judgment, and even temper, en- sured his well-doing here ; and, while he daily added to his connection, he as surely gamed the esteem and attachment of those who served under him. But the mere routine of superintending the work of a printing-office was not enough for a man of Mr. Rogerson's mind and capability, and he again sought for more scope to employ his energies upon. With a taste, or rather love, still as strong as ever for that pursuit in which he had been born and bred, he sought once more for some direct association with it. In conjunction, then, with his elder brother, and others whose early life had equally inclined them to the study of rural affairs, Mr. Rogerson, some twenty years since, established the " Mark Lane Express," and, from its reception, a very few yesirs afterwards commenced the " Farmers' Magazine." It may be necessary to remind some of our readers that in both these publications the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England was unceasingly advocated ; and, when that body took its charter, Mr. Rogerson at once became a Governor, and so continued to the time of his decease. He also took an active part in the establishment of the Royal Farmers' Insurance Office, of which he was ap- pointed Chairman, and to whose interests, so long as health and strength permitted him, he devoted the most unremitting attention. However much we may feel on the subject, it may be scarcely held becoming here to detail more fully the value of his aid and fostering care to the Institutions he did so much towards creating and advancing. As another instance of how continually his thoughts and pleasures tiu-ned towards a country hfe, it may be mentioned that for some years he persevered — hopelessly as it seemed — with a monthly calendar of field sports, but that eventually the long established " Sporting Magazine" came into his possession. Mr. Rogerson was born at Sotby, in Lincoln- shire, in the year 1785, and died at his residence, Elm-Bank House, Barnes, Surrey, on the 11th of May last, in the G6th year of his age. During the latter part of his life he suffered severely from paralysis, but that spirit, which had never previ- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. d ously allowed him to repine, supported him here ; and, beyond an occasional irritability, he showed little interruption in the use of those high faculties which had so long and deservedly distinguished him. We feel always reluctant to draw back the veil of domestic life, but never could we do so with better grace than here. As an example for others we only wish our ability could properly depict Mr. Rogerson in this sphere. The successful man in the world's fight, with his heart still turning to home and those he first knew. The prosperity that only added to the warmth and heartiness of his feehngs, and that prompted him to do all the good in his power for those, however distant, who I asked for aid of him. As a husband, a father, a friend, or a master, alike is his memory to be re- vered; while his good fortune was gathered together in no heap, but brought good to all that were grouped around him. Mr. Rogerson ha\ing thus obtained those " worthy ends and e.vpectations " which Lord Bacon has tern^ed the sw -test satisfactions a man can look back upon at the hour of death, the struggling spirit, at its departure, left, as a cheer- ing remembrance to his sorrowing family, the clear evidences of those Christian principles, which became more brightly developed at the close of his mortal career. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. WINDSOR xMEETING, 1851. The importance of the Country Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England renders every circumstance connected with their arrangements of particular interest to the readers of the Farmer's Magazine ; and we have accordingly much pleasure in presenting to them in this number a copy of the Programme for the occasion, and a plan of the Pavilion Dinner. When we look back to the year 1839, when the meeting was held, for the first time, in the city of Oxford, and pass our eye in succession over the subsequent meetings held at Cambridge, Liverpool, Bristol, Derby, Southampton, Shrewsbury, Newcastle, Northampton, York, Norwich, and Exeter, we cannot withhold our astonish- ment at the immense and varied amount of good this truly national Society has accomplished in the course of so short a period, by means of its Country Meetings only, without including the great dif- fusion of agricultural knowledge effected by means of its Journal, its Lectures, and the Weekly Meet- ings of its Council for practical discussion. The Society having thus carried its operations and its useful influence into every district of the country, it this year reverts to its focus of attraction, and attains, if we may so speak, the perihelion of its orbit, by holding its great Country Meeting — by the gracious permission of her Majesty and his Royal Highness Prince Albert — beneath the very walls and terraces of Windsor Castle, within the Home Park of that Royal demesne, and under the immediate eye and fostering regard of that great and good Queen Victoria, the gracious Patroness of the Society and (it may so truly be added, in the language of Cicero) " omnium honarum rerum" and of her Royal Consort; whose least praise it will not be, that among the varied objects to which he has so successfully directed his attention, agriculture, the true basis of the permanent wealth of every state, has had the largest share. We understand that her Majesty will hold a full Court at Windsor during the week of the Society's Meeting, and that his Royal Highness Prince Albert will honour the Members with his company at the Pavilion Dinner. B 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ABSORPTIVE POWER OF EARTHS AND SOILS. BY J. TOWERS, MEMBER R.A.S., H,S. OF LONDON, &C. As more light dawns upon this wonderful pro- perty, so elaborately discussed in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, the facts already ad- duced receive additional force. It does not appear by the essay of Professor Way, which was extracted from the pages of that work, vol. xi., part 1, that the agency of soils upon genuine guano had then been investigated. The adulteration of that ma- nure, or the substitution of a spurious article for fraudulent purposes, have been repeatedly exposed : thus then, under existing circumstances, it appears to me that a double motive may be urged for pre- senting the readers with a series of chemical pro- cesses so simple and little expensive as scarcely to leave an excuse for their non-appUcation or investi- gation. In the first instance it is essential to test the qualities of the guano as to inherent moisture, ob- tained either by absorption from the air, or as a consequence of some chemical decomposition of one or other of its soluble salts ; and this will frequently result from the presence of too much common salt. In general, if 100 grains of the best Peruvian guano be powdered in a Wedgwood or glass mortal-, and dried in a shallow earthen saucer, standing over a cup or tin containing scalding hot water, it will lose from 9 to 12 grains. This loss must be noted in the future calculations. The guano so dried is to be passed into a wide-mouth three or four-ounce phial, containing two fluid ounces of clear rain water, the mouth secured by a piece of bladder, and kept lukewarm three or four days, during which it should be frequently shaken, then transferred to a glass funnel furnished with a weighed paper filter, and the insoluble portion washed with rain-water till the drops which fall retain no sahne flavour. When dried at the heat of a water-bath, the loss will indicate the weight of the salts that have been dis- solved. I am not attempting to describe an analysis of guano— that has been repeatedly done by abler hands ; but in order to present a standard of com- parison by which the role performed by earth of a quality fitted to support good crops may be ren- dered intelligible, it is necessary to observe that the soluble salts which have passed through the filter generally contain chlorine (muriatic acid), oxalic acid (often in considerable quantity), sulphuric acid. and occasionally, more or less, phosphoric acid, all in chemical union with ammonia, potash, and soda. The chemical tests for the detection of the am- monia (which, as the element of greatest importance to agriculture, should amount to 10 percent, of the entire guano), are quickhme and caustic potassa ; either of those, if applied to a drop of the solution, will extricate pungent ammoniacal gas. Nitrate of silver, prepared by dissolving the crystallized salt in pure water, is a ready and unerring test for chlorine or muriatic acid, and produces a flaky curd-like deposit from such salts. Nitrate of barytes is generally employed in researches for the presence of the sulphates, though I have found rea- son to prefer the acetate, made by simply saturating strong acetic acid with pure carbonate of baryta ; nitrate or acetate of lime will not fail to precipitate any oxahc acid which exists in the guano solutioUj in the condition of an oxalate of lime soluble in nitric acid. Now these tests, and the few small glass mea- sures, phials, test tubes, and two or three watch glasses, could be purchased for a few shillings ; and while aftbrding great pleasure to the tyro in chemical research, might lead to investigations of higher import. In pursuing the object I have in view it is es- sential that the earth intended to act upon the guano should comprise a certain quantity of car- bonate of lime — sufficient at least to effervesce so much as to exhibit a few frothy beads, on dropping strong muriatic acid upon it. It ought likewise to contain a good per-centage of alumina, for light sandy earth will have little power to decompose or fix the manures. As a filtering vessel, I have found that nothing is more convenient than a long narrow bottle, the bottom cut off with a file. Two or three pounds of earth, screened so finely as to remove all the stones and fibrous remains, are to be put into the bottle, the neck of which is guarded by a small piece of sponge or coarse canvas. Care must be taken that the earth fill every part without air cavities, and that by tapping and gentle pressure it is rendered somewhat coDipact, to prevent the too rapid pas- sage of any liquid that is poured over it. Two or three experiments, somewhat modified, will lead to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. greater certainty^of result, and facilitate inanipula- tion. Thus in the first trial, let three drachms by weight (=^180 grains) of the same guano used before be triturated in the mortar, and strewed regularly over the level surface of the earth, the bottle itself resting neck downward, upon some stout glass, deep enough to receive two or three inches of drainage. Then, commence by pouring two fluid ounces of clear rain water, slowly and regularly over the guano. This done, leave all quiet for an hour or more : the water will act upon the salts, and carry some of the solution into the soil, dispersing it in- terstitially among its particles. Add an ounce more water, and again wait as before. Six hours may thus pass before one drop shall pass to and through the sponge. When percolation commences wait till all the filtrate be collected. If it be tinged brown return the whole over the soil, and again watch the result. I have generally found that the colouring matter has been absorbed, and is not ex- tracted by repeated additions of water. Six or seven fluid ounces are about the quantity obtained from nearly twice that quantity of rain water. The second experiment is to be varied by pre- viously dissolving the three drachms of guano in half a pint of water, and pouring the clear only in small quantities on the earth, returning the filtrate, and finally adding water till the same volume be obtained. It is plain that in this case the bone phosphate, uric acid (magnesia, &c., if any), and the impurities which constitute the insoluble in- gredients, amounting to more than 50 per cent., will not enter the soil. Each of the two filtrates being ready, they may be severally tested in small quantities. First by quick-lime, or solution of caustic potash, on a watch-glass — for ammonia : and, by way of com- parison, if 20 drops of either be tried in one, and 20 drops of the pure solution of guano first made on another, the pale liquid that had passed through the soil may yield the faintest odour of ammonia, and exhibit a hint of the white vapour of sal am- moniac, if a strip of glass, moistened with muriatic acid, be held close over its surface; while on the other hand, the guano liquor treated with quick lime or alkah, will represent the pungency of a smelling bottle, thus aflfording proof that the am- moniacal salts have been decomposed. It will be remembered that the guano solution required the test of nitrate or acetate of hme, to carry down the oxalic acid of the guano. Now, however, the fil- tered liquor will invariably respond to oxalate of am- monia, and yield a copious precipitate of oxalate of hme (perhaps 2 or 3 grains from an ounce) ; thus giving additional proof of the correctness of Mr. Way's experiments. The oxalic acid, with its combining ammonia, may be fixed in the soil ; for we detect none of it in the filtrate. Some portions, however, of sulphuric and muriatic acid are dis- covered by the barytic and silver tests. We acquire a good deal of knowledge by results so easily obtained, and not the least valuable of these is an insight into the value of the earth which is employed as a medium. I have employed three varieties during the course of several past weeks. In one instance an apparently good hazel earth was selected, the guano being incorporated with about an inch of it at the top. After resting a day or two water was passed by slow additions. From the first drop the filtrate assumed a tint more brown than guano liquor itself; and so it continued to be when returned, and washed through : not any of the guano appeared to have been seized. I tested 100 grains of the earth, and found its constituents to be — Insoluble sand 83J Oxide of iron 4 Alumina « <, 1| Lime, scarcely J Water in the air-dried earth 9 98J Organic matter for loss. The same soil, being blended with a small quan- tity of mild lime, and permitted to remain at rest for some days, arrested much of the guano, the filtrate being but little tinted, and answering to all the re-agents. Some per-centage of calcareous matter is therefore evidently required. Finally, a better and more loamy earth yielded clear and un- questionable evidence of its powers of absorption. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE ACTION OF SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. BY CUTHBERT AV. JOHNSON, ESO., F.R.S. Not many years have elapsed since the first expe- riments were made in Germany with superphos- phate of hme as a manure. Of the vast progress which it has since made as a fertilizer for root- crops we are all aware ; and its use will in all pro- bability be yet more considerably enlarged. It must unquestionably add to the speed with which any improvement is accomplished, especially in the dif- ficult profession of a farmer, if the theory or scien- tific portion of the subject is well understood; and hence my readers must have been cheered on, in the use of this manure, by witnessing the recent valuable labours of Professor Way to demonstrate the true theory of the action of this valuable salt. His explanation of the chemical action of the superphosphate of lime on vegetation is this : that it is chiefly the means of diffusing the phosphate of lime more extensively and in a more freely-divided state in the soil. It is true that when the farmer applies the superphosphate this salt then contains an excess of phosphoric acid ; but this excess im- mediately combines with the carbonate of lime which all cultivated soils contain, and phosphate of lime is the result. We see, then, that it is to the very superior state of minute division in the phosphate of lime produced by the action of the sulphuric acid that the chief advantage of exhibiting the salt in this form must be attributed. It is now seven years since, in the second edition of my little work on the Fertihzers (pp. 166 and 142), I hazarded a somewhat similar, although imperfect, opinion as an explanation of the action of this manure. Sul- phuric acid had at that period only just been used for the first time in England, in conjunction with bones, to any valuable extent. Nor were these, in fact, the first attempts to use the mineral acids as fertilizers. It was, indeed, as far back as the year 1784 that the ever-inquiring and indefatigable Arthur Young was employed on a series of small experiments on the comparative value of manures, in which sulphuric acid and nitric acid were in- cluded {Annals of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 121, vol. ii. p. 139) ; in these curious experiments were com- prehended even the salts of ammonia, charcoal, and other fertilizers, which have too long been neg- lected. The good sense and ardent love of know- ledge which marked the useful career of Arthur Young again ^displayed itself when he thus con- cluded the detail of his trials {ibid, vol. iii. p. 127) t " After all, I wish the reader to consider these mi- nute experiments as nothing more than weak in- quiries, and an insufficient pursuit of hints caught slowly and with difficulty. My wings are tied from the bolder flight that my wishes point to. The whole field is interesting and almost untrodden ground. But every step leads to connections with other inquiries that I cannot partake of. All de- pends on chemistry. While I am at work on soils, the component parts of which I am ignorant of, for want of a laboratory, I am forced to form trials that take years to perform, in order to gain results that might be had in a day." Thus truly and feel- ingly wrote poor Arthur Young. The farmer of our day, when he sees what chemistry has done for agriculture, will readily accord to Young, who dates his letter from Bradfield Hall, near Bury, in 1784, the merit of a far-seeing view of the best and highest interests of agriculture. To return from this digression, however, to the subject of this essay. It was in the second edition of the work to which I have alluded, that, when speaking of the trials of the Morayshire Farmers' Club with sulphuric acid and bones as a manure for turnips, I hazarded the suggestion that, if the bones had been used in a very minute state of division, with a moderate proportion of gypsum, exactly the same eiFect would have been produced upon the turnips at a less cost. I gave, in support of this opinion (ibid, p. 142), some trials of a farmer in Hertfordshire, who long successfully carried out this fine division of his bone manure. This he accomplished not by mechanical means, but by laying crushed bones and sheep-dui g in alternate layers for some months previous to their distribution by the drill. He prepared the mix- ture in winter, by mixing together equal mea- sures of crushed bones and sheep-dung in a con- siderable heap. A strong fermentation ensues and continues for a considerable period ; the mixture should be turned over once or twice, and, in need, the putrefaction may be renewed by wetting the mixture, or adding fresh portions of dung. By this means a very fine dry powder is produced, which may be again intimately mixed with ashes or any other suitable material for the drill. The gen- tleman who Jong followed this plan (Mr. Turner, of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Tring) deemed 35 bushels of the mixture fully equal to 25 of the merely crushed and partially- fermented bones. It would be worthy of trial to have one or two cwts. of crushed and fermented bones mixed with an equal proportion of gypsum, and then finely ground into such a proportion of ashes or other easily pulverized matters as would give a copious and uniform dressing to the soil. By this plan, a very small proportion of phosphate of lime might be so minutely divided as to extend almost as generally throughout the soil as an ordinary dressing of superphoshate of lime. Whenever the period arrives that charcoal shall be obtainable at a sufficiently reasonable rate for its copious use as a fertilizer, there will perhaps be no other substance equal to it for the purpose of intimately mixing with crushed bones in the way to which I have thus alluded. There are several little facts connected with the history of the introduction of the superphosphate of lime which pretty clearly supports the view taken by Professor Way. I have alluded to these in an- other place {The Fertilizers, third edition, p. 175). When Liebig published his Organic Chemistry, he observed in that valuable work, p, 184, "to manure an acre of land with 40lbs. of bone-dust is suffi- cient to supply three crops of wheat, clover, pota- toes, turnips, &c., with phosphates, but the /orm in which they are restored to the soil does not appear to be a matter of indifference ; for the more finely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more in- timately they are mixed with the soil, the more easily are they assimilated. The most easy and practical mode of effecting their division is to pour over the bones, in a state of fine powder, half of their weight of sulphuric acid, diluted with three or four pints of water. Experiments instituted on a soil formed from grauwacke, for the purpose of as- certaining the action of manure thus prepared, have distinctly shown that neither corn nor kitchen- garden plants suffer injurious effects in conse- quence ; but that, on the contrary, they thrive with much more vigour." The first experiments with dissolved bones, ac- cording to Professor Johnston {Trans. High. Soc, 1845, p. 92), were made in 1841, by Mr. Fleming, of Barrochan. " He dissolved his bones in m,uriatic acid, and applied them to moss-oats." In his,je- port {Johnston's Lee. on Agr. Chem. and Geoloc^^ p. 28) he says, " I examined the oats a few days before they were cut, and was much satisfied with their appearance ; the straw appeared as stiff and thriving, and the ear was as well filled, as if it had been grown upon stiff loam." In 1842 he made various other trials. From an apph cation of the dissolved bones to turnips and potatoes he obtained the following results per imperial acre : DRY BONE-DUST. 16 Cwt. 18 Cwt. Tons. Cwt. Tons. Cwt. Swede turnips...... 14 17 — — Red Don potatoes .. — — 9 15 BONES IN MURIATIC ACID. 4 Cwt. 10 Cwt. Tons. Cwt. Tons. Cwt. Swede turnips — — 18 11 Red Don potatoes ..12 15 — — It might, indeed, have been reasonably antici- pated that these valuable suggestions of Liebig, which I have already quoted, would hardly escape the attention of the farmers of this country. Various modes of preparing the superphosphate of lime were suggested, and several manufactories im- mediately estabhshed. Of these, that of Mr. Ed- ward Lawes, and that of the London Manure Com- pany, must be regarded, I believe, as the earliest and the most considerable. In 1842 a series of experiments were made by various members of the Morayshire Farmers' Club with this manure, the result of which led the committee of that club to report, as the general result, their conviction that " a great discovery has certainly been made, which, if judiciously followed up, must tend to diminish very materially the heavy expense the farmer is now put to in raising a crop of turnips, from the very high price of bone manure" {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. iv., p. 164). They note that the turnips manured with the mixture of sulphuric acid and bones vegetated earlier and with more rapidity ; that turnips grown on soils manured with bones dissolved in sulphuric acid almost invariably get into their rough leaf more rapidly than when dressed with other manure, appears to be well es- tabhshed. Mr. Spooner, of Southampton, in de- scribing some comparative experiments {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. vi., p. 73) remarks, "The bones and acid turnips were tlie first to appear above the ground; the tops grew luxuriantly — the guano turnips, however, after some time rivalled them^ and those manured with bones alone, though lag- ging behind terribly at first, made amends towards the latter end of autumn ; and on weighing a few rods in the month of December scarcely any differ- ence could be discovered. To say the least, how- ever," he adds, " two bushels of bones, with the addition of the acid, successfully rivalled eight timeV'the quantity of bones;" and when Mr. R. W. Purchas is recounting some very successful ex- periments with Swede turnips, he reports {ibid, p. 244) : " In every trial of acid and bones the turnips came into rough leaf a week before those planted the same day with other manure." In support of the same conclusions as those to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wliicl'i I have endeavoured to direct the farmer's at- ' tention, are the valuable trials of Mr. Pusey on the | use of bones fermented with ashes {Jour. Hoy. Ayr. | iSoc, vol. viii., p. 417). In alluding to the heat; produced in the combustion of bones, Mr. Pusey well concludes : " It is the same principle as, when carried to excess, shows itself in the formidable shape of spontaneous combustion ; but I entertain the hope that this law of nature which has hitherto only been known to us by setting fire to our ricks, or kindling the cargoes of ships, may at last become a wiUing handmaid in enriching our fields." It is thus that nature leads the philosopher to draw the stream of knowledge from her ever-flow- ing fountains; and it was by applying the rich har- vest of the chemical labourer to agriculture that superphosphate of lime was introduced, and has become so valuable an agent on almost every stock farm. The labour, too, of the chemist was not con- fined to only one advance; the use of sulphuric acid and bones, it is true, we owe to the chemist ; but he did not only suggest the mixture, he it was who first introduced the acid, and when no more bones could be found for the sulphuric acid to decompose, the chemist again made the requisite onward step — he bethought him of the mineral phosphates of the west of England and of Spain ; he found that what Professor Henslow had disco- vered in the coprolites of Felixstow, were the frag- ments of fossil bones of extinct races of animals — bones nearly as valuable for the production of su- perphosphate of lime as recent bones. When the intelligent and enterprising English fanner hears the aid of chemistry undervalued or perhaps ridiculed, let him reflect carefully on these facts, and he may perchance be led to the very just conclusion that such opposers of the application of science to agri- culture might be less eloquent, if they only paused more often, to attend to facts, rather than to un- 1 meaning verbiage. CLAY LANDS AND LIME IN MIXTURE. Clay is the earth of alum, which body is com- posed of alumina, sulphuric acid, an alkah, and water. Its basis is " argil," now called " alumina," which is the oxide of " aluminum," one of the newly-discovered terrigenous metals, which unites with only one proportion of oxygen. Alum is a tri- ple salt— the sulphate, or rather, the super-sulphate of alumina, ammonia, and potash. Alumina is one of the weakest even of the earthy bases, and seems to perform the functions of an acid in certain com- binations which occur in the mineral kingdom. The first appearance of clay is seen immediately below the chalk, and gets the name of a viscous chalk marl. The first regular deposit overhes the chalk, and is called the plastic formation, and is seen in the best evidence on the tops and sides of the chalk ranges of Surrey. Above it is deposited the London clay, that fills the basin in which the metropolis is situated, and extends upwards and downwards in the valley of the Thames. The clays of Herts, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk are modifications of these two deposits of clay, which are much mixed with sands, and in the remains of shells and sea-animals exhibit abundant proofs of the marine origin. Where the deposit forms the surface soil of cultivation, the viscous tenacity is almost invincible, and the stubbornness requires mudi power for the mechanical reduction of the texture to answer in any way the purposes of hus- bandly. Six, and never less than four horses are required to plough the land with the heavy turn- wrest implement, and must be used in all the first stages of summer-fallowing, till the autumn rains have softened and dissolved the obdurate clods, when the two-horse plough, with the single mould- board, is used to earth-up the land into ridges for the purpose of being sown with wheat. At no other period of cultivation is the two-horse plough of any use whatever, on these two descriptions of clay. The quality of the soil is very mediocre : the crops are below an average in oats, beans, and clover ; and the sole one of wheat, on which de- pendence is placed, rarely reaches to the highest minimum computation. The lands are much best used in grass, provided the means exist of well- enriching the surface by heavy top-dressings of manure. The next clays in the ascending series of the tertiary deposits are the lias, clunch, and Kimmer- ridge clays, which have been formed at a later period of the geological disturbances, and present fewer marks of the marine presence. The lias clay forms the basis of the oolitic deposits, and marks the reptile period of the globe ; the clunch clay occupies the moist valleys of the middle oolites ; while the Kimmeridge clay is overlooked by the higher rocks of the upper oolites. This formation runs through the centre of England from S.W. to N.E., in extensive deposits of clay of a nature very considerably less tenacious and ob- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. diirate than the plastic and London formations, but still requiring a strength of four horses, and a plough much stronger than the common two-horse implement. The quality varies much, reaching from a low barrenness to a fair fertility. These clays form the mid-way between the marine deposits and the alluvial clays, which are seen in the Wealden formation, and the arid clays which over- lie the coal measures in Northumberland and Durham. The depth is shallow in these deposits, the quality generally poor, and the resistance yields to the plough of two horses in most cases. The alluvial clays of Scotland, as seen in East Lothian, and in the Carses of Gowrie and Falkirk, Stirling, are workable by two horses, but require summer-fallowing, and the loss of a crop, which forms the great faidt of clay lands, along with the impossibility of raising green crops on the obdu- rate and tenacious soil. In order completely to remedy this deficiency, to convert the most obdu- rate clays into green-croj) lands, and make them all easily workable by the light plough of two horses, this present paper takes the li])erty of sug- gesting a method which, if it does not possess originality, may, at least, lay claim to an early pro- mulgation of the idea. Resolution of substances is in the power of man, but combination is reserved by nature to its own operations. A mechanical mixture only can be performed by human skill ; but in so doing, there is afforded a ready opportunity of substances forming the intimate chemical combinations. With the view of altering the texture of clay lands, sands, earths, and chalks may be applied ; when the pro- cess will be very slow and gradual, if mixture be done at all. The application is formed of inert substances, which have no power of action beyond the contact of external impulse. With such agents, the viscous clay would be exposed to no agency of attack, nor suffer any constitutional damage ; the natural preponderance of its qualities will overcome the power of the mixture, set it at defiance, and wholly nullify the effects. Such is the fate of the attempts of that kind, from want of the acting power being superior, both in quantity and quality, to the resistance that is opposed to it. Quick-hme has been long known as a violent agent, possessing a caustic power, and with the application of moisture, swelling largely in bulk, and evolving much heat, which enters into the bodies that are in close contact, crumbles the particles, sunders the texture, and produces a new amalgamation, in which the old properties of the materials are banished, and new qualities are con- ferred, which the substances did not before possess. Such are the effects of fire in every form of its use : the agency is most violent, and produces corres- ponding effects. The compost manures that are made of earths and lime show a very conspicuous example of the effects of caloric : by it the inert earths are quickened into action, the sternest clays are re-moulded, mollified, and sweetened, and the ultimate product is a mucilaginous mass, which is very easily decomposable, and fit to be applied as a manure to cro])s of any kind. From this example, the following suggestion is derived. It is very generally allowed that digging the land by spade would much increase the quantity of pro- duce, though no jiractically accurate computation has yet been made to show the results of the two methods, when placed in opposition, nor how the arrangements would be made in procuring the necessary manual labour. It would be an econo- mical application to use the spade-digging of the land and the value of lime simultaneously — to con- fer on the soil at one and the same time, the open- ing of the texture, which is the value of digging, and the effects and ultimate results of quick lime. The average depth of digging may be nine inches, or one spit of the spade, and a good spadesman is computed to dig an acre in two weeks, or 12 work- ing days ; but as the plastic and London clays are very stiff" to be wrought in any form, the time may be stated in three weeks, which will include the trouble of placing the lime shells in the proper position as the earth is turned over by the spade. Paying labour in 2s. per day, the digging will cost £] l6s. per acre. From calculations in making composts of lime and earths, it is here assumed that one bushel of lime shells to a cubic yard of ground will effect the desired purpose, and the depth of 9 inches will require 36 square feet or 4 square yards of superficial surface to form a cubic yard, and there will be 1,210 plots of ground of this extent in an acre of land. And there will be required 1,210 bushels of lime shells, according to the above calculation of one bushel to the cubic yard of ground ; and the average price of 6d. per bushel, according to circumstances, is £30 5s. per acre for the cost of the lime. The digging being added, the whole expense will be £32 Is. The sum of £30 may be a fair average of the expense. The moisture in the clay soils, and the access of air through the interstitial state of the land, that results from the digging, will dissolve the lime shells, the bulk will swell, a large evolvement of heat will follow, the caloric will thoroughly pene- trate the aluminous mass, unbind the texture, sever the particles, banish the sulphuric acid and the water, and after the action is expended, relapse into an earthy mixture with the base of the clay, which will possess new properties, and be so effectually disintegrated as never again to contract into the old adherence of indurated clamminess. The soil 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. will be whelly altered into a workable condition by the two-horse plough, and will produce any kind of green crops in a very large abundance. The very extreme solubility of lime in water, and the consequent inutility for any active purpose, de- mands the land to be thoroughly drained before the lime is applied. Much of the plastic clays overlying hills and declivities are not very wet ; but a part of these lands, the London clays, and most clay grounds, will require a complete draining to precede the attempt that is now recommended. It is not here asserted that one bushel of lime to the cubic yard will thoroughly effect the purpose ; but (he statement is made as an analogical proba- bility, as the plastic and London clays may require more, and a less quantity may suffice the clays of weaker texture. Trials must decide. Such a purpose as has been now detailed is the province of the landowner, who will reap the per- manent benefits. The farmer only uses his time and capital in obtaining the fruition and distributing the results ; his general occupation realizes the proceeds, rather than constitutes the foundation. The loans of money now granted by government should be applied to such purposes, quintupled in the amount, doubled in the time of repayment, and the per-centage cut in the one-half. Proportionate means will produce proportionate results, and vice versa — great results demand the adequate means. The above result would quadruple the produce of this kingdom, employ labour, diffuse capital, cheapen the price of articles, and enlarge the sphere of their use. These are the legitimate objects of action ; the channels must be widened, every avenue explored, and all impediments removed. Human industry must have a charter as free as the wind that blows where it pleases ; a beginning has lately been made, and the progress must be unchecked, or it will find its way maugre all opposition." J. D. IRISH PEAT CHARCOAL AS A MANURE, We are always anxious to present both sides of a question. And there are few questions, either in natural history or morals, which have not at least two sides — as if to show how extreme opinions were to be avoided, to tend to moderation in general opi- nions, and to induce that care and caution in all investigations of a scientific character which modi- fications in circumstances will always render neces- sary. We some weeks ago alluded to the subject of the Irish peat charcoal as a manure, or at least as a vehicle of absorbing or deodorizing manure, and in reviewing the opinions and experiments of Professor Anderson, the chemist to the Highland Society of Scotland, and the practical experiments of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, we were forced to the conclusion that, valuable as the Irish peat charcoal was as a deodorant, useful as it was as a convenient vehicle for conveying the cloace of our towns away to the soil, to be used as a manure — it did not seem to possess in itself much manurial qualities ; and Ur. Anderson went so far as to ex- press very grave doubts that it possessed any con- siderable powers of absorbing the elements of manure. Still, the demand has so increased for the charcoal, that the Irish Amelioration Society has been utterly unable to supply the demand, and a society has been organized, we believe, in London, for the purpose of charring the English peat, and applying it to the same purposes as the peat bog of Ireland is used for. Side by side almost with Dr. Anderson's report comes that of Dr. Sullivan, chemist to the Museum of Irish Industry, and an outline — a very brief one necessarily — of his paper we propose to give to our readers. Commencing with the power of certain sub- stances to condense and retain certain foreign matters in their pores and structures, he gives a very interesting account of the modus operandi of absorption generally; he goes on to show the power possessed by the Irish peat charcoal to absorb am- monia— a fact, it will be remarked, to which Dr. Anderson applied his experiments, and with what result we shall see. He first heated the charcoal to redness — a pre- caution which we fear Dr. Anderson did not see the necessity for adopting; for it must be evident that whether the absorptive powers of the charcoal are taken into consideration for the purposes of manure, or whether it is to be used simply as a de- odorant, its powers must be tested fresh, and not when partly saturated. And this for the best of all reasons; for if used as a manure, all the ammonia it may have absorbed by exposure or otherwise is useful for manure; and if it be deodorization which is the object, it is necessary to have it fresh to com- jiletely effect the object of the experimenter. Hence Dr. Sulhvan clears his ground all the better for first ascertaining that it is free from ammonia before he makes his experiment. This heated charcoal from which the nitrogen THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 was so expelled, having been placed under a bell- glass, in which was a small capsule of water, but with free ingress to the air, absorbed of gases and water 6.815 per cent, in 24 hours, and IG.GOG per cent, in fifteen days. On ammonia being added to the capsule of water, in another specimen, it yielded after two days' exposure 0.304 per cent, of ammonia, seven days 0.411 per cent, in fifteen 0.561 per cent. Bat Dr. Anderson experimented on the mixture of peat charcoal and cloace, and so does Dr. Sulli- van give his results on the subject. The latter took a portion of night-soil, and neutralized it with a given weight of sulphuric acid, and evaporated the mass to dryness ; on analysis it contained only 1 .437 per cent, of nitrogen. Now Dr. Anderson takes for his data specimens of peat charcoal con- taining 0.94 per cent, of nitrogen, or only some one-half per cent - one pound in two hundred — more ammonia in the peat charcoal which he se- lects as a specimen to test the absorptive power of the preparation, than there is in the night-soil itself as found by Dr. Sullivan. Surely this explains the reason why the Scottish doctor found only 0.88 per cent, of nitrogen in a mixture of charcoal and urine, and some 0.87 in the charcoal itself! The doctor, moreover, analyzes several speci- mens of the peat charcoal treated with various sub- stances, and he found that when two parts of char- coal and one part of night-soil were added together the product was — Per cent. Water .... 28470 Organic matter . . 62.746 Asli .... 7514 Nitrogen .... 1.270 Hydi'ocliloric acid Sand and silica Carbonic acid . 5.734 7.540 6.139 Or equivalent to ammonia . 1.541 Now there is a dilFerence here between Dr. Anderson and Dr. Sullivan which we are utterly unable to account for— the one makes the nitrogen of the above mixture 0.840 per cent., while the other makes it 1.270 per cent ! ! Now Dr. Ander- son made one specimen, saturated with night-soil as he describes it, come very near to this analysis, or 1.25 of nitrogen; and in their trials of the peat charcoal saturated with urine they are more nearly the same — the one being 1.20, the other 0.964. The ash of the night-soil-treated peat charcoal is thus given by Dr. Sullivan : 99.407 Now there is a fairness in Dr. Sullivan which shows that he is not by any means the advocate ; but he differs from Dr. Anderson in the most ma- terial elements of calculating the value of the pro- duct ; for while the latter concludes " that the ab- sorptive power of peat charcoal for ammonia is so small us to be pruciicuUy of no importance, and its use for this purpose cannot be recommended to the farmer — Dr. Sullivan, more reasonablyas we believe, concludes "that peat charcoal, although its absorb- ent powers for ammonia in solutions are small, yet, owing to the greater part of the ammonia at first absorbed being gradually transformed into stable compounds will be found effective enough as an ab- sorbent of that substance in cases where the evolu- tion of ammonia from the decomposing nitrogenous substances is slow and in small quantities, which is the case in general with night-soil and most other matters employed in manure ;" and " that peat charcoal mixed with night-soil and other faecal matters forms a valuable mixture" — and we are the more willing to give the utmost credit to his state- ments, from the fact that he declares that its price is at present too high, and that peat is itself a better absorbent than its charcoal. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. Potash 0.471 Soda 4.987 Lime 21.161 .Magnesia . 10..5O4 Alumina . 0.077 Peroxide of Iron 9.874 Phosphoric acid 6.109 Sulphuric acid . 19.754 We especially invite attention to our report of the discussion at the London Farmers' Club on 2nd June. The subject, on "The advantages of covered home-stalls as regards the fattening of stock and manufacture of manure," was introduced by Mr. Beadel, who, with his usual clearness and ability, demonstrated from actual experience the value of covered homesteads, as will be seen by the resolution agreed to at the meeting. The follow- ing statement is well deserving the serious consider- ation of tenants who can obtain the security of a lease, and who hold under landlords unwilling to expend money in the construction of necessary buildings : . " It is a common practice in this great metropolis, and in other large cities and towns, for parlies engaged in mercantile pursuits to hire premises for a limited perimi, and expend large sums on their improvaraent, content, if l)y the economy effected in the nianagemeut of their business, or liy the facilities afforded for carrying it on, they can secure an annual advantage, which by the end of their terra will have returned them principal, interest, and a profit. Now the same mode of calculation is applicable to the farmer's case in the matter before us. Take the instance of a tenant farmer who has a 14 years' lease, and cannot induce his landlord to erect a covered homestall ; the question for his 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. consiileration will be, whether the advantages to result from the use of such a building during his tenancy will be equal to a return of principal, interest, and a profit ; and if so, no one can question the propriety of his incurring the expense. Such a homestall as mine can be erected for £200; we will, therefore, assume thul as the sum required. Now it ap- pears from the tables used by mercantile houses in making their calculations for similar purposes, that if an out- lay of £8 14s. lid. will secure a return of £1 per annum for 14 years, the £1 per annum will, by the end of the term, have returned the principal sura expended, together with interest thereon at 7 per cent. By a simple calculation our farmer may, thereiore, see that £200 laid out at the commence- ment of his 14 years' lease, will be amply repaid with interest at 7 per cent, if he can realize upon that outlay £22 17s. Hd. per annum, or 1 H per cent, on his outlay ; on a 7 years' lease the same table shows that a return of £37 2s. 2^d., or 18.V per cent., will be an equivalent at the same rate of interest ; and on a lease of 21 years £18 93. 2d. per annum, or 9:^ per cent., will suffice. Now the farmer will be able to make in the area of his homestall (60 ft. square) 800 cubic yards of dung in each year, which, if worth only Is. per yard more than the manure made in the ordinary way, gives £40 a year, or 20 per cent, upon the outlay— quite sufficient to cover the expense and return 7 per cent, interest even on a 7 years' lease, without taking into consideration the facts that his stock will fatten much faster on less food, that a much less quantity of dung will be more effective and less expensive in application to the land. Who then will say that the man would act imprudently or unwisely in making the out- lay to secure such advantages, even in the event of his being compelled at the end of his term to leave the homestall to his landlord? But I have no doubt covered homeatalls may be so constructed that the tenant may remove them at the end of his term, and if so there can be nothing to prevent their general adoption but the want of means, or a blind adherence to an- tiquated methods which Science and her handmaid Practice have shown to be erroneous, and which must ere long be ex- ploded?" — Mark Lane Express. DESTRUCTIVE HAIL -STORMS [We request the attention of our readers to the following account of a fearful visitation of Pro- vidence, by which an e.xtraordinary amount of pro- perty has been destroyed. Hail-storms are of freduent occurrence in this country, and the neces- sity of the agriculturists to protect themselves against the loss consequent upon such a calamity occurring is of as much importance as insurance from fire. In but few instances, we regret to say, have parties through whose lands this storm passed availed themselves of insurance against loss by hail, and those who have not done so must now see the absolute folly of neglecting that protection which the payment of sixpence for an acre of the ordinary produce of a farm would have afforded them. We refer to the advertisement of the Royal, Farmers' Insurance Office, which will be found amongst our advertisements, and by which it will be seen that wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, mangold-wurtzel, &c., can be insured at sixpence per acre, and that, " in case of loss, the insurer is entitled to payment for any damage, without reference to the quantity per acre." We have just learned that Mr. W. Lander, of Knighton, near Leicester, who had the forethought to insure in the Royal Farmer's Office, and whose crops were damaged by the storm of the '21st June inst., has had his loss valued, and the sum of £73 has been awarded to him. — Ed. Farm. Mag.] DROITWICH.— On Saturday last, about two o'clock, this place was visited with a violent storm, which lasted for upwards of half an hour. After several severe shocks of thunder, the rain began to pour in torrents, and lasted for twenty minutes, and upon this ceasing it was immediately followed by a hail- storm as severe and heavy as the rain. Some of the hailstones measured li{ inches in length, being mostly of a long and ragged form ; in fact, in the fall they appeared as large as eggs. The storm appeared to reach here by way of Doverdale and Westwood, and did not extend on the Hanbury side of the town more than a quarter of a mile, but took the direction of Elmbridge and Stourbridge. The injury done in and near Droitwich to the growing crops is very great ; the beans and peas are much cut up and damaged, the barley and wheat laid low, whilst fruit of all sizes and descriptions, and in great numbers, is cut oflf and lying under the trees. A piece of beans about ten acres in extent, and a piece of swedes at the Park Farm, were totally spoiled. Several birds, too, were killed by the storm of hail. The greenhouses and hothouses suffered severely. Mr. Curtler, solicitor, had nearly 300 panes broken in his greenhouse and dwelling-house. At Mr. Pum- frey's greenhouse upwards of 100 were broken; at Mr. Tombs's, 70 ; Mr. Lowe's, 150 ; and a large number of panes were also broken in the houses of Mr. Rickett's and Mr. Blick, of Hill Court, and in the skylights of the different salt works. — IForcester Chronicle. ABERYSTWITH.— On Saturday evening last, this town and neighbourhood were visited with the most awful thunder- storm and hail ever witnessed by any of the oldest inhabitants. In the town itself there was no damage done, but a few miles northward it was most violent, as many trees were shattered to pieces, and the turnpike-road along the line to Machynlleth was strewed with torn branches of trees. The hailstones, or rather pieces of ice, that fell were as large as hens' eggs. Much demage was done to the trees, windows, and hothouse, at Gogerddan, the seat of Pryss Loveden, Esq., M.P. Sixty- seven panes of glass were broken at the Pengarn Chapel, near this town. STRATFORD-ON-AVON.— A storm of more than usual violence occurred on the borders of this county and Worces- tershire, in the afternoon of Saturday last, and although only of short duration and limited in extent, the destruction it caused was complete. Its chief strength appears to have been expended at Shipston-on-Stour, Moreton-in-Marsh, Todden- ham, and the adjacent villages, and extended, we have heard, to Southam. It commenced about two o'clock with thunder, lightning, and hail, and so large were the stones that fell, that a gentleman measured one that dropped into the room where he was sitting, at Shipston-on-Stour, and it measured ^ of an inch in diameter and 3 inches in length ; some we heard were THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 much larger. The injury doue is almost unprecedented, the glass in the conservatories or greenhouse of Mr. Bannister, solicitor.'Shipstou, being smashed, as also the hot-houses at the residence of Capt. Hitchins, Idlecot House ; in fact, the whole of the country over which tlie storm passed, shows visible ef- fects of its strength and violence. The crops of beans, &c., were stripped of their leaves and pods, leaving nought but the bare stalks ; all vegetation fared alike, being injured so ranch as scarcely to leave a vestige behind. Numerous instances have been named to us of the heavy losses some farmers will sustain ; one, who has hitherto insured his crops, omitted doinej so this year, and the amount of injury he has sustained ex- ceeds £500. Another had his crops destroyed to the amount of £300. Some idea may be formed of the extreme strength of the tempest, when it is stated that the horses of the Ex- press, Birmingham and Oxford Coach, were up to their knees in hailstones, which were of so great a size as to be on the ground for some two or three days after, and even so late as Monday some were brought into the town only partially dis- solved, and then, in their reduced size, of unusual magnitude. SHIPSTON-ON-STOUR.— On Saturday an awful thunder storm passed over this town, and a considerable portion of the county, accompanied with a very violent hailstorm, which has done a great deal of damage. A large quantity of glass was broken, especially in the viueries and conservatories. Mr. Kershaw, of Tidmiiigton House, snfiered to the extent of £100 ; the Kev. H. J. Townsend, of Horrington Hale, to the same amount. The crops of wheat and beans were totally destroyed, so nuirh so that not a bushel of beans on ten acres in somj of the fields remained. The storm extended for about three miles in this locality, and passed from south west to north-east. — Woicester Jou) iial. The Northampton Herald thus describes the storm at Shipston-on-Stour : — On Saturday last, Shipston-on-Stour and the neighbourhood was visited with a most violent hailstorm, accompanied by thunder and lightning. It appears to have taken a circuitous direction to Southam, over Ladbrooke Chapel Ascot, Knightcote, Burton Dassett, Oxhill, Whatcote and llouiiigton ; and, on the other side of Shipston, High Furze, Middle Hurst, and extending to Uitchfoid and Moreton- in-the-Marsh, where, we are informed, the storm began. Its course appears to have been about two miles wide. Such a storm cannot be remembered ; that which was so destructive at and near Chipping-Norton, a few years since, was not so much so as this. Every tree, hedge, field, and house within its circuit shews its direful effects. The morning was fine and not unusually hot, but about one o'clock the sky became overcast and large spots of wet began to fall. Shortly afterwards large hailstones came down. The thunder rolled in one continuous roar, occasionally louder than at other times, and the repeated flashes of lightning presented the appearance of a permanent ignition of the atmosphere. The damage to property is very great, many farmers having lost from £500 to £1,000 each. Sheep and cattle are said to have been killed. Most of the houses in Shipston have had all their windows broken, or nearly so, and many of the houses are much damaged. Mr. Brain, farmer and innkeeper, of Shipston, sustained a loss of £1,200. Messrs. Jennings, Watts, Lyne, Stephens, Day, Badger and others, of Shipston, have had their crops and out-buildings damaged or destroyed, and have sustained, on the whole, a loss of nearly £3,000. Many other persons have also sustained considerable loss by this storm. A correspondent of the Banbury Guardian thus speaks of the visitation at Shipstou-on-Stour : — " We proceed at once to give as clear and as correct an account as we can of the dreadful storm with which we were visited on Saturday last, and by which this previously beautiful district was transformed into a desert. The morning was bright and hot, and a few white clouds were seen slowly moving along the sky from the south- west, till about 12 o'clock, when the rumbling of distant thunder was heard, and a dense black cloud slowly approached from the same quarter of the heavens. About 1 o'clock it was ever-head, and rain began to fall in large drops, but not very thickly at first ; it soon, however, fell much heavier, and con- tinued till half-past 1, when a vivid flash of lightning was seen, followed immediately by a loud and rattling clap of thunder. Hail then began to fall thickly, the stones being of an immense size ; the light of heaven was o'jscured by them, and it was irapossi'ile to see across a street. Alarm filled every bosom, jmd it seemed as if the end of time was approaching. The noise of the falling ice was deafening ; windows were smashed, and the hail came pouring into the houses through the broken casements and down the chimneys. The streets were flooded with ice and water, and many of the houses were deluged. This terrible pouring-down of ice continued for about half-an- hour, and at 2 o'clock it began to abate, and soon ceased alto- gether. As soon as the people had recovered from the terror and confusion into which they had been thrown, they hastened into the gardens and fields ; and then the desolation caused by the storm became apparent. Everything wore the appearance of winter: nearly every vegetable was destroyed — the fruit and leaves were dashed from the trees, and even the large cabbages were shattered and riddled as if by a discharge of grape-shot. But the worst mischief was in the fields. The wheat, which was just bursting into ear, was at once reaped and thrashed : most of the cars lay on the ground, severed from the stalks, and the others were bruised and beaten down. The beans were shat- tered, as if beaten with sticks, and the tops and the flowers lay on the ground. It is impossible at present to estimate the amount of damage done, but it is immense. Very few of the crops were insured, and many of the sufferers have lost the whole of their dependence. It is to be hoped that the wealthy and benevolent, who have escaped such a calamity, will actively exert themselves to relieve their distress. The breadth of the storm, when it poured over Shipston, appears to have been about three miles — extending from Willington to Treadiugton, and it moved off towards Oxhill and Kineton, devastating everything in its course. The conformation of most of the hailstones was remarkable : in the centre there was a white nucleus, about the size of a large pea, enveloped with transpa- rent ice ; they were not always globular, but frequently very irregular iu form, and many of them measured from 4iii. to 6in. in circumference. Pigeons, partridges, blackbirds, and numbers of smaller birds were killed by their fall. The fields were quite white after the storm, reminding one of the shortest rather than of the longest day ; and many of the hailstones lay unraelted on Monday afternoon. It is not a little remarkable that the temperature of the air was very little lowered by the storm ; it continued very high until evening. It is hoped that the barley may recover, to a considerable extent, from the effects of the storm.'' The Editor of the Banbury Guardian gives a further account of this terrific storm : — On Saturday last this district, but not this immediate neighbourhood, was visited by storms scarcely less frightful and devastating than the one which fell at Chipping Norton on the 9th of August, 1843. The first point at which we trace one of these storms, for more than one was falling at the same time, is Long Compton, south-west of Banbury ; thence to Shipston-upon-Stour, where its effects were most frightful and serious, a large amount of property being destroyed by the hail, which fell in massss, and at once, and that in a few mo- ments, cut off the hopes of the husbandman. Thence it pro- ceeded in a north-easterly direction by Whatcote, Oxhill, Tysoe, Kineton, Gaydon, Chapel Ascot, to Southam ; we have at pre- sent no account of its further progress. Along the whole of the line we have pointed out, the crops are more or less injured, and in some parts totally destroyed. It is impossible at pre- sent to give any estimate of the amount of the damage doue. We have heard of several gentlemen who are sufferers to the amount of many hundreds of pounds, and more than one whose loss £1,000 will not cover. We hear of some who had insured their crops, but of many who had not done so ; and they must now be convinced of the folly of not insuring. It was between one and two o'clock in the afternoon that this storm was ob- served to be falling, and it was evident that another, scarcely less violent, was falling eastward of Banbury. In Northamp- ton and neighbourhood considerable damage was done. In Leicestershire, at the same moment, another storm was com- mitting its ravages ; and at Knighton, near Leicester, the con- sequences were very serious. In the evening of the same day, in Lancashire great devastation was caused by a storm which, although it raged but a short time, was fearfully violent. Im- mense quantities of glass were destroyed in the neighbourhood of Manchester and Stockport. Hail, rain, thunder, lightning, and wind, all commingling in terrific combination, brewed a storm such as is seldom witnessed. As we before remarked, Banbury was spared the infliction which has caused so much loss in many other places. VIOLENT AND DESTRUCTIVE HAIL STOR.I AT 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. KNIGHTON, NEAR LEICESTER.— On Saturday last a tremendous hail storm fell at KuigUton. It lasted from oue until three o'clock, aud did a great amount of damage around Leicester. Mr. Wm. Lander, of Knighton, had his wheat, oats, peas, beans, and mangold-wurtzel, very much damaged. His wheat and oats were covered by insurance in the Royal Farmers' Office, but unfortunately he did not insure his beans or mangold-wurtzel, the former of which are quite cut off lo the bottom of the stalk, aud his mangold-wurtzel were com- pletely smashed to pieces. Several other parties iu the neigh- bourhood have suffered severe losses, not being insured. This is extraordinary, inasmuch as an acre of any ordinary crop can be insured for sixpence. The storm was also very bad iu Leicester, aud the hail stones were unusually large. RUGBY STATION.— 4,000 squares of glass were broken by the hail storm at this station on Saturday. LINCOLN.— On Saturday afternoon last, about three o'clock' Lincoln was visited with one of the most tremendous storms of hail and rain, mixed with lightning, that has ever taken place in this locality. The rain, hail, and sleet poured down with un- mitigated fury, for about half an hour ; the hail-stones were of large size, and a great number of panes of glass were broken by the storm. A great number of panes of glass were broken in the windows of the Bishop's Palace, at Riseholme. Serious loss will also be sustained by Charles Fardell, Esq., of Holbeck Lodge, near Horncastle, in whose mansion upwards of 500 squares of glass were broken, besides other damage ; and there is no doubt that considerable damage was done iu the neigh- bourhood, of which we have not yet heard. — Abridged from the Lincoln Gazette, NOTTINGHAM.— On Saturday afternoon last Nottingham and some portions of the county were visited with a hail-storm of an extremely violent and alarming nature. In the forenoon, and up to about half-past two o'clock, there was scarcely a breath of wind, and the sultriness was almost unbearable. At one o'clock the sky became overcast with dark foreboding clouds, and at about a quarter to three heavy drops of rain fell slowly, giving presage of an approaching storm. Vivid flashes of lightning, accompanied with loud peals of thunder, came next with frequent intermissions, aud at five minutes before three precisely a flood of hail and rain burst with fearful vengeance immediately over the town. The cabmen at the respective stands got into their vehicles, leaving the horses Uiiguarded. Some of the animals endured the pelting storm patiently enough, merely shaking their ears as hailstones of unusual size pelted upon them, but others, more mettlesome than their neighbours, pranced and kicked so furiously that their drivers were obliged to turn out and hold them. The hailstones were of unusual size, aud were in shape something like broad leans, aud presented the appearance of large acid drops. Unlike common hailstones, they appeared to be broken pieces of ice. Several that were shown to us measured several inches in circumference. Upwards of a hundred panes of glass were broken in the sky-light over the shambles ; and about fifty in the green-house of Mr. Jackson, Governor of the House of Correction, met with the same fate. Nottingham is visited periodically by heavy storms of hail and rain. In 1816, during the races, a similar storm occurred, and continued with unabated violence for upwards of an hour. In an old history of Nottingham we meet with the following paragraph, which, though doubtless highly drawn, shows that the occurrence of violent storms at Nottingham was not uufrequent many years ago : — " 1558, July. Two little towns near Nottingham, beat down by thunder and hailstones ; some of the latter measured fifteen inches in circumference." — Abridged from Nottiin/Jtam Guardian. Some portions of Lancashire were visited with a storm on Saturday evening last, which, though of short duration, was fearfully violent, and destroyed a good deal of property. It appears to have come from St. George's Channel, and to have passed over Holyhead, Chester, and Birkenhead, in its course, at all which places travellers speak of its violence at early periods of the afternoon. Hail, rain, thunder, lightning and wind— all commiugliug in terrific combination, brewed a storm such as is seldom witnessed. At Gorton, about a mile from the celebrated Moravian establishment of Fairfield, the windows of the cotton-mill of Mr. John Ry lands, (m the western front, were struck with such violence by the hail, that upwards of 500 squares of glass were broken. A gentleman who witnessed the storm here, says that the hail fell in balls which were generally as large or larger than hazelnuts, and many of them were nearly as large as walnuts. Though most of the hailstones were of a rouudisli form, many of them were mere flattened pieces of ice, more like the squares of ivory used for dice. Several of these which were gathered up by some other parties were measured, and varied from three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch in breadth. No wonder that they proved so destructive to the glass with which they came in contact. At Droylsden, which is between Gorton and Fairfield, they were yet more destructive. The windows of the Catholic chapel were struck by them, and nearly 200 squares of glass were destroyed in them. Great numbers of the cottages of the poor were struck at the same time by the storm, and their windows were completely riddled by the hailstones. Nearly all the cotton mills, both in Droylsden and Faii field, aud many of the houses, suffered more or less. The greatest sufferers in this neighbourhood from the storm, however, are Messrs. Worthingtou and Benson, spinners aud manufacturers, iu whose mills, according to the statement of a member of the firm, upwards of 1,000 squares of glass (another person said he counted 1,200 and upwards, inde- pendent of broken skylights in the weaving sheds) were broken. In Heaton-lane, Stockport, such was the force of the storm that shops had to be closed, aud a draper suffered severe loss from the breaking of his windows and injury to his goods. Hailstones were picked up in the market-place, aud on the castle hill, as large as pigeons' eggs. The storm was severely felt at Middleton, Radcliffe-bridge, and Bury. NORTHAMPTON.— About mid-day on Saturday last, one of the most destructive storms we ever remember raged in this neighbourhood. It was partial in its effects, but where it fell it did incalculable damage. It was comparatively little felt in this town, beyond some slight injury done to the new borough gaol by almost the last flash of lightning. The ex- tensive injury reached not beyond the eastern outskirts of the town. The weather, during the morning, had been unusually oppressive. Soon after one o'clock large drops of rain fell, and were followed quickly by a few thunder-claps and flashes of lightning, then a smart shower, and the whole ceased in about twenty minutes. As the afternoon wore on, reports reached the town of crops cut up, windows smashed, and pro- perty otherwise injured by floods of rain and storms of hail. The reports had not been exaggerated. On going into the eastern suburbs, we found the inhabitants in a state of consternation. The storm had there been fearfully violent. Hailstones of an almost fabulous size had fallen. For a considerable distance the southern windows of the houses were much shattered — scarcely a window that had not from two to six or eight panes broken. The union work- house suffered to a considerable extent. The house of W. Collins, Esq., which has a commanding southerly aspect, presented the appearance of a complete wreck. The glass was shivered along the whole front. The Rev. F. Thursby's house, the Lunatic Asylum, Mr. Perkins's and Mr. Archer's nurseries, also suffered severely. In the gardens, trees were bared of their fruit, and crops broken down and beaten to the ground. The same picture of devastation is faithful also as regards a wide extent of country east of the town ; and in the direction of Stamford, Kettering, and thence into Leicestershire. Over- stone house and estates suffered extensively. The wheat crops alone of many persons have been damaged to the extent of hundreds of pounds. Such a fearful loss from the elements has not visited farm produce iu our memory. In many in- stances we fear it will go nigh to ruin the previously dispirited and impoverished farmers. We have heard of some of the sufferers being insured. A happy thing would it have been for them had they all adopted so prudent a measure. Farmers cannot be too much urged, for their own benefit, to avail them- selves of the advantages offered by insurance offices, at com- paratively so small an outlay. — Herald. KETTERING.— On Saturday last, Kettering and its vici- nity were visited by one of those storms which happily with us are of rare occurrence. Throughout the morning the heat had been excessive, the thermometer standing in the shade at eighty-one, with the wind, which had previously been variable, in the S.S.E., generally, in the summer season, indicating a storm. Early in the afternoon distant thunder was heard from different quarters, and dense clouds appeared in the west aud north-west. The storm then advanced rapidly, and about two o'clock torrents of rain fell, accompanied with almost incessant thunder and lightning. When the rain had almost ceased, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 16 the clouds appeared to be dispersing, a very unusual pheuome- noa took place. This was a shower of hailstones of remark- able size, many measuring from three to four inches round, and weighing from an ounce to more than two ounces. Tiiey were soHd masses of ice, mostly spherical, and formed of dis- tinct layers like coats of an onion. Happily the wind was low, or the damage must have been very great. As it was, the glass of the greenhoiises and skylights was nearly all broken, and many panes in the windows facing the west. J. C. Gotch, Esq., has about 250 panes of his greenhouse broken ; Mr. Burgess Cluff, about 150; and Mr. Leech, the same number. From the position of the clouds it appeared as if Kettering- had only the skirts of the storm. At Cransley and Thorpe Malsor, ouly two miles distant, it was much worse. Tlie Keverend G. E. Maunsell had 70 large squares broken iu his house windows, aud T. P. Maunsell, Esq., M.P., 60 ; aud the glass of his conservatories completely de- stroyed. Mrs. Booth, Glendou Lodge, had 30 squares broken. Reverend J. Wetherell, Rushton, 95 in skylights, aud W. \V. Hope, Esq., glass in greenhouses. At Oakley, Sir A. de Capel Brooke had GO panes broken iu his garden, and at VVilbarstou the windows iu the direction of the storm were nearly all broken. Many of the factory windows at Rowell aud Desborough were also shattered. Mr. Saml. Wallis, of Bartou Lodge, had a horse struck by lightning, but, though much hurt, was not killed. Hailstones were picked up between Desborough and Market Harborough, which, after they had been brought to Kettering, weighed about five ounces and a half. Much damage has beeu done to the fruit aud standing crops, especially the beans. The storm did not reach Cranford or Burton. The last hailstorm mth which Kettering was visited of this nature was on Sunday the 4th of May, 1800. — Ibid. HARBOROUGH.— The storm of Saturday last was not felt much in this immediate locality, but at Pipwell and the villages iu the direction towards Desborough, Rowell, &c., it was most violent, and did an incredible degree of injury to the cropping, &c. The hailstones were of extraordinary size, and partially destroyed many valuable crops. One field of beans, near Des- borough, was so completely cut up as to be rendered almost valueless. The hailstones were found lying in large quantities uear that place even on the following Monday. — Ibid. AT KETTON, considerable damage was done to the green- houses in the gardens of Lord Burghley aud others. At the residence of the Earl of Lindsey, at Uffingtoa, nearly 400 squares of glass were broken in the conservatories and not- houses; part of the glass there, being plate-glass, escaped. Some of the green-houses at Casewick, too, the residence of Sir John Troliope, Bart., shared a similar fate. — Ibid. HORNCASTLE. — On Saturday afternoon this place was visited by a thunder-storm of great severity. The hghtuhig was incessant, and the thunder kept one continuous roar for upwards of two hours; the rain also fell in torrents; happily, no damage was done in the place. We are sorry, however, to have to record the destruction of much glass in the greenhouses, &c., of Charles Fardell, Esq., at Holbeck Lodge ; ttie windows also on one of the fronts of the mansion are much shattered by the hail. Damage has also been done in other places in the vicinity, but not to so serious an amount as at Holbeach. — Lincoln Chronicle. A storm, possessing some features of interest, passed over the neighbourhood of Butterwick, on Saturday afternoon last. Not ouly were there lightning of the most vivid kind, an almost continual howl of thunder, aud heavy rain, but hail- stones of a large size, — Ibid. CHIPPING-NORTON.— The fearful storm of Saturday last partly passed over Little Compton. Several squares of glass were broken in the greenhouse of W. S. Hitchman, Esq., at Kitebrook, and considerable damage done to the crops in the ueighbourhood of Wolford. STAMFORD.— About half-past two o'clock on Saturday afternoon last a most violent storm of thunder, lightning, rain, and hail broke over Stamford and the neighbourhood, and continued uutd about a quarter before four. The morning was exceedingly sultry, the sun shining brightly until about half-past one, when a slight shower of rain descended ; about three quarters of an hour afterwards heavy clouds rose from the south-west horizon, and thunder began to mutter in that direction, aud was succeeded by vivid flashes of lightning, accompanied by thunder of an uubrokeu and terrible sound indicating an elementary warfare of no ordinary description' Shortly afterwards the rain began to descend in torrents, and about half-past three it was accompanied by hail — or rather pieces of ice — which did a large amount of damage in the town aud in the conservatories aud hothouses in the ueighbourhood. Several of the hail-stones which descended iu Stamford were Irom two to three inches iu circumference, aud weighed nearly an ouuc. Very many panes of glass this hail came iu contect with were shattered, and the sky-lights in the town suffered severely. The lightning was extremely vivid, and the flashes were continuous ; the thunder combined its roll with the noise of the wind aud tlie falling rain aud hail, and for about an hour this warfare was continued with lenitic violence. At Ketter- ing (south-west of Stamford) tlie pieces of ice were all shapes — round, square, oblong, and some with spikes attached, many of them measuring from 4 to 4|^ inches in diatneter, and weigh- ing upwards of three ounces. Considerable damage was done in and about the neighbourhood, and we learn that 500 squares of glass were broken at the residence of T. P. Maunsell, Esq., of Thorpe Malsor. At Ketton (four miles from Stamford) we learn that considerable damage was done to the green- houses in the gardens of Lord Burghley and others. At the residence of the Earl of Lindsey, at Uffington, nearly 400 squares of glass were broken iu the conservatories and hot- houses ; part of the glass there, being plate glass, escaped. Some of the green-houses, at Casewick, too, the residence of Sir John Trol- iope, Bart., shared a similar fate. — Lincoln Chronicle. STOKE GOLDING was visited on Saturday last, between four aud five p.m., with a very remarkable hailstorm, preceded by thunder and lightning aud torrents of rain. Suddenly the fall changed from large drops of rain to hailstones of immense size, and of the most crystalline appearance ; some of them were picked up after the storm was over, and were found to weigh from one to two ounces each. In form some were round, measuring from three to four and a half inches iu cir- cumference; others were flat, stellated with six radii. The noise which they occasioned by falling on the pavements was truly astonishing, and greatly alarmed the inhabitants, parti- cularly the fair sex. The wind being remarkably still at the time, but little damage was done except the breaking of a few squaies of glass iu dift'erent houses, aud the entire destruction of the same material in some cucumber frames. LLANIDLOES. — The most awful and terrific thunder storm ever witnessed by the oldest inhabitant visited this town about four o'clock in the afternoon of Saturday last. The hailstones which fell were very large, aud which broke a great number of skylights to atoms. The neighbourhood of Swansea, more particularly the Pen- insula of Gower, was visited, ou Saturday last, with a terrific thunder-storm, accompanied by a fall of large hailstones. Some portions of Lancashire had a similar visitation at the same period. The storm here, although of short duration, was fearfully violent, aud destroyed a good deal of property. — The Cambrian. KINEl ON.— The storm of Saturday last appears to have passed lightly over this town, iu comparison to what was felt iu the neighbuuring parishes. The thunder was very luavy during the afternoon, and hailstones of an unusually large size fell, but we have not heard of much damage iu this parish either to windows or crops. In the adjoining parish of Burton Dassett, much injury has beeu done to the crops of beaus and wheat. At the farm-house of Mr. Anderton, of Burton Grounds, about 150 squares of glass were broken. At OxhiU, Whatcote, Tysoe, aud the adjoining places, the storm appears to have raged with great fury, aud the accounts receired of the damage done to the growing crops are awful in the extreme. SOUTHWELL— Ou Saturday la.st the village of Upton was visited w ith a thunder storm, which lasted about two hours. The hailstones were very large, and ha^e done a considerable amount of damage to several farmers aud cottagers, breaking down nearly whole fields of beaus, pia>, barley, wheat, and tares. One field of peas, about two acres, belonging to Mr. Campion, was entirely destroyed ; indeed they, aud a field of beaus belonging to Mr. Edward Foster, were cut by the hail as though they had beeu cut with a hook ; great damage was also done to the windows of the residence of H. Hawkes, Esq. Twenty-four panes of glass were broken in the windows rf Mrs. Collinghara's house, and 10 in that of Mr. Turner, tailor. The glass iu the hall gardens was much damaged. The damage done to the crops in the neighbourhood cannot be less than £300. — Nottingham Guardian. 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LEICESTER. — On Saturday afternoon last, this town and neighbourhood were visited with a violent storm, accompanied with much thunder, lightning, and hail, which lasted nearly two hours, causing much damage to the growing crops in the neighbourhood. Mr. Porter, of Knighton, and Mr. Bunney, of Oadby, suffered severe losses, and we hear were not insured. Mr. Burgess, of Wigston, also had much damage done to his conservatory. We are informed that an acre of any ordinary crop can be insured for sixpence, and we should think it would be well if parties would take advantage of it. Considerable damage has been done in other parts of the county, but hap- pily we have not heard of any lives being lost. — Leicester Journal. HINCKLEY. — Some of the neighbouring villages suffered much from the awful thunder-storm on Saturday last. At I'cckleton a vast quantity of glass was broken, at Earl Shilton a fruit tree iu the garden of Mr. Homer was rivea asunder, and at Sharnford two valuable cows belonging to BIr. Joshua Clarke were killed by the lightning. In other places we heard of injuries to fruit trees. The storm raged about half-an-hour, aud some of the hailstones which fell were as large as marbles. —Ibid. TRENT SIDE. — A storm, possessing some features of interest, passed over Butterwick on Saturday afternoon last. Not only was there lightning of the most vivid kind, but it was accompanied with an almost continual howl of thunder, and torrents of rain aud hailstones of a very large size. — Bon- Cfi.ster Gazette. The following circular has been issued for the purpose of raising subscriptions to relieve the sufferers in the Shipston- ou-Stour District: — " At a meeting held in the George Inn, on Tuesday, 24th June inst., to ascertain the supposed loss sustained by the occupiers of land in the parishes of Great Wolford, Little Wolford, Todenham, Burmington, Tidmingtou, Stretton, Willington, Barcheston, Shipston, Honington, What- cote, Idlicote, and other parishes adjoining, from the severe and calamitous hail storm that visited this neighbourhood on Saturday, the 21st day of June, and finding the estimated injury to amount to upwards of £20,000, and the quantity of acres of corn either partially or wholly destroyed amounting to upwards of 3,000, exclusive of green crops, orchards, nurseries, &c., &c., the following resolution was adopted. To beg most respectfully and humbly to solicit your immediate attention and advice as to what steps should be taken to alleviate the sufferings, and, iu some cases, total ruin of many agriculturists. —June 24, 1851." FRENCH MODE OF WATERING GARDENS AND CONSERVATORIES. Stej) by step, the faculties and powers of the mind gradually, but not less certainl}^ invade and circumscribe the power and dominion of mere phy- sical force, rude and wasteful bodily toil. In hor- ticulture and agriculture, where this principle lags at least a century behind that which we see exem- plified in all branches of manufacture, where me- chanical art and human skill and invention are brought to bear, it is gratifying to record even the crumbs which fall to the share of gardening in this respect. This figure represents a French mode of rying water for distribution in gardens and conser- vatories. The illustration is sufficiently obvious to need no explanation ; although, as it is shown here, the plan is more defective than one would expect at the hands of our very ingenious neigh- bours, with whom it originated. That is, the tub, as indicated on the ])ack of the oiierator, is open at the top; and, so far as we can understand, it affords no protection in itself against the unavoidable mo- tion of the body throwing the water over the person who carries it; and so far, we can only regard the idea as a not very pleasant kind of toy, which we apprehend few would be willing to use a second So much for the invention in its present Looking at it, however, in another light, it time. lOrm. jjuurwiii^ at It, iiu>vc\ci, iii diiutLicx xi^iit, it « suggests to the mind means by which the operation I of watering all kinds of stove and greenhouse a plants might be performed with more care and ex- actness, and far less of toil to the operator, than the plan in ordinary use with us. For example, keep to the same principle, and let an Indian rubber or gutta-percha implement, adapted and fitted to the back, be provided, of sufficient and convenient ca- pacity, but let it be water-tight. The operator having mounted and securely strapped the implement to his Imck, with both hands fully at liberty, he has only to be provided with an elevated supply tank, or the means ofdecending, till his instrument can be filled by means of a tube which he could screw off and on at pleasure. With his water-tub on his back, full and ready for use, both hands also disengaged, he then proceeds with his operation. Say he has to water choice and valuable plants along the bench of a greenhouse, and it is autumn or winter, when great caution and care are requisite ; he is therefore in a condition to cope with these difficult require- ments. One hand guides the watering-tube, as in- dicated in the sketch before us ; and by means of a spring stopper, worked by the thumb or finger, the smallest possible quantity of water can be given, and momentarily stopped, without spilling upon the floor or the leaves of the plants, which is unavoid- able in the use of a common watering-pot, producing as it does damp and decay ; but in this way it would be completely obviated. The spare hand being also at liberty — and if it belong to the innitiated and skilful — the knuckle, when tapped against the sides of the garden-pots, will, in all cases of doubt- ful wetness or dryness, bring forth the well known and certain sound. In this way we can have no doubt the operation of %vatering pot-plants at any season could be performed in a superior manner to that in common use by the unavoidably slovenly, spilling, splashing system with the common garden- pot. Our illustration is taken from La Belgique Horticole, a monthly work on horticulture, con- ducted by Prof. Morren, of Liege. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 17 THE LONDON FARMERS' CLUB. ON THE ADVANTAGE OF COVERED HO]\IE-STALLS AS REGARDS THE FAITENING OF STOCK AND MANUFACTURE OF MANURE. Tlie last monthly meeting of the Club during the pre- sent season was held on Monday, June 2, at the Club- rooms, Blackfriars, Mr. W. F. Hobbs in the chair. The question for discussion, introduced by Mr. Beadel, was thus stated on the card : — " The advantage of covered home-stalls as regards the fattening of stock and manu- facture of manure." There was a large attendance of mcmliers. The Chairman said : He had been requested by the Committee to take the chair on that occasion, and he did so with great pleasure because the subject which they were met to discuss was one which he was happy to see had called together many leading agriculturists from dif- ferent parts of the kingdom. He was pleased to find in the room not only many practical farmers, but many gentlemen connected with agriculture who had taken great interest in this question. The question was one of considerable importance, and its importance had not been sufficiently recognised by the landlords and tenantry of the kingdom. He had no doubt that their friend Mr. Beadel, who was well acquainted with practical agricul- ture, and also with architecture as bearing upon it, would so elucidate the question as to draw forth remarks upon it from many gentlemen in the room, and that (he sub- ject would be treated in a manner whicli would be cre- ditable to the Club. He was happy to introduce Mr. Beadel to the notice of the Club, and was confident that, as on former occasions, he would do justice to the cause in which he was engaged. Mr. Beadel said : To which point soever of the in- dustrial compass our attention is directed, we cannot but be struck with the vast improvements which have been made, during the last thirty years, in agriculture and her sister arts ; and whatever else the future historian may have to relate of the age in which we live, he cannot fail to designate the first half of the nineteenth century as a period of great and unrivalled progress. To what ex- tent this progress, or the improvements accompanying and contributing to it, may have benefited the commu- nity at large, is a question more suited to the contempla- tion of the moralist ; suffice it for our present purpose to admit, that improvements are being made in every art and science ; and it must follow, that only by a care- ful examination of the various principles which science unfolds, and a ready and judicious adoption of all that careful practice proves to be advantageous, we can hope to succeed in keeping pace with the general advancement. (Hear.) It is sometimes said, to the disparagement of the agriculturist, that great as are the improvements which have been made in farming, it is yet far behind in its career as compared with manufactures. If this be true — and I am not prepared to deny it — many good and plausible reasons may be assigned as an excuse for this dilatory progress, some of which, such as the isolated position of the agriculturist, and the uncertainty of the seasons with which he has to contend, will probably con- tinue to retard advancement to the end of time. In pro- portion, however, to the difficulties against which the far- mer has to contend should be his endeavour to rise superior to them ; and although it is not in mortals to command success, all may deserve it. The skilful hus- bandman not only presses into his service all the im- provements which experienced practice recommends, but he studies the seasons and the weather, and adapts his operations accordingly ; and the man of sound policy, whether husbandman or other, does more : he studies the aspect of the times as affecting his market, and regulates his proceedings thereby. The present is an age of eco- nomy and of venturous progress, caused by competition and low prices, emulation of superiors, with its conse- quent develojiment of taste, increased expenses and love of change inducing an increased necessity for vigilance. Altered circumstances must be met by a varied treat- ment ; and if, in the universal scramble, 'the followers of any pursuit remain inactive, or adhere perseveringly to old and exploded systems, while other and better methods are practised by their watchful opponents, the inevitable result must be that their more intelligent and active com- petitors will outrun and vanquish them. (Hear, hear.) The manufacturer seizes every proffered improvement with avidity, and within certain limits it answers his end. Many instances might be adduced ; but if any one is sceptical as to the advantage of machinery over hand labour, a visit to the mechanical department of the Great Exhibition which has been recently opened will re- move all doubt, and convince him of the incalculable benefits derived from the application of machinery to manufactures ; and although a further examination may show the present inaptness of some of our agricultural implements, the rapid improvements that have been made in these, and the energy displayed by the imple- ment makers, warrant an expectation of yet untold ad- vantages to be derived from still further improvements. I would embrace this opportunity, even at the risk of being thought discursive, to press upon the attention of all present, but more especially of those who are on the threshold of life, the vast advantage, the incalculable im- portance, of making use of some of their leisure hours in the acquirement of scientific knowledge. Brought up to a pursuit which for the far greater portion of the year leaves him at liberty for several hours in each day, engaged or to be engaged in a business which draws re- sources from the achievements of labourers in every de- partment of science, with every opportunity for applying C l! THE F.v[;:snR"S ma(;azink. I'lacliciil Itsts or making fiesii disoovcru^s, the f^iniicr has advantages beyond those enjoyed by any otber trades- m m, for he may blend the attainment of sc'cntific know- ledge with a healthy and invigorating pursuit beyond the reaeh of the bookworm ; and he may, by the diversify of hia studie*!, outvie even him who, with a devotedne.^s be- yond all jiraise, drinks deep at the fountain of knowledge, while foiJowing some particular study in his laboratory or his closet, to the app-ircnt sacrifice of health and of every other enjoyment. Let mc not be misunderstood : I require not the farmer to become a Liebig ; but he ought to know Bomctliing of the leading principles of chemistry, a science which, perhaps, more than any other enters into and affects his every-day practice. He need not be a Lindley ; but surely some acquaintance with the habits of the plants he cultivates, as well as with the nature of those he eradicates, cannot but be de-. sirable. He may not hope to attain the eminence of a Kirby or a West wood ; yet a study of entomology, giv- ing him some insight into the insect world, may teach him lietter how to combat his enemies or encourage his friends. la fact, there is not a science which has not, directly or indirectly, some bearing upon practical agriculture. Think not, my young friends, that I am urging upon you a hopelcj-s task. All, ay, far more than all, that I have pointed out is within your attainment ; and the acquire- ment of knowledge, like the practice of virtue, brings its own reward. 'I'he first steps of your progress may be difficult; but once fairly within the temjde, and each advancing step shall open to your view a brigliter and still brigiiter jirospect ; difficulties will be overcome, knowledge acquired, and ere many years your mind will be stored with treasure essentially your own, of which the reverses of fortune will be powerless to deprive you, but which will add an interest to your pursuits known only to hifti who, leaving the time-worn path of custom , climbs delerminatcly the hill of science, to enjoy the re- freshing breezes and delightsome prosjiecta denied to the plodder in the valley (ciieers). If these remarks should hapj'ily be the means of inducing only one f;»rmcr to add 10 bis prjietice science, the digression in which I ha\e indulged will, I trust, be pardoned ; and some at least v.ill njoice that another of our brethren has indeed put his hand to the plough, determined to cultivate, as deeply as may be pract'cable, the subsoil of the human mind (cheers). But to proceed with the subject specially selected for this evening's discussion ~" The advantage of covered homestalls, as regards the fattening of stock and manufacture of manure." It will, I think, be con- ceded that an\ improvement which can be eO'ccted, cither in the housing of stock, the economy of food, or the pieparalion of manure, is entitled to tlse best attention of the farmer, and comes clearly within the range of objects suited to the consideration of the London Far- mers' Club ; and although I can claim little novelty and no originality in the system I am about to advocate, the experience I have gained during the few years in which my attention has been directed to the su}>ject may not be unintercstiiig or ur,prufit;ible. The housing of ani- mals and tuai.uiacture of nTiuitro utidcr cover ar-', com- pai'atiy.ly speaking, n-.oderi! uj-.j-lianciS with re2nrd !u farms. Ijox-fecdiiig, it is true, his been and is followed to a considerable extent, and Mr. Cook, of Seymour, has for some years adopted the principle, so also has the celebrated Mr. Mcehi ; although in both eases the feed- ing places appear to have been made from time to time wilhodt any speei il regard to system, I do not wish to be understood as opposed to box-feeding, which no doubt has economy of space to recommend it ; nor do I wish to advocate the adoption of covered homestalls to the exclusion of every other plan ; my object is only to explain a system which individually I approve, to point out my reasons for advociting it, and to submit for the consideration of this meeting a few remarks on the sub- ject, which, if they should enlist the attention of some of our members, will accomplish the main object I have in view. When my attention was first seriously directed to the subject, greatly desiring to avoid what I fear is the experience of mostfaimers, a certain loss upon the house- feeding of stock, it appeared to me that if a plan could be devifcd by which, while the health and comfort of the animals were consulted, their eonsumpiion of food might be diminished, their .aptitude to fatten be increased, and not only the quality of the manure be improved, but its waste avoided, a vast improvement on the system would be secured, and, und-r ordinary circumstances, the loss v.'ould be converted into a modcralo prnff. With my mind thus impressed with general notions of bene- ficial alterations in the mode of treating stock, 1 availed myself of opportunities aftbrded by a somewhat migra- tory life, by inspecting several contrivances for accom- plishing the object in view ; but (without claiming any right to pre-eminence for it) nothing appeared to me more simple or efficacious than a covered homestall on the College farm, in the occupation of my neighbour and friend, Mr. Perry, of Writtle, in the county of Essex. This homestall is a somewhat rough specimen, but it was quite sufficient for my purpose, and with a few al- terations, which I consider improvements in eonstruetioii, and some variations in the mode of using it, I have adopted Mr. Perry's plan. The homestall at Writtle is 150 feet long by 75 in width ; one-third of the width, for the whole length, being usetl as b irns ; thus leaving 150 feet by 50 divided into three yards — on; used for horses, and tlie other t^f-o for feeding bullocks. The cost of such an erection, if substantially finislicd, would not be less than X'1,200. On considering the matter more fully, it struck me thut not only would the cost of erec- tion bo a serious obstacle to the general adoption of co- vered homestalls, but that in the case of many farms on which good substantial barns were already standing, thc- proprietor might fairly object to their removal, or to in- curring so large an additional outlay. To meet this dif- ficulty it occurred to me that a modified arrangement of the plan might be useful, and as at my own residence I had no occasion for barn accommodation, I i)ut up what for the sake of being more explicit I shall call a fatting homestall, in contradistinction to the larger nrrangemcnt or farm homestall. By the adoption of this modilied plan, lean and growing stock could be kept about the barns and yards, while those to be fed on artifici^d food or corn would become inmates of the fatting honu stall. The THE FARMER'S .XJAGAZINE. It) model oil IIjc (able is a representation of tlic buiklinij I crectctl near my own house ; it is GO feet square, and 12 feet in height, with a lean-to, 7 feet wide, at the back ; the walls arc built on 0-ineh brickwork laid edgewise, by whieii a saving of nearly one-third is cflecled in ma- terial ; the main supports and beams are chiefly of Baltic timber J the rafters of ICnglish fir grown on the spot ; the roof is covered with improved pantiles of the form of those before you, and bedded in mortar; the f;utters are of G lb. lead ; the bricks cost delivered 2G3. jjcr thousand, the timber 2s. per foot, and the pantiles 8-. per iiundred. The total cost of the building, pre- suming tliat I had been obliged to purchase all the ma- terisils, would have been ,£200 ; it cost rae something less. As a general calculation, the farm homestall, h iv- ing the accommodation of barns and other fittings, will, under ordinary eircumstanccs, cost about ^'10 per square ; t!ie fatting homestvll only about .£'6 per square. These jirices will of course vary somewhat according to the size of the building and the local price of the materials employed. And in erecting similar homestalls for other people, my first inquiry has always been for the cheapest material, whether brick, stone, or flint. The covered liomestidl is enclosed on three sides, and the side walls are returned 10 or 12 feet in front; the remainder of the front is left open, with the exception of a dwarf svall, neces.ary for the secui ity of the stock ; the aspect should be S E. by S. ; this slight deviation to the east being ne- cessary to prevent t'lc high v/esterly winds and rain from blowing into the covered yard. With respect to the inter- nal arrangement of the homestall, I by no means wish it to be considered ihat I have adopted the best or the most economical. Tlie drawings before you represent other arrangements, which I think improvements. All I contend for is the principle. The size of the home • stall, and its internal arrangements, are points best de- termined by the sizs of the occupation and the peculiar necessitii's of the occupier. In the model before you, you will sec there is a provision for feeding sheep on open boarding over pits, and also accommodation foi pigs. In regard to sheej), I have been accustomed from time to lime to draw out the iicads of the flock, and feed them on the boards for a period varying from one to two month?. My cxpirience is too limited to justify me in giving a decided verdict upon the subject ; but from the results of the trial I have made, it is my opinion that sheep fat much faster so treated than they do either in open fields or yards. (Hear.) Mr. Thos. Crooks, of Chelmsford, well known as a butcher, jobber, and far- mer, has had frequent opportunities of watching the l)rogress of my sheep, and he states that be never saw sheep go on so fast ; but be this as it may, I earnestly recommend the plan to the notice of the members of the Club, as the cost of the trial is but trifling, and the re- sult as to the sheep far from problem ati^-al; while the manure in the pits, which I call British guano, is most profitable as a top dressing, or, mixed with ashes, for drilling with turnips. In the open space appropriated for stock, 30 bullocks may be fed. My plan is to have them loose in the yard, except three times a-day, at 7, 1, and 5, when they are tied up for about an ! our, and fed, each bullock having his allotti d qiuuility of food, and being jiermilted to enjoy his meal without any an • noyance from his neighbours. I attacii the greatest im- portance to this plan, as involving several considerations of some moment, viz., the economy of food, the preven- tion of waste, and the securing to the weaker animal his proper share of roots and cake. The operation of fas- tening up the cattle, after the first few days, costs but little time, as I have frequently seen a man and a boy tie up 20 beasts in less than five minutis. Each bullock is invariably tied up at the same place, and if sales or accident thin the ranks no change is allowed. Those who have not tried the plan would be suriirised at the facility with which it may be followed. Having thus described the building and the treatment of the animals in it, I hasten to lay before you some of the advantages which covered homestalls promise to secure to the farmer ; first premising that a mild temperature, moderate exer- cise, ease of position, and protection from inclement weather, are jioints to be kept in view, as assisting the fattening process. All these are secured by the covered homestall, and the following results of a registry of the outside and inside temperatures will prove that at all events a homestall is more equable and much milder in temperature than an open yard. In February and March 3G registers were made : — „ . , r ThchiglKstrcgisterwas69° 1 Showing an extreme ^"'*"'"^- • I The lowest 19°/ difTerence of 50°. {Showing a much more fqiiabletcmperatine, the rxtieme dilTer- cuce being ouly 27°. In May 15 registers were made : ^ , •■ r The highest 100° "l Showing an extreme ^'"'*"^'^- • I The lowest 32° J difffreucc of 6S°. J ., r The highest 7^1 Extreme varialious, nisiue .. •[ The lowest 42° J 29°, The avermjc daily variation during these three months- IiiFebruary Outside 26°, iuside Vl^ In March „ 20^, „ 8i° In May „ 3fJ.\°, „ 16° The greatest variations in any one day were — OnFcbruarvlG OatsiJe 42° inside IS^ On March 11 „ 42°, „ 15° OuMayie „ 59°, „ 23° On the coldest night, Feb. 17, outside registered 13" of frost, inside „ 3° Showing a dilTerence of 10° On Feb. 16 the outside registered 10° of frost. „ inside none. May 16 the outside registered 32° freezing. „ inside „ 42°, i. e., 10° above freezing. As to manure, it can scarcely be necessary to remark that its quality must be materially improved by protec- tion from rain. The area of the covered homestall is sunk about 18 inches below the level of the surrounding ground ; and the beasts are littered from time to time, as occasion requires. In the larger yard, represented in the model, there have been from ten to twelve beasts ever since last November. The dung is now (in the 0 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. centre of the yard) more than two feet thick, and as solid as possible : it is perfectly made, and fit for use. Two of the smaller yards were cleaned out the last week in April, carted at once to the land, and ploughed-in for mangold-wurtzel. The remainder of the dung will re- main till required for swede turnips, when it will be carted at once to the land, and ploughed-in without waste or loss. During the present season I have been obliged to buy straw for fodder at from 16s. to 20s. per load ; and in the small space of sixty feet square I have used upwards of thirty loads, practising the greatest economy in its use. Experience, however, has taught me I was wrong on this point of economy, for I find that buying straw at the prices I have named I can manufacture dung at less than Is. 9d. per cubic yard ; and such dung, made with roots, cake, and corn, must be cheap at that price. I shall know better for the future, and be more liberal. There were used betweeu Nov. and April 23} loads of trussed straw, 5 loads of loose straw, and 2 loads of haulm, costing delivered £27 19 0 The yard is GO feet square, and the average depth of tlie dung fully 18 inches; this will give 200 cubic yards ; but as the dung is so very solid, in Idling for carrying on to the land the quan- tity is increased, so that 31 yards solid makes 54 yards as filled into (he carts : applying the same proportion, the 200 yards will be equal to 348 yards, which at Is. 7d. is 27 11 0 Or, iu solid yards, 2(0 yards, at 2s. 9d. is 27 10 0 Either way tiie price is much less than farmers are accustomed to pay for town dung, besides the expense of carting. Formerly the plan pursued was, to keep what are called straw-yard beasts fed on scarcely anything but straw: experience has taught us that, even with the prospect ol little or no profit on tlie animals, the farmer must keep a larger quantity of stock, and feed it better, if only for the sake of improving his manure ; the consequence is, that large quantities of cake and corn are consumed, by which a very great outlay is incurred ; but, generally speaking, little additional care has been bestowed upon the protection of the manure so expensively made. Buildings without water troughs — yards so formed that the liquid part of the manure runs away — large dung- hills by the side of ditches or ponds, from which the " Brown Stout" is allowi d to escape — double cartage of manure — unchecked fermentation, by which dung is un- necessarily wasted in quantity and injured in quality — are points of great impmtance, but to which farmers do rot as a body sufficiently attend. In this and a variety of other ways, the agriculturist must be reminded of the fable, and biddly told to put his own shoulder to the wheel before he calls on Hercules to help him. The air in the homestall is perfectly pure and sweet, unde- filed by any escape of ammonia or any other gas; but once break the top crust, and your olfactory nerves must be strons: indeed if you can venture a sniff. There is no surplus moisture, and no tanks are required ; the straw takes up all the liquid manure, and holds it. My neighbour and friend, Mr. Perry, of Writtle, an emi- nent practical agriculturist, who has used a covered homestall for five years, will fully corroborate the state- ments I have made, and will tell you, that so much is the quality of the manure thus made enhanced, that he puts on a much less quantity than he formerly used. Mr. Perry, who has kindly answered some questions I put to him, shall speak for himself, and will, in his answers, probably afford proof more conclusive than any statements I may make. The questions and answers are as follow : — How long have you used a covered homestall ? —Five years. Do you find the dung made in it fit for immediate use? — Yea. Is there any drainage so as to render tanks necessary? — No. Is there any unpleasant smell arising from the dung during the time it is making ? — No. Is there less, or more, or about the same quantity of straw required for littering the cattle in a covered homestall, com- pared wiih that required in an ordinary farm yard ? — About the same. Are the cattle warmer and more protected from the weather than in open yards? — Yes. Do they appear to you to do better? — A great deal. Is the consumption of food by ilie stock less?— I think it is so. Is the quality of the dung better ? — A vast deal. Do you use generally a less quantity per acre, and if so, how many loads less ? — One- third less with better effect. Do you consider the homestall useful for cattle during the summer? — As much so asiii winter. Do you from experience approve of covered homestalls, and can you recommend there? — I should like to have them at all my occupations. State any objection your use of them may suggest ? — I know none. Are they useful for the temporary protection of hay and corn during a fickle harvest ?— Decidedly. Your opinion as to the comparatively money value of dung made in the covered homestall, as compared with that in open yards ? — Nearly douhle. About two years ago I furnished plans for a covered homestall to be built in Hertfordshire. The first use the intelligent farmer made of it was to fill it with corn instead of stock ; now, although a covered area 150 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 16 feet high, would be very useful in affording tem- porary accommodation during a fickle hay or cora harvest, I certainly never contemplated the permanent use of a covered homestall as a granary. I have little doubt but there are many quite prepared to admit the advantages to be derived from the use of covered home- stalls, who will exclaim — How is the tenant farmer to obtain them .' The landlord will not and the tenant cannot prndenf It/ erect them. A word or two on each of these points. So long as a large quantity of the land in this country belongs to parties having only a tempo- rary or life interest in it, and while, in many instances, the remainder- man is a stranger, all matters tending to the permanent improvement of the soil and agricultural buildings will be, if not withheld, at most but grudgingly granted. Nor can we wonder that such should be the case. Another impediment in the way of improvement is want of means ; and though the fact excite regret, it must be allowed that there are poor landlords as well as poor tenants. Bnt still, leaving out of the calculation all the lands affected by either of the above circumstances, there are thousands of cases in which the owner, if fairly and properly moved thereto, would readily concur in carrying out any of those great and important improve- ments, shown by experience to be profitable, or which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ql the pressing necessities of the times require (Hear). And further, while fully admitting that the proper and requisite buildings should be put up and maintained by the owner, I am not at all prepared to concede, that when the owner cannot or will not, the tenant may not both wisely and prudently erect tluni himself (lliar, hear). It is a common practice in this great metropolis, and in other large cities and towns, for parlies engaged in nieroaiitile pursuits to hire premises for a limited period, and expend large sums on their improvement, content, if by the economy effected in the management of their business, or by the facilities aftbrded for car- rying it on, they can secure an annual advantage, which by the end of their terra will have returned them principal, interest, and a profit. Now the same mode of calculation is applicable to the farmer's case in the matter before us. Take the instance of a tenant farmer who has a 14 years' lease, and cannot induce his landlord to erect a covered homestall ; the question for his consideration will be, whether the advantages to re- sult from the use of such a building during his tenancy will be equal to a return of principal, interest, and a profit ; and if so, no one can question the propriety of his incurring the expense. Such a homestall as mine can be erected for ^^200 ; we will, therefore, assume that as the sum required. Now it appears from the tables used by mercantile houses in in:,king their cal- culations for similar purposes, that if an outlay of £% 14s. lid. will secure a return of ^1 per annum for 14 years, the £\ per annum will, by the end of the term, have returned the principal sum expended, together with interest thereon at 7 per cent. By a simple calculation our farmer may, therefore, see that ^'200 laid out at the commencement of his 14 years' lease, will be amply re- paid with interest at 7 per cent, if he can realize upon that outlay £'22 17s. Ijd. per annum, or 11^ per cent, on his outlay ; on a 7 years' lease the same table shows that a return of £37 2s. 2,^1., or 18| per cent., will be an equivalent at the same rate of interest ; and on a lease of 21 years £18 93. 2d. per annum, or 9J per cent, will suffice. Now the farmer will be able to make in the area of his homestall (60ft. square) 800 cubic yards of dung in each year, which, if worth only Is. per yard more than the manuic made in the ordinary way, gives £40 a year or 20 per cent, upon the outlay, quite sufficient to cover the expense and return 7 per cent, interest even on a 7 years* lease, without taking into consideration the facts that his stock will fatten muuh faster on less food, that a much less quantity of dung will be more effective and less expensive in application to the land. Who then will say that the man would act imprudently or unwisely in making the outlay to secure such advantages, even in the event of his being compelled at the end of his term to leave the homestall to his landlord ? lUit I have no doubt covered home- stalls may be so constructed that the tenant may remove them at the end of his term, and if so there can be no- thing to prevent their general adoption but the want of means, or a blind adherence to antiquated methods which Science and her handmaid Practice have shown to be tnoneous, and which luu&t ere lo:.g bo exploded. However, should this not be the case, a tenant should not be deterred, as he too frequently is, especially to- wards the end of a lease, from following a proper course, because he may possibly leave his holding in a better state than that in which he found it. It cannot, nor should it matter to a tenant in how much better a condi- tion he leaves either his land or his farm buildings, pro- vided he has, by i)rudence and skill, secured to himself the return of his outlay with good interest and a fair ad- ditional profit as a reward for his labour. In immediate connection with this subject, I cannot but notice another instance in which a want of attention to a matter of every day calculation among merchants becomes a producti\c source of uneasiness, personal inconvenience, and loss to the farmer ; and in which a little forethought and prudent calculation would speedily effect a reform. The merchant never leaves out of his reckonings any saving, however trifling in itself, which, by multiplication, may become considerable and remunerative, and he never spares expense when a fair calculation shows an ulti- mate, though remote, return with adequate pro- tit. One consequence is, that while the mer- cantile community is proverbially renowned for farsighted sagacity and perseveringly successful schem- ing, it is alleged that farmers are too apt to blame Providence for disappointments clearly the result of their own negligence. The merchant takes care of trifles to secure large profits, while the farmer neglects precautions to preserve advantages even in his hands, and then lajs the blame anywhere but upon his own want of thrift. (Hear.) I certainly met with au instance a few weeks since when looking over a property in Huntingdon- shire, On coming to a wheat field whose appearance was certainly anything but flattering, the farmer re- marked that a week or two before the plant looked very healthy ; but that the cold and wet had destroyed it. The general colour of the crop indicated a severe attack of yellow fever, with blotches on every other stetch at re- gular intervals, which appeared more like the effects of scarlet fever. On inquiry, I found the dung carted on for the wheat crop had been left for nearly a month on the heaps ; this accounted for the scarlet fever ; while the unmistakeable necessity for underdraining showed the cause of yellow fever. Had the land been drained and the manure spread with only ordinary attention, the farmer would probably have avoided a certain los3, and Providence would have been fully exonerated from all blame. I am quite aware the farmer, more than any other man, is dependent on the seasons ; but as a gene- ral rule Providence assists those who help themselves, and diligently study nature's laws, and as diligently carry into practice the knowledge they acquire. After this short digression, let us sum up the whole ques- tion in the narration of a few practical results. From the experience of those who have given covered home- stalls a fair trial, we are warranted in stating that the dung is perfectly made under cover and fit for immedi- ate application to the land ; it is not weakened by adven- titious moisture, as the only moisture reaching it is the urine from the animals fed : its quality is much bectf r than that of the open yards, and a less quantity is required THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. for a given crop ; thus the farmer obtains, without in- creased cost, the means of manuring a greater number of acres in each year ; he saves labour and expense, inasmuch as the manure may be carted from the homestall to the field, and at once applied without previous clamping or turning. As regards stock, it is protected from incle- ment weather, and kept comfortably warm ; both points of importance in lessening the quantity of food required for fatting, and in enabling the animals to fat faster. By tying up the beasts at feeding time waste is avoided, and a proper share of food is secured for each animal. And in addition, we may state that ease of position, comfort, moderate exercise, a mild and uniform tem- perature, and clean lying, all more or less important in the fattening process, are here fully secured. With respect to food, it is much economized since it is pro- tected from wet, and the feeding troughs are kept tho- roughly clean and dry ; while no animal is put twice to the same food, nor suffered to blow upon any. We have seen that sheep fat faster and with less food on boards than when exposed. My experience with pigs is not at present satisfactory ; they appear uneasy ; but a remedy may soon be found. They probably require still greater confinement and more warmth. The structure of the yards enables us to separate any lots of animals that seem to require it. I have proved the dung may be manu- factured of first-rate quality at less than Is. 9d. per cubic yard, even when paying the market price for straw (Hear). Finally, permit me, at the risk of seeming tautology, to state, that, from every consideration I have been enabled to give the subject, I am convinced the adoption of covered homestalls would prove a great and substantial benefit to the farmer, would assist him in manufacturing meat at a cheaper ra'e, and enable him, not only to improve the quality of his manure, but, by improving its fertilizing properties, have the effect of placing at his disposal a far larger quantity. W'ith such results and such a conviction, I tiust no one will deem the subject unworthy of deliberate considera- tion ; and if I sh.all iiave succeeded in inducing but one here present to fairly attempt an amelioration of the farmer's condition and prospects, by the adoption of one among the many means at his disposal, I shall esteem t!iis evening well employed, and rejoice that it has been allowed me to further the progress of a body of my countrymen from wliom the nation has heretofore de- rived much advantage, and to whom it still looks for support as to the hardiest and best nerved of our race (cheers). We may hope that our vision of the agricul- turists' rise and progress will not be dispelled by their own supinencss and inactivity, but rather that they will advance, that so the lime may not be far distant when, as a body renowned for their intelligence, enlarged views, comprehensive operations, and liberal policy, yet wise economy, farmers shall again assume and maintain that position in society to which the great utility of their pursuit so fully entitles them (cheers). Mr. Hawkins said: as T am rather a junior m.cm- barof the Farmers' Club, I hope you will excuse my rising so early. Although 1 thoroughly agree with what has fallen from Mr. Beadel, yet having unexpectedly had the pleasure of meeting you here, I am not prepared to make any remarks upon what he has stated this evening- I happen to live in the neighbourhood of Mr. Cooke, whose name has been brought forward so:ncwhat pro- minently as an advocate of covered home- stalls, which he has adopted with great success ; and I think they pos- sess a great advantage over box-feeding (Hear, hear). I perfectly agree with Mr. Beadel that agricultural ma- chinery is going to do great things for the farmer ; and I think everyone will at oi;ce see, that if a man can save ,£'40 or ^50 a year by adopting the present improved agricultural machinery, he has thai sum of money to ex- pend in carrying out other objects Ihat might lessen the cost of agricultural produce, and better his own condi- tion (" Hear, hear," from ^Ir. Mcchij. I also agree with Mr. Beadel with regard to the tying up of bullocks. i We iiave several eminent errazicrs in the nciijhbourhood " in which I live ; and I can assure you that tlicrc is not the least difficulty in making every bulloek go at ihc ac- customcil time to be fed, because you do not want to lie them ui) to give them the roots. Mr. Beauel : I always tic them up to give them the roots. Mr. Hawkins : But you do to give them the corn and the cake, and they go up without the least interrup- tion at their accustomed time ; and after they have been in the yard a week or ten days there is no more trouble witli them than there is in tying up a lot of horses. Al- though I am quite sure of this, that covered premises have great advantages in point of economy — that is, that you can build a stall to accommodate 20 or 30 bullocks much cheaper than you can build 20 or 30 stalls (tlcar, heat) — yet I am not quite sure whether the keeping the bullock by himself, so that he cannot get at his fellows is not rather more advantageous ; but of this I cm speak confidently, that in the covered yards there is no escape of ammonia, and the manure is quite ready to go upon the land when it is wanted. Mr. Cooke, who was per- I haps one of the first in the county of Suffolk to bring tills plan into operation, has no dung-heaps about his farm. He lets the dung lie there till it is about four feet thick, and then he carts it out of the yard ; and there is no offensive smell connected with it. K anyone will go and look at his bullocks, they will sec how they get on. The even temperature at v.hich they are ktpt, and the litter, and soon, are, I think, very great advantages. It is true that Mr. Cooke does net make so much manure as most farmers in a showery season, such as we have experienced this spring ; but the manure made then is almost worthless, compared with that which is made when there is not so much wet (" Hear, hear," from Mr. Mechi). I am, however, quite certain tlust during the last fortnight or three weeks that the weather has been dry, he has made almost, or quite, double the quantity that any of us farmers who have no covered home-stalls iiave made, and that two loads of his manure will go as far as three made in the ordinary way. I think no one can go to his farm and see the manure when it is carted out of his yards, without being convinced of the great superiority of covered yard.s over open ones ( Ile.ir, hear). Mr. Cooke very kindly peradts any one tn ijn and look THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 23 at his farmery, providing they give him notice beforehand that he may have the pleasure of meeting them ; beeause, he says, many fanners go to his home-stall, and talk to his hailitf upon certain matteis ; and it is very easy to make servants, who have not, perhaps, tlicir master's in- terest quite at heart, from hearing so many different opinions, dissati>fied with tiicir master's plans. There- fore, I think that any gentleman who wisiies to inspect the premises of another should certainly make the pro- prietor aware of iiis intention, and if he has anything to say, say it to the master. Certaiidy, no man can show more kindness and consideration to any gentleman v.ho goes to look at his farm than Mr. Cooke does. In look- ing at our Royal Agricultural Society, having had some- thing to do with the implements there for several years, I oerlainly do tliink that these buildings may be erected more cheaply than they have usually been. I think Mr. Clayton's j/atent hollow tiles, for in- stance, would be much cheaper than bricks ; they are (piite as strong for bearing the roof and equally durable, and will bear the rubbing of stock against them, and any casual occurrence. So that I think they are much more economical ihan bricks. Of course any one who has anything to build now will set his ideas to work to find out the cheapest method of building. The great misfortune with us farmers has been, that whenever we have applied to our landlords for extra buildings, they have always complained of the expense. Now I am quite certain that the expense is, generally speaking, the fault of those who have the management or the control of the buildings, and not the fault of the farmer, and that the farmer might often give as good a building for .£'20 as would cost his landlord i,'30 (Hear, hear). I do think that landlords, and every gentleman connected with their interest, should look into the cost of these buildings — that when the farmer goes to his landlord and says, " Sir, things go very bad now, and we cannot meet our ordinary expenses just at this time ; we should be gl.id to pay you a per-centage if you will do something to facilitate our profits," the landlord should set about it in as economical a manner as possible, especially as the cost ol' the improvements is usually added to the rent. Now these hollow tiles are a great improvement on the old system of building with bricks ; aiid I Ihiak you can build with them much cheaper. Mr. Cooke says he built his yardi at about £i a square. A Mkmber: 100 feet. Mr. Hawkins : Yes, £'4 a square. Mr. Cooke con- tracts for them ; Mr. Irwood, an engineer, built the roof; and if any one will take the trouble to look at these buildings, they will see how economically they are erf^cted. They are trussed with iron and wood, so that they are perfectly strong. I think the spaces are some- thing like about six or eight-and-thirty feet. Mr. Bakf.k : They cost you j£'l25 or jtl30 a yard. The Chairman : Are they space slated or close slated ? Mr. Hawkins: I almost forget now; but I think they are close slated. However, we must all agree that a large farmer, upon a good economy of the root crops, has to keep more '^tock than a man ought to carry on his farm. We see that many persons, under the small, spade husbandry system, ke( p a great quantity cf stock ; though I am not particularly satisfied that as farmers wo can carry out the practice to the same extent ; be- c;iuse I have found, from all the instances that I have ob-erved, and all the pamphlets I Iiave read on the sub- ject, that these things are brought about by persons who are conveniently tituated for the markets, where they can get a better price for their produce than wo can get for ours ; for the farmer ought not to look for anything more than he can make in Smithfield market. We all know? that, as graziers and as corn-growers, we have (o depend for the price of our produce upon the London markets, and to these generally must be traced tin; profit or the loss of the farmer. I think this must be perfectly clear to every gentleman in the room, and that in those isolated instances, which have been brought before us recently, of persons merely showing what c;in be grown upon an acre of land, they do not show the profits throngliout the country generally ; whereas, we all know that an article will produce a great deal more in one part of the country than it will in another. L;ist week I was in the neighbourhood of Ipswich, where butter was selling at 8d. the pint, containing ouo pound and a quarter, while in Colchester market it was fetching lid. per lb. Now, a farmer in tlie inland counties, for instance, would do much better if he could sell his pro- duce at a sea-port town, which a great mtmy persons visit in the summer, and wliere butter runs short, and fetches a good price. I never pay attention to any jicr- son who says, what is the annual money value of an acre of land ; I want to know how much wheat, or how much meat, he can produce from an acre, because that is a criterion which we can all apply to our pariicular localities, and sec whether we can produce the same quantity (Hear, hear). Now, with regard to sheep, whether they do better on this board-and-lodging system than in open grounds, I am not qsiite certain on that point, as a grazier. It is true that different seasons have different effects upon our light lands. If on our light gravelly s>iU wc were to lake sheep and feed I hem under cover, I am quite ceitain that wo should lose a good deal of money (Hear, hear). But, en the other hand, wo can- not kcc)) sheep on the heavy haul ; and if wc luivc a good deal of straw to stamp into manure, I think it is better for us to keep them in the yards. Ilowcver, wdien wc take into consideration the different prices of beef and mutton, I think wc should find it a'lvan- tageous to keep some under cover, and some in the open field. I have seen no sta'emcnt of profits put forward by Mr. Huxtable, or by iny friend on my right (Mr. Mechi), that ever exceeded what wo can nuikc in the open field ; and when Mr. Huxtable a few years ago talked about making so much money, in a certain number of weeks by Lis sheep, the fact was that he was gaining lid. or 2d. I'.cr lb. by the rise of the market, which gave him about 10s. on each sheep in a few weeks ; and that astonished the country, und made jieople suppose that the box-feeding was so nun h more advantaneou'^ tlian Oiien-air f.edio'jj; but after a 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. little while, there came out the actual quantity of stone weight that his sheep gained, and then it was dis- covered that he could not get more stones of mutton than we could by properly managing our sheep ia tlie fields — I do not mean to say in the very wide, ojien countries, but in our woodlands and light lands. I am quite cei tain of this, from wliat I have seen and the experiments I have tried, that, if you put a slieep under cover, and keep him moderately warm and at- tend to his feet, he will make more meat than in the field ; but I do not think that the extra quantity will warrant the expense of carting your turnips into the yard, and your manure out of it. If a man's farm is well-stocked, and he grows a fourlh of his land in turnips every year, I am sure he can maintain a great many sheep in his field : and if he does not keep bul- locks, he must keep something else to stamp the straw down. There is another thing which has struck me, and tliat is about the drilling in of manure with the turnips. I am confident, from experiments, that it does not answer the farmer's purpose to drill in any extra quantity of manure; but that all which he drills in beyond what is sufficient to bring the turnips up quickly to the hoe, and to protect it from the fly, does an injury to his crop. I think the artificial manure, which is usually drilled in, is much better distributed equally over the land. If the manure is of that con- centrated kind which is considered to answer better when put in with a drill than when laid on with a tumble or a cart, I think it is not so well to drill in too much with the turnip, as to distribute it equally, and mix it well with the soil ; and it cannot be mixed too much, because all those little capillary roots that ra- diate from the turnip will become more in quantity, and grow to a greater size, when tlie manure is equally distributed. I have not grown any turnips lately with- out putting some of the manure on each side of the drill (Question). No doubt the most economical plan of growing turnips is to use part farm-yard manure and part artificial (Question). There is no doubt that another great advantage in home-feeding stock is the less quantity that the bullocks consume (Hear, hear, from Mr. Mcchi); for when they are kept warm, I have not the least doubt that there is a much less quantity of food consumed by them ; and the idea that many of our heavy- land corn-growing farmers have, that in covered home-stalls you cannot stamp down enough straw, that you cannot make sufficient manure to consume your straw profitably, is not cor- rect. I liave been told that Mr. Cooke buys a large quantity of straw, and keeps a great deal of stock, and is a most expensive farmer ; but I believe that an extra quantity of straw can be stamped down in these home-stalls, and that the grand secret of Mr. Cooke being able to keep so much stock is, that tliey are al- ways under cover. I saw some l)easts that had been in one of his ^'■ards, from the time they were taken from the cow till they went to the butcher, and they had thriven exceedingly well ; and therefore I am sure it is quite erroneous for any person to suppose, in the first plHCP, that you cannot tread your ttraw down under covered home-stalls; and in the next place, that you must keep an extra quantity of stock, at a greater loss than you would otherwise incur ; because all these things must go by comparison. We must take into consideration the ordinary straw which a heavy-land farm will grow — for the covered stalls apply more to heavy lands, where you cannot feed your sheep in the open fields three parts of the year just as well as if they were under cover— and as- certain which will produce the greatest quantity of manure, the covered home-stalls or the open sheds. I ought to apologize for intruding thus long upon your attention. It is of no use my entering upon the prime cost of constructing tliese stalls ; but I certainly agree with Mr. Beadel, that they are of great advantage to the farmer. The Chairman : Mr. Hawkins has called to my mind an old rule of the Club, that no gentleman should, without express permission, speak longer than a quarter of an hour. I think this is a very important rule, because we do not wish, like the gentlemen of the House of Commons, to go on talking till we forget what we have said ; but we really wish to go directly into this interesting and important subject; and I hope my naming this will give no offence to the gentlemen who are about to speak, because I thought it my duty to do so. Mr. Baker : I shall certainly, on this occasion, not trespass on your time beyond the usual space ; but I could not let this opportunity pass without making a few observations in reference to the subject which Mr. Beadel has so ably brought before us. You may recol- lect that in a former discussion which was held in this room I adverted to the various methods of feeding cattle. I gave it as my opinion then, that this, of all modern modes, was the best — that covered yards were superior to either stall or box-feeding, or open yards. I concur ia what Mr. Beadel has said respecting the advantage of erecting buildings of this description ; but there is one point that I wish to draw a little attention to, because, without disputing anything that Mr. Beadel has stated, I do not exactly understand it. It is this : that the stiaw put into the yard — trussed straw, 36 trusses of 3G lbs. each to the load — should make manure at Is. 9d. per yard. Every load of straw, on that calculation, would give ten cubic yards of solid manure. Now, I think there must be some error here (Hear, hear) ; because I take it in this way : Our usual calculation ia farming is that every load of straw, in the ordinary way, will produce five cubic yards of manure, or only one-half the quantity. Now, if the difference is so great, it is certainly very important. If a farm should be half in green crop, or three-fourths ia greea crop, and should produce on an average thi'ee yards of trussed straw to an acre (which it will do, taking barley and oats and wheat-straw together), on this system you would get 30 yards of manure per acre. Consequently, the quantity would be just double. Now, I think every practical farmer will agree with me that you cannot produce sufficient straw to afford manure !it the rate of fifteen yards per acre. Mr. Bcadci's THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. estimate may be correct. I do not say that it is not, but I think there may be some error in the calculation, which should be Licked to, because we are met here to discuss the matter, and to try and find cut what is the fact. Certainly it appears to me to be a larger number of yards than can be produced from a load of straw. However, leaving that to other gentlemen's opinions on the subject, I will only just advert to Mr. Cooke's buildings, which I have seen, and I think they are worthy the attention of any gentleman who intends erecting such buildings. Although they are not con- structed like Mr. Beadel's in a series of yards, they are built on a very substantial and economical principle. There is a considerable quantity of iron, judiciously combined with wood, which lightens the building mate- rially. It has struck me, however, that these buildings might be erected at a much less cost than has been talked of to-night. There is a system in Suffolk of erecting buildings of lumps of unburnt calcareous clay. The clay is trodden with water and a large quantity of half-rotten straw, and then placed in a mould eighteen inches in k-ngth, nine in width, and six in depth. This is put upon a level piece of grass, and after the clay is formed exactly as a brick is formed, the mould is re- moved, the clay lumps are left to dry in the sun, and in a fortnight, after turning two or three times, they are fit for building. I have a great many very good build- ings of that kind on my farm, and I find that after coat- ing them repeatedly with coal-tar they are as durable as bricks, and quite as impervious to the weather. Tlie only difficulty is with the foundations. We generally dig them out as wide as they are required, and concrete them to a level; then a few rounds of flint are put in, so as to keep tlie walls from the drip of the e.ive, and the building is erected. Now, the cheapness of these buildings is astonishing. A building 40 feet in length, 13 in wicith, and 9 in height, cost exactly X'5 to erect, independently of the roof. 1 have the workmen on my own farm, and the cheapness of the building arises chiefly from that. I can erect a square (or 10s. Mr. AIechi: Complete? Mr. Baker : Yes, complete. A Membt-r : Do you use moitar ? Mr. Baker : They are put together with very rough substances from the lime-pit. I think a bushel of screen- ings to a bushel of lime might be very iisoful. I should carry up brickwork as far as where the bullocks are likely to rub against. The cost will not be so low, un- less you live in a locality where chalky clay can be ob- tained ; if you can find it on the spot, of course you save the carriage of the bricks. I shall not take up your time by remarking further on this. I should, however, like to refer to one or two ob>ervations made by Mr. Hawkins. He says that the stamping down of straw constitutes the making of manure. Now I have often stated, that the straw itself contains very little manuring property, but that it is only the vehicle for conveying it. If 50 bullocks are placed in a yard, and you litter them with 50 or 100 loads of straw, providing the straw is given regularly, yro- jiortions and ciuantities of Gr;isii iintl Clover Seeds to s-)-.v for Iliiy, Soiling, und Pasturage; the sub- bl^iurfs most profitible fof Top. Dressing ; and the jiroper time to aji;ily them. Mr. IIaxton, Drumnod, said — the following remarks refer in;>re particularly to the nianagemc'.it of grass lands in th'j •' North of Fife," where the soil is incnmbent on the tiap formation. The whole district is exceedingly uneven , being elevated into long ridges, or isolated conical hills, with intervening valleys. The quality of the land of red clover or cowgrass per Scotch acre. Now, as regards the quantity of the dilTerent kinds of rye- grass and clover usually sown per acre in the county of which I am speaking, I am convinced that the error has long been committed of sowing too much ryegrass ;ind too little clover. The reason usua ly assigned for sowing so large a proportion of the former compared with the lal'.er is, that clover— the red variety especially — is so uncertain a crop, that it is necessary to adopt the precaution of having the land well stocked with ryegrass, in order to obviate, or at least lessen, is, consequently, very various, passing from a poor, thin the loss that would be sustained in the event of the soil, near the tops of the hills, to a fine alluvial deposit, at their bases ; while between these extremes, there is much c.sccllent dry, sharp land, capable of producing good crops, both of corn or roots. In this part of Fife- shire, grass seeds are generally sown amongst barley, either in a Kve or six course shift, but on the firmer and deeper cla.=s of soils, they are not unfrequenlly sown amongst wheat when this crop is taken instead of barley. Tiie larger proportion (two- thirds) of the grass sown in my neighbourhood, is for pasturing cattle and sheep, while the remaining one-third is cut for hay, or for soil- ing horses and cows, and occasionally a few cattle arc fed in the yards on the soiling system. The kinds of grasses and clovers sown for pasture are perennial ryegrass (of which there are several varieties), some of wliich are local, and others, as the Ayrshire, brought from a dis- tance. Common red and white clover are also sown along with ryegrass, and latterly cowgrass has been a good deal sown. When the land is intended to remain two or three years in pasture, and to a less extent, Alsike clover has been cultivated very successfvilly for the same purpose. For soiling hay, either annual or perennial ryegrass is sown — the latter always, and of course, when the land is to remain in grass a second year — and common red clover, cowgrass, or a-half-and-half mixture of the two. The usual qiuintities sown for pasture, are — 1 .\ to 2 bushels of perennial lyegrass, 5 lbs, of white clover, and 3 to 4lbs. of red clover, or a like cjuanlity of cowgrass, and for soiling, 1 to 5 pecks of ryegrass, and from 8 to 10 lbs. clover proving a failure. However readily we may be inclined to admit the necessity of such a precaution, it must be evident to most minds that the practice itself is productive in no small degree of the evil sought to be avoided ; for as ryegrass pushes away more rapidly in spring than clover, so will it when too thickly sown, be the more ready to impede or choke the growth of the latter. This is particularly the case as regards ryegrass and red clover sown together for soiling, or to be made into hay ; and even in the case of pasture grass, we have all, I daresay, experienced the bad effects of the ryegrass running to seed, and becoming so hard and withered, that neither cattle nor sheep will eat it, unless forced to do so by sheer necessity. The better plan in both cases, I believe, would be to increase the quantity of clover sown, and diminish that of ryegrass. The eight or ten pounds of red clover usually sown for soiling or hay, should be increased to fourteen pounds at least, and for pasture eight to ten pounds of white clover, and five or six of red clover or cowgrass might be used with ad- vantage. The herbage produced from a thick plant of clover, with only a moderate mixture of ryegrass, is not only more succulent and nourishing, but also more rapid in its growth — whether used for growing purposes or for soiling — ami will keep a larger number of stock per acre than that yielded by a field where the ryegrass bears a large proportion to the clover. In the one case, that of ryegrasrs, we get an early spring growth, which ceases at midsummer ; while in the other, that of clover, we ob- 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tain a constant succession, until vegetation is checked by autumn or winter frosts. Tlie greatly diminished cost both of red and white clover removes all objections on the score of expense. The difference of cost in seeding an acre with ryegrass and red clover now and formerly, according to the data given above, will be :— Formerly. At present. s. d. s. d. 2 bushels of ryegrass . . 7 0 1 bushel ryegrass .... 3 6 81b?, red clover, lOd. ..68 ISlbs. red clover, 6J. . . 7 6 Total 13 8 11 0 But as this does not give a fair comparison, as regards the two systems, at presentprices, we may contrast them in another way — Present system. rroposed system. 2 bush, ryegrass Ss. 6d.^7 0 1 bnaiicl ryegrass . . 81bs. red clover, 6d 4 0 151bs. red clover, 6d. s. d. 3 6 7 6 Total 11 0 11 0 which gives exactly the same expense in botii cases. Tiiis comparison holds good whether we sow red or white clover ; but of course, when cow grass or Alsike is sown, the expense will be correspondingly increased. In con- firmation of what has been stated, I may mention that, in the spring of 1848, I sowed, by mistake, 20]bs. of Alsike clover per acre, instead of lOlbs., and the result was the thickest and most luxuriant pasturage I ever hid on my farm, so much so that I do not exaggerate when I say that the portion of ground so treated kept tvvice the number of stock of any other part of the field. In this case, however, something must be allowed for the circumstance that the other part of the field was sown with white clover and cowgrass at the rate of 51bs. of the former to 41bs. of the latter, and was also not so good land ; but notwithstanding that the data do not bring out a clear verdict in favour of the thick sowing of clover, inasmuch as the trial was not betwixt clover of the same variety, yet I am satisfied that the result would have been the same, had the comparison been made be- tween 201bs. and lOlbs. of the same variety of clover. I have been fortified in this opinion by conversing with, and seeing the practice of a farmer well known in East-Lothian, who informed me that he had continued to increase the quantity of clover sown on his farm, until, by repeated experiment, he found that the best results were obtained by sowing from 16 to 20 lbs. per Scotch acre. It is for these reasons that I have come to the conclusion that my own practice has hitherto been faulty, and in future I shall certainly sow at least 141bs. of clover to the acre when for pasture or hay. The mode of sowing grass seeds in the district referred to, is to scatter them broadcast, either by the hand or by a machine, the former being by far the most common way, upon a rolled or finely har- rowed surface, which the previous harrowing of the barley generally affords. For example, after sheep tath, the land being ploughed in ridges, or large feirings, is sown with barley or spring wheat, and after a double stroke of the harrows has been given lengthways, and a single stroke across, it is rolled, and the ryegrass and clover, previously mixed together, are sown on the smooth surface, and thereafter covered by a double or single stroke of a break of light harrows. Light harrows are not, however, always used for this purpose, the ope- ration often being performed by the ordinary heavy harrows used for covering seed-corn ; but this I consider a very great mistake, as much of the clover, as well as ryegrass, is deposited too deeply for germinating vigo- rously, and the probability is that a considerable propor- tion never vegetates at all. A pamphlet published some years ago by Messrs. Drummond and Sons, of Stirling, on the Sowing of Grass Seeds, gives an experiment, illus- trated by a diagram, by which it is satisfactorily proved that small seeds, such as red and white clover, and seve- ral of the natural grasses, do not vegetate at a depth greater than one inch and a-half below the surface, or if they do, the stem is too feeble ever to produce a healthy plant. If this be true, and few we think will doubt it, it is no exaggeration to say that, wherever grass seeds are covered by the common harrows, one-half of Ihe clover and a large proportion of the ryegrass are literally buried, in consequence of being deposited below the germinating point. In the pamphlet already referred to, even light harrows are considered objectionable, on account of their liability to bury the seeds of clover ; and the chain web harrow and the bush har- row are recommended as the only efficient imple- ments for properly covering grass seeds. As I have never used either of the latter, I am unable to say how far the statements in regard to them are correct ; but I may mention that the grass harrows I use are very light, weighing only 211bs. each, and are made with wooden balls and sheaths, iron teeth, each of which is fastened into its socket by means of a screw and nut. Six of these harrows form a break, covering 15 feet, and are drawn by two horses attached to a long swingle-tree. These harrows are coupled to- gether by iron sliders, so constructed as to admit of a considerable vertical and longitudinal motion : thus in some measure making each harrow independent of its neighbour. They work remarkably well — strik- ing every height and hollow of the ground equally, and are admirably adapted either for covering grass seeds or breaking the crust from hide bound winter wheat. While on the subject of harrowing grass seeds, I may state that what applies as a rule in the case of small seeds is also applicable to a certain ex- tent in the case of all the cerealia. The seeds of wheat, oats, and barley vegetate most freely and vi- gorously when near the surface — atmospheric air being as essential to vegetation as heat and moisture. But of course in practice it is found necessary to de- viate from the theoretical rule in order to obviate the destructive effects of other causes, such as the ravages of birds, and the changes produced on the immediate surface of the soil by the alternate frosts and thaws of winter. I may state here, however, that an inch and a-half below the surface is sufficiently deep to enable the young roots of all cereal grains to withstand the atmospheric changes referred to, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ^3 in ]U()of of this statement I m;iy mention that for two years I used grass harrows for covering autumn and winter sown wheat, whether drilled or sown bioiulcust, and the result was in every way satis- factory, whether as regards the thickness of the braird, its permanence, tillering in spring, or yield at harvest. So far as my experience goes on this head, it is entirely opposed to the practice of plough- ing ia the seeds of wheat, oats, or barley. With beans it is quite different, as the vegetative power of one seed is equal to the raising of a weight of 4 lb. I have mentioned these facts — although a little apart from tlic subject of the present discussion — in confirma- tion of the experiment given in the Mtssrs. Drummonds' pamphlet, and for the purpose of proving that if the seeds of corn bearing plants suffer injury from being too deeply deposited in the ground, much more will the fmall seeds of clover and rye-grass, and I may add of turnips also. In sowing rye-grass and clover amongst autumn or winter- sown wheat we are never exposed to the riik of burying the seeds, and hence we find that when early enough sown, both clover and ryegrass take root and vegetate freely, although neither harrowed nor rolled. Many instances arc fresh in my recollection of clover and ryegrass being sown amongst young wheat as early as February, without any harrowing or rolling, and although followed by every variety of ungenial wea- tiier, the plant and subsequent produce were all that could be dtsired. This proves two points, first, that grass seeds vegetate most freely when deposited on or near the surface of the soil ; and secondly, that they thrive best when the land is firm and well consolidated. While, however, it is true that rye-grass and clover sown as early as February will do well without any har- rowing or rolling, it is altogether different when we approach farther into the spring months. Then it is absolutely necessary either to harrow or roll after sowing, otherwise the dryness of the air and the heat of the sun will destroy the vitality of seed quite as effectually as if they were deposited three or four inches below the surface. My practice is to sow amongst wheat as early in spring as the land will admit of the harrow and roller being used without working raw— the double object thereby being accomplished of breaking up the winter crust, and covering the grass seeds at the same time. T will now say a few words on ihe laying down of grass to j)ermanent pasture. If for grazing purposes solely, the loUowiiig kinds and quantities, per statute acre, would, I think, form a good mixture for dry land of medium quality : Perennial ryegrass 1 bushel. Hard fescue 4 1b. Sheep's fescue 4 „ Meadow foxtail 4 „ White clover 5 „ Alsike „ 3 ,, Cowgrass 3 „ Both Lawson and Drummond recommend timothy and cocksfoot for permanent pasture ; but while I would not for an instant oppose my limited practice to the very extensive experience of these gentlemen, I must say that I cannot recommend either of the above-named grasses for dry trap soils. They are both coarse grasses, and when grown on such soils, in a dry climate, produce a hard and woody herbage not relished by sheep or cattle, especially the former. A residence for some time in Ireland has led me to the conclusion that both cocksfoot and timothy may be sown with advantage in deep land, situated in a moist climate ; and the reason simply is, that these plants produce a more succulent herbage under such circumstances, than when both soil and climate are dry, as is the case in most parts of the eastern sea-board of Scotland and England. The fescues are small-stemmed grasses, and never get coarse, and I believe they make up in closeness of sole what they want in luxuriance of growth. I was long under the impression that cocksfoot, from its rapidity of growth, even in dry weather, and on dry land, would prove an excellent grass for my thin trap soil ; but although it grevv- well, and was much earlier than the common ryegrass, I found that both cattle and sheep preferred nibbling the latter, however short, to eating the former, however luxuriant. Before leaving this subject, I would lift up my testimony against two grasses which are generally recommended for per- manent pasture, these are crested dogstail and Holcus lunatus. The latter is a soft, worthless, innutritious grass ; and the former is hard and wiry, and should never be sown except for bowling greens or policy grounds kept constantly under the scythe. It is generally recommended for lawns ; but this I consider a great mistake when the grass is not to be cut, but pastured by sheep or cattle. There is a very handsome lawn in my neighbourhood, very much disfigured by the prevalence of this grass, which the proprietor, I have no doubt, would give a good round sum to get extirpated. This lawn is regularly pastured by sheep, and during spring and the earlier part of summer it is beautifully green, but towards autumn and during the whole winter it is quite brown with the tall ripened stalks of the crested dogstail, which have been left untouched by the sheep. With respect to those manures best adapted for increasing grass crops, I have found it a very good, but not an unfailing plan, to apply farm -yard manure to the previous corn crop. Ten to twelve cart- loads, laid on in this way, generally give better clover than half a crop of turnips consumed on the land by sheep. It is seldom, however, according to the present system of green crop husbandry, by which the great bulk of our manure is ajiplied to the raising of roots, that we can command a sufficient quantity of farm-yard dung to apply to those crops amongst which grass-seeds arc sown, and consequently recourse must be had to some of the special manures, for the purpose of increasing the produce of our grass fields. Ten years ago I first commenced using these manures as top- dressings for grass, and during the intervening period I have tried guano, saltpetre, nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, common salt, and sulphate of ammonia, with various success ; but latterly I have confined myself entirely to guano, nitrate of soda, and sulphate of am- monia, either separately or mixed together. Last year a mixture was employed with great success, consisting of 1 cwt. of guano, i cwt. sulphate of ammonia, and i cwt. of nitrate of soda, to the statute acre, the cost being exactly 25s. The two latter substances, mixed D 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lali' and half, have Leen a good deal used in Fifa wilhiii the last two or three years as fertilizers for grass land, and I believe v. ith very great benefit in most cases. 'I'iiere is one circumslance, however, I have noticed in connection with tlic use of these fertilizers, viz., that if applied to a field in which tlic rye-grass predoniinatcd over the clover, the effect produced was a remarkable growth of the former, and nearly the entire disappear- ance of the latter; and on the other hand, when the clover predominated, the rye grass disappeared. If this be a general rule, it proves the propriety of sowing a large proportion of clover in those ll crop ; now the same lands will have from 20 to 25 per cent, under turnip, and by the use of other substances, such as oilcake, corn, &c., even this amount of food is often doubled. The number of animals fed then and now is as follows, taking the same farm: — About, 178G, the average number of cattle fed was five. After the turnips were grown in drills, the number Tapidly increased. In the average of the last ten years, the number of fed cattle has been upwards eighty, exclusive of sheep. As a necessary consequence, the supjtly of manure has increased in ])ropor[i.)n. On the same fjrm the extent of land manured in 1786 was generally al>out five acres, now from sixty to eiglily acres; besides thei'e is yearly expcndLd a considerable sum on foreign manures. The produce of the grain crops has also increased, but not in the same proportion with the fattening of stock. The quantity of grain sold has certainly more than doubled, and on most farms wheat particularly lias been more than quadrupled. The Haddington Market returns, previous to the opening of the IVorth British Railway, so far confirm this estimate. Tliis increase of grain arises not alone from increase of ])roduce per acre, but also from a greater breadth of land being under crop. On most farms at least, one-fourth of the land was uncultivated, and to all appearance never had been under the plough. This, after being reclaimed and limed, often produced luxuriant crojis of oats, followed by beans or peas. On the farm we have been alluding to the number of hoises kept was eight, there being two four-horse ploughs ; now there are ten, or five pair ; number of hinds two, with three boys — two to drive the jilongli, and one to attend to the stock; now there are five, with one shepherd, and a foreman, and an extra boy or two to attend to stock. The out-door labour was, as is still tb.e practice in several districts of Scot- land, performed by the ploughmen, with the assistance cf the honsehcdd ; now there are generally cmploud during summer ten ont-door workers. In 178G the honsehold servants received £\ per half-year, now £3 to £4; hinds then received 43 bushels of oafs, 18 bushels of barley, and eight bushels of peas or beans, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 89 ono peck of lint sowing, a ftw potatoes i)lantecl, anil 1 lie keep of a cow — tlic cow at I liis period always (.harincr tlic col-honsc Willi liis owner. They were als) allowed to krep liens, p.iyiny; kain to llic tenant; now they re- ceive 72 bushels of oats, 18 bushels of barley, and eijj;ht l)ii>helrt of beans, with ^1 for lint, an>l one thoniiand \ards of potatois jilanteil, or from three to five bolis, with the keep of a cow or £.'> or £(! in lirn. The pay- ing of id.ju^^hincn in grain is nearly eonlined to this county — all the hinds upon a farm receiun^^ the «ame "^iiiiis." The fcireman paid a Tw extras. Dnriie^' last century, from the ab^eiice of fi'uces and sown grass, Ihirses wer<; herdiii"; durin^r the day npon the wastes and jiaf^tures, and at ni;;lit were eoniined to the stable, and ofti n fid with thislles pulled durincr the day by the hind-. T!ie ]in1]in'j of a bai k-load of thistles ont from anion;;' tlie prowlii^ crops was considered a day's work, and was their usual summer occupation. Duiinp winter the ploughmen, and even the farmers' sons, in- stead ofgoiiiif to school, had to thrash in the morninof, and afterwards to follow the [douub dining the day. Tliis is a common iiraclicc yet in the west nplantl dis- tricts of Scotland, The want of fuel was severely filt. Fiirz', and, where possible to obtain it, tuif formed the chief supply. Now the farmer carls for the hiny year his land becomes more expensive and less p;o(lactive; to meet his landlord he contracts his labour ; bis stock gradually follows, and by- and-by his ruin is complete. Such is too often the current of c\'ents with the man who occupies stiW' land with loo httle capital, and too much under the plough. The careful old-fashicned farmer ])loughs less, runs fewer risks, and emjjloying little labour, and paying a low rent, manages to get on even in bad times. But such farming as his keeps no pace with the increase of population, nor his intelligence ar.il enterprize with the progress of events aroimd him. On a farm of this description we found the turni]j crop managed thus : — A little manure uas scattered over the surface, the turnip seed was sown broadcast over the ground, which was then ])longhed up into raised ridges 27 inches apart, the farmer arguing that in this form he had more surface on which to grow his crop, as you could stick more pins into a round ])incushion than a flat one ! Tiie soils throughout the county are very much interspersed, almost eveiy farm containing a variety. '1 here ai'e no uniform tracts of clay or of turnij) and barley land, as in the eastern counties. Even in one Held you pass from the finest turnip and bar- ky land into the stiiiest red marl. Farms differ, hov/ever, in the proportions tliey contain of heavy and light soils, some having so large a proportion of the former as to be called strong or heavy land farms, and others being principally turnij) and bar- by farms. On the strong soils the course of crops taken by the best farmers is as follows : — (1) wheat, (2) beans, manured, (3) wheat, (4) fallow, with a fe^v turnijjs, (5) wheat or barley, (6) seeds. The corn crojis are all drilled from seven to nine inches apart, 'i'hey are hoed and kejjt clean. The beans are usually diblded in each furrow, the land having been ])reviously dunged. They come up in rows, eight indies or so apart, and are generally twice hand-hoed. 'J'lie dibbling by hand costs 5s. an THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ; acre, and each hoeing about 2s. 6d. Winter beans ^ are now sown to a considerable extent, though they have not been introduced into this county. After the bean crop is removed the land is, if possible ploughed and well cleaned before the following crop of wheat is drilled in. After the wheat crop the ground is fallowed, many of the l)est farmers be- lieving that on these strong soils an occasional na- ked fallow is indispensable. Part of this division is sown with swedes, ajul in some cases with man- gold wur-zel, that plant, though of recent introduc- tion, being much ait])roved for such soils. The fallow and turnips are followed by wheat or barley, with which the land is sown down with clover and seeds. On land of this description, well managed, and rented at 35s. an acre, 30 bushels of wheat, 32 to 40 bushels of barley, and 30 bushels of beans are reckoned fair average ci'ops. Thirty-six bush- els of beans are considered a very crop. Much of this land, as already mentioned, still lies in high crooked ridges or lands, in draining which the mode generally followed is to place a tile drain in every furrow, at about IS inches beneath the sur- face of the furrow, and that is bi'lieved to be about 3 feet below the uniform surface, if the ground were all levelled down. The effect of this kind of drainage is, that the water falling on the adjoining steejvsided lands runs rapidly over the surface to the furrow, where it is at once carried off by the shallow drains. But it is evident that much of the benefit of drainage is thereby lost. If the ground were level, and the drains not less than 3 or 4 feet in depth, tha water falling upon it, iristcad of wash- ing over the surface, would sink into and permeate the subsoil, assisting by its action, and that of the air which follows it, in the processes of decompo- sition and nutrition, and then slowly passing oif by underground channels to the drain. On the lighter soils the course of crops is, (I) wheat, (2) peas, followed by white turnips, (3) bar- ley or spring wheat, (4) turnips, (.5) barley, (G) seeds. The corn crops are drilled and hoed, peas being treated in the same way as a while crop. White turnips are usually sown after the peas, which ripen early ; they are manured with guano, and eaten on the ground by sheep. They are fol- lowed by spring wheat or barley, principally the former. The land is again cleaned and wrought for turnips, farm manure and guano together being applied by the best farmers, and the turnijis drilled on the flat. Part of the crop is drawn for con- sumption in the yards, and part eaten on the ground, with cake, by sheep, The field is then sown with barley and clover, and grass seeds. Much difficulty is sometimes experienced in getting a plant of turnips in the hot scorching weather of June, and this has been in great measure obviaied by the mode of preparation adopted by one of the best farmers in this county, who dungs his stul)- bles and then ploughs them in in autumn. The ground is never again ])loughed, but is worked in spring by grubber, scarifier, roller, and harrow, and, as the land is kept rpiite clean in all crops by careful hoeing,there is not found to be any necessity for spring ploughing. The moisture thus remains in the land, and the seed, wlien sown, comes up at once. The general practice is to sow swedes THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 4.3 about the middle of June, from a fear of mildew if sovvn earlier; yet, on inquiry, we found that tlie heaviest crops had been i^ot by sowin^r eaily in May. Many farmers nianvu'c their turnip cro])s liberally, usiuir three luuulredweif^ht of guano in addition to Ij or 20 tons of good dung per acre, and four or five hundredweight of guano for white turnips, without dung. Two hundredweight of guano is also occasionally applied to the wheat crop in S})ring, as a top dressing, though in this torm it has not been found so productive of grain as of straw. Our experience would lead us to expect better results by harrowing the guano in with the seed at the time of sowing in autumn or spring. The management and products of cattle and sheep form a large i)art of the Yv^arwickshirc farmer's business. One-half of the county, pro- bably, is under permanent pasture, and that on the river sides, and towards the east, being the richest, is used for fattening ; westwards from Kenilworth it is principally dairied, cheese being the chief product. Near the towns the farmers make butter, but, even in the vicinity of one of the large manu- facturing towns, we found the grass lands stocked with young cattle and sheep, in the same way as if such a market for dairy jn-oduce had been 100 miles distant. The arable farms have generally a considerable proportion of grass land, and most farmers keep a mixed stock of dairy cows, young cattle, and Leicester sheep. A calf is reared from each cow, and kept till turned out fat at three years old, or, if a cow calf, till fit for the dairy, the rest of the produce being made into cheese. On most farms a s-tock of Leicester ewes is kept, the pro- duce of which is sold fat at a year or 15 months old. Cheese has declined very considerably in price, but we found on inquiry at one of the prin- cipal butter merchants' in Birmingham, that his price for bu^.ter to the farmers in the neighbourhood by whom he is sujiplied is precisely the same as it was last year, being from lO.ld. to Is. Okl. per 1!)., according to quality. The same dairy varies in quality from id. to lid. in a week. The chief supi)ly of milk for the manufacturing towns is j)ro- vided by the cow-feeders within the towns. Bir- mingham, for instance, with a population of 200,000 inhabitants, contains within it, as we are informed, about 1,000 cows and upwards of 200 milkmen, one-half of whom keep dairies, varying from four to seven cows for each of the small men, and from 15 to 20 for the larger. Nine-tenths of the milk- men are of the former class ; having little means they keep their cows wretchedly, and make a very sorry living by the trade. The others find it to their interest to feed well, which they do on hay, grains, bran, and swedes in winter, and turn their cows out in summer to ])asture on the aftermath, whence the hay has been removed, in fields near the town. Milk sells at 3d. a-quart, the largest consumption being in winter, the supjdy of vegeta- bles in summer being found to limit the demand for milk at that season. Within a circle of two or three miles round the town the farmers send in niilk for sale, but we were surprised to learn that scarcely any milk comes in by the railway from a greater distance, as is the case for 30 miles round Liverpool and Manchester. Surely there is some great remissness here in the farmers of Warwick- shire and the adjoining counties. The supply of so large a ])opulation with milk and other dairy produce, and with early potatoes and other vegeta- l)les suited for field culture, would, we should ima- gine, furnish very profitable occujjation for the farmers along the diii'ercnt lines of railway leading into Birmingham. The care with which the cow- fcedeis preserve the solid manure fiom their cow- houses to sell to the farmers forms a striking contrast to the waste of the far more valuable sul)- stance v;hich is daily carried away in the sewage of the town, and comjjaratively lost. Fur it is a sin- gular consequence of improved sanitary arrange- ments that the most valuable |)ropcrties of nightsoil are washed away, and the ashes colleclcd in the dustcarts, now deinived of these, have lost their chief value as a manure. The extent ts) which milk is adulterated in Birmingham may be judged from the fact that a limited quantity sold in tlie morning by a cow keeper to a retail miikuian is found to furnish a supply for distribution during the whole day. Stafford. I'he county of Stafford contains an area of 780,000 acres, of which al)out 150,000 are said to be occu])icd by roads, woods, and wastes; of 630,000 remaining, the larger portion (some say as much as four-fifths) is imder the ])lough. Gravelly and sandy soils, varying in strength, but generally well adapted for green-crop husbandry, are most preva- lent ; but there is a considerable quantity of heavy land in different parts of the county, and the i)ro- portion between the two is estimated by ])ersons qualified to give an opinion as being two- thirds of the former to one-third of the latter. Some GO or 70 years ago the practice of marling the lighter soils was carried to a great extent ; for the cultiva- tion of grain cro])s being then most ])rofitable to the farmer, great exertions were used to make the weaker lands produce corn. Arthur Young, in his tour through the county, makes repeated mention of the process of marling and of theexjiense attend- ing it. In the course of our survey we have hardly heard the subject alluded to, and we were informed that marling is now little practised. It is said to have been carried to an injudicious extent, aiul that by it, light, useful soils have in some instances been so changed in quality as to be much less valuable in the i)resent state of agriculture than they would have been had they not been so interfered with. The substratum which occupies nearly the whole extent of Staflbrdshire is the new red sandstone. The county is rich in coal fields, and ii'on stone also. Its mineral wealth has long attracted a large share of the manufacturing enterprise of the country, and must no doubt ultimately exercise a great and bene- ficial influence upon the cidtivation of the soil. Birmingham belongs nearly as much to Staflo:d- shire as to W^arwick. Wolverhampton, Newcaslle- under-Lyrne, and many other towns, are places of great importance. The potteries yield employ- ment to a ]iopulation of more than SO,0(JO, and the annual produce of that district has been estimated by M'Culloch at £1,700,000. The consumption of gold in the processes of manufacture there in LS-JG 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was about £700 a-week, and of coal 9,000 tons a-week. Pipeclay is brought from DorsetshiieanJ Devonshire, and flints from Kent ; enterprise and science thus extracting from substances originally of no vaUie the sources of wealth and employment. From this manufacturing and mining energy other advantages and facilities have arisen. Canals have been ojiened up, which connect the inland townsi with the seaports of either coast by an uninterrupted communication ; and, more recently, railways have been constructed for the more rajiid transmission of passengers and goods. Nature has contributed her share also to the means of general prosperity. The county is well supplied with streams and rivers, which, while they facilitate commerce, are no less valuable for agricultural purposes, if rightly applied. The Trent flows tln'ough the centre of Staftbrdshire, swelled in its course by the fertilizing waters of the Dove. The Severn touches the southern part of the county, receiving the Stour and Irnestall. The banks of all the rivers abound in rich pastures, many of which are irrigated. The Trent valley is in some parts exposed to injury from being flooded at imseasonablc periods of the year. Staffordshire, while it possesses this supj)ly of water, has tlie additional advantage that, from the inequalities of its surface, the drainage opera- tions are carried on with comparative ease. The climate is rather cold and damp, and the county participates in the wet weather prevalent along the western half of this kingdom, the high grounds of which arrest the clouds from the Atlantic. In conse- quence of this, the crops in Staffordshire are said to be occasionally rather late. A large proportion of the land is of such a description that drainage is ab- solutely necessary, and the importance of relieving the soil from all superfluous moisture is in no other county that we have visited raoie strongly felt. Draining has been extensively carried on — especially on the estates of the large projirietors who know the value of the improvement thus effected, and have the enterprise to imdertake it themselves or assist their tenants in doing so. Generally speak- ing, the work is said to have been efiiciently done, the experience acquired in the extensive mining operations carried on throughout the county afford- ing facilities both to farmers ;md ])roprietors in this respect which fev/ other districts of Englaiul possess. In some instances the landlord incurs the whole expense of drainage, charging his tenant a per-centage on his outlay. The general practice, however, appears to be that the former should sup- ply the tiles, and the latter put thsm in. The most puhlic spirited and im])roving jiroprietors do this without fear of having the work inefficiently done, as they take the preliminary precaution of securing good tenants, who readily take advantage of such skill in dealing with water under ground as the mining districts supply. The progress which Staffordshire has made in tliis important respect .may on the whole be considered as comparatively satisfactory. In the size of the inclosures, the number of hedgerows, and the quantity of hedge- row timber, there is less room for praise. In some districts the fields are of a fair extent, and the land not ojjpressively encumbered with trees; and there are large estates, the proprietors of which are per- ' fectly aware of, and most anxious to remove, the in- jurious effects of numerous and straggling fences, thickly studded with timber ; but, like the adjoining county of Warwick, Staffordshire in this respect, as a whole, affords ample scope for improvement. There is the more reason to hope that a change fur the better will immediately be set on foot, as the most intelligent farmers are fully alive to the extent of the evil, and some of them have even gone so far as to remove every hedgerow from their farms which is not rendered necessary by the rotation of crops they pursue, or by the proximity of the public road, or by some other unavoidable cause. One of the chief preservers of hedgerow and field timber in Staffordshire is the Duke of Sutherland. His Grace is much respected by his tenantry, but they complain of his reluctance to fell trees growing on their farms to the serious injury of their crops. A veiy considerable portion of the soil of this county is held ])y large ])Toi)rietors ; among them the Earl of Lichfield, Lord Willoughby, Earl Tal- bot, and the Earl of Harrowby, Lord Bagot, Lord Hatherton, the Marquis of Anglesea, and Lord Stafford. They do not, however, preoccupy the county to tlic exclusion of smaller names ; for here, as in Leicestershire, though not to the same extent, there are to be found a number of yeomen culti- vating their own land. The great landowners in Staffordshire have undeniably exercised a most beneficial influence on its agriculture. Some of them, like Lord Hatherton and the late EarlTalJjOt, have been enthusiastic farmers. Others have en- couraged improving tenants, though personally not agriculturists — and nearly all have refused to ])rofit by that excessive and injurious competition for land which i)re.scnts such strong temjitations to i)ro])rie- tors. The landlords of Staffordshire are said to have been liberal and iiululgent in the management of their estates, and they arc spoken of with great respect by their tenantry. Most of them, however, are believed to be heavily embarrassed, and it is not understood at present how, if a serious fall of rents becomes necessary, some of them will be able to stand it. At present very i'cw reductions have taken ])lace ; but the tenants are becoming cla- morous, and in some instances it has l)een announced to them that an allowance would be made at the next rent-day. Earl Talbot, we were informed, proposes to commute his rents one-half into a corn rent calculated on the basis of GOs. a quarter ; tiie other lialf, which is to be fixed money rent, being reduced 12^ per cent., and the whole reduction Ijeing estimated by the current rate of prices at about 25 per cent. The Duke of Suther- land's tenants at Trentham have long held their farms on a corn rent determined by the average jirices for the three ])receding years, and it is said that under this arrangement they are better satisfied and less pressing for a reduction than is generally the case throughout the country. This is the more remarkable as their farms are small, and the land which they occupy for the most part stiff" and diffi- cult to cultivate. Lord Hatherton, who occupies a pre-eminent position in the county as an agricultu- rist, has not as yet announced his intention to make any reduction of rents, but his lordship is iseculiarly circumstanced. His estate of Teddesley was valued THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 and let 5 ])er cent. l)elo'.v what was a liigU valuation in 1813. In 18lG 10 per cent, was taken oft' the rents; in 1817 15 per cent, was taken oft'; in 1835, when prices had been for some time lower than they arc now, a new valuation of the ]irincipal farms took place, and a further reduction of 10 per cent, was made in the rent, making altogether a reduction o 35 per cent, on the lettings of 1813, and 40 per cent, on the valuation of that year. His lordshij), we understand, contemplates a new valuation in the course of next autumn. The i)resent average of land throughout the county is said to be from 2Gs. to -iSs. ])er acre. Tithe, where it exists, is seldom higher than 5s. an acre, and the extent of tithal)le land is not great. Poor rates also arc moderate, the labouring i)oi)u]ation being fully emi)loyed, and an excess of workmen in the agricultural districts being little complained of. 'J'lie tenantry of Stallbrdsnire ai)pear to have a decided preference for yearly holdings, there being comparatively few leases. Some of the principal proprietors aie quite willing to grant them, and think it would be for their interest that farms should be taken more generally than is the case in that way. Leases they think are favourable to high rents, as at the exjjiratiun of each term the proprietor is en- titltd to have the land re-valued — a course which he seldom adoi)ts with yearly holdings. On the best managed estates great pains are taken to secure tenants of capital, who will carry out vigorously im- ])ro\'ed methods of cultivation. With this ol)iect inquiries are carefully made, and when a farm be- comes vacant it is offered to a person previously se- lected at a certain rent, without being made to j)ass through the ordeal of a competition. The conse- quence of this is that the tenantry on such estates are men of suj)erior intelligence and means ; that they greatly increase the jiroductiveness of their farms ; and that while benefiting themselves their landlords also are gainers. This is the system adopted by one large proprietor, who even encou- rages his tenants to travel into the best farmed dis- tricts of England and Scotland, sometimes ])aying their expenses himself, in order that they may see and learn the practice of the best agriculturists. He believes himself to be amply remunerated for any outlay which he may incur in this way by the improved cultivation of his estate which results from it. He considers that good farming is most suc- cessfully extended by the examples which practical agriculturists furnish, and he acts upon these con- victions, not only as the true basis of an intelligent imderstanding between landlord and tenant, but as a matter of £ s. d. The farmers of Staffordshire, however, are not, as a body, to be regarded in the light which the management of landlords like Lord Hatherton, Sir Francis Lawley, and others, throw upon them. There is a very large number of small tenants occujjying from 50 to 1 50 or 200 acres of land — men with little capital and deficient in edu- cation. This class are said to be worse off at pre- sent than the agricultural labourer, to whose position in the social scale many of them nearly ap- proach. They farm principally the stiff clay soils, which are diflicult at all times to manage profitably, and aie most likely to be affected by the present de- preciation of agricultural produce. Farm buildings are usually erected in Staffordshire at the cxiiense of the landlord, who charges no interest on liis out- lay. Some estates arc distinguished by tiie sub- stantial manner in which the farm ])remises are built and by the amount of accommodation supjjlied to tenants. Generally throughout the county farm buildings arc superior to what we have met with in most other districts, and though the internal ar- rangement of them is still defective, it is something to have got rid of the wooden side walls and thatched roofs which usually form the materials of farm buildings in the south of Fmgland. The rate of wages in Staffordshire is from 9s. to 10s. a-week, but the labourers are extensively em- jjloycd in task work, at which they earn more money. Cottage rents average about £3 10s., in- cluding a good sized garden. The present condi- tion of the labourer is represented to us as unusually comfortable; the demand for hands in the manufacturing districts drawing off the surplus })opulation. Mr. Farnell, the Assistant Poor Law Commissioner for the district, recently visited the Penkridge union for the purpose of comi)limenting the guardians on the singular fact that for many years there had been no able bodied pauper in that union. We saw on Loid Hatherton's farm at Teddesley, a sing-ular and interesting experiment in operation for raising the industrial habits of the agricultural labourer, and dispensing as much as possible, except during harvest time, with the em- l)loyment of women in the fields. About 30 boys between the ages of 10 and 14 were busily at work, collecting and throwing into a cart, which preceded them, all the large stcncs lying on the surface of a piece of ploughed land. A labourer rather advanced in years moved among them and waiched how they worked. It was his duty to show them the quickest, easiest, and best way of doing what- ever they were reepiircd to do ; to make them work systematically, and to punish them if they quarrelled or otherwise misconducted themselves. His prac- tical teaching appeared to be completely successful, and he seemed to be not a little ])roud of his agri- cultural school. Master and scholars work together at all light operations, such as picking couch grass and stones, hand weeding, hoeing turni])s, carrots, or mangold wurzcl, or making hay. They have implements suited to their age, and " do their work excellently, taking a great interest in what requires skill, and showing a strong spirit of emulation." They work the same number of hours as the men, but are said not to be fatigued thereby, " as they play about, and are full of cheerfulness on their way home at night." They receive 6d. a-day each, at which rate their labour is considered very profit- able, and the neighbouring farmers, as soon as they have completed their course of education in indus- trial habits, are only too glad to employ such expert and well disciplined workers. The 3s. carried home weekly to his mother by each boy are consi- dered by her far more i)rofitable than the 9d. or lOd. a-day earned by her own work in the field ; and, while her son is j)reserved from idleness at that period of life when he his most exposed to its perni- cious influence, she is able to remain at home at- tending to her household duties, and carrying out the small but important economies of a labourer's 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cottage. Lonl llalhertoa has, we underatanil, adopted this yyKtein from the examj^le of the Duke of Bedford, wlio cini)loys two sets of 30 hoys each at Wohurn. Another point worthy of notice in the management of lahourers on the Tcddesley estate is the method adopted when new waste land is ahout to be reclaimed. After being drained, labourers arc allowed the use of it for two or three, and some- times ^even four years gratis. The crops of potatoes which they thus raise are a great boon to them, and the owner of the soil is compensated for his liberality by their spade husbandry. As a striking contrast to this we may mention that in Ireland £6, and even £'7, an acre were before the potato failure commonly exacted from the peasantry fur a similar privilege on land of far inferior quality. On the whole the condition of the Staffordshiie peasantry would seem to have undergone a vast imin-ovement since Arthur Young's time. lie found "idleness the chief em])loyment of the women and children." " All," says he, " drink tea and lly to the ])arishes for relief at the very time that even a woman for washing is not to be had. By many accounts I re- ceived of the ])oor in this neighbourhood, 1 apjirc- hencl the I'ates are burdened for the spreading laziness, drunkenness, tea-drinking, and de- Ijauchery — the general eflfect of them, indeed, all over the kingdom." THE EXHIBITION OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AT THE GREAT EXHIBITION. With the thought of that great competition into I wliich wo have just entered before us, and witli tlie rivals in that strife of industry daily brought facu to face in Hyde-park, the section of agricultural imple- ments assumes a special degree of importance. Here the foreign and the native farmer meet to choose the weapons by which to wage combat against each other. We there- fore ask ourselves what conclusions an agriculturist di-aws from the contents of the Great Exhibition, and what use can he make of those opportunities for comparison and observation with which it presents him ? From that vast reservoir, into which everything that human in- genuity can suggest as valuable has been poured, can nothing be fislied up for his relief ? We are satisfied that no one engaged in the cultivation of the soil can visit the Exhibition without receiving useful instruction and strong encouragement. In the first place, a great lesson is there taught by the extraordinary results of machinery as applied to manufactures. What would the cotton-trade, for instance, be now, had the inven- tions of Arkwright, and Crompton, and others, not been turned to account by the enterprising inliabitants of the north — had the spinning-frame, the mule, the power-loom, and the steam-engine been pressed into the service of only a few mill-owners, and had tlie op- position which Sir Richard Arkwright encountered been successful ? It is notorious how little the fanner has hitherto availed himself of the immense progress which of late years has been made in the department of agricultural implements. In the most highly-cultivated parts of Scotland every tenant has a steam-engine as an indispensable part of his establishment. In the best-farmed parts of England the presence of that valuable power is the exception instead of being the rule, and over the richest counties you may search in vain for such an evidence of agricultural enterprise. We know one case where a liberal landlord had a steam- enoine constructed on a farm as an example to the nei'^hbourhood ; but the tenant does not use it, and so the example is lost. Over the south of England especially there is a most deploralilc neglect, not only of the higher forms of machinery for farming pur- poses, but of the commonest and most indispensable mechanical facilities. Everything is done by manual labour ; and, as is always the ca;^e when human aid is called in to perform work which ought to be done by other means, tlie performance is wretched, the remriue- ration equally so, and the physical and moral effoct upon the peasantry lamentably deteriorating. Nobody who goes into the agricultural implement department will believe tliat the sound of the flail is that which is most likely to meet the ear in an English barn ; that wooden ploughs of the clumsiest construction are the favourite means by which our southern farmers carry on their tillage operations ; that three, four, and even five horses and sIa' bullocks are not unfrequently seen turning over a furrow not four inches deepj that drills, scarifiers, horse-hoes, winnowing machines, chaff-engines, turnip-cutters, and mills (all of them so essential to good husbandry) are either absent from the majority of holdings, or arc present only in tlio rudest and most primitive forms, and constructed of the most inferior materials. The unrivalled excellence of English farm implements at the Exhibition will not l)e contested by a single foreigner, and at the preliminary trials at Pusey, and elsewhere, not more than two or three really valuable machines from abroad were en- tered in the lists against them ; yet the man wlio would estimate by this standard the actual character of the mechanism used by the great majority of tenants and cultivators would form a most erroneous and exagge- rated judgment. We should like very much to sec placed opposite to the stands of Messrs. Ransome and May, Garrett, Crosskill, Hornsby, or any of the leading makers, the implements of an average farm in Dorset, Sussex, or any other agricultural county in the south of England. Let us consider the matter a little more closely. Dr. Lyon Playfair's classification of the agricultural imple- ment department divides it into ten heads, of which wc THE FARMER'S MAGAZlNJC. 41 shall select the iJiiiicijial. First coiuo iuiplciiieiits i'ttr tillage, including ploughs, harrows, scarifiers, and rollers. Now, in this section an iniinensc progress has been made within the hist century. Ploughs arc no longer the handiwork of village hlacksniiths, hut are turned out wholesale from the foundries and forges of the practical engineer, who brings his scientific know- ledge to bear upon tlieir construction, and adapts them to every variety of soil at the same time that he im- mensely cheapens their cost and durability. The modern plough is hardly recognisable as the successor of the instrument which turned up the glebes in ancient days, and it docs its work, v.heii well nsed, with an ex- pedition and efficiency which add vastly to the value of the improvements which it has undergone. The harrow has experienced similar changes, and is a very different inii)lement to that in the manufacture of which, in a work called "The Farewell to I|usbandry," written in l()(i8, the following instructions are given: — "Get a jnetly big whitethorn tree, which we call the haw- thorn tree, and ll^ake sure that it be wonderful thick, bushy, and rough grown." Ploughs, harrows, and rollers were the only mechanical aids formerly resorted to l)y the farmer in tilling and disintegrating the soil. We haveof lateaddcd to them a very valuable class of im- plements called "scarifiers," "grubbers," "extirpa- tors," "cultivators," and "clod-crushers." By their aid tlic expense and difficulty of bringing land to a proper tilth are materially reduced, and year after year their construc- tion is improved and their practical excellence placed on more undoubted grounds. Under the head of Imple- ments fjr Tillage the principal novelties produced at the Exhibition arc machines and models shown by Lord Willoughby d'Frcsby, and other contributors, for ploughing and digging by steam. That long sought for desideratum in agriculture still remains unsup- jdied. It seems the opinion of the most eminent and jiractical makers that success can best and most easily he achieved by a digging machine rather than a plough ; nor do we sec any reason why the long continued eftbrts to adajit steam to the plough should not now be directed to the spade, an older implement still in hus- bandry 3 and were it not for the expense of using it on a large scale — the most effectual of all tillage. Who- ever will solve this problem in mechanics, which has for many yeai-s occupied so much attention, will confer upon his country and upon agriculture generally a be- nefit not less than that of the greatest inventors of mo- dern times. The recent abolition of the corn laws has greatly altered the comparative values of land in Eng- land— -those heavy land farms which Avcrc under the old system worth most rent being now greatly depi-e- ciated, while convertible land adapted for turnip hus- bandry is not nearly so much affected. The discovery of some means for cheapening the cultivation of strong clay soils is at present, perhaps, the greatest desideratum in our agricultural system. The second division in Dr. Lyon Playfair's classifi- cation of farm implements embraces drilling, sowing, manuring, and hoeing machines. In this section the display at the Exhibition is excellent. Messrs. Garrett sustain their rcputalion for Ii'M>.c-hocs, an 1 wKli nornsl)y and other makers dispute the prize (jf nu rit for drills. We have not heard of any striking novi l(y, however, hero, unless it be a seed-ilroi)ping uunliiiu! shown by Ransome and I^Iay, the construction of uliioii is exceedingly simple, and the object sought to bo at> complished very im})ortant : if on fair trial the ma- chine acts well. Drills and other mechanical means for sowing, manuiing, and hoeing land are of com- paratively modern origin. The first, and for ages, tlui only mode of sowing seed where a great bieadfh of soil had to be covered, was by scattering it broad-ca- 1 by the hand. Crops in consequence grew up without (be ])ossibility of weeding and hoeing, so necessary to a well-regulated system of cultivation. There was great waste of manure also, for it was distributed witlic-ut reference to the position of the plant which it had to sustain. About a century ago the justly celebrated Jethro TuU took up this subject, and introduced in England the system of drill husbandry, which, I>y de- positing the seed in parallel lines equidistant from each other, not only economised the cpiantity required, but gave facilities for depositing manure in the most advantageous manner, and paved the way for the introduction of the horse-hoe — one of the most valu- able implements of which we can boast. The conse- quence has been that the farmer can now keep his land tolerably free from weeds, and is enabled not only to secure clean cultivation in an inexpensive manner, but to protect himself more effectually ag-ainst those for- midable risks of climate and season to which he was formerly exposed. Yet, though the benefits of this system were obvious, it was long before it was generally adopted, and even at present there are parts of the country where the old plan of sov^ing broadcast pre- vails. Of late years, a further extension of the i)rin- ciples on which drill husbandry is founded has been creeping into favour. It is technically called "dilibling," and consists not only in the deposit of seed in lines, but at stated intervals from each other. This practice has hitherto been chiefly performed by manual labour, which, of course, is expensive. Several attempts have been made by implenrent makers to produce efl'ectivo dibbling machines ; but these, either from their cost- liness or from some other cause, have not found favour in the eyes of practical men. Messrs. Ransome and May's machine, already alluded to, is an ingenious effort to overcome the dithculty • and w hethcr it answers or not, we cannot too highly applaud the merit of designs which seek to introduce into field ojierations a delicacy and iirecision of execution which will enable the farmer to pass the horse-hoe in every direction round his young plants, and insure for them, just at the nm- ment when they are most liable to injury, ample room to spread and flourish. We now come to barnyard implements, in which there is a very valuable display by all the principal makers, and especially under the important head of thrashing and winnowing machines. The thrashing- machine, with its various adjuncts, is now one of the most perfect specimens of mechanical ingenuity 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of which tho country can boast. It does its work in a manner entirely satisfactory, and we trust to see its use extended. Any one at all conversant with farming operations will see at once the vast advantages which it confers upon agriculture, and the economy which it secures. Of the winnowing machines, hummellers, crushing and splitting mills, chaff cutters and seed bruisers with which the Exhibition is furnished, we may also speak with un- qualified approbation. With respect to them, as in every other point, the implement-maker is far In advance of the cultivator, and oifers him facilities which it would be of the utmost benefit to him to adopt. If any one will consider the costliness of manual labour, even on the lowest scale of wages, he will un- derstand the great saving that must be effected in that item alone, to say nothing of the economic use of produce and the avoidance of that tremendous waste of straw which is at present a characteristic of even the best farmed districts. Messrs. Crosskill, as visual, come out strongly in their display of carts, and Clayton and other makers show their draining tiJe-machincs. In this last division Mr. Fowler exhibits his draiiiing- ]ilough, the construction of which, since we last saw it, he has improved in several respects. It is certainly greatly superior to any other implement of the kind that we have ever seen, and on many soils may be made to answer well ; but we still doubt its general applicability. Tlicre is no operation connected with the management of land more important tlian that by which it is kept dry and free from stagnant water. The great ex- pense of thorough-drainage and the inefficient manner in which it has been conducted have hitherto con- stituted most serious obstacles to good farming, and anything which tends to cheapen the cost, and at the same time to do the work well, must be hailed as a great boon to the agricultuiist. Three-fourths of the di'ainage executed in England may be regarded as nearly useless, for it has usually been left in the hands of tenants who know nothing about the way in which it should be conducted, and who appear to fancy that by burying in the ground so many thousand tiles all that is required can be accomplished. Under the head of Dairy Implements some excellent varieties of churns are exhibited, and among mis- cellaneous contributions the models of farm buildings are worthy of particular attention. The want of accommodation in this last respect is perhaps the gTcatest evil in our present agricultural system. Go where you like, you rarely see substantial and well-arranged homesteads, and generally speaking there is a complete absence of a decent provision for the farmers' stock. In the southern counties the tenant usually keeps his milch cows knee deep during winter time in a filthy yard, and must fatten his oxen as best he may in open sheds. As for the due preservation of manure, it is hardly ever thought of, and care is taken that the drink- ing pond, or the neighbouring ditch, shall receive the best part of it. The amateur agriculturist alone thinks of tanks, and landlords are frightened at under- taking to subslitute, for tlie tottering premises of timber and thatch with which they have hitherto provided their tenants, the more substantial and costly structures which the requirements of tho time render necessary. We are glad to find in the Exliibition con- tributions which are likely to be of service in this mat- ter— if not by suggesting new and valuable ideas, at least by directing attention to a point which is every day becoming more important. One other feature of the implement department remains to be noticed — it is the number, the finish, and the excellence of the loco- motive steam engines for agricultural purposes which are exhibited. We doubt very much whether the Royal Agricultural Society have acted wisely in the encou- ragement which they have given to engines of this class — for stationary engines are cheaper, less liable to get out of order, and, except for large holdings, best adapted for the objects which the farmer has in view in seeking the aid of steam power. Locomotive engines and portable thrashing machines arc found useful where, from the distance to be passed over, tenants are obliged to establish field barns, or where, from the smallncss of the lioldings and the general poverty of the district, co-operation in hiring these mechanical facilities is the best and most economical plan that can be followed. And now, in conclusion, let the reader reconsider carefully the ground over which we have travelled, and the extent of those economic appliances which we have indicated as open to the British farmer. Whether he tills, or sows, or reaps, or keeps live-stock, or sends his vegetable pi-oduce to market, the facilities which he enjoys have within the last century made extraordinary progress, and place him, in relation to the agricultu- rists of all other countries, in much the same position as a traveller by an express train when compared with one on a Canterbury pilgrimage. The implement-makers appear to be a thriving class, notwithstanding their dis- couragements, Nearly 300 exhibitors have entered the lists as competitors in Hyde-park, and a number of them are from Scotland. As may be gathered from what we have said, their contributions are more dis- tinguished by excellence than by novelty. The annual meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society leave little room for startling progress in one year, even though it be 1851 ; yet implement-makers are making great ef- forts, and are visibly moving in the right direction. W. Stanley (of Peterborough) exhibits a two-horse portable steam-engine, and his celebrated farmer's registered steam-cooking apparatus, which obtained prizes at the Royal Agxicultural Society's eliows at York, Norwich, and Exeter, also at Dublin, and at several local shows. J. Guest (of Bedford), steerage- drill for turnips. W. Busby's (Newton-le-Willows) one-hoi'se cart for farming purposes, which obtained the prize at Exeter, is worth inspection. Mr Pusey, in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. ix. part ii., page 397, thus speaks of it: " It is suited for all purposes, easy for the horse, as the wheels are rightly made, easy for the labourer, as they are much lower THE FAIIMKIVS MAGAZINE. 40 lliiiii oilier caiLs, and wouilerfully cheap." The poor- mau's chi.sct, invented by J. Elliot (ot'Soutlianiptan), i> a most ingenious and useful sanatory invention — round the rim of the closet is a double tin-guttci, which holds one pint of water, and when the cover i;! closed a single rim fiills into the water, thus hermetic- ally sealing the opening, and preventing the escape o1 any noxious smell : it can be made for a very smali sum. The archimedean agricultural machine is exhi- bited by Mr. D. J. MuRPHY (of Cork), and it is in- tended by this machine, with the aid of a pair of horses, to plough, harrow, and roll the ground ; thus, at one operation, do the business of three separate works o! labour as done at present. The front part of the machine consists of a large barrelled roller, into which arc inserted cutters, arranged in a spiral manner : " These cutters may be either heart-shaped knives, ra- diating from the surface of the cylinder, with their flat sides towards its ends, and with conical spikes between tlic diiForent rows, or of these knives in a direction of right angles to this, or a continuous blade may be curved round the cylinder, like the thread of a screw, the different forms being for varying soils and pur- poses." This, by its weight, cuts up the ground; it is followed by a pair of harrows, which is to pulverize the clods, and finally a serrated roller finishes the work so ingeniously begun. If it were only for the boldness of the attempt of this inventor, we think the model worth inspection. Beckford and Gosling (of Healcy-on-Thames) exhibit an ingenious machine for mowing and tedding at the same time, the imple- ment being liglit enough to be drawn by one horse. One side of the machine is provided with revolving- scythes, which mow the grass, dropping it at the side of the machine, which is furnished with the tedding apparatus, which takes up the grass and shakes it out evenly along the ground at its own side of the machine. J. Usher (of Edinburgh) lias on view a model of a locomotive steam-plough. It is very ingenious, and we should like to see one at work : it is furnished witli fifteen ploughshares, which revolve and cut the ground after the engine, thus acting as propellers by their motion as they perform their work. Ransom e and May (of Ipswich) have several implements on show at their very large stand, their prize ploughs and other implements being well known to the English agricul- turists. Garrett and Son (of the Leiston Works, Sax- mundham) exhibit their prize drills, which obtained a succession of the Royal Agricultural Society's prizes at Cambridge, Liverpool, Bristol, Derby, Southampton, Newcastle, Northampton, York, Norwich, and Exeter. In our last we gave the opinion of a cotempoi-ary on the Messrs. Garrett's show, and wc will now merely call the attention of visitors to the several medals which have been awarded this excellent firm, and which are tastefully framed and glazed and exhibited in the stand, and form no inconsiderable test of their merits as agricultural implement-manufacturers. Cross- kill's (of Beverley) stand is opposite the Messrs. Garrett, and is likewise very large, fitted up in a similar manner, but not in such finished style. Their number is 13.j. Messrs. Howard (of IJcdford) exhibit their well-known prize ploughs. One if these, marked J. A. No. 2, was awarded the prize at York, in 1848, for ploughing light land; and the judges in their award said, "we consider the furrow turner pretty near perfection, and calculated to plough any description of land that a plough can do." The testimonials obtained by the firm are confirmatory of the efficacy of their ploughs and harrows. Mr. B. Samuelson (successor to the late Mr. Gardner, of Banbury) has on view a turnip cutter, patented by his brother, Mr. Alexander Samuelson, in January, 1851 : it substitutes a wrought-iron frame for a wooden one liitherto used, thus adding to its durability if left in the fields for months exposed to the weather. This ex- hibitor obtained from the Royal Agricultural Society at Norwich and Exeter prizes for his addition to the late Mr. Gardner's, turnip-cutter for sheep : it consists of a knife which cuts large slices for cattle, and which is brought into action by merely re- versing the motion of the fly-wheel. At Hornsby and Son's (of Grantham) stand, their patent portable steam engine is one of the many implements exhibited by this well-known firm : these engines are applicable to thrashing, grinding, sawing, chaff-cutting, &c., &c. ; also to driving any fixture machinery, being made of various sizes, to suit the requirements of all estates and farms. In describing this machine the ex- hibitors state that " the cylinder and pipes con- nected therewith being placed inside the boiler or steam-chamber, are effectually protected from the wea- ther and frost at all times; this is of great importance, especially as it effects a saving in fuel, as well as sim- plifying the engine." Burgess and Key (of New- gate-street, London) exhibit a new patent turnip- cutter, which is at all events novel in its movement, the cutters being fixed, and the motion of the boxes being horizontal. We did not see it at work, but it docs appear to possess some advantages. It is simple, cheap, and durable, and will at the same time cut the turnip into several sizes, delivering each size at a separate place. Messrs. Tuxford and Sons (of Boston) had their patent portable lioused steam-engine on show, and a most in- telligent person, who is perfectly acquainted with its merits, was present to explain it. The favourable opinion expressed and sent unsolicited by C. E. Amos, Esq., consulting engineer of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, after the Society's show at Exeter, in 1850, has been amply justified by the recent trials under the direction of the Executive Committee of the Great Exposition, where this engine effected an amount of duty never hitherto done, and performed its work so steadily, and was found to be so perfectly under command, that the judges determined to use it alovc for driving the thrashing-machines for trial, instead of coupling two engines together as they before had to do, in order to insure the requisite steadiness of speed. The experiment was quite successful, and secured the ap- probation of the judges for the engine, which was kept working for upwards of a week. When this engine is at work it is effectually protected from grit and dust, 13 THE FARMER'S ^^lAGAZINE. wluth arc mo.st de.niiiciisu lo Ui'; woiu-iag parto oi' an t'ligiiic ; iVom the wcatluT at all times; uad is secure tVrtui any iuh'iflvcuco with the workhig parts, being uudev lock and key. It is simple in conslruclion, and may be managed by uuy ordinary iarm labourer with a Jew days' instruction. The cylinders arc upright, the proprietors, from their extensive experience with t!ie variety of light portable engines they have made since their inlroductiou of them in. 1842, being convinced this is the best position to insure the cylinders not wearing oval, which is the case with the hori' zojital cylinder, occasioned by the w"eight of the piston continually rubbing on the lower part materially assisted by priming, caused by using bad water, which cannot at all times be avuidcd. Tlii.- cagiiu; i..> alsj furnished with governors ou an improved con- struction, and much simplified ; the boiler is xuath: ot Low Moor iron, the best and most costly in the king- dom ; upon an improved principle, having (ire-boxes with water-space flues leading from them, and retiu n- iug thvough lap-welded iron tubes ever them; ll:ey have also improved spark-traps attached, rendering fire from cinders or sparks impossible, and with d;imp- ers giving ready and perfect command of the draught for the fires. The consumption of coal for a six-hoisc power engine is 4 cwt. per day. The engine is very portable, being a moderate load for two horses ou good roads. — Times. THE GREAT EXHIBITION - PRINCE ALBERT'S MODEL COTTAGES. In connexion with the Exhibition wo have several times drawn attention to the model house for the labouring classes erected by his Royal Highness Prince Albert at the Calvary Barracks, Hyde Park. The subject is one of great importance, and a visit to the building, which is now completed, will bo found very instructive. For some time past a lively interest has been taken in this matter by the most i)hilanthropic men of the age, for both in town and country the sani- tary defects of the dwellings of the poor were lelt to be a reproach upon our civilization. There were ob- stacles, however, in tlie way which it was found ex- tremely tUfficult to overcome. In the first place, the question of expense prcsentt^d itself. Cottages were erected very pretty to look at, and a vast improvement in their internal arrangements on the old forms of dwellings in use, but when they were completed it was found that the cost, as compared with the ordinary rates of wages, ]!vecluded the idea of their extensive adoption, and that as trade speculations they would not answer. Considerate landlords have nevertheless pro- vided in many instances convenient and comfortable accommodation ibr their workpeople, actuated by a laudable desire to see them comfortable; and the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes has erected model lodging-houses in different parts of the metropolis, which, being constructed on a large scale, have returned a fair profit ou the money invented in them. So i'ar success had been achieved, but it was necessary to carry the experiments made much further before any permanent or extensive effect could be produced in the objects contemplated. It was requisite to show that at a cost, if not smaller, certainly not larger than that at present incurred for building the very inadequate houses which workmen and their fdlnilies inhabit, houses could be erected giving them the benefit of sanitary avrangements, and providing ibr their increased comfort, cleanliness, and domestic Ueccncy. The rate of wages in this country, whether in the rural or town districts, leaves but a small margin over, after the purchase of food and clothing, for rent and the other expenses attached to it. This sets limits to the outlay in building labourers' tenements which cannot be transgressed, and the consequence lu-s hitherto been that they have been compelled to live in abodes totally unfit for human habitation, and which have led to an immense amount of prevcntiblc mor- tality among them. Damp walls and floors did one l)art of the work of destruction, and overcrowded rooms, where cleanliness, decency, and comfort were impossible, the rest. At this stage in the sanitary movement it is superfluous to say more on these sul)- jects, as their evil influences are admittett on all hands. The question remained how were they to be dealt with, how was the working man to be provided with a suit- able home at a rent which his wages permitted him to pay? It was found that the inferior bricks of which his humble tenement was constructed held water like a sponge, and that from one of them as much as a pint of moisture could be extractecK Ho and his family, therefore, v/erc constantly undergoing, night and day, a species of hydropathic treatment which doomed them to inhale damp air, wear damp clothes, sleep in damp beds, and suffer all the complicated miseries which arise from walls streaming with water, and absorbing the rain from without, and the heat of the fire from within. That was one great difficulty to be overcome, and it has been accomplished in a very successful and ingenious manner. The bricks used in the con- struction of the Prince's model houses are hollow, whereby their strength is preserved, at the same time that the necessity for lath aiul plaster is removed, and perfect dryness secured. Theiv form renders them applicable, not only for side and p u'tition walls, but for floors and roofing, and by glazing their surfaces the most ample facilities are given for cleanliness. Each room can be v.ashed out iis thoroughly when thus cousti'ucted as an earthenware dish, and fuel is not THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. )1 uselessly e.\iiemk;(l in wiiriuiiijj,' ii sdlid iniis.s of material saturated with iiioistiue. iJy tliissjiecies of wall venti- lation, Mhieli, singularly enough, appears to have been pi'actised among the ancient Romans, the close fetid smell so offensively present in apartments that have been overcrowded for some time after they are vacated, is entirely got rid of. Other advantages also present themselves, for buildings thus constructed obviously become fireproof, and hollow bricks are found to be excellent nou-conductors of sound. In small confined tenements there is no greater source of discomfit than that which arises from the manner in which the slightest noise penetrates through liartitions and floorings, and a simple inexpensive arrangement, which jirotects the quiet and privacy of the poor man's family, is a boon of immense value to liim. The use of hollow bricks is thus recommended by a variety of considerations, but the chief benefit which it confers remains to be stated. By it a saving of at least one-third is effected in the expense of ordi- nary construction, and quite as much in fuel and annual repairs and insurance. We shall revert to this point again, and in the meantime proceed to other matters worthy of special notice in the arrangements of the model houses. One peculiarity which strikes the visitor is the avoidance of expensive woodwork, and the employment of fev/ and cheap materials to do all that is required. The plasterer and the carpenter arc almo.Nt entirely tlispensed with, and mineral manufac- tures, in one shape or other, are resorted to. Every- thing is of durable material, and little liable to go out of repair. There are some obvious improvements which might be made in the construction, and some economies that might be effected, for the building is, of course, experimental in its character, and does not claim perfection, being undertaken by his Royal High- ness principally to stimulate the efforts of those whose l)osition and circumstances enable them to carry out similar undertakings. Viewing it as a whole, how- ever, the visitor will not fail to observe, that it is a good working model, not a mere prettiness exi^ensively got up and inapplicable to practice, but a sincere, honest, and sensible attempt to supply a design for the style of architecture suitable to the labouring classes, and within their means to command and pay for. It is adapted for the occupation of four families of the class of mamifactui-ing or mechanical operatives residing in town or near it. Each tenement is arranged on pre- cisely the same plan, having a well lighted lobby or porch, a living room, a scullery, a watercloset, and three sleeping ajiai liucnls, all siuiiily but ci'i'ectii.dly provided witli convenient fittings for domestic comfort. The separation of the sexes and of parent and child is complete. Closets, dust-bins, sinks, safes, shelves, &c. arc included in the plan. The ventilation is carefully attended to, and, above all, the water supply is not neglected. Some varieties exist in the manner of finish- ing the different rooms, and the public will form a bet- ter conception of the care with wliich the whole has been got up when we mention that nearly a dozen well known manufacturers and makers have been laid under contribution for suitable materials. Thus Clayton's tile-machine turns out the hollow bricks; Ridgeway supplies the earthenware; and the whole has been ui;- der the direction of Mr. Roberts, honorary architect to the society for Improving the Condition of the Labour- ing Classes. We come now to the questions of expense and profit — fi'om rent, upon which of course the success of the experiment turns. The calculation on this sub- ject is that a building of the kind can be erected ior £400, or about ^^100 for each tenement, and that a payment of Is. per week for each room, or about 3,-. by each family, would pay 7 per cent, and cover all contingencies. Now, any one who knows what tiio house rent of the labouring classes in London is must regard this as a very successful I'csult. In ChurcL- lane, St. Giles's, 3s., 4s., and 5s. per week are paid for single rooms of the same size ; and in these abodes of vice and misery malignant fevers, and every form of epi- demic disease are constantly at work, doing frightful havoc. Let any one who wishes to understand, in it.s true significance, the importance of that movement for improving the condition of the labouring classes over which Prince Albert so appropriately presides, after paying a visit to the model houses at the Knightsbridge barracks, go direct to Carrier-street, or Church-lane, or Kennedy-court, St. Giles's, and he will learn an in- structive lesson from the contrast thus presented to him. He will be moved with compassion at the spec- tacle of such squalid misery, and with gratitude that at the Great Exhibition of the world's industry the hard lot of those who toil in the lowest grades of labour is not forgotten. At jiresent the model houses are only accessible by order, but we trust soon to see them un- reservedly thrown open to all comers. It is only ia that way that those whose comfort they chiefly jirovide for can see them properly, and until the humbler classes themselves enter into the schemes and plans for their social improvement entertained by those above them in station little real progress can be made. — Times. E 2 52 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS (From the Morning Chronicle.) Eastern Agricultural Districts. norfolk, suffolk, and essex. Letter XX. The total number of persons employed in agri- cultural laljour in the county of Norfolk was, in 1841,40,647. Of this number there were — males above 20 years of age, 34,006; under that age, 5,751 ; females above 20 years of age, 731 ; under, 159. The number of farmers and graziers in the county was at the same time 7,452. From these figures it would appear that the average number of laboui-ers employed by each farmer or grazier was 5*4, the average number so employed in Suffolk being 67. As far as I have been enabled to judge from the information which I have obtained upon the subject, the amount of wages paid annually to the agricultural labourers of Norfolk would be about the follo\ving: — The total number of male labourers, above 20 years of age, according (o the census of 1841, was 34,006 :— - Of whom one half, or 17,003, may be said to receive 10s. £ a-week, for 52 weeks 442,052 One-fourth, or 3,500 7s. 6d. per week, for 52 weeks, .. . 144,092 One-fourth, or 8,503, 8s. per week, for 40 weeks 136,048 Total male labourers, above 20 £ years of age • 722,192 5,751 males under 20, 5s. per week, for 40 weeks 57,520 731 females above 20, 5s. per week, for 40 weeks 7,280 159 females under 20, 2s. 6d. per week, for 40 weeks .... 760 Extra, hay and harvest wages 65,843 Making a total of . . £853,595 Being rather more than an average of £21 per annum to each labourer employed, or about £81 expended for manual labour to each 100 acres under cultivation in the county. The number of persons dependent upon agricul- tiual labour, adopting the same proportion which I used for the county of Suffolk, would be 162,588, or rather more than one-third of the entire popula- tion. The principal means of employment in Norfolk, independent of agriculture and weaving, are, domes- tic servants— males, 4,365; females, 18,074; total, 22,339. The number of persons returned as la- bourers, whose particular occupation is not speci- tie ], is, of both sexes, 5,652; of millers, there are 1,141; seamen, 1,597; dressmakers and milhners, 2,389; and of boot and shoemakers, 5,689. This latter occupation is one which, during the last few years, has increased to a considerable extent in the county — more particularly in Norwich, where there are several very large manufacturers, some of whom employ two or three hundred persons. The prin- cipal manufacturers of the city are Messrs. Winter, Ford, Keisch, Kemp, and Wright. The average earnings of the persons employed maybe taken to be from 7s. to 12s. per week — the shoe- binders ranging from 3s. to 5s. per week. At Taverhara there is an extensive establishment for the manufacture of ])aper, where a large portion of the paper used for the Times newspaper is made, and where u])wards of 100 persons, male and fe- male, are constantly employed. About fifty women, employed in the various occupations of sorting and preparing the rags, earn upon an average Ss. per week ; and the same number of men, engaged in the various processes of the manufacture, earn from 23. to 3s. 6d. per day. Several boys are also employed, whose wages vary from 4s. 6d. to 7s. per week. The wages of the agricultural labourers vary con- siderably in different parts of the coimty. In the northern ]3art, 9s. to 10s. may be considered as the average rate, and the labourers are pretty well em- ployed. Throughout the eastern parts of the county, the wages are lower, and the labourers, generally speaking, are neither so skilful nor so well employed. Being situated close to the sea, their labour is chiefly divided between agriculture and fishing. During the herring and mackerel seasons, great numbers of them go to sea, where they remain for two or three months, and then return to their agricultural employment. Their return invariably causes a diminution of wages ; the farmers are anxious to employ as many of them as possible, in order to keep them from becoming burdens on the parish ; and, to enable them to do so, they are driven, in most cases, to reduce the rate of wages. The consequence is, that in these districts the rate of wages is much lower than in many of the other por- tions of the county. In the southern and western himdreds the rate of wages is from 8s. to 9s. per week. In many of the parishes, however, the wages are considerably lower, and I have met with many cases in which they have not exceeded 6s., and still more where only 7s. per week have been paid. At Great Melton, a short distance from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 53 Norwich, it was proposed among the farmers that a general reduction of wages to 7s. should take place. It was, however, finally agreed that the reduction should be to Ss. ])er week. Tliat reduction has ac- cordingly been generally made; but in several in- stances, I am told, the farmers are giving but Gs. in that parish. A labourer at Wymoudliam, who was employed upon the farm of one of the largest occu- piers in that district, told me that his wages had been reduced from 8s. to 5s. 6d. per week. "Master," he said, "did that because I had two children at work on the farm ; one of 'em arned 2s., t'other Gs. Cd. a-week, and he told me they would make up the difference." Woinen and girls are usually employed in weeding, turnip hoeing and ])nlling, and stone picking. Their average earnings are from 6d. to 8d. j^er day. The children are usually employed in keeping pigs, or as "scare- crows," to keep the birds away from the seeds, and similar occupations ; their wages vary from 3d. to 6d. per day. The hours of labour in Norfolk, Suflfolk, and Essex, vary according to the season and the mode of em])loyment. A large proportion of the farm work is done by jiiece or task work, and the labourer in such cases regulates the duration of his labour as may best suit himself. When employed by tlie day, eight hours is about the regular time of employment. In some parts, the custom is, in the winter, for the labourer to go to work at seven in the morning, and to leave at half-past eleven for dinner; to return at half-past one, and continue till dark. During the summer, two or three hours is not unfrecjuently allowed for dinner. The reason assigned for allowing so long a period for dinner is, that the horses may be allowed a ])roper time for rest, and that both labourers and horses may be able to leave oft" work at the same time. Tlie food of the labourer and his family is ])rin- cipally bread, potatoes, and frequently, in Norfolk, the Nor.folk dumpling, which consists simply of the dough of which the bread is made, the difterence between bread and dumpling being merely that the one is boiled while the other is baked. In the neighbourhood of Fakenham I met with a family whose food was chiefly bread and turnips, and I was informed that that was a very general diet with the people about there. In none of the cottages that 1 have visited in either of the three counties have I ever seen such a thing as a piece of fresh butcher's meat. That it inay be had occasionally there can be no doubt, but it is certainly at very rare and long intervals. When meat of any kind is pur- chased it is mostly bacon or salt pork, and the labourer invariably finds it more economical to purchase that kind of food than fresh meat — the high price which they have to pay for any little piece that they may want being quite suflicient to deter them from its purchase. While at Bury, I was informed by a butcher who carries on a some- what extensive business, that the " shins" and " stickings" of beef which he was in the habit of selhng in the town for Ud. per pound, he could sell on Saturday to the poor for .'id., "bone and all," when it was cut up in ])ieces of about two or three pounds weight. About Swaftbam, Yar- mouth, and Lowestoft, red herrings and salt fish will be found occasionally to enter into the dietary table of the labourer. In one cottage which I visited, I found the woman l)usily employed in chopping up some pieces of fat ])ork, which she was about to mix up witli some cold potatoes and dour for dumplings, by way of "a treat for the children, because it was Mary's birth-day." The prices which the poor people have to pay for their grocery, such as tea, sugar, and coifee, is enormous. When in Norv;ich, I obtained several samples of sugar at 3. Id. and 4d., and .5d. per lb., and com- pared them, in several places which I visited, with the sugar, for which the ])oor peojde had paid at the rate of 5d. and Od. per lb., and according to the opinion of the poor ])eople themselves, my sample at 3id. was as good as their fivepenny, and my four- penny better than their sixpenny, while my five- penny was fit for the squire. The cottage accommodation of the labourer is in many parts of Norfolk lamentably deficient. A few praiseworthy efiforts have been made on the part of some of the landed proprietors to remedy the evil, but their exertions have by no means kept pace with the wants of the population. The cottages built by the Earl of Leicester, at Holkham, are among the most substantial and comfortable of any in the three counties through which I have travelled. There are about 90 cottages altogether at Holkham. One row of six cottages, each con- taining two rooms, is chiefly occupied by the widows of the labourers, and are let to them at a guinea per annum. There are about 20 three-roomed cot- tages, built together in groups of four cottages; the whole forming a crescent, which has a most pleasing and attractive appearance. The rent of these is three guineas a year each, and they are occupied by persons with small families, or by those who have none. The larger cottages contain four rooms, and a small back kitchen and pantry, the rent being four guineas. To each of the cottages there is a piece of garden ground attached, varying in extent from 15 to 20 perches. On the ground floor, the front rooms are 17 feet by 12 feet, and about 7 feet in height. The back kitchen is of the same height, and is about 13 feet by 9 feet. The pantry is about half the size of the kitchen. On the upper floor there are three bed-rooms. At a short distance from each cottage there is a wash- house, a dust-bin, a privy, and a pig-cot. The drainage is excellent, and the cottages are well sup- plied with water. The cost of building the cot- tages was, I understand, from £110 to £120 each. Not only is there a great amount of unwillingness on the part of the proprietors generally to build cottages for the labourers, but in too many instances there is an evident desire to destroy or pull down numbers of those that at jiresent exist. In the neighbourhood of Norwich, the extent to which the destruction of cottage property has been carried on was, in the words of my informant, " fearful and disgraceful." In Drayton parish, fourteen cottages have been pulled down within the last few years, and none have been erected in their stead. In the Horsted Hundred, twenty-five of the cottages have been ordered to be destroyed. At Long Sutton, Pidham, Wackton, and various other parishes, the destruction has also been carried on to a great ex- 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tent, though I was not able to learn the exact num- ber which had been destroyed. I was informed of the case of a large landed proprietor in the vicinity of Norwich, some of whose property being required by the railway company, it was expressly stipulated in the sale that no cottages whatsoever should be built upon any portion of the ground. In point of fact, it is impossible to obtain a piece of ground, for building purposes, in any of the villages within eight or ten miles of Norwich. Many of the estates have b3en entirely cleared of tenantry. To such an ex- tent has the system been carried on, that there are at present in Norwich not less than 500 agricultural labourers, who have to walk to their work distances varying from three to seven miles. Every expedient to prevent the labourer obtaining a settlement in the rural parishes is resorted to by the occupiers. In Wackton parish, one of the modes of removing the l)aupers was, to set a number of persons, principally weavers, who had some claim on the parish, and who, in all probability, had never had a spade in tlieir hands before, to dig up a common in the middle of January, the snow at the time lying upon the ground several inches deep. The poor wretches were told that they must dig a certain portion of the common Ijefore they could obtain any relief. The first thing which they did was to dig in tlie snow what tliey called " the grave" of the ma- gistrate who had given the order. So far as the experiment was concerned, it was perfectly success- ful, for after two or three days the greater jn-opor- tion of the persons lelt their employment, aiul con- trived to settle themselves, by one means or other, in the city of Norwich, or in some of the surrounding open parishes. The effect of this conduct, in addi- tion to the injury indicted upon the paupers, has l)een most materially to enhance the rates of the ad- joining parishes. In Long Sutton, for instance, a number of small cottages have been built; they are crowded by the evicted of the other parishes, and tJifi rates are 6s. in the jiound, while in the parish of St. Michael, v/hich adjoins it, and where the cot- tages have been pulled down, the rates are only 2s. (5(1. in the ])Ound. This system is not, however, confined to Norwich; for it has been carried on to a great extent in the neighbourhood of Castle Acre, which is an open parish, the consequence being thnt whilst Castle Acre is overstocked with in- habitants, and the cottages there are densely crowded, there are not in the surrounding parishes rmything like sufficient hands to cultivate the land. It is owing to this excess of labourers in one dis- trict, and the great want of them in the neighbour- ing parishes, that the custom has sprung up within the last few years of employing the people in what are termed " gangs," a system which, there can be no doubt whatever, is attended with a considerable amount of evil to the persons employed. The principle upon which this "gang system" is carried on is the following : A farmer residing in or near Castle Acre may wish lo have some parti- cular piece of work done, the performance of which will require a considerable numjjer of hands. In such a case he would apply to a gang-master at Castle Acre, who would contract to do the work, and to su])i)ly the labour. The gang-master would accordingly get together as many hands as might be necessary, and they would be sent in a gang to the |)!ace of work. In cases where the work can be done by women and children as v\^ell as men, the gang is composed of jiersons of both sexes and of all ages. During the time they are at work, they ai-e superintended l)y an "overseer," whose duty it is to see that they are steady to their work, and to })revent the use of any bad language or the occurrence of any misconduct. The overseer gene- rally accompanies the gang both to and from the place of work. This system, although it works well for the emi)loyer, has in many cases a directly contrary elt'ect upon the woi'kpeople. The farmer gets his work done well, quickly, and clieaply ; and the prospect of work to be obtained in the gangs at Castle Acre has drawn together a vast numlxr of labourers from the surrounding districts, till at length, to use the language of one of the overseers of the gangs, published a fesv years since, the parish has become " the coop of all the scrapings in the county; for if a man or a woman do anything wrong, they come here, and ihey think, by getting among them here, they are sale." The employer is not only benefiterl by the system, but also the gang- em pay as much as '20s., and even 2.5s., for the quarter of an acre, while kuid of tlie sauie character is let in the neighbourhood at even less than £2 per acre. In the Hartismere union, in .Suffolk, there are six acres of land l)e- h)nging"to the parish; the land is not worth more tlian £2 jjer acre, including rates and tithes. Tiie guardians, however, have divided it into twenty- fv)ur allotments, which they let at the rate of £3 per acre to the poor jjeople. The Rev. Mr. Knevitt, chaplain to the union, states that during the last four years that the land has been allotted there has not been a single instance of default in the payment of the rent. In several places liorticultural societies are established in connection with the allotment system, the object of which is to distribute rewards to the cottagers for the best ai tides of dirlerent kinds which they can produce upon their allot- ments. One of the most extensive societies of this kind is the " JLye Horticultural Society," in the northern ])art of Suffolk, of which ?ir Edward Kerrison, Bart., is the patron, and a considerable amount was this year distributed in prizes to the cottagers. Admitting, for a moment, to the fullest extent, the advantages which are generally claimed for the large-farm system, and that even the occupiers had gained the ])oint for which they b.ad so long been striving, viz., that of ])rodacing the greatest quan- tity at the least possible cost, still it certainly does a[!pear to be a matter of regret that tiie lal)ourer should be so completely debarred from all the means of cultivating the land upon his own account, and of laising h.imself to a position of comparative in- dependence. As an invariable rule, the agricul- tural labourer commences his career as a weekly labourer; and, whatever may be his talents and in- dustry, he must inevitably end his days as a labourer, or, when unfitted through old age to con- tinue his work, die as a jiaujici'. In a future letter I shall have occasion to refer to several instances of this kind whicli liave come under my knowledge. Without wishing to sjiecu- late u]jon the advantages which would ensue from opening up to the labourer some prospect of h.is being able to rise in the world, or to be admitted into the ranks of the toihng and industrious, but rapidly diminishing, class of small farmers, there is no doubt but that the contntion of the labourer would not l)e worse under such a system than it is at present; and it is not a very extravagant opinion to form — seeing the results v.-hich have already attended the partial adoption of the allotment system — that a more industrious, sober, and intelligent class of ial)ourers would l)e produced, and that a state of greater contentment prosjierity, and happiness wonid exist in the agricultural districts than are at present to l)e found in them, if such a system were more generally adopted. To adopt the words of a gentleman residing in Suffolk, who has paid con- sideral/le attention to the subject, " Let the labourers feel that they liave a slake in society, and tlie great discontent, want, misery, crime, and incendiarism which pervade the count)^ will recede like a mist before the morning sun— many an Eden will spring up in the desert, and many a human being will be- come a better and a hajipier man."' For ability and practical skill in the various occu- pations of husbandry the peasantry of Norfolk, Suffolk, and some jiarts of Essex have few compe- titors who could excel them. The jdoaghing of Norfolk is, perhaps, superior to that of any otiier county in England. The proficiency of the labourer in this department is, jierhajis, in a great measure owing to the very frequent use of tlie plough U])on the land. Notwithstanding tiie neglect and ungenerous treatment which they have experienced too often at the hands of their em- ployers, and tlie small advance which has been made towards affording thein a good education, they are, generally speaking, a manly and indus- trious class of persons, and are jiossessed of a con- siderable amount of practical intelligence and skid. Towards each other they jiossess a considerable amount of good feeling, and are always anxious to afford assistance to the utmost extent of their means. Many instances of self-denying charity upon their ])art have come under my notice. I might refer, upon this point, to the case of a poor woman residing at Woolpits, in Suffolk, who, with tears in her eyes, was telling me of the want and wretched- ness ofinany of her neighbours. Her husband was in constant work, and the cottage she lived in was left to her by her father. Her sole employment appeared to be that of looking up cases of distress, and endeavouring to afford every assistance in her power. "I know the condition," said she, "of a'most all the peopde about here, and many of 'em go through a world of trouble, but there are some a great deal worse off than ihey are about here. In Rattlesdeen there's a hope of people who are very THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wanting ; oh dear ! that's a great ])overty ])lace in- , deed. My poor dear mother knowed the circum- stances of all the poor ])co])]e ahout, and when the l)oor cieature died — and .she was ahove seventy when she died — a'most the last word slie saul was, ' Betsy, don't forget to take the ])oor folk next door a hit of tay to-morrow, and a 'creni of suf^ar, if they want it; and ever since she's dead— and I pray (sod her good soid is in heaven ~ I have always done all as ever laid in my power to help the poor ])eople, though I can't afl'ord to do much. The p :or dear clargyman v/ho was here afore this one used to leave it all to my mother. Poor dear man ! he is gone too, and if a good soul ever goes to heaven I'm sure he's there -that I am. When the new clargyman came, he asked me to do the same for the poor people as my mother used to do, and I said I would ; and many and many's the score shilling that I've got out of the ' sacrament money' for the poor peo- |)le. Afore I go to church on Sundays I always con- sider in myself who's the people that's the most de- sarving of it and as wants it most; andtlicn I jiray to God to put it in my heart wiiat to spake when I go to ask tlie clargyman for the money. Last Sunday of all I got ■73 o §Ph o en '73 w OJ 03 0 Oz. Pints. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Pints. Oz. Oz. Sunday : Men , 8 6 n 1 8 7 IV •• 8 G Women Monday : Men 8 G 1.^ 1 5 5 1^}" '{t •• 8 6 Women Tuesday : Men 8 1 J 4 11 8 Women , . . 6 1 4 u G Wednesday : i Men 8 u 14 8 Women 6 1 14 6 Thursday : Men 8 G 1^ 1 5 5 ,11° -i: •• 8 G Women Friday : Men 8 1^ 4 l-i 8 Women 6 1 4 15 6 Saturday : Men 8 u 14 8 Women G 1 14 6 ' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 illness in the house, except that of two persons who had been brought in ill a few days previously. The children, especially, looked particularly ruddy and well, and the mode in which they dealt with their dinners showed that in their catalogue of wants want of appetite had no place. The sub- joined dietary table will show how greatly superior is the food of the paupers to that of great numbers of the labourers. The number of inmates in this workhouse on the (ith of December was 2S5 ; upon the same day in 1848 the numbers were 338 ; and in 1847, 330; showing a diminution, as compared with 1S4S, of 53, and with 1847, of 45. Infirm Men and Women. Breakfast. Dinner. Supper. *. O O O a le matter of the permanent grass in which all clay land must have originally been, would take away the elements of friability ; while the kneading and poaching of horses' feet in 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the very act of cleatiing would tend to make it a firm, solid, tenacious mass. So that when barley, or clover, or grass, of a more permanent character is required, the land refuses to grow it; and a soil even productive of grass will, by a series of this de- grading cultivation, become so sterile, as well as consolidated and plastic, that it will defy the action of years to render it again useful grass land. Even if the clover can be pursnaded to live over its first and second summers, the land will soon be full of cracks, and the clovers will die out. The rye-grass, and some of the rib-grass, will foUov/, and the most worthless weeds will usurp their l^lace — not, indeed, to cover the land, but to pre- sent here and there a plant, and the remainder to be utterly unproductive. Now, while this tendency prevents the laying down to grass of some of the least productive lands, it is equally opposed to their successful cultivation under barley, clover, &c, ; and this renders what we before said so obvious — the great amount of the difficulties of cultivating successfully clay land. We have been favoured with the remarks of an esteemed correspondent on this matter, which we have great pleasure in presenting to our readers. It is the method we believe, he adopted to ob- tain barley on strong clay land. Sir, — In your remarks on barley, on the 8th of Feb., you say that the quality of barley probably depends more on *' the mechaiiical than the chemical condition of the soil." In confirmalion of that opinion, and as showing the beneficial effect of underdraining, autumnal deep-ploughing, and the free ajiplication of burnt earth, cr rather baked and half-burnt earth, I will mention a particular case. A field of strong wet land, made more stubborn and sterile by long-continued bad cultivation, was undcrdrained, sown with beans, lightly manured, drilled, and hoed ; in the autumn the surface was skimmed, cleaned, and rubbish burnt, with thorns and liedge side sods ; it was then ploughed deep, and thus left to receive the beneficial influence of the winter's frost. Early in the spring, the land being dry, it was harrowed, and barley was drilled in with ashes on a fine mouldy surface, afterwards well hoed two or three times over, working like a fine garden soil. This was a crop that had probably never been sown there before. Indeed the land was considered so unlikely for barley, that a neighbour said they might as well sow his hat-crown with it as that field. The result, however, showed that the new occupier judged better than the old neighbour, for it produced five quarters per acre of good malting barley. Such was the result of underdraining, autumnal cleaning and burning, deep ploughing, ashing, drilling, and repeated hoeing. If the land had remained undrained, and been cultivated in the old way, it probably would have been almost as unlikely for a crop of malting barley as the old neighbour's hat. The same occupier also occa- sionally grew good crops of barley and turnips on other strong land fields after they had been undcrdrained and freely dressed v/ith burnt e;uih ; iivA hu TouikI that barley as well as other spring crops, was better for being sown and mown early. This is quite contrary to ihe old opinion and practice ; but recent discoveries exhibit the erroneousness of so many o!d opinions, that a common opinion may almost be considered as a common error. We must, however, allow that in some cases, m after drainage for instance, the altered condition of the land is sufficient to account for different results. So that the error of old-fashioned farmers consists more in their adhesion to old picjudices and practices than in their judgment according to those practices ; but old prejudices must all give way to such improved practices as present -^ times demand. A. R. F. .■ Now, to obtain a state of soil favourable to the growth of barley and clover, or to restore the vege- table matter which the land has lost, is an object well worthy the attention of the farmer. We will endeavour to lay down a few methods of efiecting both the one and the other. Look at a field technically " fresh," a field re- cently taken out of pasture. It is friable, calculated for any crop ; will grov/ barley and turnips and seeds ; it feels soft, and crushes under the foot. The particles of adhesive clay are removed from each other by interspersed particles of vegetable matter, so that it crumbles and crashes under the feet. Now this can only be restored, when gone, by either adding so much vegetable matter as will by- and-bye effect this — for it is not again so intimately blended and commingled — or by adopting a process of cropjjing calculated for that purpose. The mere sowing of seeds will not accomplish this. The mechanical stubbornness of the soil is so great that it overcomes the vital power of the plants; and hence they die out, and the soil triumphs over all but the vilest weeds. Now, burning the soil, or charring, is better — is just the process required. It may be called a waste of still more vegetable matter ; it may be objected to, that it is making soil into brick- dust : but this is not the ])rinciple — it does not apply here : it is vantage ground gained to the plants. It allows | them to strike-in their fibres ; so that if there is manure enough to keep them alive, they will assert their supremacy again, and by a few years' growth fill the soil with their filaments. These will die and decay, and soon there will be a fresh soil again to grow turnips, seeds, and barley. Now, happily we know several modes of pushing the plants. We can give them the food if we can get the nidus ; and hence we submit, that if the expense will be faced with promptitude and energy, the lands so tenacious and cold as to be worthless to cultivate, may yet be set to rest under grass until they recover. Assu- ming a clean open fallow in the first instance, thoroughly to denude the land of weeds, then an application of guano to push on the corn and seeds TllK FAliMKU'S MAGAZIMC. 63 which may Itc sown with it, added to a j)rjvior.bly burnt clay niixtiiie, will generally secure the do- niinioM of good grasses. If, in the third or fourth year, they are found to fail, a single corn crop, and another similar round of treatment, will generally secure the wished-for object. The burning of clay, though to be done with caution, has too mnch the stamp of utility upon it to tubnit of its success being douijtful when properly applied. At a cost of 42s. i)er acre, Mr. Randall, in Vv'orccstershirc, made a field only worth 7s. 6d. per acre produce -J3 bui.bclsol wheat pel jm re ; and letter improvements, such as Mr. Pym in Cam- bridgeshire, who increased the i)roduce 1') bushels jier acre by burning tlic headlands ; Mr. Litchfuld, in Essex, imjjrovcd his land 25 per cent. Indeed, in soils where it is suitable, it appears to be one oi the easiest and most facile modes of improvement within the soil itself. Once get friability in a clay soil, and all is done. It holds the manure, aiul gives steadiness and permanency to the v/ork. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD. FRANCE.— No. IX. THE GIKONDE — THE CLARET COUNTRY. [from the special CORUESPONDENT of the MORNIISCJ CHRONICLE.] Among the vineyards of France, numerous, famous, and valualjle as they are, it will be gene- rally conceded that the province of Medoc, the claret-producing defjartment of the Gironde, is en- titled, in almost all rcsjjeets, to a pre-eminent, if not the pre-eminent position. As regards celebrity of jiroduee and commercial impcn-tance, neither the vineyards of Burgundy nor of Champagne can vie v,ilh the growths of Bordeaux. The produce of the banks of the Garonne was regularly exported to England when Guienne was an a})panage of our Norman Kings ; and England yet monojjolises some of the very best and most highly-prized growths of her ancient province. The total produce of Medoc is on the average about 165,000 hogsheads per an- num. Of this quantity more than 6,000 hogsheads go to England. The jiroportion seems small, but it comprehends upv/ards of one-half of the total jnoduce of the three most famous and most valuable vineyards in the Gironde — Chateau Margaux, Chateau Lafitte, and Chateau Latour. The district which produces these celebrated wines is in every respect a curious and interesting one. Perhaps no space of land of the same extent in France is ccjually valuable. Yet for any other purpose than that of its vineyards the soil is worth- less. The gravel and sand in the midst of which flourishes the plant whose produce sells at 6s. or 8s. per bottle through the civilised world, would hardly afford sufficient nourishment to a scanty crop of stunted oats. Here and there unwholesome marshes send up their fetid exhalations; and, bounding the region of the most precious vines, runs the dreary expanse of the Landes — inimitable oceans of undulating sand — yielding a scanty growth of bent and furze, or clad in dreary forests of som- bre pine. Before, however, entering upon a description, from personal observation, of the condition of the wine-growing population of Medoc — before sketch- ing the actual appearance of its celebrated vineyards at the most busy and interesting ejioch of their year, the vintage season, I propose devoting this communication to a preliminary account of the en- tire district — its general agriculture, the various growths of its staple product, the ordinary modes of cultivation pursued by its vine-growers, the ex- pense of attending them, the mode of payment adopted as regards the labourers, and in general, all those particulars some knowledge of which will be necessary to the full appreciation of the su1)se- quent details as to peasant life in Medoc. The department of the Gironde, bounded on the west by the ocean, is traversed obliquely from its south-eastern to its north-western extremity by the two great rivers, the Dordogne and the (Jaronne ; which, uniting about 15 miles below Bordeaux, form the broad muddy estuary of the Gironde. Nearly one-half of the whole department is occu- pied by the monotonous waste of the Laudes, and about one-fifth of what remains is i)lanted with vines. The arable land includes nearly 80,000 hectares under wheat, and about half that extent bearing other species of grain crops. The average amount of land lying fallow is estimated at 72,000 hectares ; the extent of pasture, natural and artificial, at f omewhat more than 60,000 hectares ; while the woods maintained for fuel extend over 130,000 hectares. The space allotted to the vine measures about 104,000 hectares ; and comparatively small as it is in proportion to the whole extent of the department, it is only upon an area far more limited still that the grapes are produced which confer upon the in-ovince at once so much of its fame and its wealth. From the frontiers of the Landes, back through the whole extent of the de])artmenf:, the graj)e is cultivated. On the right or landward bank of the Gironde the wine produced is, however, of G4 THE FARMER'S MACJAZLNE. only average merit and local rc])utatu)n. The claret country, par excellence, lies north of Bordeaux, oc- cupying less than half of the breadth of the taper- ing knot of land extending between the CJironde and the ocean, A line drawn from Bordeaux to the nearest point of coast would form the base of a tri- angle, of which the river on one hand, and the sea on the other, would constitute the sides. Divide this triangle longitudinally into two unequal parts. The greater and seaward portion is the northern point of the waste of the Landes, the smaller and landward district includes the precious strip of gravelly country called Medoc. Here, then, on a slice of land, some twenty miles long and two or three miles broad, is collected that mass of pebbles, sand, and powdered rock, which by some mystic process endows the vines springing from it with properties which render them the most famous in the world. The richest soil of the department is that which lies between the two rivers above their point of junction — a flat, occasionally swampy, country known as Entre deux Mers. So far as general agricultural stock is concerned, the department possesses about 119,000 head of horned cattle and 420,000 head of sheep, besides a proportionate number of pigs and goats. Towards the apex of the triangle which I have indicated — namely, the point of land formed by the junction of the Gironde with the sea — lie some of the best pasture grounds, the vine soil gradually deteriorating, and at length disappearing some few miles to the southward. As may be anticipated, it is upon the valuable produc- tions of the vineyards that the greater part of the agricultural intelligence and skill of the district is lavished. The cultivation of the arable and the management of the pasture lands are equally slovenly and ineffective. The species of tenure in jjrincipal use is that very common in the south of France, but comparatively little known in its northern and central districts (with the exce])tion, perhaps, of the cases in which the agreement is re- sorted to by the small proprietary class) — I mean the metaycnje system. This is a species of holding, under which the cultivator or tenant pays no fixed rent, but gives up a proportion — generally one half of the whole fruits — to the proprietor, who is also bound to furnish certain assistance towards the tillage of the land. In the Gironde the proprietor takes half the produce, providing the oxen for ]iloughing, and a stipulated number of sheep — which frequently, I am informed, in consequence of imperfect tending, commit more damage than is repaid either by wool or manure. The metayers are, in general, wretchedly poor — in fact, mere labourers, destitute of either capital or intelligence. As a body they were described to me as being so full of bigotry and old-fashioned prejudice, that it was excessively difficult for any proprietor to intro- duce upon his land anything like agricultural im- provement. It was only after a long and hard struggle that the planting of the potato became general — the people having been somehow im- pressed with the notion that the vegetable in ques- tion caused epilepsy ! No other manure than that furnished by the dung-heap is ever used or thought of, and the extent of drainage effected is exceed- ingly triding. The cattle bred are fed entirely upon grass or natural hay. Artificial meadows are unknown, and the natural meadow land is very seldom improved, either by levelhng or drainage. The consequence is that a considerable portion of the food necessary for the live stock of the district is obtained from the neighbouring department of the Charente Iiiferieure. The wants of the vineyards occasion the culture of a considerable extent of copsewood and willow beds. The stakes for supporting the vines, the hoops for encircling the casks, and the willow withes with which they are bound, are thus to a great de- gree furnished in the district. The small osier is much used in fastening the vine to its echalas or prop, and so great is the demand for this species of wood, that the quantity of swampy river-side ground fitted for its culture has of late years con- siderably increased in value. Taking then a bird's-eye view of the landward half of the Gironde, we find it to consist of a fiat or gently undulating country — vineyards, corn land, natural meadows, and swampy bottoms inter- mingling— the whole expanse traversed by tu'o broad tidal rivers, fed by many slowly flowing tri- butaries— the cultivation of the vine gradually ex- tending in importance and value as we proceed sea- ward, until the gravelly terrace upon which its best powers are put forth fades away and is absorbed in the barren belt of the Landes. Here almost all cultivation ceases. A little millet, black barley, or maize, may here and there struggle into existence; but the sweeping westerly wind in general passes over deserts of wavy sand, bound together by bent and lichen growths, and tenanted by straggling flocks of lean ashen-coloured sheep, grubbing out a miserable living from the dry and stunted her- bage. To the southward these extensive wastes of sand produce gloomy forests of pine, and a spe- cies of stunted scrubby oak. To the northward they are broken by tracts of brackish swamp, or long chains of shallow ponds, containing the surface drainage of the land, which is prevented by inter- vening sand-hills from escaping into the ocean, and which only finds an outlet at distantly-situated points, where the level of the water has attained a certain degree of elevation. Of the Landes and their inhabitants I shall have more to say in a future communication. The shepherds of the lean and tattered flocks which wander over their pathless solitudes form a class of people in many resi)ects sui generis. They dress in sheepskins, and jmss their days mounted upon huge stilts, so as to enable them the better to traverse the sandy plains and shallow pools among which their occupation lies. Living in almost constant solitude, these poor peo- ple are rudely ignorant and superstitious. In the Landes I am assured that belief in sorcery and witchcraft is just as strongly rooted now as it was in the sixteenth century. The legends of the Hartz have, somehow, travelled to these swampy deserts, and the peasancs will show you the spot where all the sorcerers and magicians, the witches and war- locks of the country, meet to hold their devil's sab- baths. The scenes of these unhallowed revels are usually said to be particular expanses of fine dry sandj within which not a blade of aught green can THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 05 grow. These are the haunted spots of the Ivaiidcs, and on no account will the wanderinjr .shepherd dare to cross them after nightfall. To l)c biilfeted by gol)lii)s, and gibbered at by thousands of throng- ing sprites, is the least which can be expected by the rash intruder upon those unholy sands. Moody and sombre as is the ordinary mental tone of the believers in these ghastly tales— brooding and gloomy in .spirit, and taciturn and slow of speech, the jieasants of the Landes can seldom be accused of churlishness or inhospitality ; and miserably i)oor as the vast majority of them are, a wandering stranger will always have his j)ortion of the scanty fare they are able to command. So mucli then for the general asj)ect and charac- teristics of the Gironde. I now turn more espe- cially to that portion of it devoted to the culture of the vine. There at e three distinct species of soil devoted in the Gironde to the purposes of wine-growing. They are locally known as — 1. Les Cotcaux, 2. Jms Graves. 3. Les Palics. The Coteaux belong, geologically speaking, to the tertiary formation— the soil being composed of clay, marl, lime, and gravel. The top stratum is thin, and lies upon a bed of exceedingly hard, stiff, and tenacious earth. Upon land of this character little or no natural vegetation takes place ; and it is the o])inion of French cultivators that the expense which would be necessary to prepare the earth for grain or vegetable crops would far exceed any re- turn which could be possibly derived from it. Be- sides this, the land frequently runs in such steep slopes as would render cultivation, other than that required for the vine, a task of great difficulty. The ground, then, appears to be formed by nature for the purpose to which it is now put; drainage is found to deteriorate rather than improve it; and the few attempts which have from time to time been made to convert portions of the soil into corn land have been total failures. The name of Graves is bestowed ujjon banks or I)lains consisting of a mixture, in different propor- tions, of gravel, sand, shingle, and a species of limy clay, supposed to have been here deposited by cur- rents of water flowing in different directions and at different levels from those which would be permitted by the present lie of the country. The depth of the upper stratum varies from a few inches to as many feet, and many of the pebbles found in it are flinty, semi-translucent, and capable of receiving a high polish. The subsoil is occasionally of clay — in a few spots of rock— but generally either of pure sand or a species of ferruginous deposit, perfectly impermeable to water, and locally known as " alios.''' This latter material must be broken up before vines are planted above it. A peculiar property of this spe- cies of soil is, that not only is it naturally arid, but that it retains with singular tenacity the heat com- municated by the sun. This characteristic of the land is one which would cause it, in agricultural nomenclature, to be ranked as one of those burning soils which in their nature are radically unfit for the ordinary purposes of tillage. The properties, however, which unfit land for bearing corn, seem to be exactly those which make it j)roper for rearing the vine in its very highest perfection. This dry scorched sand, this iinjjer- meable subsod, tinctured with microscopic particles of iron, is exactly the bed suited to the vine. Through the masses of hot gravel its roots shoot and twine, sucking uj) that mystic aliment which the sap carries through the veins of the jilant, and which gives the fruit its subtle virtues. The masses of smooth round pebbles, shining and semi-trans- parent, from which the stem grows, reflect up- wards upon the overhanging grapes the rays of the sun, so as to ripen them the sooner — while the gentle inclinations and half-visible slopes, the softly- rounded hills and shallow hollows, which form the surface of the soil, are admirably adapted to allow on all sides the free access of sun and wind, drying all superfluous moisture, and jiroducing, even through the most tangled clusters of leaves, con- stant currents of pure warm air. It seems a curious anomaly in the natural history of the vine, that a plant, tliriving as it does only on hot dry surfaces, seems nevertheless to be constantly improved by the vicinity of streams of running water. A classic tradition speaks of certain noted Thracian vine- yards which lost their reputation after the course of a neighbouring river liad been diverted; and every one knows that in the case of three at least of the most celel.i rated wines of Europe, the grapes are grown on the banks of as many of its most cele- brated streams. The third species of soil upon which the Gironde vines are cultivated, is known as Les Palus. These consist of rich alluvial beds, perfectly different in their formation and character from the dry sandy nature of the other wine-bearing soil. The Palus generally lie along the margin of the rivers, and consist principally of rich earthy deposits, brought down by the streams. They contain the fattest and most fertile land of the whole jirovince, and would, if so employed, bear magnificent crops of corn. The vine, however, furnishes the most gainful har- vest, and to the vine the Palus are exclusively de- voted. The vines grown upon these luxuriant loamy beds are strong and full in body, rough in flavour, and they are those which a sea-voyage is necessary fully to ripen and mellow. The clarets sent to the East and West Indies, and to America, were formerly the exclusive products of the Palus of Bordeaux. The vine is propagated from suckers or slips. If left in its original wild state it produces a compara- tively small quantity of fruit, but it lives and flou- rishes for centuries, the trunk occasionally acquiring a remarkable development. Culture in general in- creases the product, but shortens the life of the plant. The duration of the latter, however, de- pends in a great degree upon the nature of the soil in which it grows. In strong clayey land the vine lives and bears for a long time, and when the sub- soil is rocky the greatest degree of longevity is ob- tained. Many vines are yet in full bearing' in the Gironde which are knov/n to be more than a cen- tury old ; and in one spot in the district, growing from a (jravc, and mingled with strong adhesive soil, some trunks are shown, still sending forth leaves, tendrils, and a few grapes, which the tradi- OG THE FARMErvS MAGAZINE. tion of the country asseris to liave been friiit-beai'ii)g plants in the sixteenth century. Whatever may be the truth of the legend, there is no doubt but that the vines in question are centuries old, and that they still yield a small quantity of good wme. The planting of vine slij)s commences in the month of February, and ends in May. ^Vhen a rainy sum- mer foUo'.rs the results are uniformly successful. In five years a young vine ought by its ])roduce to .cover the expenses of its rearing. Within ten or .twelve years of its planting it has acquired its full fruit-j)ro',lucing powers. The purer the sand and gra\'el from wliich a vine grows, the sooner does it arrive at maturity, and the sooner is it " used up." The ordinary calculation is that the plants in a vineyard ought to be loplaced eveiy fifty years at the furthest. The young vines are reared much as seedlings are in our own nursery gardens. In planting the slips it is thought to be of importance that the lower jiart of the shoot should be of last year's wood, as being harder and less apt to rot in case of over-abundant moisture. The slips are carefully cleaned and examined, to ascertain if the v.'ood is in a ripe state ; and, if the weather be dry, they are soaked for some hours before insertion in the earth. A trench or broad furrow is then drawn along the whole length of earth to be planted. The breadth of this ri^o/e, as it is called, ought to be about a foot — its proper depth dcjiending upon the quality of the soil. If the latter be very dry, the depth is made about equal to the breadth. When the earth has more of juice and richness, the depth is protjortionably diminished. Along the furrow the slips are planted at a distance from each other of from five to six inches. The second furrow is drawn at about a foot distance from the first, and the whole of the shoots being set so as to slant along the surface at an acute angle, a light roller is passed over them so as to assure their continuing in their almost vertical position — which is held to be more favourable than a perpendicular one for the subse- quent transplanting process. Sometimes, however, vine slips are set in the spots after the fashion in which they are raciint to grow. This method is locally denominated a planter en plantes. The earth is first thoroughly broken up — the deeper the better — and great pains are taken to extirpate all noxious weeds. Furrows, locally called " ranks," are then traced from end to end of the field— if possible in a direction either from north to south, or iVom east to west. Occasionally, how- ever, the slope of the ground, which it is generally necessary to follow for drainage purposes, neces- sitates an oblicjue course for the furrows — standing water in a vineyard soon rotting the plant, and in- variably ruining the quality of the wine. Upoii very steep slopes another plan is adopted. The ranks are arranged horizontally across the descent — it being feared that, were they drawn right up and down, the rapid flow of surface-water in the case of heavy rains would carr)' along with it the precious morsels of hot sand and shining gravel, in which all the mystic virtue lies. To facilitate, however, the escape of rain water, channels are cut here and there transversely across the furrows — • dotted now and then with little basins as reser- voirs, in which descending morsels of so'l ;!rc ar- rested and carefully replaced in their original i)Oii- tion. The space between each rank depends upon the quality of the ground. A metre (about 3^ feet) is the average distance allowed in the case of the vineyards ploughed by means of oxen. In heavy soil, worked by hand with the hoe, the dis- tance between each vine plot is greater — from four to six feet. The varieties of vines and grapes grown in the Medoc and the surrounding district are endless, and each species of plant, distinguished although it iuay be by hardly appreciable differences, has its local name and reputation. Sometimes the distimtion is in the shai)e of the leaf, sometimes in the length of the tendril, sometimes in the colour of the grape, sometimes in the savour of its juice, and sometimes in ihc colour, spirit, hoaquet, or capability for long preservation, of the wine which it jiroduces. The highest class of wines in the Claret districts are ])roduced by amalgamations, in differing })ropor- tions, of seven classes of vine-plants, locally knov.'n as Le Carmcuict, Le Gi-os Verdot,Le Petit Verdot, La Carmenere, Le Merlot, i.e Mtdhech and Le Massontet. The Carmanet and the Carmenere are frequently the only j)lants used in the highest class of vineyards. The Gros Verdot, in years when it ripens perfectly, is said to produce the best v/ine in Medoc. These occasions are, however, rare. The last four seasons in which perfectly matured crops of its grapes were procured, were 1815, 1819, 1S22, and 1S25. Next to the peculiar influences of soil, the proportions in which the vine plants enumerated above are found in the same vineyard are held to determine the more subtle and delicate qualities of the wine. The vines jn-oducing the second and third class vintages are Le Muncin, Le Leiaturier, La Pelnille, La Fdite Ckalosse Noire, lie Cnickinet, and Le Ciontat. The fourth mentioned of these vines produces the fruit generally served up in the Bordeaux district for dessert— and remarkably poor tasting fruit, I may remark en passant, it is ; in fact, the finest wine grapes are hardly worth eating. Chateau Margaux is made of a poor insipid berry, not unlike in savour to an over-ripe and rain- drenched black currant. Teetotallers may say what they please, but grapes were intended by nature for wine and for little else. Let those who doubt the assertion try a bunch nf the grapes of Chateau Margaux and a glass of their fermented juice. The Chalosse Noire is remarkable for its keeping pro- perties. Hung up in clusters in a dry place, it will remain good until the spring following its pro- duction. The wViite wines of Bordeaux ai'e little known ir* England. Nevertheless, the tiuantity grown, prin- cipally for French consumption, is very considerable, Tha vines ])roducing white wine are in general lower than the plants giving red. The ranks in which they are planted have open spaces left between them, in which corn, vegetables, or clover, are cul- tivated. In the vineyards producing the inferior growths, the plants are left unsupported. The earth, in these latter cases, is annually stirred round the roots of the plants by means of the hoe. In the better class of vineyards, the ranks are ploughed four times per season, the process being effected THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 with great nicety, so as tlioroiighly to break up and freshen the earth between the rows, without injury to either root or fibre. The best white-wine vine- yards are those situated ui)on steep slopes with a southern exposure — the soil flinty, and the subsoil clayey. The general routine of cultivation is similar to that which I shall presently describe as i)revail- ing in Medoc. The species of Gii-onde white wine ])est known to us is Sauterne, the growth of a dis- trict upon the Garonne, considerably above Bor- deaux. The rejnitation which Sauterne wines enjoy, and the comparatively liigh ])rices which they bring are locally said to be the results of long continued careful and skilful cultivation, and of the well- balanced selection of different species of vine plants. Much of the juice of the white-wine grape is distilled into brandy. One species, called Le Sauvignen, is a coiunion table grape : it produces a highly per- funud but a very heady wine. The following details as to the culture of the most celebrated vineyards in Medoc, I draw up from the answers which were given to questions )iro])osed by the Academy of Bordeaux to M. A. Joul)ert — a gentleman whose reputation as a savant in all th:'.t relates to the vine, and as an esteemed writer upon its cultivation, renders his authority the best which can be cited. The information in question relates to the Canton of Paulliac, in which are ])roduced some of the most esteemed vintages of the Medoc — amongst others, the St. Jullien and the Chateau Lafitte. Tiie difference between the productions of the various vineyards of the canton is said to depend entirely upon differences in soil. The species of vines cultivated are the same, but the products are always the best in the cases in which the vines grow upon the soil called les graves, the top stratum lying upon the hard ferruginous deposit known as alios. Previously to planting, if the soil has hitherto been virgin hiiides, it is carefully weeded and cleaned, and, after a thorough course of ma- nuring, it is used for a couple or three years for the production of such scanty crops of grain and pota- toes as it will bring forth. If it has been previously used as vineyard no further preparation is deemed necessary for the reception of the fresh slips. The vines are ])lanted over the whole field in rows di- vided by furrows, the distance left between the ranks being about a metre, and that between the ])lants somewhat more. Previously the earth has been thoroughly broken up, and as much as pos- sible turned topsy turvy, so as to expose to the air the more deep-lying portions of the disturbed stra- tum. If the bed of alios lie too near the siu-face of the soil, it is broken up with the i)ickaxe, or holes are dug in it with an iron gimlet, so that the slips of vine can be thrust through. The ground having been thus prepared, a quantity of manure and soft rich earth from the sides of ditches is placed in heaps along the rank to be set. A deep furrow or small ditch, about 18 inches deep, is then dug, and along it the place which every plant is to occupy is carefully marked. Holes are boied, by the help of iron bars, along the bottom of the ditch to the depth of about a foot, and each slip is carefully inserted and supported by a stake of walnut wood. A few handfuls of good rich earth are then carefully de- posited round each of the slips, and upon it a small allowance of manure. Tiic ditch is then filled uji, care being taken, as much as jjossiljle, to reverse the manner in which the earth previously lay— and then the plantation is complete. The great thing to be observed in tending the young i)lant is to keep the soil as dry as ])ossible, and to carry off, as })romj)tly as it falls, all surface water, by means of drainage. For this jjurpose small channels, ])aved with planks of pine, or wilh a species of soft stone, called ino'ellon, are formed throughout the ])lantation. For two and sometimes three years the young ])lants are ploughed six times per annum, a furrow being thrice opened from their roots, and thrice closed upon them. Constant care is also taken to keep the soil clear of weed';. In five years, if these precautions are well observed, the vine begins to bear — in twelve years it has at- tained maturity. In the canton of Paulliac there exist vines which have been undoubtedly in beai-- ing for two hundred years. Many, on the contrar)-, perish within the first half-century. When the earth is composed of mere dry gravel, down the loose interstices of which the roots can dart their fibres, clustering and clinging to the hot stones, the plant lives long ; if the subsoil be, however, im])enetrable, the root fibres turn upwards, and, ajipearing among the surface shingle, shrmk in from the cold and wet, and the plant speedily perishes. Pure sand is also fatal to the vine. If the roots penetrate into a layer of this material, the life of the jjlant is not prolonged above thnty years, its growth is stunted, and its appearance un- healthy. In the very best species of soil, the ordinary duration of the vine ranges from 100 to 150 years, but to attain the lowest of these ages the cidture of the plant when young must have been carefully at- tended to. The seventh year is looked upon as an epoch in the growth of the vine. Its vegetation is then very active, and the crisis is taken advantage of to manure the plant with differenl; species of compost suited to the properties of the soil— with hot pungent manure if the land be clayey, with a moister and less active composition if the soil be light and naturally burning. The manure is ajr- plied by means of the plough, the furrow being drawn so as to lay bare the roots of the entire rank. The operation takes place in the month of Novem- ber, and ought to be repea ed every ten years. So treated, the produce of the vine is sure, in ordinarily good seasons, to be abundant for many scores of years. The regular })runing of the vine takes place in the autumnal months, as soon as the leaves begin to fall. Care is taken to have the process finished some weeks before the probable advent of the fro;its. The chpping and trimming of the plant is one of the most diflicult operations to conduct judiciously which it is necessary for the cultivator to undertake. The nicety of the art consists in the selection of the twigs to be clii)ped away — the workman choosing those which he deems likely to do more damage to the vine, by obstructing the free course of the sun and air, than they will compensate by their fruit- fulness. Every year the vineyards are ploughed four times, and as the earth actually lying between each plant cannot be touched by the ploughshares, F 2 68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, the machine is followed in its slow process among the vines ])y men and women armed with hoes, who, with light and careful touches, stir the soil between the roots. The first ploughing terminates before April. The second takes place during the following month, and is so managed as to turn back around the roots the earth which tlie first ploughing has removed from them. This double process is repeated before the summer heats come on. In July, the leaves of the plant are thinned so as to give free passage to the warmth and air, and inconceivable ])ains are taken in order that each bunch of unripe fruit may be fairly exposed to the hot sunshine. As the grapes grow very low upon the vine, it sometimes happens that the workpeople, while travei-sing the ranks, cover some of the bottom clusters with earth. To remedy this, the workmen are followed by bands of women whose duty it is carefully to e.xamine the root of each plant, and to lift and cleanse any grapes which may have been accidentally buried. The Medoc vines are universally trained to hori- zontal slips of lath, supported upon short stakes not much above two feet high. The vertical laths run in uninterrupted lines from one end of the vineyard to another; and some skill is required in training the branches, so as to give the fruit the benefit of as much sun and air as possible, without unduly twisting or straining the fibres of the wood. The upright ]irops are almost always made of splinters of the walnut tree— the horizontal laths of fir. The material for the former is brought in great quantities from Perigord ; the latter is the product of the pines of the Landes. The withes used for fastening the tendrils grow in the swampy meadow-land by the Garonne. The pruning and training processes which I have described, are said to be very expensive, from the immense amount of hand-labour required. I am informed thet the vine proprietors are very anxious to change the system, but that they find insur- mountable objections in the stupidity and bigoted ignorance of the workpeople, who cannot be per- suaded to attempt any other than the old-fashioned mode of culture handed down from generation to generation. The winter seasons which are most favourable to the vine are those in which moderate frosts prevail. The j^lant can bear a temperature of from six to eight degiees below freezing-point without injury. A tolerably smart and continuous frost is indeed hailed by the vine proprietors as likely to do good service in the way of killing insects. A moderately dry spring is essential to a good vintage. Rains at that period of the year pi event the necessary plough- ing, and breed legions of destructive slugs and snails. The vine blooms towards the end of May, and dry hot weather is then anxiously desired. The charac- teristics of a summer favourable to the vine are a high degree of average temperature, and occasional rains followed by cloudy weather, particularly after the season at which the plant blossoms, and at that when the grape begins to change its colour. For the remainder of the growing time, hot dry weather is essential — autumnal rains damaging the flarour of the grape by causing an over degree of circulation of sap. The vintage in Medoc, in favourable years, takes place in the first fortnight of September. The pre- sent season has, however, been backward, and Oc- tober had advanced a few days before the " au- thorities" issued their injunction for the in-gathering of the grapes. Let me add here, that the vintage law only applies to the vineyards cultivated en plein champ — that is to say, unfenced in the open field. A vineyard close to a dwelling-place, and fenced or walled rounds is considered as in the nature of a garden, and may be dealt with at the proprietor's pleasure. The " ban " having been is- sued for the commune or the arrondissement, work immediately commences, if the weather be at all favourable. It is reckoned of great importance that the process of culling and gathering should go on without interruption ; and, if the weather be un- settled, the vintager will often suspend his opera- tions imtil he judges that he has a good chance of completing them under a cloudless sky. If pos- sible, a vineyard is clean picked in two or three days — the fewer the better. The time, however, necessarily depends upon the supply of labour, which is generally fluctuating, and on the condition of the grapes — the varying state of ripeness of which makes selection of the bunches necessary. The first caskfuls of juice are said to make the best wine. In the case of the premiers crus, much pains are taken in the triaye, or picking out of the grapes in full condition — the unripe and the over-ripe and mouldy fruit being alike left for the manufacture of an inferior class of wine. In the ordinary run of vineyards, however, no such precautions are prac- tically— whatever they may be theoretically — at- tended to. Hard, uncoloured, and unripe fruit, is mingled in the reeking tubs with compacted masses of grapy matter, slimy and mouldy, the effect of the bursting of the majority of grapes in the cluster. The over-sweetness of the last-mentioned lumps of congealed juice, I was told, would compensate for the over-acidity of the unripe fruit. In the white- wine vintage, even from the best growths, there is no picking and choosing, unless the quantity of grapes over-ripe, or pourris, as the phrase is, be very considerable indeed. After the vines grown upon the gravelly soil of the Medoc, those the products of the Palus (or rich loamy deposits contained in the basin of the Garonne) were formerly reckoned the most valuable. Indeed, these latter growths were those which ori- ginally conferred on the Gironde its wine reputation, and they were known and esteemed through Europe before the magic properties of Medoc gravel had ever been dreamed of. The Palas wines are rich, strong-bodied, highly coloured, long in attaining their most perfect condition, but capable of pre- serving their best qualities for ages. The bouquet has a flavour of raspberries. When sea voyages were generally longer than they are now, the pro- ducts of the Palus vintages were the only growth of the Gironde which would bear the necessarily lengthened exposure to a tropical climate, so often resorted to, in order to ripen the wine. Casks were sometimes even sent upon two or three expeditions to the Indian Ocean before their contents were held to have arrived at the most perfect and deli- cious stage of development. For some time after THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. G9 the rise into celebrity of the Medoc growths, those of the Pahis were used for mixin}): with, and forti- fying, the more feeble body of the lighter class of wine. That duty is now, however, generally per- formed by the luscious wines of Roussillon, and the fiery growths of the Rhone vineyards, particularly Hermitage. The change in the ingredients used for strengthening and adapting to northern climates and northern palates the pure juice of Medoc, is considered to have been a disadvantageous one ; but the superior cheapness of the Perpignan and Rhone wines constitute their effectual recommenda- tion. The present growths of the Pains are de- teriorating in value and flavour. Formerly a very high-class species of grape was alone used in vine- yards, j)roducing the premiers cms ; but the pro- prietors are now constrained to set their grounds with plants bearing a more abundant harvest of an inferior quality. Palus wine ought to lie in cask for at least six or eight years before it is drunk. The expense of cultivation, great in all vineyards, added to the small demand for these wines, and the risks to which the grapes are exposed from the frequent over-abundant moisture of the waterside tracts of grounds on which they are produced, point strongly to the expediency, which is generally recognised in theory, of converting the vineyards in question either into meadows or corn land, for both of which purposes they are well suited. From statistical details before me, I extract the following account of the expenses and products of a Palus vineyard, the year being an average one, from which it will be seen that the profits of the culture are by no means extravagant: — The vineyard produces 15 casks of wine, at l60f. the cask, making 2,400f. The expenses of culture to be deducted are — f . Taxes, roads, municipal charges 90 Sweeping up ditches and enclosures 1 00 Labour employed upon the vines, pruning, training, ploughing, &c 400 Cutting and planting shps -. 30 Prices of casks at Uf. 53c. each, stakes for supporting the vine-stalks, and tendrils for tying 952 Expenses of vintage 172 Miscellaneous expenses, including cooperage, port charges, and discount 270 f.2,014 And leaving a balance of f.3S5 or 3f. 85c. per cent. The expenses not included in the above estimate, viz., the cost of keeping up buildings, and the in- terest on capital, are held as being defrayed by the sale of the dry cuttings of vines, used for kindling fires, and the vegetables raised between the rows of wine plants. Accompanying the above estimate I subjoin ano- ther relative to the products, and expenses of cul- ture, of an average vineyard in Medoc. The vineyard produces shx casks of wine, each containing 912 litres, at 500f.- duct of 3,0()0f. The annual expenses are — -in all a gross pro- f. c. Sum i)aid the contracting labourer for hand-work 7,000 stakes, at 7f. 50c. the 1,000 12 sheaves of withes 12 ditto smaller 4,000 laths, at 22f. the 1,000 Four ploughings, at r20c. the 100 feet of vine Manuring per annum 2,000 feet of vine, 15 cart-loads of manure 50 days' wages to weeders 50 days' wages to hoers, following the plough 200 days' wages for tying and training the vine, clearing from earth the lower bunches, &c These last three items are women's wages. Transport of stakes, laths, &c Expenses of vintage 24 casks Transport thereof Repair of vintage utensils Local taxes Transport of casks from cellar to barge. . Freight to Bordeaux Gratuity to sailors, per cask, if „ to boatmen Leakage Discount Expenses of enclosures, &c 126 00 52 50 42 00 18 00 88 00 120 ni 123 00 25 00 25 00 100 00 100 00 50 00 360 00 9 00 15 00 50 00 12 00 13 50 6 00 3 00 60 00 90 00 25 00 Total, 1,513 0 Which, deducted from the gross proceeds, as above, leaves a balance of 1,487 0 From this sum, however, there is still to bo deducted : — f. c. Interest of advances 75 65 Renewal of the vines 200 0 Allowance for damage by frost, rain, or hail 150 0 Total 425 65 Which, deducted from l,4S7f., leaves a net balance of profit of f.l,06l 35 The cultivation of wines in the Gironde is con- ducted upon what is called the pri.r fait system — that is to say, a contract is made with a labourer or labourers to attend to and do a certain portion of the ordinary and necessary work of the vineyard, at a certain sum for a certain extent of land. The space commonly covered by each contract in Medoc is one of 3,000 square feet, and the extent of vineyards is commonly estimated by the number of prix faits which they contain. The work done by the prix-faiteur is confined to the tying up the plants, cutting and trimming them, and in general attending to the above-ground portion of the labour. Planting fresh vines, ploughing, manuring, and 70 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. vintage work are all extras. The prix-fuiteur re- ceives, in addition to his money v/ages, a hou?e and garden — generally cloPe to the \ ineyard in which lie labours— and several perquisites, of which a detailed account will be given liereafter. The wages of the labourers, not contractors, but hired by the year, are paid partly in kind, partly in money. The amount given in kind is increased in the case of married men. The Gironde vineyards are seldom or never farmtd ; indeed th.e use of land, granted for a fixed sum per annum, is a tenure almost un- known in the country. During the vintage season, at all events, the proprietors of estates are generally ]n"esent ujion their grounds. Many of the smaller ov/ners live in Bordeaux, or in the coimtry towns in the vicinity of their properties. There are, as I have said, three estates in Medoc, th.e Vv'ine grown upon which is of unrivalled quality; these are the Chateau Margaux, Latour, and Lafitte. The soil upon v/hich the Chateau-Margaux wine is grown consists of a thin layer of warm gravel upon a bed of alios. The products in average years are about 100 tonneaux, each tonneau containing four hogsheads. Eighty of these are ordinarily reckoned as the highest class wine, and have been sold at from 2,200 to 2,400 francs per tonneau. The second class wine sells at some 300 francs beneath the price of the first growth. The estate of Chateau Lafitte is situated near the small town of Paulliac. It yields annually 100 tonneaux of first-class, and from 20 to 30 of second-class wine. The exposure of the vineyard is easterly ; the soil much the same as that of Margaux. Chateau Latour lies in the parish of St. Lambert, a dependency of the commune of Paulliac. The produce ranges from 70 to 90 ton- neaux. The wine has more body than either Mar- gaux or Lafitte, and ought to be kept a year longer before bottling. Nearly 90 tonneaux are annually ])roduced. The great proportion of these three high-priced and exquisitely flavoured wines goes to England. The second class wines are generally reckoned three in number. The estates of Monton, near Lafitte, produce from 80 to 90 tonneaux ; those of Leoville, the first of the St. Jullien growth, from 100 to 130 tonneaux; those of Rauyan, near Mar- gaux, from 70 to yo tonneaux. In addition to the tln-ee first-class Medoc wines, that of Haut Brion — a growth of the banks of the Garonne above Bor- deaux, and one of the vintages producing Vin de yrane — is commonly classed as a first-rate Bordeaux wine. Neglect and unskilful culture have for some years back aided the caprices of fashion, and the growth has greatly declined in estimation. The vineyards which produce it are now, however, again under first-rate management, and the results are likely to be the restoration of the wine to something like its former high position. Several Medoc estates have changed hands within the last fifty yearis. Chateau Margaux, which was sold in 1802 for 651,000f., was resold in 1836 for l,300,000f. ; Lafitte changed owners in 1803, the sum paid being l,200,000f. The Haut Brion vine- yards brought 525,000f. in 1824 ; in 1837 they were sold for 277,OOOf, —Norfolk Chronicle. PROFITS OF FARMING. Dear Sir, — The accompanying table, giving an abstract of the cash account of a small farm of one ImndreJ acres for the last twelve years^ may, perhaps, be interesting to some of youv reader?. I believe it requires uo explanation. Yours very truly, Agricola Minor. CCODCCCOCCCCCOCOOOOOCOOO CO -^I 05 en rf^ CO (.5 I-' C '-0 CO ^ re CO -^i C3 ui *. w (o ^-1 kfc- io oi f^ ^.^ n ^ S. £. B PT'"^? a. w S !i c 5- B ro c^ S ^^ o- W %- n O iO «5 <0 to iO (\J (C !0 )0 .o fO H^ ^ •^l en O >-' 1— ' O C'J Oi 'O ^1 00 OS ^ CiOtnO>-i^l-;^l— '.«> o 1— i 1— 1 1— ■ l-'i— I'^i—iCJtOi— 'COJO^ll-'iOC Kij" (CI- loi- *» CT «; tK l-JCOrfimiOCSCOCOOtCOCD mC(Srf»050«3»(^OSOO«C>Ui^I:yi ^ oooai-'tntocoMootnoJSi. > «0 <0 (\3 id (O 4i.OC0ClOl-iO0SOn- ioool-'catoooo^«o^o•>o^^^ totoeococoHf^osootnOiO; ^ w (MOivxtoaivit-'vi-icaciVico a a- OSOMGOtnCOCOJOCCMC. ^sc 7- ^^C5CC*'i0 0505WCCC5^<->ti 1— 'ocoosocr. ^cc'.oco^ii-' o o COtOC3M05:OrfiOiOC5 05i-'oi OO'-JOOltO-'tCKl^lCOCOci, i=H loi^ isH ,j|.-iclf- lOioojiooitoiOH-tohstcw &o*-c«co*.tt-cowotJ(oc:3" M 001— 'ODOS0501tOl*'?OlOiCW_71 OCOOC505tSM*»tO!OMl-iO- o" K o CiCoit'tnCOkli.Co*' OTif^CnHs 05Gc*.^S500^;oosco^DCliic 1— i«O5OOS00Ol-afc.c;?^K m OSCni-i5005tn^J05iOl— 'Ot-Jyi 3 c f-t 0500030-lroOOOOOCw V ■-1 -t 00 ^l Oi 0> Oi 03 ^1 05 -). ^l -jrf^^tn^ic/icncoto-li— '"-^Hj Ol-'U^l-'^5CC^^&3rf^tOtOCO •ro -TS 0>f^^lOOl*-Ul!D05COCOl— 'ft, rf^i— iH-ioi— coH-'i— 'Oooicc--o CDO505OT-IO51— i^OI— '^-OO-^-Ito rf^ iO 'j3 CO 05 VI • S: 2 t+3 CTJ 00 O 2. o ^ ST C« I >-' Ul \^ ■-■ o • H- -^1 en CO • THE FARMER'S MAGAZIXl 71 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A LECTuaE, Oa the Agrioultural ]',mploymeiit of Common Salt, was delivered before the Member, at a Weekly Council, held at the Society's House, in Hanover- square, on Wednesday, the 14tb of May, tlie Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., Trustee, in the chair, by Professor Way, the Consulting Chemist to the So- ciety. ON THE V&K OF COMMON SALT IN AORICULTURE. Mr. Way commenced his lecture by adverting to the circumstances under which it was given. A few weeks ago, ut a meeting of the Society, one of its members. Baron Mertens, expressed the desire of his (the Belgian) Govtrnraent, to elicit from English agriculturists, their exjierience with regard to the use of salt; and »t the suggestion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs and other gentlemen, it was arranged that it should form the subject of a lecture to be delivered by the chemist of the Society. He (Mr. Way) had great pleasure in appearing before the So- ciety, in accordance with their request ; but they must not expect him to bring before them anything particu- larly novel on the subject. The question had been re- ]ie:itedly discussed by able men in lectures, books, and special essays, particularly at the period when the re- moviil of the duty on salt was contemplated and effected ; and more recently, when a like measure was proposed by the French Government. To re-open the question in detail would require not one, but several lectures; and he considered that, under the circumstances, the wishes of the Society would be best carried out, if he simply recapitulated the various conditions in which salt had or had not been beneficial as a manure, and the no less va- rious opinions which were held as to its mode of action. It was with the last that his business chiefly lay, and in reviewing tliem, he should pass rapidly over those which were open and palpable, and give his chief attention to those others which, from their obscurity, were more worthy of investigation. He should endeavour to com- press what he had to say into the space of half an hour, in order that those whose practical experi- ence it was so important to obtain, might have an op- portunity of communicating it to the Society. The combined experience of those who had obtained favour- able results from the use of common salt went to prove : 1. That common salt improved the quality and v.-cight per bushel of the grain of wheat, barley, and oats. 2. That it strengthens the straw of these cereal crops. 3. That it increases the crop and improves the quality of swedes, turnips, and carrots, and still more of Man- gold-wurlzel. 4. That it improves the quality of the grass in healthy pastures, and makes it more palatable to stock. 5. That it kills wireworms and slugs, and de- stroys noxious weeds. 6. That it promotes the health of animals when given with th(ir food. Common salt has also been found beneficial to potatoes, peas, &c,. but not so commonly as to the other crops mentioned. Now, in order to establish the fact of the beneficial action of salt, it was not necessary, in Mr. Way's opinion, that every person should have obtained a similar result ; n(ir was it necessary even that a mul- titude of instances of success should be adduced. One experiment, intelligibly carried out and truthfully re- ported, wa'? sufficient to prove that salt has, in certain conditions, a beneficial elfect upon crops. On the whole, however numerous may have been the cases of failure (and it is to be remembered that failure is less often reported than success), it must be allowed that there was ample evidence to prove that common salt exercises some influence on vegetation, and it was worthy of observation that when employed in moderate doses, this influence has rarely been found to be noxious or prejudicial. Tiie question, then, was as to the nature of that influence; that salt kills wireworms and slugs, if a fact, is one of those facts which needs no demon- stration or discussion ; th;;t it destroys weeds is of the same kind, other plants equally suffering from its effects when used in excess. But in what way does it improve the quality of wheat .' in what way strengthen the straw of corn crops ? of what nature is its influence upon tur- nips and rnangold wurzel ? these are the points which demand the attention and investi.;ation of science. Now the advocates of common salt have been in the habit cf explaining its action by reference to many different pro- perties They have called it a stimulant to plants. This is in reality no kind of explanation, but only the asser- tion of the fact. Common salt is observed to cause an increased and energetic vegetation, and it is therefore said to stimulate: but how it brings about th^s result we are not told. Tiie property of salt of attracting mois- ture had also been referred to as accounting for its action. There was no doubt that salt did increase the proportion of moisture in the soil, but to a very small extent. Mr. Way had made a calculation by which he found that 20 bushels of salt applied to an acre of land, would, if it attracted water till it was entirely disi-olved, add only half a per cent, of moisture to that ordinarily present in the soil. An experiment made by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, and quoted by him in his excellent essay on the use of salt, as proving the increased absorption of moisture caused by salt, only showed that this effect was really in- significant. One thousand parts of a dried soil, that by exposure to the air for 18 hours gained 25 parts of mois- sure, was found by Mr. Johnson, when salted at the rate of six bushels en acre, to gain 2G, and at the rate of 12 bushels, 27 parts of moisture in the same time. Mr, Way did not think that the property of salt to attract and retain moisture went far to explain its beneficial ef- fects on laud, and the same was true in a lesser degree of muriate of lime or any other deliquescent salt which it might give rise to in the soil. Tlien it has been sup- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. posed that common salt is a direct food of plants ; that is to say, that it is necrssary to enable them to build up their organs, in the same way that phosphorus and sulphur are now known to be indispensable elements of vegetation. Were this actually the case, the whole question would be set at rest. Supposing that common salt existed in every kind of vegetable in such definite quantity as to lead to the belief that it was a component part of their organised structure, then plainly its exis- tence in the soil in some shape or other would be ab- solutely necessary for vegetation ; and we could readily understand how its artificial supply would in some in- stances have the best result; this point, therefore, de- manded attention. The analyses of the ashes of plants had shown, that whilst common salt was present in very large proportion in mangold wurzel, carrots, turnips, and such-like plants, and in lesser although still con- siderable quantities in the grasses and the straw of dif- ferent corn crops, it was almost, and in some cases en- tirely, wanting in the seeds of plants. Thus by the table to which he directed their attention they would see that, whilst 1,000 lbs. of mangold wurzel contained as much as 37 oz. of salt, the same quantity of wheat furnished only 1 oz. ; indeed the last figure was a mani- fest exaggeration, since in the ash of 26 samples of wheat examined by him, only four cases had occurred in which common salt could be detected at all, and the amount mentioned above was the average of those four cases. This was a very important fact, and one which must be steadily kept in view, in attempting to discover the part played by salt in vegetation. If it was contended thit common salt was part of the food of plants (and it must be remembered, that in speaking of the food, at all events of the mineral food of plants, we could only be guided by what we found in them), then liow came it to be absent from the grain of wheat in 22 out of 23 instances .' Mr. Way observed that it was at all times dangerous to generalise to too grtat an extent, and therefore it might hardly be safe to say that what applied to wheat must also apply to mangold and turnips— that since common salt was not a necessary ingredient of wheat, its existence in such large quantities in mangold was also accidental ; but it must lie allowed that the nature of the respective plants in some measure justified such a conclusion. The grain of wheat, for instance, con- tained, when ripe, from 10 to 15 percent, of water, and 85 or 90 per cent, of dry matter. In the turiiip or mangold, on the contrary, the state of things was entirely reversed : in these roots, for 10 or 15 per cent, of dry vegetable matter, we find from 85 to 90 percent, of water. It was reasonable to suppose tJiat this water would contain a portion of any soluble salts existing in the soil, and quite evident that from the quantity of water present in the turnip or brct, we must expect to find in these roots a considerable amount of sub- stances having nothing whatever to do with vegetation. The seeds of plants are, when ripe, individually per- fect, which no oilier parts of plants are. The stems and other solid parts have always in them the unma- tured and circulating juices in all states of transforma- tion. On the other hand, in the seed of a plant, every portion seems to become fixed. As the period of final maturation approaches, all substances not actually re- quired for its well-being are excluded and expelled from it. Finding phosphorus and sulphur, magnesia and potash, in large quantity in the ripened seed, but failing to detect common salt there, we are justified in supposing that the former substances are, and that the latter is not, indispensably necessary as an element of vegetable nutrition. It remained to be seen whether the presence of common salt in the root crops is to be ac- counted for on the supposition that it is really an element of their food ; but, in the meanwhile, Mr. Way wished to call attention to the circumstance, that, although common salt, as a whole, might not constitute any por- tion of the food of plants, the alkali which it was capable of furnishing might yet be of great importance to vegeta- tion. Common salt is the muriate of soda, that is to say, the alkali soda combined with muriatic acid. Now, it has been alieady shown that this compound is not a necessary constituent of the grain of wheat. In the analysts of wheat-ash before mentioned, soda was gene- rally detected in small quantity; in comparison, how- ever, with that of potash, the proportion was so minute as to lead to great doubts whether soda was indispensable to the crop in question. In the root crops soda is fre- quently found in large quantity in other forms of combi- nation besides that of the muriate ; but even here its presence was not constant, for he (Mr. Way} had ex- amined several samples of turnips in which no soda existed beyond that combined with muriatic acid. Taking these two circumstances together — the entire absence in some cases of common salt from seeds, and the equally well-ascertained absence of other salts of this alkali from turnips and other root crops — he was inclined to think that the theory which supposed com- mon salt to be directly or indirectly — either as a whole or as a source of soda — a constituent of the food of plants was not satisfactorily made out. It only remained, therefore, to examine in what way salt could act as an agent of vegetation. The French had an excellent method of classifying the substances used as manures. With them only those substances were called " manures" which were known to operate by sup- plying some of the elements requisite for the nutrition of plants ; thus ammonia and its salts would be manures, as supplying an element (nitrogen) entering into the composition of plants. Those other applications which contribute to improve the texture of the soil, and to bring into play its dormant energies, are known as " amendments" or " improvers." Sand added to a heavy soil would be of the latter class, as would lime, because although it is certainly part of the food of plants, we evidently use it with other views when we ap- ply it in such large doses to our fields. Salt, then, hav- ing failed to prove its claim to be ranked under the first head in the French agricultural vocabulary, it remained to be seen whether it operates as an indirect agent in ve- getation. Indeed, granting the efficacy of salt as an ap- plication to the soil, this was the only other way of ac- counting for its effects. It had been said that salt in 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 73 small doses hastened putrefaction, and that in this man- ner it was capable of furnishing the growing plant with a more abundant supply of vegetable and animal food. Mr. Way had no personal knowledge of this property of salt, and the assertion did not ap- pear to him to be altogether free from doubt. But at all events it so happened that the soils upon which salt has been most successfully employed, that is to say, the light and open soils, were precisely those in which the decay of manure is very rapid, and in which consequently there would be less necessity for the kind of assistance which salt was con- sidered capable of affording. Although he did not intend to deny the possibility that salt might be bene- ficial, in consequence of the property imputed to it of decomposing vegetable matter, Mr. Way observed that we must seek some further explanation of its action. He had now to bring before their notice a property of salt, which, so far as he could learn, was entirely new. When a portion of a soil is shaken up with water, and the mixture allowed to stand till it g^ts clear, or is other- wise rendered so by filtration, the presence of a little lime, in the state of sulphate and other soluble salts, will generally be detected by the proper tests. If in- stead of water, a weak solution of common salt was employed, the indication of lime in the liquid would be immeasurably greater than in the other instance. Now if common salt was acted on by soils in the same way as salts of ammonia and potash— its base, soda, being ab- sorbed by the soil, and lime uniting to the muriatic acid — this dissolving out of lime would be of easy explana- tion. Mr. Way had, indeed, on a former occasion, stated that soda was subject to the same law of absorption as the other bases mentioned, but he had at that time made no very definite experiments on this subject. Subsequent investigations had shown him that some soils, at all events, have no power of retaining this alkali, and the soil which he had just used before them was such an one ; it did not absorb soda from common salt. How then were they to account for the quantity of lime dis- solved? At present he was not in a position to say with authority ; but as he had proved to his own satisfaction that it did not arise from the presence of any of the ordinary salts of lime in the soil, he was led to believe that the common salt acted on certain silicates of lime present, in a way as yet not understood ; and at the same time as it afforded a supply of lime to plants, gave rise probably to a modification of silica important to the straw of the cereals. Eut leaving out of the question this latter possibility, the mere increase of the quantity of lime in a soluble con- dition might itself go fur to account for the effects of salt. Our whole system of agriculture was an attempt to heighten and increase the energy of those causes which operate naturally on a smaller scale. The ap- pointed solvent of lime was probably carbonic acid, but it is easy to conceive that the artificial cultivation of certain crops would rt quire more copious supplies of this substance than could be furnished by the usual methods. Salt may at this point step in, and meet the emergency in a way consistent with the functions of the plant, and minister to the artificial wants of the crop in an unusual and artificial manner. Mr. Way was at present following up these experiments, from which he hoped to derive some information. It would be seen, then, that the presence of large quantities of common salt in root and other crops might be only a secondary result due to this substance, having been executing its office as a solvent, and thus introduced into the juices of the plant. Having now taken the liberty of adding another theory to the already too large list on the action of common salt, and having expressed his opinion in favour of those views, which held it to be an agent rather than an element of vegetation, he would le:ive the further discussion of the question in the hands of the meeting. Professor Simonds, the Veterinary Inspector to the Society, then made a few observations, at the request of Professor Way, on the Action of Salt on the Animal economy. He was not then prepared to enter fully on the subject; but he might remark, as a general rule, that although different conclusions had been drawn from the use of Salt, according to the amount and under the circumstances it had been supplied, it was exciedingly beneficial in moderate quantities, but prejudicial in large ones, as a condiment for the food of animals. He was aware that it had been considered by some persons to be injurious, in producing abortion in ewes and cows. His experience, however, had not led him to such an opinion ; for even when large quantities of salt had been given to animals, he had not found that it exerted any specific action on the uterine system, such as that which the ergot of many grasses was so well known to exert both violently and deleteriously on those organ-. He thought undue quantity of food and plethora the naore probable cause of abortion. It was difficult to fix the limit in which salt should be given to animals. Prof. \Yay had placed in his hands a tabular statement of the amount of common salt contained in various kinds of herbage, from which he had been enabled to estimate the amount of that substance constantly taken into the stomachs of grazing cattle along with thtir ordinary food. He showed that cart horses, feeding on meadow hay, bean meal, and bran, took in a considerable daily proportion of salt ; that in other cases the hay was salted ; and that the free use of rock-salt was common on a farm : while the animals thus receiving these sup- plies of salt were not only uninjured by its use, but absolutely benefited in their health, gaining vigi.ur and strength. Sheep fed on clover-hay and turnips would not receive so large a proportion of saline matter, and might therefore have more salt given to them in addition to their food. Horses might take with advantage from an ounce and a-half to two oun.es of salt daily : but an excess of it, no doubt, would render animals veeak, d;;bi- litated, and unfit for exertion. Similar facts were applic- able also to oxen, which accumulated flesh faster by the judicious use of salt than without it. Arthur Young, in his examination before a committee of the House of Commons, in 1818, had stated that he found salt prevent the rot in sheep ; and Sir John Sinclair and many others had given evidence to the same effect. Prof. Simonds 74 THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE. then alluded to the solubility of common salt, and its passage into the stomach and intestinal canal ; its ab- sorption into the system by the veins, its action on the liver, and Uie supply of soda it yielded to the bile : thus leading to a greater amount of nutriment being derived from the food. Sheep living on pastures giving them the rot were found to recover when they had access to salt ; and he thought the probable cause of shetp not rotting on salt-marshes, and recovering ^vhen put on them, was the healthy stimulus thus communicated by the salt to the liver of the animals, by which that organ vpas guarded from disease, and its functions invigorated. Salt, too, was well known as a vermifuge, destroying many kinds of worms in the intestines of animals, and conferring healthy tone of action which prevented their re-occurience. He then alluded to the prophylactic, or preservative, influence of saline impregnation against marsh evlialations, and its power of destroying the poison of those miasmata, as shown by Dr. Stevens in his work on the blood, where reference is made to the fact, that at Salir.a, in Genessee county, near Oneida Lake, in the state of New York, all the individuals in and about some salt works, situate in the midst of a marshy district, escaped from the attacks of marsh fever, while the popu- lation aiound them suffered. — Colonel Challoner's atten- tion was cal'cd to the value of salt about fifteen years ago, by t'le late Earl Spencer ; and since that time he bad invariably used it for his cattle, which in conse- quence had attained to a better condition of flesh than they liad done when no salt was given to them. His Devons were the best cattle on his farm, and they con- sumed the largest quantity of that substance. — Mr. Fisher Ilobbs had little more to state on that occasion than he had stated when the subject was discussed by the Council a few months previously. He agreed with Colonel Challoner, that those of his animals which had the most salt did the best, and even pined after it when it was withheld from them. He did not consider that it acted simply as a manure on grain crops ; but itstiiTened and briglitened the straw, and caused it to ripen from t.T0 to five days earlier than it would otherwise have done. In the case of root-crops it was more beneficial to mangold- wurxel than to turnips; and in fact, that great caution was required in its application to the tur- nip plant, which was easily injured by its injudicious use, on account of its great etlect on the vitality of that plant. It increased tlie size of the mangold bulbs, and caused the plant to retain its fertilizing character during dry Sf^asons. He applied the pilchard -fishery salt broadcast on each side of the plants in July, either alone (in pai ti- cuiar seasons) or mixed with ashes or guano (which im- proved it), and then scarifying it in. The frost had less effect on the salted than on the unsalted portions of his land ; and by its means light soil becomes more retentive of moisture, and more adherent and compact in its cha- racter. His land was variable, consisting principally of sand, gravel, and mixed soil. The fishery salt he em- ployed was nearly of the same price as the ordinary salt of commerce, and it contained oil and animal matter deiived frora the fish. The wireworm died in it. In conclusion, he considered salt to be very beneficial to the soil, either alone or in a state of mixture with other sub- stances.— The Rev. A. Huxtable was ratherleaving off salt. Those of his sheep which had the most of that substance were the least improved in their weight ; in fact, one ewe, very fond of salt, had become a mere skeleton from tak- ing it in excess. He found that his animals were much purged by the use of salt. His milch cows, however, requiring more flesh than fat, were much benefited by it. Roots were much used by him, and he continued lo use salt with great effect as u manure for their growth ; in- deed, in this respect he could not do without it, especially in the case of his mangolds and carrots, for the latter of which, being a sweet root of which all insects were fond, it acted as a shield against depredation for these crops. He drilled it in with ashes and urine. He mixed a saturated solution of salt with dissolved bones, and found it produce a more pasty and decomposed substance. His soils were gravel, clay, and chalk. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs thought it probable that the circumstance of Mr. ITuxtable's sheep being tied up when the salt was given to them, was the cause of the purging ; for he had known it to be the common practice in Leicestershire some years ago, when the sheep had a purging upon them, to get them into a fold, and give each of them half a handfol of salt as soon as the dianhoea made its appearance. This practice he had himself usually adopted with success, and he believed it to be common among flockmasters. — Tiie Chairman, when travelling abroad, had noticed in the middle of hotel yards, where relays took place, a large block of salt, to which the post-horses had free access. He con- sidered that horses in full work derived an advantage, more or less, according to circumstances, from tins sub- stance. With regard to its effects on vegetation, a curious result had occurred in Cheshire, where the Mar- quis of Westminster had applied salt liberally on a road four miles long, for the purpose of destroying the weeds on it ; but it was found that the weeds, instead of being destroyed by this application, were more numerous than ever. — Mr. Barrow had found salt improve the strength and quality of his wheat straw, his neighbour's crops having been laid while his stood well. He had entirely destroyed fine rows of box in his garden by applying salt on his gravel-walks for the purpose of kiihng the weeds. — Mr. Parkins had not had a weed on his gravel- wcdks for five years, by forming them on a bed or sub- stratum of chalk mixed with coal-gas tar sifted over with gravel, and allowed to set ; lime being used when a more compact substratum (capable of bearing the pressure of a loaded cart wheel without yielding) was requiied. — Mr. Mechi had used 150 tons of salt on 170 acres of land during a five years' occupation. He found it essen- tially necessary for cattle and horses, when fed on wheat straw cut into chaft' with bean meal. If salt were not given, their coats appeared rough and unhealthy; but with salt they were sleek and healthy. His pigs and sheep aUo had salt. Horses and cattle received two ounces daily, yearling calves one ounce. Without being able to give the scientific reason, salt gave strength and bright- ness to the wheat straw, and prevented its lodging. He applied it at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre, mixed with the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 75 same weight of guano. He also used a large quantify under the animals, to fix the ammonia in their manure, \vhicli it did far more effoctually than gypsum. lie had known of great advantage resulting from mixing it in the dunghilL It was very i)eneficial to mangold wurtzel. It certainly, with all deference to Mr. Way, appeared to render the land more wet and adhesive. He thought it would not be so beneficial on undrained heavy lands. Early on a hot summer's morning he had observed the grains of salt formed a wet spot, as though they had attracted moisture from the dews. — Professor Way ex- plained that common salt might be a better fixer of ammonia than gypsum, on account of its greater solu- bility. Salt, from any deliquescence it occasioned, might aHe(!t land in regard to colour and resistance to the action of frost ; but moisture was not the simple cause of the good cfl'ects of salt. — Jlr. Dyer instanced the deliquescent effect of salt in bacon-salting rooms, where the pavement was constantly damp. He had even known milk spilt on deal boards years ago, which now in damp weather always attracted moisture where the milk had been originally absorbed. — Mr. Fisher Ilobbs referred to the power of tlie fishery salt to fix ammonia, and used it frequently with guano with a view to tliat object. — Baron Mertens expressed to the Council his thanks for the kind manner in which they had acceded to his request, on the part of the Belgian Government, that this subject should receive the aVtenlion and give rise to practical discussion. He would only further trespass on their time by inquiring whether any experi- ments had been made to ascertain the increase in the weight of milch cows, and of the milk they yielded, in consequence of tlie use of salt as part of their food ? — The Rev. A. Hu\tuble, having a dairy of forty milch cows, had found it difiicult to make experiments on that express point ; but Boussiugault had last year given an account of experiments similar in their object to those which were now tlie subject of Baron Mertens's inquiry. — On the motion of Colonel Ch.;lloner, seconded by Lotd Bridjiort, the thanks of the Council were given to Professor Way and Professor Simonds for the favour of the statements they had on that occasion made to the members, on a subject interesting and important in itself, but dependent on various circumstances of con- dition, and a clear elucidation of scientific principles, for its correct comprehension and practical application. — Mr. Raymond Barker expressed a hope that the learned Professors would kindly consent to deliver these short introductory lectures more frequently to the members at the weekly sittings of the Council ; a request to which Professors Way and Simonds expressed their willing assent. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover- square, on Wednesday, the 21st of May : present, the Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., Trustee, in the chair, Lord Bridport, Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., Mr. Arkwright (Hamjiton), Mr. Arkwright (Sutton), Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. D. Burton, jun., Colonel ChriUoner, Mr. Clavering, Mr. Cosens (Lang- don), Mr. Dunn, jun., Mr. Hudson (Castleacre), Mr. Maddison, Mr. Pendarves, M.P., Professor Sewell, Mr. Smith (Exmoor), and Mr. George Wilbraham. Draininff.—Mr. Arkwright, of Sutton Hall, Derby- shire, favoured the Council with a statement of the successful manner in which he was improving his estate in that neighbourhood, consisting chiefly of strong clay with very little soil upon it, by means of consecutive I draining, carried on by degrees, and according to cir- cumstances, over such portions of the land as were ! found to require it. He also submitted to their inspec- ! tion the draining -book of this property, in which a plan j of each field was given, and lines indicating Die gradual J process in which the drainage had from time to time been effected, either over the whole extent of any parti- I cular field, or partially as circumstances might have re- quired.— Colonel Challoner agreed with Mr. Arkwright, that principles might be laid down for draining, but no rule for a general case. — Mr. Hudson, of Castltacre, had about three months previously visited Sir John Boilcau, Bart., at Ketteringham, in Norfolk, for t!ie purpose of inspecting tha underdraining of the Potash Farm, in that county, which lud been executed under the superinten- dcnce of Mr. Fulton. This was the best piece of drain- ing Mr. Hudson had ever seen. In walking over the farm he ventured to suggest to Sir John Boilcau, that the bottom dra^vs of clay, which were found to be full of chalk, should be spread on the surface instead of being put into the drains; by that means a saving of from ^"400 to £"500 would be effected, as there would be about GO yards of good clay put on thj land at an ex- pense of two or three shillings per acre, which if carted on would cost from 30s. to 40s. per acre, besides the injury that would be done to the land by carting the clay over it. Mr. Hewetson of Down, near Farnbo- rough, transmitted for the inspection of the Council some wooden models of draining tiles made •' for the purpose of uniting the small and main drain where an additional fall can be obtained equal to the depth of the larger tile, on the top of which the bottom of ihc smaller tile rests, fitting securely in its place ; the opening in the top of the large tile and the rim at the bottom uf the small one being both circular, and thus allowing the drains to unite at an angle." An interesting discussion then ensued on the arrangement of drains in land, their stoppage in sandy soil, the shape and size of tiles, and mode of adjusting them, the filliug-in of drains by Clayton's Drain-cousolidator, and other details of proc- tical experience, in which the Chairman, Mr. Arkwright, Col. Challoner, Mr. Hudson, Mr. Wilbraham, Mr. Cozens, and Mr. Smith, of Exmoor, took part. Australian Guano. — Mr. Manning, of 251, High Holborn, transmitted to the Council a bag of guano re- ceived from Egg Island, one of a group of islands lying off and about Shark's Bay, the most western point of New Holland, in south latitude 25 deg., and cast longi- tude 113 deg. Mr. Manning stated that there were several other adjacent islands covered more or less with guano, of a quality supposed to be in some instances superior to that on Egg Island. Rain, he said, scarcely ever fell on those islands ; and in some places the guano was found many feet deep. Mr. Manning concluded 76 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bis statement by a detail of tbe steps that had been taken to bring about this first importation of Australian guano ; iind accompanied it by a hope that the Council would consider the subject of sufficient importance to request Professor Way, the consulting chemist of the society, to make an official analysis and report on the value of the guano in question. The Council acceded to this request, and directed the sample to be passed over to Professor Way accordingly. Mincell. Communications. — Mr. Murcott sent speci- mens of an insect believed by him to be the cause of the failure in the clover plant, which the Council referred for microscopical examination to Prof. Simonds, and in reference to its agricultural bearings to Mr. Lawes. Colonel Le Couleur presented a sample of cured Jersey butter, about a year old, which was found to retain its fine qualities and fresh taste in a remarkable degree. A letter was received from M. Maurencq, the President of the French Agricultural Commission, and referred to the Monthly Council. Mr. Arkwright favoured the Council by explaining to them the advantages of a cottage-stove he had found,of great simplicity, economy, and capable of affording great comfort and convenience to labourers. Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, stated the injury done to seed-corn by mixing guano with it before sowing. A French essay on butter-making was re- ceived, and referred for consideration to a future meeting. Professor Way favoured the members, on the 28th of May, with a lecture on the Preparation, Composition, and Agricultural Employment of Superphosphate of Lime, for which he received the thanks of the meeting. The chair was occupied by Ilis Grace the Duke of Rich- mond, K.G., President of the Society, who introduced to the Council, on that occasion, M. Maurencq, Baron de Monlreuil, and the other members of the French agricultural commission. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 4th of June : present, the liarl of Ducie, V.P., in the chair, Sir John v. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Sir Montague Cholmeley, Bart., M.P., Mr. Alcock, M.P., Mr. Thos. Raymond Barker, Mr. John Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Bcasley, Mr. Blanshard, Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr. W. G. Cavendish, M.P., Mr. Garrett, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Granlham, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Kinder, Mr. Lawes, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pendarves, M.P., Prof. Sewell, Mr. Shaw (London), Mr. Sillifant, Prof. Simonds, Mr. Stansfield, M.P., Prof. Way, Mr. Jonas Webb, and Mr. Wilson. The Hon. Captain Rushout, M.P. (2nd Life Guards), of Burford, in the county of Salop, was elected a governor of the Society. The following new members were elected : — Bashford, W. C. L, Norwood House, Houuslow, Middlesex Beuuett, Johu, Rissington, Stow-on-the-AVold, Gloucester Blashfidd, J.M., New London-street, Mark Lane, London Botham, William Hallain, Salt Hill, Slougli, Bucks Boughton, John, Adsett Court, Westbury-on-Severu Bolitho, William, jun., Penzance, Cornwall Cougreve, Walter, Comb Field, Brinklow, Coventry Crawfurd, Robert, Saint Hill, East Griustead, Sussex Darnbrough, Thomas S., South Ottrington, Thirsk, Yorkshire Dobson, Roger, Bridge-street, Whitby, Yorkshire EUison, William, jun.. Low Sizergh, Kendal, Westmoreland Gibbs, Wm., Bishop's Lydeard, Taunton, Somerset Gladman, William, Mouut Pleasant, Bolney, Sussex Guthrie, Johu, Guthrie Castle, Forfarshire Hall, Collisoii, Navestock, Romford, Essex Jackson, Dr. (Princ. Med. Off. E.I.C.), Warley Barracks Kennedy, Primrose William, Drumellan, by Glasgow Loder, Robert, The Beeches, Slaughara, Sussex May, Geo. Andrew, Elford Park, Lichfield, Staffordshire Miles, Frederick, Stoke Hammond, Fenny-Stratford, Bucks ParringtoD, Joseph, Crossbeck House, Cleveland, Durham Partridge, Ed. Otto, Hazlehurst, Ross, Herefordshire Postlethwaite, Woodburn, Ulverstone, Lancashire Rees, William, Velindre, Lampeter, Cardiganshire Kinder, John, Kirkby-Overbow, Wetherhy, Yorkshire Stowey, Augustus, Kenbury Hous?, Exeter Tredwell, S., Highfield House, Leek, Staffordshire Tuley, Joseph, Matchless House, Keigliley, Yorkshire Wade, Richard, 58, Upper Seymour-street, Portman-square Wade, R. Craven, Clonabrauey, Crossakeile, covinty Meath Weatherley, James, Swinhoe, Alnwick, Northumberland Webster, P. C. Gillies, Ashfnrlong House, Suttou-ColdfielJ. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the Monthly Report on the accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that at the end of the previous month the current cash balance in the hands of the Bankers was ^^2,071 (including special balances on account of the country meeting and life-compositions). The Council adopted the suggestion of the Committee that Messrs. Nevile, Reid, and Co., of Windsor, should be requested to act as Local Bankers of the Society during the period of the Society's approaching country meeting in July. Windsor Meeting. — Mr. Raymond Barker then re- ported the favourable progress of the preparations for the Windsor Meeting, in the middle of next month. Judges. — The Earl of Ducie, as Chairman of the Judges' Committee, reported the selection of Judges of Stock for the Windsor Meeting ; and the rccommenta- tion of the Committee that Prof. Simonds, as the Veteri- nary Inspector of the Society, should be requested to act as Referee to the Judges on that occasion, and to give his opinion on such points connected with the condition of the animals as breeding stock, and with their sound- ness as to hereditary affection, and infectious or con- tagious disease, as the Judges might bring under his consideration, for the purpose of aiding them in their decisions and in any report it might become necessary for them to make to the Council. — On the motion of Mr. Stansfield, M.P. , seconded by Mr. Raymond Bar- ker, this report, and the recommendation which ac- companied it, were received and adopted by the Council. Prof. Simonds, who was present, expressed his perfect willingness to act at the Windsor Meeting in the capacity proposed. Member of Council, — On the motion of Mr. Ray- mond Barker, seconded by Mr. Stansfield, M.P., Mr. Law Hodges, M.P. for West Kent, was elected into the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Council, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the lamented decease of the Hon. Captain Pelham. French Commission. — M. Maurencq, M. le Baron de Montreuil, and the other members of the French Agri- cultural Commission, having presented to the Society a complete set of the proceedings of the " Congres Central d'Agriculture," of which, on the occasion of their recent visit to England, they had been the representatives, these volumes were received with the best thanks of the Coun- cil ; and on the motion of Mr. Hrandreth, seconded by Mr. Jonas, a complete set of the Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society of England was ordered to be sent to Congres Central d'Agriculture de France. Mr. Ray- mond Barker took that opportunity of stating, that Mr. Druce had most willingly undertaken, at the reques't of the Council, to receive these gentlemen at Ensham, and show them his farm, and had made every preparation for that purpose ; but, in consequence of the short stay of the commission in this country, they were unnble to avail themselves of his hospitality and kind attention, of which they had expressed to Mr. Druce their sense in the handsomest terms. The Council desired Mr. Barker to convey to Mr. Druce their own acknowledgments of his desire, as a member of their body, to meet the wishes of the Council on Ihis occasion. Ag7reme7i(s.—The agreements with the Authorities of Windsor and Lewes, in reference to the Country Meetings of 1851 and 1852, to be held at those places resiiectively, received the great seal of the Society and the signature of the Secretary, by order of the Council, and in their presence, agreeably with the terms and powers of the Charter of the Society. Filling- in Drains. — Mr. Slaney's offer to give a prize of ^^10, at the Lewes Meeting, for the best implement to fill-in drains, was referred to the Special Council, when the implement prizes for next year would be taken into consideration. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday last, the 11th of June ; present. Col. Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair, Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Buller (of Dilhorne), Mr. D. Burton, Dr. Calvert, Mr. A. Carden, Mr. J. Carden, Mr. Gadesden, Mr. Brand- reth Gibbs, Mr. Baskerville Glegg, Mr. Hamond, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Price Lloyd, Mr. Milward, Mr. Par- kins, Mr, Pendarves, M.P., Mr. Rowlandson, Mr. Vil- liers Shelley, Prof. Way, Mr. G. Wilbraham, and Mr. Wilson (of Stowlangtoft). Mountain Flax. — The Hon. Captain Rushout, M.P., transmitted to the Council two specimens of Mountain Flax, with the following statement : — " I enclose you a specimen of ' Mountain Flax,' as it is tech- nically called in the district where it grows, in the hope that you may lay it before the Council, and that some cause may be given, or some cure suggested, for the deleterious effects which arise from it. No 1 is the hay, as drawn from the rick ; No. 2 is the Mountahi Flax culled out. It is common in the meadow ground in the south of Shropshire, from which the specimen is taken ; and the farmer informs me that it grows on the dry part of the field, in a deep loamy soil, par- tially drained. " The land was manured last year with a compost of poud nuid and lime. The farmer on whose land it grows has lost ten or twelve head of cattle and horses. They were all affected hy it in the same manner; first with purging, then willi a stoppage. !>incc Christmas last he has lost three horses out of five. NoD« of the veterinary surgeons in the neighbourhood have succeeded in the treatment of it." The hay containing this Mountain Flax was very similar in its appearance to a sample of coarse hay Professor Simonds had some months ago laid before the Council as obtained from Somersetshire, where a tenant of Lord Portman's had suffered much loss in his stock ; it being a question at that time whether the atrophy and death of those cattle had arisen from the quulity of the water to which they had access, the character of the herbage on which they chiefly pastured, or the insufficient amount of nourishment they derived from the food given to them, as the animals on removal to the Royal Veteri- nary College soon recovered their health and strength on change of circumstance and food. The Council accord- ingly referred these specimens of Lay and Mountain Flax to Professor Simonds for his examination and comparison. — Mr. Rowlandson at once recognized the plant as the Linum catharticum or purging Flax. It occurred in different parts of the country, not only in pasture lands but among Wheat, on light loamy lands, the only cure for it being clean farming and high manuring. It was a miniature of ordinary Flax, bearing a small whitish blue flower, and cattle would eat a larger quantity of it than of better Grass. — Mr. Glegg remarked that it was common in Cheshire. — It may be added, that De Candolle includes this plant as a variety of Flax, in his order " Linese ;" Sir J. E. Smith speaks of it as the " little" Linum catharticum, and as pos- sessing purgative qualities; Sir W. J. Hooker describes it as an annual, everywhere abundant in pastures, with a slender stem from two to six inches high, having in June white small flowers gracefully drooping before expansion ; Professor Low places it among plants indi- cating extreme dryness of the soil, and denoting infer- tility; Mr. Francis in his "Little English Flora," refers to it as the " White Flax," and speaks of it in the following terms : " A little delicate plant that is abundant on most dry hill-sides, bearing small white flowers, which, when young, are elegantly drooping ; one stem only comes from the ground ; but at a little more than half way up it divides into two branches, and each of these a little higher into two others, and so on. It is violently poisonous, blossoms in July, and grows from four to six inches high." German Potatoes. — M. Kreeft, the Mecklenburg Consul in London, transmitted to the Council, from a gentleman in Mecklenburg- Schwerin, near Rostock, much interested in agricultural pursuits, and himself a considerable landowner in that part of Germany, a supply of potatoes, for trial in England and Ireland, possessing such qualities of freedom from disease and powers of resisting its inroads, as would render their cultivation in this country highly advantageous under favourable circumstances of soil and locality. The Council ordered their thanks to M, Kreeft for this 78 ITIE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, commiinicatiou, and the following members undc rtook to try the cultivation of these jiotatoes and report the resu't to the Couucil : namely, Sir R. Price, Mr. Gibbs, Col. Challoner, Mr. Shelley, Mr. Fisher ilobbs, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Garden (of Templemore, Ire- land), Mr. Wilson, Mr. Hamond, Mr. Parkins, and Mr. Burton. Subterranean Roots and Bones. — Dr. Calvert pre- sented a specimen of fibrous substance liaving the flavour of the Turnip rind, which had entirely choked up No. 4 sized pipe-tiles laid nearly 3 feet deep in light and peaty land with a loamy subsoil, on the lower part of which a crop of turnips had been grown and eaten off by sheep. The stoppage had occurred at the upper part of the field, to which it appeared that these fibres had ascended from the turnips, in a direction contrary to the current of the water passing through the pipes. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs remai-ked that these stoppages fre- quently occurred in light peaty land bearing crops of Mangold-Wurtzel, Carrots, and Turnips, and drained only to the depth mentioned by Dr. Calvert. In break- ing up some land for draining operations, not long since, lie was surprised to find that, at some time immemorial, the same land had been previously drained in a rude and imperfect manner, by laying the horns of bullocks and oUier animals 3 feet below the surface. These horns were in a perfectly sound and solid state, and in size were in- termediate between those of the long and short-horned caKle — Mr. Rowlandson referred to the use formerly made of wood and brambles for the j;urposes of drain- ing, and he conceived that the bullocks' horns were merely substituted in some localities as being, under particular circumstances, more plentiful and ready at hand. — Prof. Way alluded to the long periods through which bones in large fragments would retain not only their form and character, but also a great portion of their animal matter ; and referred particularly to Mar- cha^id's examination of the bones of the bear, and to Dr. Buckland's discovery at Kirkdale, of the bones of the hyrena, and other animals no longer living uncon- fined in this country, some of which, though so long exposed to decaying influences, retained many of the characters of fresh bone. He thought these facts showed the necessity of reducing bones to very small fragments before employing them as manure on the land — Mr. Rowlandson believed that, under the circum- stances of decay alluded to, a slow chemical change was effected, the bone gradually acquiring an increase o! fluoric acid. — Mr. Glegg stated that in Cheshire horn was excluded in the boning of dairy pasture, on account of its less disintegrating and fertilizing qualides. Australian Guano. — The Council received from Pro- fessor Way the following report of his examination of the Australian guano, referred to him by them at a for- mer meeting : " June 11,1851. " I have examined a sample of guano from Western Australia, sent to me by direction of the Council, and beg now to forward the results of the analysis, and my opinion of its value as a manure. The sample is of a dark brown or coffee colour, insterspersed with small lumps of a white substance, which is almost pure phosphate of lime. It has a slight musty init not ammouiacul smell, and is much heavier Ihail Peruvian guano. The following is a detailed analysis of the specimen : JMoisture 30.0 i Animal malter and salts of ammonia 14 75 Sand 3 94 Lime 21.07 Magnesia .17 Potash S7 SoHa 29 Chloride of sodium .66 Phosphoric acid 20.44 Sulphuric acid 7.23 Alumiiia, oxide of iron, and loss 1 OS) 100.00 T!ie large proportion of moisture, the relatively small quan- tity of animal luitter, and the absence of any considerable quantity of potash (of which Peruvian guano contains on an aver.ige 3 per cent.) are circumstances which leave no dmbt that the manure has been exposed to the action of ram, which is destructive of its most valuable properties. The relation which this guano bears to Peruvian on the one hand, and S.iklanha Bay on the other, will be better under- stood if I pr.t tliera down \:\ the form of a table, omitliiig the less essential details. The following figures show the average composition of the aramoniacal guano of Peru and the phosphatic guano of Saldanha Bay, as compared with that of the s.rmDle from Western Australia : Peruvian. Saldanha Bay. Western Australia' 13.09 52.61 1.54 24.12 8.64 22.14 14.90 1.62 56.30 5.04 30.14 Animal matter and ammonia Sand, &c salts of } 14.75 3.94 Earthy phosphates 42.14 Alkaline salts 9.03 by nen 100 } 100.00 100.00 100.00 Ammonia furnished parts of each speci 17.41 1.60 0.75 " It is plain that this specimen of the guano from Western Australia cannot be satisfactorily compared in respect to composition with one supplying ammonia; and in judgiiig of its value as manure, we must have regard to the 53:ildanha Bay variety, which is valuable as a source of phosphate of lime. Saldanha Bay guano is sold, I believe, at from £4 lOs. to £5 per ton ; and the value of the sample from Western Australia will be less in proportion to the phosphate of lime which they relatively contain. (Signed) " J. Thomas Way." The Council expressed a liope, that although this first sample of the guano of Australia (from the mo.st western point of that imperfectly explored colonial con- tinent, and only just without the tropics and the rainless region) was not of such a quality as to compete with other established guanos, or to realise such a profit as to induce enterprise in its importation into this country, the simple fact that guano occurred at all on the islands of that coast would be taken a'' an earnest of further re- search with greater success in a branch of discovery and trade, now become so important to the cultivators of England and America. Lecture. — Professor Way's offer to deliver a lecture before the Members in the Council Room, on Wednes- Till': FARMER'S MAGAZLNii. 70 day, the 18th of June, at twelve u'ch.ck, " On (.he Agiicultural Employment of Gypsum," was accepted with the thanks of the CouaciK Communications were laid before the Council from Mr. Hill Dickson, on Flax Cultivation; and from Mr. 15arber Beaumont, on Locomotive Steam Power em- ployed for Agricultural Purposes. A WKiiKLY Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover- square, on Wednesday, the 18th of June, the Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., Trustee, in the chair, when Pr.ifessor Way, the Consulting Chemist of the Society, delivered a Lecture on the — Agricultural EiMI'loyment ov Gyi'sum. Pr.ifessor V/av commenced his lecture by stating the chemical composition of Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris. He described it as a Hydrated Sulphate of Lime, con- sisting of — !,im(; 32 3 ] 0: as composei), (" I Lime. >!il|)liuric Acid 4G-5 J> in general terms, <{ .^ Sulphuric Acid 'Water 21-0 J of about Ll-5Water, 100 0 It occurred in (he older transition rocks, in the secondary strata (^especially in the new red sandstone), and in the tertiaries above the chalk : for instance, in the London and Paris beds, the Oxford clay, Use red marl in Cheshire above the salt b^-ds, and genendly in the counties of Cumberland, Stafford, Derby, and Nottingham ; in the State of alabaster, and also in the form of lance-headed crystals, as sc'cnitc. The colour of natural gypsum varied according to its impregnation with iron and other substances. He submitted to the members some specimens from Normandy, Nottingham, and Derby- shire, wl)ich had that morning been received, in which this variety of colour was shewn. Gypsum was solublu in 461 times its weight of water. When heated to 272 degrees, its water was driven off, and the gypsum lost about one-fifth of its weight ; it could then be easily reduced to a fine powder, and became the well-known substance, " plaster of Paris, " so extensively used in plastic opera- tions ; the powder on being wetted assuming a compact mas3, having the sh:ipe of the vessel or mould into whicli it was poured. Professor Way supposed this binding effect to be the mechanical result of the interlacing of the crystals formed during the operation of the water on the plaster of Paris. If heated too strongly, however, as, for instance, much beyond the common heat of a baker's oven, it would not set afterwards on the admix- ture with water. He thought there might perhaps prove to be an advantage in this result when gypsum was recpjired for application to the soil, as it would no longer have binding properties. He then performed a very simple and striking experiment to show how easily gypsum could be recognized when held in solution by water. He filled two tumbler-gl isses with water im- pregnated with gypsum : into one of tliese he poured a solution of oxalate of ammonia, which immediately gave a copious white precipitate showing the presence of lime ; into the other he poured a solution of muriate of barytos, whic'i aLso gave a cop'ous w'.iiti; prc-iiiiiai-, in- dicating, however, in this case, the presence of miij/'fnic acid. Th'i two tests thus establishing, by their com- bined evidence, the existence of sulpliate of li:iie, or gypsum, in the water under examination. Profes-or Way remarked, that nothing could be more easy thia for any person to discover by this simple means whcllu r water contained gypsum ; and the qutstion wis an i n - portant one, for he thought he was pretty safe in saying that gypsum wculd do no further good to land in uii'.ch it already existed. In order to ascertain wliether such was the case, the farmer had only to digest some of the soil in cold water, filler the liquid through bluttiogpipiT, and then add to two separate portions of it a little oxalate of ammonia and muriate of barytcs, as just shown. Uyp.suni, when broken down into powder, might be drilled in with the seed, or used (as was more generally the case) as a top dressing in the spring. In America gypsum Lai bctn applied with great success to all crops ; but in Englan 1, while it had been found valuable to clover, Italian ryi;- grass, sainfoin, lucerne, and to leguminous plants and artificial grasses generally, it had not proved benrficial in the same degree to the grasses of natund pastures. The action of gypsum on vegetation was very capricious and often fallacious : although occasionally useful, like common salt, it was sometimes successful and at other times not so. These apparently inconsistent results had arisen from want of care in noting the precise ci; cum- stances in each case of the application of this manure. To one of these cases he had just made reference, namely, to that of gypsum being already present i i t'lC soil, as on the new red sandstine and Ox'ord clay fijr- matious, and therefore not further required by crops growing on such Imd. Failure might also be due to the want of sufficient moisture, or to the absence of any other necessary ingredient in the soil. When the land was in good condition to produce crops, then gypsum might be applied under favourable circumstances. Pro- fessor Way then proceeded to discuss the theory of the action of gypsum. If it in certain cases proved of service, in what manner, it might be asked, was this be- neficial result produced ? what had been the mode of action in character and circumstance ? Was the lime, the sulphuric acid, or both ; or sulphur alone ; the cause ? He would first refer to its direct, and then to its indirect action on vegetation. Sir Humphry Davy had found, in the course of his researches into the rela- tion between plants and soils, that there existed more gypsum in clover and sainfoin than in other plants which he examined ; and he therefore drew the conclu- sion that gypsum, as a whole, namely, as a combination of sulphuric acid and lime, acted merely as an essential food of plants. " In exauiiuing the ashes of sainfoin, clover, and rye-grass, I found that they afforded coasiderablc quantities of gypsum; anil this substance, probably, is intimately com- bined as a necessary part of their woody fibre. If this be allowed, it is easy to explain the reason why it operates in such small quantities ; for the whole of a clover-crop, or sainfoin-crop, on an acre, according to my estimation, would atFord by incineration only three or four bu.shels of gypsum." — Sir II. Davy's Seventh Lecture. 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill none of the experiments made by Sir II. Davy ilil gypsum appear to increase the putrefaction of animal matter, or the decomposition of manures, lie found the Berkshire and Wiltshire peat-ashes contain a consi- derable portion of this substance : tlie Newbury jieat- ashes contained from one-fourlh to one-third ; the Stockbridge peat-ashes a larger proportion. He had, however, examined many peat-ashes in whicli no gypsum was found. In general, when fresh peat, on being acted upon by vinegar, emitted a smell of Harrogate-water, he thought it might be inferred that it would furni.sh gypsum. Baron von Liebig considers that the sulphuric acid of gypsum becomes decomposed in the course of the vegetative process in plants, and that its sulphur is the element which is given off to leguminous seeds and corn crops generally. " Thus we are enabled to explain the use of common salt as a manure ; it enables the plant for whicli this manure is useful, to extract its sulphur from the soil in which it existed in the form of sulphate of lime." " gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is the most generally diffused sulphate. Being soluble, it may either pass directly into the plaut, or it may be decomposed by the carbonate of ammonia existing in rain-water, when its sulphur will pass into the plant in the form of sulphate of ammonia." — Liehig''s Ayr. Chem., 4 cd. {chapter vi-) M. Boussingault regards lime as the valuable compo- nent part of gypsum, and considers gypsum to be of no value where there is au abundant supply of carbonate of lime. "In conclusion, we perceive that it may fairly be assumed, that gypsum acts beneficially on artificial meadows, by carrying lime into the soil : that, at least, is the opinion which seems best to accord with agricultural facts, and with the results obtained by analysis from the ashes of crops ; I may even add, that best accords also with results obtained from the analysis of arable soils ; for it may be inferred, from a series of researches made by M. Rigaud de I'lsle, that gypsum acts only on those soils which do not con- tain a sufficient amount of lime in the state of carbonate." — BousaingauU: Economie Rurale, 1844 (Chap, vi.) Liebig ascribes to gypsum the power of solidifying the ammoniacal vapours floating in the atmosphere, and of giving to nitrogen or ammonia a fixed condition in the soil. "The evident influence of gypsum upon the growth of grasses, the striking fertility and luxuriance of a meadow upon which it is strewed, depends in some degree upon its fixing in the soil the ammonia of the atmosphere, which would otherwise be volatilised with the water which evaporates. The carbonate of ammonia contained in rain- water is decomposed by gypsum in precisely the same manner as in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac. Soluble sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are formed; and this salt of ammonia, possessing no volatility, is conse- quently retained in the soil. All the gypsum gradually dis- appears ; but its action upon the carbonate of ammonia continues as long as a trace of it exists." " The action of gypsum, chloride of calcium, and of other salts of lime, really consists in their giving a fixed condition to the nitrogen or ammonia introduced into the soil. This nitrogen is indispensable for the nutrition of plants." — Liebir/'s Agr, Chem. (Chap. v.J Boussingault opposes this view of the question pro- pounded by Liebig. The carbonate of ammonia would decompose the gypsum when in solution, and carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia would be the result ; a fixed ammoniacal salt being thus obtained in lieu of the volatile one. 'J his double decomposition would not take place under circumstances of such nieredani)inessas that in which soil generally existed ; it required the presence of water in a greater amount, and in a less diffused state. Boussingault therefore inferred that gypsum could have no effect in decomposing the carbonate of ammonia of the atmosphere in the ordinary state of the soil. If am- monia, too, is valuable to all plants, and particularly to the wheat crop, why, he asks, does not gypsum act bene- ficially on all crops, by this absorption of ammonia which Liebig assumes to take place ? Professor Way then ventured to state his own objections to the theories of these three distinguished chemists. Sir Humphry Davy's philosophical mind led him to deduce sound con- clusions from the facts as they stood before him ; but the analysis of plants at that time was very imperfect, and had, since the publication of his lectures, been car- ried on more extensively ; and it was now known that many other plants contain quite as much gypsum as sainfoin and the artificial grasses, without being bene- fited by its application during their growth. M. Liebig's theory was open to the objection, that although gypsum may no doubt furnish sulphur to plants, soils possess the power of fixing ammonia without gypsum being present. M. Boussingault was met with the fact, that more lime was found in many other crops than in those of artifi- cial grasses : for instance, that a crop of carrots takes from the soil nearly four times as much lime as clover hay does, six times as much as sainfoin hay, and fourteen times as Italian rye-grass ; and Professor Way thought it might therefore reasonably be asked why gypsum, as a source of lime, is not a good manure for turnips and carrots .' It was unfortunate that the state of science on these points was as yet so imperfect. He thought we should go much straighter to the mark in such cases by confessing our ignorance than by attempting to construct theories founded on insufficient data. Professor Way then referred to the use of gypsum in stables. Liebig had recommended it to be strown on the floors of stables, for the purpose of removing the smell and arresting the ammonia, which he supposed will thus be carried out with the manure. This effect had been denied. Prof. Way conceived that the failure might be due to an amount of water being present, only sufficient to absorb the volatile carbonate of ammonia, which was again given up to the atmosphere on the gypsum's becoming dry, but not suflScient to lead to its conversion by double decomposition into the fixed sul- phate of ammonia. He would recommend, in preference to the use of gypsum in these cases, diluted sulphuric acid put in boxes and troughs in different parts of the stables. Gypsum was often put into liquid manure tanks, to prevent the escape of the volatile alkali. It would answer if the gypsum was frequently well-stirred up from the bottom of the tank, to which it fell on account of its slow solubility. He would recommend the gypsum THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 81 to be put into a basket of good size, to be placed under the spout by which the liquid manure was brought into the tank : this would save the trouble of stirring. Green copperas and sulphuric acid were better for liquid manure in tanks or wells, but gypsum was cheaper. In the filtration of liquids, however, through the gypsum, it should be remembered that the ammonia was not arrested and retained in the basket, but passed off through it ; as the sulphate of ammonia formed was soluble, though not like theoiiginal carbonate of ammonia volatile. Professor Way having concluded his lecture, expressed his willingness to answer any questions in his power connected with the scientific principles of the subject, their practical elucidation being better understood by the members present. In reply to inquiries by Dr. Calvert, he stated that there was no difference between burnt and unburnt gypsum as an absorbent ; but that gypsum in a dry state could not absorb ammonia. It was part of the duty in some union-houses for the in- mates to break this stone for agricultural use. Burning made it easier to pound, but by thus rendering it a ceracntitious powder it was more liable to cake when used. This was prevented by mixing the powder first with dry soil. — Colonel le Couteur had been much struck some years ago with the remarks of Sir H. Davy on the component parts of the clover plant; and having land in Jersey, on coming into his estate, on which it had been impossible ever to grow clover, he caused an analysis of the soil to be made for him by Prof. Bachhoffner, who found that it had not a particle of lime in its composition. Having thus a clear insight into the cause of the failure, he lost no time in dressing his land with nine bushels of lime to the acre, putting it in heaps about the field, and covering them with earth. This application had so completely altered the character of the soil that he had not only Inmself the finest crops of clover anywhere to be seen, but his neighbours had also followed his example with the same success. He thought this fact, as one of a particular case, strengthened the theory of M. Boussingault, that it was as lime, and not as sulphate of lime, that gypsum acted beneficially on crops of this nature. — Colonel Challoner inquired whether our own analyses of the ashes of plants agreed with those on which Boussingault rested his conjectures ; and he was answered by Prof. Way that there was no essential difference between them. Colonel Challoner then proceeded to remark that it was desirable to know whether, in making peat-ashes, the peat should be only charred or burnt at a red-heat. He believed failures in the use of gypsum chiefly to arise from applying it in dry weather, when there was not a drop of rain. He had always applied it either early in the morning, when a heavy dew was on the ground, or when rain was likely to soon fall. He had himself been a success- ful carrot-grower in his part of the country, and he would next year try the effect of gypsum on that root-crop. As his land did not contain a particle of lime, gypsum might probably have a good effect. He had to that time been obliged to get lime by means of soap-ashes. — Lord Ashburton suggested that Colonel Challoner should vary his experiment, to ascertain whether the lime or the sulphuric acid in gypsum was the efficient agent ; namely, by dividing his trial-field into three portions, leaving the circumstances the same in each, excepting in the appli- cation of gypsum to the first, simple lime to the second, and sulphunc-acid and bones to the third.— Colonel Challoner always manured his carrots by a previous crop ; as they never did so well by direct manuring, which made them clubby. He found it answer well never to have a horse on the ground after sowing. He employed a hand-drill, by Holmes, of Norwich, by means of which a man sowed the seeds in the sand ; the plants were straightened, by a boy, with the back of a common rake. By a^lopting this system, his carrots speared, or started, a fortnight or three week earlier than formerly. It was desirable, however, that the white Belgian carrot-seed should be of the same date ; for if a mixture of old and new seed was em- ployed, the spearing would occur at different times. Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co. had much aided him in this object by their attention to his wishes on this point. — Professor Way thought an excess of gypsum injurious. He stated that Mr. Hamond had been desirous that his tenants in Nottinghamshire should subsoil the land on the Norfolk system ; but theystrongly objected to bring up the subsoil to the surface, as their experience had taught them that great damage invariably resulted in their case from such a process. Mr. Hamond being desirous of ascertaining the cause of this injury, sent to Professor Way a specimen of this sub- soil, which on analysis was found to contain half its weight of gypsum. This no doubt had destroyed the crops. Hard water, he believed, was known to be un- favourable to some plants, and the water passing through this dressing of subsoil washed the gypsum out of it, and thus became very hard water from such impregnation. — Dr. Calvert wished to know the quan- tity of gypsum that might with safety be applied to land ? — Professor Way thought that one per cent, in soil would do no harm ; and to produce that proportion to the depth of five inches, five tons of gypsum per acre would be required : a limit within which our ordinary applica- tions were safely included. — The Hon. R. H. Clive, M. P., i-emarked that although guano had answered, in his own case as in that of others, most completely, it must not be forgotten how essential was the old lime- system, which of late years had been discarded ; if we went on much longer with strong animal manuring, we should begin to feel the bad effects of not reverting to that wholesome and excellent application. — Mr. Thomp- son (President of the Agricultural Association of Upper Canada), who had favoured the Council with his attend- ance on that occasion, referred to the practice followed in the United States in the employment of gypsum. When used alone to the land, it was found not to pro- duce good crops. It was most successfully applied to the clover, in which it occasioned a strong growth, and improved the succeeding wheat crop. It was also ex- tensively employed in the cultivation of Indian Corn, but the land required to be brought into good heart by some previous application. Good crops were grown in sandy soils, but manure was required in addition to the G 82 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gypsum. In America they never thought of burning the gypsum, bat erected mills which ground it as fine as the finest wheat- flour. It was important in the agricultural employment of this suhslance, that it should he thus finely ground ; the dittereuce in the results obtained from coarse-ground and fine-ground gypsum was most striking. It occurred not far from the place of his own residence and other parts of Canada, as well as at Os- wego, Rochester, and other localities in the United States. — Colonel Chalioner thought that a means of im- provement in the soil by the ploughing in of green crops was in this country too much neglected. la Southern Italy, neir Naples, lupin erops were grown extensively for this purpose ; and the difference in the appearance of the land where this fresh manuring had taken place was so great as to be distinctly seen at a great distance. lie considered the subject well worthy of the attention of our farmers. — Mr, Thompson remarked that it had not been found beneficial in Canada to apply gypsum to the wheat crop directly, but that there was a district of deep sandy loam in his part of the country on which it had been the practice of the occupier for the last twenty years to grow a v/heat crop every alternate year. In the autumn he sows wheat ; in spring, 81bs. of cioverseed to the acre ; harvests the wheat and grazes the clover : in the following spring sows gypsum over the clover, and when in good growtli turns stock upon it, from the middle of June to the 1st of July ; then ploughs up : and so on, obtaining a crop of wheat every alternate year, without any falhng off in its amount or quality.— Mr. Bateham, of Columbus, in the United States (Editor of the Ohio " Cultivator"), at present also on a visit to England, has favoured the Council with the following statement of similar results connected with judicious cropping under favourable circumstances : — " Soil for Wheat in America— la the State of Ohio, one of the central states, lat. 39 to 41, we have tracts of re- raarkdbly fertile land — Jeep alluviou, along the lorJtrs of streams and rivers, calleJ by the inhabitants hnttora- larids, say from 1 to 3 miles in breadth, and mosily level. These lauds are famous for sjrowing Indian corn (i vii?/) ; but v/here the soil consists of a good portion of ssnd fcod lime pebbles, as well as dark vegetable matter, these lands arc used for wheat (as along the Miami rivi i) and in some cases wheat has been grown successfidiy every other year for 10, or even 15 to 20 years in siincesion, without any apparent decrease of fertility. I cm fur- nish statements from individual farmers on my return if desiiel. The crop raised alternately with wheat ou these lands is commonly Indian con-., but sometimes oats or common red clover. Whcii the wheat is sown after corn, the corn is cut up and put into stooks or shocks to ripen, and the ground ouce ploughed aud sown in September with wheat. Oats ;tre sown (after wheat crop) in March or A^iril, and harvested in July; the ground immediately ploughed, and left til! 1st September, then ploughed again, and sown to wheat: but this rotation is not ap- proved by g'"od farmers. Clover (red) is everywhere with us regarded as the best alternate with wheat, only it ii found a rather wasteful practice to plough it in the next year after sowing. Clover is sown on the wheat in win- ter, or early in spring ; then pastured after wheat har- vest, aud again the next spring and summer, or cut for hay in June, then ploughed in late in August or Septem- ber, and sown to wheat. On ordinary soils 3 to 4 crops are allowed to intervene between crops of wheat." The Chairman having informed Professor Way that the thanks of the Council had been unanimosuly voted to him for his kindness in giving them so valuable a Lecture on that occasion, expressed his satisfaction at the interesting practical statements with which the meeting had been favoured, and his acknowledgments to the re- spective individuals by whom they had been made, the Council adjourned to their next weekly meeting, on Wednesday, the 25th of June. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— JULY. Retrcspect. From the closing date of the June calendar, p. 55G (May 21st) to the 4th of June instant, the weather was pretty favourable, with warm sun after noon, sometimes 70"-plus in the shade. But on the 5th that period of boisterous cold wind commenced, which astro-meteorologists pretend to ascribe to " aspectal" planetary influences, and assume as the substitute for the portended storms of the first week of June. Truly it is well to get out of a scrape if it can be truthfully accomplished ; but as to a storm— "fAe storm" of the season — risum teneatis amioi ! The wind, however, cer- tainly did its accustomed electrical work, by parching the summits of currant-trees, breaking the growing scions of newly-worked roses, &c. &c., and finally (after other concomitants) of in- troducing those copious rains which, no doubt, have acted beneficially on all spring cropo of the field ; on potato-plants ; and, above all, on the strawberries, covered as they are like so many rich posies of most promising blossoms, hundreds of which would have been rendered barren from aridity, had the drought continued. Peas have come in : vegetables are very fine and abundant; and if the equinoctial warning has now accomplished its threat, and the sun rule with power, the summer may prove one of extraordinary fertility. Operations in the Vegetable Garden. 1. Prepare without delay every vacant piece of ground required for the cabbage tribes. In ma- THE FARMER'S MACAZlxNE. 83 niiiing, the fiXHtion of all llu', principles of f ntility .slioulil never be lost sight of. Thus, ia t-pit-dung, the humus or decayed ortjanic' matter, tlic ammo- nia—if any remain in it — and those fixed alkaline salts which exist in neutral combination, are at- tracted and combined ; but as all dung-heaps suffer more or less by the weather, we have argued the need of burying the more recent stable and fold manures deep in the bottom of trenches, and of renewing the more reduced manure employed for surface-dressings, with some really good guano, to the extent of 1 lb. thoroughly incorporated with a large barrow-load of the dung. Direct experi- ments at home, communicated occasionally to the ]iu.blic, prove that such guano will (or ought) to fui'nish a sound, staple earth, with ammonia com- bined as an oxalate or sulphate, or both, with soda, notassa, urea, uric acid combined with am- monia, and with much bone-phosphate, in the finest possible state of division. Now cabbage plants ailect such elements of fertility ; and the ground being so prepared, cauliflowers, broccolis (including those called Cape), savoys, Brussels sprouts. Scotch and German kale, can be planted, and, if the weather prove moderately showery, will grow luxuriantly. Broccoli-seed can yet be sown ; and no variety is superior to Chappie's late cream colour. N.B. most particularly, not one shoot of the asparagus must be again touched (nor should any have bean cut) after the •24th — Midsummer. All the heads, great and small, must henceforward be suffered to grow, to strengthen the crowns. Keep the earth free from weeds by the hand. CeZery.— Plant again in trenches enriched at bottom, the ground being previously thoroughly prepared. Celeri.ac is always set-out on the flat : it is somewhat late, but may succeed in rich, mellow ground, and though rarely seen is very nice when well boiled. Leeks. — The strongest from the seed-beds pros- per best when let into socket-holes, made by a long sharp dibble, in deeply-worked trenched earth, wherein a little sifted manure is washed about the roots, to fix the plants. Take up, as ready, garlic, shallots, potato- onions, &c., and lay them to dry in an airy shed. Parsley. — To secure the best plants for months to come, select some of the most curly : dig and manure a bed ; plant by the trowel in single or more rows, 1 2 inches apart, alternately : make the earth firm : water, and shade by an inverted pot in hot sun. These plants should become bushes. 2. Mulch the ground after hoeing over the late crops of tall peas : grass-mowings, stable -litter, or spent tan can be so employed. Endive should be transplanted. Lettuce, turnip- radish, small salading — sow. Tnn.-i;)-: sow, exterior of the gard.ni, a good breadth, employing charcoal with the seed. Pre- pare ground for winter and broad-leaved Spi-iac!', by trenching and manuring a ])lot. In cold land the seed ought to be in at the end of the month . In warmer land and localities, August will be; early enough. Dki'.vhtjiwnt. neclurine. — Mulch the prove hot Hardy Fruit Apricot, peach, and ground deeply, if the weather prove hot and parching. About the third week regulate the shoots, laying in the successions for next year, and pruning back many foreright to the third or fourtli leaf, to obtain fruit buds. If red spider attack the leaves, syringe forcibly with soft water, holding sulphur in suspension, the best means to effect which is, a small portion of gum-tragacantli rubbed with the sulphur to a jmste, which is then diluted with water. The sulphuret of lime-wash is a real chemical solution, but is soon decom- posed. Fiij-trees are found to bear with greater certainty —at least, in warm sites— if the front shoots l)e permitted to advance unconfined. Pears and apiiles on espalier, and some on open dwarfs, may require the fruit to be thinned if thickly set : do this in time. 'I'ie the best shoots to their places. At the end of the third week try the effect of snapping the forerights two-thirds of their length down. It is better thus to check growth than to arrest it by cutting back, which even now might induce dormant fruit-buds at the bases to shoot. Treat plum and cherry— wall trees— as the apricot ; but the Morello cherry requires a yearly supply of new wood to be laid in. Fizzes.— Persist in the stopping of the fruit- bearing shoots ; and the careful nailing-in of next year's bearers. The leaves of both must be pre- served. Strawberries. — After the rains these plants be- came more sure of their crop, upon a principle founded on observed facts. We urged the deej) mulching by tan, or strawy litter, in the spring. Now, so soon as fine runners begin to root firmly, transfer them to prepared beds or rows in moist weather; thus a succession of all the best varieties can be secured. Lay some Kean's into pots for forcing. Raspberries.— U trained trelUs-form in rows, keep the bearing and new canes separate, and cut away useless supernumeraries. If single plants stand apart, fork up the intruding suckers, and keep only five or six new and strong canes to each, for succession. We recall to recollection the Wel- beck sloping treatment. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Fruits under Glass. Fruiting Pines, b}' the old treatment, should have plenty of air during the hot hours, and suffi- cient water to support the advancing fruit. Water but little when that begins to ripen. Successio7i Plants, and all those not in pots, that are treated according to the Meudon plan, are copiously syringed before the glasses are closed in the afternoon, and the bed is kept moderately moist. Vinery. — Where the fruit is already cut, admit air, retain all the main leaves, and by every judi- cious means encourage the ripening of the wood. "Where fruit is still ripening, depend for flavour and colour upon the influence of air during the sunny hours, and in the early morning. In the still later house, give moi'e moisture by watering the ground. If mildew threaten, apply sulphur immediately, either in powder, or in one or other of the forms of a wash, previously described. Peaches. — The worst enemy I ever had to en- counter was the green fly (aphis). Tobacco fumi- gation, begun and persisted in before one of the pest is visible, appears the only preventive. These insects suck out all the juices, and in all proba- bility poison the tree also. Syringe after every fumigation, on the following morning. Little can be done with any remedy while the fruit ripens. Melons now grow and ripen without artificial heat ; but they must not suffer for want of water, though they are not to be exposed to much rain. Pinch out all useless shoots, and remove tlie barren flowers. Keep the swelling fruit quite dry, and supply it with plenty of air. Ornamental Department. The Lawn — particularly when parterre-beds are introduced — requires the utmost neatness. We need not mention the individual plants, among the hundreds selected by taste ; but we lately have noticed an old favourite, planted at regular dis- tances, in a somewhat S-like bed : it is the Gor- teria : the rigens has a beautiful flower {compositce) with a black central eye, and rich orange ray : the leaves are somewhat rigid, of irregular form, with on3 or two pinnae, dark green, and downy white on the under surface. A yellow flowering species also is now seen. Let no bed be crowded. Maintain a smoothly raked, visible, surface, what- ever be its furniture ; and above all things, if rich colours and luxurious foliage be the object, change and renew the earth every other winter. In all the quarters, beds and borders, whether massed or indiscriminately planted, let size, figure, groupings of colour, be studied and regularly attended to. Final Retrospect. The weather within the last two or three days has been promising, warm (at 70^), sunny, and the driving day winds have lulled. The rose aphis appears in jjlaces to become more virulent, to the great disfigurement of the trees. A comjilaint is made by some nurserymen, that their kalmias have very few flowers. So I have it : of four shrubs I have but one that has any bloom. The strawberries are come in at length, and appear well-fruited. Peas are abundant, and fill well. Asparagus is over, or ought to be so, and has been plentiful ; but the error of cutting deep, so as to have scarcely any eatible substance, is still persisted in. Potato plants have a strong and healthy herbage, and will, I trust, disappoint the false objects of the designing. With turn of days, if the weather be confirmed, our prospects must be cheering. Croydon, June 30. J. Towers. OPERATIONS FOR JULY. Bedding Plants. — Until these are fairly started into growth they will require frequent surface stirring and copious supplies of water : many kinds also should be kept well pegged down. Salvia patens makes a splendid bed, treated in this way. They should be laid in, not planted upright, and the leading shoots well pegged down : axillary shoots will spring out in all directions, and flower profusely at a height varying from one foot to eighteen inches. As soon as the beds which have been filled with annuals are past their best, the beds should be turned up, some fresh compost added, and the beds replanted either with scarlet Geraniums or other plants reserved in pots for that purpose ; or they may be filled with French Marigolds or late sown Asters. A bed should also be planted with the Anemone japonica and hybrida, which, as I formerly observed, proves a remarkably fine plant for autumn beds. Verbenas, when well started, may be advantageously treated with some diluted liquid manure; it inducesa more brilliant colour and larger trusses of bloom. Beds of the tall-growing Lobelias will come very fine if treated with plenty of strong liquid manure. In all cases where aphides make their appearance on bedded plants, it will be advisable to dislodge them by a rather forcible syringing with diluted tobacco water. Herbaceous Garden. — See that stakes are supplied in time to Hollyhocks and other strong-growing autumn plants. Seedling plants of the various sorts of peren- nials sown last month will now require to be pricked out into reserve beds. Continue the propagation of the choice sorts, and secure a good supply of Alyssum saxatile and Iberis sempervirens. Save seeds of Bromp- ton and Queen Stocks : also plenty of the common Wallflower, which are very useful for early spring flower- ing plants. Rose Gar deti.— Copious, supplies of soft water and liquid manure should be applied to the autumn blooming sorts. Keep all decayed flowers picked off" frequently, and do not allow the seed vessels to remain unless re- quired. Budding must now be gone into with vigour : THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 85 if the bark does not run freely, give the stocks a good soaking with water a day or two previously. Prune the Banksian Roses, and remove from the climbing sorts all strong shoots not required for filling vacancies. Annuals. — The principal care here is to look well to secure the seed as it ripens, and paiticularly to save the seed from such plants as evince any marked improve- ment in form or colour. Florists' Flowers. — Finish off the propagation of Pansies, and sow seed as soon as ripe. Pinks sliould be kept carefully tied up, and the striking of pipings finished : the early rooted ones should be planted out. Proceed immediately with the laying of Carnations and Picotees ; amongst which do not forget to secure a good supply of the old Clove— it is a general favourite. Dahlias must be carefully tied up as they advance, and plenty of water, with occasionally liquid manure, given : they are gross feeders, and will bear an extra supply of nourishment. Take up the tubers of the late Ranun- culus, and store them in a cool dry place : also Tulips. Shrtihheries. — Clip Box edgings ; and the present is the best season to go over the commoner evergreens and reduce them into shape. See that newly planted trees do not want for water, and secure such as have been loosened by the winds.—/. W. C. Conservatory. Bright sun and drying winds will have indicated clearly the condition of the specimens planted out here ; if any of them flag, and do not grow freely, the cause is pro- bably want of water. If the plants have been recently turned out of pots, and planted in the ground without the ball being well broken and the roots spread out, the ball will be sure to get dry, while the soil around may be saturated with wet. In all eases of this kind, the surest way of proceeding is to take the plant up at once, and soak it in a tub or tank of water for twenty-four hours, more or less as it may require ; let the ball be quite under the water, and let it remain immersed as long as you perceive any bubbles rising to the surface. Every- thing in the way of pot plants should now be out of this house (except blooming ones for decoration), so that the permanent ones may have a chance to develop them- selves satisfactorily all round ; and as growth proceeds attend to stopping any shoots that seem disposed to ramble beyond due bounds. Respecting decoration, in making a selection avoid as far as possible the plants that are grown in masses in the flower garden, however eff'ective such things as scarlet pelargoniums and bright yellow calceolarias may be, and however desirable as to colour and durability : people of refined taste expect to see something of a more delicate nature in houses than they see growir'g so luxuriantly in the open air ; a few of them are very well, but they never ought to pre- dominate. Stove. It will be desirable during this month to ascertain what requires potting here, and have it done at once, as after this month the temperature ought to be reduced, and a drier atn^osphere maintained, to mature the plants and prepare them for the winter. As this is the month that store plants will grow perhaps more than any other, all the necessary conditions should be supplied in abun- dance. Now is the time to supply manure water to all such as require it, and use the syringe freely twice a day when the weather is bright. Such things as Ixoras and Clerodendrons are admirable for the conservatory; they will luxuriate here now in a bottom heat of about 90 degrees. Keep Gesneraceous things growing freely. Now is the time to start a good lot of Achimenes picta and Gesnera zebrina, fur winter flowering. Orchids ought now to have every condition likely to facilitate growth maintained with energy. The terres- trial kinds, such as Bletia, Calanthe, Phajus, Cyrtopo- dium, and Peresteria, if their roots warrant it, should havea good shift into a rather large pot — the soil composed of rough peat and loam, mixed with pieces of crock or charcoal, and a good sprinkle of rough sand. The epyphital kinds will do either on blocks or in pots or baskets. On blocks they require attention to prevent their getting too dry, and the other way there is a risk of their getting too wet. Greenhouse. This house being now occupied with the collection of Azaleas, the Acanthaceous things from the stove, and the more delicate kinds of greenhouse plants — such as Boronia, Gardoqua, Roellia, Leschenaultia, and such other kinds as do not stand exposure to the open air — ■ the front lights ought to be kept shut, except on very soft mild days ; ventilation at top should, however, be attended to, and on warm nights the roof lights ought never to be quite shut. The young plants, of course, ought to be in a pit, and such as are in the house stand quite clear of each other, so that they may be forwarded alike on all sides. Epacris, and the stronger kinds of leguminous plants, will do much better in a sheltered situation out of doors for the next two months. Some time during this month the Camellias ought to be potted ; moderate shifts are best (unless for some special pur- pose), as they flower better when kept rather tight in the pot. Gardeners are not agreed as to the best kind of soil for Camellias ; some recommend peat, some loam, and some an equal mixture of both : the fact is, the Camellia is a strong rooting plant, and requires soil of a rather retentive character, with just sufficient of a light kind to admit of the water getting through it ; a goodly portion of sand is beneficial for this purpose. Heath House. Th3 routine of watering, &c., will be all that will be required here for the present, as there ought to be no- thing here but the large plants of delicate kinds that cannot be treated in the open air ; the plants in bloom will, of course, be in the conservatory. Look frequently into the pits containing the young stock, to see that mildew does not get ahead amongst them ; keep them all clean, and nicely tied up. The large plants of the stronger kinds standing out of doors should now be nicely regulated and tied ; they will now have time to make a start, and hide any awkward- looking part pro- duced by tying up a shoot that had hung down /or some time. Give Chrysanthemums a good shifr, and stand them thinly in a place fully exposed to the sua. A few plants 86 THE FARMt'.R'S MAGAZINE. of Salvia splendens and Gesneriiflora, potted now, and stood in a shrltered place out of doors, will be useful by-and-bye. R. Keid. KITCHEX GARDEN'. Peas. — Sow during the first week in the month, Bel- lauy's or Woodford's green marrow, both of which are excellent kinds, particularly the latter ; and again, in the middle of the month. Prince Albert, a double-blos- somed early frame. No great dependence can be placed on the produce of the last sowing, unless the autumn months are favourable. When late peas succeed, they are valuable, and will resist, uninjured, that amount of frost which destroys kidney beans. Whenever the early produce is consumed, clear off the haulm at once, and pre])are the ground for planting the different varieties of Brassica oleracea, by giving a liberal supply of manure, as leguminous vegetables in general exhaust the soil greatly. Broad Beans. — In families where the demand is continued to the end of the season, the last sowing should be made at once, in a warm open situation, and use the Mazagan or early long pod. Endirc. — Sow twice during the month ; the green-curled is a good va- riety, and well suited for general purposes, but the Ba- tavian is milder, and blanches with more freedom, as the leares can be tied in the same way as we do with lettuce. To produce large planis, the ground must be well ma- nured, and abundantly supplied with water. Celery.— The principal supply should be planted during the early part of the month, and for detailed instructions vide a former calendar. Lay up soil to the early-planted crops ; when it is dry sedulously prevent it getting into the heart of the plant. First grasp the plant in the right hand, or the left one if more convenient, putting at first just as much earth around it as will keep the outside leaves together. Cardoons. — Those sown in May should be thinned to nine or ten inches apart, and when of suf- ficient height draw soil to them as recommended for celery. Where this vegetable is in much request, a late supply may yet be sown, and with considerable success, if the winter weather is not severe, but the situation should be dry and freely exposed to the sun. Onions. — A few for salads and culinary purposes may be sown ; the Strasburgh is preferable, being of a mild character. Whenever the last autumn sown crop is ripe, have them well dried before removal to the storehouse. Leeks. — Planting should be finished as soon as circumstances will admit, for if delayed the size will be small. Artichokes. — Encourage size by removing the offsets from the stem, and when the head is cut, break it close to the soil, as it would impoverish the plant if allowed to remain. Cauliflwers. — The late showery weather has suspended the use of watering-cans, and has come most oppor- tunely for planting out the different kinds of winter greens. The May sown cauliflowers are now fit to be planted out permanently, and those of June to- wards the end of the month, which will afford heads till destroyed by frost. Cabbage — Seed is, early in the month, to be sown for coleworts, and a new plantation made to serve during autumn and winter. Let the in- struction given last month as to Brussels sprouts, savoys, broccoli, and borecole, be continued with as little inter- ruption as possible, as the summer is now on the decline. Continue successional sov/ings for the next two or three weeks, for planting during August and the early part of September. Though the plants from subsequent sow- ings will not attain to a large size, they will resist ex- tremes of temperature better, and come in very useful during spring. Carrots — Make a sowing of early horn about the first of the month, which, with slight protection, will continue in perfection till spring, or at least through- out the greater part of winter. Kidney Beans — The situation for this crop should, if possible, be sheltered and dry, and sowing must not be deferred beyond the first week in the month. Turnips, from field culture, are better flavoured than what are usually produced in the garden, owing to the highly manured state of the ground. A winter supply should be sown towards the end of the month. Spinach delights in rich soil ; in- deed, it cannot be too rich ; the Flanders variety is pre- ferable to any, as it does not run to seed so readilj as the prickly, and produces larger foliage. Lettuce is not so apt to shoot into flower when sown in drills, and afterwai'ds thinned to twelve inches apart. Herbs for drying, whether for culinary or medicinal purposes, must be cut before they are out of flower, or much of their virtiie is exhausted. Hardy Fruits. There need be now little apprehension of Peaches and A.pricots dropping, as the stoning process is completed, and should therefore receive their final thinning, which will not, in the majority of cases, require much judg- ment ; and we presume, from observation and informa- tion, that few gardens contain a third part of a crop. Let summer pruning be begun, and carried on without intermission till completed, and have the resolution to thin sufficiently. The early removal of superfluous wood promotes the size and flavour of the fruit, and solidifies that which remains by the admission of solar heat. Every tree, even of the same kind, does not re- quire to be pruned alike ; the difference must be regu- lated by strength. Insects — Strict search is to be made for these depredators during wet and cloudy weather, as they ascend the walls and commit havoc — tliat is, slugs ; they prey on the fruit, although unripe. Earwigs and woodlice are also very mischievous ; they retreat during light, and commence operations in the evening. A. C. THK FARMER'S MAGAZINF. 87 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JUNE. As is almost invariabl)' the case at this jieriod of thp year, the general appearance of the crops has formed the subject of much remark and specula- tion. In the early part of the month, the weather, though vegetative, was by no means forcing, and many i)arties were anticipating a much later harvest than usual; but the rise in the temperature about the 20th— and which has been v/ell kept up since that date, if we e.Kcept a few intervals of change — aided by the absence of moisture, had an almost magical elFect upon the wheats, which, in some counties, canie into blossom under favourable auspices. That the blooming season is frequently a most critical, and certainly most important one, does not admit of a doubt. Up to the ])resent time— as the crops have not had to contend with very high winds, which frequently rub off a large jjortion of the bloom, and thus do considerable damage to the forming grain — our advices are satisfactory. As respects Ijarley, the crop, at pre- Rial, exhibits much unevenness, especially on strong soils ; but we have every reason to believe that the yield of oats, beans, and peas will be a full average one. Numerous opinions have been expressed respect- ing the stock of English wheat now on hand. When we consider that the supply grown in 18.50 was barely an average, especially in the midland counties, and, further, that the purchases at the large outports for inland consumption have been small for some months past, we are not surprised that some of the growers should begin to complain of the want of supply. Scarcely any sjiring corn remains on hand in England ; but the deficiency does not ajipear to be so much felt in Ireland or Scotland ; nevertheless, it is evident that we shall be almost wholly dependent upon the foreigner until quite the close of harvest operations in this country. Regarding the future value of grain, one or two ob- servations may suffice. It is pretty generally sup- posed, from the report presented by the French commissioners appointed to inquire into the flour trade, that a material falling off will be shortly ob- served in the arrivals of foreign flour into the United Kingdom ; but, should those from France decline, we must not forget the immense resources of the United States, the growers in which are now only waiting for an improvement in our markets to pour in almost unlimited quantities. Up to the present time, purchases of wheat abroad for future shipment have not been in excess of former seasons ; yet, from the abundance everywhere observed, it is evident that the arrivals during the whole of the present year will be in great abundance, and more than equal to the wants of our millers, even assuming, for the sake of argument, that our stocks and imports of French flour will be completely woiked out. As to spring corn, there is every prospect of the late purchases abroad paying the importers remarkably well, and we see no prospect of a permanent fall in the value of oats until the Archangel fleet shall have arrived. Notwithstanding that a iew cases of disease hava presented themselves in some quarters, tlie accounts respecting the appearance of the potato c;op are very favourable, iiatlicr large quantities of nev/ potatoes — both English and foreign — have already made their appearance in the various markets, in good condition, whilst the season for old ones has now closed. The remainder of the supply i.s now chiefly passing into thehandsof the covv'-keepers, at from 20s. to 40s. per ton. Haymaking has been commenced in our forward districts, under the most satisfactory auspices. The crop of grass is a full average one, and, up to the present time, the weather has been favourable for cutting. The hop-bine has grown rapidly in the whole of the plantations ; but wc learn that the fly has made its appearance in great force. It is thought, there- fore, that the growth will be a very small one. In the Borough and elsewhere prices have been on the advance, and the duty has been done at £90,000. Tliere is a large show for fruit in Kent and the West of England; yet the prices have ruled high compared with some former years. Owing to the heavy stocks of foreign produce, especially flour, the corn trade, in Ireland, has been in a very inactive state, compared with that in England. The rise in prices has, therefore, been trifling. In Scotland, however, an increased busi- ness has been transacted in most articles, the quo- tations of which have tended upwards. The stocks of home-produce appears to be much reduced. The fat-stock markets have been by no means active. The anticipated advance in the quotations S8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in London — as a result of the holdinj? of the Great Exhibition in the metropoUs — has not taken place ; on the contrary, prices have, in some instances, fallen, owing to the increasing sujiplies from our own districts as well as from abroad. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding the holding of the Great Ex- hibition in the metropolis, and the prevailing warm weather — which invariably prevents the slaughtering of large supplies of meat in the provinces for the London markets — the trade in Smithfiekl, during the whole of the month, has been in a very inactive and unsatisfactory state. In prices, however, no material change has taken place, if we except the low qualities of veal and pork. From our tabular statements, it will be perceived that the supplies have been seasonably good, not only from our own grazing districts, but likewise from abroad ; and, judging from the accounts which have come to hand from various quarters, it is evident that those on hand, taking the country generally, are extensive. The stock of old hay is large, although very great inroads have been made upon it; whilst, as the season has been vegetative up to the ]iresent time, the pastures exhibit a large quantity of grass. Very few losses have been sustained by disease, and the stock is unquestionably doing extremely well. The following supplies were brought forward in Smithfield:— Head. Beasts 17,805 Cows 464 Sheep and lambs 169,420 Calves 2,275 Pigs 2,611 SUPPLIES AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS. The imports from abroad have been as under : — Head. Beasts 1,413 Sheep 7,987 Lambs. . . . , 593 Calves 1,331 Pigs 651 COMPARISON OF CORRESPONDING PERIODS. June, June, June, Junej 1848. 2,044 9,591 74 1,692 1849. 1,300 7,631 386 1,459 2 1850- 1,515 7,398 302 1,600 125 June. 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 Beasts. 13,290 13,476 15,284 16,222 17,452 15,899 Sheep and Lambs. , 169,800 . , 131,390 , , 163,080 . , 148,660 , , 152,730 . , 153,320 . Calves. 1,840 2,212 1,312 3,064 , 3,846 , 2,667 Pigs. 2,600 2,345 2,580 2,488 2,641 2,322 16,608 .. 182,620 .. 2,453 .. 2,475 The home bullock supplies were thus derived : — Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire 9,900 Other parts of England 2,200 Scotland 2,300 No arrivals have taken place from Ireland direct by sea. 1847. Beasts 4,594 Sheep 29,430 Lambs 995 Calves 844 Pigs Beef was sold at from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 6d. ; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 4s.; lamb, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 2d.; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd.; pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per 8lbs., to sink the offals. Newgate and Leadenhall have exhibited large supplies of each kind of meat, which have sold slowly, at drooping prices, ASSESSMENT OF RATES. — IMPORTANT TO TENANT FARMERS. EAST KENT PETTY SESSIONS, Saturday, May 17. — (Before Wni. Delmar and E. Foss, Esqrs., and the Rtv. J. Hilton). William llyJer, Esq., appealed against the rating of his laud, in the parishes of Whitstable and Seasalter, on accovnit of the unfairness thereof, as compared with the rating of house property', since the great depression that had taken place in the value of ajiricultural produce. Mr. Thomas White Coilard, surveyor, of Canterbury, in support of Mr. Ilyder'a appeal, proved the dift'ercnce between the present value of his occupation, and that made by Mr. Andrews in the year 1839. He (Mr. C.) stated, that in arriving at this result, he was not guided entirely by the prices realized for agricultural produce during the past year; if lie had been, a much larger abatement would be necessary to meet the case. He was governed iu his valuation by the prices which had ruled for the last four years. Mr. Coilard had no doubt Mr. Andrews' valuation at the time it was made was a very fair and equal one ; since that period, however, the house property at Whitstabie had fully maintained its value ; whilst, on the other hand, agricultural produce had decreased to a fearful extent. The prices realized for the produce of this estate were as follows, viz. : — 1839. s. s. For Wheat from 76 to 84 Canary .... 76 to 95 Barley .... — to 45 Beans 38 to 40 1850. s. s. Wheat from 41 to 46 Canary 43 to GO Barley 28 to 33 Beans .... 25 to Mr. Sankey, solicitor, on behalf of the parish authorities, urged the unfairness towards others of relieving Mr. Hyder indi- vidually. Mr. Coilard stated, in reply to Mr. Sankey, that Mr. Hyder had no wish to be rated unfairly ; and since this appeal he had invited the parish authorities to adjust the rate, but they declined to do so. Mr. Foss, the chairman, observed that the same course was open to all, viz., that of appeal ; and that, iu his opinion, a fresh valuation of parishes should be made, it being a matter of paramount importance as regarded the income-tax, and also other imposts. The decision of magis- trates was — That Mr. Hyder's assessment in the parish of Whitstable be reduced from £628 14s. 6d. to £489 Us. 4d., and in the parish of Seasalter that the assessment be reduced from £268 Gs. Id. to £213 ISs. lid. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 8» METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. Wind and State. Atmosphere. jWeath. Day. l8 a.m. 10p.m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m.ilOp.m. ! 1 in. els, May22 30.28 in. cts 30.23 49 71 62 W., N. West gentle cloudy fine cloudy 1 dry 23 30,27 30.27 50 66 52 N. West gentle fine cloudy cloudy dry 24 30,30 30.30 45 69 53 [Easterly, var. lively fine sun fine dry 23 30.15 29.96 50 73 57 W., W. by N. lively cloudy sun cloudy rain 26 29.94 29.97 49 57 47 Var., all points gentle fine cloudy fine rain 27 30.05 30.10 42 62 53 N. West gentle fine sun cloudy dry 28 30.19 30.28 49 67 57 N.E., S.W. lively fine sun fine dry 29j 30,35 30.40 45 74 57 N. West gentle fine sun fine dry 30 30.40 30.40 51 68 57 North gentle fine sun fine dry 31 30.47 30.46 50 62 52 Easterly lively fine sun fine dry June 1 30.40 30.22 41 64 56 E. by N. by S. gentle fine sun fine dry 2 30.22 30.09 48 73 57 W.N.W. gentle fine sun fine dry 3, 29.95 29.73 5U 70 57 S. West brisk fine sun cloudy dry 4| 29.80 1 29.90 43 63 47 N.W., var. gentle fine sun fine rain 5 29.87 29.80 42 59 50 Southly., S.W. strong fine cloudy cloudy rain 6 29.87 i 29.95 49 66 55 S. by W. brisk fine fine cloudy dry 7 29.95 1 29.98 53 69 57 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 8'; 29.98 29.99 56 72 58 W.S.W. strong fine sun fine dry 9, 29.98 29.57 53 61 56 S. VVest strong cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 10 29.63 29.76 48 52 48 N. Easterly gentle j cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 11 29.98 : 29.98 45 67 51 S, West gentle fine sun cloudy dry 12 29.80 ' 29.70 48 61 57 S. by E. by W. brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 13 29.77 ; 29.82 55 66 56 S. West gentle i cloudy fine cloudy rain 14 30.09 30.49 49 64 54 W.S.W. gentle fine fine cloudy rain 15 30.10 29.95 47 56 53 S. West lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 16 29.91 1 30.04 53 65 54 S. West brisk fine sun fine dry 17 30.20 30.35 48 64 54 N. West lively fine sun fine dry IS 30.46 30.26 45 57 57 S. West brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 19 30.23 30.14 i 56 77 62 W.S.W. lively fine sun fine dry 20 30.15 30.10 ! 55 74 62 W. by S. gentle cloudy 1, sun fine dry ESTIMATED Barometer. High. I Low. 30.40 29.600 AVERAGES OF JUNE. Thermometer. High. I Low. I Mean. 90 37 56.7 REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest, j Mean. 65.43 I 48.80 I 57.12 Weather and Phenomena. May 22 — Finest summer-like day. 23 — Dull, hazy forenoon. 24— Fine early ; changeable after- noon. 25 — Overcast; shower at sunset. 26 — Chilly; heavy clouds; two showers. 27 — Gene- rally fine; heavy clouds. 28— Fine and hot. 29— Finish. 30— Haze; smoky clouds. 31— Brilliant; keen air. Lunations.— 23rd day, last quarter, 1 h. 5 m. morning. 30th day, new moon, 8 h. 47 m. after- noon. June 1 — Clear and beautiful. 2— Smoky; finer evening. 3— Windy and changeable. 4— Rain last night; cool and cloudy. 5 — Shower; bois- terous wind; evening lull. 6 — Warmer. 7 — Doubtful ; cirro-stratus. 8 — Strong wind ; hot sun. 9 — Drizzle and showers. 10 — Overcast; cold, rainy afternoon. [U — 16 ?J 17 — Airy; beau- tiful sunset. 18 — Changeable; a shower. 19— Hot sun, and fine. 20 — Summer-hke. Lunations.— First quarter, 6th day, 6 h. 28 m. afternoon. Full moon, 13th day, 6 h. 44 m. after- noon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The cold weather has certainly retarded the advance of the crops ; yet wheat exhibited the ear above the third joint on the 1st of June, which became ex- posed to view on the 11th, and perhaps earlier in Sussex. Winter barley I saw in full ear on the 13th; oats on the 19th; but the late spring-sown corn is backward. Hay began to be cut about the l6th; some carried on the ISth. Every crop appears to be decidedly healthy ; but the weather must determine its maturity and in-gathering. Croydon, June 20. J. Towers. 9a THE farmlu'S magazine. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JUNE. A considerable advance has taken place in the value of all kinds of grain during the month; and quotations are now higher than they have been for a long time past. To endeavour to ascertain the causes of the rise, with a view of guiding our opinion as to the probable future range of prices, may not be altogether useless. The first consideration to arrive at the proposed end must be the nature of the weather ; and we must go back to the early part of the year for that ])urpose. The two first months were unusually mild, and fears were entertained that the wheat plant would become prematurely luxuriant. Tliese fears were, however, groundless ; and up to the end of February appearances were generally favourable. During March we had a much greater quantity of rain than usually falls in that month, and the young v.'heat-blade lost its healthy green colour, and as- sumed a yellowish tinge. The sowing of spring corn and pulse was at the same time interfered With by the wet. The latter operation was pro- ceeded with in April, though not without frequent interruptions; and the temperature continuing low, the aspect of the fields was far from promising. Very little improvement took place in the early part of May ; and though no actual mischief resulted fro.n the somewhat unpropitious train of circum- stances above described, the minds of holders of corn were unquestionably influenced thereb}', and an idea began to be very generally prevalent that prices of all articles would imj^rove. Farmers, consequently, became less anxious to dispose of what they had remaining of last year's produce ; anil, instead of an increase in the deliveries, which many had calculated on, the supplies rather fell off. The latter jmrt of May was more propitious for ve- getation ; and the month now about to terminate has, on the whole, been favourable. There has, however, been a want of uniformity — an unsettled- ness — about the character of the season hitherto which has given rise to a feeling of greater uncer- tainty respecting the future than usual. This has encouraged holders to refrain from pressing sales, and has induced millers, dealers, and others to purchase somewhat more freely than they might otherwise have been disposed to do. All this has been brought about without speculation, without any serious apprehension relative to the probable result of the harvest; but it is, nevertheless, attri- butable to the weather, as we have already endea- voured to show. Latterly, the rise has been assisted by a few speculative purchases grounded on the belief that stocks in the hands of the growers are reduced into an unusually small compass, and that foreign supplies are not likely to reach us unless our prices go higher. The original causes of the advance we regard as perfectly legitimate. The unsettled and at times unpropitious weather naturally induced merchants and millers, who had jirevioiisly allowed their stocks to run low, to take steps to guard themselves against any sudden rise; and the eftect of the in- crease of their operations imparted a more healthy tone to the trade, and gave an impetus to prices : but whether it may be prudent to follow up these purchases, now that the value of wheat has risen fully 5s. per qr., and speculators have begun to aid the movement, may well be questioned. Notwithstanding tlie doubtful character of the weather during sjjring and the early part of the summer, the reports from the agricultural districts speak well of the wheat crop : it is no doubt back- ward ; and the harvest must, under any circum- stances, be rather later than in ordinary .seasons : but this is, we believe, all that there is at present to complain of. What proportion of last year's produce of wheat may still remain in farmers' hands cannot be ascertained; but, allowing that it is less than usual at the corresponding period of the season, we see no reason to fear scarcity. Good stocks of foreign wheat and flour are held at all the principal ports on the coast, and scarcely a day passes without arrivals from one quarter or the other. Our impression, therefore, is, that, shnidd we 1)6 favoured with tolerably auspicious weather during the remainder of the summer, the value of wheat would not rule higher than at present. Some even question whether the recently established enhancement would, imder such circumstances, be fully maintained. With regard to spring corn, the position of aflfairs is diStrent; our stocks of barley and oats are undoubtedly short, indeed, in many parts of the kingdom, almost totally exhausted, so that the consumption has been entirely thrown on foreign. The imports from abroad, though large, have therefore rapidly disappeared, and as the pro- duce of Lent sown corn and pulse was deficient last year over a large portion of continental Europe, it TIIF. FARMl'R'S MAGAZINE. 91 will not be easy to draw supplies to suffice for our consumption during the three months which must still elapse before the new crops can be expected to be available. Most of the journals favourable to free-trade are at present in high spirits, in conse- quence of the improved tone which the grain trade has assumed, and boldly assure farmers that they have nothing to fear. The crisis, they say, has been passed, and in future all will be prosperity with the agriculturist. Protectionists are taunted with having given way to groundless fears, and much of the depression of the last three years is at- tributed to this cause. We cannot compliment our free-trade cotem- poraries either on the ingenuity or honesty of their arguments ; panic, if unfounded, could not have endured for years ; and since the first introduction of the new system up to the present time the tendency of prices has, with the exception of occasional and temporary rallies, been steadily downwards. But the most singular ])art of the subject is, that the grand object for the repeal of the corn laws should now be wholly abandoned. Cheap bread was the battle-cry of the League ; this caught the masses, and led to triumph. It has, however, been since discovered that cheap bread does not constitute the siunmum honuiii of human happiness ; that the ruin of the British farmer must re-act on other branches of in- dustry. The free-traders consequently shift their ground, and exert themselves might and main to prove that unrestricted importations of corn ought not to cause low prices. This mode of reasoning is too shallow no need exposure. That we may, under certain train of circumstances, have open ports and high prices, has been proved by past experience ; but in ordinarily good seasons the continental growers can raise corn at less expense than our farmers, and to admit the same free of duty must, therefore, be greatly to the prejudice of the home producer. The farmer is not the only sufferer by this slate of things ; his resources being crippled he is unable to purchase from the manufacturer, who thus loses the home demand for his goods. The shop keeper, the small trader, all must feel the effects of the impoverished state of the agricultural body. This has been the actual working of affairs during the last two or three years ; and so general have become the complaints among every class of the community that those who regarded low-priced food (by whatever means ob- tained) as a ])anacea for every evil which could befal this country, have been driven to all kinds of inven- tions to bolster up the corn markets. Long before the new order of things came into operation, we gave it as our opinion that free im- portations would reduce the average price of wheat to 40s. per qr. ; and our prediction has been fully borne out by the result. A combination of extra- ordinary circumstances may occur to cause a high range of prices ; but in moderately good seasons the British farmer cannot calculate on receiving even 40s. per qr. for his wheat, so long as he has to compete with low labour, low rents, and in many instances the more favourable climate which the foreign producer enjoys. But we are digressing from the staple matter of our re\'iew, and shall return to the more legitimate part of our subject. Contrary to the oidinary course, the markets in the agricultural districts have lately taken the lead in the upward movement ; and the consuming towns, where the impulse generally in the first in- stance originates, have followed. This has no doubt been caused by the heavy stocks and large supphes of foreign grain held and received at the principal ports on the coast, and the comparaii',-e scarcity in the interior. The arrivals of liome-grown wheat into the port of London have averaged about the same as for some months past, that is, about 2,500 qrs. per week ; but the town millers have hitherto had a plentiful choice to s-elect from out of the stocks of foreign in granary, and the advance has therefore not been so rapid at INIark-lane as elsewhere. The upu'ard movement commenced towards the latter part of May, and on Monday the 2nd of June English wheat realized fully as much money as on that day se'nnight. The succeeding week an im- provement of Is. to 2s. per qr. was established ; and on the l6th inst. prices were again Is. to 2s. higher. After that period buyers began to be more cautious in their operations ; and though quotations crept up another Is. per qr. the demand slackened, and during the last eight days business (influenced by fine weather and favourable reports respecting tlie growing crops) has lost much of the animation by which it was characterized the first three weeks in the month. Good runs of red Essex and Kent wheat are now worth 43s. to 44s., and selected parcels Is. to 2s. more; whilst white may be quoted from 48s. to 50s. for runs, and 52s. to 55s. for superior qualities — showing a rise since the close of May of 4s. to 5s. per qr. V\^e are inclined to think that this improvement will have the effect of draw- ing somewhat better supplies ; indeed, an increase in the quantity on the Kentish stands was already observable on Monday the 23rd, notv/ithstanding that haymaking must have rendered it rather in- convenient to spare hands for thrashing. During the first half of the month the supplies of wheat from abroad were small ; but since the 14th the arrivals have increased materially; tlie receipts from that day to the 2 1st having ex- ceeded 35,000 qrs. The return for the last week 92 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has not yet been made up, but it is liliely to be little short of 20,000 qrs. The rise in prices has not been quite so great in foreign as in English, having amounted to only 3s. or at most 4s. per qr, ; but a larger extent of business has been done than in any preceding month for some time past. The town millers have confined their proceedings principally to the finer kinds of red Baltic and Danzig, which they have taken pretty freely. A good many country purchasers have, however, visited our market from time to time, who have bought Polish Odessa and similar sorts ; and, latterly, rather large parcels of low quality have been taken by speculators. The greatest amount of business was transacted about the middle of the month ; but the upward movement in prices con- tinued until the '21st. The great increase in the quantity on sale the following Monday checked the rise ; and though there has as j'et been no giving way in jirices, sales have become rather more difl[i- cult at the enhanced rates. The arrivals of wheat off the coast from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea have lieen liberal since our last. The greater part of the cargoes had, however, been disposed of (principally to proceed to Ireland) previous to coming to hand, and this supjjly has consequently been cleared off without occasioning any pressure ; indeed, higher prices have been paid for floating cargoes than were previously obtainable — say, for Egyptian 25s. to 26s., for Roumelia 32s. to 34s., and for Polish Odessa 36s. up to 38s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance. The decided rise which has taken place in the value of wheat has had less influence on prices of flour than would have been the case but for the continued receipts of that article from France. There is, however, reason to believe that the supplies from thence will now fall off, as prices have recently risen considerably in that country, so as to leave no margin for profit on consignments to England. The top price of town-made flour has remained stationary at 39s. per sack; but households, whether of London or country manufacture, have risen Is. io 2s. per sack within the last fortnight ; and a similar improvement has been established on really fresh qualities of French and American. The supplies of home-grown barley have been perfectly insignificant, but there being no demand for malting at this season of the year, and a plentiful choice of distilling and grinding barley having been afforded by the receipts from abroad, the smallness of the receipts of English has caused no incon- venience to buyers. The rise in the value of wheat, and the rather unfavourable weather experienced in the early part of the month, had their due influence on prices of articles used for feeding purposes, and grinding barley advanced 2s. to 2s. 6d. per qr. before the I6th of June. This enhancement, and rather larger arrivals from the continent, have had the effect of lessening the inclination to buy, and during the last week or two the sale has been less free than previously. Light quahties of 50 lbs. weight are nevertheless still worth 22s. to 23s., and the heavier kinds up to 25s. per qr., showing a rise of at least 2s. per qr. since the close of last month. The transactions in malt have not been very ex- tensive, and no quotable change has occurred in prices, but the turn has certainly been in favour of the seller. Oats of home-growth have come to hand very sparingly, and there can no longer be a doubt that the stocks of this grain are nearly exhausted, not only in England but likewise in Scotland and Ireland. From the last-named country only a few thousand quarters have been received during the month, and the arrivals coastwise have been still more insignificant ; we have consequently been al- most wholly depended on the receipts from abroad for supphes. These proved very moderate in the early part of the month, and prices, which were al- ready high when we last addressed our readers, continued to rise up to Monday, the l6th inst., on which occasion 38 to 40 lbs. English and Scotch feed brought 25s. to 26s., and fine heavy parcels 27s. to 28s. per qr. For foreign, corresponding terms were realized ; and a small lot of very superior Danish, grown from Poland seed, and of extraordinary weight, sold at the last-named price. Within the last fortnight we have received about 50,000 qrs. of oats from abroad, which has for the present stopped the upward movement, and on the 23rd June a reaction of 6d. to Is. per qr. took place in prices. The usual spring shipments from Russia are now beginning to come forward, and we may therefore calculate on larger supplies than we have lately been receiving, but the dealers are by no means well pro- vided— having sold freely during the rise without being able to replenish their stocks ; we are there- fore of opinion that this grain will not recede ma- terially in value, as we shall probably have a larger circuit of country to supply than usual, owing to the extreme scarcity of oats in the interior. Latterly purchases have actually been made in tlie London market for shipment to Boston and other ports on the east coast, from whence the metropolis usually draws a considerable portion of its supply. Beans hrive been influenced by the rise which has taken place in oats, and have crept up Is. to 2s. per qr. since our last monthly notice. Large ticks THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 are now worth 26s. to 28s., harrows 28s. to 30s., and pigeon up to 35s. per qr. Foreign beans have risen in proportion, and good Egyptian on the spot cannot be purchased below 24s. to 25s. per qr. The rates named were more freely paid eight or ten days ago than at present ; still holders have re- mained firm, and have shown no symptoms of anxiety to reahze. English peas have come slowly to hand, nor have the arrivals from abroad been large ; there has, however, been less animation in the demand than might have been expected, considering the rise in all other articles. We have still tolerably good stocks of old foreign feeding peas in granary, which might be bought at 26s. to 28s., and boilers cannot be quoted over 30s. per qr. The transactions in Indian Corn afloat have been rather extensive, nearly the whole of the eighty car- goes arrived off the coast having been bought for Irish account, generally at enhanced terms. This article has brought relatively higher prices than low quah- ties of wheat, which may be attributed to the facility with which it may be used without the trouble of much cooking — a quality which renders Indian corn meal a popular substitute for oatmeal in Ire- land. Before bringing our remarks to a conclusion, we shall take a brief notice of the fluctuations which had, up to the date of the latest advices, occurred at the principal continental grain markets. The reports from the north of Europe represent the weather as having been rather unfavourable for the growing crops, and in many districts the wheat plant is said to have been injured. "Without placing too imj)licit reliance in the accuracy of these ac- counts, we are inclined to think that the season must have proved trying for wheat in the northern parts of Europe, more wet having fallen than usual, and the temperature having been generally low. Respecting the stocks of last year's growth of wheat remaining on hand, opinions vary greatly : the prevailing impression appears however to be, that, owing to the deficiency in the yield of rye, barley, and oats in 1850, the consumption of wheat was materially increased in many of the countries where the masses, under ordinary circumstances, use comparatively little wheaten flour, and that there is consequently a smaller reserve than usual at the coiTesponding period. Under this impres- sion, assisted by the behef that Great Britain is likely to want large supplies, speculators have pur- chased freely at the leading ports in the Baltic, and quotations are now relatively higher there than with us. At Danzig large purchases have been made, partly to hold over and partly for shipment to England. During the week ending the 14th inst., upwards of 30,000 qrs. changed hands at very high terms, as much as 44s. to 46s. per qr. free on board having been paid for fine 62 to 63lbs. Upper Polish high-mixed. Subsequent accounts, dated the 17th of June, state that 7,000 qrs. Upper Polish, weighing 61 to 62lbs., had been taken at 43s. to 44s. per qr. free on board, and that heavier descrip- tions were still held at the extreme rates of the previous post day. Freights to London had varied from 2s. lOd. to 3s. lid., to the east coast 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d., and to Liverpool 3s. 4d. per qr. had been paid. In the course of a week, vessels had been chartered to load to British ports, capable of carrying about 20,000 qrs., of which nearly 8,000 qrs. are destined for London. Letters from Rostock of the IQlh speak un- favourably of the weather ; and the most recently received English reports being considered en- couraging, holders of wheat had raised their preten- sions, 42s. per qr., free on board, being currently asked for 62lbs. quality. From Stettin we learn that a good many specu- lative purchases of wheat had been made, which had caused prices to rise to 39s. to 39s. 6d. for the best heavy quahties, and 37s. 6d. to 38s. per qr. for 60 to 6 libs, red Silesian. With the addition of freight, insurance, &c., the cost here, would, it will be at once perceived, be more than the prices cur- rent in our markets ; this does not, however, seem to have checked speculators, and purchases have within the last few weeks been made in the Baltic on British account, at rates we deem very hazard- ous. At the near continental ports prices have also advanced materially during the month of June, and there is at present little margin for profit on ship- ments from any part of the continent to our mar- kets. At Hamburg, on the 20th inst., 60^ to 6llbs. Wahren wheat was quoted 43s. 6d. to 44s. 3d. per qr., free on board, and other sorts proportionately high. Prices of spring corn have risen abroad with greater rapidity than the value of wheat. Barley at the leading ports in the Baltic having advanced to 20s. up to 23s., and hght feed oats 18s. to 19s. and 20s. per qr. free on board. In the Dutch and Belgian markets quotations of all kinds of grain have been run up in expectation of an increased English demand, and it would not pay to import either wheat or spring corn from the Netherlands. From France the accounts in regard to the growing crops are of a very unfavourable charac- ter, and considerable excitement has for some weeks past prevailed in the Paris and other large markets. The rise in the value of flour has amounted to 3 francs per sack of 100 kil., equal to 6s. 8d. per 6 bushels. It ma)', however, be worth 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. notice that a large portion of the IniMineas done has been for forward deUvery, or in other words, time bargains. Buyers for conouinption have held off', and do not appear to have much confidence in the stability of the advance. Flour is now cheaper here than free on board at French ports, and a check in the supplies from thence may conse- quently be calculated on. From Italy and other southern countries the accounts as to the probable result of the harvest are not favourable, and the rise here and in France may be expected to influence quotations in the Mediterranean after a while. By the most recent advices from the United States, we learn that good supplies of bread-stuflfs had come down from the interior, and that the stocks on the seaboard were rather large, nothing being then yet known of the npward movement in the European markets. Flour was dull at New York on the 10th inst., and good shipping brands of Western Canal might then have been bought at i dollars per Ijarrel, which rate would allow of consignments to England, leaving a fair margin for profit. The next accounts will, no doubt, be of a more animated character, a good many orders having gone out for the purchase of flour by the two last packets. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. ShilliD^ii per Quarter Wn^A'i', Essex and Kent, white, new. . 39 to 44 fine up to 50 Ditto ditto old . . 42 46 „ 50 Ditto ditto red, new. ... 37 42 „ 44 Ditto ditto old ... . 40 42 „ 45 ISforfoIk, Lincoln, &Yorksh., red, n. 34 39 „ 42 Ditto ditto old.. 40 42 „ 44 Ditto ditto wliite, new 40 42 „ 46 Ditto ditto old.. 42 44 „ 46 Barley, malting, new 24 26 Chevalier, new ... 30 31 Distilling, new 23 25 Grinding, old 21 22 24 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 44 46 extra 50 Ditto ditto old 45 48 „ 51 Kiugston,Ware,and townmade,new50 53 „ 55 Ditto ditto old 48 54 „ 56 Oats, English feed, new 20 21 fine 24 Potato, old 22 25 extra 26 Scotch feed, new 22 25 fine 27 Ditto, old 22 25 extra 27 Irish feed, white, new 20 21 fine 27 Ditto, old 22 23 extra 23 Ditto, black, new. . , 19 21 fine 25 Rye 25 27 old 24 22 Beans, Mazagan 28 30 „ 28 30 Ticks 29 31 „ 29 32 Harrow 29 32 „ 31 33 Pigeon 30 32 „ 32 35 Peas, white boilers 28 30 „ 27 30 Maple 28 30 „ 28 31 Grey 27 29 „ 28 30 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — „ 33 38 Country marks — — „ 27 32 FOKEitJN GRAIN. VVuEA'i', Daiit/.ic, mixed. . 42 tt)45 high mixed 46 Koiiiu'sberg 40 44 Rostock, new 43 45 fine old Poinera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,ved 42 4b 44 48 cxlv: 47 „ 46 „ 43 extra 41 42 white 42 40 „ 40 44 old 12 42 white 40 36 fine 37 Silesiaii ;, 40 Danish and Holstein „ 28 Rhine and Bel'^ium „ 40 French , 39 Odessa, St. Petersburg, and Riga. . 34 Barley, i^rindiug 21 Distilling ~'> Malting ^-5 Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polanda 22 Feed 1'.' Danish and Swedish feed 20 Str^lsuud 20 Russian 20 French 19 Beans. Friesland and Holstein 26 28 Konigsberg 30 Peas, feeding 27 29 fine boilers 28 Indian Corn, white 30 31 yellow 28 Flour, French, per sack ... 28 32 fine 32 American, sour per barrel 20 21 sweet 22 50 4S 48 45 45 42 45 44 39 24 25 ^7 2 .") 22 23 22 21 oo .so 30 34 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Weeks. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Bean^ Teas. Wbiek Endino: 8. d. I 3. d. s. d. ' s. d. s. d. s. i. May 17,1351.. 38 2 24 2 18 11 25 9,28 10 ..'7 2 May 24.1351.. 38 8 24 1 19 5 24 7 29 2^6 1 May 31,1851.. 39 3 24 1 20 0 26 9 29 7,27 5 June 7, 1351.. 39 6 24 4 20 8 23 5 30 11;:6 10 June 14, 1851.. 39 11 24 6 20 126 lj30 10J28 6 June 21,1851.. 40 7 24 4^21 4 28 Oj30 5U7 6 Aggregate average of last six weeks 39 4 24 3^20 125 9 29 1127 3 Comparative avge. I | same time last year 40 0 22 6 ' 16 4 22 5;26 G 26 2 Duties 10 1 0 ! 1 0 1 0: 1 C 1 0 LONDON AVERAGES £ 8. d Wheat Barley , Oats , 2,755 qrs.2 4 2 226 1 4 11 1,604 Rye . . . , Beans .. 9 Peaa £ s. d. — qrs. 0 0 0 220 1 9 11 94 1 6 11 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Averages from the correFj)ond- Gazette. Av. iug Gazette in 1850 A v. ftrs. 8. d. Qrs. 3. d. Wheat . 92,905 . . 40 7 Wheat .. 103,816 .. 40 5 Barley .. 3,297 . . 24 4 Barley .. 3,242 .. 22 8 Oats .. ... 9,667 . . 21 4 Oats 9,902 . . 16 10 Rye .. 15 . . 28 0 Rye .... 52 . , 22 6 Beans . , . 4,311 . . 30 5 Beans 3,813 .. 26 7 Peas ,. 294 . . 27 6 Peas .... 573 .. 26 9 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six WEEKS ENDING JUNE 21, 1851. Pbiob. June 21. QUANTITY OF FOREIGN GRAIN ENTERED FREE FOR HOME CONSUMPTION During the week ENDING June 21. Wheat, Foreign. . qrs. 14964 Barley „ 5481 Oats „ 19606 Beans qrs. 400 Peas 156 Flour.,..,,.., brls. 23249 TIIK FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 95 SEED MARKET. Friday, June 27. Our niarkft, to-day, i< well supplied with mosl socds for the time of year. Generally speaking, the derannc Cake (per ton) £4 Os. to £4 lOs. Heiupsced, small, (per qr.) 32s. to o3s., Do. Dutch, 34s. to 36s Tares, (per qr.) small 22s. to 25s., large 30s. to 333. Rye Grass (per qr.) — s. to — s. Coriander (per ewt) — s. to — s. BOROUGH HOP MARKET. Friday, June 27. The rapid increase in the fly inmost of the plantations has caused sosue excitement in our market. Several large parcels of Hops have changed hands, at a further advance in the quotations of 4s. per ewt. Duty, £'90,000 to £100,000. Mid and East Kent pockets, per ewt. 84s. to 145s. Weald of Kent do SOs. to 95s. Sussex do , .... SOs. to 90s. POTATOES. Borough and Spitalfields.— Friday, June 27. Very few old Potatoes are now on sale in these mar- kets. Prices are very irregular, and low parcels are mostly going into the hands of the cow-keepers, at from 20s. to 40s. per ton. New qualities — both English and fo- reign—are in great abundance, and may be had at from 8s. to 16s. per ewt. This week's imports are 8,.J00 baskets from Rotterdam, pnd 700 do, from Dunkirk. PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. Friesland, per ewt. 74 to 76 Kiel 72 74 Dorset 70 82 Cadow new 68 71 Waterford „ 66 72 Cork „ 70 — Limerick 70 — Sligo 66 — Fresh Butter,pcrdoz.8s.l0s.6d Cheshire Cheese, per ewt., 52 70 Chedder do 56 68 Double ■ Gloucester, per ewt 46 to 56 Single do 44 52 York Hams 64 72 Westmoreland do. . 66 70 Irish do 50 66 American do 28 36 Wiltshire Bacon, green, 56 58 Waterford Bacon . . 54 56 Hamburgh do 48 52 American 36 44 COVh.NT GARDEN MAHKET. TmnsDAY, June 26. \'cry extensive supplies of Vegetables, cspcri.dSy new Potatoes, Lettuces, Cabbages, \c., were on sale in to-d.iy's market; iieverthelcsa, the demand ruled steady, at our quo- tations. Tlic siipply of Fruit was considerably on the iii- crcasc. The show of root;;, &c., was unusually lar;^c. I'KUITS. S. d. s. 4 queys )) )) 13 0 On ■2-2m\ Fchy. 2 steers U 0 )) 5> 4 (luoys }) )> la 0 On 15th April, 2 steers )> v^ 0 )' )) 4 (pieys j> )5 11 0 On loth May, 2 steers, mangold s5ist., swede s an (1 kohl ra bi a St. lOi 0 A few days before the last weighing, the 4 queys had been removed by the owner. It may be here noticed that until this last oc- casion, there was a progressive decrease in the quantity of turnips consumed. How this fact is to be explained I leave to the practical members of the club. It has occurred to me as a possible explana- tion, that the turnips given in February having been swedes, a smaller quantity of them afforded the same amount of nourishment to satisfy the animal : and that as the swedes became more fibrous and stringy by keeping, the animals relished them the less. In May it was considered proper to mix with the swedes, on this account, mangolds and kohl rabi, which were more juicy. The ani- mals then ate with greater avidity. Whenever a cart-load of fresh mangolds came near the sheds and boxes the animals seemed to discover them by the smell, and generally went forward to their feed- ing-troughs, in eager expectation of a fresh supjily. The cattle-man states that they showed a decided preference for the mangolds, and cared little for the kohl rabi. In regard to the food given to the cattle in the boxes, I may mention that I was desirous of trying on how small a quantity of turnips these animals would fatten when other food was added. I now regret having made this experiment, as it has to some extent prevented a fair trial of box and shed- feeding resj)ectively. The following table shows the kinds and quantities of food which each ani- mal in the boxes got at the difierent dates men- tioned : — « rt 3 =* g From 13th to 20th Jan. ,,20thto27th Jan ,, 27th Jan. to 3rd Feb.. ,, 3rd Feb. to! lOthFeb.! ,, lOthFeb.to 17th Feb. ,, 17th Feb. to 24thFeb. ,, 24th Feb. to UthMar. ,, 17thMar.to UthApr. ,, HthApr.to 22ndApr ,, 22nd Apr .to 17th May St. lbs. lbs. 10 i 3 5 10 11 12 14 lbs. a, S a lbs. lbs. St. St. 2i 4 4 i 4 1 4 1 i 3 1 4 3 1 5 From the foregoing data it appears that each animal consumed, during the above period of 124 days, of Roots 834 stones. 104 cwts. Cut straw 1,094 lbs. 977 cwts. Oatmeal dust 105 lbs. Bean-meal . . 269^2 lbs. Rapecake .... 151 ^ lbs. Flaxseed .... 47 lbs. Assuming the value of the roots (of all kinds) at 8s. per ton, the oatmeal dust id. for GMbs., the bean-meal id. for r4lbs., the rapecake id. for 2"3 lbs., and flaxseed at 6s. per bushel, or l"7d. per lb., the above food cost — £ s. d. For roots 2 3 fl Oatmeal dust 0 1 4 Bean-meal ........ 0 16 0 Flaxseed 0 6 7 £3 6 5 besides straw and cost of attendance. I may men- tion that, having received 4s. per week for the sliced turnips given to the queys taken in on hire, 1 find, from the quantity which they cat, that the owner of them paid to me 7s. 5d. per ton, not cal- culating the benefit of the manure or the value of the straw consumed. During the above period of 124 days, these queys consumed each 193 cwt. of roots, and the 2 steers 145 the value of which, at 8s. per ton, is, respectively, £3 I7s. 3d. for the queys, and £2 18s, 4d steers. Thus it would appear that the animals of the same age and breed cost less in the sheds than in the boxes, for feeding. But, before ascertaining the positive advantage or disadvantage, it is neces- sary to calculate the effect on the animal, in respect of size, at the end of the above period. Not having a machine fit for weighing cattle, I measured them from time to time, by taking their length and girth ; and the results are given in the following table : On 11th Nov. In £oxc6\ No. 2 Steer, H years . . No. 3 Steer, H years . . ' No. 4 Steer, l| years . . i No. 5 Steer, 1 J years . . In Shedd, R. and w. Steer, 1^ years White Steer R. and w. Quey, 2J years Grizzled Quey, 2i years Red Quey, 2i years. . . . White Quey, 2J years . . It. in 3 9 3 11 3 11 4 1 On 22nd April, j On 17th May. ft. in ft. in ft. in ft. in 5 8:4 106 54 10 5 94 106 7 4 10 5 7!4 106 64 11 5 0 !4 10,6 74 11 5 34 96 54 9 5 (;4 66 34 7 6 3;5 07 2 6 25 37 3 6 IJo l|7 1 6 25 3l7 0 ft. in 6 6 6 Ik 6 7 6 9 6 71 6 4 110 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The following was the increase in inches of the sets of animals, during the periods specified. From 11th November to 4th February. Length. Girth. Total. Inches. Inches. Inches. 4 Steers in boxes, each in- creased on average 8.7 5.7 45 2 Steers in sheds 7 7 49 4 Queys 4 6 24 From nth Nov. to 22nd Feb. r 9 6.5 58 The above respectively S 8 7 56 * I 7.5 8.2 61 From nth Nov. to 17th March. r lO.l 7.7 77 The above respectively < 8 10 80 [ 9.5 10.7 96 From nth Nov. to 22nd April. r 11 9.7 106 The above respectively < 7 11.5 80 I 9.7 11.5 111 From nth Nov. to 17th May. The above respectively -j 11.5 7.5 10.87 13i 123 99 From the foregoing data it would appear that the steers in the boxes increased in size much more than those in the sheds ; and in a greater propor- tion than the expense of the food consumed by them. At the same time I admit that the experiment would have more satisfactorily tried the efficacy of the two kinds of accommodation, had the same kinds of food been given in each case ; for it is im- possible to say how much of the greater weight of the box-fed animals was caused by the different food given to them. In regard to the other question, which I had more particularly in view in the beginning of winter — viz., on how small a quantity of turnips young beasts could be fattened — it appears to me that those in the boxes throve as well on 5 stones daily, when accompanied with 4lbs. of beanraeal, as those in the sheds on 10 stones daily. Farther, it will be seen how rapid was the in- crease of size of the animals in the boxes, when the quantity of turnips was increased to 7 stones daily, \vith lib. of rapecake. The only other remark which it occurs to me to make, is that the 2} year-old beasts increased in ffirth more than in leiit/th, whilst those a year younger increased in length more than in girth ; which proves apparently that the older animals lay on fat the most rapidly. As to which plan requires most htter, I may state that the boxes have twice every day had fresh straw put into them, so as to keep the animals dry when lying down. The sheds and open courts have had fresh straw supplied to them twice a week. The boxes between 2nd November and 10th February produced 46 cart-loads of green or unfermented dung ; being at the rate of 9.2 cart-loads for each animal — the sheds having during the same period produced 238 cart-loads, being at the rate of 21.7 loads for each animal. The boxes have, therefore, required for litter, less than half the quantity of straw required by the sheds; so that on alarm yielding a certain quantity of straw, the boxes (at least those constructed like mine) would allow more than double the number of cattle to be littered than could be done in sheds. It will be observed, how- ever, that my boxes are not sunk below the surface of the ground so as to collect and retain the urine of the animals. There are drains in each box, to facihtate the escape of liquid, and it is conducted by them into a tank ; which also receives what falls in the sheds and curtains. From this tank it is pumped up, and conducted by wooden spouts over a dunghill. In its course to the dunghill it is made to pass through a box containing small pieces of sulphate of iron, which has the effect of fixing the ammonia, by converting the carbonate into a sul*- phate of ammonia. Mr. Ogden, of Berryhill (who, although not a member of the Club, had kindly consented, at the request of the committee, who were aware that he had tried the system of box-feeding, to answer the queries on this subject), then read the following re- port : — I have much pleasure in answering the queries contained in your letter of the 10th April. 1st. In seasons previous to commencing feeding in boxes, my fattening cattle were all kejjt in open yards, about o6 feet by 30, with a shed 30 feet by 10 or 12. A curtain of this size will contain five cattle, sometimes six. The feeding troughs are under cover. 2nd. I have twelve boxes, and have used them for three years, and inti nd to increase their number. 3rd. The dimensions of the boxes are about 12 feet by 9. From 110 to 130 square feet makes an excellent box. They ought to be longer than broad. Tlie boxes have two separate troughs for feeding, the one for turnips, the other for meal, oilcake, &c. They are not new erections through- out, advantage being taken of walls already built ; some of them are boarded in front, others dwarf walls to within two feet of the top. Rails or open boards are in general quite warm enough. The cost of erection is not great, more particularly if the wood required is granted by the propiietor. The expense of those boxes formed by dwarf walls and covered with straw was about 15s. each, and those which are boarded and covered with tiles 22s. ; these, however, having been erected at my expense, my object of course was to incur as little as possible. 4th. My cattle are fed with turnips, bean-meal, oilcake, and cut straw. The first thing in the morn- ing they get the mixture, then turnips, and at one o'clock the mixture again, afterwards turnips ; they always have a sufficient supply of turnips. One day in the week, in general on Sundays, the mix- ture is withheld. I find that a three years old steer will consume from 16 to 18 stones of turnips per day, this I be- lieve is also the opinion of other experienced far- mers. My farm not being all adapted for turnips, I have for these three years used linseed or oilcake, with beanmeal and cut straw ; this last year oil- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill cake and not linseed. I am induced to consider oil-cake as good as linseed ; at all events with nie it takes less preparation. The mixture I am in the habit of giving to my cattle consists of 2 lbs. of oilcake, 2 lbs. of bean meal, 4 lbs. of cut straw, and 1 i to 2 oz. of salt per day, sometimes I lb. of oilcake, and 3 lbs. of bean meal. This mixture can be ])ui chased and ])re- pared, according to the present i)rices, for id. per lb., or 2s. per head per week, six days in the week. I also find that cattle, when they have this mixture consume at least S stones or 1 cwt. of turnips less per day tlian when fed upon tiunips alone. They are always in better order, and fatten faster. Cattle in low condition ought not all at once to be put upon very high feeding, but as their condition im- proves, so ought their food up to a certain ])oint. When cattle are first brought in from their summer pasture, and till they are somewhat accustomed to confinement, it may be as well to keep them two or three weeks in open yards. The mixture is prepared in the forenoon by the byre man, and keeps perfectly sweet for 36 hours. In preparing the mixture to serve 24 cattle for 24 hours, 48 lbs. of oilcake, 48 lbs. bean meal, 96 lbs. of cut straw, and 30 oz. of salt, are in the first place well mixed together in a trough, about 36 gallons of boihng water are tlien added, after which the whole mass is well turned and incorporated to- gether and pressed down, and in an hour or two is quite ready for the cattle. I consider it of very little importance whether it is given warm or cold, as the cattle in either case take it with great avidity. Out of forty cattle this year that liave had this mixture, I have not had one unwell, or off his feed for a single day. The troughs in which the mix- ture is prepared, are 6 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 24 feet deep. A trough of this size will contain mixture for 24 cattle. The time occupied by the byre man in preparing one trough of the mixture is not more than half an hour, the cut straw, meal, &c., all being ready. The straw cutter (a very old one), and the mill stones, are driven by water. 5. I decidedly prefer box-feeding to the mode I previously practised, and find the animals fatten more rapidly, and, in my opinion, they produce a greater increase of weight to a given quantity of food. In fine dry frosty weatlier, as little straw will be required in open yards as in boxes. Of course, in wet, disagreeable weather, the cattle in boxes are more comfortable \vith less straw. The cattle in boxes ought to have a little fresh straw every day, and the straw shaken out from the walls and corners of the boxes. I do not find the manure from the boxes so much better or improved as I ex])ected. The upper rail in the divisions should be both stronger and wider than the others, to al- low the cattle to get their heads through with ease, by which means the straw near the divisions is more compressed, and becomes better manure. I consider there is no need of manure-tanks where boxes are used ; it is desirable that the box should be from 18 to 20 inches below the surface. Part of mine are so. In these there is no perceptible waste of liquid ; but where the boxes are upon the surface, although there is a stone and lime wall 18 inches high, when the manure accumulates for some time, there is an escape of liquid to a small extent; and this is a sufficient notice that the boxes require to be emptied. In my case, there is a little loss of time in removing the manure. The carts cannot get into the boxes ; and the manure has to be thrown out by women, and then filled into carts. There is certainly a little more expense attending feeding of cattle in boxes, in comparison to yards, but not to any great extent, and, I should say, not to be compared to the f dvantage of the one over the other. I am quite aware there are many excellent prac- tical farmers, occupying large possessions, will say this sort of thing is very well in a small way, but cannot be carried out to a large extent. I am quite satisfied and convinced, as far as re- gards the farm I occupy, that box-feeding, with a certain quantity of extra food, is the most advan- tageous system I can follow. In answer to an enquiry, Mr. Ogden stated that the linseed cake which he gave to his cattle was given broken, not pounded. {To be continued.) THE PRIZE CHURNS AT THE GREAT EXHIBITION The prizes for churns are awarded as follows, viz., to Messrs. Burgess and Key, Newgate-street, for the improved American churn; J. J. Duchene, Assche, en Refail, Belgium; (No. 1,299, France) A. D. Lavoisy, Paris ; T. Wilkinson (marked in Catalogue 904), 309, Oxford-street. The above four churns are probably the best in the building for rapidity of production, the only others that we should be inclined to put in comparison with them being those exhibited by Messrs. Drummond, of Perth. There are also some " air " churns, but with such accompanying complex motions as en- tirely unfits them for common use. We regret that Mr. Robinson, of Lisburn, has not forwarded one of his improved French churns, as we believe that a combination of the same, with a modifica- tion of the French and American dasher, would form the best churn for general uses. In order fully to comprehend the merits of the various churns above noticed, it will be necessary to give the reader some slight account of the theory of the process of butter making, which is one of a highly complex character, however simple it may appear to a robust and expert dairymaid. 112 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Milk is a compound of caseine (cheese), butter, sugar, water, and a small amount of inorganic matter, in about the following proportions : — Caseine 4*9 Butter 4-7 Sugar 3*8 Ashes 0"5 Water 86-1 100-0— Sp.gr. 1,032. When milk is allowed to " stand," the greater part of the butter slowly rises to the surface, and is commonly known in that form as cream, inter- mixed with a small proportion of milk and albumen — the presence of the latter being the cause of cream so speedily entering into the acetous and l)utrefactive fermentations. The fat, or butter, of milk exists in the form of minute globules ; these globules of fat are surrounded by a thin skin. In churning, a mechanical and chemical action takes place, l)y which these globules are broken, in conse- quence of which the butter " comes." The intro- duction of the air into milk in the act of churning occasions, by absorption of oxygen, the formation of lactic or acetic acid, which coagulates the caseine, and facilitates the separation of the butter. Thus it is well known that butter " forms " much more readily when the milk or cream is a little "turned " than when quite fresh, obviously because, in the latter case, the separation is retarded owing to the time required to acetify, to a certain extent, the sugar of the milk, which being effected, hastens the coagulation and separation of the caseine. It is also believed that lactic acid has the property of dissolving the insoluble coating of the butryaceous particles. Having given this brief account of the rationale of butter-making, the reader will be better prepared to understand the cause of the preference shown for the churns to which medals have been awarded. It will be seen from the fol- lowing description that, in each case, the novelty consists in devising means by which a greater amount of the atmosphere can be forced in a given time into the milk or cream in the act of churning. This is effected in the American churn by the dasher being formed of a plain board, having a rim round it, which is again subdivided by longi- tudinal pieces of wood, forming hollow spaces. When these hollows strike the liquid, the air thus enclosed cannot escape, but is forced by the further turning of the handle into the milk or cream, oxygen being at the same time absorbed and lactic acid formed. The Belgian churn is an ordinary barrel churn, the dashers being longitudinal slips of wood turned by a handle, and do not greatly differ from the ordinary English barrel churn. 'I'he dashers in this case, as they are drawn through the liquid, form hollows, by which the air, to a certain degree becomes enclosed and absorbed. The French churns of A. D. Lavoisy, Paris, for churning small quantities of cream, are decidedly the most convenient ; rapid motion is given to the dashers by means of a multiplying wheel, whilst the dashers are placed vertically in place of liori- zontally, being, in fact, slips of wood, with alternate open spaces. The greater hollows thus formed in the cream, combined with the rapidity of motion M owing to the multiplying power used, causes a m' larger amount of oxygen to be absorbed from the atmosphere than by other modes — the result being that the butter is formed more rapidly. Mr. T. Wilkinson's churn in no way difiers from the Belgian churn, excepting that Mr. Wilkinson's churn is placed in a square box, like the American churn in place of a barrel, as in the Belgian case. The dashers in each instance are horizontal bars, which are made to rotate by a handle. Although no medal has been awarded to Messrs. Drummond's churn, we are strongly of opinion that, for maldng butter in large quantities, it is decidedly the best in the Exhibition, and jiarticu- larly if the butter is made from milk and cream, as is a common practice when buttermilk is an article of demand for diet. Messrs. Drummond's churn consists of two boxes having a perforated division, with a plunger to each box, to which a constant recriprocating action is given by means of an end- less band working over a wheel, and forms the most decided improvement on the upright churn yet introduced. We are informed that, had Messrs. i Drummond not attempted to make thin butter in too short a time at the prize trial, this churn would have obtained a medal. This reminds us to make ' an observation before leaving this subject, viz., that it is 7wt the best churn that makes butter in the shortest time, unless the quality is equal to that made in vessels. When the process is of longer duration, it is very easy, as is well known to all dairymaids, to make butter quick at the expense of quality, the latter being so depreciated often to the extent of thirty per cent, of its value. Quantity is also another element of the inquiry. A vertical hollow dasher, thus combining the French and American modes, with vertical spaces between each, will, perhaps, form the most desirable churn for making butter from cream, having also a multi- plying wheel. The upright compound churn of Messrs. Drum- mond will probably be found by experience the best churn where milk and cream are employed in com- bination for the purpose of obtaining butter. —Post. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 113 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. ANNUAL SHEW. The most ardent friends of British agriculture, and the most zealous supporters of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, must now be well satisfied that there was not only no mistake in hav- ing substituted the Home Park at Windsor for the park at Bushey, but that the obstacle which inter- ])osed to prevent the show being held in Hyde Park should be regarded as a fortunate in- cident. We well knew with what warmth and loyal feelings the kind and gracious permission of her Majesty, that the show should be held within her own domain, and under the very win- dows of Windsor Castle, would be responded to by the British farmer ; and in thus counting upon that loyalty we were not mistaken. The expression of grateful feeling towards Her Majesty and His Royal Highness Prince Albert was spontaneous and universal on the part of those who attended the Show at Windsor last week, and the meeting was pronounced to be in all respects the most satisfactory ever held, not even excepting the Exeter meeting last year, which far excelled all which preceded it. "We can now see from experience that had the meeting been held in Hyde Park ihe crowding of visitors would have counteracted the principal ob- ject of the Society — that of affording to persons engaged in agriculture an opportunity of ascer- taining and comparing the merits of the respective animals. Even at Windsor it was not without difficulty that a fair view could be obtained of the prize animals ; and had the show been in Hyde Park, we feel persuaded that the pressure would have been much greater than it is in the Bazaar in Baker-street, at the show of the Smith- field Club. The quantity of stock was the largest, and, as to quality, the best which the Society has ever had at its meetings. There may have been in- stances in which some classes were superior; but we do not recollect any in which the general cha- racter of the stock, altogether, was so evenly good. There was one most important feature as regards the cattle, that the females in the younger classes of Shorthorns, Hereford s, and Devons were particularly excellent. As a class we should award the palm to the Herefords ; Lord Berv/ick's bull being re- garded by the best judges as one of the most per- fect animals ever seen. In the Shorthorns some dif- ference of opinion was expressed upon the compara- tive merits of Mr. Tliomas Wetherell's bull, which obtained the first prize in class 1; and Mr. John Kirkham's bull, which obtahied the first prizein class 2, We observed that Mr. Kirkham's bull was for sale, and we understood the price to be 150 guineas. This animal was, we believe, purchased by Mr. Fisher Hobbs. Lord Hill and Lord Ber- wick well upheld the reputation of the County of Salop as a breeding county, having carried off between them, in the classes of Shorthorns and He- refords, no less than seven prizes. In tlie Devon class the names of Quartly and Turner will be re- cognized as usual, the former having taken two, and the latter three prizes. In the other breeds the competition was not so great as miglit have been reasonably expected. Amongst them, how- ever, there was a bull of the Channel Islands breed which appeared to possess considerable merit. The class of Horses, considering the num- bers, v/as certainly the worst in the show. Amongst them, however, it was satisfactory to find some excellent specimens for agricultural pur- poses. Mr. Catlin, so long and eminently dis- tinguished as a breeder of Suffolk cart- horses, successfully maintained the character of the county of Suffolk, having carried off the two first prizes for stallions, and was ably supported by Mr. N. G. Barthropp, who gained the first prize for the best two-year-old filly. This filly, as also the filly which took the first prize last year, was got by Mr. Barthropp's " Newcastle Captain," which won the first prize at the Society's Meeting at Newcastle, in 1S46. Mr. Barthropp's stallion " Albert," which took the second prize at Exeter, last year, is sire of the foal belonging to Mr. Shepherd, which, with its dam, has obtained the prize at Windsor, as the best cart mare and foal. The classes of Leicester and Southdown sheep were excellent. "With one exception, the whole of the prizes for Leicesters were divided between two breeders, both of whose names are well known ; viz,, Mr. Sandy, of Home Pierrepont, and Mr. Pawlett, of Beeston, Beds. In the Southdowns the exception was v/anting. Mr. Jonas Webb and Mr. Pvigden having taken all the prizes ; in the proportion, however, of seven to Mr. Webb, and two to Mr. Rigden. It may not be generally known that Mr. Pigden's flock partakes much of Mr, Webb's breed, 114 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Rigden being in tlie habit of hiring some of Mr. Webb's best tups, having given, we believe, upwards of seventy guineas for the hire of a tup for the season. It will be recollected that Mr, Webb was unsuccessful last year, at Exeter ; he has, how- ever, now not only regained, but added largely to his laurels. He is trying his hand in another department of breeding, and obtained the first fruits at Windsor, having sold a shorthorn yearling bull for 50 guineas. In the long-woolled sheep, not Leicesters, we observe some new names as winners of prizes, and all have gone to the same locahty — Northleach, Gloucestershire. If we are not mistaken, there is a characteristic differ- ence between the animals to which the ])rizes have now been awarded and those which have usually carried off the prizes ; the Northleach sheep appear to be more purely of the Cotswold breed. The class of pigs was varied and excellent. We missed Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs' improved Essex, he being one of the judges, and consequently prevented from being an exhibitor. We could not but notice that the black breed, of which Mr. Hobbs has distributed so many, is rapidly extending; a most conclusive proof of the estimation in which they are held. The visitors to the show-yard far outnumbered those on any pre- ceding occasion, and the receipts were of course proportionately increased, and this, too, notwith- standing that there was no exhibition of implements. The Commissioners of the Great Exhibition deter- mined, very judiciously and appropriately, to an- nounce their award of medals for agricultural im- plements whilst the show at Windsor was being held. We subjoin the list of successful competitors, amongst which will be recognised the names of many of our most distinguished agricultural implement makers.* Well might His Royal High- ness Prince Albert remark as he did at the dinner in the Pavilion — " Whatsoever the iliiriculty may be in deciiliiig upon the sii- peviority of the works of industry and art sent to the Crystal Palace by the different nations of the earth, the British agri- cultural implements are acknowledged by common consent to stand there without a rival (great cheering)." For, upon examining the list, it Vv'ill be seen that at present out of 32 medals awarded, only four have been obtained by foreigners, two of them being for churns — useful articles it is true, but of very se- condary importance in the great business of agri- culture.— Mark Lane Express. The great annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England has this year been held at Windsor, a locality dear to the heart of every loyal English- man as the residence of a Queeu whose domestic and public virtues render her an example alike to the most powerful of sovereigns and the humblest of her sex. * See page 128. Moreover, it is held under Royal auspices. Our excel- leht Queen and her universally esteemed Consort are not content with giving a merely nominal patronage to the Society, the interest they take in its proceedings is per- sonal and absorbing ; and with a liberality which all may estimate, they have assigned a portion of the Home Park, known as " Datchet Meadow," as the site for the exhibition, and with their Royal children have themselves attended and inspected the show. Datchet Meadow forming, as we have just observed, a portion of the Home Park, is delightfully situated for the celebration of such an event as that with which the town of Windsor was last week honoured. Above it precipi- tously rise, ou the south, the towers and battlemented walls of Windsor Castle — a right Royal residence, which is to England that which Versailles is to France, and the Escnrial to Spain ; whilst from its round tower floated the Royal standard, and from the more ancient and not less beautiful structure, the clock tower, the flags of all nations were displayed — the eagle of Prussia, the tricolor of Republican France, the stars and stripes of America, and the Union Jack of Britain, commingling with the colours of other nations in peaceful and agree- able harmony. Within a stone's throw flows the Thames — the father of English rivers — meandering gently along; and here, at least, justifying the beautiful descrip- tion of Sir John Denham — " Though deep yet clear, though gentle yet not dull. Strong without rage, without overflowing, full." To give a proper reception to the society, the inhabi- tants of the town have acted with becoming liberality and spirit. Upwards Of ,€600 has been raised by public subscription amongst them, and presented in aid of the so- ciety's funds. Visitors were welcomed by a profuse display of flags and banners, and the entrance to Datchet Mead was ornamented with a triumphal arch in evergreens and flowers, on the summit of which were these words, in gigantic letters, " Speed the Plough," and " Long live the Queen and Prince." For making these preparations, credit is, we understood, principally due to Mr. Darvill, and a committee of gentlemen formed for that purpose, the town council of Windsor having in their corporate capacity taken no active part in the matter. The famous pavilion for the grand dinner of the society was erected in close proximity to the castle-yard ; and the two areas to- gether occupied a space extending over 14 acres of ground. In the present instance the exhibition was confined to cat- tle, horses, sheep, and pigs, the agricultural implements having for months past formed an important and strik- ing item in the Great Exhibition of Industry in Ilyde Park. The Queen and the Royal Family arrived at the Castle on Saturdayse'nnight,and,inaccordancewith thegracious intimation which her Majesty had caused to be conveyed to the noble president of the society, the Duke of Rich- mond, on Monday morning visited the show-yard. The Royal party quitted the Castle for that purpose at half- past ten o'clock, in four carriages. In the first of these were her Majesty, Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal ; in the second, Princess Alice, Prince Alfred, Lady Gainsborough, and the Hon. Miss Murray; in the third, Lord Elphinstone, Sir E. Bowaler, THE FxVRMER'S MAGAZINE. lU Mr. Birch, ami tbc Hon. and Ikv. Wriotlicsky Ru^sell (canon of Windsor) ; and in the fourth, Col. Grey, Major BidJulph, Lord Charles Fitzroy, and Col. Sey- mour. At the show-yard the Royal visitors were joined l)y his Grace the Duke of Norfolk, the Master of the Horse. On arriving at the show-yard, her ]Majesty was received by the Duke of Richmond, and the stewards, Mr. Stokes of Kingston, Kegworth ; our friend JMr. Samuel Jonas, of Ickleton, SaftVon Walden ; and Mr. Milward, of Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts ; and the hon. Secretary, Mr. Gibbs. Her ]\Iajesty, accom- panied by the Royal Family and attendants, passed through every department of the show, and manifested very considerable interest in several of the beautiful animals exhibited. Her Majesty appeared most struck, however, with the show of horses and sheep, the latter of which monopolized a large share of her attention, especially Mr. Jonas Webb's and Mr. Rigden's Soutii- downs, whose superb fleeces her Majesty hesitated not to handle and express a warm admiration of. His Royal Highness the Prince Consort being an eminent breeder of pigs, of course the porcine department came in for a full share of royal notice. The extreme obesity of some of the specimens caused much merriment among the distinguished visitors, and the Queen laughed out- right at the sight of an enormous porker seated on his haunches, gravely discussing his meal of bran, with closed eyes and the accompaniment of a low continuous grunt. P:issing from the cattle-yard, her Majesty and party next proceeded to the pavilion to inspect the arrangements for the banquet on Wednesday, at which Prince Albert was present. Here the Hon. Robert Clive and Mr. Shaw, of London, stewards of the pavilion, and Mr. Hud- son, the secretary of the Society, had the honour of being introduced to her Majesty and Piince Albert by his Grace the Duke of Richmond, who took that opportunity of thanking her Majesty for her gracious permission to the shepherds and herdsmen to be present on the Castle slopes during the performances of the mili- tary band on Sunday afternoon. It appears that, on the occasion referred to, the persons in charge of the stock in the show-yard had been turned back by the guard at the Castle, and not allowed to enter the precincts of the royal residence, because they were arrayed in smoc - frocks and the garb usually worn by agricultural 1 ibourers. But a representation being made to her Ma- jesty, tlirough the proper quarter by Mr. Stokes, one of the stewards of the yard, the order was at once counter- manded, and the whole of these poor people admitted, without distinction or exception. Her Majesty and the royal party remained in the yard and pavilion upwards of an hour and a half, and then returned to the Castle to lunch. After luncheon her Majesty, the Prince Consort, and the royal children and suite left the Castle for the Windsor terminus of the Great Western Railway, from which they departed at one o'clock, in a special train, for town. Her ^Lijesty was received at the station by the Duke of Richmond and several members of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, and a guard of honour, consisting of a company of the Grenadier Guards, with their band, Mr. Sanders, the secretary to the Grrat Western Com- pany, had the honour of conducting her Majesty to the royal carriage, the principal compartment of which was occupied by the Queen, Prince Albert, and the Princess Royal, and the coupee by the junior branches of the Royal Family. His Grace the Duke of Richmond was abo a passenger in the royal train. The Judges completed their awards of prizes in the evening at 5 o'clock, and from that period the yard was thrown open to the public at 10s. each person. We learn from official sources that the number of vi- sitors to the show-yard on Tuesday was 3,000, who paid 5s. each for admission ; on Wednesday, when the charge was lowered to 2s. Gd., the visitors amounted to 14,500 ; and on Thursday, the last day of the show, when the price of admission was reduced to Is., the numbers were 18,000. The numbers do not equal tlie visitors that have attended some of tlie more purely provincial meetings ; but we understand the proceeds received from the visits amount to more than on any former occasion. The greater portion of the stock that had been brought forward for exhibition was removed from the show-yard on Thursday evening, and the remainder in the course of Friday morning. Not a single case of robbery occurred at the cattle- yard during the entire period of the show, but one or two cases took place at the Castle on Thursday. Se- veral gangs of the pea-and-thimble gentry were anxiously on the look-out to make a prey of the foolish and the unwary ; but, owing to the vigilance of the police, we suspect, they did not succeed in fleecing any novice to a serious extent. AWARD OF PRIZES. LONG HORNS. Class I. In this subdivision the first prize of 10/. was withheld on account of insufficient merit. SHORT HORNS. Judges. — Thos. Parkinson, John Wright, and James TOPHAM. Class I. — Bulls Calved previously to the 1st of January, 1849. First Prize of 40Z.— 36. Mr. Thomas Wetherell, of Kijk- bridge, near D.irliiigtoii, York, a 4 years and 9 months old short-horned bull, bred by Mr. Henry Lister Maw, of Tetlcy, near Crowle, Lincolnshire. Second Prize of 20/.— 6. The Right Hon. Lord Hastins^s, of Melton Corrstalile, near Thetford, Norfork, a 6 years and 1 mouth old short-liorned bull, bred by his Lordship. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1849. First Prize of 25/. — 47. Mr. John Kirkham, of Ilagnaby, near Otley, Yorkshire, a 2 years and 5 mouths old short- horned bull, bred by himself. Second Prize of 15/.— 53. Mr. Thomas Raine, of Gainsford, near Darlington, a 2 years and 3 months old bhort-horiied bull, bred by himself. Third Prize of 10/.— 70. Mr. Thomas Ecnlley, of P:innal- hall, Pauiial, near Wetherhy, Yorkshire, a 1 year and ICi mouths old short-lioriicd hull, bred by Mr, F. II, Fawkes, of Farnley-hall, near Otley. I 2 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Class III. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. First Prize of 20Z.— 97. Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby, uear Northallerton, Yorkshire, a 4 years and 4 months old short-horned cow, in-calf and in-milk, bred by himself. Second Prize of lOZ.— 110. The Right Hon. Viscount Hill, of Hawkstone, Shrewsbury, Salop, a 6 years 1 month and 24 days old short-horned cow, in milk, bred by his Lordship. Class IV. — In Calf Heifers, not exceeding 3 YEARS OLD. First Prize of 20/.— 122 Mr. Charles Towneley, of Towne- ley-park, near Burnley, Lancashire, a 2 years and 4 months old pure short-horned in-calf heifer, bred by himself. Second Prize of 15?. — 121. Mr.Charles Towneley, of Towne- ley-park, near Burnley, Lancashire, a 2 years and 9 months old pure short-horned in-calf heifer, bred by Mr. Richard East- wood, of Swinsbow, near Burnley. Third Prize of 10?.— 130. Mr. James Douglas, of Athel- staneford. New Mains, near Drem, Haddington, a 2 years and 1 month old short-horned in-calf heifer, bred by Mr. Turner of KillcuUen. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. First Prize of 15?.— 162. The Right Hon. Viscount Hill, of Hawkstone, near Shrewsbury, a 1 year 10 months and 10 days old short-horned heifer, bred by his Lordship. Second Prize of 10?.— 156. Mr. Henry Ambler, of Wat- kinson-hall, near, Halifax, Yorkshire, a 1 year and 6 months old short-horned heifer, bred by himself. Third Prize of 5?.— 163. The Right Hon. Viscount Hill, of Hawkstone, near Shrewsbury, a 1 year 10 months and 23 days old short-horned heifer, bred by his Lordship. HEREFORDS. Judges. — Wm. Fisher Hobbs, Henry Ciiamberlayne, and Thomas Townsend. Class I. — Bulls calved previously to Jan. 1, 1849. First prize of 40?.— 177. Right Hon. Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, a 4 years 6 mouths and 23 days old Hereford bull, bred by Mr. Thomas Longmore, of Walford. Second prize of 20?.— 178. Mr. Edward Price, of the Court House, Pembridge, near Leominster, Hereford, a 3 years and 20 days old Hereford bull, bred by himself. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January. First prize of 25?.— 189. Mr. F. B. Price, of Huntingdon, near Hereford, a 1 year and 10 months old Hereford bull, bred by the late Mr. John Jones, of Lower Breinton, near Hereford. Second prize of 15?. — 183. Mr. Sylvanus Archibald, of Holiner, near Hereford, a 1 year and 10 months old Hereford bull, bred by himself. Third prize of 10?.— 191. Mr. J. Monkhouae, of The Stow, near Hereford, a 1 year and 10^ months old Hereford bull, bred by himself. Class III. — Cows in Milk, or in Calf. First prize of 20?.— 196. The Right Hon. Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, a 3 years 8 months and 28 days old Hereford cow, in milk, bred by his Lordship. Second prize of 10?.— 197. The Rev. John Robt. Smythies, of East-hill, near Colchester, Essex, a 4 years and 6 months old true Hereford cow, in milk, bred by Mr. Samuel Aston, of Lynch- court, near Jjcominster. Class IV. — In Calf Heifers. First prize of 20?.— 202. The Right Hon. Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, a 2 years 8 months and 19 days old in calf Hereford heifer, bred by his Lordship. Second prize of 15?,— 203, The Right Hon, Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, a 2 years 7 months and 14 days old in calf Hereford heifer, bred by his Lordship. Third prize of 10?.— 206. Mr. Philip Turner, of the Leen, Pembridge, near Leominster, Hereford, a 2 years and 9 months old in calf Hereford heifer, bred by himself. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. First prize of 15?.— 215. Mr. Fowler B. Price, of Hun- tiugdon, near Hereford, a 1 year and 9 mouths old Hereford yearling heifer, bred by Mr. J. N. Carpenter, of Eardisland, near Leominster. Second prize of 10?.— 209. Mr." Walter Maybery, of Pen- Ian, near Brecon, a 1 year and 8 mouths old Hereford yearling heifer, bred by himself. Third prize of 5?.— 210. The Right Hou. Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, a 1 year 7 mouths and 16 days old Hereford yearling heifer, bred by his Lordship. DEVONS. Jiulfjes. — Wm. Bullen, Thomas Reynolds, and Henry Tretiiewy. Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of Jan., 1849. First prize of 40?.— 226. Mr. John Quartly, of Champson MoUaud, near South Molton, Devon, a 3 years and 5 months old North Devon bull, bred by himself. Second prize of 20?. — 219. Mr. James Davy, of North Molton, near South Molton, Devon, a 5 years and 10 weeks old pure Devon bull, bred by himself. Class II. — Bulls calved since Jan. 1, 1849. First prize of 25?.— 229. Mr. Samuel Farthing, of Stowey Court, near Bridgewater, Somerset, a 2 years and 6 months old Devon bull, bred by himself. Second prize of 15?.— 237. Mr. Thomas Miller, of Castle Farm, near Sherborne, Dorset, a 2 years and 4 months old Devon bull, bred by himself. Third prize of 10?.— 228. Mr. Thomas Bond, of Bishop's Lydeard, near Taunton, Somerset, a 2 years and 5 months old Devon bull, bred by himself. Class III. — Cows in milk or in calf. First prize of 20?.— 244. Mr. George Turner, of Barton, near E?;eter, Devon, a 5 years and 7 months old pure North Devon Cow, in milk and in calf, bred by the lateMr. Tremlett of Cheriton, Devon. Second prize of 10?.— 239. Mr. Frederick Hogg, of 40, St. James's-street, London, a 7 years and 3 months old pure Devon Cow, iu milk, bred by Mr. Matthew Paull, of Burstock Grange, Broadwindor, Dorset. Class IV.— In calf Heifers, not exceeding 3 years old. First prize of 20?. — 261. Mr. George Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, Devon, a 2 years and 3 mouths old in calf pure North Devon heifer, bred by himself. Second prize of 15?. — 262. Mr. George Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, Devon, a 2 years and 6 mouths old in calf pure North Devon heifer, bred by himself. Third prize of 10?.— 265. The Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester, of Holkham Hall, near Wells-next-the-Sea, Nor- folk, a 2 years and 9 months old in calf pure North Devon, heifer, bred by Lord Portman, of Bryanston, near Blandford, Dorset. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. First prize of 15?.— 284. Mr. Wm. M. Gibbs, of Bishop's Lydeard, near Taunton, Somerset, a 1 year and 9 months old Devon yearling heifer, bred by himself. Second prize of 10?,— 291. Mr, John Quartly.of Champson THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 MoUand, near South Moltou, Devon, a 1 yenr and 5 montha old North Dcvou yearling heifer, bred by himself. Third prize of 5/. — 279. Mr. George Turner, of Baiton, near E.\eter, Devon, a 1 year and 7 montha old pvirc North Devon yearling heifer, bred by himself. Judges of all other Classes not coming under the denomination of Short Horns, Ilerefords, andDcvons. — James Walker, John Clavden, and William Cox. LONG-HORNS. Class II. — Bull calved since the 1st Jan., IS 19. Prize of 10/.— 293. Mr. Richard H. Chapman, of Upton, near Atherstone, Warwick, a 2 years and 4} months old long- horned bull, bred by himself. Class III. — Cows in milk or in calf. Prize of 10/.— 291. Mr. Thomas Beards, of Stowe, Buck- ingham, a 4 years and 11 months old long-horned cow, in- milk, bred by himself. Class IV. — In-calf Heifer, not exceeding three years old. Prize of 5/.— 296. Mr. Thomas Beards, of Stowe, Buck- ingham, a 2 years and 10 months old long-horned heifer, bred by himself. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. Prize of 5/. — 297. Mr. Thomas Beards, of Stowe, Buck- ingham, a 1 one year and 8 months old long-horued heifer, bred by himself. CHANNEL ISLANDS. Class I. — Bulls calved previously to Jan. 1, 1S49. Prize of 10/.— 302. The Right Hon. the Earl of Egmout, of Cuivdray, near Petworth, Sussex, a 3 years and 13 days old Channel Islands bull, bred by his Lordship. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of Jan- uary, 1849. Prize of 10/. — 303. Mr. John Gregory Watkins, of Wood- field, Worcester, a 2 years and 4 mouths old Channel Islands, Bull, bred by himself. Cla.ss III. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. Prize of 10/. — 315. Mr. George Torode, of the Forest, Guernsey, a 3 years and 6 months old pure Gnernsey cow, in calf, bred by Peter Le Page, St. Martin's, Guernsey. Class IV. — In-Calf Heifers. Prize of 5/. — 321. Sir John Cathcart, of Cooper's-hill, Chertsey, Surrey, a 2 year old Alderney in-calf heifer — breeder uuknown. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 327. Mr. William Henry Chapman, of Wrais- bury, near Staitjes, Bucks, a 1 year and 6 mouths old Alder- ney yearling heifer, bred by Mr. W. Levi, of Woughton-on- the-Green, Newport Pagnel, Bucks. SUSSEX. Class I.— Bulls calved previously to the 1st of January, 1819. Prize of 10/.— 332. Mr. Henry Catt, of West Firle, near Lewes, Sussex, a 3 years aud 5 months old Sussex bull, bred by himself. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1849. Prize of 10/.— 335. Mr. John Waters, of Wedcombe, near Eastbourne, Sussex, a 1 year and 3 months old Sussex bull, bred by Mr. James Gorringe, of Selmestou, Sussex. Class III. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. Prize of 10/.— 341.— Mr. Thomas Child, of Michelham, near Hailsham, Sussex, a 6 years and 5 months old Sussex cow, in milk, bred by himself. Class IV.— In Calf Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 346. Mr. William Marshall, of Bolney Place, near Cuckfield, Sussex, a 2 years and 3 montha old Sussex in calf heifer bred by himself. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 350.— Mr. William Marshall, of Bolney Place, near Cucklield, Sussex, a 1 year and 5 months old yearling heifer, bred by himself, SCOTCH HORNED. Class 1. — No entry. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1849, 1 Year Old. Prize of 10/.— Mr. Charles Fielder, of Sparsholt, near Win- chester, Southampton, a 1 year 3 months and 13 days old pure Ayrshire Bull, bred by Mr. David Glen, of Fletchwood Farm, Eling, near Southampton. Class HI. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. Prize of 10/.— 358. Sir John Cathcart, of Cooper's Hill, near Chertsey, Surrey, a 6 years old Ayrshire cow, in milk, breeder unknown. Class IV.— In Calf Heifer. In this class, prize of 10/. withheld. Class V. — No entry. SCOTCH POLLED. Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of Jan., 1849. Prize of 10/.— 361. Mr. William M'Combie, of TiUyfour, near Alford, Aberdeen, a 5 years and 2 months old Angus polled bull, bred by Mr. Hugh Watson, of Keillor. Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of Jan., 1849. Prize of 10/.— 302. Withheld. Class III. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. Prize of 10/.— 364. Mr. Robert Scott, of Balwyllo, near Montrose, Forfar, a 7 years and 5 months old pure Aberdeen- shire cow, in-calf, bred by Mr. W. M'Combie, of Tillyfour. Class IV. — In-calf Heifers. Prize of 10/— 366. Mr. W. M'Combie, of Tillyfour, near Alford, Aberdeen, a 2 years and 5 months old Angus polled in-calf heifer, bred by himself. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 368. Mr. William M'Combie, of Tillyfour, near Alford, Aberdeen, a 1 year and 5 months old Angus polled yearling heifer, bred by himself. WELSH, IRISH, &c. Class I. — Bulls calved previously to Jan. 1, 1849. Prize of 10/. — 372. Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Kerri- sou, Bart, of Oakley-park, near Eye, Suffolk, a 4 years and 1 mouth old Suffolk bull, bred by himself. Class II. — Bulls calved since Jan. 1, 1849. Prize of 10/.— 375. Mr. George David Badham, of Thurls- ton, near Ipswioh, a 2 years and 5 months old Suffolk bull, bred by himself. Class III. — Cows in Milk or in Calf. Prize of 10/. — Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., of Oakley-park, near Eye, Suffolk, a 3 years and 11 months old Suffolk cow, in calf, bred by himself. Class IV. — In-Calf Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 383. Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Kerri- son, Bart., of Oakley-park, near Eye, Suffolk, a 2 years and 11 months old Suffolk heifer, in calf, bred by himself. Class V. — Yearling Heifers. Prize of 5/.— 384. Mr. George D. Badham, of Thurlston, near Ipswich, Suffolk, al year and 11 months old Suffolk yearling heifer, bred by himself. 118 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. HORSES. Jiuhjcs. — John IIannam, William Greaves, and J. 11. KiRKIIAM. Class I. — Stallions of any Age, for Agricultural Purposes. First Prize of 30^.-407. Mr. Thomas Catlin, of Butlcy, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, a 5 years old pure Suffolk stallion, bred by biraself. Second Prize of 15/.— 40G. Mr. Thomas Catlin, of Butlcy, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, a 2 years old pure Suffolk stallion, bred by himself. Class II. — Two-\ear-old Stallions for Agricul- tural Purposes. First Prize of 20/.— 420. Mr. Frederick Thomas Bryan, Knossiagton, near Oakham, Rutlandshire, a 2 years old cart stallion, bred by Mr. William Wright, of Stauesby, Leicester- shire. Second Prize of 15Z.— 434. Mr. Henry Taylor, of Bishcp- stone, near Faringdou, a 2 years old cart stallion, bred by himself. Third Prize of 10/.— Mr. Samuel Clayden, of Little Linton, near Linton, Cambridge, a 2 years old Suffolk stallion, bred by himself. Class III. — Dray Stallions. Prize of 20/.— 436. Mr. Robert Brown, of Farleigh Wal- lop, near Basingstoke, Hants, a 6 years old dray stallion, bred by himself. Class IV. — Hunter Stallions. Prize of 30/.— 449. Mr. Thomas Groves, of Manor bouse, Nunnionkton, near York, a 5 years old thorough blood nunter stallion, bred by Mr. Meiklam, of London. Class V. — Carriage Stallions. Prize of 30/.— 467. Mr. Thomas Holtby, of Brandesburton near Beverley, Yorkshire, a 5 years old coach stallion, bred by Mr. Whiting, of Ilempholme. Class VI. — Roadster Stallions. Prize of 15/. — 472. Mr. Thomas Groves, of Manor-house, Nunmonkton, Yorkshire, a 6 years old p\ire roadster stallion, bred by Captain Viner, of Newly-hall, Ripon, or one of his tsnauts. Class VII. — Mares and Foals. First Prize of 20/.— 484. Mr. John George Sheppard, of the High-house, Campsey Ash, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, a Suffolk mare end foal ; the mare bred by himself; sire of foal belonged to Mr. Nathaniel G. Barthropp, of Cretingham, near Fraralingham. Second Prize of 15/. — 488. Mr. John Smith, of Crown- t'lorpe, near Wymondham, Norfolk, a Norfolk mare and foal ; tie mare bred by himself; sire of foal belonged to Mr. Cordy, of Shipdam. Third Prize of 10/.— 493. Mr. William Thompson, of Thorpe leSoken, near Colchester, a Suffolk mare and foal; breeder of mare unknown ; sire of foal belonged to himself. Class VIII. — Fillies, two Years old. First prize of 20/. — 502. Mr. Nathaniel George Barthropp, of Cretingham Rookery, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, a 2 years old Suffolk filly, bred by Mr. Read, Laxfield. Second prize of 15/. — 497. Mr. Thomas Bcale Brown, of Hampen, near Andoverford, Gloucester, a 2 years old Suffolk Sl!y, bred by hiinself. Third Prime of 6/,— 469. The Right Hoti. Lord St. John, of ihbsatfr.e, fieaf Higham ITsrrers; Ssdf , a \.^>i j'eBfs dd uii Mh bf€d \iy bis Lordship. LEICESTERS. Judrjcs. — Joseph Allison, N. C. Stone, and Valentine Barford. Class I.— Shearling Kams. First Prize of 33/. — 520. Mr. AVilliam Sandiy, of Holme Pierrepoiit, near Nottingham, a 17 months old Leicester ram, bred by himself. Second Prize of 20/.— 521. Mr. William Sanday, of Holme. Pierrepont, near Nottingham, a 17 months old Leicester ram, bred by himself. Third Prize of 10/.— 518. Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierrepont, near Nottingham, a 17 months old Leicester ram, bred by himself. Class II. — Rams of any other age. First Prize of 30/.— 578. Mr. Thomas Edward Pawlett, of Bcestoii, near Biggleswade, Bedlordshire, a 28 months old Leicester ram, bred by himself. Second Prize of 20/.— 580. Mr. Thomas Edward Pawlttf, of Beestop, near Biggleswade, a 40 months old Leicester ran', bred by hiiu.ielf. Third Prize of 10/.— 581. Mr. Thomas Edward Pawlett, of Beeston, near Biggleswade, Beds, a 40 months old Leicester ram, bred by himself. Class III. — Shearling Ewes. First Prize of 20/.— 634. Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierrepont, Notts, a pea of live 17 mouths old Leicester shearling ewes, bred by himself. Second Prize of 15/. — 636. Mr. AViUiani Abraham, of Barnetby-le-Wold, near Brigg, Lincoln, a pen of live 16 months old Ijcicester shearling ewes, bred by biuiself. Third Prize of 10/.— 632. Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierrepont, Notts., a pen of five 16 months old Leicester shearling ewes, bred by himself. SOUTH HOWNS. Jtuhjcs. — Edward Pope, Peter Purvis, and Tiios. Weall. Class I. — Shearling Rams. First prize of 35/. — 681. Mr. Jonas Webb, of BMbrahara, near Cambridge, a South Down ram, 17 months old, bred by himself. Second prize of 20/.— 700. Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraliam, near Cambridge, a South Down ram, 16 months old, bred by himself. Third prize of 10/. — 705. Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraliam, near Cambridge, a South Down ram, 16 mouths old, bred by himself. Class II. — Rams of any other Age. First prize of 30/.— 711. Mr. William Rigdeii, of Hove, near Brighton, a South Down ram, 28J- months old, bred by himself. Second prize of 20/. — 744. Mr. Jonas AVebb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a South Down ram, 2 years and 5 months old, bred by himself. Third prize of 10/. — 748. Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a South Down ram, 3 years and 4 months old, bred by himself. Class III.— Shearling Ewes. First prize of 20/.— 772. Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a pen of five South Down shearling ewes, 16 months old, bred by himself. Second prize of 15/. — 770. Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, near Cambridge, a pen of five South Down shearhag ewes, 16 months old, bred by himselfi Third prise of ).0?,--755i Mr, Williatfi Rigdsn, of Mote, aeaf Brighton, a psu of five I'Sgiith DGi^c sb5S?!iD| ^v^m, 16| THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 119 LONG WOOLS.— NOT LEICESTERS. Jiidf/es. — Robert Bkman, John Clarke, and Edwaud Clarke. Class L— Shearling Eams. First Tiizc of 25/. — 770. Mr. William Game, of .\Ul3wortl1, near Kortlileach, Gloucestershire, a Cotswold ram, IG months old, bred by himself. Second I'rizc of 15/, — 78G. Mr. William Lane, of Eastiiigton, near Nortlileach, Glouceslcrshire, a Cotswold rani, IG mouths o!tl, bred by himself. Cla.ss 1L — Eams of any other Age. First Prize of 2ol. — 79L Mr. George Hewer, of Ley Gore, near Nortlileach, Gloucestershire, a Cotswold ram, 40 uionths old, bred by Mr. William Hewer, of Northlcach. Second Prize of 10/. — 790. Mr. ^Vi!liam Game, of Aldsworth, near Nortlileach, Gloucestershire, a Cotswold ram, 40 months old, bred by himself. Class III.— Shearling Bwes. First Prize of 10/.— S02. Mr. William Lane, of Eastiugton, near Northleach, Gloucestershire, a pen of 5 Cotswold ewes, IG months old, bred by himself. Second Prize of 5/. — 801. Mr. William Lane, of Easliugton, near Northleach, Gloucestershire, a pen of 5 Cotswold ewes, IG months old, bred by himself. MOUNTAIN SHEEP. Judges. — James Walker, John Cla\den, and Wil- li a. m Co.\. Class I. — Eams of any Age. First Prize of 20/.— 805. Mr. John Dodd, of CiUclcugh, iieir Ottcrbiirn, Northumberland, a pure C'lieviot ram, 27 monilis old, bred b himself. Second Prize of 10/.— 810. Mr. John Kobson, of East Kielder, near Bellingham, Northumberland, a Cheviot ram, 3 years and 4 months old, bred by himself. Class II. — Shearling Eaves. Prize of 10/. — 8G. Mr. John Nurcorabe, of llopcott farm, near Minehead, Somersetshire, a pen of 5 pure Exmoor horn shearling eyes, 1 year and 4k months old, bred by himself. Class III. — Ewes of any age. First Ptiae of 10/.— 821. Mr. John liobson, of Eiist Kiel- dor, near Bellingham, Northumberland, a pen of 5 cheviot ewes, 2 years and 4 months old, bred by himself. PIGS. Judges. — William Hesseltine, Benjamin Swaffield, and W. TiNDALL. Class I. — Boars of a large Breed. Firjt Prize of 15/.— 823. Mr. K. Broadhurst Hill, of Baehe Hall, near Chester, a large boar, 3 years and 11 months old, bred by Jlr. Ashby II. Wilson, of Abbey. Third Prize of 5/.— 826. Mr. John B. Spearing, of Chilton, near llungerford, Berks, an improved Berks, Siissct;, and Neapolitan crossed boar, 2 years aud 6 months old, bred by himself. Second Prize of 10/. — 841. Mr. George Edward Taylor, of Oatlands JIUI, near Leeds, Yorkshire, a large boar, two years and three months old, bred by Mr. James Martin, Jleauwood, near Leeds. Class II. — Bulls of a Small Breed. First prize of 15/.—857. Mr. James Dixon, of Westbrook- place, Hortou, near Bradford, Yorkshire, a small boar, 2 years and 1 month old, bred by Mr. John Hadwen, of Kebroyd, near Halifax. _ Second prise of iO/.— 85-/. Mr. ■William LudHaiij, of Brad- Third prize of 5/. — 868. Mr. John Radmore, Thorverton, near CoUumpton, Devon, a Leicester boar, 10 mouths oldi bred by himself. Class III.— Breeding Sows of a Large Breed. First prize of 15/. — 902. Mr. Joseph Tuley, of Keighley, Yorkshire, a large sow, 1 year 2 months and 6 days old, bred by himself, Second prize of 5/.— 920. Mr. Charles Jackson, 40, Good- ramgate, York, a large sow, I year 11 mouths and two weeks old, bred by himself. Class IV. — Breeding Sows of a S.\iall Breed. First prize of 15/.— 943. Mr. Samuel Druce, jun., of Eyusham, near Oxford, an improved Oxfordshire sow, 1 year and 2i months old, bred by Mr. Thomas Bowcrraan, of Eyu- sham. Second prize of 5/.— 952. Mr. George Edward Taylor, of Oatlands Mill, near Leeds, Yorkshire, a small sow, 1 year aud 2 mouths old, bred by himself. Class V.— Breeding Sows of a Large Breed. First prize of 10/.— 965. Mr. Joseph Tuley, of Keighley, Yorkshire, a pen of three large sow pigs, 7 months and 2 weeks old, bred by himself. Second prize of 5/. — 064. Mr. Matthew Newman, of Court Farm, Hayes, near Uxbridge, Middlesex, a pen of three im- proved Berkshire aud Essex sow pigs, 7 months and 5 days old, bred by himself. Class VI. — Breeding Sow Pigs of a Small Breed. First prize of 10/.— 976. Mr. E. G. Barnard, M.P. (now deceased), of Gosfield Hal!, near Halstead, Essex, a peu of three improved Essex sow pigs, 22 weeks old, bred by iiimself. Second prize of 5/.— 977. Mr. E. G. Baruard, M.P. (now deceased), of Gosfield Hall, near Halstead, Essex, a pen of three improved Essex pigs, 3.2 weeks old, bred by himself. THE GREAT DINNER IN THE PAVILION. The aspect which the royal borough of Windsor pre- sented on Wednesday was one of unusual gaiety and pleasure. Union-jacks and the colours of various na- tions, beautifully blended, floated in all directions. The streets were thronged to excess with well-dressed people of every class ; the north terrace of the Castle was like a fair ; from the battlements of the Round Tower hun- dreds of heads were visible ; whilst from the same ele- vated situation, Datchet INIead and the show-yard had more the appearance of an ant-hill than aught else to which we can compare them. It is calculated that more than 3,000 persons inspected the cattle on Tuesday when the prico of admission was at the high figure of 5s. ; but on Wednesday, at the comparatively small sum of half- a-crown, there could not have been much short of 30,000 persons in the yard. The circumstance of the Prince Consort— Prince of British agriculturists — having ex- pressed his intention to honour the great dinner in the Pavilion with his company, becoming generally known, a further inducement was thus ofTered to the public to observe the occasion as a holiday, and, accordingly, as the hour of dinner and the Prince's arrival approached, the vicinity of the South Western Company's handsome new station-house at the terminus was besieged to over- flowing by a crowd who^e "rebavbur ttp.s as remarkable foJ" itfl oritv find dttorUffi us riiXi ihdf peisional Sxteiiot i-20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. terminus at a few minutes before four o'clock, and im- mediately proceeded to the Pavilion, where hs was re- ceived L»y the Duke of Riclimond, Lord Portman, and the members of the Council, and conducted to his seat at the high table, amidst the cheers of the 2000 good men and true, who surrouuded the festive board. His Grace the Duke of Richmoad presided. There were also present on the occasion : — Ths President's Kight.— His Royal Highness Prince Albert, Ids Kxccliency the Belgian Minister, tlie Marquis of Abercorn, t!ie Marquis of Breadalbane, his Excellency M. Bayard, Vis- count Clifdcu, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl of Leicester, the Barou Mertens, the Count Iluckgrunet, the Earl of Hard- wicke, the Count Kergolay, M. Jonis AVcern, the Baron Sporcken, the Dr. Ilawtrey, the Count de Gourey, Colonel Wood, M.P. (of Littleton), Lieutenant Pogge, the Right Hon. John Hatchell, MP.; Mr. John Pogge (Roggor), the Barou Goldsmid, Ijieutenant-Colonel Seymour, Colonel the Hon. C. Grey, the Hou. A. Leslie Melville, Captain Bulkeley, ?Jr. L'iilie Melville (of Windsor), Mr.Minton, Mr. Darvill, the Earl of Po'.vis, the Chevalier de Masslow, Dr. Mall, the Count Hardtuburg, Mr. Charles Martin (of Geneva), Lord Vivian, Sir Pole Carew, Sir John Duckworth, M.P., Colonel llulse. Colonel Reiii, M.P., Sir James Clark, the Rev. Isaac Gosselt, the Rev. Thomas Best. The PreiiJent's Left. — The Mayor, his Excellency the American Minister, the Turkish Minister, the Prince Dcmidoff, Lord Feversham, the Earl of March, his Excellency N. S. Brown, i\I. Payen, M. Deby, M. Dumas, Lord Bridport, Lord Kinnaird, Lord Walsingham, Director of the Prussian Agricul- tural Society at Bonn, Dr. Lyon PLiyfair, Dr. Zeller, friend of Dr. Ze'.lpr, Dr. Daubeny, the Commissary of Zollverein, Mr. Palmer, M.P., General Wemyss, the late Mayor, Sooin-law of liis Excellency the American Minister, M. Ciasea Sukow, the Count Pcrpoucher, M. Hedeugren, Chairman of Eastern Counties Railway, Chairman of Eastern Union Railway, Chair- man of the London and Sonth-Eastern, Chairman of the Lon- don and Sonth-Western, Chairman of the South Devon Rail- way, the Baron de Bethman Holweg, Chairman of the York and North ilidiand. Viscount Ranelagh, M. Wittenberg Sohiisveuhey, Dr. Schaffhentel, M. Nalthorst, M. Prevcraine, M. Piroiulel de Labertouche, Mr. Hore, Mr. Bedborough, Pro- fessor Johnston of Durham, Mr. Parkes, C.E., Professor Si- moiids. Sir Richard P. Joddrell. Vice-chairman, Lord Portman, supported by — Lord C. Russell, the Earl of Pomfret, Lord Hastings, the Hou. Mr. Duncorabe, M.P,, the Ri^ht Hon. Sir J. Nicoll, Lord Vaux of Harrodcn, Sir Piers Mostyn, Bart., Sir E. Biker, Bart., Sir J. Manse!, Bart., Sir W. Jones, Bart., Mr. T. Bell of New York, jMr. W. Meyer, Viscount Lilford, Sir C. Jempest, Bart., Dr. Siiarp, Sir IL Verney, Bart., M.P., Mr. Blackburne, M.P., the Hon. Mr. Portman, Admiral Sir Raymond Jarvis, Bart., Sir T. Tancred, Bart., Sir Montague Cholmeley, Bart., Mr. Pugh, M.P., Sir J. Mills Riddeil,Bart., Mr. Perfect, M.P. for Lewes, Mr. E. B. Roche, M.P. for Cork, and three friends. Captain Egerton. The Stewards of the tab'es were Viscount Hill, Mr. Hudson, of Custleacre, the Earl of Chichester, Mr. Simpson, the Mar- quis of Downshire, Lord Camoys, Mr. Brauston, M.P., Mr. Stansfield, MP., Lord Berners, Mr. Haywood Barker, Colonel Challoner, Mr Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Slaney, M.P., Mr. Bar- riett, r.ord Braybrooke, Mr. Sillifant, Mr. W. Cavendish, MP., Lord South.ampton, Mr. S. Bennett, Colonel Austen, Mr C. H. Turner, the Earl of Yarborough, Mr. Jonas Webb, the Earl of Egmont, 'Mr. Brandreth, Mr. Childers, M.P., Mr. Turner, of Barton, Sir R. Price, M.P., Mr. Dnirc, Sir Thomas Acland, MP., Mr. Foley, M.P., Lord Ashbnrtoii, Mr. Grantham, Mr. Sheridan, Mr. Shaw, of Northampton, Mr. Milas, T\LP., Mr. Kinder, Sir C. Lemon, M.P., Mr. Fisher liobhs, Mr. Hamond, Mr. Tliomi)son, Mr. Garrett, Sir M. W. Ridley, IMr. Wdson, of Ilowlangtoft, Professor Scwell, Mr. Smitii, of Exmoor, Mr. E. Denison, M.P., Mr, Blanshard, Mr. Lawes, Mr. Beasley, Mr. Pcndarves, M.P., and Mr. French Burke. The cloth having been removed, The PuEsiCENT, who was received with loud cheers, said: I rise to propose the first toast of the evening, one which is ever received by the members of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng'aud, and indeed by every other public meeting, with that enthusiasm which it so well deserves — (cheers) — that of "our most gracious Sovereign Queen Victoria" (loud and pro- longed cheering). That she may long reign over a great, a free, an enlightened, a moral, and, therefore, a happy and contented people (cheers) ; that it may please the great Creator of the universe long to guard and protect a life so justly dear to us all ; that her Majesty may en- joy every felicity which this world can bestow, is, I well know, the earnest prayer and the fervent desire of every gentleman who can hear me on the present occasion (cheers). We have met here to-day by the kind and gracious permission of the Sovereign — (Hear, hear) — under the walls of the ancient and venera'j'e Castle of Windsor (cheer.s) ; and, permit me to say, hallowed by historical recollections, and by its great antiquity ; we are also not far distant from that great ssminary of learn- ing, the College of Eton, whence have issued some of our ablest statesmen, some of our mo.»t pious divines — men eminent in the learned professions, and also permit me, as an old soldier, to tell you, some of our bravest and most heroic warriors both by sea and land (cheers). And here you will permit me to mention the name of one of the greatest generals of this or any former age — I mean the Duke of Wellington (cheers). I shall only call upon you now to do that which I know you all ear- nestly desire to do— to give three true, hearty English cheers, which will re-echo through the turrets of Wind- sor, round tliat old Round Tower where the flag of Eng- land has for so many centuries been proudly unfurled (cheers). In doing so it will prove to the Queen — though I am well aware the proof is not needed — that the agriculturists of the empire ever have, and ever will, in weal or in woe — (cheers) — be loyal to their Queen ; that they will support the free institutions of their father- land, and that they will be devoted to the person of their gracious Sovereign. The toast was then drunk with great enthusiasm. The President again rose, and said: Thene.xt toast is, " The health of his Royal Highness Prince Albert" — (loud cheers) — whom we have to thank for having the second time come among us, and obliged us by the sup- port which he has given to the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England — (cheers) — and I think I am only speaking your sentiments and those of the great majority of the people of England, when I say that we feel deeply grateful to his Royal Highness for the example he has given — an example, permit me to say, which is worthy of being imitated by all, in his practice of the domestic THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 121 virtues which have made the liome of our beloved Queen the abode of comfort and happiness (loud ch'^ers). I hope and trust that his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales and the other members of the Royal Family will act up to those principles of virtue which have been in- stilled into thi ir youthful minds — that they will hereafter prove a blessing to their fatherland, an ornauient to their country, and a blessing to their illustrious parents (cheers) I will not dctiun you lunger. I know your eager anxiety to p:iy a compliment to his Royal Highness and the other members of the Royal Family, and I am sure that you will show me that I am surrounded on the present occasion by the farmers of England, and that their cheers will be as their actions are — fair and straightforward (loud and prolonged cheers). Prince Albert then rose, and was received with en- thusiastic cheering. He said : My lord duke, my lords and gentlemen, I am very sensible of the honour which you have done me in proposing my health ; and I can assure you, gentlemen, that the kind way in which you have responded to the toast will never be forgotten by me. Some years have already elapsed since 1 last dined with you in this migrritory pavilion ; and I am glad that you should have pitched it this day under the walls of Windsor Castle, and that I should myself have an op- portunity of bidiling you a hearty welcome in the Home Park (cheers). Your encampment singularly contrasts with that which the barons of England, the feudal lords of the land, with their retainers, erected round old Windsor Castle, on a similar mead, though not e.xacily in the same locality. They came then clad in steel, with lance and war-horse. You appear in a more peaceful attire, and the animals you bring with you to the meeting are the tokens of your successful cultivation of the arts of peace. King John came trembling amongst his subjects, unwillingly compelled to sign that great charter, which has ever since been your birthright (loud cheers). Your Sovereign came confiding among her loyal and loving people ; she came to admire the results of their industry, and to encourage them to persevere in their exertions ; and tlie gratification which the Queen has felt at the sight of your splendid collection must, I am sure, be participated in by all who examine it (cheers). I am doubly pleased at this success, not only because it is witnessed by the many visitors from foreign lauds, now within our shores, whom every Englishman must wish to inspire with respect for the state of British agriculture, but also because I feel, to a certain degree, personally responsible for having deprived you of one, g'o, no) ; but there was no man who fi-lt more strongly than he did the im- portance of supporting this society ; for he believed that upon its prosperity hinged the welfare of all classes of England (cheers). He was proud also, as president, to introduce to his Royal Highness and to the foreigners present so numerous, so intelligent, and so practical a body of the yeomen of England, who had so much im- proved the agriculture of their native land (cheers). lie believed there never had been so many good animals ever exhibited together before, in any show in the world (loud cheers). They wci'e all aware that he did not pretend to understand the cattle, but he did pretend to know something about the sheep (cheers) ; and he thought that on this occasion, as on all former occasions, the judges — who were chosen from their well-known honour and impartiality— he must say the judges thought his sheep not worthy of particular commendation, and he was sorry to say, for the credit of his flock, and for his own credit as a practical breeder, that he entirely agreed with their decisions. He was glad of this, however, be- cause the gentleman who had monopolised nearly all the prizes this year, with the exception of Mr. lligden, of 8us3ex — who he was glad, if he (the Duke) was to be beat, beat him — that gentleman (Mr. Jonas) was well beaten last year at Exeter; and now he had come here and carried ofT all the prizes. He intended to follow that example (cheers and langhter). He hoped that at the next show at Lewes he would not be altogether without commendation (cheers). He would not pursue this sub- ject further ; he would only say he was glad of this meeting, as ic would show the foreigners that there was a kindly feeling between the landlords and tenants, and that they hoped to flourish together, and that they would not abandon each other (cheers). Much had been done within the last ten years, dniining had been carried out, and much useless hedge timber had been cut away (cheers). Landlords were beginning to find out, what he bad found out some years ago in Shrop- shire, that they could not get two rents out of the same land (cheers), and if they attempted to gain by hedge-row timber, they must lose in the crops, to which they proved a hindrance and an incumbrance (loud cheers). He con- cluded by thanking them for the kindne-s of their re- ception, and declared that he considered every farmhouse in the country as containing one of his best and firmest friends (loud cheers). He concluded by drinking to the health and happiness of them and theirs, and he would add to it, might they have better times (loud and con- tinned chccriuff), Lprd FontMAr? proposed "The Union of AgficuUurc, MRiittfitetttfes, m'A Cesisacfse" ii to respect, yet ho felt thaS as ix child loved its a9th«r so thsjr all I»rsd t*»9 sartli— Shef hveU hzt M 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. their first love — they revered her as their last home (loud cheers). He proposed " Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce." Mr. Abbott Lawrence, the Ameri(5au Minister, wlio was received with loud cheers, proposed " The Mayor and Corporation of Windsor." He had great pleasure in proposing this toast- Windsor, from its antiquity, from its having been founded by William the Conqueror, from its having been the residence of so many kings and queens, had an interest for him and for his countrymen ; for up to a certain period the name and the fame of every British sovereign, of every British statesman, of every British soldier, of every British sea- man, aye, and of every British farmer, were as dear to him and to that portion of the British people who claimed a common origin with the British, as they could be to the British themselves (cheers). He felt that Windsor had associations for him and his countrymen that no other town or city in England possessed ; and he looked upon this exhibition as planted in the most fitting position that could have been found for it in the United Kingdom (cheers). What could be more ap- propriate than to have this magnificent exhibition under the walls of a palace the residence of a queen so justly dear to her subjects — (loud cheers) — and whose virtues and dignity had made her respected throughout the civilised world (renewed cheering) .' Where could tbere have been a more fitting place for an agricultural exhi- bition than Windsor, where resided a Roj'al Consort, who honoured them with his company to-day, and whose efforts, not merely confined to works of art, had been directed to bring together so many foreigners at the pre- sent moment, all of whom, he believed, were delighted with their visit ; and he could say for himself and for his countrymen, that they felt they were at home among their kindred and brethren (loud cheers) ? Where, he repeated, could the exhibition have been more fittingly held than near the residence of a Prince who had not frittered away his lime in idle amusements — (loud cheers) ■ — but whose every day, and whose every hour of the day was devoted to the amelioration of the condition of his fellow-creatures (cheers) ? And though he felt he was intruding upon their time — (No, no) — he could not sit down without alluding to their noble president, who had formerly distinguished himself as a soldier, but who was now known as the exponent of the agricultural interests of England — (cheers) — and as such had made his name a household word in all parts of the country (loud cheers). He concluded by proposing " The Mayor and Corporation of Windsor" (cheers). Mr. Phillips, the Mayor of Windsor, shortly re- ! turned thanks. j Mr. W, Miles, M.P., proposed " The Stewards and ' Judges of the Show," and in doing so he could not but j congratulate the meeting upon the show, not only for the numbers, but also for the quality (cheei's). The entries were one-third larger this year than on any for- ; mer show, which was to be attributed only to the situa- tion in which the show was held ; for the farmei's, north, east, south, and west, had, in obedience to the commands 9f her Majesty, stnt the primeit of their stock to do her . honour (cheers). There was not a breed which was held in esteem in any part of the country which was not fairly represented at this exhibition (cheers). But he must give the greatest credit to the stewards for their arrange- ments, because while he had never seen greater numbers attending, he had never seen greater order shown, nor seen the people going away better satisfied (cheers). He must also state that on this occasion there had been a great improvement in the mode of deciding on the awards, particularly the horses, for hitherto the judges might perhaps have been partial, but they were not scientific ; but this year the council had appointed vete- rinary surgeons to attend, so that if an animal, however showy he might look, were in any respect unsound, the veterinary surgeon might point out the defects, and pre- vent him from in future contaminating the breed (cheers). He was sure that all the judges had decided with the most perfect impartiality, and with the highest sense of honour, and he had the greatest pleasure in proposing " The Stewards and Judges," among whom he would particularise the name of Mr. Fisher Hobbs (cheers). Mr. Fisher Hobbs responded, and said that the manner in which the toast had been received went far to assure him the company awarded to him and his bro- ther judges perhaps the most substantial compliment that an Englishman could pay or receive, viz., the ac- knowledgment that he had done his duty. After pay- ing a well-merited compliment to Mr. Brandrcth Gibbs, the honorary director of the show yard, Mr. Fisher Hobbs proceeded to congratulate the society on its splendid show of stock, which was not only numerically greater, but superior in quality to any forraer show (cheers). A great desire was felt among farmers to im- prove their breeds of stock, as it was found that supe- rior animals were the only ones that would pay, and that it was not only for the advantage of the producer, but of the consumer, that those beasts with the smallest amount of bone and the largest of flesh should be chiefly encouraged (cheers). lu conclusion, ho trusted that the judges for 1851 had proved themselves not unworthy of the great responsibility placed upon them (cheers). Lord AsHBUuTON said : I have been commissioned to announce to you that the time is now arrived when, according to the programme of this festival, you may pay your tribute of acknowledgment to the partners of your toils — the participators in your gains — " the agri- cultural labourers" (cheers). Without them the boasted implements which have for successive days crowded upon your sight would for the most part remain as profitless as the metal from which they were made, when it lay hidden in its native ore fathoms deep under the earth. Deprived of the labourer, you would be like generals without soldiers. Nor are they, the labourers, less de- pendent upon you. It is from the savings husbanded by your self-denial, and the self-denial of your fore- fathers, that they are housed and fed and clothed, and furnished with implements that multiply an hundredfold the efficiency of their works. Without your savings they must have lived, like New Zealanders. uoon grubs and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 roots. Alone they would be thus helpless — alone you also would bo well nigh as helpless. Separated, you would scarcely raise food to drag on a toil-worn exist- ence, and continue a stunted race ; but united hand-in- hand you raise food, not for yourselves alone, but for the oi)erative and manufacturer, for the artist and philo- sopher, for all who deck our homes with comforts, for all who confer dignity and refinement on the national character, ^yithout you and your capital — without the labourer and his sinews — these things could not be. You form with him the piers whereon the gorgeous, the complicated framework of society rises like an a? ch. As surely as the arch, with all its columns and jjarapels and tracery, would crumble into ruins were either pier re- moved, so surely would operative, manufacturer, trades- man, artificer, poet, philosopher, topple down into one universal wreck, were your support or the support of the labourer withdrawn. And yet there are those who think lightly of the labourer, who call him rude and boorish, who make his ignorance a byword ; they say he is uneducated, because he knows little of things which do not concern his own calling, but above all because he is taught to do, and he is not taught to talk ; because in this land, where we choose members of Parliament by their talk, and cabinet ministers by their talk — a false test of ability, a false test of knowledge, a false test of education has been set up, and by this false test the labourer has been judged. But it is not by this test — it is by his works that you shall know him. Try him by what he does, not by what he says. Try him by what he knows of his own business, not by v/hat he knows of his neighbours'. Put a plough into his hands : he cannot define a straight line like others taught by rule in set forms of speech, but he will run a furrow mathematically e.Tact between its extreme points, though they may be distant as eye can reach (cheers). Is there no educa- tion there .' What say you of the training of that eye, of that hand, of that head, which can not only see the imaginary line, but follow it so truly, mak- ing an unerring instrument out of two rude horses and a plough .' Or do you hold that only to be education which is to be gained in books, that only to be know- ledge which is the development of abstract rules and general ideas ? Well, take another case, give one of these ignorant peasants a quarter of corn ; bid him sow it over six, or eight, or ten acres ; he will not sit down to pen and ink, and consult books. If he lost hours at that work the world would forthwith dub him a scholar, and doflf its hat to him ; but he goes straight into the field and distributes the grain so exactly over the space assigned, that at the harvest you shall see no spot unoc- cupied, no spot more crowded with plants than another. Is there no education in this ? Is there no education required to give so exact an appreciation of quantity, so intimate a knowledge of the capacity of a given space (cheers) ? Propound the same problem to a philoso- pher. I believe the labourer would sow a whole farm before the other could make out his rule ; and when he had his rule, I doubt if he could ever teach a scholar to apply it. But this is not all. I have as yet spoken only of the mechanical skill of the labourer. I come now to that knowledge which he possesses in common with yourselves, the knowledge of the art of farming — an art which has ever formed the delight of the noblest and most elevated characters of all times — an art which exacts from those who practise it the power of dealing with the incidents, occasions, and emergencies, as pre- seritcd by the varieties of the seasons, by the nature and constitution of domestic animals, by the nature and pro- licrties of plams — an art which elevates and dignifies the mind by the perpetual study and constant contempla- tion of God's most interesting works. And yet the labourer so gifted, 80 trained, is held to be a boor be- cause he cannot talk. But you are not led away by these sophisms. Whatever you may do on the hustings, what- ever you may approve in parliament, you have never chosen your shepherd for his talk. You judge the agri- cultural labourer by what he can do. You love him for his honest worth. You reverence him for his wondrous sagacity, for the genius of his instincts ; and now, when we are met together in this high festival with the mag- nates of the land, with the distinguished in arts and lite- rature of the civilized world — now that we have expressed our loyalty to the throne, our respect for the illustrious Prince our patron, and the patron of all that elevates society — now that we have expressed our gratitude to our distinguished guests for their presence, to our espe- cial leaders and benefactors for their services, we find no toast so satisfactory to our judgment, so grateful to our feelings, as the toast of " The Labourer," even though he cannot talk (cheers). Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., said he rose, by command, to propose " the Sister Societies of Agriculture." It had always been the custom at their annual raeetiags to speak with grateful respect of their elder sister, the Highland Society of Scotland, and to offer their cordial greeting to their youngpr sister, the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland. He was happy to say that these societies reciprocated their good feel- ing3. The best proof of the value and estimation in which their society was held in those countries was the increasing numbers which year by year joined themselves to their body. In the last year not less than 22 members had enrolled them- selves on their lists. But on the present occasion he asked them to drink " Success to their fellow-labourers iu all places, and to say, God speed to all societies engaged in promoting the noble work of agriculture." (Cheers.) Standing as he did, surrounded by visitors from many of our district societie?, and by many distinguished foreigners, he might urge the toast on the ground of courtesy and becoming hospitality; but he would press it on wider considerations, in the certain conviction that they might do a great deal of good to each other in meetings such as that. Could it be doubted that in a busi- neas so purely practical, experiments accurately made, and results carefully noted, must lie of gcueral advantage ? (Hear, hear.) If he wished for an instance of the benefit of a wide range of observation and of the stimulating influence of this society he would name the case of the guano trade. Ten years ago the article of guano was unknown for practical purposes in this country. The work of a German professor, noticmg the great deposits on the coast of Peru, was translated into an early number of their Journal of Agriculture. Lord Stanlej' — the Earl of Derby (great cheering) spoke of it at the Liverpool mectiug. (Loud clieers for Lord Staidey, whicli were rejieated again aud again.) Among the many things which the voice 123 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of Lord Stanley liaj effected, it gave its tirst impetus to the trade iu giiano — a trade which now employed 100,000 tons of British shipping (cheers), and which produced a revenue of above half a million to the Government of Peru, from which (be it said) the British bondholder was paid his dividend, for which above £1,000,000 sterling was paid every year in this coirntry ; with what results — with what increased verdure to our fields and fertility to our crops they knew better than he could tell them. (Cheers.) Again, the important discovery of dissolving bones by sulphuric acid was made by a German chemist; and following up this discovery there was present among them to-day from across the Atlantic a gentleman, then in his eye, who had announced the discovery of a mineral stratum iu the state of New York, rich in the same compound as that of bones, and which, he was informed, could be brought to our shores at such a price as to place it within the reach of every fanner. (Cheers.) He feared to v.cary them with these details. ("No, no.") One other instance he could not pass over. A great compliment had within the last few days been paid to the society by a powerful sovereign. The Emperor of Russia had sent them maps of bis vast dominions with the zones marked out upon them in which the various grains — wheat, maize, flax, &'c. — were produced, with a gracious inti- mation that the transactions of the Russian society, which were now printed iu Russian aud German, should, if it should be the wish of the society, be hereafter translated into English also. Let them not undervalue these things. (Hear ) lift them not undervalue their intrinsic importance, still less the spirit of goodwill and esteem, of which they were the sure indications. One advantage had resulted to us from the visit of a distinguished foreign Minister this evening. They have been let into some State secrets. (Tiaughter). Those myste- rious boxes, those sealed bags which issued forth with so much solemnity from the bureaus of ministers, big, as they supposed, with the fate of empires, they now learned, often contained only comparisons between Shorthorns, Ilerefords, and Devons (laughter) ; and carried perhaps a specimen of wools, long and short. (Laughter.) Happy the country and happy the times where diplomatists were so employed. He hardly knew they were of so much importance. Let them turn these things to their prolit. (Hear.) They might assist ia one great object of the society, which was to collect into Ciie focus the scattered rays of intelligence from every side, and turn all to the account of British agriculture. They would, he trusted, concur with him iu these sentiments, and give proof of it by tlie cordial and zealous reception of the toast he had now the honour to propose — "The Sister Societies of Agriculture." (Loud cheers.) The Marquis of Abercorn returned thanks on behalf of the Lish Society. The operations of that society had chiefly been in districts where agriculture was in its most primitive state, aud where the farmer was equally without skill and capi- tal (Hear, hear). But, notwithstanding these difficulties, still the soricty had showed the utmost energy iu their proceedings. They had sown the genu of future advantages, and they had laid the foundation of those blessings which, he trusted, were yet in store for that imhappy country (cheers). It was satis- factory to know that out of evil came good — tliat the late fear- ful famine had left a legacy of greater industry and of increased prudence (loud cheers). At no period had the agricultural prospects of Ireland been more favourable tlian now; and much of this was owing to the labours of that society in whose name he begged again to return thanks (cheers). The Chairman returned thanks for the Highland Society, and proposed " The Railway Companies, aud thanks to them for the facilities they have atTorded the society" (cheers). In conclusion, his grace thanked the meeting for the order they had showu throughout the proceedings, particularly for the manner in which they had drunk the health of her Majesty aud he took occasion to allude to the circumstance that her Majesty had given positive orders to admit the shepherds aud herdsmen attending the exhibition to the Castle terraces on the previous Sunday, an allusion which called forth the warm- est enthusiasm of the meeting. Mr. Thompson (Moat Hall), chairman of the York and North Midland Railway Corapanj', returned thanks. The Earl of PoM'is then gave the health of the Earl of Ducie, the presideut-elect ; for which Lord PouTMAK, iu the absence of Lord Ducie, returned thanks. The meeting then broke up, and his Royal Highness Prince Albert proceeded directly to the railway-station, where a spe- cial train was iu waiting for him, aud, amidst the cheers of the spectators, proceeded to town. ANNUAL COUNTRY MEETING. The annual country meeting, which alway.s formally terminates the cattle exhibition, took place at the Town Hall, Windsor, on Friday, the Duke of Richmond in the chair. The attendance was even more than usually small, there being scarcely sufficient members present to move the customary and formal resolutions, such as thanks to the municipal bodies, the railways, &c. The few persons of note present were the noble chairman, the Mayor of Windsor, and Colonel Challoner. With the termination of this day's proceedings, the presidency of the Duke of Richmond expired, the president ekct being the Earl of Ducie. DINNER AT WINDSOR TO THE LABOURERS. The visit of the Royal Agricultural Society to Windsor was appropriately wound up by a dinner to tlie industrial classes of Windsor aud the neighbourhood, which was given by the local committee iu the great pavilion, on Friday, where (he anaual great dinner of the Society was held on the previous Wednes- day night. This kindly recognition of the claims of thelaboiir- ing poor was first made at the Exeter meeting last, aud the Windsor local committee, determined not to be outdone by their brethren iu the metropolis of the west, some time ago set about raising subscriptions for a substantial dinner to he given to 1,800 of the labouring classes, in which we understand they have been eminently successful. The Royal Agricultural Society, it may be necessary to explain, have no official con- nection with these festivities to the working classes, they originate entirely in the good will and kindly feelirhg of the resident gentry ^who form themselvesiuto the local committees; but of course, as individuals, the members of the Council are ready to afford all the aid and rountenance iu their power. This was eminently the case at Windsor to-day, where tliC Duke of Richmond, the Marquis of Dowusbirc, Colonel Chul- loner, Mr. Hudson, the Secretary, and several others of the officials of the society, postpone their return to town at consi- derable inconvenience to themselves, that they might dine vvitii the labourers. To prevent all occasion for invidious complaint as to the se- lection of persons who were to be honoured with an invitation, the local committee, among whom the leading members were the Hon. Alex. Leslie Melville, Captain Bulkeley, J. G. Red- borough, Esq , Henry Darville, Esq., L. Hare, Esq., &e., de- termined to place the tickets iu the iiauds of the ministers of religion, belonging to all denoraiuatioiis, in New or Old Wind- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 sor, Eton, Clewer, Datchet, Slough, and the surrounding vil- liigpa, witli the simple instructions that they were to Ije given to the poor and industrious labourers of their respective con- giegationi, whether they were connected with agriculture or witli trade. The result of these arrangernents was as interest- ing an assemblage as was perhaps ever iiefore collected together; upwards of 1,900 tickets were issued, and, judging from tiic crowded state of the hall, not one of them appeared to have been unused. The guests consisted of persons of all ages and of bath sexes — all of them clean and neat in tlieir appearance, every face beaming with happiness and radiant witb smiles. They were of a class above the very lowest grade of labour, as was evidenced by their being almost all in holiday attire; the women were dressed in plain but clean cotton gowns, and there was scarcely a smock-frock to be seen amongst the men. Their behaviour throughout was, upon the whole, most orderly ; their patience was a little tried at tlie outset by being kept waiting for the arrival of some of the more distinguished guests, b\it they bore it well ; and their hilarity, though loudly expressed, never surpassed the bounds of decency and good ordir; so it was during the time that the few specclics were delivered. As may be supposed, of the two duties of an audience, the cbeermg was much better and more heartily performed than the listening ; but there was no speaker with a voice loud enough to be heard all over the groat hall who was not sure of being attentively listened to ; and even with regard to the feeblest, it may be stated that the conduct of the audience would bear a favourable comparison with that of their employers — the tenant-farmers — on the pre- vious Wednesday. Add to all this, that though the ale circu- lated freely during the occasion, yet, when the proceedings were over, no one seemed inebriated — no one showed a dispo- sition to protract his stay at the dmner-table, but all retired at once, hilariously, but orderly, to the show-yard adjoining, where the younger portion of the guests amused themselves with various sports on the greensward ; after which tea was served to those who wished it, and the festivities were quietly brought to an end. It may be supposed that an affair of this kind, so benevolent in its principle, so novel in its application, excited no small stir among the inhabitants of Windsor. From an early period great eagerness was evinced by the respectable inhabitants of Windsor to be present and witness the proceeding ; and the two platforms which on Wednesday contained the friends of the chairman and the vice-chairman, were appropriated for their reception. About five hundred ladies and gentlemen were crowded together upon these platforms ; the greater part of whom were obliged to stand the whole time the diimer lasted, but who appeared to be too deeply interested in the scene before them to feel any inconvenience on that account. There were others who took a more active part in the proceed- ings. The expense of providing hired waiters for the dinner would have added considerably to the expense of tlie arrange- ments. Tbia was obviated in great measure by putting down on the tables at once all the provisions, consisting of cold bpef, mutton, lamb, plum pudding, &c., and leaving the guests to help themselves. Still some superintendence was necessary, and this duty was undertaken by the clergy and several of the respectable inhabitants of Windsor ; so that it was no uncom- mon sight to see a canon of Windsor or n master of Eton College, as well a« several of the parochial clergymen, moving about from table to table, assisting the guests according to their wants, and occasionally handing to them a flagon of ale or a basket of bread. It was, in fact, an entire commingling of all classes ; and tlie kindly feelings evoked on this occasion cannot fail to exercise a deep and a lasting influence on the labouring poor of Windsor and the neighbourhood towards their superiors. The dinner was appointed for one o'clock, but some delay was occasioned by the arrangements of the tables, and it was not till nearly two o'clock that the Mayor of Windsor entered the room and took the chair. He was accompanied by the Dnke of Richmond, the Marquis of Downshire, the Hon. Alexander Leslie Melville, Professor Sewcll of Oxford, Admiral Sir Raymond Jervis, Colonel Challoner, Captain Bulkelcy, Mr. J. D. Bedborougb, Rev. Isaac Gossett, Mr. Henry Darville, Mr. Hudson, &c., &c., who took seats on his right and left. The entrance of these distinguished visitors was hailed with oud and repeated cheers. Grace was chaunted by the boys of Trinity Church choir; after which the 2,000 guests in the body of the hall fell to with hearty good- will, and the viar.ds, ample as they were, disappeared under tlieir vigorous and re- peated assaults. The healths of her Mi-jrsty and of the Royal Family were responded to with the utmost enthusiasm, after which Mr. Leslie Melvillk proposed "The Duke of Rich- mond, and success to the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land," which was received with loud cheers. The Duke of Richmond returned thanks, and proposed as a toast, " The Industrious Classes," to whom, he said, the other classes were largely and deeply indebted. What would be the use of his acres to the landlord unless he had good, skilful, honest, and trustworthy men to cultivate them (cheers) ? And he should like to know how their labourers were to be clothed, if it were hot for the mechanics of the country ; and in times of war, he wanted to know whence came the strength of their fleets and armies, but from the industrial classes of the country (cheers) ? He had had the good fortune to serve in the late war, and it was there he had the first opportunity of becoming acquainted with the real character of the English labourer, and he believed that charac- ter was much formed by the athletic amusements that took place in England more than in any other country in the world, for he had certainly seen English soldiers persevere under dif- ficulties that no other army in the world could be brought to encounter (cheers). He had often seen them throw themselves in front of the officers at the risk of their lives, to save their officers from being wounded (loud cheers). Therefore, when peace was concluded, he returned home with a warm feeling of gratitude towards those heroic men, for he felt, to use au agricultural phrase, that the stock could not be a bad one when the produce was so good (great cheering, and laughter). He would ask all who heard him, if it did not ni;ike a great difference to a country, that the town population should be orderly, rather than otlierwise, and if it was not most im- portant to the rural districts thit the labourers should fear God, honour the Uueen, and do their duty to their neigh- bours as they wished to be done by (cheers) ? He was happy to say he was acquainted with many of the lower classes who followed these precepts, and these persons were not only hap- pier in themselves, but by their good conduct they were pro- moting the best interests of society at large (cheers). The meeting was afterwards addressed by Colonel Chal- loner, Captain Bulkeley, the Marquis of Downshire, Mr. Hud- son, Mr, Darville, and others, and the proceedings closed as they began, in perfect order and propriety. 1-28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AWARD OF PRIZES FOR AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL MACHINES AND IMPLE- MENTS, EXHIBITED AT THE GREAT EXHIBITION. The following is a list of the judges : — Philip Pusey, M.P., F.R.S., Chairman and Reporter, Col. Challoner, II, Charles-street, Berkeley-square, B.T. Brandreth Gibbs, Halfmoon-street, Piccadilly, A. Hammond, Westacre, Swaffham, Norfolk; 16, Halkin- street West, Bethmau Holweg, ZoUvereln ; 9, Carlton-house-tcrrace. B. P. Johnson*, United States; 2, Little Ryder-street, St. James's. Joseph Locke, M.P., F.R.S., 6, Chester-terrace, Regent's park, C. M. Lampson, United States ; New-buildings, Queeu-street, City. Professor Hhibeckf, Austria ; 43, Clarges-street. W. Miles, M.P., Leigh-court, near Bristol. — MolU, France ; 65, Gloucaster-road, Hyde park. Baron Mertin d'Ostin, Belgium ; 17, William-street, Lowudes- sqnare. Professor Rau^, Zollverein; 43, Albion-street, Hyde-park. J. V. Shelley, Maresfield-park, Sussex. H. S. Thompson, Moat Hall, near York. GREAT MEDALS. No. 15. II — W. Busby, Newton-le-Willows, for two or four- horse Plough, Horse Hoe on the ridge-ribbing Corn Drill and Cart. No. 135. — W. Crosskill, Beverley, for Norwegian Harrow, Meal Mill Cart, Clod Crusher. No. 142. — G.\RRETT and Sons, Suffolk, for Horse Hoe, general purpose Drill, four-row Turnip Drill on the fiat, im- proved Hand-barrow Drill for grass seeds. Steam-engine Thrashing Machine. No. 233. HoRNSBY and Son, Grantham, for Corn and Seed Drill, Drop Drill, two-row Turnip Drill on the Ridge, Oil- cake Bruiser, Steam Engine. PRIZE MEDALS. No. 132.— W. Ball, Rothwell, for two-horse Plough. No. 217. — E. H. Bentall, Heybridge, for Cultivator. No. 237. — Burgess and Key, Newgate-street, for improved American Churn and Turnip Cutter. No. 37. — C. BuRRKLL, Thetford, for Gorse Bruiser. No. 242.— Clayton and SiiUTTLEWORTii,Lincoln, for Steam Engine. No. 47. — H. Clayton, near Dorset-square, for Tile Machine. No. 210. — R. Coleman, Chelmsford, for Cultivator, Expand- ing Harrow. No. 205 — Cornes, Barbridge, for Chaff Cutter. No. 96. — Crowley and Sons, Newport Pagnel, for Cart. No. 143. — J. CoMiNS, South Molton, for Horse Hoe. De Claes, Belgium, for Corn Drill and Roller. No, 166. — J. J. DucHENE, Assche. en Rifail, Belgium, for Churn. No. 129. — M. Gibson, Newcastle, for Clod Crusher. No. 150. — Gray and Sons, Uddingstoue, for Cart. Harwood, for Meal Mill. No. 149. — Hensman and Son, Woburn, for Thrasliiiig Ma- chine, four-horse Plough, and Corn Drill. No. 241. — Holmes and Son, Norwich, for Thrashing Ma- chine. No. 240.— J. and F. Howard, Bedford, for two horse XX Plough, four-horse Plough, Horse Rake. No. 1299. — A. D. Lavoisy, Paris, for Churn. No. 124a. — Dr. Newington (as inventor), for Top-dressing Machine. No. 50. — W. N. Nicholson, Newark-on-Trent, for Oilcake Bruiser. No. 169. — Odeurs, Marlinue, Belgium, for Plough. No. 124. — Ran SOME and May, Ipswich, for Drop Drill. No. 108. — Reeves and Bratton, Wcstbury, for Water Drill, Liquid Manure Distributor. No. 135. — B. Samuelson, Banbury, for Turnip Cutter. No. 228.— T. SCRAGG, Tarporley, for Tile Machine. Smith, Stamford, for Haymaker, Chaff Cutter, and Horse Rake. No. 1. — W. P. Stanley, Peterborough, for Linseed and Barley Crusher. No. 271. — TuxFORD and Son, Boston, Lincolnshire, for Steam-engine. No. 220.— T. Wilkinson, 309, Oxford-street, for Churn. No. 151. — Vi. Williams, Bedford, for Light and Ik-avy Harrows. No. 239. — J. Whitehead, Preston, for Tile Machine. Note. — The awards for foreign implements are not yet completed. 16th July, I85I. — True extract of the Award Book of Jury IX. Lyon Playfair, Special Commissioner. ON THE CORRECT PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING ANIMALS. "Whatever opinion may be entertained of the value of purely physiological science as assisting the practical breeder, or as being useless to him and his operations, there can be no doubt that most of the correct principles of breeding animals were far antecedent to the teachings of science. Bakewell, the Collings, and Cully observed and • Secretary Ntw York Agricultural Society, t Chevalier De Kleyle, proxy for Professor Hlubeck. + Professor of AgiicuUure at Conservatory of Arts and Manu- factures. i Professor of Potitical Economy. II The number in the Exhibition catalogue. acted on strictly practical data. They had no science to teach them, and they not only laid the foundation for all the thoroughly good breeds of animals which have appeared since their days, but some will affirm that they absolutely themselves had the very best. Physiology has illustrated and enforced, has applied and built, a science on their skill and experiments, and has shown how these agreed v/ith, what by them they have discovered to be, the great principles of the science. But there are many problems in breeding stil THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 129 unsolved. It is well understood that if we perse- vere year after year in selecting those animals to breed from, which have certain peculiarities, we shall in time obtain a breed with these peculiarities stamped upon it as constitutional. It may also be known that if we are to cross, we must not breed from crossed animals, but carry back the crossed blood to breed from its own original stock of the one kind or the other, or we shall have a race of the most unlike mongrels. Wliy this is, we know not. AVe may attempt to cross a small-breed pig with a large breed, in order to improve the size of the one, and the fattening qualities of the other ; but we shall get a divided litter : half will be large coarse-haired animals — the other small fine-haired ; the one resembling one parent, and the other the other. We cannot, by crossing these, obtain a middle breed. And yet the middle breed is form- ing : the large breed is disappearing as much ; and is being replaced by one of finer hair and smaller bone, more resembling the small breed in quality, and the large breed in size. How is this ? Crossing is not the way to ac- complish it. It must be done by selection and careful weeding of breeds. A breeder begins to select ; he takes his best grazing and finest-quality sow ; he seeks a boar where quality rather than size is the object; the most promising of their produce is chosen, and this again carried to the finest animal of its kind ; and thus a fine breed is obtained from the original stock, without one viola- tion of the course of nature. Again, the Alderney cow is about — or was about, we ought rather to say — as great a violation of the symmetrical points of a well-formed animal as it is well possible to imagine. Now attempts have been made to cross this with the shorthorn, in the hopes that the most symmetrical would surely correct the great faiUngs of the least, and so produce at least a moderately-formed animal — but no such thing. The produce was an ugly useless nondescript. It had lost the beauty of the shorthorn, and the milking propensities of the Alderney. If breeds are to be crossed, they must be crossed evidently by a breed within a certain range of similitude, or they will violate the principles of nature, and end in a creation of monstrosities. It is a curious subject of investigation, whether all breeds of animals of a certain class — say cattle — were originally one. Can the long-horned Craven, and the hornless Galloway— the diminutive Kyloe and the stately Devon — the quaint and flat- shaped Alderney and the portly short-horned Durham, all have been, one day, of one common stock ? The investigation is curious and attractive. It has baflHed naturalists and philosophers, and is not uninterwoven with the controversies of theolo- gians. Either proposition is subject to objections philosophical as well as theological ; but the fact is yet imsettled. We know that climate will do much : it converts hair into down — down into wool — wool into fur. There is a plasticity in nature — a tendency to ac- commodate herself to the circumstances in which she is placed, which, though slow and painful, is perhaps the most wonderful, if investigated with patience, of all her operations. What but climate is it that gives the curly, shaggy coat to the animal which wanders northward to the Highland top ? What is this but nature's covering, to defend her from the wintry blast ? Then again, herbage and food. Take only a twin calf: give the one his mother's milk for six months ; and feed the other on hay, tea, and lin- seed : the one will be a large thriving animal; the other shrunk, and meagre, and stunted. It is the eflfects of its pasturage. It has not the exact food calculated to develop its qualities ; and it shows its want — not by dying— but by overcoming all in an altered form. Now take the same twins : leave one in the fertile valley of the Tees, and drive the other to the barren Jersey. The one has an allu- vial soil deposited by the debris of a thousand generations : it browses on the grass once the bed of the wide flowing river, filled up with the finest and most soluble particles of earth washed out of the virgin soil before it was cultivated, mixed \vith the phosphated earth from the washings of the mountain limestone; and hence he had plenty, and slept ; he had abundant in ammonia for his flesh, and phosphates for his bones ; he lived luxurioudy and easily, and he got somnolent, and lethargic, and fat ! He grew in size and in bulk — the one as regards his height, and the other his thickness ; and hence in his breed was formed the Teeswater race. The other had to pick up a scanty subsistence oil the barren rocks. He had long to browse for a scanty morsel : his grass was poor and innutri- tious; and he had to be roaming all day, and skipping from height to height, to attain a meagre portion. Here he was active and thin; he was small and flat in his muscles. Animals of this kind were bred from, and they became more and more adapted to their climate, and soil, and cir- cumstances. But his young could barely live on this poor herbage : hence more milk was required to sustain them — the converse of the imaginary compeer in Teesdale ; and the one is a good milker— the other a bad one. It would seem, you can never violently amal- gamate materials so different. Having alluded to the effects of cross-breeding on a race of animals, and the danger of any violation K 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of extreme tendencies in unallied species, and shown how varieties might easily, by accidents of climate, soil, and circumstances, be originated and multi- plied, we have only to show the effects of cross- breeding in another and somewhat new point of view, which has recently attracted the attention of breeders ; and the whole embraces a subject so thoroughly novel, and so little investigated, that it deserves more than a passing mention. Has cross-breeding any effect on the mother herself afterwards? Professor Simonds, at the lecture at York, on the Re-production of Animals, entered upon the effect of crossing on female ani- mals, but mainly in reference to the supposed pe- culiar love which a female animal might have to some particular male, which might be observed to have such a mysterious influence on the yet imma- ture ovte as to stamp his likeness upon them as well as upon the immediate results of the union. This was followed up by a paper in the Veteri- narian, by James M'Gillavray, V.S., of Heurtley, who quoted some of the same facts, and others, to show that "when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant to an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal is herself a cross ever after, the purity of her blood being lost in consequence of her connection with the foreign animal." He very ingeniously argues that from the construction of the reproductive organs of the female animal— especially in the bovine race— there is an intimate connection between the mother and her offspring during the whole period of gestation; that the blood of the young circulates through the veins of the mother, as well as vice versa ; and that there is, in fact, the most complete interchange possible of the qualities of the sire with the dam through the me- dium of the offspring. More recently. Dr. Harvey, in a pamphlet on Cross-Breeding,* says : " There is a circumstance connected with the process of breeding, in the higher classes of animals, which seems to me to merit a larger share than it has yet received of the attention of the agricultural body. It is this— that a male animal that has once had fruitful connection with a female, may so influence her future offspring begotten by other males as, to a greater or less ex- tent, to engraft upon them his own distinctive fea- tures ; his influence thus reaching to the subse- quent progeny, in whose conception he has himself had no share, and his image and superscription being, so to speak, more or less highly inscribed upon them." Now, in proof of this position— a careful and * "A Remarkable Effect of Cross-BrGeding;" by Alexander Harvey, M.D., lecturer on the Practice of Medicine, in the University, and King's College, Aberdeen, &c, Ediuburt-h • Blackwood. guarded one certainly, and hard to gainsay, it must be admitted — a great many facts are adduced by the three writers we have quoted ; and the facts are not only " stubborn," but numerous and striking. Take these as instances : In the Transactions of the Royal Society, for 1821, a fact is related of a tho- rough-bred mare, belonging to Sir Gore Ouseley, who was covered by a zebra, and, as might be ex- jiected, she produced a striped offspring. Next year she was served by a thorough-bred horse, at a great distance, and she again produced a zebra-like striped animal. A second year the same circumstance took place with another horse, and again with the same result. A circumstance very much in keeping with this, and illustrative of it, if not so striking, is given by the V.S.to her Majesty, Mr. Wm. Good- win. Several of the mares in that establishment had foals in one year, which were by Actteon, but which presented exactly the marks of the horse Colonel — a white hind fetlock for instance, and a white mark or stripe on the face — and Actjeon was perfectly free from white. The mares had all bred from Colonel the previous year. Mr. Blaine's story is well known, and may suffice to show the influence, at least, on horses. He states that Lord Morton had a mare covered by a quagga — a kind of large ass — which produced a cross between the two, and resembled both. The next year she was served by a black Arabian horse of very pure blood, but the produce had the stripe and hair and mai'ks of the quagga. She was again served by the same horse, and the same result precisely followed— the one foal being a colt and the other a filly. Mr. M'Gillavray mentions also how a colt of Lord Suffield's, at Newmarket, so resembled the horse Camel, that it was believed that some mistake, in- tentional or otherwise, had taken place in his de- scribed pedigree. The facts above were alone suf- ficient to account for the likeness; for the mare had been served the year before by Camel. Passing down to sheep. Dr. Harvey relates a cir- cumstance in point, which hajipened to Mr. Shaw, of Leochel. He put six pure horned and black- faced sheep to a white-faced hornless Leicester ram, and others of iiis flock to a dun-faced Down ram. The produce were crosses between the two. In the following year they were put to a ram of their o« n breed, also pure — all the lambs were hornless, and had brown faces. Another year he again put them to a pure-bred horned and black-faced ram. There was a smaller proportion tins year impure ; but two of the produce were polled, one dun-faced with very small horns, and three were white-faced — showing the partial influence of the cross even to the third year. A similar case in the pig is related by Professor Simonds : D. Giles, Esq., had a sow of the black- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 181 and-white breed, which had produced the previous year from a wild boar of a dun or deep chestnut colour — in this cross, as is common in violent changes in pigs, some resembled the male and some the female parent ; but the year afterwards she was put to one of Mr. Western's boars, and the result was that the litter had chestnut marks very dis- tinctly upon them, which they had never had before. Take a sample from the cow, again, in corrobora- of the principle. A case is quoted of a farmer who put a pure Aberdeenshire heifer to a short- horn bull, to which she had, of course, a cross calf. The following season she was put to a pure-bred bull of her own kind, and could have had no other intercourse. A cross-breed animal was produced — having horns, though both its parents were horn- less. Several other facts, equally strong, might be quoted from one or other of these authoritiesj which seem to make out the proposition, if not that laid down by Mr. M'Gillavray, at least that pro- propounded by Dr. Harvey. But there is another class of facts mentioned by the same parties, which will go further, and ^vill render the principle much more difficult to comprehend. How true soever may be the principle that an ani- mal, once a mother by a male of a diiferent breed, will herself be a cross for ever after, or how far soever it may be considered as proved by the facts adduced by physiologists, as we before hinted, there is a class of facts even still more astounding ; and these not any new or recently-discovered cir- cumstances, but as old almost as primeval history can carry us back. They are these — that an animal may produce young unlike their actual parent-sire, and like an- other animal with which it is impossible that the female could have had any intercourse. This is true of cattle, of horses, and of swine. Simonds would solve it on the principle of affection for par- ticular animals entertained by the mother ; other writers refer it to an effect upon the imagination of the mother, of a very intense kind. It has long been stated that breeders of farming-horses place a painting of a piebald or skew-balled animal in the crib or stall of the brood-mare, and the foal is marked with the identical spots of the picture. Whether it was a knowledge of this principle, arising from his skill as a shepherd, by the wily progenitor of the Jews — or whether he was super- naturally taught for the first time the wonderful tendency — whether, in fact, he availed himself of his knowledge in the same way as Bakewell and Collins — or whether a degree of special instruction in an art necessary to raise him to be the head of a selected people which should be the wonder of the world in all ages, we shall not stop to inquire. But the fact was that a special, an uncommon, a stray kind of production was allotted to him for wages, in the lambs of the flock and the calves of the herd. The odd brown lambs, and the spotted calves dropped, were to be his ; while, lest any unfair in- fluence should act on the mother, all in the herd or flock of these colours should be separated. Here, however, he practised the art of the breeder with consummate skill. He peeled white streaks on rods of poplar and hazel and chestnut, and placed them before the watering-troughs of the cattle when they paired, and the produce was ring- shaped, speckled, and spotted. But, vnth the discri- mination and judgment of a breeder, he was too wise to do this to all the cattle. lie selected the strongest and best ; and, while the produce of the strong were of the exceptional colour, those of the weak were the colour of nature. In the sheep he adopted a similar course. He turned the faces of the sheep at pairing-time towards his own brown flock, and a race of brown lambs was the result — accommodating his plans to the varying stipula- tions of his selfish father-in-law. Exactly in keeping with this is the story of Mr. Daniel, related in his Rural Sports, of the late Dr. Hugh Smith. He had a favourite setter-bitch, Dido, travelling with him in the village of Mid- hurst, in Hants, who became suddenly much ena- moured with a very ugly culley-dog. Provoked at these familiarities, he shot the cur, and had the bitch carried away on horseback; but she pined and fretted, and lost her appetite, and even her ap- preciation of scent. After this she was coupled with a well-bred setter, but the produce were a fac- simile of the favourite cur ; and this followed in every litter of pups which she afterwards bore^ This would seem to be a complete instance of the effect of the imagination alone; but in favour of Dr. Harvey's theory, there is this remote possi- biUty — asserted, indeed, by Mr. M'Gillavray to have been the fact — that there might have been in- tercourse between the animals, and thus the alloy have been communicated to the animal. Of the same class is the fact related by Mr. Blaine, who had a pug-bitch, a great favourite and constant companion of a white spaniel-dog. These were kept separate at critical intervals, and she was warded by a dog of her own kind. A litter of fine puppies was the result of the union, and one was white and spaniel-like ; and, though the spaniel was given away, the two subsequent litters had the same peculiarity — one slender, white, spaniel-like dog, but less and less resembling him in each suc- ceeding litter. Here, again, there is no proof but that at some time or other an unobserved union had taken place. But if the fact related in the Quarterly Journal K 2 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of Agriculture^ in its very first volume, be correct, it ^vould place the imagfination theory on safe ground. Mr. Mustard, of Angus, had a cow of the polled breed, and perfectly black ; nor had he a horned, nor white, nor even spotted cow or bull in his possession. When this cow was in season, a white, horned ox of a neighbour leaped over the fence, and accompanied the cow home, till she was put to the bull — a black and white, horned calf was the result ; and in this case it would seem that no possible union could have taken place. But the question arises, if an adjoining neigh- bour could have a herd of white and horned cattle, might not a bull also have broken over the same fence either at that or some preceding period ; for if it ever had taken place, according to the physio- logical facts previously detailed, the very effect mentioned here would have taken place. The whole subject is enveloped in mystery. We know less now than was known by Jacob, the shep- herd-king ; but does it not become breeders to ex- periment and settle these points. If the inocula- tion theory be correct we must have histories as well as pedigrees of female animals ; and, above all, we must be careful in spoiling them by cross- ing. If the mental influence, either aftection or imagination, be right, we must remove all animals but the best and most perfect specimens from the gaze of the mother. We must confess, we rather lean towards the in- oculation theory, but should prefer additional facts before we pronounce with certainty. Dr. Harvey, however, has done good service so to illustrate this dark and mysterious subject, — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. THE WILD CATTLE OF SCOTLAND. The following faithful sketch of Scottish scenery, &c,, which has appeared in some of the French papers, is from the pen of the accomplished Countess de Villeneuve, lately on a visit to their Graces the Duke and Duchess of Hamilton : — (Extract of a Letter from the Palace of Hamilton — Oct. 25th, 1850.) A road separates that part of the park of Hamilton which surrounds the palace from another portion still more extensive, more pic- turesque, and whose undulating grounds render the prospect as pleasing as it is vaiied. This latter takes the name of Chatelherault. On its highest point is situated the castle, the shooting lodge in- habited by some of the Duke's gamekeepers. Therefrom extends an immense horizon, which carries the eye over widely-extending sheets of ver- dure, clusters of immense trees, rich hillocks and smiling valleys. The park encloses an extent of twenty miles in circumference ; but what constitutes its chief beauty is the river Avon, which rolls its rapid waters betwixt abrupt and woody declivities. A trellised walk strikes out, across these lonely oaks, a tortuous though easy way from the lofty precipice to the Avon's banks, whilst an admirable grassy terrace crowns for many a mile the pic- turesque scenes which the river has created. The ridges of rocks, against which is waged a sonorous war, the rooted trees, the cascades, and sometimes the contrast of these imposing spectacles of nature, and of a limpid mirror, which seems to reflect but the peace of a profound solitude, form an ensemble which charms the eye, calms and arrests the thoughts. At a distant point of this immense park, far re- moved from human intercourse, dwells a wild herd, which likewise has its own laws, its own customs, and its primitive virtues, a singular remnant of those ancient races that wandered formerly in the majestic forests of old Caledonia, as in the prairies of America ; these cattle, left to themselves, eman- cipated from the yoke of man, exempt from the hard toils which render their life so laborious and so useful, enjoy the unalloyed sweets of liberty, and fatten on the grassy pasturages abandoned to their roaming herds. They live, nevertheless, united, for the members of this society are ever ready to afford one another mutual succour against the aggressions of a common enemy. The hunters, led to the place which they inhabit, when they find themselves face to face with them, must seek their safety in flight, for the entire body rises and op- poses, by means of the only arms which nature has given them, a formidable front to the attack. In order to reach them, we had the assistance of their keeper, the only man whose near approach they will permit. Keeper is not the word, for they are not kept confined ; but he it is that knows their number, and in winter, when the ground is covered with snow, draws them gently towards the cribs constructed by order of the duke, whereby they are preserved from the scarcity brought on by the rigours of the season. Behold us, then, on a beautiful day in October THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 133 making our way amidst the old oaks of the ancient forests of Caledonia, and the green meadows which extend beyond the compass of the eye, clothing, with their smiling mantle of verdure, the little swollen summits of the hillocks, the depths of the valleys. Instantly, we observe on an im- mense plateau a numerous herd of cattle of milky whiteness, the muzzles and the ears black as ebony, with small straight and pointed horns; the cows care- lessly reclining, the bulls with glossy eye and fierce and threatening air, and the little calves, so saucy, gentle, timid, and pretty, present the most curious ensemble. When this wild herd fears any danger, obedience accepts an absolute authority ; the alarm signal is given by the patriarch of the tribe. Strange to say, the strong ones devote themselves to the defence of the feeble : the family feeling im- poses laws which inspire courage ; the young mo- thers and their little ones are placed in the centre, and the bulls present themselves alone to the danger of the struggle. If the army has to retreat, the first saved are always the inoffensive ones of the column ; the old soldiers remain behind, ready to sustain the combat valiantly. Scarcely was the game in sight, than he sounded forth with all the strength of his broad Scottish chest — " Come, come my lads ; come, my white Angus." Half-sujipressed bellowing made reply to him ; for, strange still, they are docile to the voice whereof any past kindness 'reminds them. We drew nearer ; not one of them was disturbed at sight of us. The guide informed us that songs, the sound of a flute or of the bagpipes, attracted this entire band fond of harmony. He sings a Jacobite air. Immediately their heads are turned round, their looks firmly fixed, their ranks close serried, and their savage auditory becomes as if suspended at the hoarse and discordant accents of the Highlander. We then gave them out the songs of our own beautiful country, those echoes which, on a summer night, resounded on the balconies of Toulouse ; and, as at Burns' artless notes, the cattle, seduced and charmed, slowly follow our steps, as if these foreign sounds possessed an irresistible power over them. There is something mysterious and infinite in a vast solitude ! The heart seems to dilate, the soul to elevate itself, the spirit to exalt itself; the cir- cumscribed combinations of man, his paltry ideas, his zealous passions, seem to disappear before the imposing scenes of nature. Disengaged from his shackles, free in all the sublime inspirations of his thoughts, the intellectual creature soars above the miseries of life, and draws nigh to the Sovereign i being who gives him existence. In gazing on these solitary ])rairies — one vast ocean of verdure, whose extent the eye may not reach — in beholding with a curious eye these roam- ing herds of untamed cattle, we may well believe ourselves translated into those plains of the New world, which have scarcely been trodden by the daring foot of man. Near this wild herd, which had attracted our at- tention, there were other objects also to excite our lively interest. Scotland joins to its picturesque views, to the charm of its vapoury mists, to its abrupt slopes, to its limpid streams, to its soft swards, some great reminiscences, and the brilliant reflections of a poetic history. There is shewn in its pride the ancient king of the forest, the magni- ficent oak, the venerable remains of those giants, which time, in its march, or the axe of warriors, hath not destroyed ! Glorious monument, which bears upon it the impress of ages past and gone ! this oak hath protected \mder its young shade the valorous Scotch, who, under the banner of the bleeding heart of the Douglasses, came to offer to our Charles VII. the succour of their courage. Striking its roots deeply into the soil, it sustains itself on the steep declivity which has nourished it so long. Its circumference is thirty-four feet. But instead of shooting up into the air its noble head, and defying the thunders there, it spreads wide its still verdant branches, which have more than once offered repose to the weary traveller, and a refuge to the proscribed, whose misfortunes it protected. Faithful tradition encircles its long life with respect, and, with a touching interest, hoards its memories; for in Scotland they still revere whatever time spares in its course, and, far from striking down, with hatchet in hand, these old roots, whose shoots may yet be the honour of the forest, and a barrier to the devastating torrent, a wise people, taught by a severe experience, cultivates with fondness those venerable boughs whereon their ancient origin imprints a sacred character. Not far from the ruins of Cadzow, which are also enclosed within the compass of this immense park, this living witness of so many bloody battles or peaceful sports presents to the winds and to the tempests a front which years have never bent. The castle of Cadzow (built in the ninth centurj' by the Britons, on the banks of the Clyde, and who afterwards established themselves in the country of the Gauls), after having been for one century a residence of the kings of Scotland, was given by King Robert Bruce to a lord of the house of Hamil- ton, in recompense for his eminent services. That noble family peaceably possessed the feudal manor until the hapless times of Queen Maiy Stuart. Then the Duke of Chatelherault, the nearest heir to the crown after herself and her son, was involved in the proscription which struck the faitliful party. 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. It was to Cadzow that Mary Stuart came to seek an asylum after her flight from Lochleven, and under its hospitable battlements that she sheltered her misfortune. Meanwhile the Duke of Chatel- herault assembled an army for her. It was from this castle she set forth, nobly erecting her charm- ing head, momentarily bowed down vmder the stroke of fate ; and there, with that heroic look which gives weakness an irresistible power, she animated the valorous companions whom the hap- piness of such a devotion attached to her fortunes. Alas ! Cadzow beheld her once more, when at Lang- side, fate, determined on betraying her, had deceived her hopes, and when, under the weight of a glorious defeat, she shed tears, and cast a sombre look around her cruel isolation. A sentiment of profound sadness pervades the heart, whilst the eyes are rivetted on these ruined walls — on these half-filled moats, witnesses of the disasters and the sorrows of the royal captive — where once resounded the cries of war, the din of combats, and where now the silence of nature is interrupted but by the gushing of the torrents and the hoarse accents of some aged I'ook. In these same places, nevertheless, what strange contrast suddenly comes to attract our eyes, sad- dened by a great and melancholy reflection ! On the platform whereon rest the ruins of Cadzow, there, overhanging the precipice — there, amidst the old oaks, with their venerable trunks and their tender leaves, a crowd of gay Scotch dance, to the sound of a rustic instrument, the reels of their ancient country — there, united, regardless of the future, forgetting the sombre scenes of the past, attending to the lively and joyous measure which regulates and quickens their movements, they deliver them- selves up to the pleasures of a day which time no more recals under our footsteps, and the smiling countenances of the young girls, and the light boundings and the clamorous shouts of the young Highlanders, resemble those charming dreams which come sometimes to suspend our griefs, and cast a momentary but enchanting veil over the miseries of life. ON "POUCHED HEART.' (Concluded.) " Every addition to the stock of human know- ledge is of some use or other, although we may be unable to conjecture or foresee its precise utility." — Charles Dickens. In the " pouched heart " is to be observed the altered form of the right ventricle, unnaturally di- lated and much attenuated ; this constitutes a dan- gerous and incurable disease incidental to cows and stall-fed oxen during the process of fattening. A lengthened series of observations warrants the assertion that seven out of every ten of animals un- duly fatted, or made fat by artificial food, are sub- ject to this disease — in which the flesh is beginning to degenerate into a fatty substance (adipocire), by being in constant proximity to a non-nitroge- nous subtance holding hydrogen in abundance. So that in fatted animals there is in reality a loss of flesh instead of increase, and in this condition they are slaughtered for human food. Yet forsooth the grazier views with mistaken satisfaction the marbly appearance when slaughtered of the muscles of his pampered kine. "The accumulation of adipose matters evinces more or less of diseased action in some of the organs concerned in the general function of nutrition. Hence the notorious fact that almost every animal. which is fatted and killed for human food, is ac- tually in a state of disease when butchered."* The accepted economy of fat on the exterior of the carcass, is that of a soft cushion for the easy ghding of the muscles below it, while they are in action, and moreover to assist in the preservation of animal heat. But the fatty degeneration before-named in many points resembles the changes which take place in normal structure, when transformed into cancerous deposits, so that it may be seen how closely their degeneration is allied to malignant dis- ease. To preserve health, waste and supply must be kept in their natural order. Any deviation in the proper quantity and quality of food destroys this equiUbrium, and of course is injurious to health. Of all the organic muscles, the heart is the most irritable ; and being so, whatever interferes with its irritability must necessarily produce in it disordered action or functional derangement ; that is, the re- gulai' succession or uniformity of the heart's move- ments is altered, and of course the proper supply of blood from this, the centre of circulation, to all parts of the animal machine, deviates from a healthy * Graham's " Science of Human Life," THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 135 one : the heart has lost its wonted regularity and impetus. This irregularity in the circulation of the blood is the fountain and origin of disease in the system at large, as well as in the heart itself. " Post vehementum vero, aut insolituni, aut ab- normem motum, inviti etiam motus musculi quo- damodo debiliores evadunt."* There cannot be a doubt of the influence that habits of diet have in altering tlie quality of the cir- culating fluids — that certain kinds of diet produce changes in the blood and in the secretions derived from it. When the blood (from which all secretions are derived) is unhealthy, all else must go wrong. This fluid once rendered impure, is the approximation to hereditary disease. Place the animal under the same circumstances which gave rise to the disease in the generation that preceded it, you will have the same disease augmented and confirmed. How many instances may be adduced from the vegetable kingdom to prove the like peculiarity of constitu- tion to produce hybrid races ! " The otter breed of sheep," says Dr. Pritchard, " sprung from an accidental variety or deformity in one animal, which communicated its peculiarity to its progeny, so that the breed is established. Indeed the various kinds of cattle are produced by these accidental circumstances, and are so perpe- tuated, even of a most extraordinary sort." "The greatest variety yet obtained in animals is produced by domestication" (Cuvier). These changes in breed are the results of the quality and quanlity of tlie blood ; but it by no means follows that healthy development of the muscular system is the result of such changes. When there is a greater quantity of venous blood in the right ventricle than what is natural, it re- mains there a longer time than is consistent with the healthy contraction of the heart, and interferes with the fitting capacity of the lungs. That which in a proper quantity and quality is a healthy stimu- lus, otherwise becomes a source of morbid irrita- tion. When, too, it is known that so minute a quantity as one ten-thousandth part of some bodies completely changes the character of the compound with which they may be combined, there is no need of surprise as to the morbific effects of unheiiltiiy blood, because of the minute deviation scarcely ap- preciable from its healthy condition. In the words of a celebrated physiologist, "To preserve health, the natural quantity aiid quality of the blood must be in strict relation with the power of the heart and the capacity of the lungs. There | is no doubt that a certain composition of the blood i * Gregory's Conspectus, T 341. is one of the most important conditions to a due exercise of the difl^erent functions" (Majendie). Here, then, the composition of the blood* is all- important to the exercise of the different functions. When the venous blood is in excess the ventricle does not act simultaneously ; so that, after it has overcome its difficulty, the part so unusually irri- tated becomes dilated or pouched. This effect is augmented by the increase of density and of the specific gravity of the blood, in which there is an excess of carbon. The disease of "pouched heart" once established, the animal is removed from a healthy state. The proportion of venous blood increases through the carcass : the fluid is not only altered in healthy quan- tity, but its healthy qualities also. It is deprived of a great part of its natural proportion of fluid, its electrical state is altered, it^ chemical properties are changed. The disease in question is observed to commence in that part of the ventricle which would be most influenced by the extra weight of the contained blood; that is, opposite to the origin of the pul- monary artery. Here the ventricle first becomes thin. As the disease advances, the dilatation of the cavity goes on, from before backwards, to the en- tire enlargement of the ventricle, down to the apex, where the septum divides the right from the left side of the heart. The dilated ventricle becomes thinner and is puckered. The corresponding auricle, too, is dilated, and is thrust quite to the back part of the organ. The valvalur apparatus, between the auricle and the ventricle, is altered in its connexions, and fails to close. In this extreme case the jugular veins pulsate like arteries, owing to a portion of the blood which had been poured into the ventricle returning to the auricle, which now seems to act as a safety-valve. There are other circumstances which may be deemed mechanical, which contribute to this disease in fat animals, viz., a diminished capacity of the chest, from the accumulation of fat in the belly pre- venting the descent of the skirt (from which accu- mulation the skirt itself is not free). There is also a considerable deposit of fat about the ribs, and this near to their junction with the backbone, so that their mobility is lessened ; thus rendering impossible the full and natural expansion of the lungs ; in consequence of which the quantity of blood or the quantity of air they can contain must be diminished. Now, it being necessary that tlie whole of the blood in this, the right side of the heart, should be * The relative proportion of water in healthy blood is said to be 790 in 1,000 parts ; of lat about 2 parts in 1,000. 136 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. forced through the lungs, notwithstanding their di- minished capacity, it follows that greater power must be exerted by the right ventricle (in this case) to accomplish this. And hence, again, its thin walls suffer dilatation. This state causes a difficulty of breathing; there is a jerking in the process, when trifling exercise only is used. It may be noticed in the fat and petted dog, where probably the same disease exists. With disoi'dered action long continued in any of the vital organs, or organs of nutrition, a frequent consequence is altered struc- ture ; and this altered structure once jiroduced is permanent ; hence the disease of " j)ouched heart" is said to be incurable. Again, when the organs of nutrition suffer from diseased action, as the paunch and the other sto- machs from over-feeding, or from food which is not natural to the animal, I'e-mastication is not per- formed ; the function of the nerves whicii supply the stomachs, the heart, and the lungs, is impaired. Like galvanic wires, these nerves impress their in- fluence ; they write on the stomachs, the heart, and lungs alike. Then is present the fever of digestion. The blood is hindered in its passage through the lungs, so an excess of carbonic acid follows, and so is mduced its poisonous plethora. Graziers admit the correctness of this when they say, "If you want to fatten an animal by highly-stimulating food, it must be increased by cautious degrees ; because all such food is digested with great difficulty before the animal has been habituated to its use." J. A. DIRECTIONS FOR THE PROPER MANAGEMENT OF THE F L A X C R O P, COMPILED BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL IRISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE GROWTH OF FLAX IN IRELAND. The following directions have been carefully arranged from the mass of information obtained by the society and their agriculturists, during their ten years' experience in the improved system of management : — Soil and Rotation. — By attention and carefid cul- tivation, good flax may be grown on various soils ; but some are much better adapted for it than others. The best is a sound, dry, deep loam, with a clay subsoil. It is very desirable that the land \ should be properly drained and subsoiled, as, when ' it is saturated with either underground or surface | water, good flax cannot be expected. Without method there cannot be success; different soils require a diflference of rotation. In the best soils of Flanders flax is grown in the third year of a seven-course rotation, or the fifth year of a ten-course rotation. It is not considered generally advisable to grow flax more frequently than once in ten years ; not because it exhausts the land more than any other crops, but because good flax cannot be had at short intervals, on the same soil.* In Belgium, it in- * The following rotation, which would bring flax once in ten years, has been proposed :— First year, potatoes ; second, barley, laid down with grasses ; third, cut for soiling ; fourth, pasture ; fifth, flax, or the one-half might be better in flax, the other in oats, so that, with the return of the rotation, which would be in five years, the flax could be put on the variably follows a corn crop — generally oats ; and in this country, where oats is such a usual crop, the same system might be profitably pursued ; but it must be understood, that it is only after oats follow- ing a green crop or old lea, and never after two or three succeeding crops of oats, which bad practice still prevails in some districts. It is a very general error among farmers to consider it necessary that flax should follow a potato croj). Except on very poor soils, a better crop will be produced after grain, and the double benefit of the grain and flax secured. If old lea be broken up, and potatoes planted, followed by a grain crop, a very fine crop of flax may be obtained in the ensuing year. Preparation of the Soil. — One of the points of the greatest importance in the culture of flax is by ground which, in the last rotatory course, was under corn, throwing a range of ten years between the flax crops coming into the same ground. A gentleman of much practical knowledge re- commends the following as being the most pro- fitable: — 1. Oats after the grass and clover; 2. Flax pulled in August, then ploughed and harrowed in with two cwt. guano and two cwt. gypsum, then sown with rape; 3. Potatoes or turnips, well manured; 4. Wheat, sown in spring, with clover and ryegrass; 5. Hay and clover; 6. Grazing; 7. Oats; 8. Flax and winter vetches — guano, as before mentioned; 9- Turnips, well manured; 10. Barley, sown with ryegrass and clover ; 11. Clover and hay; 12. Grazing; 13. Oats. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 137 thorough-draining, and by careful and repeated cleansing of the land from weeds, to place it in the finest, deepest, and cleanest state. This will make room for the roots to penetrate, which they will often do to a depth equal to one-half the length of the stem above ground. After wheat, one ploughing may be sufficient, on light, friable loam, but two are better, and, on stiff soils, three are advisable - one immediately after harvest, across the ridges, and two in spring, so as to be ready for sowing in the first or second week of April. Much will, of course, depend on the nature of the soil, and the knowledge and experience of the farmer. The land should be so drained and subsoiled that it can be sown in flats, which will give more evenly and much better crops. Subsoiling should not be done at a less interval than two years prior to the flax croj). This gives the land time to consolidate. But, until the system of thorough-draining be general, it will he necessary, after oats, to plough early in autumn, to the depth of six or eight inches. Throw the land into ridges, that it may receive the frost and air, and make surface drains to carry off the rains of winter. Plough again in spring, three or four inches deep, so as to preserve the winter surface for the roots of the flax. The spring ploughing should ])e given some time before sowing, to allow any seeds of weeds in the land to vegetate, and the harrowing in of the flaxseed will kill them, and save a great deal of after weeding. Following the last harrowing, it is necessary to roll, to give an even surface and consolidate the land, breaking this up again with a short-toothed or seed harrow, before sowing, which should be up and down, not across the ridges or anglewise. Sowin(/. — The seed best adapted for the generality of soils is Riga, although Dutch has been used in many districts of country, for a series of years, with perfect success. American seed does not generally suit well, as it is apt to produce a coarse, branchy stem. If used, it should be on deep, loamy soils. In buying seed, select it plump, shining, and heavy, and of the best brands, from a respectable merchant. Sift it clear of all the seeds of weeds, which will save a great deal of after trouble, when the crop is growing. This may be done by fanners, and through a wire sieve, twelve bars to the inch. Home-saved seed has produced such excellent crops of late that it is strongly recommended that every farmer should only sow, each year, as much foreign seed as would produce a sufficient quantity for his flax crop of the following season.* The * The produce of seed averages about 12 bushels the statute acre, so that the seed saved off one statute acre would sow about five. thinner portion of the crop would be the best for this purpose, as, when flax grows thin, it produces much seed. This plan, besides the saving effected in the price of foreign sowing seed, would effectually secure the farmer from any danger of loss from fraudulently-made-up seed. It will be best, in most cases, to use the seed which is saved from this, in the following year, for feeding, or to sell it for the oil mills, although it often produces good crops. The pro])ortion of seed may be stated at three and a-half imperial bushels to the Irish or plan- tation acre, and so on, in proportion to the Scotch or Cunningham, and the English or statute acre. It is better to sow too thick than too thin, as, with thick sowing, the stem grows tall and straight, with only one or two seed capsules at the top, and the fibre is found greatly superior, in fineness and length, to that produced from thin-sown flax, which grows coarse, and branches out, producing much seed, but a very inferior quality of fibre. The ground being pulverized and well cleaned, roll and sow. If it has been laid off without ridges, it should be marked oft' in divisions, eight to ten feet broad, in order to give an equable supply of seed. After sowing, cover it with a seed harrow, going twice over it— once up and down, and once across or anglewise ; as this makes it more equally spread, and avoids the small drills made by the teeth of the harrow. Finish with the roller, which will leave the seed covered about an inch— the proper depth. The ridges should be very little raised in the centre, when the ground is ready for the seed, otherwise the crop will not ripen evenly ; and, when land is properly drained, there should be no ridges. The sowing of clover and grass seeds along with the flax is not advised, when it can be conveniently avoided, as these plants alway injure the root ends of the flax. But carrots may be sown, in suitable soils, in drills, so that the person pulling the flax may step over the rows, which may be afterwards hoed and cleaned, and should have some liquid manure. A stolen crop of rape or winter vetches, or of turnips of the stone or Norfolk globe varieties, may be taken, after the flax is pulled. Rolling the ground after sowing is very advisable, care being taken not to roll when the ground is so wet that the earth adheres to the roller. Manure for the Flax Crop. — Recent chemical in- vestigations have shewn that the fibre of flax does abstract from the soil certain matters, although not in so large a proportion as several other com- monly cultivated crops. To supply to the soil all the matters which the entire plant requires, so as to leave the land in the same state of fertility as before, the following compound has been proposed as a ma- nure, which maybe sown broadcast on the land, prior to the last harrowing before sowing the flaxseed ; — 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FOR A STATUTE ACRE OF LAND. S. d. Muriate of potash, 30 lbs cost about 2 6 Chloride of sodium (common salt), 28 lbs „ 0 3 Burned gypsum, powdered, 34 lbs. „ 0 6 Bone dust, 54 lbs „ 3 3 Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), 56 lbs „ 4 0 10 6 Weeding. — If care has been paid to cleaning the seed and the soil, few weeds will appear; but if there be any, they must be carefully pulled. It is done in Belgium by women and children, who, with coarse cloths round their knees, creep along on all-fours. This injures the young plant less than walking over it (which, if done, should be by persons whose shoes are not filled with nails). They should work, also, facing the wind, so that the plants laid flat by the pressure may be blown up again, or thus be assisted to regain their upright position. The tender plant, pressed one way, soon recovers ; but, if twisted or flattened by careless weeders, it seldom rises again. PulUng.— The time when flax should be pulled is a point of much nicety to determine. The fibre is in the best state before the seed is quite ripe. If pulled too soon, although the fibre is fine, the great waste in scutching and hackling renders it unpro- fitable, and, if pulled too late, the additional weight does not compensate for the coarseness of the fibre. It may be stated that the best time for pulling is when the seeds are beginning to change from a green to a pale brown colour, and the stalks to be- come yellow for about two thirds of its height from the ground. When any of the crop is lying and suffering from wet, it should be pulled as soon as possible, and kept by itself. So long as the ground is undrained, and imperfectly levelled before sow- ing, the flax will be found of diflferent lengths. In such cases, pull eacli length separately, and steep in separate pools, or keep it separate in the same pool. Where there is much second growth, the flax should be caught by the puller just under- neath the bolls, which will leave the short stalks behind. If the latter be few, it is best not to pull them at all, as the loss from mixture, and discoloration by weeds, would counterbalance the profit. If the ground has been thorough-drained, and laid out evenl}^, the flax will be all of the same length. It is most essential to take time and care to keep the flax even, like a brush, at the root ends. This increases the value to the spinner, and, of course, to the grower, who will be amply repaid, by an additional price, for his extra tfoul)le. Let the handfuls of pulled flax be laid across each other diagonally, to be ready for the Rippling, which should be carried on at the same time, and in the same field, with the pulling. If the only advantage to be derived from rippling was the comparative ease with which rippled flax is handled, the practice ought always to be adopted; but, besides this, the seed is a most valuable part of the crop, being worth, if sold for the oil mill, £3 per acre, and if used for feeding stock of all kinds, at least £4 per acre. The apparatus is very simple. The ripple consists of a row of iron teeth screwed into a block of wood. This can be procured in Belfast, or may be made by any handy blacksmith.* It is to be taken to the field, where the flax is being pulled, and screwed down to the centre of a nine- feet plank, resting on two stools. The ripplers may either stand or sit astride at opposite ends. They should be at such a distance from the comb, as to permit of their striking it properly and alternately. A winnowing- sheet must be placed un- der them, to receive the bolls as they are rippled off; and then they are ready to receive the flax just pulled, the handfuls being placed diagonally, and bound up in a sheaf. The sheaf is laid down at the right hand of the rippler, and untied. He takes a hand- ful with one hand, about six inches from the root, and a little nearer the top, with the other. He spreads the top of the handful like a fan, draws the one-half of it through the comb, and the other half past the side, and, by a half-turn of the wrist, the same operation is repeated with the rest of the bunch. Some, however, prefer rippling without turning the hand, giving the flax one or two pulls through ac- cording to the quantity of bolls. The flax can often be rippled without being passed more than oncethrough the comb. He then lays the handfuls down at his left side, each handful crossing the other, when the sheaf shall be carefully tied up and removed. The object of crossing the handfuls so carefully, after rippling, when tying up the beets for the steep, is, that they will ])art freely from each other when they are taken to spread out on the grass, and not interlock, and be put out of their even order, as would otherv/ise be the case. If the weather be dry, the bolls should be kept in the field, spread on winnow-cloths, or other contrivance for drying, and, if turned from time to time, they will win. Passing the bolls first through a coarse riddle, and afterwards through fanners, to remove straws and leaves, will facihtate the drying. If the weather * The best ripples are made of half-inch square rods of iron, placed with the angles of iron next the ripplers, 3-l6ths of an inch asunder at the bottom, half an inch at the toj), and 18 inches long, to allow a suflicient spring, and save much bi-eaking of flax. The points should begin to taper 3 inches from the top. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 139 be moist, they should be taken indoors, and spread out thinly and evenly on a barn- floor or on a loft, leaving windows and doors open, to allow a thorough current of air, and turned twice a-day. When nearly dry, they may be taken to a corn kiln (taking care not to raise it above summer heat), and care- fully turned, until no moisture remains. By the above plan of slow drying the seed has time to im- bibe all the juices that remain in the husk, and to become perfectly ripe. If it be taken at once from the field, and dried hurriedly on the kiln, these juices will be burned up, and the seed will become shrivelled and parched, little nutritious matter re- maining. In fine seasons the bolls should always be dried in the open air, the seed thrashed out, and the heaviest and plumpest used for sowing or crushing. The light seeds and chaff form most wholesome and nutritious feeding for cattle. Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field, if possible, even the second day ; it should be rippled as soon as pulled, and carried to the water as soon as possible, that it may not harden. Watering. — This process requires the greatest care and attention. River water is the best. If spring water has to be used, let the pond be filled some weeks, or months, if possible, before the flax is put in, that the sun and air may soften the water. That containing iron or other mineral substances should never be used. If river water can be had, it need not be let into the pond sooner than the day before the flax is to be steeped. The best size of a steep pool is 12 to 18 feet broad, and 3i to 4 feet deep. Place the flax loosely in the pool in one layer, somewhat sloped, and in regular rows, with the root end underneath ; the tie of each row of sheaves to reach the roots of the previous one ; cover with moss sods, or tough old lea sods, cut thin, laid perfectly close, the sheer of each fitted to the other. Before putting on the sods, a layer of rushes or ragweeds is recommended to be placed on the flax, especially in new ponds. As sods are not always at hand, a light covering of straw may do, with stones laid on it, so as to keep the flax just under the water ; and as the fermentation proceeds, additional weights should be laid on, to be removed as soon as the fermentation ceases, so as not to sink the flax too much in the pool. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor is affected by air or light. A small stream of water, allowed to run through a pool, has been found to improve its colour. In this case, if the pools are in a line, the stream should be conducted along the one side, and run into each pool separately, and the water of each pool run off, along the opposite side, in a similar manner. It will be sufiiciently steeped, in an average time, from eight to fourteen days, according to the heat of the weather and the nature of the water. Every grower should learn to know when the flax has had enough of the water, as a few hours too much may injure it. It is, however, much more frequently «nc?e/--watered than ower-watered. The best test is the following : — Try some stalks of average thickness, by breaking the shove, or woody part, in two places, about six or eight inches apart, at the middle of the stalk ; catch the broken bit of wood, and if it ivM pull freely out, doivnwards, for that length, without breaking or tearing the fibre, and loith none of the fibre adhering to it, it is ready to take out. Make this trial every six hours, after fermentation subsides ; for sometimes the change is rapid. Never lift the flax roughly from the pool, with forks or grapes ; but have it carefully handed out on the bank, by men standing in the water. It is advantageous to let the flax drain twelve to twenty-four hours, after being taken from the pool, by placing the bundles on their root ends, close together, or on the flat, with the slope ; but the heaps should not be too large, otherwise the flax will be injured by heating. Within the last two years, a system of steeping has been introduced in Ireland, which is calculated ulti- mately to supersede the usual mode. It is effected by placing the flax, after pulling, drying, and beating off the seed (as in the Courtrai system) in vats filled with water, and heated by steam to an average tem- perature of 90 degrees. By this system the fibre is more uniformly watered, and not at all impaired in strength. The quality, where comparative trials have been made, has always turned out superior to what is steeped in the ordinary way. This system is protected by patent, and authorization to adopt it must be had from the patentee.* Spreading. — Select, when possible, clean, short, thick pasture ground for this operation ; and mow down and remove any weeds that rise above the surface of the sward. Lay the flax evenly on the grass, and spread thin and very equally. If the directions under the head of rippling have been attended to, the handfuls will come readily asunder, without entanghng. Turn it two or three times while on the grass (with a rod about eight feet in length, and an inch and a-half in diameter), that it may not become of different shades, by the unequal action of the sun, which is often the case, through inattention to this point. Turn it when there is a prospect of rain, that the flax may be beaten down a little, and thus prevented from being blown away. Lifting. — Six to eight days if the weather be showery, or ten to twelve if it be dry, should be * By addressing a communication to Messrs. Bernard and Koch, Newport-Mayo, or Belfast, the terms may be ascertained with full particulars of the apparatus required. 140 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, sufficient on the grass. A good test of its being ready to lift is, to rub a few stalks from the top to the bottom ; and, when the wood breaks easily, and separates from the fibre, leaving it sound, it has had enough of the grass. Also, when a large pro- portion of the stalks are perceived to form a bow and string, from the fibre contracting and separa- ting from the woody stalk. But, the most certain way is, to prove a small quantity with the hand- break or in a flax mill. In lifting, keep the lengths straight, and the ends even, otherwise great loss will occur in the rolling and scutching. Tie it up in small bundles, and, if not taken soon to be scutched, it will be much improved by being put up in small stacks, loosely built, with stones or brambles in the bottom, to keep it dry, and allow a free circulation of air. Stacks built on pillars would be the best. Drying, by fire, is always most pernicious. If properly steeped and grassed, no such drying is necessary ; but, to make it ready for breaking and scutching, exposure to the sun is sufficient. In some districts it is put to dry on kilns in a damp state, and is absolutely burned before it is dry, and the rich oily property of the flax is always greatly impaired. On this point, the society can scarcely speak too strongly, as the flax is either destroyed, or rendered not worth one-half of what it would be, if properly dried. Breaking and Scutching, if done by hand, should be on the Belgian system, which is less wasteful than that practised in Ireland. If by milling, the farmer will do well to select those mills in which the improved machinery has been introduced. The society would also recommend, that the farmer should endeavour to have his flax scutched by a mill-owner who pays his men by the day, and not by the stone, even if it should cost him higher in proportion ; the system of paying the scutchers by the stone rendering them more anxious to do a large quantity in the day than to produce a good yield from the straw. THE COURTRAI SYSTEM. This is the mode in which flax should be saved for steeping on Schenck's hot-water system. It requires to be very carefully done, as inattention will reduce the value of the straw, and yield inferior fibre. The flax stems should be put together in bunches, about one-half larger than a man can grasp in one hand, spread a little, and laid on the ground in rows after each puller; the bunches laid with tops and roots alternately, which prevents the seed-bolls from sticking to each other in lifting. It should be stocked as soon after pulling as possi- ble, and never allowed to remain over night un- stooked, except in settled weather. The stocking should go on at the same time as the pulling, as, if flax is allowed to get rain while on the ground, its colour is injured. A well-trained stooker will put up the produce of a statute acre, or more, in good order, in a day, with two boys or girls to hand him the bunches. The flax should be handed with the tops to the stooker. The handfuls, as pulled, are set up, resting against each other — the root ends spread well out, and the tops joining like the letter A. The stocks are made eight to ten feet long, and a short strap keeps the ends firm. The stocks should be very narrow on the top, and thinly put up, so that they may get the full benefit of the weather. In six or eight days, at most, after being pulled, the flax should be ready for tying up in sheaves of the size of corn-sheaves. It is then ricked, and allowed to stand in the field until the seed is dry enough for stacking. To build the rick, lay two poles parallel on the gi'ound, about a foot asunder, ■with a strong upright pole at each end. The flax is then built, the length of a sheaf in thick- ness or breadtli. The bottom poles should be laid north and south, so that the sim shall get at both sides of the rick during the day. In building, the sheaves should be laid tops and roots alternately, built seven to eight feet high, and finished on the top by la_)-ing a single row of sheaves lengthwise, or across the others, and then another row as before, but with the tops all the same way, which gives a slope to throw oflf rain, and finished by putting on the top a little straw, tied with a rope. In this way, if properly built, it will stand secure for months. It can be stacked at leisure, or put in a barn, the seed taken oft" during the winter, and the flax steeped in the following May ; or it may be kept stacked, without receiving any injury, for two or three years or even longer. MR. WARNES'S (OF TRIMINGHAM) SYSTEM OF BOX-FEEDING. Summer : Ryegrass and clover, or any other green crop, cut into chaflf of about an inch long, with the addition of ground linseed made into com- pound. Winter: Seven-eighths straw, one-eighth hay, with turnip tops or wurzel leaves cut into chaflf, with the addition of linseed as above. To make the compound, fill the furnace with water to within six inches, and, when boiling, strew by hand one-fifth of linseed meal to four-fifths of water, a boy stirring the meal in, till it is well mixed — (damp the fire) ; let the mucilage simmer about five or six minutes, when it will become a strong jelly. Into a large tub put about three bushels of the chaff", adding enough of the mucilage to wet it ; mix and ram well down, then add more chaff*, &c., mixing and ramming down every three baskets. The compound is then covered over, and in about THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 two hours, the mucilage being absorbed by the chaft', may be given to the cattle. If it is wished to push the cattle on, sprinkle a small proportion of the meal of barley, or other corn, upon each layer of the chart' and mucilage ; also Swedish turnips, carrots, or wurzel, cut small, maybe added, to give the compound a flavour. Altogether, the above compound will be found, at the present juncture, extremely economical for fattenimj, rearing, or maintaining store stock. Directions for Feeding . —^wcaraev : At five in the morning, and three in the afternoon, give each beast about half-a-bushel of the compound, feeding the remainder of the day with chaff. Water once a-day. Winter : Morning, five o'clock, begin with half-a-peck of the compound to each beast ; con- tinue this food till the beasts are nearly satisfied. At seven and nine, feed with half-a-bushel of cut Sweedish turnips to each, at twice. Eleven, a feed of the compound. Afternoon, at one and three, as many swedes as the beasts will eat, a tittle at a time. Six, a good feed of compound, leaving for the night. The boxes or sheds in which the cattle are kept must be sparingly littered twice a-day, and cleaned out when full. Food to be given a little at a time. Utensils. — An iron furnace, to hold about forty gallons; an iron stirrer (like a small mashing stick); an iron bowl, with a handle; a linseed crusher — tub or stone cistern of about 100 gallons — wooden rammer; a bushel basket— chaff cutter — turnip cutter ; a fork, with four flat prongs ; a common bucket, with iron handle ; a skip or box ' to hold about a peck ; a bin, with partitions for lin- seed before and after crushing. In fixing the boiler, it should have a curb of wood, six inches i deep, sloping back ; this will prevent the mucilage \ boiling over. [ [For directions to make compound of grain, and other particulars, see Mr. Warnes's book, to be had of all book sellers]. AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD. FRANCE. medoc .\nd the valley of the garonne. [from the special correspondent of the morning chronicle.] [This article being devoted to a description of the cultivation of the vine, we should have omitted it altogether, but that the latter part having reference to the system of tenancy under which the land is occupied, we consider it will be found interesting to ouri'eaders. — Ed. Far. Mag.] The land in Gascony is occasionally much sub- divided, although not to the extent to which the system is carried in other parts of France. Here and there will be found a considerable estate. A few, but only a few, tracts of land are farmed. IMetayage forms the all but invariable contract entered into between the holder and the cultivator of the ground, the latter frequently being himself a small proprietor. The tillage of the earth by metayers instead of farmers is one of the still existing signs of ancient Roman domination — or, perhaps, more properly speaking, of the implicit acceptance by the conquered people, not only of the laws, but of the social and industrial usages of their victors. Thus in the south of France, almost from the centre of the country to the shores of the Mediterranean, the tenure of metayage is in all districts the common — in some districts the exclu- sive— species of agreement entered into. Its origin dates back from the early days of the Roman Re- public—frm the Licinian law forbidding the culti- vation of the land by slaves, and compelling the rich proprietors to call to their aid the labour of their poorer fellow-citizens. The usage then adopted was the equal partition of the fruits of the earth between the labourer and the owner. After the downfall of the agrarian laws, the system of slave culture revived, to fade away again during the latter days of the empire — when the numbers of the servile population had considerable diminished — and to be ultimately replaced by a revived form of the ancient metayage. The irruption of the Teutonic tribes over civiUsed Europe consolidated rather than shook the metayage system. The van- quished people set themselves in all humdity to the cultivation of the soil— the victors wresting from them half the proceeds. The feudal system, which next succeeded, changed the tenure of land only in the neighbourhood of the capitals, towers, and fortresses of the grand seigneurs. There the usufruct of the soil was occasionally alienated for a fixed yearly charge, paid for the most part in kind, but freed from all conditions of personal servitude. The metayage system was, however, continued in the less populous and more remote districts ; and thus — handed down originally from the Romans, adopted by the Gothic nations, and continued by their chivalrous successors— the imperfect and objectionable system of leaving to a class of poor, unintelhgent, and unenterprising labourers the cul- tivation of the soil, in consideration of receiving a certain share of the produce, continues to this day 142 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the rule over the better and richer half of France. The obstacles in the way of the substitution of a fixed rent, with or without a lease, for the varying tribute of metayage, are principally upon the side of the metayers. The proprietors would in general be only too happy to derive from their lands an annual steady income, paid by a class of provident farmers, who would de\'ote the surplus production of favourable years to making good the losses of adverse seasons ; but the want of capital forms the grand bar to any change of the kind. Over the greater part of the south of France agricviltural speculations, particularly in corn, are more uncer- tain than in the north. A system of cultivation more imperfect, and a popular intelligence less developed, leave the crops in a greater degree at the mercy of a climate which, however delicious in the main, is capricious and full of extremes. If the skies of the south are sometimes as cloudless as its suns are bright, the land is occasionally swept by tornadoes of wind, rain, and hail, beating down and swamping the vegetable productions of scores of square miles. Frosty fogs prevail at one period — at another, burning droughts dry up the sap and juice of every green thing. The thermometer leaps up and down with sudden variations, unheard of in higher and more temperate latitudes ; and the general result is, an uncertainty in the amount of production, to meet which, in the case of a fixed rent, a reserve of capital is absolutely necessary. Besides this, in remote districts the means of com- munication are tedious and imperfect. The markets are usually many days' journey for the slow oxen- drawn carts ; and the cultivator reckons it no small advantage to pay for his occupancy by giving up one half of the sheaves as they are piled in the field. In cases, however, in which the metayer is un- doubtedly, upon the average of years, realising a fair profit, and laying by considerable savings, these last are almost as a matter of course invested intlie purchase of land. The more profitable employ- ment of capital, in enlightened and skilful farming, is unthought of. The first and ruling passion of a French peasant is, if he have no land, to buy a patch — if he possess one patch, to buy another. Thus many persons are metayers who do not hold an inch of ground. Many again are metayers who at the same time possess snug little farms of their own. The terms of the contract of metayage must of necessity vary in details, according to the value of the crops raised and the degree of fertility which characterises each property submitted to its condi- tions. The general theory is, that the produce is halved, certain advances being made by the pro- prietor ; but each matairie is governed by peculiar local and individual considerations. Thus, suppose the case of two farms of equal productiveness, but of diflferent kinds of soil — the one stiff' and hard to work, the other hght and readily cultivated. It is evident that the proportion of produce belonging to the cultivator ought to be greater in the former case than in the latter. Suppose, however, two farms of the same species of soil, so far as the labour of the cultivator is concerned — but the one of greater productive powers than the other. It is clear that in this instance the proportion to go to the proprietor ought to be greater in the case of the more fertile farm than in that of the other. Upon the same principle, the proportion belonging to the cultivator of easily damaged crops is justly larger than that stipulated for in the case of those fruits of the earth which are of a more hardy nature, but which require similar care and outlay of labour and expense on the part of the metayer. On the other hand, the proprietor, besides the use of the land, ])rovides also the means of cultivating it. He gives the metayer a house, draught cattle, and imple- ments, and furnishes a varying proportion of the seed corn. In some cases these advances and aids are held to be repaid — in the instance of laboriously cultured lands for example — by half the profits of the whole crop ; but in the greater nvmiber of cases they are paid for by the metayer, at varying rates, be- fore the harvest is divided. In the department of the Gers, from which these lines are written, a very ordinary practice is for the proprietor first to take one sheaf of every ten from the field, and then the lemainder is equally divided. The species of tithe in question is called " Le dime J" Occasionally the provision of a proportion of the seed corn by the tenant is held to counterbalance the advances made l)y the landlord in the furnishing of implements and ox-power. I may mention here, as some sort of guide to the monetary amount contributed by the jjroprietor, that the ordinary rate at which, in the Valley of the Garonne, a ploughman, furnishing his own implement and his own cattle, can be hired per day, is 3 francs. Besides this money payment, the men — but not the beasts, if I understand the practice aright — receive their food from the individual hiring them. The metayer seldom or never has a lease. A contract stipulating certain conditions of tenure, such as a special rotation of cropping, may be, and generally is, entered into, but the tenant is always removable at a year's notice. I may add that, except in unusual and ex- ceptional cases, the power of sudden removal is hardly ever exercised. Many farm-houses were pointed out to me which had been in the possession of the same families of metayers for several genera- tions. Very slight and inefficient superintendence is generally exercised by the proprietors over the cultivators of the soil. Indeed, the yearly visits at harvest-time of many proprietors are made with the sole view of personally ascertaining the state of the crops, and preventing the tenant from giving in a false report of the produce. The levying of the dhne, in preference to a small money allowance, is often chosen rather as a check upon the farmer than as a convenience to the proprietor. The effect of metayage is naturally to breed up a race of slovenly, unintelligent farmers, always intent upon so cultivating the land as to secure out of it the greatest possible share of the produce. Be- sides the difl^erence in the bargains depending upon the different qualities of the soil, they also vary in some slight degree from year to year with the value of the crops produced — the landowner receiving a less proportion of a cheaper grain than of a dearer, inasmuch as, the first condition of the contract being that the land must be cultivated and that the metayer must live, a certain assured and sufficing proportion must be primarily assigned to him before THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 the share of the other i)arf.y to the contract can be determined. Thus, if a field of Indian corn con- tain, for its bulk, a less quantity of nourishin scribe at some length the nature and properties, with the relative value and use, of the vegetable products they have arranged, for the purpose of illustrating the agricultural resources of Scotland — and, we may add, those of England also; for, however desirable such museums are, we are not aware of so complete or so useful a collection in this country. To use their own words, the desire of the Messrs. Lawson " has been to render clear and accessible to the many thousands who may congregate at this Great Industrial Exhibition of all Nations, a knowledge of the leading characters of those plants which are by art or culture rendered subservient to the wants of man; in fact, to convey information in so correct and concise a manner as to command the attention of all thinking persons, and to make those who have never opened the book of nature, and to whom the wide world has hitherto seemed a wilderness, to look upon it as at once a garden and a library." As curators of the museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and as Seedsmen, tlio Messrs. Lawson possess peculiar advantages for the collection of specimens ; but their example, in the for- mation of such museums as the one they have exhi- bited, is not the less worthy of being encouraged by nufactured therefrom. When we observe that one our landed proprietors and leading agriculturists, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 followed and adopted by the autliorities of our county towns, as a means of drawing- tlio attention of all classes to worthy objects of instruction and amuse- ment for their leit^ure hours; and, if well-arranged and selected, they would give to tlio student the op- portunities of acquiring: practically a knowledge of the value and properties of our vegetable productions. Adjoining the space allotted to the Messrs. Lawson is the very numerous collection of seeds exhibited by the IMessr*. Gibbs, arranged in small wooden cups, each containing about a pint of seed, which is covered with a circular piece of glass, to prevent admixture from the handling of the curious. Upwards of five hundred of these samples are arranged upon a large wooden stand. Had each sample — as in Messrs. Law- son's collection— been accompanied by a dried speci- men of the plant itself, it would have given greater In- terest to this extensive scries of samples. We must admit, however, that in the case of the grasses, the dried specimen is shown with the seed ; but, nnfortu- nately they are placed at too great a distance from the footway to admit of minute e-vamination. Conside- rable trouble must have been taken so extensively to illustrate this important department of agriculture. The immense variety of seeds are here shown, from which the farmer and gardener may select for culture; and the very number of specimens show how wide a field it is, and how much attention is required in choosing those plants which are not only the most pro- ductive, but the culture of which is, upon the average of years, attended with the greatest amount of remu- neration. Having thus disposed of the two principal, we shall, in our next paper, conclude our remarks on the objects worthy of notice shown by the remaining cuntributors to this class. No. III. SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD.— rContinued.J Those who make this department an especial study will find great assistance from the Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue, which is now issued in sec- tions, each of which can be purchased separately — that for class 3 is price 6d. It contains a useful refe- rence to each article, an alphabetical list of exhibitors, with i'oot-notes and remarks in explanation of the uses and properties of some of the most remarkable spoci- ineus, by those to whom the arrangements have been entrusted. Among the most prominent objects of the Jiii'ssrs. Lawson's collection (noticed in our last ]iiiper) are tlie two fine plants of the Daclylis etuspitosa, or Tussac giass of the Falklmd Islands, a variety which, as it is well known, was introduced into tins country some years since, and strongly recommended for culture upon the sea- coast as a useful fodder plant. It is a strong, coarse, and seedy description of grass, growing, as its name denotes, in large tussacs. Tlie specimens exhibited have a coarse and harsh foliage, and it is questionable whether it will be eaten by cattle while oihcr and more nutritious fiod can be procured; but its manner if growth, and the reputation it possesses of flourishing upon the sea-side, may render it of value where other plants cannot be cultivated, or where it is an object, as upon our eastern coast, to prevent tlie encroachment of the sea, which in too many places arc almost daily visible. As everything having the name of royalty at- tached to it i)ecomes peculiarly attractive, the wheat, oats, and beans grown by Prince Albert, upon the royal farms at Windsor, and exhibited in this class, will be particularly so, not only to farmers, but to those who otherwise might not enter this com- partraent. Papers affixed to the cases contain- ing these, inform us that the Chidham wheat was grown on a retentive soil, and weighs GGjlbs. per bushel ; the winter oats, grown on a retentive yellow clay, weigh 4.jlbs.; and the beans, grown upon a similar soil, weigh 721bs. per bushel. The heaviest wdieat shown appears to be Lawrence's Prol'ixiis, crystal white, which is stated to be neither hand-screened nor picked, and to weigh GT^lbs. per bushel : it is exhibited by Mr. W. S. Sadler, of Swindon, who considers it highly de- serving of cultivation, as drawing nourishment from an unusual depth, producing a. strong straw, and being of good colour, weight, and produce. INIr. Richard Webb, of Calcot Farm, Reading, illustrates the fine quality of wheats grown in his neighbourhood, by a beautiful sample of what he describes as Mummy Ta- lavera wheat, raised from three grains taken from the hand of an pygyptian mummy, and sent to Mr. Do- bree, president of the Agricultural Society in Guern- sey. The exhibitor has grown it successfully as a spring crop, the quality and produce being alike good. We do not wish to doubt the truth of the origin attri- buted by Mr. Webb to his wheat, but it certainly bears no resemblance to the real Egyptian wheat, which is a coarse and inferior woolly-eared variety, having u bead composed of three spikes, and, more frequently than elsewhere, seen growing in small patches in cot- tagers' gardens, under the common name of hen-and- chicken's wheat. Adjoining Mr. Webb's sample is a very fine shciif of wheat, to which the name of Free- Trade is affixed. Mr. John Kendall, of Treveslin, Truro, Cornwall, exhibits a sheaf of the "Giant Straw Wheat," whicli he has grown in quantities of ten and fifteen acres annually for the last ten years. It is stated to have produced, on an average, sixty bushels per acre, and its superiority as consisting in the length, size, and stiffness of the straw, and its abundant pro- duce. Mr. James Asprey,of Sandleford, near Newbury, Berks, as well as Mr. Tiiomas Furdham, of the same neighbourhood, are exhibitors of fine samples of white wheats, weighing respectively 07 and GGibs. per bushel. Mr. James M'Killican,of Piper-hill, Cawdor, Scotland, shows a sample of wdiite, weighi/ig 051bs. 1 oz. per bushel ; and part of the. produce of about five qrs. per acre, in illustration of the remarkable effect attending the application of 3 cvvt. of Peruvian guano, upon land which was previously considered worthle'S. An inte- resting cidlection of specimens, witii notes of produce, of most of the approved varietie-* of wheit. cu't'vat.d III (irent Britain or (•lsewlit;r. , and linuiiiig .i Viii iiliie 154 THE FARMER'S iMAGAZlNE. and complete series, are contributed by Colonel Le Couteur, to whom we are indebted for rcsearclics made in this and other departments of a;;rieultiire, frequently referred to in tliis journal. Two cases of specimens in tlic ear and straw, showin;^ the remarkable effects of hybridization, are exhibited — one by Mr. Maund, of Bromsgrove, shows, in a very complete and striking m inner, the alteration in the form and the improve- ment that hybridizing- sometimes causes. We ob- served in his series of specimens several that were nearly twice the size, both in the ear and straw, of the original plants; the other, by Mr. Raynbird, shows tlie effect of crossing two of tlie most dissimilar kinds of wheat, which is further illustrated by a scries of specimens showing the gradual difference according as the influence of one or the otlier kind predominated. The original kinds were Piper's Tbick- set, a coarse red wheat, with stiff straw, and peculiarly short cars; and the Hopetoun, a white wheat, and perfect contrast in all respects to the others. Hybrid- ization is the only means we possess ofpermanntly altering the character of our cultivated plants. If em- ployed for the purpose of improvement, the good qua- lities of two varieties may be obtained, or their bad qualities may be neutralized ; it is analogous to that of crossing in animals, and, like the latter, is liable to produce inferior and mongrel vai ieties as well as good. A system of careful selection, or attentive and high cultivation, may improve the produce and quality, or alter the appearance and growth; but after a few years of different treatment, the plant will return to its ori- ginal and unimproved form. When such plants as rape, turnips, or cabbages are grown for seed in ad- joining plots, it is well known that they frequently show the effects of hybridization, to the annoyance of the farmer. The formation of the ear is such that we are not aware of its occurring naturally iu the case of wheat, but always by the effect of artificial and careful manipulation, as in the above instances. The specimens of oats, barley, peas, and beans aie far from numerous, and do not present many remark- able features tliat will possibly admit of a description. It is true there are some fine and heavy samples, but in too many instances the exhibitors have lessened the value of their contributions by hand-picking. A col- lection of good samples, in the state they are usually s)ld, of the several varieties and from different locali- ties, would have been of greater interest, and practi- cally of much greater value. From such a collection the effect of soil, climate, and of culture, with the causes of superiority or of inferiority in the specimens, might have been traced and attributed to their proper cause. The malting districts are chiefly represented by con- tiibutious from Hertfordshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk. Mr. John Taylor and Son, of Bishop Stortford, show a scries of varieties of malt as used for different pur- poses, under the names of, Amber, used in brewing ordinary ale and porter. Coloured, used for the same purpose. White, used for brewing pale ales. Brown, used in brewing porter, to give it flavour and colour. The degree of Iieat to which the malt is submitted in the kiln gives the difference in flavour and colour. Mrs. Poole, of Kingston-on-Thames, is an exhibitor of patent crystallized malt, used by porter-brewers. Upon breaking a grain it will be seen that its sub- stance has been converted into sugar. It is described as producing double the quantity of extract, and as giving to porter the desired flavour. Of hops the chief contributors are Mr. Payne, of Farnham (a most extensive grower), and the Messrs. Ricliardson, of Duke-street, South wark — the latter show, side by side, tlie samples held in highest repute by the brewers : 1. Golding hops, grown in the district called " The Hdl," in Mid Kent, used for the finest ales. 2. Goliling hops, grown in East Kent, used for the same purposes as No. 1. 3. Golden hops, grown in the heart of Mid Kent, and used for the best brown beers. 4. Jones's hops, grown in various parts, both in Kent and Sussex. 5. Graj.e hops, also grown generally through the hop plantations. 6. Colegate hops, a hardy plant, but of inferior fla- vour; the cultivation of it lias much increased of late years. 7-9. Hops grown in Essex, Suffolk, and Worcester. These are remarked upon in the Illustrated Cata- logue as follows : " These hops are samples of the Tarieties in most estimation for the purposes of Ihe brewer. The Goldings take their name from that of the grower who first introduced them : they are con- sidered to be the finest, richest, and most valuable in the market ; varying, however, according to the soil in which they are grown, and the treatment they receive. Jones's arc of shorter growth than the others, and are thus useful by enabling the grower to make use of the poles which would be too short for the Goldings or other varieties. Colegates are hardy, but backward at harvest, running much to vine, and capable of growing iu comparatively poor sois. These qualities are, how- ever, of advantage, as the inferior soils may thus be beneficially occupied by them, and their harvest takes place after the finer sorts are all iu. The grape hop takes its name from its habit of growing in clusters like the grape. It is hardy, not so particular as to soil as the Goldings, and is generally very productive in its yield.— T. W.'' The lentil, or Ervuin lens, of botanists, is sliown by Monsieur Guillerez, of Edinburgh : it is a plant allied to the commcui vetch, and we believe it may be culti- vated in a similar manne'/. In Egypt, Syria, and Hin- dostan, lentils form a chief article of food among tl-ie labouring-classes. In France and other conti- nental states tlieyare a common ingredient of cookery. The exhibitor describes them as being cultivated in the earliest tiges, especially in the cast, being probably si- milar to the " red pottage" of Esau. He has success- fidly grown and rii)ened several varieties of this plant THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 at Queensferry, near Edinbureh. The Messrs. Chambers, in their well-known Journal, alluding:, no doubt, to Monsieur Guillerez's cxi>eriment, state that lentils are cultivated as easily and in a simi- lar manner to peas, requiring a warm, dry soil. Tiiey mention the varieties — as tlie lentils of Provence, as large as a pea, with a luxuriant straw, better adapted for culture as a tare than as a gniin for human food ; the yellow lentil, less in size, easily unhusked, and convertible into flour, serving as the base of the prepa- rations so much and so long putted in the newspapers ; and the small brown lentil, the best for use, the most agreeable in flavour, and preferable to all others for haricots and soups. The two last named are those which have been grown and ripened at Queensferry. They are recommended as the cheapest, most pala- table, and nutritious diet. For the value of two-pcncc six men may dine well on lentils ; and as this extra- ordinary fact will excite the attention both of the poor and benevolent, the Messrs. Chambers have described the various modes of cooking adopted on the conti- nent in the preparation of the lentil as a source of food, and to this article in their most excellent Journal we must beg to refer for further particulars. Almost the greatest novelty among the " Articles of Food"are the samples of meal exhibited by M'Culliim, of Leith, Scotland, manufactured from the rliisotr.e or weeping-stem of Typha latifoUa, or " large reed mace," or cat's-ta'd, so common in our ponds and ditches. The Gaelic name is " Moi than ;" the central part is edible in its raw state ; when dried and sepa- rated from the fibres it affords a meal or flour, of a sweet and agreeable taste, which can be made into bread or starch. The fibres of the stem are a substi- tute for lime. Such is the character given by the ex- hibitor; but, for aught we know to the contrary, its utility may be classed with the champngjie wine manufactured from rhuharb-stallis, exhibited by J3rown, of Gloucester. A complete collection of specimens of oilcakes for feeding and manuring purposes would have formed an interesting part of tliis class ; the few that are exhi- bited are, however, shown in an isolated manner, the most Interesting specimen being that of Urown, of Edinburgh, consisting of cotton seed from the colonies, with the oil and oilcake produced from it. Samples of animal substances preserved for a length- ened period in air-exhausted canisters, and by other means, are rather numerously exhibited, as are also the samples of starch, cocoa, glue, gum, &c., some of which are arranged so as to exjdain the process of manufacture; and these systematical airangements being assisted by remarks describing the processes connected with the samples, in the catalogue, which we have before alluded to, we need not repeat them. Taken as a whole, the foreign collections of grain and other articles used as food are both instructive and interesting ; but, being nccessaiily diffused throughout several compartments, they do not admit of the comparison which could be made if they were placed side by side ; and even a casual inspection of all their contributions must be attended with very con- siderable labour. Samples are exhibited, by almost every country, of grain. Among the wheats not of English growth, those of Australia and Van Diemen's Land probably stand first — a fact wliich might be an- ticipated from the greater dryness and warmth of the climate. Tlic wheat and meal from these colonies, as well as from Canaila, are neatly Inclosed in casks, hiving a scpuirc piece cut out of the head and glazed over, so as to prevent the contents being Imndled. The agricultural products from llussia are arranged in the most attractive manner, forming, as it were, a kind of trophy. Some of the Russian samples are very fine. There are specimens of buck-wheat, the husked seed of which forms a great portion of the food of the Russian; of peas, gathered green and dried; and of black and red millet. Millet forms a great portion of the food of the inhabitants of tropical climates, and of those where the summer-heat is sutfieieut to ripen the seeds. In Arabia it is called doura, or durra ; the flour is very white, and they make good bread, or rather cakes, about two inches in thickness. In the West Indies it grows commonly five or six feet high, and being esteemed a hearty food for labourers, is called Negro Guinea Corn. At the Cape of Good Hope It is called Cafl're Corn, the meal being used for bread by those tribes, and a fermented decoction, or kind of beer, being made from the malted seed. The seed seldom ripens in England, but it has been tried with some success as a fodder-plant. The articles of food from the tropics are, from their novelty, more generally interesting than those of our own growth. The wax models of tropical fruits shown in the Bahama section are particularly so. But it is the specimens of meal from tropical plants which will affect the English farmer's interest most, should they ever become articles of extensive importation. Among these, as shown in the British Guiana section, we may mention — 1. Plantain-meal. This is prepared by the natives by drying the plantain in the sun, and then reducing it into powder. It has a fragrant odour, acquired in drying, somewhat resembling fresh hay, or tea, and is largely employed as the food of infants or invalids. A ton of meal may be produced from an acre, or in a new plantain-walk two tons. 2. Tha bitter Cassava also produces meal, starch, and cas- sareep — the latter the concentrated juice, remarkable for its antiseptic power, and for preserving meat when boiled in it, longer than can be done by any other cu- linary process. On well-tilled land ten tons of cassava roots may, it is said, be obtained per acre. The pro- duce 2>\ tons of meal, 5931bs. of cassareep, and 2 cwt. of starch. Tlie sliced and dried sweet cassava keeps well; and, when steeped and boiled, returns nearly to its original condition, and forms an excellent substitut* for the potato. Such is the experience of Mr. D. Shier, who exhibits the foregoing, as also specimens of 3. Tons le-mois, produced from the Cassava indica, which gives a large return of starch. It is said the produce per acre equals that of sugar from the sugar-cane ; viz., from one to two tons. Maize, tlie meal of wliich was almost 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the support of Ireland at the time of the famine con- sequent on the failure of thu potatoes, is exhibited in the compartments of the United States, Afiica, and Austria. Some of these collections contain fine speci- mens ; and those of America are particularly so. There are dried stems upwards of ten feet in height, and a singular collection of the heads of maize will ex- cite attention from its curious arrangement. In conclusion, we may remark that samples of farm produce, illustrating the food of different nations, or the produce of particular soils, modes of cultivating and manuring, or shown in connection with those processes of daily life, such as brewing, malting, baking, starch-making, oil and oilcake pressing, and of tex- tile manufactures, are of course of greater interest than those specimens which are merely shown as simple ex- amples of fine quality, or as mere matters of curiosity. Jahj 11, 1851. W. H. R. (To be continued.) THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. FROM THE times' COMMISSIONERS. Tamworth, May, 1350. Before leaving Staffordshire we visited the estates of Sir Robert Peel, with the view of ascertaining in what manner one who occupied so distinguished a position as a statesman, and who took so con- spicuous a part in the e.stabhshment of the free ti-ade policy, interpreted practically the relations between landlord and tenant. The deplorable event which subsequently deprived this country of its greatest living statesman will, we are sure, rather enhance than diminish the interest with whicli any record of the private, no less than the pubUc transactions of the late Sir Robert Peel will be regarded by his countrymen. We, therefore, deem no apology necessary for introducing tiow to the pubUc a description of Sir R. Feel's estates as written previous to his death. Drayton Manor, the country residence of Sir Robert Peel, is situated about two miles to the south-west of Tamworth. It is a mansion of con- siderable extent, and partakes but little of the usual style of architecture for gentlemen's seats. The towers by which it is surmounted, and the great variety of outline which it possesses, give it more the air of a castle or jialace than a house. Yet it would scarcely be described by either of these appellations. A close inspection satisfies the spectator of the good taste displayed in every part of the structure. The prospect which it commands h exceedingly beautiful, being dependent for its ellect more on nature than art. From Drayton Manor, Sir Robert Peel's principal property ex- tends westvv^ard, but he has detached estates all round the neighbourhood as far as Shenstone, and Kingsbury in Warwick, besides that at Blackburn in Lancashire. The general character of the land thus held by him is of fair average quality. It is situated within one of the great manufacturing districts, and not far from Birmingham, Lichfield, and other large markets, and is intersected by rail- ways and canals. It also comprehends a consider- able extent of fine meadow, through a portion of which flows the Thame, a tributary of the river Trent, carrying with it the whole s'wage of the town of Birmingham. The property altogether is of great extent and very valuable. With these advantages, natural or acquired, for successful cul- tivation, is to be balanced the necessity which existed in many parts of the estates for extensive thorough drainage — an improvement very costly to effect, and which some districts of the country are fortunately able to dispense with. Sir Robert Peel has taken upon himself the whole expense of drain- age on his estates, charging his tenants 4 per cent, interest on his outlay of capital. In this way he has nearly completed all the drainage required on the property. The tenants (who draw the tiles at their own cost) express their satisfaction with the manner in which the work has been done, and with the terms on which it has been effected. They hold their farms (we were informed) almost without exception from year to year, but have the utmost confidence in the practical security of their tenure. No changes take place unless by the fault of the tenant himself, and several farms visited by us have for a long series of years been in the hands of the same occupier. The farni buildings are very sub- stantial, and kept in good repair. If moi'e ac- commodation than already exists is wanted. Sir Robert Peel supplies it, charging for his capital so invested a fair percentage. Conditions with respect to crojjping are imposed on the tenant, but the ob- servance of them is not generally insisted on unless found necessary to prevent the land from being ex- hausted. Outgoing tenants are, by the custom of tTK country, entitled to a modified species of com- pensation for unexhausted improvements. Such have been the main features of the permanent relations existing between Sir Robert Peel and his tenantry pi-eviously to the circular issued by him to them on the 21th of December, 1849. With reference to the condition of the labourers on Sir R. Peel's estate we have made that subject a matter of careful inquiry. The general rate of wages in that district is from 9s. to 10s. a-week, besides beer, which is considered v/oilh Is. more. Cottage rents vary from 30s. to £4 on the property, sometimes the value of a piece of garden ground being included in the araoimt paid, and sometimes be.ng paid for in addition. The rate at which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 garden allotments are let is Is. per rood of 64 yards in the country, or Is. 6d. near Tamworth. The cottajres are superior to the jreneral description of house accommodation for labourers throuirhout the country; none of them presenting that broken- do^vn, (hhipidated a|)pearance which in many other districts is the rule rather than the exception. We saw some stili comfortable looking cottages which were condemned to be pulled down as in- sufficient ; and others, more sub.stantlal, and con- taining better and more accommodation, are to be erected instead of them. There is to be a greater number of them, and the inmates of the old ones are to have the new cottages without any advance of rent. Sir Robert Peel has not diminished the number of cottages on his estates, nor has he to any appreciable extent increased them. The old ones become unfit for their inmates — he either thoroughly repairs them or builds anew ; and his rents are so charged as to give a moderate return for the capital tlius invested. All the cottages on the pi'operty are kept in repair at his expense, and though they are plainly and economically constructed, they fur- nish very comfortable accommodation for their inmates. The labourers on his estate appear to be fully employed, from the generally low scale of poor rates which we found the tenants paying. Public attention was naturally directed to the measures proposed to be ado]ited by Sir Robert Peel for readjusting his arrangements with his tenants in accordance with the alteration in prices likely to follow the withdrawal of protective duties. The probable necessity for such a readjustment he frankly recognizes in the letter addressed to his tenants on the 24th of December last, in which he states his opinion that the recent changes of the law will be " to maintain a range of low prices in average seasons, and to prevent very higVi prices in seasons of dearth ;" and because he believes that such will be their effect, he looks upon these changes as irrevocable. Considering, however, that some time must elapse before the precise effect of free trade in regulating the prices of agricultural produce can be definitely ascertained, he proposes to defer for a time that general review of the rela- tions between himself and his tenants which he contemplates. When that is undertaken it is to be with reference to the special case of each farm, and to the effects which the abolition of duties on many articles of import u.ed by the farmer, and the improved means of conveyance, may have had in diminishing the cost of production as well as the price of produce. Fairly estimating these, he will make an abatement of rent when satisfied there is a just claim, but does not intend to make a general and indiscriminate abatement. Meantime, after pointing out the home competition which the farmer deficient in skill and capital has to struggle with against his neighbour who is possessed of both, he sets apart 20 per cent, of the cun-ent rent to be expended in such immediate improvements on each farm as will assist the farmer to meet that home competition successfully. Besides this he offers to drain, where still requisite, on the usual terms on the estate, as already explained, and to consider favourably any proposals for additional buildings which the tenants may think necessary. they paying a reasonable rate of interest on the outlay. Where leases for more than one year exist — and such are very few in number — he offers to release any tenant who may wish to withdraw; and if a lease for years is desired, he is prepared to grant it on being satisfied of the skill and capital of the tenant requinng it. Or he is willing to enter into a written agree- ment stipulating for repayment of unexhausted im- provements, if such an agreement is preferred to a lease. Such is a brief outhne of Sir Robert Peel's contemplated arrangements with his tenants. Those of the tenants with whom we had an oppor- tunity of conversing expressed their satisfaction witli them, and their entire confidence in the justice of their landlord when the time for the final adjust- ment shall arrive. The 20 per cent, for the past half-year has been nearly wholly expended in manures, bones, guano, lime, &c. ; so that in eiTect it has been the same with all good farmers as a return of money, inasmuch as they would have voluntarily laid it out in the jjurchase of such manure themselves ; while in the case of bad far- mers, if the expenditure on manure is compulsory, it is for their their own advantage. The rents of Sir Robert Peel's farms have never been raised by competition, and by the tenants themselves they are considered quite as moderate as those of any of the neighbouring proprietoi's. Additions have been made in the shape of interest for money expended in draining, &c., but these the tenants can better afford to pay than to be without. Active improve- ments are going on in the different farms, and in- creased exertions being made to develop still further the capabihties of the soil. The taste and neatness of the farmhouses and gardens indicate not only confidence in the permanence of their tenure by the tenants, but a degree of worldly com- fort to which the tenants of a grasping or needy landlord are too often strangers. 'J'he mode of farming adopted on Sir Robert Peel's estate is much the same as that of the sur- rounding district, the light land being generally managed in the four-course, and the heavy land in the six. Part of the light land is often allowed to remain two years in grass. The best farmers manure heavily, using artificial manure for their turnip crops,' and reserving the farm-yard dung for spread- ing over their young seeds in autumn. Three to four cwt. of guano and 20 bushels of bones per acre are considered a fair dressing for the turnip, excellent crops of which are grown. The guano is sown broadcast, and the bones and seed drilled in together on the flat. Part of the cro]) is drawn for consumption in the yards, and part eaten on the ground by sheep, the best farmers giving cake at the same time. A few acres of mangold wurzel are usually grown, to be used when the Swedish turnips are done. The corn crops are sown by drill, and hand hoed in spring, chiefly by task work. Beans and peas are likewise sown by drill, and partly hand and partly horse hoed; 3s., 3s. 6d., and 4s. an acre are paid for hand hoeing the corn crops. Winter beans are being sown here with success, though they are of recent introduction. So good a plant of wheat is scarcely ever got after mixed rye grass seeds as after clover root. We 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZSNE. may mention a peculiarity in drilling wheat which we were told had been practised with great success on a neighbouring estate. Instead of drilling in the usual way, at nine inches between the rows, two rows are put in four inches apart, and then with an interval of 14 inches, thus getting the same number of rows in the same space, but with alter- nate intervals so wide as to admit of very effectual horse hoeing, the smaller interval being cleaned with the hand hoc. A field managed in this way last yeai', and otherwise in high condition, yielded a very heavy crop of red wheat. Wheat is reaped, not mown ; it is usually done by task work, and on account of the rate paid for it, iVom the scarcity of labour at that season, it often costs more than 14s. per acre for reaping and binding. Barley and oats are usually mown and left in swathe till ready to be carried to the rickyard, when they are forked into the waggons loose like hay. Potatoes and other vegetables for sale are usually prohibited to be grown by the terms of agreement, thougli we should suppose such a condition would not now be en- forced, considering the facilities of transport to the large consuming towns possessed by this district, and the readiness with which artificial manure can be obtained in return. It has not hitherto been the custom on Sir Robert Peel's estate to interfere with the tenant in the details of his management, although rigid enough rules are prescribed by the printed agreement drawn up some years ago for such of the tenants as desired to have one. The great majority of the tenantry ])refer to be without such agreement (and we think they are right, as we apprehend it to be a very different thing from that written agreement jiroposed to be given by the right hon. baronet in his last letter), holding their farms without any writing whatever, and leaving all claims to be adjusted by the custom of the country. On the light land of good quality white wheat is usually grown ; on the heavier land red Lammas, Spaldings, and other varieties of red wheat are preferred. The principal part of the thorough drainage of Sir Robert Peel's estate has been exe- cuted under the superintendence of Mr. Parkes. In some places much inconvenience has been sus- tained from the drains being choked up by an ochrey deposit. One main drain pijje, 12 inches in borfe, was nearly closed by it, and had to be cleaned out by drawing a long iron wire with a bunch of straw tied to it right up the ]iipe, for which pur- pose it was necessary to sink openings every hun- dred yards or so into the drain. After the ochre is loosened by the rubbing of the straw, the drain is flushed, and the deposit washes away. The management of stock varies considerably, some farmers going chiefly into dairying, others part dairy and part feeding, and all keeping more or less of a sheep stock. The long horn cow, though still holding her place in individual cases, is giving way, as a general rule, to the improved short horn, the earlier maturity and greater aptitude to fatten of the latter recommending it to the pocket of the rent-paying farmer. Where cheese is made, it is usual to commence making in the end of February or beginning of March, and to con- tinue till December. About '251b. is the weight of cheese preferred, at which size they are found less liable to crack than when lai-ger, and to become sooner ripe and fit for sale and carriage to the mar- ket. They are usually sold in three lots— the first in August, the second in October, and the third about the beginning of the following year. Butter is made from the whey, which is then given to the pigs. Where the feeding of cattle is practised, a portion of the cow stock is sometimes set aside for rearing the calves — two being put to each cow and turned out with the cow to the fields. After seve- ral months the calves are weaned, and a little dairy produce is got from the cow. The favourite breed of sheep is a cross between the Shrojjshire black- faced hornless ram and Leicester ewe, the cross being continued with a pure Shropshire ram. The produce is a very hardy sheep, larger, and with more wool than the Hampshire Down, but with a considerable resemblance to that breed — com- bining the superiority in quality of meat of the Shropshire with the earlier maturity of the Leices- ter. It is a very active, shapely sheep, with good carcase and excellent constitution. The wool of the cross-breed is superior in quality to that of the pure Leicester. Some farmers sell the hoggets fat at 12 or 15 months old ; others feed them a second year. In working the land the farmers almost uni- formly yoke their horses in line, both on heavy and light land. Three horses in line are the minimum number for a single plough— four, five, and even six being often seen where the land is stiff", or a deejjer furrow than ordinary is being taken. On very light land we saw a team of five horses in line drawing a double furrow i)lough, set with wheels, to work without being guided by a man, and turn- ing over two acres a-day. On light land three horses are commonly used in a single furrow plough, the driver walking alongside the horses, and never touching the plough, except at the head- lands in going ovit and entering to a new furrow. Three horses in a set of not very heavy harrows, on loose ground, with a driver in front and a man behind to free the harrows from weeds, is a com- mon turn out. We have had frequent opportuni- ties of observing the teams yoked in this fashion, most frequently five in line ; and from the irregu- larity of the draught, the leader sometimes pulling the whole row, or pulling a lazy horse forward, or himself and his followers leaving the v.diole work to be done by the horse next the ])lough, we have no hesitation in saying that on light land an im- mense waste of power is caused by this system. Nor do the farmers feed their horses well, or keep them in good condition, it being usual to see one strong horse next the ])lough, three very so-so horses next in advance, and the leader, a strong horse, in front. Even the strong horses have a dull hanging look as if badly fed and out of con- dition. Our attention having been challenged to the condition of the labourers on Sir Robert Peel's estate in the parish of Kingsbury by Mr. Chowler, at the great Protectionist meeting on the 7th of May, we made it the particular object of our in- quiry. Mr. Chowler says : — " Now, if there were a place where they would expect to find perfection, it was upon the estate of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Iu9 Sir R. Peel. (Great cheering). After the great public document issued to his tenantry, would they not have expected to find the labourers upon his Kingsbury property, for cxam])le, well housed and fed? Well, it was only on Friday laist he was there. Kingsbury was a large parish. (A voice. — ' Whom does it belong to ?') Sir R. Peel ; it was close to Drayton Manor. The farms varied in size from 300 to 400 acres ; hut instead of finding the labourers comfortably located, he found that a steady i)rincii)le had been acted upon for several years to rid the estate of the labouring population. There were no small holdings, no cottage allot- ments, and he was shown a small cottage, and told that the moment the widow who then lived in it was dead that cottage would be removed. (Hear, hear). The labourers working in the parish fre- (juently lived two or tlnee miles off, and he was only surprised that The Times Commissioners had not been there. (Great cheering). He found that English labour was gradually being displaced by low-priced Irish labourers, who received little or no money payment. (Cries of ' Oh, oh !' and 'Shame.') If he had found this class of Irish labourers elevated in the scale of labour he should not have thought much of it. But they had no cottages to live in, they had no beds to lie upon, and they lodged in barns and outhouses. An Irishman told him that he worked for Is. a day: and the system had the effect of depressing the English labourer without elevating the Irish labourer. (Hear, hear). So that he found upon the property of Sir R. Peel that English labourers were being brought down to the Irish or continental level. Instead of finding draining going on upon the right hon. baronet's estate as might have been expected, he found very little draining going on." The/«c/s we found to be as follow : — About one- fourth only of the parish of Kingsbury belongs to Sir R. Peel. It is four or five miles distant from Drayton Masor. A tenant, who has been several years in the ]jarish, and an aged labourer wlio has resided in it for many years, separately informed us that never in their recollection had a cottage been taken down by Sir Robert Peel without being re- placed by a better. The widow's cottage to which Mr. Chowler refers is not predestined for destruc- tion. English labour has not been displaced by low-priced Irish labour, inasmuch as there is not one able-bodied English labourer at present out of employment in the parish ; and residents who are comj)etent to give an opinion assure us that the P^nglish labourers in this ])arish were never at any £ormer period in moi'e comfortable circumstances than at present. The em[)loyment of Irish labour from this season till harvest, as explained in the previous part of this letter, is in addition to, not a substitution for, English labour ; it has existed for several years hack, and is general over this and the neighbouring districts. Draining is not going on at present, because the season for doing so is past, and great part of the draining requisite on Sir Robert Peel's estate in this parish has been com- pleted. WiGAN, Lancashire, Oct. 26. The pojjulation and extent of Lancashire, as well as its peculiar natural features, render it necessary to adopt a division into north and south districts, in order to give such a consecutive description of its agriculture as may be easily understood. For con- venience of reference we shall consider the southern division as comprising all the country to the south of Preston and the river Ribble; while the northern division will be held to embrace all the rest of the county to the north of that river. The southern division of the county, both from extent and population, is by much the more im- portant. Manchester, Liverpool, Wigan, Bolton, Blackburn, Rochdale, Bury, and many other populous towns are comprised in it. In mere superficial extent it includes nearly two-thirds of the whole county. Containing as it does the great coal fields of Lancasliire, it has from that circumstance become the seat of the cotton manufacture, which in its wonderful progress and importance has of late years exercised so great an infiuence on the charac- ter and legislation of the British empire. The eastern side of the county is bounded by a range of hills dividing it from Yorkshire, composed of millstone grit, the soil on which is generally thin and poor. The southern and western sides ex- tending along the Mersey from the east of War- rington to Liverpool, and thence by Ormskirk to Preston, rest on the new red sandstone ; while the coal measures occupy the whole central space. The outline aspect of the country is not picturesque. On the western side, next the sea, it presents great fiats of sand, over which sweep the cold vapours and tempestuous winds of the Irish Channel, un- broken by any mountainous I'idge to intercept their severity. Further inland the ground rises very gradually, the numerous straggling fences and stunted hedgerow trees giving strongly marked signs of the rigour of the blast, while large tracts of wet undrained bogs add to the dreariness of the landscape. The coal fields are now reached, and the evidences of a busy population everywhere pre- sent themselves. Tall chimneys vomiting forth smoke, long rows of narrow brick houses, hea])s of brick and lime rubbish, mounds of refuse on the sites of abandoned collieries, or great banks of coal where these are at work, present themselves on every side. As the traveller winds through some of the valleys on the line of the East Lancashire Radway, especially in the district between Bury and Manchester, his eyes light with pleasure on many spots where wood and water and green })asturcs are picturesquely blended ; but let him leave this line and follow the cross-country roads, many of which are still paved streets, and a different aspect pre- sents itself. On either side he finds wide waste s[)aces, the receptacles of all sorts of rubbish ; in the neighbourhood of farmhouses, the site of the dungheap, the better parts of which in this moist climate are washed into the adjoining ditches, which in their turn supply water to the drinking pools for the dairy stock. Through all this part of the coun- try everything looks unfinished ; there seems a con- stant transition, a progress in wdiich agriculture alone appears to have hitherto but little j)artici])ated. Within the last 30 years the population of South 160 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lancashire, three-fourtlis of wliich are coasumerd, has been doubled, yet the improvement of agricul- ture as a general rule has been neglected, and good farming, of which there are many first-rate examples, is still the exception. Possessing an "insatiable" market at their doors for everything a farm pro- duces, the very flowers in the farmer's garden being convertible into money, and having the advantage, besides, of inexhaustible supplies of manure easily accessible, from the numerous manufacturing towns and villages everywhere scattered over the country, there must have been unusual obstacles to counter- balance such incentives to improvement. The cli- mate and the soil are both against the farmer, unless he has the means and intelligence to turn both to the best account. Compared with Middle- sex the fall of rain throughout the year in Lancashire is as 20 to 40, while the soil, in its undrained natural state, is two-thirds of it a strong clayey loam upon a subsoil of clay, expensive to improve, and, when improved, requiring much skill and capital to develop its capabihties. Unfortunately the great proportion of the country is held by small farmers, who, however industrious, do not possess the intelligence or capital requisite to meet the natural difficulties referred to, while much of it being held on life leases and the great propor- tion of the rest on tenures from year to year, there is wanting, also, that permanent interest in the land which forms the chief motive to an im- proving farmer. On land of this description improvement is expensive and the returns compara- tively slow, and the farmers of most means and greatest inteUigence accordingly decline to embark them here so long as they can find land of an easier description open to them. Nor have the landlords generally given any material aid to their tenants. Reaping an easier harvest from the mineral wealth under its surface, and from the sums paid to them as compensation by the numerous companies whose railways traverse the district, they could afford to leave the farmer to struggle with his ungenial soil, seldom asking from him any increase of rent, and therefore not deeming themselves called upon to afford him any assistance in its improvement. So long as his scanty crops brought remunerative prices this state of things continued undisturbed, but low prices bring demands for reduced rents, or such outlays in permanent improvements as will enable the farmer to meet the change of times. These demands have in few instances been met directly by a reduction of rent, in others by ])er- mission to remove useless hedgerows (hitherto held sacred) and to break up more grass land, and in the great majority by a hearty co-operation on the part of the landlord in executing drainage and increasing the house accommodation for stock. On the estates of the Earl of Derby, where a system of en- lightened and judicious improvement has been in progress for many years there has been no general reduction or abatement of rent. Each case is treated on is own merits. When a tenant asks an abatement, a new valuation at " times' prices," by impartial parties, is offered to him, on condition that the rent shall be either reduced or raised ac- cording to that valuation J but the alternative is seldom or never accepted, and the rent remains as before. O.i this estate drainage has been carried on very extensively, a corps of 70 to 100 men being regularly employed under a superintendent, who lays off the work and sees its perfect execution without the farmer's intervention, except that he carts the tiles and pays 5 per cent, on the outlay. This is understood to be the rule on the estate, though in many cases small farmers receive the benefit of the improvement vvfithout any charge. Very substantial and commodious farm buildings are also being erected in several parts of these ex- tensive estates; beautiful Welsh slate, hewn at the quarries of the requisite dimensions, being exten< sively used in the internal fittings, for mangers, division stalls, &c. On Lord Sefton's estate, near Liverpool, the same judicious improvements have been carried out — useless fences being removed, and replaced by straight linfs of trimly kept hedges; the fields en- larged, convenient roads of access provided, the farm buildings made suitable for the occupation, and the farmer thus placed in the most favourable position for making the best of his capital and skill. In the township of Speke, eight miles south of Liverpool, and on the estuary of the Mersey, the landlord, Mr. Richard Watt, has laid down a rail- «'ay from the river to the town for the convenience of his tenants, by which they are enabled to transport the Liverpool manure from the barges to the neighbourhood of their own farms with great economy and facility. Other improvements of a permanent character have likewise been executed by the landlord, and, the soil being favourable, there is probably no portion of the county in which there is such a general system of good and remu- nerative farming, or a more industrious, skilful, and successful set of farmers. The practice followed by the farmers on the un- drained lands, which comprise the larger proportion of South Lancashire, differs very little from the de- scription given of it 70 years ago by Arthur Young. The land intended for summer fallow seldom gets the first furrow till April or May; and after that two or three separate furrows, followed by harrowing, are given at such times as best suits the farmer, seldom with much reference to what best suits the condition of the soil. The fallows are thus badly executed, the work frequently done in moist weather, and the seed sown at last under unfavour- able circumstances. The value of green crops has in many cases tempted the farmer to forego even such a preparation of the soil ; but where the land is undrained clay, it is very doubtful whether this management is any improvement. Wheat follows the summer fallows, or green crop, then oats, which are sown with clover and grass seeds, and mown for hay the two following years. " Some crop as long as three seeds are returned after a fallow, or fallow crop, and then let it lie for pasture without sowing grass seeds. These farm.ers are never troubled with fat stock or overflowed with milk and butter." [RothweWs Agricultural Rejjort of J.an- casliire, 1850.) The produce of crops under such management is necessarily scanty, and the returns from dairy stock fed on pastures of such wretched quality cannot be remunerative. Low prices are telling heavily on farmers so circumstanced, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1(U each letuinirig lent day cuts more. deci)ly into tlie number of his dairy cattle, the only convertible ca])ital he possesses, and renders more hopeless any prosjiect of relief from his accumulating embarrass- ments. There would be little benefit in lingering longer on such instances as these, unfortunately too common on the colder soils of South Lancashire, and we shall therefore turn to the description of a farm of the better class, on which capital and in- telligence have been united with industry and perseverance and a ready adaptation to surrounding circumstances. The farm of Mr. William Longton, at Rainhill, near Prescott, between six and seven miles from Liverpool, contains 160 acres, and, with the excej)- tion of about 50 acres, is held on a yearly tenure. The whole farm has within the last 10 years been drained at his own expense. The soil is partly a strong loam, with clay subsoil, and jiart a sandy loam on a porous subsoil ; the surface gently un- dulated and about 100 feet above sea level. The main drains are laid witli tiles and slate soles ; the others are made at intervals of 21 feet apart, and from 32 inches to three feet in depth. These are filled one foot with cinders, which are got at the glass works at St Helen's, and cost 2s. a load — one load sufficing for 80 lineal yards of a drain — and are found very efficient and permanent, and not half so costly as tiles. Mr. Longton's system of farm- ing is (1st) green crop after grass, (2nd) wheat, (3rd) barley, (4th) seeds, (5th) grass cut for haj% (6th) grass again cut for hay or pastured, according to circumstances. He commences this rotation by ploughing or skinning his grass land in autumn, with a very light furrow, in which state it remains during the winter. As early in spring as the weather suits, this furrow is cut to pieces by a sharp wheeled roller being passed across it ; it is then well harrowed and torn to pieces ; then ploughed with a deep furrow, which, after the surface is thus broken, is easily reduced; and then drawn into ridges 30 inches apart, into which are placed 20 tons of the best town dung per acre ; on this the potato is planted ; it receives the usual careful cul- tivation during the summer, and as soon as the crop is removed in autumn the land is ploughed and drilled with wheat. This is sometimes, but not always, followed by barley, though Mr. Longton is decidedly of opinion that barley after wheat is the best management with which he is acquainted. The barley is sov/n with a mixture of grass seeds and clover, which in the autumn receive a dressing of 1 5 tons of nightsoil mixed with earth per acre. The seeds are mown the first year twice for hay, which is all sold. In autumn the ground is again dressed with 15 tons of mixed manure, or with guano, and cut once the following season for hay. The aftermath is pastured. If the root appears good it is again dressed in autumn with the same quantity of manure, and again cut for hay ; if otherwise, it is pastured. The returns from this management have this year been as follow, viz. : — 1. Potatoes (a short crop), 220 measures of 90 lbs. each per acre, seUing at present at 2s. 6d. a measure. 2. Wheat, 40 (Liverpool) bushels, 70 lbs. each, of white wheat per acre, and iipwards of 2 tons of straw, worth at present .t'2 per ton. 3. J')arlcy, 6() bushels per acre. 4. Seeds, first cut 2 tons of hay per aero, second cut 11 ton, selling at present at ±'5 ])er ton. 5. Grass ley, yielding li tons of hay, and excel- lent afteimath for pasture. G. Ditto. To obtain these returns Mr. Longton purchases annually 800 tons of the best town manure, besides what is made on the farm by the horses and dairy stock, and what is collected of roadside scrapings, old banks, &c. His practice is to sell everything his farm produces when it yields him a remunera- tive price, and to buy in return what is requisite to keep it in high condition. His farm horses are fed on steamed Egyptian beans and hay, each horse when at constant work consuming about a bushel of beans (costing 3s.) per week. The price of the best manure, which used to be 8s. or 9s., is now only 5s. a ton ; and this difference is a con- siderable item where so large a quantity is pur- chased. There might be many examples given of farms in South Lancashire equally or even more productive than this. Where the soil is favourable and has been carefully drained, the yield of green crops and grass may be stimulated to any extent by the inex- haustible supplies of manure which Liverpool and the manufacturing towns afford. Mr. Rothwell, in his " Report," gives two instances of farms within six miles of Manchester— the first 156 acres in ex- tent, for which 2,000 tons of manure were pur- chased ; the second, 165 acres, for which 1,360 tons of manure were purchased in one year ; and in both cases with amply remunerative results. The crops of Swedish turnips produced in this county cannot be excelled in any part of the kingdom — 40 tons an acre, in good seasons and under the best management, being quite common. Such a crop may at this moment be seen on the highly improved farm of Dr. Sillar, of Rainford, though this year the seaso-n has not been very favourable and the crop is in general much below an average. The humidity of the climate is favourable to the culture of green crops, the farmer has an ample command of manure, he has markets on every side of him for their sale, and he who has made the most use of these natural advantages has met with the most success. The farm of Mr. Neilson, of Halewood, exhibits several points worthy of notice. A light tramway with waggons is made use of for taking the turnip crop off" the ground in moist weather. The tram- way is readily shifted, and the crop is thrown into the waggons, which are then each pushed along by a man, so that the entire crop ma)- be removed from the ground, which thus receives no injury from the feet of horses. The tramway can be con- structed for Is. 4d. per yard, and might be very ad- vantageously introduced on all heavy farms where it is found difficult to take off the turnip crop in moist weather. A gang of men are at present em- ployed on a considerable field of Mr. Neilson's, in taking off the turnip crop, which they draw from the ground, fill into the waggons, and convey out- side of the gate at the rate of 6s. an acre, shifting M 162 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE, the tramway at their own cost. At this work they earr\ 2s. 3d. a day. A large stock of dairy cows is kept on this farm. They are house-fed summer and winter, receiving in winter a mixture of steamed straw, ground turnips, and 1 Ih. per head of boiled Egyptian bean meal poured over the mixture. Be- sides this and a sufficient supply of turnips and fodder they receive 2 lbs. of oilcake daily. A large stock of pigs, 200 in number, is kept on this farm . On the early, friable, loams in the neighbourhood of Ormskirk and along the Mersey two crops of potatoes are sometimes got the same year. For the earhest crop the seed is prepared about the be- ginning of the year, by being sprouted under cover, and planted out into beds as soon as the weather admits. The land is very heavily manured, and great care is taken to ]5reserve the young shoots unbroken. The second crop, the seed having un- dergone the same preparation, is planted as soon as the first is removed. But the more frequent cus- tom is to transplant swedes after the first crop of early potatoes, and very excellent crops are occa- sionally obtained in this way. The higher district of the county along its eastern boundary is chiefly in grass, stocked with dairy cows, for the produce of which the farmers find a ready market in the towns and villages thickly scattered over its surface. For its quality and ex- posure this land yields a high rent, £2 to £3 per acre being often paid. Some of the oat crops of the few fields which are in crop are still unsecured. The rotation of crops adopted by the best farmers in South Lancashire will surprise those who have been accustomed to consider any departure from the alternate system of corn and green crops erroneous. Among many the golden rule of farm- ing is that no two white crops shtill follow in imme- diate succession ; but the successful jjractice of a contrary system in this district may teach us how vain it is to prescribe the same rules for totally different circumstances, the same husbandry for the climate of the eastern side of the island with its 20 inches of rain per annum, as for the western side with its 40 inches of rain. The true test of any system is its continued success, and the practice of the best farmers in this district, and those whose farms are in the highest state of cultivation, ])ro- ducing crops of all kinds which would astonish some of the wisest sticklers for rotations, combine in attesting the advantage in every point of view of taking a crop either of barley or oats, immediately after the wheat crop. The four-course farmer takes his crop in this succession — clover, wheat, turnips, barley. The Lancashire farmer prefers it thus — grass, green crop-, wheat, oats, or barley ; his two green crops following one another, and his two white crops the same. The rent of land, within six miles of Liverpool, ranges from 40s. to £4 per statute acre according to quality, condition, and situation. Within the same distance of Manchester similar land lets at the same rent. Beyond that distance the rent varies from 20s. to 30s. per acre for the unimproved farms ; but where drainage, buildings, and other improve- ments have been effected by the landlord, it ranges from 303. to 40s. This is for land suited to the cul- ture of green crops and wheat, and from which the whole produce may be sent to market. Besides the rent the tenant has to pay the rates, which, in- cluding tithe, land-tax, highway rate, poor rate, and church rate, will vary from 10s. to 128. 6d. an acre. The rent of the cold clay soils is much lower. Within the last 20 years on many of the larger es- tates there has been little or no change in the rent. Farms are seldom let by tender, and except when there is a change of tenancy the farmer is usually left undisturbed. For small farms, however, there is great competition, and a prudent agent finds it necessary to guard himself against being misled by reckless offerers. The highest offer is seldom or never accepted. There are instances, however, of greatly increased rents, one of which may be men- tioned. In 1823 the rent of a certain farm was £150. It is still occupied by the same family, but has twice changed owners, and at each change been re-valued. The rent is now £400 ; in the course of 27 years the farm has been greatly improved, and we are assured by a very competent judge that the farm is now better worth its present rent than it was in 1823 at £150. Farms vary in size from 20 to 160 acres, the great majority are under 100 acres, and very few exceed 200 acres. There is no custom in the country which secures to the tenant any com- pensation for unexhausted improvement. The only right he has is this— that he sows the wheat crop in October, quits the farm on the 2nd of February, returns to reap the wheat crop at his own expense, and is allowed half the crop for his trouble. No other compensation can be claimed except the price of the clover seeds which he sowed with his last crop. The dung belongs to the farm. COVERED HOME- STALLS. A correspondent, in reference to Mr. Beadel's address on covered home-stalls, delivered at the London Far- mers' Club, says — With these views, and with the sentiments which Mr. Beadel's moderation has begotten, I will now offer a few remarks on the subject of " Covered Homestalls," and which emanate from the acquaintance I have of the sub- ject that gentleman has so cordially and dexterously re- commended to the consideration of young men, I take this gentleman's meaning also to be, that he is not posi- tive of the practicability of the system ; for he says, after alluding to the treatment of sheep on boards and in yards, " But be this as it may, I earnestly recommend the plan to the notice of the members of the club, as the cost of the trial is but trifling; and the result as to sheep far from problematical," which sentence I further THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 consider implies that he will read with interest anything which will throw a ray of light on the subject. The princi|)le is all I can discuss, as I have not considered the estimates ; and this is all I desire, for the principle should be formed before a plan, and the cost of a plan, for aeneral convenience, are considered. In reference to the influence the housing of sheep has on their increase of weight, Mr. B. says — " My experi- ence is too limited to justify me in giving a decided ver- dict upon the subject ; but from the result of the trial I have made, it is my opinion that sheep fat much faster so treated than they do in open fields or yards." Now, sir, IMr. B. is mistaken. It is not the formation of fat which increases the weight of an animal which has been confined for two months, over tlie increase of one which has had liberty of exercise. Supposing that two are taken of the same weight from a house, wherein they have been for two months ; one of these is killed and weighed, the other is walked a moderate distance for a few days, when it is killed and weighed. It will be found that the weight of the one exercised has lost at least 10 per cent, over the one not exercised, and this is not a loss of fat, but of that matter which was held in the muscles of it by the laws of cohesion and suspension, but which exercise caused to pass off the system as urine and steam from its lungs, as the supposed exercise brought the lur.gs and secretive organs into that natural play which nature requires to rid the system of that matter which cannot be so transformed as to be elabo- rated into fat or muscle. Fat, when once formed, wastes very slowly, even with exercise ; it cannot, therefore, be a waste of fat which would cause the supposed diminu- tion of weight. Again, if the same experiment were tried with two sheep which had been fattened under the influence of moderate exercise and pure air, it would be found that the loss of the one exercised by driving over that killed from the fold would be no more than two or three per cent., as the exercise it had had the liberty of taking kept in play those organs which carry off the superfluous matter which the housed animals are known to contain. To carry this subject a little further, every one is fa- miliar with the difference in appearance of two joints of meat, say legs of mutton, when brought to table ; one will have wasted in size and weight considerably more than the other. This occurs from the same causes : it is the same whether boiled or roasted ; if roasted the fluid would pass off as steam ; if boiled this fluid would add to the water in which it was put, by exuding from the muscles in which it was held. There is at least 10 per cent, loss, by cooking, in one joint over another. But if a leg had beon taken off each of the two sheep supposed to be fattened without exercise, why the one supposed to be exercised before being killed would waste only to an ordinary degree, and weigh, with that which falls from it, supposing it to be roasted, nearly as much as it did before subjected to the heat of a fire ; whilst that which was not exercised would suffer a loss equal to the amount named, a\id that loss would be the same as would have passed off the system during life had it been in a position to take that exercise which is required to rid the system of useless matter by means of the or- gans of secretion. Therefore, sir, although it is ad- mitted that more iveight can be produced by depriving animals of exercise, I think I have r.hown that more re- paration of our own animal system cannot be effected from the same quantity of vegetable food, which is un- derstood as ordinary agricultural produce. Nay, every one who is familiar with the elementary portions of the subject of chemistry is aware, that such food as turnips, beet, clover, grass, and so on, when of a fresh condi- tion, requires a great quantity of free air to transform and purify it, before it can be elaborated into fat and muscle by the animal system which consumes it. Well, then, if an animal has this ordinary produce of the earth to feed on, and it is deprived of free air, as well as that exercise which is necessary to increase, both in number and quantity, the volumes of air which enter its lungs, what must be the result ? Why, that which would have been transformed and purified passes off the system as a solution charged with the very acid which would have formed fat under natural treatment : it would pass off as carbonate of ammonia. It is true the refuse of such an animal would be powerful manure, equal to guano ; hence the name " British guano ;" but we are consider- ing the question of " making, from the same quantity and quality of food, more meat in less time." An ani- mal, having no other food than hay and linseed, might be kept in a house without exercise ; but then the lin- seed plant itself effected that in pure air ivhich must happen before the acid tvkich plants collect can be ela- borated into fat. Such a mass of food, however, would be worthy only of the name of blubber, resulting from the same cause — want of exercise. Although much more might be said against the system so far as is regarded the extra quantity and quality of meat, I cannot venture to more fully discuss the subject, through fear of obtruding too much on your columns. However, as it is, I think I have said enough to remove from some the impressions they entertain in reference to the superiority of the system, and also to prevent those who are considering the subject from being impatient for the arrival of the time when " the farmers' " system will be so altered that they will be able to obtain ten pounds of mutton where they now have nine, and this by de- priving their sheep of natural exercise and air. As to the use, sir, of the system, by way of enabling farmers, as a body, to vie with the policy of the age, I need only mention Mr. Beadel's views to enable you to detect that the gain of one farmer is the loss of another ; therefore, " the farmers" cannot be in the slightest de- gree relieved by the means in question. Mr. B. says — • " During the present season, I have been obliged to buy straw for fodder, at from 16s. to 20s. per load ; and in the small space of sixty feet square I have used upwards of thirty loads, practising the greatest economy in its use. Experience, however, has taught me that I was wrong on this point of economy, for 1 find that buying straw, at the price I have named, I can manufacture dung at less than Is. 9d. per cubic yard, and such dung made with roots, cake, and corn, must be cheap at that price. I shall know better for the future, and be more M 2 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liberal." Before, however, I comment on this passage, I will quote one which subsequently occurs, to show that Mr. Beadel is discussing this subject with a view to the general advantage of farmers. Soon after this passage he said — " In immediate connection with this subject, I cannot but mention another instance in which a want of attention to a matter of every-day calculation among merchants becomes a productive source of uneasiness, a personal inconvenience, and loss to the farmer ; and on which a little forethought and prudent calculation would speedily effect a reform." Bringing these two passages together, sir, two things are readily detected : the latter shows that Mr. B. is seeliiiig a remedy, and speaking as if he had found one for the " farmers" under their present sufferings; and the first shows that the amateur makes a display of manure and heavy crops, at the expense of those who are compelled to sell that which they know they want themselves, but which thej must part with, to meet their necessary and fixed expenses. As Mr. B. purchased thirty loads during the present season, and manufactured it into dung, and found that it was so cheap that he intends to practise that know- ledge which experience has begotten, some one else must have made a sacrifice equal to the profit Mr. B. has de- rived from the system. And if he do as he says he in- tends, by being less economical, and thereby purchase more in future, why there must be a still greater sacri- fice on the part of some one than has this season taken place. Where then, sir, viewing the subject on the broad principle, is the remedy setup for " the farmers" ? In calculating, twice one makes two, it is true ; but if you want the product to be more, and you are compelled to adhere to given rules, you must make the beginninr/ more, or it will not "come" unless you " forge, " as schoolboys observe, and say, twice one makes four ' Now, sir, if this subject be considered upon the prin- ciple of agricultural economy, or distribution of capital amongst " the farmers," we cannot come to any other conclusion than this : if any one has more capital than he can employ himself, after he has trodden his own produce of straw into a state which will enable it to de- cay in time for his next crop — supposing such an one to have a desire to employ it for the benefit of " the far- mers," with a view of receiving an ordinary rate of interest himself: Instead of purchasing straw to manu- facture on his own occupation, let him lend his capital to some needy but honest man, when he will be enabled to pay his labourers and keep his straw ; and, at the same time, not only pay as much interest for the use of that capital as the amateur, whose farm is in high condition, can make of it, by purchasing straw or corn which this needy man's farm requires ; but this needy man will be enabled to produce on his otherwise exhausted farm, so much more corn than he would have been able without the loan, that he will have as much interest on the loan for himself as the ordinary rate of interest he would have to pay. Thus will the produce of " the farmers" be increased, or, in other words, the country will pro- duce more. The produce of corn is limited, for the air has as much to do with it as the earth. More manure than enough will therefore do harm, and after a certain qu;tntity the interest will be, say, 5 per cent. ; whilst if an ordinary quantity be put on each farm, instead of too much on one and too little on another, it will afford an increase of crops to at least 10 per cent. This is agri- cultural economy. This is how " the farmers" may be benefited. And this is how capital may be profitably and creditably, as it will be nobly, employed ; and not by manufacturing straw from a farm or farms too poor to produce as much as they might do. One other advantage is said to attend this system, which is, that the manure thus manufactured may be carried on the land for swedes or mangold wurtzel, at once, without diminution or loss. It is, however, wrong to apply " raw" manure to green crops (and green crops are the only ones to which we should apply manure, but it would require too much space to explain this here), for it will be found that the manure so applied will be, in greater part, as straw-like when the crop is taken off in the autumn as it was when put there, and just so much as has not rotted, just so much will the produce of the turnips or beet lack of affording profit. The pro- duce of a farm depends on its green crops — beet, turnips, clover, and so on. Green crops accumulate from the air, as their leaves are large or numerous. Corn-bearing plants, on the contrary, take from the soil that which is deposited by means of green crops. Well, then, with an ordinary quantity of manure, and an ordinary season, if half that manure is in a state not to form food for plants, why there is only half the accumulation there would have been had the manure been fermented, and, tnereby, to a certain degree decayed, or reduced to a con- dition to gradually decay, and, thereby, act as food for the crop to which it may be applied. It is true, this manure is there for the next crop ; but as a corn- bearing one comes next, and as corn-bearing plants do not accumulate, it only feeds on what remains, and does not increase in proi^ortion to the food it has, or aff"ord that interest by producing cent, per cent, on the value of the manure, by atmospheric accumulation, which is the case with green crops. Suppose a yard of manure is heaped to ferment, and the loss per cent is ten ; such manure will cause, I believe, that loss to be replaced in the field, by the greater accumulation of the same cha- racter of constituents or gases lost, and twenty per cent, added. Manure must be fermented, for the several reasons given. Again, to incur the expense of carting turnips or other green crops to the homestead, with a view of im- proving the quality of the manure of the yard, is not only a loss in itself, when more is carried there than is actually necessary to accomplish the degree of fermentation in question, but the land from which these crops are taken suffers several times the loss of the unnecessary expense of cartage ; for, not only is the friction of sheep's feet the most efficient mechanical action our land is subjected to, but the chemical action which the droppings from them would cause in the soil is lost. The action in question seems to be totally overlooked by persons, even those who fancy they possess considerable acquaintance with the subject of chemistry. But every one must have noticed THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 165 the corroJiug qualities of urine on metals and bricks. It has the same influence on soil. Its power of disinte- gration is great. If, therefore, more than is wanted to decay straw be placed on it, there is a double loss to a great amount. If it be placed directly on the soil its powers will be exhausted in forming silicates or alkalies so essential to tlie quantity and quality of the coming crop : and if it be applied at the same time as a crop is sown, it has not the time to influence the soil in tlie way described ; at least it cannot do this in time for the present crop ; therefore, there is not only a present loss- but nothing extra grown to afl'ord matter for reproduc- tion. The plan of carting manure on land whicli is clean during the winter months is both economical by way of labour, and proper for the crop ; as it becomes well incorporated with the soil, and is in a soluble con- dition by the time the phuits begin to grow, and, there- fore, enters at once into reproduction, and continues to do so so long as it lasts. With this system the manure must be fermented to a certain extent, as long manure of wheat straw would be rather troublesome by driving be- fore the plough, harrows, and scarifier, as well as not rot in time. Furtliermore, there are hundrels of farms, even in Essex, which produce so small a quantity of green food, that it would be impossible to tread all the straw they grow into a condition to ferment, unless tlie open yards were adhered to. And the manure of these farms must be heaped, especially where used for beans ; for the small amount of acid and volatile salts it is charged with is not sufficient to decay the straw portion of manure so made, when covered with earth, any more than haulm will rot by the end of three or four months when ploughed in : such manure would ferment so slowly that it would take three months for it to acquire a condition suitable for applying to the soil ; two monihs on farms better circum- stanced would effect the necessary charge in a manure heap ; and under a covered homestall, where the only moisture which fell on it was that from cattle, and where economy in straw was observed, why one month, and less, would effect that condition by fermentation which the straw under the condition of the first farm had only arrived at by the end of the three months. I dare assert, Sir, tliere arc many of the best prac- tical farmers in Essex who would not have covered homestalis, as a whole, if any one would build thcni " for aequintance Sike." Their experience tells them that it is far more profitable to consume a portion of the corn and cake tliey use tlirough the year, by eiving a portion of it to sheep whilst feeding clover, turnips, and so on, in the fold. Experience dictates this, and I have shown it to be consistent witli the sciences. A great loss occurs when straw is overcharged with the agents of fermentation, for not only does a great amount of these agents escape, but ihe gum of the straw unites witli it and dissipates in the form of car- bonic acid, or a compound containing all four of the known atmospheric gases, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. In conclusion, I have only to observe, tliat tlie PRACTicK Mr. B. has iiitrodnced as arguiupiit in f;ivf)iir of "Covered liomestalls," (hat is, tying bullocks up tiiree tinu's a-day, may be and is adopted in many cases in optn yards, as its practicability and usefulness are as easy and viiluable in one case as tlie otlier. And I iiavesliown that Mr. B.has miscalculated, and, tliere- fore, come to a wrong conclusion, where he says, " I have proved the dung may be manufactured of first- rate quality at less tlian Is. 9d. per cubic yard, even when paying the market price for straw," and tlie com~ incut, wliicli subsequently Tjllows, consequently falls to the ground; for lie says, " from every consideration I have been enabled to give the subject, I am convinced the adoption of covered liomestalls would prove a great and substantial benefit to the farmer^' , Mr. B., it is perceived, concludes on the broad principle '' Ihe farmer." Moreover, williout entering into political economy, the general policy of the country lias within a short time undergone a great change. The present policy says it is better to employ capital and labour to obtain the natural produce of the earth from otlier countries, and give them in exchange our manufactures, than it is to bring our own agriculture to a more artificial, and, therefore, more hazardous condition at lioine; meaning that the importation of food must be free into this country from the whole world. This is what the pre- sent policy of this country says. Whether it will remain so or not is not to be here considered. Well, then, every piiiind invested in building expensive liomestalls, whether covered or not covered, every pound over and above what is actually necessary will not afford one fraction of interest. Skilful and thorough cultivation, in a natural manner, will afford a profit under the pre- sent policy if the land be good, and tlie present fixed expenses of it reduced to a proper level ; but even in this case, If any great lengths are gone to,beyond that common and plain practice which all land rcqnires, all the capital so expended will be invested without a knowledge of economy, and, therefore, afford only a passing gratification to the eye, instead of that more substantial reward for investing capital, or profit, which is just now required. Poor land, which afforded a profit for cultivation a few years ago, must now be made sheep walks of. By the same rule middling lanil must have its labour done more economically, and less taste, or " setting off to the best advantage," must be dis- played byway of buildings, and so on, or this quality will not afford a profit ; and all good land will never require such " artificial" treatment, therefore here it will not pay to make such an investment; and should " the farmer" ever again receive a remunerative price for his productions, the present want of the " needful' will make such a lasting and proper impression, that I dare predict" the farmer'' will not turn so reckless as to invest himself, or recommend others to invest, the profits of past years in tlie soil in that extravagant manner which some once did, and are now by some recommended to do. Hoping this long letter will be thought worthy of a place in your journal, and that it may cause further consideration «i so expensive a question as tlie one I 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Iiave endeavoured to throw a light upon ; for indeed agricultural economy has now become a very important science, not so much, however, for the purpose of being able to decide how 7mich may be expended to afford a profit, but that we may know how little we should expend to prevent that loss going on which has happened in too many instances for some years past. I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, AVm. W. Good. Braisivick House, near Colchester, 10 th June, 1851. LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS, (From the Morning Chronicle.) NORFOLK, SUFFOLK, AND ESSEX. Letter XXI. Of the three counties above enumerated Essex is the most southern. TheTliames forms its southern boundary, the German Ocean v/ashes its eastern coast, Suffolk and a portion of Cambridge bound it on the north, while the county of Hertford and the eastern portion of Middlesex form together its western boundary. It is in shape an irregular four- sided figure ; the distance between its extreme north-west and north-east portions is about 53 miles — from the north-east to the south-west, about the same — and from north-east to south-west, measuring along its water frontier, the length would be 63 miles. Its area is 1,533 square miles, or about 981,120 acres. Its proximity to the metro- polis affords advantages to this county which are not possessed by any other in the eastern districts, and its inland and coast navigation gives the great- est facilities for the conveyance of its agricultural produce, and for the supply of those requisites which are indispensably necessary to the cultiva- tion of the soil. The principal rivers of Essex are the Stour, the Colne, the Blackwater, the Crouch, the Chelmer, and the Lea. The Eastern Counties and the North- Eastern railways traverse the county — the former along the western side, the latter through the more central portions, while various branches from the main line connect the principal towns. The people pride themselves — and not without some reason — on the excellence of their highway and turnpike roads. The soil varies very considerably : its prin- cipal substratum is chalk, which passes beneath nearly the whole extent of the county, showing itself at Saffron Walden in the north, and at Grays ThuiTOck on the Thames, at which place there are some very extensive lime-works. A strong tena- cious soil, chiefly composed of London clay, is su- perimposed upon the chalk formation, varying in thickness from 100 to 300 feet. Loam, gravel, sand, clay, and various other strata, are found in almost every variety of admixture. Along the course of the principal rivers there is a considerable quantity of fine alluvial soil. An extensive chalky-clay district is found to pre- vail round Dunmow, to the boundaries of Cam- bridgeshire and Hertfordshire, to Epping, and nearly to Chelmsford. The mixed-soil district ex- tends throughout nearly the whole of that portion of the county between Colchester and Harwich, while the heavy clay is principally in the neigh- bourhood of the Dengey hundred. Along the shore of the Thames the country is flat, marshy, and uninteresting ; in the central and northern parts it is considerably undulated and well wooded. Some of the hills rise to a considerable height; among which may be mentioned those about Bille- ricay, Highbeach, Danbury, and Langdon-hills. Mr. Young, in his •' Survey," speaking of the latter of these places, says, " Such a prodigious valley, everywhere bounded with the finest verdure, and intersected with numberless hedges and woods, appears beneath you, that it is past description. The Thames, winding through it full of ships, and bounded by the hills of Kent— nothing can exceed it, except that which Hannibal exhibited to his dis- consolate troops when he bade them behold the glories of the Italian plains." Essex is famous for its wheat, which is always quoted in the markets, with that of Kent, higher than that of any other district. Large quantities of barley are also grown in the county, which for its malting properties is not excelled by any elsewhere. This barley is principally sold to maltsters at Stortford, Sawbridgeworth, and other places, and is usually sold in the London markets as " Ware malt." A considerable diminution took place in the rate of increase in the population of Essex during the ten yeai-s between 1831 and 1841, as compared with the previous decades. In 1801 the population was 226,437; in 1811 it amounted to 252,473, being an increase of 11 per cent.; in 1821 there was an increase of 15 per cent., the numbers then being 289,424; in 1831 the numbers were 317,507, being an increase of 10 per cent. ; while in the sub- sequent ten years, up to 1841, the increase was only at the rate of 8.6 per cent., the population of the county then being 344,979, or about 4.4 per cent, below the average of the whole country. Of the population, as returned in 1841, there were un- der 20 years of age, males 81,284, females 81,076 ; above 20 years of age, males 91,064, females 91,555. The number of persons born in the county was 297,671 ; born elsewhere 47,308. The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 16f number of inhabited houses was 67,618, which would give a proportion of about 5.1 persons to each house. There were within the county 5J21 fanners and graziers, who einjiloyed amonf^ them 43,672 agricultural labourers of both se.\es and of all ages— being about 8.5 labourers to each occu- pier. The rate of wages per annum paid to each was on an average about £20 7s. — the aggregate sum paid for wages being, as near as could be as- certained, about £904,000. Although Essex is principally an agricultural county, still employ- ment is afforded within it to a large number of per- sons who do not come under the designation of agricultural labourers — such as straw-jilait work- ers, weavers, fishermen, shipwrights, and others. In the district around Castle Iledingham, and including Halstead, Sudbury, Clare, and Haver- hill, on the borders of Suflfolk, an enormous amount of straw-plaiting is carried on. In fact there is scarcely a cottage in this district in which this branch of industry is not exercised. Till within the last two or three months the trade has been somewhat slack ; there is, however, at present a very great demand for it. Many merchants from Luton, ill Bedfordshire, I was informed, were in the habit of coming to Castle Hedingham to pur- chase the straw-iilait. For the best kinds of work the makers get 3s. 6d. a score, and one of the best hands can make a score and a half in a week. For the inferior kind of v.-ork the rate of jmy varies from 3d. to lOd. and Is. per score. The earnings of children and girls may be taken to be from 3d. to 4d. per day. These, as well as boys, are princi- pally employed upon the coarser kinds. The straw is usually purchased of the farm.ers in the neigh- bourhood at 6d. a bundle, being, in quantity, about as much as a person can conveniently carry. The rate of wages paid to the agricultural labourer in this district is wi'etchedly low, not more than 6s. or 7s. per week; and were it not for the straw plait, the people would generally be in a far worse condition than they are at present. When the plaiting is depressed, a considerable quantity of work is done by the women for the cheap tailors of London, Colchester, and other places, who send the different articles to Castle Hedingham and other places in the neighbourhood to have them made up. I inquired of several of the workpeojile the rate of wages paid for this kind of work, and received among others the following statement :—" I am generally pretty well employed for one house at Colchester. The things are all given out ready to make. I get for making a pair of the best cloth trousers from lOd. to Is. We are obliged to put the best of work in them, or we should have them thrown back on our hands. When we first did the work, two or three years ago, we didn't vise to put such good work in them, but they get more par- ticular now. We are obliged to sew them all with double thread. You must work very hard indeed to make a pair in a day. I don't believe that there's many as can make a pair in a day. For fustian or cord trousers we get 9d. We used to get lOd., but they've taken us a Uttle off lately. A pair of this sort of trousers takes us almost as long to make as a pair of cloth ones — the stuff is generally so hard. Sometimes I am employed in making small coats for boys, and I generally get from Is. to Is. 3d. for them, but I can't make one of them in a day, do all I will. For a pair of cord breeches the usual price is from lOd. to Is. — the same as for the cloth trousers. There is always constant work to be got at it, except just at this time of the year, when they're taking stock. 'J'hey are nearly all women who work at the tailoring about here. I don't know of any man who is employed at it in this place. Mr. came down from London, or somebody from him, with a lot of things, and said he wonld send regularly, but he didn't. I think our prices was too high for him, and besides, we was working for Mr. , of Colchester, and we didn't like to give up a certainty for an uncer- tainty." Essex, some years since, was famous for its silk and worsted manufactures; Colchester was known for its " bays" and '•' says," and Lindsey for its " Lindsey woolsey." These manufactures have now almost entirely passed away. There are, how- ever, several mills at Braintree, Bocking, Halstead, Coggpshall, and Colchester, for the manufacture of silk. The jirincipal manufacturers are the Messrs. Courtauld, who have a mill at Braintree for " throwing" the silk, at which 180 hands are employed ; one at Halstead, at which SOO or 900 persons are employed; and a third at Bocking, employing not less than 500 persons. Upon making application to the different manufacturers of Braintree as to the rates of wages, I was re- fused any information whatever, and in one in- stance my inquiry was met by the counter question, whether I was prepared to make up any deficiency to the workpeople, as that would be the only con- dition upon which any information would be vouchsafed. As I was unable to procure what I desired from the employers, I at once jiroceeded in search of some of the weavers themselves. The first person of this class that I discovered was one who was then engaged upon some work at his own house for the parties who had requested me to make up deficiencies in the peo])le's wages. His statement was as follows : — " I am at present at work on the fancy silk, with a Jacquard loom. Trade has lieen wonderfully bad with us for the last two years, but I'm in hopes it's about to take a turn for the better now. The ])iece that I've got to weave will be about 54 yards long when wove, and I shall get £2 5s. for it. I expect to finish it in a month. Out of that I shall have to pay one shilling a week for winding, threepence a week for the hire of the loom, and if I didn't work at home I should have to pay Is. a week for loom-hire. Then the oil to burn at night will be 6d. a week at least, for I know I must work fifteen hours a day to get it done in the month. The piece that I'm at work on is what some people call a ' shotted ' silk, it is a green cane and pink shoot ; they pay extra for that in London, but they don't give us nothing- extra here for it. Well, out of my £2 5s. I shall have to take off 4s. for winding. Is. for loom-hire, and 2s. at least for oil— that makes 7s. ; 7s. from 45s. leaves 38s. — that's 9s. 6d. a week. I'm cer- tain that what I've told you is quite correct, and if you ask any other weaver, I am sure he will tell you the same as I have done. I should think 1G8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. there are about 350 hand-loom weavers in Brain- \ tree, and perhaps 150 in Halstead. When a man is at work on the richer liinds of satins, figured ones and that, he can earn more than at the plain ones. I dare say he could earn ]2s. a week if he was to work hard and stick close to it. I pay 3s. a week rent, and have only five children." This account of the man's earnings was fully corrobo- rated by the statement of another person who was employed upon precisely the same kind of fabric. The next person I called upon was a weaver of silk handkerchiefs. He stated that it would take him, working very hard, four days to make a dozen of them, the price for which would be 10s. or lis., and the winding would cost him 9d. a dozen, and the oil perhaps 6d. a week. The rent of his cot- tage, containing four rooms, was 3s. a week, and the poor-rate 6s. a quarter. He had been but re- cently married, and had one child. He was at present in pretty constant work, but had had to " play " a good deal previously. Last spring he " played seven weeks right off," and there was always great delay in getting the cane. After some trouble I succeeded in findmg a velvet-weaver. The statement of the young woman employed upon the velvet v.-as to the eflfect that the trade was very .slack : that she was '"the only velvet going in the place :" that the piece upon which she was at work would, when finished, be about thirty yards in length, and that the price for it would be 2s. lOd. per yard, and that by working very late at it she could make four yards in the week. The father of the young woman em])loyed on the velvet was weaving black silk scarfs (for gentlemen), of two yards in length, for which he would get 9s. per dozen. He was able to make a dozen in the week, but frequently had to " play " a great deal. At Sudbuiy, in Suffolk, the price for making velvet does not exceed Is. 6d. per yard, and some of it is as low as Is. With respect to the persons employed at the mills on power looms and otherwise, I succeeded in obtaining the following information from several j)ersons in the mills : — " I was at work," said a young woman, " as winder at the mill ever since I was sixteen years old. I get 3s. and 3s. 3d. a week. I don't think there are any get higher than I do, and a good many I know get less ; some Is. 6d., some Is. 9d. a week. They won't let any one work at the mill under twelve years old, if they know it." A young woman employed in the mill at " picking" informed me that she got 5s. a week ; the " throwsters" can earn from 4s. to 5s. per week, the " drawers" from 3s. to 4s. No persons are allowed to work as drawers under fourteen years of age. The " plug winders," whose duty it is to wind the silk on the " plugs," are the best paid, and get from 6s. to 7s. a week; some of the best hands get even as much as 8s., but there are not many of them. One of the weavers employed at the Halstead mill said that she " could earn in weaving crape from 4s. to 6s. per week — 5s. was about the average." At Coggeshall and at Colchester the rate of wages was similar to those above mentioned. I should regret to give publicity to erroneous statements on the subject of the wages of the weavers ; but as all assistance was denied me by the employers, the only course open to me was to obtain the statements of the persons employed. I have reason to believe, from the manner in which they gave the information, and the evident desire on their part to a\'oid anything like misrepresentation, that their accounts were substantially correct. Some portions of the population of Essex derive employment from oyster- dredging, the principal places where this occupation is carried on being Donald, Rowbridge, Brightlingsea, Wivenhoe, and Colchester. About 160 boats are engaged in the oyster trade,and 500 men.. The persons so employed are mostly free men of the river Colne,and they are allowed to dredge in the river for a certain quantity every morning, a portion of the proceeds being hand- ed over to the widows of the freemen of Colchester and the other places where the trade is carried on. Another jjortion of the produce is set apart for the boat, and the remainder is divided among the men. In the oyster season, which lasts from August to April, their earnings will average about 12s. per week. At the close of the season the men usually start off with their boats to Guernsey, Jersey, and the Channel Islands, to dredge for " spat" (which is the young oysters). When a sufficient quantity is obtained, it is brought home and deposited in beds in the river, where it remains for three or four years before the oysters are allowed to be dredged up, as it takes that period to allow the oyster to arrive at a proper size for the market. The small oyster known as the " native " is the sort indige- nous to the river, being, as their name implies, " natives" of the river Colne. Upwards of 500 persons are almost constantly employed in connec- tion with the port of Harwich in dredging for stone, which is very extensively used in the manu- facture of cement. When the weather is favourable the men usually earn from <-s. to 4s. 6d. per day ; and the wages of the persons employed in the manu- facture of the cement vary from 14s. to 16s. per week. There is probably no town in the whole of the three eastern counties where the population are, generally speaking, so well ofFas at Harwich. Wlien any of the people are out of work, they have only to go out on the sands and collect oysters, whelks, " pin-patch- ers" (periwinkles), and other things, for which they can always find a ready sale in the town, whence they are sent to the Ipswich and the London mar- kets. Large quantities of wild-fowl are also shot by the poor people, which can be disposed of with- out diflSculty in the market. There are also a con- siderable number of salvors, or " salt wager men," as they are called, whose employment it is to afford assistance to shipwrecked vessels ; and since great numbers of wrecks are constantly taking place on the Gunfleet Sands, the amount of salvage which they obtain is frecjuently very considerable. Among the other occupations of the county there are, according to the census, domestic servants 19,733 ; labourers of various sorts, 6,655. The number of persons returned as " independent," for Essex, was 23.4 below the average of Eng- land and Wales — while the number of paupers re- turned in 1S44 was 50 per cent, above the average. The amount of deposits in the savings banks is 13.5 below the average, and the amount of real propertv in 1842 was 4.2 above the average. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 Agricultural labour, however, forms by far the most important portion of the labour of Essex, the number of persons so employed being not less than 43,672. Of this number there are above twenty years of age, males, 35,744 ; females, 0,01(3 ; under twenty years of age, males, 1,072; females, 310, The wages vary very considerably in dift'erent parts of the county. In the neighbourhood of the me- tropolis and among the principal farmers who grow for the London markets, the rate is about 10s. per week. In the parish of Writtle, which is nearly the largest agricultural ]oarish in the county, wages vary from 8s. to !)s. per week. At Roxwell, and in the immediate neighbourhood of the ])roperty of Mr. Bramston, M.P., they are about 8s. per week. In the Tindring hundred they average about Ss. per week for married men, 6s. for unmarried. About Great Baddow the highest wages are at present about 9s.— formerly some were paid as high as 12s. per week. The harvest work is usually done either by the month, or at a certain price per acre — the amount varying from 9s. to lis. per acre. From ten to twelve acres is commonly the quantity allotted to one man, for which he would receive about £5 at the end of the harvest. During the harvest the men are usually allowed eight pints of ale, or six pints of strong beer, and four of table- beer, per day. The allowance given by Mr. Robert Baker, of Writtle, to his men, last harvest, was six pints of ale, made at the rate of four bushels of malt to the hogshead and a half, and as mucTT table-beer as they liked to have. Many of the men, he informed me, would drink sixteen pints of beer in the day ; most of them from ten to twelve. The quantity of beer consumed upon Mr. Baker's farm last harvest was 1,200 gallons. In cases where beer is not allowed, it is usual to give three or four bushels of malt and four pounds of hops to each man, with the use of brewing utensils and casks, to allow him to brew his own beer. The custom of giving what is called the ''horkey," or harvest-home su]iner, also very generally prevails throughout the county. Where the supper is not given, 5s. is allowed to each man instead. It is, however, in the northern and western portions of the county that the lowest rate of wages is found to prevail. Throughout the whole of this district the wages are invariably 2s. or 3s. per week lower than in the other ])ortiGns of the county. It is in this district, bordering upon parts of Suffolk, Cam- bridge, and Hertfordshire, and including Saffron Walden, Clavering, and other places where the wages are equally low, that the greatest amount of distress and discontent is to be found, and that in- cendiary fires are of the most frequent occurrence. With respect to the quality of the farming in this district, Mr. Robert Baker, in his prize essay on the agriculture of Essex, says : Throughout this district, the farm premises are ill arranged, large barns, sheds, and waggon-lodges being placed in- conveniently, and detached from each other, the accumulation of water from their thatched roofs falling into yards having large hollows and excava- tions made by constant scooping out the clay from time to time, as the manure is carted out ; so that a person imacquainted with their inequalities is liable to be engulfed in them, as the surface, being covered with the accumulated barley-straw, exhibits all smooth to the eye, and it it is only by the rising of the water and sinking of the straw that he is awakened to the situation he is ])laced in. This, however, has been remedied by the more spirited occupiers, but still prevails to an extent deserviiig their attention, as, upon a moderate estimate, one- fourth of the most valuable properties of the ma- nure is thus annually lost." Perhaps it is unnecessary to inquire further into the cause of the extremely low wages which prevail in this district ; the wretched condition of the farms may be considered as affording a pretty fair index to the condition of the labourer. When speaking to several of the farmers on this subject, I have always been told the condition of the labourer is not so bad as would at first sight appear. The rent of his cottage is, they say. Is. a week lower here than elsewhere. I have not, how- ever, found upon in(]uiry that the rents are lower than in many of the districts where higher wages are paid. At Clavering the rents vary from £2 10s. to £3 10s. ; and some of the larger cottages, con- taining four rooms, are £4 per annum. In addition to the advantages which the labourer in this dis- trict is assumed to possess in the shape of low rents, I was also informed that he eats a coarser description of flour ; that his fuel is not so expen- sive to him as in other parts of the county; and that, therefore, the difference of u'ages is not so ^reat as would ajjpear to a superficial observer. A large farmer in Clavering informed me that "a man with a family of five children will be nearly able with 6s. a week to buy bread enough, if he buys the coarsest flour ; his rent he generally i)ays out of his harvest money ; his clothes he gets by some means or other — people sometimes give them to him— and then, when he is unemployed, why we keep him in the workhouse. So you see, sir, he is amply provided for, even with wages at Os. per week." How far the word " amply" ajiplies to such a state of existence is a matter upon which, probably, there may be more than one opinion. The statement given above is one that I have heard from the farmers, not once, but many times, and it aflfbrds a key to the whole system of l)ayiag the agricultural labourer. Calculations ai-e made with the greatest possible nicet}-, not so much to ascer- tain how much he can live upon, as how much he can live without. A scale just immediately above starvation point is fixed upon for his subsistence, and when he is unable to woi'k, they are content to pro- vide him an asylum at the expense of the rate- payers. The labourer is of course unable to lay by a shilling for old age or other casualties, and he invariably ends his days a pauper. A more striking instance of the ill effects of such a system is, perhaps, nowhere to be found than in the different workhouses of the county. One of the most affecting sights in an agricultural county is the " old men's" ward of the different unions. In the case of the Chelmsford union, situated in a dis- trict where the wages are somewhat higher than in the neighbourliood of Saff'ron-Walden, there were, in the "old men's" ward, 19 paupers whose iniited ages were 1,577 years, the average age being rather more than 8:'.. I put a number of questions to each 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of them, with a view of ascertaing their previous employment, and the rates of wages v.'hich they had received. Several, from their extreme imbecility and old age, were unable to give anything like a coherent answer to any question ])ut to them. From some, however, I was able to obtain answers ; and as it will show, perhaps, more forcibly than any- thing else, the condition of the agricultural la- bourers, I will give the information which I was enabled to elicit. The first three whom I ques- tioned were confined to their beds, being too infirm to sit up. They were eating their dinners, consist- ing of beef and potatoes, mixed up together, the potatoes being peeled for them, and the meat minced ; and as they were unable to use either knife and fork, spoons were provided for them. The first to whom I addressed myself was an old man aged 89 ; he was sitting up in bis bed, sup- ported by his pillow, and was vainly endeavouring to raise the food to his mouth with the spoon. A more pitiable spectacle of helpless imbecility could perhaps nowhere be found than he })resented. Of the food which he endeavoured to raise to his lips, at least one-half lay scattered over his person and on the bed clothes, it being either tilted out of the spoon before it arrived at his mouth, or upset by coming in contact with some other part of his face. So far as his health Vv'as concerned it v/as not bad. He was not labouring under any attack of sickness. He complained of a cough, bat his imbecility arose from sheer weakness and exhaustion. His state- ments, rambling and incoherent as they were, were to the following effect : — " I reckon I'm 89, or thereabouts. My father lived near Braintree ; he was taken for a soldier for the American war. I was a parish boy. I think I can remember his going, but I don't recollect much about it. I was born before he went, I think. I had a brother once, l)ut he was drownded when he went into the water to get a poor fellow out as had tumbled in. Poor fellow ! I began to work when I v.'as seven years old. I run away from the parish then to help my mollier. I used to live v/ith her. I used to get sometimes eighteenpence a day, sometimes fourteen pence. For a particular job at mowing or reaping, I used to get more — sometimes two shillings. I always worked on the farm. I was married once, and had five children. Some of 'em didn't turn out well ; some of 'em did. I think there's only two of 'em living now, but I don't know v/here they are— in London I thipk. I kept on working till about two years ago, when I come in here, be- cause I couldn't work any longer. I never had any relief from the parish after I left the workhouse, when I was a parish boy." According to this old man's statement, he had worked as a farm-labourer for SO years. Another old man who was ii the adjoining bed, was, if possible, more feeble than the one already mentioned. With a great deal of diflficulty I succeeded in obtaining some intelligible answers to my questions: — "I think I'm SS ; I don't know exact -may be more than that. I be- gan work when I was 14, and was pretty lucky, for I always got work. Sometimes I used to get eighteenpence a day, sometimes less ; two shillings once. I've brought up ever so many children. I got a prize once for it," said the old man, with a laugh, the exertion of which appeared to produce considerable pain in his chest. " I think there was nine of 'em. The last work I got was at a gentle- man's house, but I couldn't do much, so they turned me off", and I came here. I've been here — I don't know how long.' 'The master informed me that he had been in the house about four months. The number of years that he had worked as a farm- labourer was about 62. For two years he had been at the gentleman's house that he spoke of. The third man that I spoke to said, " I was a farm- labourer all my life. My father had a farm of his own. He was a wonderful man to spend money on the poor. That's a long while ago. I don't know how long since he gave up the farm. I used to get, when I worked, sometimes two shillings a day, sometimes less. I had to work for myself when I was ten years old, and I've been at work ever since, till a little while ago, and never had no parish relief. I reckon I'm about 85. I had eight children ; some of 'em are in London, and some are dead. One of my daughters is a cook at a gentleman's at Ingate- stone." Another labourer, who was also confined to his bed, said, with considerable excitement, " I'm 85 years old. I've been a farm-labourer all my life, ever since I was a boy, and this is what it's all come to. The last job I did was for Master . I went hoeing a few turnips, and they told me I was to get four shillings a week. When I was there one week they took off" a shilling. I told 'em that they said they'd give me four, and they said if I didn't like to have that I might have none at all, for I hadn't worked enough to arne more. I grumbled, but it was no use, and I went to work the next week, and then they sarved me worse again, for they only gave me half-a-crown, took off" eighteenpence ; and I said, I d d if I stand it any longer, and if they took it oflf any more I'd go the workhouse. Well, then I come in here, and I've been here since. I knov/ I'am very old and weak, and can't do much, and p'raps did'nt arne more than half-a- crown, but then they said they'd give me four shillings, and I wouldn't put up v/ith it, to have it took off" when they come to pay me." The old man continued for some time to denounce the acts of his emijloyer in a state of the greatest excitement, which he dis- played by gnashing his gums — for there were no teeth in his head — clenching his fist, and shaking his head as he muttered indistinctly his imprecations on the person whom he considered had wronged him. A hearty and healthy-looking old man, "just turned of 91," said, " I was at v»'ork at one farm above fifty years, and I used to get sometimes 10s. a week, sometimes less; in liarvest I used to get more. I have had twelve children ; there's only five alive now, and two of the daughters are at the Hall, where I worked for fifty years. After I left the Hall, I worked at diff'erent places. I begun when I was under twelve years old, and I've been hard at it all my life till I come here, and that's not long — two years I thin-; ; so I have had in my time nearly eight years of it, and seen a many diflferent things. It's a bad job to come here, after all, and die in the workhouse ; but I might have been worse off" out of the house than in it, in my THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 time of life, with nobody to look after me. I'm as comfortable as an5'bocly can be in such a place like, but I wouldn't have come in yet if I could do any- thing out o' doors." Another old man, of 88 years of age, said, " I began work when I was a young boy, and I kept on until just before I come in here, because I couldn't do much. I used to get a little help from the parish just before I came into the house, because I couldn't get enough to keep me by my own work. At one time we used to get 10s. or i2s. a week, sometimes more than that. I've had eight children. I think they're most of 'em alive and married. I recollect, when I was a boy, flour used to be lOd. a peck and cheese 2Ad. a pound. I've heard my mother say that she knowed when it was only 9d. a peck." That was in 1772 or 1773, when I was at school," said the old man of ninet)^-one. " I recollect taking the money to buy the flour with when I used to go home from school." One old man, who informed me he was 82, said, " At the time flour was dear I used to pay the men, for I was in a little way of business myself then, about 18s. a week ; that was when flour was 7s. a bushel all but a penny : I don't know how long that was ago, it's a long time I know, for I've been at work on another farm more than fifty years since that. I have brought up twelve children ; my wife had six before I had her, but we brought them up and all, and 1 never had any relief from the parish till just when I come in j here." "I am in my 80th come April," said another; " I worked for fifty-eight years on Mr. 'sfarm, 1 and afore I went to him I worked nine years on another farm. I wasn't able to work any longer, or else I would'nt have come in here. I am afeard I shall never be able to do much more work, I hurt my toe on the farm, and cant't hardly walk. I have had, I s'pose, half-a-dozen children ; my oldest boy was in his sixtieth when he died, and the parish buried him just afore I come in here. It is sixty years last May Fair since I was married. I was bred and born at High Easton, not far from Mas- borough, and when I was first married the wages used to be only 7s. a week." " I," said another of the paupers, " was 82 the 13th of last month, and I've been at work ever since I was a boy. I've not left off long either, and wouldn't be here now if I could get any work to do as I could get on with. I never received any relief in my life till now, for I'd scorn to be under their control. The wages I got was just as it happened — sometimes Is, a day, sometimes Is. 6d, Once or twice I got 2s." Perhaps the most miserable-looking specimen of any in the aftecting group of paupers who were clustered round the fire-place in their day-room was on old shepherd. Owing to the constant shaking of every part of his frame, it was almost impossible to understand a single word that he uttered. What I was enable to gather from him was to the follow- ing efiect : — " I was a shepherd, and so was my father and grandfather before me. I'm 82. All my life I've been a shepherd, and nothing else. I'm a , Suffblk man. I used to be by the year, and was boarded and farmed in the house. Sometimes I used to get £7 a year, sometimes £8 ; and the highest I ever got was £9. The lowest, I think, was £6 — except when I got 6s, a week, and had to board myself. That was about a dozen years ago. I've left oft" some time, but I used to go out with my father when I v/as very young, and look after the sheep. I s'pose I have had sixty years of looking after the sheep on my own account." Another labourer, of 84 years of age, said, " I've been at work on the farm ever since I was a youngster, and I got into mischief at Mr. 's farm, at Writtle, or else I wouldn't have been here now, I was driving some horses, and they got frightened at a thrashing machine as was at work, and ran away, and drove me on to a bank and broke my leg. I had two or three falls, too, after my leg was set to rights, that made me a good deal worse. If it hadn't been for that I don't think I should have come in here for a long while to come. I was get- ting into years before I came in, and I didn't get so much as I used to get. 7s. a week was what I got, and they then got down to 6s. 6d. When I was a yunker I used to earn a good bit more money — sometimes 2s. a day; but they went on and went on getting of 'em down till now." " I am four score and four or five," said one who was sitting next, "I won't be sure which. I worked mostly on the marshes ; they give you more there than they do in the uplands. It is very damp work, and gives you a strange lot of colds and such things like. The last wages I got was 9s. a week ; I used once to get 10s. I've been at farm-work — lor' bless me, how long? —aye, ever since about 1770, When I was six or seven years old I recollect I used to puddle about adoing of something or other. I never had no relief from the parisli till I came in here." " I shall be 70 if I live till next Tuesday week — that is my birth-day, I think," said a lame old man, who was hobbling about on crutches, "I have been at work on a farm, too, all my life. In very dear times I used to get 2s. to 2s. 6d. a day — that must be 40 years ago, or near upon 50, when bread was so , dear, I've not been able to do any work for a long time, since I've hurt my back and my hip. If I ' could only get right again I should be able to do a 1 little more work I thmk — not much perhaps, but still enough to keep me out of here," The other persons to whom I spoke were all above 70 years of age — one 73, one 76, one 77, tv/o 78, and one 79, the whole of whom had been farm labourers, and had been so nearly the whole of their lives. One I of the old men of 77 said that the reason he came into the house was because he could not get any- to do, but he thought he was able still "' to go and do a good day's work, but his grey hairs was against him, and they wouldn't em{)loy him when they saw 'em" There were one or two old men in the idiots' ward, but we could get no information from them. There was, however, one individual among them who presented a most extraordinary contrast to those whom I had just left. He had the greatest horror of all kinds of work, and never could be brought to do any. He would never sleep in any house, preferring to bleep under the hedges. On one occasion, during some very severe weather, the frost caught both his legs and he was compelled to have them cut off". " They can't make me work now," said the poor creature to me, with an idiotic smile upon his face, " for I've got none but these 1/2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wooden legs ; it was a good job when they cut 'em off. From the consideration of the wages of the agri- cultural labourer of Essex, I pass on to a descrip- tion of his dwelling ; and in this respect much re- quires to be done. Mr. Robert Baker, of Writtle, has done a good deal towards setting an example in this respect. He has built several cottages of four and five rooms each, with about ten roods of garden ground attached, with ovens, and a good supply of water from wells, which he has caused to l)e sunk for the use of the cottages — the expense of building a pair of these having been about £150. They are let for £5 jier annum. More recently he has built some commodious and comfortable dwell- ings of dried clay, the outer walls of which are covered with gas tar, which has the effect of making them impervious to rain. The floors of the cottages are formed of a species of asphalte, which is laid upon a bed of concrete, which effectually prevents any damp from rising from the ground. About Chelmsford a great many new dwellings have re- cently been built, in consequence of some portions of the estate of Lady Mildmay having been sold, in small lots, for building purposes ; but the destruc- tion of a number of cottages at a short distance from Clielmsford has tended to drive a considerable number of persons from the outskirts into the town, who are glad to obtain any kind of shelter. In some portions of the town, but more especially in a portion of Moulsham, which is considered as a part of Chelmsford, the condition of the cottages is most disgraceful, some of them, if not exceeding, at all events fully equalling, many of the wretched ])laces in Norwich and Bury, to which I have pre- viously referred. To enumerate these miserable hovels would be to mention nearly the whole of the little coxuts and alleys which lead oii" to the right and left from Moulsham. In Weatherhall-passage there are four small houses containing two rooms each, with no back premises whatever, the space in front of the houses being not more than a few feet, which is closelypackedwith a pig-sty,a dust-bin, and a privy, all of which are connected together. I'here is no water to any of the houses, and the rent is 4s. 6d. i)er week. At another place close by, which the inmates told me "they didn't call anything, for it never had no name," though it would not be difficult to find an appropriate one for it — the cot- tages, which were merely run up one brick thick, were fast falling into decay ; the water and filth from the yard ran into the lower rooms, and the rain streamed down the walls almost as fast as if it had not met with the partial obstruction of a roof. In another jilace, called Talmer's Cottages, where the inspector of nviisances had ordered some privies to be emptied, I was hapjjy to hear him state that he was determined to do his duty. The whole of the night-soil out of these receptacles lay in one corner of the yard, intermixed with the vegetable and other refuse from the surrounding cottages, which were inhabited, I was told, by about fifty persons. In another wretched dark little passage, near the " Masons' Arms," where there was scarcely room for two persons to pass each other, were six cot- tages, one of which was inhabited by an old woman, who informed me that she was " eighty-five, and as gay as a lark." She requested me to come in and see her two little rooms. They were more clean and tidy than any person could have expected to see, but the water was trickling down the walls continually. " I'm not ashamed for nobody to see ray rooms," said the old woman ; " I keeps them as clean as I can. I have been here twenty years, come Easter, and have paid Is. a week rent, and don't owe a farthing." She informed me that she was with her husband in Ireland during the Rebel- lion ; that upon his discharge he went up to Lon- don, and brought down some boys, and commenced the " chimbley" trade, and did all the principal sweeping business of the town. After his death, she took to the manufacture of " bull's-eyes," for children, and at one time made GO or 70lbs. in a week. Her business had lately fallen off" so much, that she did not make more than two pounds in the week, the profit upon which was 22d. A shil- ling a week was allowed her by some charitable person in the town, and two shillings from the parish. While she was giving me her history her daughter came in to borrow the bellows. " I don't mind lending 'em you," said the old woman, " but pray don't put the nose of 'em in the fire. I always keeps 'em bright, sir, for my husband's sake ; he bought 'em for me a long many years ago." Perhaps the most wretched places of any in or about the town were to be found in Old Barrack- lane or road. Many were falling down from sheer neglect ; one or two of them, which were uninha- bited, Vv'ere used by the neighbouring houses as a place of common convenience, besides being a re- ceptacle for the ashes and the refuse of the other houses in cases where the people choose to take the trouble of carrying it beyond the front of their own dwellings. In one of these cottages lived a man and his wife and five children. An old stool was the only article of what might be called furni- ture in the house ; a few bricks, collected from some of the ruins about it, piled above one another in four or five different heaps, showed where the inmates were in the habit of seating themselves. There was not a single piece of bedding or bed- clothes in the upper room, nor an article of furni- ture of any kind, while the floor of the room and the walls were dripping with the wet and rain that caine through the roof. The mother of the family, a wretched-looking woman, with an old ragged gown, said " My eldest boy is nineteen, and my Eliza sixteen ; them and the four other young-'uns and us sleep upstairs. We've got no clothes, so we sleeps as close together as we can, and that keeps us warm. My husband sometimes gets a job in the market; sometimes he doesn't. We get no- thing from nobod}', and if we likes to go without, and ^jJwcA ourselves, that's no matter to nobody either." The statement that she " got nothing from nobody," in the sense in which she intended it to be understood, was a perfect falsehood : bed- ding and furniture had several times been furnished by the parish and some charitable persons, but they were always made away with immediately after. " I was very ill," continued the woman, " a few days since, and my husband went to the doctor's to get some medicine, but he threw it at him, be- cause he wouldn't give him some money. I wilj^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 allow that he oughtn't to have clone that, though I know he don't think much of (he doctors, nor I neither. My husband owes seven weeks' rent at Is. a week, and he is emjiloycd by the landlord to work it out. He gets Is. Gd. a day, iind I am quite agreeable that he should do it, and when he comes home he brings the (id. that he's yearned after paying the rent, and then him and me and five of us goes to supper oft" it, and then we goes without till he comes home again the next night — that's the way we does it." A greater amount of callousness and indirtercnce to misery and wrc'tchedness I never saw than was exhibited by this woman. I was in- formed that a day or two previous to my visit, a gentleman had given the man a truss of straw to take home for his family to lie upon, but that he sold it almost immediately after for 6d., which he spent in drink. Characters of this sort are, it is to hi hoped, for the sake of human nature, compara- tively rare; but even in Chelmsford, I was told by he relieving officer that there are great numbers of l)ersons who, through habits of imjirovidence, idle- ness, or drunkenness, are seldom oiF the relief-lists of the parish. In the rural districts many of the cottages are ex- ceedingly bad, but in the northern and western part of the county this is peculiarly the case. Along the whole line of country from Castle Hedingham to Clavering, there is an almost continuous succes- sion of bad cottages. Among the worst of these might be mentioned those in the neighbourhood of Sible Hedingham, Weathersfield, Bardfield, Wicken and Clavering. Great numbers of these cottages are situated in low and damp situations, and their heavy and grass-covered thatches appear as if they hadalmost crushed thebuildings down into the earth. Little or no light can ever find its way into the wretched little windows, many of which are more than half stojiped up with rags and pieces of paper. In point of fact, there are many of them which, but for the possession of a chimney, would be nothing superior to many of the most wretched cabins which I have witnessed in Tipperary and many other parts of Ireland. At Manningtree there are also a con- siderable number of wretched one-room cottages, and those which are larger are generally tenanted by as many families as there are rooms. In some cases the number of families exceeds that of the rooms. It is customary in Manningtree to rate every one of the lodgers in such a house. In one case, of a house with three rooms, the persons living in the lower room, consisting of a husband and wife, and three grown-up children, were rated at £1 5s. The second compartment, occupied by a man and his wife, and one son, was rated at £1. The occupiers of the third room, who consisted of a man and his wife, and five children, were rated at 15s., the poor-rates being 6s. in the pound for the year. There are also some wretched holes situated upon Back-hill, where the amount of rates enforced averages about 3d. to each house. The cottages in the Tendering hundred are, generally sjieaking, pretty good, and overcrowding does not exist to so great an extent as in other parts of the county. At Beaumont there are a considerable number of cottages which belong to Guy's Hospital, which are kept in very good condition. For some years past it has been the custom of the managers of the jn-opcrty to jiurchasc, wherever they could, cottage property, and improve it as soon as it came into their hatuls, when the property was susceptible of improvement— and, in cases where it had been suf- fered to proceed too far towards decay, to pull down the cottages and erect new and more commodious ones in their stead. The rents of the dwellings in this parish vary from about £3 10s. to £4, and some are let as high as £5. At Castle Hedingham the cottages are, generally speaking, good, and the rents moderate. Great numbers of them, hovv-cvcr, have but two rooms. Among those who have endeavoured to improve the physical and moral condition of the people are the following : — Lord Pctre, Lord Braybrooke, Mr. Bramston, M.P. ; Sir J. Tyrell, M.P.; xMr. Mag- endie, of Castle Hedingham ; Mr. Robert Baker, of Writtle, Rev. J. Wilkins, of Wickes, &c. Among the most enterprising and successful of the farmers, are Mr. Tabrum, of High Roothing ; Mr. Glasscock; Mr. Adams, of Westhara; Mr. Sea- brook, of Dagenham ; Mr. Blewitt, of Rayham ; and Mr. Crossley, of Baddow. Mr. Adams grows an enormous quantity of produce for the Jjondon markets. Last year he had 500 acres of potatoes and 100 acres of onions. Mr. Seabrook and Mr. Blewitt also grow large quantities of potatoes, peas and beans for the London markets. Mr. Crossley, of Baddow, is noted for his great succes in obtaining the prizes at the agricultural shows for enormous vegetables. I will now endeavour to describe the state of education in Essex, as well as in the adjoining counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. In a former letter, when speaking of the education of Suffolk, I had occasion to allude to the want of anything like statistical information upon so important a subject. It is not necessary to repeat the observa- tions then made ; but I will endeavour, according to the best means at my disposal, to state the extent of education in these three counties. The educa- tion, or rather the ignorance, of the inhabitants of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, as indicated by the number of persons who signed the marriage register by marks instead of with their name, was, according to recent returns, very considerable. In thirty-seven counties the proportion per cent, of persons so signing the marriage register was less than in Norfolk. There were thirty-nine less than Suffolk, and forty less than Essex ; there are but three counties, Bedford, Monmouth, and Hertford, in which the jiroportion was greater. The pro- portion per cent, above the average for England and Wales was for Norfolk, 38.1 ; Suffolk, 42; Essex, 42.4. The number of persons who signed the re- gister with marks in 1845 were — Norfolk Suffolk. , Essex . Males. Females. Total. 1,495 1,167 1,069 1,625 1,269 1,176 3,120 2,436 2,245 Total of three counties. . 7,S01 In 1839 the numbers were — 174 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Norfolk . . 1,172 Suffolk. . . . 1,007 Essex , . . 906 Males. Females. Total of three counties. . 6,622 Showing an increase for 1845, at compared with 1839, of net less than 1,179, which considerably exceeds the rate of increase in the population during those two periods. Turning from the state of ig- norance among the adults, let us inquire to what extent exertions are being made to educate the rising generation. In Norfolk there are 39,417 scholars in connexion with the National Society's school; in Suffolk, 32,667; and in Essex, 35,870. To the kindness of the Rev. Mr. Vosey, the secre- tary of the Wesleyan Education Committee, I am indebted for the following account of the state of education in the three counties, in connexion with ths Wesleyan body : — Total number of Scholars Norfolk Suffolk. . Essex . . 9,071 2,454 2,773 Average attendance, 6,762 1,944 2,226 Numbers attending Day School. 3,534 926 1,132 The number of teachers in connection with the chools being — for Norfolk, 1,548; Suffolk, 388; Essex, 369. In the week-day and infant schools, there are — in Norfolk, 118 scholars; Suffolk, 110; and in Essex, 99. Among the Catholics the num- ber of scholars is very small indeed. In Norwich there are about 200 children in connection with the school, at Cossey about 100. At Lynn there is no Catholic school. At Ipswich there is no school at present ; the number of children belonging to the Catholic working classes of the congregation of that town are about 50, of these but few receive any education. At Bungay there is no Catholic school, the children receiving what education they get in their respective neighbourhoods. At Bury there is a Catholic school in connection with the chapel, at which about 50 children receive educa- tion. The school is supported by the Catholic mi- nister of the town, the children paying id. a week. It is not confined to Catholics, but is open to the children of any denomination. At Brentwood there are about 20 children in connection with the Ca- tholic chapel of that place. With respect to In- gatestone I was informed that there were three small schools under Catholic mistresses, that the scholars were not all Catholics, but that there was no interference with the religion of non-Catholic children. The numbers in the three schools might be over 40 and under 50. In connection with the Sunday-school Union the number of scholars is 1,676. The Primitive Methodists about 1,680. Of various classes of dissenters the number of scholars is, for the three counties, as far as I have been enabled to collect the infonnation, about 9,500. The total number of children receiving education, including Sunday and day schools, in connection with the various religious and educa- tional societies in the three counties would, there- fore, be — National Society 107,954 Wesleyans (average attendance). 10,932 Week-day and infant schools. . 327 Other Dissenters 9,500 Sunday-school Union ....... 1,676 Primitive Methodists 1,680 Catholics 450 Total 132,519 The population of the three counties was, in 1841, 1,072,716 ; of whom there were, under fifteen years of age, males 198,431, females 198,072, As- suming that the population has increased in the same ratio since 1841 as before that period, and that the number under fifteen years of age bears the same proportion to the entire population, the present population would amount to 1,130,716, and the number of persons under fifteen years of ageto 416,844. Of this number, 132,519 are re- ceiving education in connection with the various societies above-named, being somewhat less than one-third of the entire number. Great numbers of these, however, receive only a Sunday-school education; comparatively few attend any week-day schools, and even where they do attend they are unable to do so regularl)', their instruction being consequently afforded to them in the most irregular manner. There are two classes of children, how- ever, which these returns do not include — those of the more wealthy, and those of the paupers. With respect to the former, it is impossible for me to ob- tain any accurate information. Of the schools of the latter, which are under Government inspection, the statistics are more easily ascertainable : being —Norfolk, 1,117; Suffolk, 1,043; Essex, 1,220. Total in the three counties, 3,480. The education afforded in these schools is in many respects supe- rior to that which is given in many of the other schools ; and it is not at all an uncommon com- plaint to hear among the farmers that the pauper children are receiving too much education. A few days since I met with one who said that he was op- posed to all the new-fangled education that they were giving to the paupers. " I am," said he, " one of the guardians of our union; and I just happened to go into the school-room, and there if the master wasn't telling the boys to point out with a stick, on some big maps that were hanging up, where South Amerikey was, and France, and a lot of other places ; and they did it, too. Well, when I went home, I told m.y son of it, and asked him if he could tell me where them places was; and he couldn't. Now, is it right that these here pauper children should know more than the person who will have to employ them?" " Certainly not," would be the natural reply of almost every thinking person to a question of this kind ; but if the far- mer's son chooses to remain in ignorance, that can surely be no reason why even the pauper should. If the farmer's son is distanced in learning by the pauper, and if it be a grievance to him, the remedy is in his own hands. The objection entertained by many to the introduction of geography, for instance, into the education of paupers, appears to be founded THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 176 entirely on the supposition that the latter are na- turally of a distinct and inferior caste, that they must always continue so, and that the education, if any, imparted to them, must be made to descend to their supposed level. That pauperism forms to a great extent a distinct and most degraded class, is unfortunately but too true, and the adult pauper is generally too far degraded to be raised by edu- cation. With the children, however, the case is far different. In the great majority of cases the debasing eftects of pauperism have not been as yet felt by them. From r.ll that I have seen in the various schools which I have visited, I believe them to be fully equal in natural capacity to any of the children of the unpauperized labourer. The Boys' Home at Norwich shows also most incon- teslably, that when they are reared in morality and religion, trained to industry, and removed from the contaminating influences of the other inmates of the workhouse, they render themselves remarkable in after life for intelligence, industry, and good conduct. Complaints have not unfrequently been made to me — not by the labourers, but by those above them — that the pauper children are receiving a better education than those of the labourer. It is one of the anomalies of the poor-law that the pauper is better fed, better clothed, and better lodged than the labourer; and the same person who would find fault with the pauper receiving a better educa- tion than the child of the labourer, must also in justice complain that he is better fed, clothed, and lodged ; and that he is so there can be no doubt. Let those who are able adjust the inequality. In the case of the labourer, as of the farmer, the real cause of complaint is, not that the child of the pauper is educated well, but that his own is not. The community which provides education for the })auper only fulfils but a portion of its obhgations ; and to it is apphcable, in its strongest senso, the rebuke " This ought ye to have done ; but not to have left the other undone." The partial introduction of the system of in- dustrial training, in connection with the pauper schools, has hitherto been attended with the most complete success in those unions where it has been adopted. In order to facilitate the carrying out of the plan of industrial training, the 7th and 8th Vic, c. 101, and the 11th and 12th Vic., c. 82, wei'e passed, which gave power to the Poor- law Board, under certain restrictions, to unite toge- ther a number of parishes and districts, for the more effectual education and training of pauper children. The act, however, at present remains a dead letter, none of the guardians feeling disposed to give effect to it in any of their unions. At many of the unions, however, a system of industrial training is carried on, and the boys are either em- ployed in cultivating a piece of laud in connection with the workhouse, or in making boots and shoes, tailoring, making mats, straw hats, and a variety of things ; while the girls are employed in various household duties. At Wortham the jDauper school is entirely disconnected with the workhouse, and the establishment affords on a small scale the advan- tages which would be derived from the establish- ment of district schools. In counties where ignorance is so prevalent it is natural to expect a considerable amount of crime and immorality. The number of persons committed for trial or bailed in the three counties in 1847 were — Norfolk, males 608, females 143 ; Suffolk, males 423, females 82 ; Essex, males 538, females G5 : total of three counties, 1,859. The proportion per cent, of commitments for the six years 1842 — 7, for Norfolk, was 17.6 above the average of England and Wales ; mahcious offences against property, .1 93 per cent, above the average. For Sufffolk the total commitments were 7.4 per cent., and malicious offences against property 278.9 per cent, above the average. In Essex the total commitments were 17.2 per cent., and malicious offences against property 198.5 per cent, above the average. One species of immorality which is peculiarly prevalent in Norfolk and Suffolk is that of liastardy. With tJie exception of Hereford and Cumberland, there are no counties in which the per centage of bastardy is so high as it is in Norfolk -being there 53.1 per cent, above the average of England and Wales ; in Suffolk it is 27 per cent, above, and in Essex 19-1 per cent, below the average. In the two first-named counties, and even in the latter one, though not to the same extent, there apjiears to be a perfect want of decency among the people. " The immorality of the young women," said the rector of one parish to me, " is literally horrible, and I regret to say it is on the increase in a most extraordinary degree. W^hen I first came to the town, the mother of a bastard child used to be ashamed to show her- self. The case is now quite altered ; no person seems to think anything at all of it. When I first came to the town there was no such thing as a common prostitute in it; now there is an enormous number of them. Wlien I am called upon to see a woman confined with an illegitimate child, I endea- vour to impress upon her the enormity of the offence ; and there are no cases in which I receive more insult from those I visit than from such per- sons. They generally say they'll get on as well, after all that's said about it, and if they never do anything worse than that they shall get to Heaven as well as other people." Another clergyman stated to me that he never recollected an instance of his having married a woman who was not either pregnant at the time of her marriage or had had one or more children before her marriage. Again : a third clergyman told me that he went to baptize the illegitimate child of one woman, who was 35 years of age, and it was absolutely impossible for him to convince her that what she had done was wrong. " There appears," said he, " to be among the lower orders a perfect deadness to all moral feeling upon this subject." Many of the cases of this kind which have come under my knowledge evince such horrible depravity that I dare not at- tempt to lay them before the reader. Speaking to the wi^e of a respectable labourer on the subject, who had seven children, one of whom was then confined with an illegitimate child, she excused her daughter's conduct by saying, " What was the poor girls to do ; the chaps say that they won't marry 'em first, and then the girls give way. I did the same myself with my husband." There was one case in Cossey, in Norfolk, in which the woman 1/6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tolii me, without a blush crimsoning her cheek, that her daughter and herself had each had a child by a sweej) who lodged with them, and who pro- mised to marry the daughter. The cottage in which tliese persons slept consisted of but one room, and there were two other lodgers who occupied beds in the same room ; in one of which " a young woman occasionally slept with the young man she was keeping company with." The other lodger was an old woman of seventy-four years of age. To such an extent is prostitution carried on in Norwich, that out of the G5(3 licensed public-houses and beer shops in the city, there are not less than 220 which are known to the police as common brothels. And although the authorities have the power of with- holding the licenses, nothing is done to put a stop to the frightful vice. " At Bury," said one of the guardians of the poor to me, " there is, I believe, a larger amount of prostitution, in proportion to the size of the place, than is to be found in any town or city in England." Harwich appears to be re- markably free from this vice. " There are not," I was informed by the police, " more than six pros- titutes in the town, and there is not a single brothel." The progress of rehgion, as indicated by the number of new churches, is remarkably small. It a[)pears, from the Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Commissioners for Building New Churches, presented to the House of Commons on the 26th of August, 1846, that 27 new churches had been erected by the aid of grants placed at their disposal ; that there were 32 erected towards which they had subscribed; that there were 18 churches of which the plans had been approved ; and they had made conditional grants, which are still pending, to 89 other places, but of the whole number there is not a single place in the three counties of Essex, Suf- folk, and Norfolk, which has come in for any por- tion of the funds, with the exception of the port of Lynn. With regard to the progress of education among the adults, there is scarcely a town or good-sized village in the county which has not its mechanics' institute — one of the most zealous in promoting in- stitutions of this kind, as well as schools in his own parish, being the Rev. Mr, Wilkes, of Wickes, in Essex. Once in every week he travels six or seven miles from his own house to Manningtree, to deliver lectures to the members of the institution, and he is known throughout the county for his strenuous advocacy of an improved and scientific education of the farmers. ON THE MANUFACTURE AND ADULTERATION OF ATIFICIAL MANURES. Professor Johnston, of Durham, and late chemist to the Scottish Chemistry Association, is not idle after his return from America. He has published his experience of the transatlantic man- ners and observances, and returns fresh to Eng- land to lecture, where his services may be required. Recently — at least comparatively so— -within a month or two, he has lectured at the well-managed Farmers' Club at Newcastle, on the manufacture and adulteration of artificial maniu'es. The subject is both important and interesting. Artificial ma- nure has now become so common, it is considered so necessary to all well-managed farms, that it has become an element almost of universal production — as indispensable as the soil itself, or the rain which nourishes. But whatever it may be that the farmer requires, whether guano or superphosphate, or the nitrates — whatever the kind or quantity may be, if he wishes to apply it, he must almost neces- sarily manufacture it. The frauds, the deceptions, the adulterations are so numerous, that it is abso- lutely necessary, for self-protection, to either have an analysis of the bulk from a chemist, or to be certain in some other way that it is not some spurious imitation, which deceives the eye in the purchase of manures. We are not sure that the farming class have not themselves to blame for a great amount of this. The rage for cheapness was so great, the tempta- tions of trade to cut down prices for the sake of custom, and the absurd feeling of many, who thought that, if they got an article below its im- ported price, it must be an acquisition, have paved the way for one wide-spread combination of adul- teration, absolutely incapable of detection by the senses, and requiring chemical skill to discrimi- nate. The learned profession, in calling attention to the adulteration of guano in particular, said, that there were in London large establishments for the manu- facture of a spurious imitation of this manure alone; and so far was adulteration practised, that there were even special manufactories of adulterants for it. Thus, while genuine guano could not be had under £9 to £10 per ton, these spurious ones arc offered at £6, or even less. This is a mark which it would seem almost impossible to lose sight of. In the one case he was buying the materials his farm required — phosphoric acid and ammonia — in the other case he was buying rubbish, of no use whatever. There have been many controversies "as to the best mode of obtaining these manures. Perhaps, taking a manure good for all soils and for all crops THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 —because containing tlie whole of what any par- ticular cro]) or all crops in general require — guano is by far the ])est ; and cheap as the refuse of many of our manufactories are to be had, it is very qiiestionaljle whether any manure is so cheap as it exists in the form of guano. The professor states that the price of guano, when lirst introduced to this country some twelve years ago, was £20 per ton. This product was analyzed by him, and its constituents ascertained, and he proposed immediately the production of a specimen of artificial guano which should not cost more than £10: this brought down the price of the natural guano to about its ])resent level. His ob- servations on the qualities of the different sjjeci- mens are exceedingly clear and correct. The value of the guano-deposit depends upon the de- gree of rain which falls in the district where it hap- pens to be deposited. Thus in Peru, where scarcely any rain falls, it is the best ; in iSaldanha Bay, where more falls, it is inferior; but in the districts where large quantities of rain fall, it is all washed away as deposited. The ammoniacal salts wash out first ; hence, as we might imagine, the Saldanha Bay guano, though rich in the phos- phates, which are not so easily soluble, has here the bulk of its ammonia washed out. It has be- sides a quantity of water, a larger proportion to the mass of the earthy and useless materials ; and though on soils very destitute of the phosphates, and for turnips, it may be almost as efficient as the other, yet as a general manure it must be far in- ferior, and perhaps the dearest. Reverting to these substances, the raw-materials of the manufacture of manure, he adverts to the materials from which the farmer or the manufac- turer may obtain his supply; and alludes to the cojn-ohtes, and the green sand, as well as to the Norfolk crag ; but in these the phosjjhoric acid bears so small a proportion to the mass, that it is inconvenient to purchase them in that form. The phosphorite rock of Estremadura, in Spain, which, if we remember right, Dr. Daubeny made a special journey to examine and report upon, is much more pure, and even worth the cost of getting and im- portation, if the distance from the coast and diffi- culties of transit were not so great as to render it impossible to be done with profit. The most in- teresting part of the lecture is the discovery of some very pure beds in America. He says — "It occurred to me that there might be parts in North America where this substance could be found purer, and in larger quantities, than in England. I accordingly caused inquiries to be made; es- pecially with res]3ect to those parts where small quantities have been got. The result was, that in two States of the Union, deposits had been formed which, though not quite pure, were nearly so. In one of these beds there was enough to supply the English markets for two or three years ; and in the other locahty, which was in the neighbourhood of New York, the supply was inexhaustible. The only shipment of the phosphate of lime from America had been made to Liverpool, by Mr. Riehemdron, but another cargo was expected, having been shipped for the London Manure Company." We are glad of this fact, because it will furnish a source of the phosphates cheaper, it is to be hoped, than the bones. We are quite certain, that as the whole of this island in its arable as well as its grass land has been de-phosphatised for a great number of years, it all needs, more or less, drainage and j)hosphoric acid ; and possibly, as it has been de-sulphatised, also of sulphuric acid. The Ameri- can phosphate and vitriol will effect this, it is to be hoped, cheaply. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— AUGUST. The retrospect stands over to the close, as the weather is thundery, and appears unsettled. Ol'EliATlONS IX THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. The Cubhaye comprises so many fancy varieties that everyone must suit his own taste. The genuine early York is the type and probable origin of many that are at present esteemed, as the Penton, Ham, Battersea, Imperial, &c. One variety, called the Vanack, is thus described by George Lindley : — " It is always in season, if timely sowings are made; it makes excellent spring coleworts, be- comes a white-hearted cabbage very early, and pushes fine spi'outs from the stumj) after the cab- bages are cut." Having pro\-ed this vegetable I can speak well of it, and so I can particularly of the sort called Enfield market-cabbage. If I mis- take not, it rarely flies to seed ; and the same may be said of a small sort called the Downton, the seed of which was once sent to me direct, by the late Mr. Knight. The nature of cabbage should be studied : it bears the character of a foul feeder, and doubtless can grapple with most offensive ma- nures ; but flavour should be considered : and as it abounds with nitrogen, I again recommend guano-water in dry weather — of which, if the land N 178 THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. be a sound retentive loam, the best salts will be held fast by absorptive attraction, and nourish the plant by the active ammoniacal compounds that abound in genuine Peruvian guano. For hearting cabbage, sow in the seed-bed by the 6th, if the locality be in the north, or naturally cold and back- ward; in the midland counties two or three daj^s later are admitted ; and the time can be extended to the 12th or 15th in the south of England. As the plants raised from spring sowings are used, very nice small successional hearted sprouts may be tlpken throughout autumn. Winter Spinach. — This is the "prickly-seeded" of the catalogues ; it is valuable, and far less ad- dicted to "run," even in the drying weather of May and June, than the common round-seeded ; but still it is inferior to the broad, juicy-leaved Flanders spinach. I am not prepared to state the constituents of these vegetables, so nearly allied to the orache or goosefoot (Chenopodium), some of which are said to " yield a great quantity of carbo- nate of soda." But at all events, and as a general fact in gardening, if a soil be found by experiment to retain the salts and colouring organic matter of manure-water, it must be good. The seed of spi- nach, for the autumn, winter, and spring demand, should be sown not later than the first and second weeks of the month ; bearing in mind that the drills should be timely and amply watered in advance, before the solving, if the weather be droughty. Broccoli. — The white and purple Cape, if sown early in the month, will, after a mild winter, yield heads in April. The early cauliflower (Grange's), if transplanted during the first week, will produce heads from Michaelmas. Choose an open quarter ; dig-in rotten manure, restored by guano, a spit deep ; and plant in rows, two feet asunder from plant to plant. Savoys. — Plant these from the seed beds about the beginning, and finish at the middle, of the month; rows and plants two feet asunder. The small green variety is best, and will come in for November. Celery. — Set out the last trenches ; earth-up the early plants only, and such as are now large enough for the table bank-up finally. Where there are mushroom beds, now expended, we have seen the manure of those beds used in the celery trenches with much effect. Do not earth the wmter stock till September. Sow Strasburgh and Welsh Onions to draw early, and the latter to stand even the hardest frosts. Sow Turnips, turnip and Spanish radish, and again the salmon and scarlet kinds. Select an open spot, watered previously if the weather be dry. It has been proved that beds of large bulbing onions have prospered exceedingly by the almost daily use of the hoe between the rows, without one drop of water being given, even in parching seasons. Cauliflower. — " The London gardeners generally sow their main crop on a particular day (the 21st of this month), experience having proved it to be the most ehgible period of sowing for next sum- mer's general supply." In October some of the plants are transferred to frames, others are covered with the hand-glass. The damaged carboys of the vitriol works, and others, used by chemists, when carefully cut at bottom to form an even edge, make admirable covers. Asparagus. — Keep the beds thoroughly clean. Artichokes. — Encourage the best heads by re- moving many of the weaker secondaries, growing on side shoots. Break down the stems after cutting the fruit. Lettuce. — Sow early the white cos, Cilicia, and Imperial, to bring plants for September to Novem- ber. Sow again about the 21 st the hardier varieties — brown Dutch, green cos, and cabbage lettuce — either to stand the winter in the open ground, or in frames to be transplanted in spring. Handsome- hearted plants are obtained by transplanting into frames in November, but this must be noted in due course. Transplant another set of endives. Sow again a little of the green curled, to plant-out in October. Corn Salad {fedia) and Chervil. — Sow for a winter supply of green salad : also mustard and cress, ac- cording to the demand. CMCumJer— Plants over manure for picklers. If in dry M'eather these be amply supplied with soft pond water, many good cucumbers for the table, as well as girkins for pickling, may be gathered. General attention implies, the due trenching, double digging, and manuring deep at bottom, with the recent long dung, all vacant plots; also a sedulous attention to weeding by hand, hoe, and rake. Weeds are now in full and increasing energy, particularly if the season be showery. Let the consequences of neglect or oversight be con- sidered, and fev/ persons will be idle. Hardy Fruit Department. Having (in order to commence at the begin- ning) planted maiden trees, and subsequently at- tended to their entire management myself, during my long residence in Berkshire, I think I may lay claim to some appreciation of results, and presume that I have authority to allude to a practice appli- cable to the present month, which was followed by excellent fruitfulness on all the choicest espalier apple-trees. I have frequently mentioned it in these calendars, although I admit that it does not coincide with that of many able pruners and train- ers. It is this : About the first and second weeks. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 179 and not before, break or cut back the new wood of the si)ring, arising from the fruit spurs, to within four or five eyes beyond their origin. There yet remains plenty of vigour in the sap to cause the eyes to swell and assume a definite character (hence fruit buds), but not sufficient activity to propel a forest of useless loood shoots. Thus we effect an important object, and avoid a perplexity, by one and the same operation. I now copy a few lines from G. Lindley's "Orchard, ^-c," which I deem worthy of attention. " Continue to keep all sorts of wall trees nailed close to the wall, in order to ripen the wood and fruit by a due admission of light and heat. " Large and perfectly ripened wood can never be obtained where the trees are kept in a loose and slovenly manner. " Grapes. — Thin out the fruit, and keep the lateral shoots of vines to one joint; when they have grown again they must be shortened back as be- fore. Rooted runners of all strawberries should be taken off and bedded" (after a thorough ground rain). " Where grass or mulch has been used be- tween older rows or beds, it should be dug in or removed, and the ground made clean by the hoe. " Cut down the last year's canes of raspberries that have borne fruit. The young canes will ripen better, and produce finer fruit than if both be left to the winter, according to the old custom. " Budding is the work of August, generally in the following order : — Cherries, apricots or plums, then peaches, nectarines, pears, and apples ; but the state of the wood, its due ripeness, and the rising of the bark must govern the rotation." If the woolly American blight infest apple-trees, I suggest the following wash, to be applied by a penetrating brush : — Soft soap, dissolved in boiling rain-water, an ounce to a quart ; strong shag to- bacco, half an ounce, digested (till cold) in a pint of boiling rain-water ; strain and mix the two liquids, stir, and make up two quarts. Fruits under Glass. Pineapples, in the fruiting house, are coming rapidly in succession, according to their treatment. By the old plan the plants have a house to them- selves, especially if the number required be con- siderable. Moderate waterings will be required, but sun and plenty of dry air are the essentials to obtain flavour and colour. Succession plants should be now, and in September,making their most vigorous advances. The Meudon plan, without pots, offers the most certain means to obtain regular mois- ture at bottom, without the risk that but too often occurs by overwatering when the plants are grown in pots. Pine culture is a delicate and perplexing process, unless a grower have acquired his experi- ence under an able and honest practical tutor. I think that the best soil, under general circum- stances, will be a compost of decayed couch-grass roots, collected from a field of sound but free- working loam, and the best turfy heath soil (called peat) chopped, mixed together, kept some months, and used without manure. Mr. Knight, of Down- ton, strongly recommended chopped green turf from a meadow. Vines that have borne fruit ought to have full air and sun. Those which, like West's St. Peters, are to support their crop to the winter, must have plenty of air, but only from the front and back sliders. Ornamental Department. Roses, single or in clumps. — Give plenty of soft pond-water, if the weather be dry, to the autumnal blowers. The ordinary blowers of one season (June and half July) require nothing to be done, unless mildew appear, when syringing late in the afternoon either with water, dusting the infested leaves with flour of brimstone, or with fresh-made fluid sulphuret of lime. Roses may yet be budded (if the barks rise) either on the wild rose, Manettii, or noisette stock. Scarlet-flowered, variegated- leaved, and pink-flowered geraniums can be propa- gated by cuttings prudently taken from the beds, without injury to the masses. If planted in a bor- der facing the east, with a little white sand at the heels, they will take root, and be in a condition for potting sometime in September. Finks from pipings, if well-rooted, ought to be transferred to nursery rows ; more may yet be struck. Seedling polyanthus plants like shade, as well as the prim- rose ; let them be planted in nursery rows : the seed may yet be sown, and also that of pansics. Take cuttings of the latter, and of petunias, show pelargoniums, verbenas, anagallis, nierembergias, &c., &c., to raise stock for another season. Final Retrospect. The dry weather, and the great heat experienced in the period comprised between the 25th of June and the 3rd of July, proved injurious to the crop of peas, which, though late, were remarkably fine till hurried off by the weather. Potatoes came in late, but were too hastily dug up. This is a great fault, because the tubers are immature, waxy, and not wholesome. As to disease, it exists in the printed reports ; though some spots may be expected as a natural result of the germs of infection (whatever may have been its primary cause). High winds have scattered some of the apples ; and wall fruit is — locally, at any rate — very scarce, cold weather occurring after the late extremely mild winter, and profuse volume of rain which fell in 2\Iarch. Our recent rains, between the 15th and 19th of July^ N 2 180 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, have done much service; and the weather of the 20th and 2 1st has been unexceptionable. I close this calendar in the forenoon of as Ijrilliant a day as the most fastidious could desire, every prospect l)eing encouraging. Croydon, July 22. John Towers. OPERATIONS FOR AUGUST. Bedding Plants. — These are now in their greatest beauty, and the principal care required will be to keep them within their proper bounds, as when the beds are formed on the grass if the plants are allowed to overlie the margin for any time the edges will be brown and unsightly for some months. In geometrical designs, where the edges are formed of box, it is necessary that they should be l^ept perfectly clear of plants, or else one of the principal charms of those kind of gardens will be lost, and confusion result. Now is the best time to make notes of the kinds best adapted for producing de- cided effects or for particular situations. It is impossible within the limits of a Calendar to enter minutely into this subject, which is a study of itself. But to give one of many instances, take a bed of white Verbena standing alone with only grass or gravel beyond it, and how in- conspicuous it is ; yet place on the other side a bed of Robinson's Defiance or the Emperor of China Verbena, and the white will appear whiter still, whilst the brilliancy of the other is greatly increased in intensity. It is clear, therefore, that effect will greatly depend on the position from which plants are to be viewed ; and this should be the first consideration in those designs which are viewed from the windows of a mansion. The pro- pagation of the more delicate sorts of bedding plants, such as Anagallis, Nierembergias, and Petunias had better be commenced soon, in order to obtain a good supply of roots, the want of which is one of the principal causes of so many of these kind of plants failing in the winter season; indeed, where there is abundance of room they would be better to be struck early enough to be potted singly, and get well rooted before going to rest in the winter. Dahlias will be much benefited by a good supply of stimulating liquid at intervals. Keep them well secured to strong stakes, and trap earwigs by inverting small pots on the top of the stakes. Pits and frames : As the most of these will now be at liberty, attention should be paid to the repairs of glass and painting, which is best done at this season. The insides of pits will also be very much the better for a good white- washing with quick lime. Herbaceous Plants. — Cuttings which have been pro- pagated this season, such as Alyssum, Iberis, Arabis, and other choice favourites, should be immediately planted out at moderate distances in the reserve garden, in readiness for autumn planting. Put in a good stock of cuttings of the best hardy Phloxes, as at this season they are quite a feature in this department. Continue to plant out the seedling perennials and biennials, either in their final sitvations or in beds for future use. Con- stantly remove all decaying leaves and flower -stems, and attend particularly to keeping every plant properly se- cured against the winds ; observe, however, that I do not advocate indiscriminate tying up everything ; many will do without ; many, also, are spoiled in appearance if huddled up in bunches round great sticks, aad had better be left alone if they cannot be tied neatly and, may I add, naturally. Towards the end of the month, take up and divide the roots of the double white Rocket, and plant them in fresh places in two's ; the remainder will be found useful if planted in a reserve bed. The double purple Rocket is too tender to be used thus roughly ; it must be carefully tended, and cuttings secured and struck as they can be got from the old plants, which will not bear to be moved about. Rose Garden. — Let the budding be now completed as soon as possible. Cuttings of the various Chinese, Tea- scented, Noisettes, and other Roses, will root very readily in light soil under hand-glasses. The early cucumber-bed, if it can be spared, is an excellent place for striking them, and also late pipings of Cloves, Picotees, and Carnations. Early budded stocks must be looked over, and the ligatures loosened. Remove seed-vessels and past-flowering shoots from the autumn- flowering Roses. Florists' Flotvers. — As soon as the first layers of Carnations and Picotees are well rooted they should be carefully separated from the stock and potted. The compost, which may consist of about equal parts of gritty road-scrapings, fibrous sandy loam, and well- decomposed leaves, should be thrown together immedi- ately, if not already done, and very often passed through the hands of some one thoroughly versed in (and anxious for) the detection of that destructive pest, the wire- worm. Pink pipings, when well rooted, should be planted in the beds where they are intended to flower. These beds should have some fresh compost laid en, and also some good decomposed manure, which, however, should be left at about spit deep, so that the roots may get the benefit of it next spring. Pot off' the early struck Pansies, and place them on coal-ashes, in a situation where they get only the morning and evening sun. Propaga- tion may be continued where a large stock is required. Shrubbery . — The principal routine here is to maintain neatness in every part. Continue the practice of re- ducing shrubs into compact, graceful shapes, and prevent the commoner sorts from encroaching on the choicer va- rieties. Planting may be commenced, but it is seldom done, except where there is much to be got through. — J. W. C. KITCHEN GARDEN, Carrots. — In addition to the sowing of last month another may now be made, which, if sheltered during severe weather, will be found useful in spring. The soil should be light and the situation warm, which tend to their preservation. Onions. — The winter crop should be sown from the 12th to the 20th of the month, and there is no better variety than the Strasburg. Whenever the spring crop begins to ripen lay down the tops, which assist the swelling of the bulbs. Keep the ground clear from weeds, to allow the sun's rays to act unobstruct- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 181 edly. Before removal to the store-hou-e have them well dried, as their preservation much depends on this point. Celery. — Plantations made after the middle of the month are rarely of much use, except for soup, therefore it is better to have the planting of the principal crops finished BO soon as circumstances will permit. Endive. — The last sowing for the season will be too late after the first week in the montli, except in very warm situations. Sj/inac/i. — This vegetable is quite insipid, unless grown on highly manured soil. Sow on the 1st and 20th of the month, which will yield a winter and spring supply, and choose the Flanders variety. Caulifloiver find Cahbnge.— Plants for spring use should be sown during the first week in the month, for if earlier than that time they are apt to flower prematurely. Sow again about the 20th, for spring planting. Colewort?. — On moderately rich ground plant out the seedlings of last month ; and the distance between the rows need not exceed fifteen to eighteen inches, as they will not grow to a large size. Savoys, Broccoli, and Borecole. — Fill up vacant ground with these vegetables, as soon as possible ; for if delayed till the end of the month the yield will be scanty. Let- tuces.— A sowing should be made about the middle of the month, for winter use ; and select the Brown Cos and Hardy Hammersmith : the latter variety resists frost with more impunity, but is not so palatable. Leeks. — • Draw up three or four inches of earth to the stems of the early planted crop ; and if additional are required, they may yet be planted. Parsley. — Sow for a prin- cipal supply ; indeed, this is the best time for sowing biennial seeds. Radishes. — Continue to sow fortnightly ; the Black Spanish is hardy, and suitable for winter. Chervil is used extensively in some families for garnish- ng, and should now be sown for standing the winter. Angelica should be sown at once to have good plants ; two or three dozen will be enough in most cases ; and to have tin m strong they should stand at least two feet apart. American and Normandy Cress, if sown about the middle of the month, on a warm border, on beds raised a little above the natural level, will stand the winter, and come in useful early in spring. Perhaps it may be better to sow a row of the latter variety at the bottom of a south wall. HARDV FRUIT. Apricots. — All superfluous breast-wood should at once be removed, as its retention prevents the matura- tion of the succeeding year's shoots ; the fruit buds will consequently be feeble and abortive. Peaches. — When- ever the last swelling of the fruit begins, the most vigorous shoots should be pinched oft' a few eyes below the point, which will considerably increase its size, and throw more nutriment into the weaker branches. In cases where young trees are growing too strongly, I v.'ould recommend partial root pruning, which will pre- vent excessive action, and thereby give to the transform- ing power of solar heat an increased agency ; for, as we have not sun-heat arbitrarily at our disposal, every means should be used to concentrate the greatest amount ; and unless this is attained to, the bud cannot be fully organized. It is now an obsolete maxim that frost hardens and matures fruit trees. Figs. — Useless shoots should be removed, and those that remain nailed close to the wall, as it is from them that fruit is to be produced next year. Vines on vails. — Two of the principal features in vine cultivation are, the production of ripe fruit and well-matured wood ; and to attain this the soil over the roots must be kept clear from weeds, and the shoots nailed closely to the wall, which acts as a reservoir of heat, and imparts it gradually during night. No useless spray should be allowed by any means to shade the principal foliage, for it is on their free expo- sure to light that the transformation of crude matter depends. Wasp.s. — Before the expiration of the month we will probably have these pests in legions, although there is not much fruit for them to devour, still that which we have must be protected. For peaches and apricots, cotton wadding laid thinly on the fruit affords perfect security, and but slightly prevents the admission of heat. A. C. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR AUGUST. In the early part of the month the weather was extremely hot and forcing ; yet, as the soil had not lost much of its previous moisture, vegetation made rapid progress in all parts of the United Kingdom. Throughout the forward districts, hay- making became general about the 5th. The pro- gress, with the exception of two or three days, was marked with much rapidity, and the fields were speedily cleared of their produce, somewhat earlier than usual. The quantity of hay stacked this year in the neighbom-hood of the metropolis, and in most of the midland counties, is unusually large, and in excellent condition. Of course much yet remains to be done in the north, but our accounts on this head are very favourable. Some little excitement has been observed on the subject of the potato disease. Many of the com- paratively small growers have asserted that a large portion of the crop has been lost; others that no serious cases of disease have yet presented them- selves amongst either the early or later planted potatoes. Now, it must be evident to all parties that — looking to the great influence which a good or bad crop of that esculent has almost invariably upon the value of corn, wheat in particular — great circumspection is absolutely n?coss?ry in giving 182 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. currency to reports of the kind to which we have just alluded. It would be by no means difficult for us to point out particular breadths of land which exhibit partial signs of disease; but our decided opinion is, after the most careful inquiry and personal investigation in various parts of the country, that we shall have an enormous produce — larger, perhaps, than was ever recollected. In this estimate we have, of course, made no allowance for any unfavourable change in the temperature ; but our conclusions are wholly drawn from the present luxurious and highly promising appearance of the haulm. During the month about 3,500 tons of new potatoes reached us from the continent ; but the importations may now be considered as having ceased until about the middle of September or be- ginning of October. Hence, for some time, we shall be wholly dependent upon home-grown sup- plies for general consumption. On the continent — where, however, we find that the breadth of land under culture has not materially increased this season — the crop is looking remarkably well ; con- sequently, we see no reason whatever to appre- hend any positive scarcity. From all quarters our accounts in reference to the wheats are unusually satisfactory ; but we re- gret to observe that in some quarters much da- mage has been sustained by the heavy showers of rain ; nevertheless, it is a pleasing duty for us to observe that the prospect of the yield is unques- tionably good. Towards the middle of the month barley stood much in need of moisture. The rains which have since fallen have had a most beneficial eflfect upon that crop, as well as upon oats, beans, and peas. In Kent the bean harvest will be gene- ral about the 11th of August. Scarcely two opinions exist as regards the stock of wheat, the pi'oduce of 1850, now in the hands of the farmers. That it has been reduced to a very low ebb, is evident from the unusually small num- ber of stacks upon most farms, as well as from the limited sales effected for some time past in the va- rious markets. This important fact — which under the old system would have had a material influence upon prices — has had no effect upon the minds of the millers, whose trade, by the free admission of foreign flour, is likely to be entirely ruined. Great efforts are making on the part of the milling interest to obtain a duty of 5s. per sack on foreign flour, but with very little prospect of success, looking to the present composition of the House of Commons. It is to be regretted that the millers have not made common cause with the agricultural body in their endeavours to regain protection. The stocks of all spring corn, especially those of barley, are now almost wholly exhausted ; but, as we continue to receive ample supplies from abroad for general use, the effect upon prices has not been important. The appearance of the hop bine being unfavour- able, more business has been transacted in the Bo- rough and elsewhere at improved quotations. The duty has been done as low as £"5,000, and the present state of the plantations appears fully to warrant so low a figure. On the whole there is every prospect of a good return of most seeds. New rapeseed and carraway have already appeared at Mark Lane, but the prices obtained for them have been unusually low. A good business has been doing in hay and straw in the London markets. Notwithstanding that very large quantities of new meadow and clo- ver have been brought forward, prices have been steadily supported. As might be expected, depastured stock has fared remarkably well, with a most abundant sup- ply of natural food. The losses by disease have been trifling in extent. The early crop of turnips and carrots is progressing well. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding the low prices at which all kinds of stock have been selling in our various markets, the imports from abroad have been materially on the increase, both as respects number and quality. Some time since, great expectations were enter- tained on the subject of future supplies from Den- mark, owing to the opening of a direct communica- tion with that country by steam vessels, via the Essex ports ; but up to the present time they have not been realized. Now, it is a well-ascertained fact that foreign beasts and sheep imported into this country from abroad, for fattening purposes, have almost invariably entailed serious losses upon the importers ; and it is equally well known that, al- though inducements may be held out by various companies in respect to low rates of transit, the least expensive and by far the safest mode of for- warding stock is as direct as possible. The want of a sufficient number of passengers to embark at outports will always operate against the employ- ment of many additional vessels ; hence we may safely assume that direct shipments to the metro- polis itself will continue to obtain a preference. Many parties have expressed their surprise at the immense numbers of foreign beasts, &c., which are weekly arriving in London ; and the question gene- rally asked is, What was done with tiiem prior to the passing of our present Tariff laws ? It must be understood that during a series of years— say, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 183 for at least half a century — an unusually large trade in salted provisions for ships' use was carried on at Hamburg and elsewhere. Nearly the w hole of the , continental vessels were supplied from that port ; whilst very extensive quantities were purchased by i English, andevenAmerican shipowners. Tliisimpor- tant trade, though still large, has not kept pace with ^ what may be termed general consumption ; hence, j instead of receiving meat here in a salted, it now j arrives in a live state. Very few speculative ship- j raents of salted provisions have been made to the West Indies for some time past, as the trade in j that quarter of the globe is almost wholly monopo- 1 lized by the " pork growers" of the United States, j The addition to the actual shipments, therefore, from the Northern European markets has not been 1 to say large; but the difficulty in reference to our own graziers is, that they come here for immediate i sale only, and that the importers are compelled to dispose of them, whatever may be the state of our trade. On reference to our tabular returns, it will be perceived that a very considerable fall has taken place in the value of stock in this country since 1847 ; yet we have no hesitation in saying that the profits of the foreign graziers are much larger than many persons estimate them at. When the trade first opened, large purchases were effected at Ham- burg, and in various part of Holland, by English salesmen and others ; but that species of specula- tion has been almost wholly abandoned, as it was found to be a losing game. In respect to the system of selling foreign stock in Smithfield, we may observe that it is now carried on systematically — that is to say, the bulk of the beasts and calves is disposed of by foreigners themselves, the remainder being consigned to English salesmen ; and, strange as it may appear, it frequently happens that the foreigners clear out long before the old- est frequenter of the market, as the foreign stock is chiefly disposed of to the large contractors, who sometimes take fully two-thirds of the supply. Again, the Jew butchers, to whom fat is no object, purchase extensively. As prices are in favour of large transactions, and as they appear likely to con- tinue so, it is scarcely possible that any material falling off will take place in the arrivals. A very extensive business has been transacted in most of the leading markets held during the month ; yet, as the supplies have proved unusually large, no material change has taken place in the quota- tions. The fineness of the present season, together with the abundance of gi'ass in the whole of our large grazing disti'icts, and the absence of disease, have been greatly in favour of depastured as well as stall-fed stock, the supply of which, in most parts of the country, is large. The droves from Norfolk^ Suffolk, &c., since the commencement of the year, have proved in most excellent condition ; indeed, we never recollect a corresponding period in which they have come to hand so evenly. Up to the present time — and we shall now be chiefly depen- dent, for London supplies, upon Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, &c., during the next four months — the arrivals from the north have reached us very deficient in weighing quality. This circumstance may, however, be chiefly attributed to most of the graziers ridding themselves of stock which has not shown much aptitude to fatten. Those from Scot- land have exhibited their usual excellence, but their number has not been extensive. On former oc- casions we have taken occasion to remark upon the unusually small quantities of oilcake consumed upon most farms, and we are now enabled to state that numerous farmers— tinder the impression that very little profit can be derived from an outlay of £10 per ton— have come to the determination to use only natural food in future. Our impression all along has been that large sums of money have been lost by a too free investment in cake, and we still entertain the impression that they can better meet the competition with grain-fed or distillers' wash produced foreign beef by a more strict adherence to Nature's laws. The splendid result of the holding of the annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society is evi- dence that the spirit of competition, notwithstand- ing the pressure of the times, is still in existence amongst the grazing community. This, however, we attribute, in a great measure, to the excellent mode in which the stock is classed. It may be argued that the peculiar period of the year in which the exhibition takes place, renders it necessary to have a different classification to that adopted by the Smithfield Club. We entertain a very different opinion; but we shall make no further comments on this head, further than to express our great satisfaction at the proposed changes which are in contemplation in Baker-street, and which, if pro- perly and fearlessly carried out, will be productive of the greatest advantages, not only to the club itself, but the exhibitors at large. The following supplies of foreign stock have arrived in London : — Head. Beasts 3,126 Sheep 15,372 Lambs 2,595 Calves 2,205 Pigs 784 Total 24,082 During the corresponding period in 1850 we re- ceived a total supply of 16,089; in 1849, 16,412; and in 1848, 12,379 head. The receipts at the outr ports have amounted to 6,000 head ; including a 184 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. cargo of oxen from Spain, at Southampton. Very few foreign pigs have made their appearance in Smithfield, as they have been chiefly disposed of privately, at prices varying from 2s. to '2s. 4d. per 8lbs. The total supplies of stock exhibited have been as under : — Head. Beasts 18,492 Cows 470 Sheep and lambs 188,170 Calves 2,520 Pigs 2,800 SUPPLIES AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS. Sheep and Julv. Beasts. Cows. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1847.. 15,773 58G 153,290 3,693 2,228 1848.. 16,878 495 147,290 4,033 2,350 1849.-15,576 470 162,900 2,6l5 2,044 1850. .16,741 451 178,550 2,908 2,168 The bullock supplies from the north have mate- rially increased — they having amounted to nearly 8,000 head ; whilst vve have had full average arrivals from Norfolk, and most other parts of England. Prices have continued to rule very low; and we regret to state that, with open ports, there is little or no prospect of any material improvement in them. Beef has sold at from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. ; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd.; lamb, 4s. to 5s.; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. Sd. ; and pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 8d. per 8lbs., to sink the offal. COMPARISON OF PRICES. July, 1847. July, 1848. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 3 8 to 5 0 2 8 to 4 2 Mutton ..4 0 5 4 3 8 5 0 Lamb 5 2 6 4 4 6 5 6 Veal 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 Pork 4 0 5 0 3 6 4 6 July, 1849. July, 1850. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from .... 2 8 to 4 0 2 4 to 3 8 Mutton 3 0 4 0 210 4 0 Lamb 40 50 38 410 Veal 3 3 3 10 2 6 3 6 Pork 3 2 4 0 3 2 4 0 Although the weather has proved hot, large quantities of country-killed meat have been re- ceived up to Newgate and Leadenhall; in which the trade has been in a very depressed state, as follows: — Beef, from 2s. 2d. to3s. 4d.; mutton, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. ; lamb, 3s. 8d. to 4s. Sd.; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 4d.; pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per 8lbs,, by the carcass. SALE OF SHORT-IIORNED CATTLE AT FARNLEY HALL, YORKSHIRE.— On Thursday, the 24th July, the second periodical sale of a portion of the far-famed herd of shorthorns, bred by F. II. Fawkes, Esq , Farnley Hall, near Otley, Yorkshire, was submitted to public competition by Mr. H. Strafford, of London. The celebrity and character of the stock drew together a highly respectable company of gentle- men from various parts of the United Kingdom, as well as from Australia and the United States of America, The prices obtained are evidence of tlie public estimation in which this herd is held. The sale consisted of 32 lots ; viz-, 13 young bulls and bull calves, and 19 cows and heifers, which realized upwards of £1,500 ; the bulls averaging over 50 gs. each. Lot 1, "Lord Foppington," was bought by S. Marjoribanks, Esq., Bushey Grove, Watford, for 110 gs.; lot 2, "Master Thankful," by J. Booth, Esq., Kelstern, Louth, for 72 gs. ; lot 3, " Master Vaux," by N. Cartwright, Haugham, Louth, for Bogs.; lot 4, "Lord Chancellor," by W. Hutton, Esq., Gate Burton, near Gainsborough, for 80 gs. Several other bull calves sold at good prices, as lot 12, " Moss Trooper," to A. Cruickshank, Esq., Aberdeen, for 59 gs. ; lot 7, " Fit?; Frank," to G. W. Wentworth, Esq , Wooley Park, Wakefield, for 42 gs. ; lot 8, " Gay Lad," to Lord Hastings, Melton Con- stable, Norfolk, for 41 gs. ; lot 10, "Masterman," to J. Good- man, Esq., Balk House, Worlley, for 41 gs. The cows and heifers sold equally well; the highest price was "Lady Laura," bought for C. Townley, Esq, Townley Hall, Lancashire, at 135 gs. ; "Lady Millicent," at 70 gs , to H. Champion, Esq., Ranby House, Retford; "Lady Vere," to the Rev. T. Cator, Skelbrook Park, Doncaster, for 61 gs. ; " Violet," to J. Robinson, Burton, Staffordshire, for 53 gs. ; " Lady Francis," to H. Ambler, Esq," WatkinsouHall, Halifax, for 50 gs.; " Off- she-Goes," for 47 gs., and " Laurustiua," for 38 gs., to Sir C. R. Tempest; " She's-coming-Agaui," to Ed. Ackroyd, Esq., for 37 gs. Amongst the other buyers were C. Barrett, Esq., andW.C.R. Stansfield, Esq., Messrs. Brandham, J. Emmerson, PuUen, Trethewy (Cornwall), itc. The result of the sale must have been highly gratifying to Mr. Fawkes, who, previous to the same, entertained the company to lunch, and submitted his herd to their inspection. The bulls " Lord Marquis" and " Beaufort" (a son of Usurer), now used by Mr. Fawkes, were greatly admired ; the former was shown at Windsor. Both he and Mr. Bentley's prize bull were by the celebrated bull " Laudable," and also Mr. Ambler's prize heifer, the produce of a cow bought at the hxst sale ; and the stock sold were mostly by Laudable, or from cows by that bull, and descended .'rom stock originally purchased of the late Mr. Whitaker and Mr. R. Booth ; and with such materials as still remain in the possession of Mr. Fawkes, it is not unreasonable to suppose that this gentleman will again produce at no distant period another lot equally worthy of his reputation as a breeder. Too great praise cannot be given for the honourable manner in which this stock is introduced to tlie public, giving them not only the opportunity of obtaining the best and choicest breeds, but to fix their value upon it by competition ; for, with the exception of two doubtful heifers, as explained by Mr. Strafford at the opening of the sale, on which a slight reserve would be placed, not one shilling would be bid on the part of the owner. These two animals were also sold, one at an advance over the reserved price, thus proving that fair dealing is duly appre- ciated. The cattle were in good condition, but not more so than to give them a fair chance of being useful for the pur- poses of breeding from. SALE OF SHORT-HORNS AT TETLEY.— On Tuesday, July 22, a number of pure-bred short-horns, the property of H. L.Maw,Esq.,of Tetley, were offered for sale by Mr. Wetherell, of Durham. It was reasonably anticipated that the success of Mr. Maw last week at Windsor, where a bull of his breeding, but the property of Mr. Wetherell, had the distinguished honour of carrying away the first premium in Class 1, and with a competition almost unparalleled in the annals of the meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, would have been the means of attracting at this sale a large number of the most popular short -horn lireeders of the country, and a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 spirited corapetitiou beeu the result of their gathering, This, I ^j°'^i^i,g„_ ^gj^ c^i^gj 1345, bred by Mr. Crofton, Holywell 16 however, proved not to be ; and although there was a large | q Sophia, roau, calved Fib. 25, 1848; sire Saxe Coburg 36 attendance of breeders, including the principal residing in I 3. Christobel, calved March 29, 1847 ; sire Christobel. . 30 North Liucoliis, ire, South Yorkshire, and North Netting- 1 4. Hebe, calved April 11, 1847 ; sire Roan Duke .... 20 , ,- , , 1-11 n „ ;„„ „f 1 S. Ruth, calved April 29, 1847; sire Harvester 30 hauiahire, sales were by no means brisk, and even the genms 01 I „ ,, ... ' , ,' . i- lo/,- ■ -n a n ^ oa ' •' ' 1 f ' ^- Calliope, calved Nov. lo, 1840 ; sire Red Duke .... .^0 i\Ir. Wetherell failed to induce biddings equal tc the value ot 7 U(j„„a ^^^^^ pj^,^,p,j Qct. 31, 1840 ; sire The Duke. . 14 the stock he placed before the company. The sale consisted of 8. Eglantine, calved Aug. 3, 1847 ; sire Harvester .... 20 twenty-six heifers and cows, and four bulls. To Mr. Maw the , 9. Melody, calved ]\Iarch 31, 1847 ; sire Roan Duke . . 17 highest praise is due for the manner in which his stock came : |0. Clematis calved April 27, 1848 ; sire Canute 13 , , , , , , , , -r 1, i 11. .loan of Arc, calved May 14, 1848 ; sire Charlemagne 24 to the hammer, and several of the cows and heifers were really ^^ ^^^^^^^ p^,^.^^ ^,,^ 3q_ j^gg . ^.^^ rp,,^ ^^,.^ ^2 splendid animals, especially " Jenny Lind," who was highly 13 L^^y^ calved Oct. 10, 1848 ; sire Hope.Tell 18 commended by the judge at Windsor, and although knocked 14. Fanny, calved Nov. 16, 1848 ; sire Hopewell 18 off at the sum of 32 guineas, we are informed she still remains i 15. Jenny Lind, calved Feb. 28, 1849 ; sire Rodolph . . 32 I. T ti Ti. II • J I i„ „ k^o,. o -o^^^o^i, tn v,a-L,a 16. Songstresg, calvcd April 19, 1850; sire Rodolph .. 23 at Tetley. It would indeed have been a reproach to nave J„- p i ■ ir \ m iJ-n ■ o- a it,„ii it ■' I. c I !/■ Elvira, calved March 21, 18d0; sire Sir Archibald . . 17 allowed such an animal to have gone away at such a figure, jg Music, calved March 2.3, 1850 ; sire Saxe tlotlia .. 15 when in fact she would have been cheap at twice the amount. 19. Rosabel, calved June 19, 1850 ; sire Sir Archibald . . 14 We also believe that the bulls Rodolph, Saxe Gotha, and 20. Daffodil, calved Dec. 23, 1849 ; aire Tiie Duke 12 Prince Edward were bought in. Rodolph is certainly one of 21. Caroline, calved Dec. 12, 1849 ; sire Maydnke .... 16 ,, , , . 1-11 -,1 A- , 22. Red Rose, calved May 4, 1850 ; sire Saxe Gotha .. 11 the best framed animals we have ever seen, with exceedingly ^„ Albania, calved March 6,1851; sire Roan Duke of fii.e touch, and not an unworthy associate of Mr. Wetherell's Albany 7 Earl of Scarbro'. The pigs were excellent specimens of their 24. Kathleen, calved May 23, 1851 ; sire Saxe Gotha .. 9 class. We must not omit to mention that Mr. Maw, with a spirit 25. Anemone, talved May 26, 1851 ; sire Herschel 7 which certainly merited a more successful issue to his sale, 26. Rose Mary, calved June 8, 1851 ; sire Saxe Gotha . . 5 ^ ,, . . X • J , ■ 27. Rodolph, calved Aug. 24, 1846 ; sire Roan Duke .. So previous to the commencement of business entertained his .^g ^ase Gotha, calved Jan. 27, 1848 ; sire Saxe Cobonrg 36 company with a most substantial and liberal repast. The fol- 29. Prince Edward, calved June 1, 1850 ; sire Rodolph. . 36 lowing is a list of the " closing price" of each lot • — 30. L'amoens, March 10, 1850 ; sire Cedric 12 METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Day. 8 a.m. 10p.m. in. cts. in. cts. June21 29.95 29.74 ■22 29.79 30.02 23 30.14 30.24 24 30.27 30.27 25 30.27 30.27 26 30.27 30.20 27 30.21 30.17 28 30.20 30.20 29 30.20 30.19 30 30.16 30.10 July 1 30.05 29.95 2 29.90 29.99 3 30.02 30.02 1 4 30.04 30.00 5 30.00 29.98 6 30.05 30.06 7 30.08 29.93 8 29.80 29.83 9 29.83 29.70 10 29.70 29.90 11 30.12 30.10 12 30.09 29.92 13 29.86 29.57 14 29.51 29.60 15 29.75 29.75 IG 29.77 29. SO 17 29.83 29.84 18 29.90 29.96 19 29.99 29.84 20 29.77 29.73 21 29.98 30.03 Thermometscr. Mill. Max. lOp.m, 56 58 46 45 52 53 56 59 55^ 57 60 60 55 53 43 50 55 55 53 49 43 57 48 53 55 47 52 46 47 53 53A 74 69 65 69 75 78 82 78 76 75 78 76 65 65 74 74 75 70 71 69 67 73 75 70 71 67 69 70 60 68 71 63 53 53 58 6U 64 68 63 61 65 65 60 58 55 59 60 62 56 57 48 59 56 56 56 56 56 50 60 57 I Wind and State. J Direction. Force. iEast, S.E. lively JN. West gentle |W.N.W. gentle !W. by S. by N. gentle .Westerly gentle South gentle E.S.E. gentle East lively East brisk E. by S. very b. JEvery way gentle iN.W.,N.E. very b. N. East lively N., N. by W. lively W. by North gentle W., W. by S. gentle W. by South gentle West, North gentle W., N. West gentle N.W., North varial). iWesterly gentle Westerly fresh jW. by South strong i, Westerly strong Westerly gentle W. by North gentle S. East, var. gentle Var., W. by S. calm Southerly strong S. West very b W. or by North gentle Atmosphere. 8 a.m 2 p.m. ,10p.m. Weath. fine sun cloudy fine sun sun fine sun fine cloudy fine sun fine sun fine sun fog sun haze sun cloudy cloudy sun sun cloudy cloudy sun sun fine sun fine cloudy fine sun cloudy cloudy cloudy sun sun cloudy fine sun fine sun fine sun fine sun fine cloudy fine sun cloudy sun fine sun fine cloudy cloudy cloudy fine sun fine fine fine fine fine fine fine fine fine cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine fine cloudy fine cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine fine cloudy fine fine fine fine cloudy cloudy fine dry dry dry dry dry dry dry dry dry dry showers wet dry dry dry dry dry ■ rain Idry showers dry dry dry rain jrain dry jrain hint rain hint dry 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF JULY. Barometer. i Thermometer. High. I Low. I High. I Low.. I Mean. 30.26 I 29.35 1 82 | 41 | 61.6 KEAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest. j Mean. 71.58 I 52.42 I 62.0 Weather and Phenomena. June 21 — Heat oppressive, Hke thunder, till evening. 22 — Cooler ; thunder in some places west. 23 — Cool; clouds after 4 p.m. '24 — Warm. 25 — Heat increases; doubtful clouds. 26 — Less oppressive; superb evening. 27 — Still hotter. 28 — Cloudless. 29 — Cirrus; 124 degrees in the sun at 4 p.m. ! 30 — Grey cirro-stratus ; a change indicated. Lunations. — Last quarter, 21st day, 6 h. 35 m. afternoon. New moon, 29th day 6 h. 25 m. morning. July 1 — Wavy clouds, distant thunder, and soft rain. 2 — Rain all day, much wanted. 3 — Cold ; masses of clouds. 4 — Warm sun ; fine evening. 5 — Cold morning; fine day. 6— Sober, warm day. 7 — Clouds form ; changeable. 8 — Heavy clouds; rainy evening. 9— Genial air; red sun- set. 10 — Rain in night; thunder, hail, aud rain. 11 — Cold, fine morning ; stratus; change. 12 — Very fine; sweet air. 13 — Strong breeze; cirrus. 14 — Same. 15 — S within ; sedate, sunless day; a few scattered drops. 16 — Fine maturing day. 17 to 20 — Fickle and changeable period. 21 — Genial maturing day. Lunations, — First quarter, 5th day, 11 h. 8 m. afternoon. Full moon, 13th day, 7 h. 14 m. after- noon. Last quarter, 21st day, 10 h. 39 m. fore- noon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The crops round Croydon are good, according to the character of the tillage. I found everything much later between Reigate and Brighton, owing partly to the heavy state of the land, and the very late season when spring corn was sown. I think that disease is absent from all crops, and that the wheat ears will be full and the grains perfectly sound. We have not had a drop too much rain, for grass is very brown. If warm weather be now confirmed, some wheat will soon be cut. J. Towers. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JULY. Notwithstanding the advanced period of the season, the probable result of the harvest is still in- volved in great uncertainty, and opinions as to the actual state of the crops are more divided than is usually the case so near the close of the month of July. This is no doubt caused by the changeable and unsettled character of the weather experienced during the greater part of the summer, the alterna- tions having been so frequent as to defy anything like an estimate as to the eifects likely to be pro- duced thereby on the growing corn. At times matters have worn a suflficiently gloomy appear- ance, and evil consequences have begun to be ap- prehended, when the occurrence of a few fine days has again restored hope; and these intervals of alternate sunshine and rain, heat and cold, have kept the mind constantly in a state of unceUainty as to the ultimate result. In the commencement of the month, when wheat was generally in bloom, rather high winds pre- vailed, which led to the impression that the blos- soming might not proceed favourably, and on the nights of the 4th and the 11th the thermometer fell to freezing point ; for some days afterwards the temperature was low for the period of the year, and on the 15th (St. Swithin's) we had rain. Weather such as we have just described was, it must be confessed, warranted to create some uneasiness as to the crops ; but we are happy to say that the at- mosphei'ical changes appear to have done far less injury than might have been expected, and that the reports from the various parts of the kingdom give a much more encouraging account of the aspect of the fields than, under the circumstances, might have been expected. We hear of the corn having been a good deal lodged, the rain which has fallen having been so heavy as to beat down the crops. Our principal fear is, however, in regard to the injury which may have been done by the night frosts, and this it will not be possible to discover until reaping shall have been commenced. We are, however, inclined to think, that if the ear had suffered extensively, symptoms of blight would have shown themselves, and that farmers would have become aware of the fact. The absence, therefore, of serious complaints, induces us to hope that the frost on the occasions alluded to was not so severe as to do much harm. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 187 That no very serious defect in tiie harvest is ap- prehended, is manifested by the turn which the trade has taken, prices having, since our last, re- ceded in all parts of the kingdom. The excitement of June has been followed by a very quiet month. A great part of the advance then estabhshed at several of the leading provincial markets has since been lost. This could scarcely, it would be imagined, have been the case if a very deficient yield was expected, even if the arrivals from abroad had been larger than they actually have. Our own impression is, that in case the weather should prove tolerably propitious for the ingather- ing, that the produce of wheat of the United King- dom would be superior to that of last year, both in quantity and quality— though we question whether it would come up to that of good average seasons. If we feel ourselves constrained to speak so vaguely in reference to wheat, the uncertainty in regard to the spring-sown crops is still greater ; and we must allow another month to pass over before we venture on an estimate as to what may be the general result of the harvest. This is, however, certain, that the stocks of home-grown wheat remaining on hand are small, and that those of spring corn are almost wholly exhausted. The experiment of free trade has now been tried sufficiently long to convince all parties that the low range of prices of the last three j^ears has not been the result of panic, and that more re- munerative rates must not be calculated on so long as the produce of foreign lands continues to be ad- mitted without duty into this country. A large yield is therefore the only hope for our farmers. Whe- ther large or small crops be produced in Great Britain, supplies will (except in cases of universal scarcity all over the world) exceed the demand when- ever a price of about 40s. per qr. for wheat, and corresponding rates for other articles, shall be ob- tainable in our markets. This we look upon as an ascertained fact, which growers ought to keep always in mind in all fresh engagements with their landlords. It is now allowed on all hands that the last crop of wheat was exceedingly deficient in quantity all over the United Kingdom ; that the liome stocks at harvest time, 1850, were as small, or nearly so, as at present; but this did not prevent prices falling, and we cannot, therefore, reasonably expect a higher range of quotations for the future. We admit that France may perhaps not be in a po- sition to send such large supplies as she has done the last two years ; but from all we can learn from America, it appears that the exports from the United States promise to be fully sufficient to counter- balance any falling off which may take place in the receipts from France, while we are of opinion that a considerable proportion of last year's produce of wheat in the north of Europe is still unconsumed,and that if the harvest only turns out moderately favour- able there, the shipments from the Baltic will, before winter sets in, be larger than is generally supposed. In our last monthly article M'e advised our agricul- tural friends to take advantage of the then buoyant state of the markets, to dispose of what wheat they might have remaining, feehng satisfied that the up- ward movement had reached its maximum. We now offer the foregoing view of the probable future r-ange of prices, to guard them against indulging in expectations of higher quotations than those which have prevailed since the removal of import duties. The general tone of the wheat trade has been depressed since the close of last month, and prices have tended downwards. Notwithstanding the ex- treme shortness of the deliveries from our own growers, and the comparatively moderate character of the supplies from abroad, the fall in the value of wheat has (taking one place with the other) amounted to quite 3s. per qr., and quotations are not at present much higher than they were previous to the recent rise. In some early localities harvest has been commenced ; but cutting is not likely to be general, even in the south, until the second week in August, and in the north little corn will be ready for the sickle till towards the close of the month. A late harvest is always attended with some extra risk, and considerable fluctuations may yet occur ; but we are of opinion that any rise which may take place will prove temporary, and that the average range of prices will not be higher from August, 1851, to August, 1852, than that we have had from the last harvest to this. Durmg the last fortnight we have had rumours from time to time respecting the appearance of disease in the potato crop, and since the 20th inst. the fact has been fully ascertained that this root has again been attacked by the disorder to which it has of late years been liable. How far this may detract from the yield no one can at present determine ; but as the malady has decreased in virulence each succeeding season since its first appearance in these islands, it is not unreasonable to hope that the pro- gressive improvement may continue, and that the produce will be more free of the disorder this than last year. The accounts from Ireland are nearly unanimous as to the existence of the murrain, but differ greatly in the estimate of the probable extent to which the disease may affect the yield of the potato. The breadth of land planted with that root is generally said to be less than in ordinary seasons, owing to the cultivation of flax having extended materially. The fact that Indian corn has risen in estimation in the sister isle, as an article of food, has likewise 188 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tended to diminish the growth of the potato ; and a partial loss of the latter crop would consequently not be followed by such distressing consequences as has unhappily been the case in former seasons. Nearly the whole of the Indian corn imported into the United Kingdom finds its way to Ireland, and we are inclined to believe that so hazardous a crop as the potato will no longer be trusted to as the staple article of food. Business at Mark Lane has been quiet through- out the month, and the disposition to enter into speculative investments, which existed to a certain extent in June, has been followed by anxiety to clear out old stocks previous to harvest. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of London have not increased, and the quantity brought forward by land-carriage samples from Essev, Kent, and Suffolk has been very small; the reaction which has taken place in prices must, therefore, be attributed to a change in general opinion rather than to any excess in the home sup- ply. Fine hot weather during the latter part of June gave the first check to the upward tendency; and on Monday, the 4th inst., a decline of Is. per qr. had to be acceded to before a clearance could be effected. Since then no quotable reduction has taken place, the frequent changes which the wea- ther has undergone having tended to maintain the confidence of sellers. We find, however, on com- paring present quotations with those current at the close of last month, that prices are about 2s. perqr. lower, good runs of Essex and Kent red wheat having lately been sold at 40s. to 42s., and white at 45s. to 46s. per qr. The town millers have not had to depend on the home supply, the arrivals from abroad having consisted partly of fresh qualities. Altogether up»vards of 70,000 qrs. foreign wheat have been received at this port during the month, a very large proportion (more than one-third) of which has been from Danzig. The millers have consequently had a good choice of quality, and have to a certain extent been independent of the home supply. That most of the foreign wheat will lose money cannot be questioned ; still im])orters have generally manifested a disposition to sell from on board ship, in preference to landing and incur- ring further charges. The reduction in prices since the end of last month has been quite as great on foreign as on English wheat ; notwithstanding which purchasers have acted with great caution, and beyond what has been taken for immediate consumption little has changed hands. Black-Sea quahties have been much neglected, though offered at comparatively low rates, the demand having been principally confined to good fresh parcels of Lower Baltic red and useful qualities of Danzig ; the former have been parted with at 41?, to 42s., while fine Rostock has been offered at 44s. to 46s. The prices for Danzig have ranged wide, say, from 42s. up to 4Ss., and even higher for superior high- mixed samples. The transactions in free-on-board cargoes have been much less extensive than in June. The arrivals off" the coast from Black Sea ports have not been large ; and the greater part of the cargoes which have come forward having been sold while on passage, the operations have been altogether unimportant. The rates at present asked for Polish Odessa wheat are 35s. to 36s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance; and other kinds might be bought at proportionate terms. The offers from the Baltic have been at prices much too high to tempt buyers, and scarcely any free-on-board bargains have been closed for some weeks past. The nominal top price of town-manufactured flour has not varied. The bakers have through- out the month conducted their operations with great caution, declining to enter into forward purchases; and the millers have there- fore few contracts on hand to complete. The arrivals of flour coastwise have been moderate, and good fresh marks have sold rather freely at jjrices very little below those current last week ; good Norfolk household flour being still worth 29s. to 30s. per sack. The receipts of flour from France have not been so large as they were earlier in the year, still the supply has averaged nearly 4,000 sacks per week ; and latterly we have in addition had some quantity from America. Buyers have consequently been enabled to secure what they have required on rather easier terms than last month ; and 32s. per sack is now an extreme quotation for French flour, capital quality being obtainable at 30s. to 31s. per sack. Scarcely a sample of English barley has been exhibited at Mark-lane since our last, and only 25 qrs. have arrived coastwise into the port of London during the month ; showing plainly that the stocks are all but exhausted. At present prices must be regarded as perfectly nominal ; and no business is likely to be done until supplies of the new crop shall have made their appearance. The arrivals of barley from abroad have been tolerably good; having, however, experienced a steady demand for grinding qualities, sellers have been enabled to make fair p';ogress in sales from on board ship without submitting to any decline ; and we con- sider prices much the same as at this time last month. Light qualities are worth 21s. to 22s., and good heavy sorts 22s, to 24s. per qr. In the early part of the month malt was held with much firnmess ; but lately sellers have shown more anxiety to realize — without, however, lowering their pi'etensions. Owing to large arrivals of oats from Russia to- THE FARMER'S iMAGAZlNE. wards the latter part of June, prices had akeady given way when we last addressed our readers. Since then nearly 160,000 qrs. more have come to hand from foreign ]iorts ; the greater i)art during the fir«t fortnight in the month. Meanwhile the supplies coastwise and from Ireland have been ex- tremely small; the market has, however, been unable to stand against such large foreign receipts, and the downward movement continued till within the last week or ten days. On Mondaj', the 7th instant, prices were quite Is. per qr. lower than on that day se'nnight; and on the I4th a further decline to the same extent took place. Dur- ing the following week the tendency continued downwards, but since then a slight reaction has taken ])lace. The lowest sales of Riga oats were at iTs. Cd. to ISs., for which 18s. 6d, to 19s. per qr. is now asked ; the depression has been greater on Russian than any other kind, the fall from the highest paint having been 4s. to 4s. 6d. per qr., while good English, Scotch, and Irish feed have not receded more than 2s. to 2s. 6d, per qr. At present the trade is firm, but the arrivals from Archangel will no doubt be rather liberal, and the dealers having lately got tolerably well into stock are disposed to wait, in order to see what effect may be produced on quotations thereby. The decline which has taken place in the value of oats has naturally had more or less influence on prices of beans, and the article, though offered cheaper than before, has throughout the month been very difficult of disposal. Peas of home growth have come very sparingly to hand, and the receipts from abroad have not been large ; the quantity offered from warehouse has, however, proved more than sufficient for the demand, and prices have given way Is. to 2s. per qr. for foreign white peas. In Indian corn on the spot little or nothing has been done, and the operations in floating cargoes have not been so extensive as they were in the month of June, owing partly to the moderate na- ture of the arrivals, and partly to the falling off which has taken place in the demand on Irish ac- count ; Galatz has, however, not been offered below 28s., and for Egyptian 25s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance, has been asked. There are probably moderate stocks of this article at some of the principal ports in Ireland, but the quantity oft' the coast at Liverpool, &c., is quite trifling, and any extensive failure in the potato crop would therefore be likely to cause an advance in quota- tions of Indian corn. The re-action which has taken place in prices of wheat in the English markets within the last five or six weeks appears to have produced less influence on the quotations on the continent than might have been expected, local speculation having to a certain extent counteracted the eftect of the dull Englisl^ reports. At Danzig speculators seem to have wholly dis? regarded the advices from hence, and during the week ending ) 2th inst. (after it had become j)er- fectly well known that prices had receded here), upwards of 10,000 qrs. changed hands at terms out of all projjortion to those current in the Eng- lish markets. Later accounts state that the de- mand had rather slackened, but that sellers had refused to make any concession. Considerable shipments had been made, and further parcels were in progress of being despatched to Great Britain. Freight to London was 3s. to 3s. 2d., to the East coast 3s. to 3s. 4d., and to Liverpool 3s. 6d. per qr. Our letters do not allude particularly to the state of the crops, which circumstance induces us to believe that there was not much to complain about. Letters from Rostock, Stettin, &c., speak well of the crops in Pommerania, Silesia, Mecklenburg, &c. ; harvest operations had not yet been com- menced, but the corn was fast approaching matu- rity. Meanwhile there had been no want of sup- plies of old wheat, and prices had consequently given way more or less at all the princi|)al markets. At Rostock, usually one of the highest ports in the Baltic, good to fine qualities of wheat had re- ceded to 40s. to 41s. per qr. ; and at Stralsund, Anclam, Greifswald, &c., purchases might have been made at 38s. to 40s. per qr. free on board. The accounts from Hamburg, Rotterdam, Ant- werp, and the other near ports, are to much the same effect, and there can be little doubt that quotations will give way abroad, unless circum- stances should hereafter occur to cause it to be be- lieved that Great Britain will want large supplies. Until quite recently, the reports from France gave a very unfavourable account of the probable result of the harvest, but since the middle of June the crops have greatly improved in that country, and though the yield cannot be expected to be so abundant as it was last year, it is nevertheless probable that the growth will be more than sufficient for the con- sumption, and that there will be some surplus for shipment to England. Nearly the whole of the rise established in Paris in prices of flour last month has since been lost, and the latest accounts fi-om thence describe business as languid. In the south of France a consiberable quantity of corn has already been secured, and the harvest was general in the northern departments. From Italy, Spain, and otht r southern countries the reports as to the result of the harvest are very conflicting, but as yet we do not hear of any serious complaints. 190 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Letters from Odessa, Galatz^ &c., inform us tliat considerable purchases of v^heat and Indian corn had been made on British account, at rates too high to leave a profit in our markets. The prospects for the harvest in that part of the world were considered promising. The most recently received advices from the United States are important, inasmuch as they com- municate the fact that the corn crops were unusually heavy, and that an abundant harvest was conse- quently calculated on. Under these circumstances the rise in the British markets had produced less influence than it otherwise might have done— the rise in the value of flour having scarcely amounted to half dollar per barrel. A fair propori ion of the English orders had therefore been executed, and there is reason to expect that the shipments of bread- stuffs from America will be large before the close of the inland navigation. At New York, on the 8th inst., good brands of Western Canal flour were obtainable at 4 d. 12^ c. which would, with the current freight to Liverpool, render the cost about IQs. per brl. CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. Shillings per Quarter Whi;at, Essex and Kent, white 37 to 42 fine up to 48 ditto old .. 40 ditto red 35 38 44 40 40 37 40 40 42 Ditto Ditto Ditto ditto old . . . Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 32 Ditto ditto old.. 38 Ditto ditto white 38 Ditto ditto old.. 40 Barley, malting 24 Chevalier 30 Distilling 23 Grinding 21 22 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 44 46 extra Ditto ditto old 45 Kingston,Ware, and town made,new 50 Ditto ditto old 48 Oats, English feed 18 Potato 20 Scotch feed 20 Irish feed, white 18 Ditto, black 17 Rye 25 Beans, Mazagan 28 Ticks 29 Harrow 29 Pigeon , 30 Peas, white boilers 28 Maple 28 Grey 27 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — Country marks — 48 ,j 53 j^ 54 j^ 19 fine 23 extra 23 fine 19 fine 19 fine 27 old 24 30 „ 28 31 „ 29 32 „ 31 32 „ 32 30 „ 27 30 „ 28 29 „ 28 — „ 34 — „ 28 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Av. 8. d. 42 7 25 6 21 11 28 2 31 5 28 6 Gazette. QLra. Wheat . 51,264 Barley .. 1,807 Oats .. .. 6,259 Rye .. 87 Beans . . . 1,813 Peas .. 340 Averages from the correspoud- injc Gazette in 1850. Av. Wheat Barley Oats . Rye . Beans . Peas . Qrs. 81,901 2,343 15,785 100 2,861 362 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. LAST Six Weeks. Ijarley. Oats. ! Rye. Beans For the Wheat, a. d. 39 11 Wekk Ending June 14, 1851, June 21,1851.. 40 7 June 28, 1851.. 42 4 July 5,1351.. 43 5 July 12,1851.. 43 6 July 19. 1851.. 42 7 Aggregate average of last six weeks 42 0 Comparative avge. same time last year 40 11 Duties 1 0 6 I 21 11 25 1 21 8 21 11 117 0 1 01 1 0 d.Is. d. 26 1|30 10 28 030 5 28 11 32 1 27 631 8 32 5 32 6 28 2 31 5 28 6 22 7 1 0 31 6 27 0 1 0 Peas. s. d. 28 6 27 6 29 2 28 10 28 8 28 6 28 6 27 3 1 0 SEED MARKET. Rapeseed was not quite so depressed as in the middle of last week, but was cheaper than on Monday, Carra- wayseed was likewise the turn lower, and other articles moved off tardily. BRITISH SEEDS. Linseed (per qr.j. . sowing 60s. to 65s. ; crushing 483. to 52s, Linseed Cakes (per 1,000 of 3 lbs. each)., £8 lOs. to £10 Os, Cow Grass (nominal) £ — to £ — • Trefoil (per cwt.) 16s. to 21s. Rapeseed, (per last) new £22 to £24 old £— to £— Ditto Cake (per ton) x:4 Os. to £4 10s, Mustard (per bushel) wliite 6s. to 83. ; . . brown, 83. to 12s. Coriander (per cwt.) 16s. to 243. Caiiary (per qr.) new 40s. to 41s., fine 429. to 433. Taies, Winter, per bush., 3s. 6d. to 4s. 3(i.; Spring, nominal. Carraway (per cwt.) new, 31s. to 33s. ; fine 34s, Turnip, white (per bush.) 63. to 10s.; do. Swedish. — s. to — s. Clovcrseed red 40s. to 483., fine 50s. to 558 BOROUGH HOP MARKET. We are unable to report any decided improvement in the prospects of the growing crop, and the duty is steady at £95,000. The demand is moderate, with few Hopa on offer. Sussex pockets 90s. to 100s, Weald of Kent 95s, to 105s. Mid and East Kents 100s. to 150s. ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. We note a dull trade, at lower prices, all the recent advance being now lost. Dorset, fine weekly . . ...... 80s. to 82s. per cwt. Do. middling 60s. to 70s. Devon 70s. to 72s. Fresh 8s. to lis. per dozen lbs. 27 11 WOOL MARKET. ALNWICK ADJOURNED WOOL FAIR, July 19.— This being the first market after the wool fair, there was a number of parcels offering, holders keeping back, calculating for an ad- vance in prices, which buyers seemed unwilling to give, and as neither party was eager to do business, a large amount not transacted. Good white Cheviot fine wool, 24s. ; and according to the proportion of youug sheep and hog, up to 263. 6d. ; Leicesters, all fine, 243. ; mixed up to 26s. 6d. ; all hog and half-bred Leicesters, 27s. to 27s. 6d. per st. of 241bs. BIRMINGHAM WOOL SALES.— We observed that the steps taken to establish wool sales in Birmingham have been promptly and energetically followed up. The first sale is an- nounced to take place by Nossiter (of the Hide and Skin Mar- ket), at Bingley Hall, on Tuesday, the 29th inst. DONCASTER WOOL MARKET, July 26.— There was very little wool offering to-day : the fair being on the 5th of August, a larger supply is then expected. No alteration in prices, and the trade flat. LEEDS, July 25. — We have no change to report this week in the English Wool market, either in demand or prices. Printed by Joseph Eogerson, 246, Strand, London. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SEPTEMBER, 1851 No. 3.— Vol. XXIV.] [Second Skhies. PLATE 1. FARM BUI J. DINGS IN YORKSHIRE. (For description see page 2UJ'.J PLATE II. A S H O R T - H O R N E D COW. The subject of the second plate is a short-horned Cow, the property of Mr. Stephen Gooch, of Honnington, near Norwich, to which were awarded the first prize of Twenty Sovereignp, and the Gold Medal, at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December last. AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. No. II. — On the Cultluk ok Bka.ns upon STKONt; Land. BY J. TOWKRS, MI;MBKK li.A..S., II, H. OV LONDON, ETC. This paper has its origin in the communica- tion of a fact by a gentleman, whose authority in all matters connected with agriculture, practical and theoretical, ranks among the very first that could be cited. Though private and confidential as to names, it is of an interest so general that I feel myself at perfect liberty to give the earliest publi- city to its substance. I thus introduce the subject. Beans are supposed to require a strong soil ; and in the first edition of " The Book of the Farm," anno 18-14, vol. ii., paragraph 2261, we read that " beans are not, and cannot be, profitably culti- Aated on every species of soil, they requiring the heavier and deeper class of soils usually termed clays and clay-loams ; indeed their culture was wont to be confined to the heavier sorts of clay, but now the mellower loams are made to bear that crop, and a still hghter class is sometimes devoted OLD SERIES.] to it, assisted by the aid of manure.'" There is a long article in the Penny CyclopcBdia, commencing page 79, vol. iii., whose columns may Ije perused with much advantage. From it I take the follow- ing lines : — " The soil best adapted for beans is a I'ich strong loam, such as produces good wheat. In such a soil the produce is sometimes 50 or GO bushels per acre, but an average croj) on moderate land is about half that quantity. The wheat \\\\ui\\ follows beans is generally good and heavy, and seldom runs to straw. After wheat harvest the stubble is ploughed up and turned in with a very deep fur- row, the land is harrowed flat, and a good coating of manure is put on in a moderately rotten state, and covered with a shallow ploughing." " Some put on the manure for beans in the spring, and some drill the beans in every second or third fur- o [No. 3.— FOL. XXXV. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. iow after the i^lough ; but all gojrl favineis agree in manuring the land for the beans, and carefully- hoeing them." These passages were written before the great dis- coveries of absorption and retention of manures by all good soils were announced ; and this the intel- ligent cultivator must bear in mind. The second edition of Mr. Stephen's " Book of the Farm," completed in February last, thus notices the habits and acquirements of the field bean — " Beans are raised most in accordance with their nature, and with most profit, on clay soils suited to the culture of wheat ; and in these soils they may be raised without manure, provided they follow a manured crop or a single cereal crop. From the structure of the plant, which bears fruit-pods on its stem near the ground, as well as at the top, it should have both light and air ; and its leaves being nearer the top, and its stem comparatively bare, space is afforded near the ground for weeds to grow. Unless the air be admitted below, and opportunity afforded for removing wesds, the crop will not be luxuriant, nor the land be cleaned. Both these objects can be secured by placing the plants in rows or drills; the air will then reach both sides of every row. And if the rows are placed as far asunder as to allow the horse to work between them, the two objects of vigour to the plant and cleanliness of the soil will be attained." I have grown several varieties of the garden bean, for years, in light soil, and with success (the black aphis — in some places termed the dolphin — being the chief and most subtle enemy) ; and at the same time have witnessed the almost total failure of large breadths in the fields, wherein every required condition had, to appearance, been attended to. With this remark I approach the chief subject of the present article. A piece of strong land on a noted farm in Devon- shire was sown with beans in the full expectation of a good crop, but which was not realized. Every circumstance was stated as to the temperament of the land and the mode of cropping, and then the simple question was put, " Did you manure the land for the beans ?" To which the reply made was, " No." " By this word," said my friend, " you have explained the cause of your failure ; you have said enough." Had the land been ade- quately prepared l)y manure to support a plant so heavy and scourging as is the bean — one whose entire product is earned off the land, with the ex- ception of the few leaves which progressively fall from the haulm — the crop would have been ample, and the land itself thoroughly ])repared to support a fine plant of wheat. At this point several interesting circumstances present themselves to the inquiring mind of a cul- tivator who is not satisfied vnih. the results of ordinary routine. It appears that in the common rotation of crops, as well in Scotland as England, beans follow wheat (then both, it is true, occasionally reciprocate); but I would ])ut the question whether, in cropping, the order should not be re'/ersed? The straw of all the cereal crops contains a much greater propor- tion of silica (flint) than does the haulm of the beans. But not to dwell upon the modern theory oi mineral absorption now, and of late years so much dwelt on, I would revert to another theory, once strenuously advocated, but now little thought of : I allude to the excretion of fecal matters by the roots of all vegetables, and its fixation by the attractive power of soils. These fecal substances were thought injurious to those plants by which they had been excreted, but at the same time it was supposed that they might act as a manure to plants of a very different habit, and thus a theory bearing upon the necessity of a rotation of crops was ap- proached. The chemists took up the inquiry, and some experiments upon mutilated subjects, or, what is pi-etty much the same thing, upon plants uprooted and placed in a completely unnatural situation, were undertaken with a view to interpret phenomena which altogether depend upon vital action. The attempt weakened the cause, and the excretive theory was lost sight of. Whatever may be said for or against it as evidence in favour of rotation, certain it is — and I have urged the fact ever since the year 1827, as fitting opportunities occurred —the roots of all plants, particulary those of the lentil or leguminous tribe, do emit and imbue a soil with a distinguishable and specific odour. Odour is niattei' ; and a soil so impreg- nated cannot be neutral in its effects. Soils will not continuously support any one individual vegeta- ble, nor will the best farm and fold- manure, how- ever generously supplied, enable them to do so. A change of crop is required ; and when we once obtain some definite idea of an actuating cause, it is a pity to abandon it at once, as our agricultural chemists have done in the instance of the excretory theory. It is an approved fact that wheat successfully follows beans ; and in a soil suitable to both, if it have been generously manured for the beans in the autumn, that crop will in all probability be remu- nerative ; while, without further manuring, a bed most favourable to a cereal crop is prepared for the wheat. Can the same be said when the order of tillage and cropping is reversed ? I conclude this article with a few apposite, but abbreviated, quotations from Morton's Cyclopcedia of Agriculture, on "Tlie Chemical Conditions re- quired for the Growth of Beans." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 "The Miorganic mineral constituents of the straw and grain are similar in kind to those of wheat, barley, and oats, but differ widely in their amount and relative proportions ; therein the composition of beans approximates more closely to that of tur- nips and potatoes. The straw and haulm contain much purely alkaline matter : lime, magnesia, the phosphoric and sulphuric acids, the former espe- cially, are found in sufficient quantities to prove that they perform important functions. From the fact that those substances exist in (or are invariably discovered by the analysis of) the ashes of the haulm and grain of beans, the inference may fairly be established that all soils in which they are largely contained will be favourable to the bean crop, and that manure wholly or in part composed of such materials can be suitably and economically applied to soils in which they are deficient. Thus the aluminous or clayey soils which frequently con- tain large quantities of potash, soda, phosphoric and sulphuric acids, are the best adapted for grow- ing beans in perfection. " Thus, experiments with artificial manures gene- rally show that dissolved bones (superphosphate of lime), lime, gypsum (sulphate of lime), Glauber salt (sulphate of soda), and especially the nitrates of soda and potash, and also common salt, are highly beneficial to the bean crop. " The organic composition of the whole plant ex- hibits a larger amount of nitrogen than is to be found in that of wheat, barley, or oats. This fact proves the necessity for a soil being rich in decaying animal and vegetable matter, as well as in those mineral substances already named. For- tunately the two most important organic manures (farm-yard dung and guano) also contain such mineral matters. Farm-yard manures is our best manure for beans, as it is for most other crops ; yet its action can be greatly enhanced by such pure mineral manures as lime, magnesia, potash, and soda, in one form or other. Guano is rich in nitrogen (as ammonia), but greatly deficient in alkaline mineral matter. On soils rich in vegeta- ble matter it is advisable to apply mineral m.anures ; while on those that are deficient in decaying veget- able and animal matter, but abounding with mineral substances, an application of farm-yard manure or guano would be preferable." The foregoing clever observations prove the ne- cessity, while at the same time they indicate the legitimate course, of chemical investigation. Space is not now left to dwell farther upon that subject. THE USE OF THE STEAM-ENGINE IN IRRIGATION. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESa., F.R.S. It is very satisfactory to find the agricultural use of the steam-engine gradually extending, as its powers become better understood by the farmer. Thus the idea of irrigating the land by means of pumps worked by steam' — a plan which I some years since advocated — is now profitably realised at Edinburgh, with the town sewage; and in Middle- sex, with Thames water, by Lord Lonsdale. In the use of machinery for raising water we may derive valuable instruction from the little farmers of Oriental soils, labouring luider an equa- torial sun. I have long since alluded to this sub- ject in my work on the " Fertilizers " (3rd edition, p. 243). As I there remarked, many beautiful similes, dispersed over the Bible, indicate how closely the first Orientahsts had watched the in- fluence of water upon vegetation. " For there is hope of a tree if it be cut down that it will sprout again," exclaims Job (c. 14, v. 7), "yet through the scent of water it will bud and bring forth boughs like a plant." The simile employed by Isaiah to represent barrenness and desolation is " a garden that hath no water." And we are pretty well as- sured that even in the days of the patriarchs they laboured incessantly to supply their lands with water, by means of a variety of hydrauhc machines, varying in perfection from a bucket swung with ropes between two men, to water-wheels, worked something after the manner of the modern tread- wheel. Moses, when he described {Deut. xi. 10; 2 Kinffs xix. 24) the Israelites as sowing corn in Egypt, and watering it with their feet, alluded to this practice. And in the east, where everything remains so unchanged, the practice, according to Niebuhr (vol. i., p. 121) is still continued. It is certainly still followed, under still ruder forms, by the miserable ryotts of Hindostan. My brother, Mr. George W. Johnson, when speaking of the indolent irrigation system of India, observes, " In places favoured by nature whole plains are occa- sionally irrigated, merely by the construction of a dam across the outlet of some mountain stream, or it is confined in the same way nearer to its source, so as to form a distant reservoir, from which, at the o 2 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. most desirable seasous, the water may be obtained. In less favourable situations the water frequently has to be raised to a considerable height, in order to obtain an elevation, level with, or slightly above the cultivated land. This is very generally effected by a scoop, made of matting, suspended between two ropes, the ends of which are held by two men, who bail it from the reservoir into a hole some feet above it, and from thence it is similarly bailed by others, from hole to hole, until the desired height is attained. In other places the scoop is suspended between poles erected in the form of a gibbet ; at others by a long trough, swinging across a centre, and dip- ping into the water at one end, which, when raised, makes it run out at the other, in a way well known to those marine salt-makers who employ sun-pans or shallow ponds to evaporate the sea water. In China still more pains are taken in the gene- ral use of water for agricultural purposes, but the machinery used in the Celestial Empire for this purpose is nowhere to be found in Hindostan. " The machinery so general in China," says Dr. Tennant [Indian Rech., vol. ii., p. 15), "is not em- ployed in India for raising water. The lands about Mongheer and Patna, which are too high above the level of the Burhampooter to be flooded with facility, yet lying at the foot of the hills, are yet capable of being thus benefited by their streams. Industry and skill are here more remarkably exhibited in the conduct of irrigation than where the soil is naturally more easily subjected to the flooding." The practice of the natives is still similar to that described in 1797 by Dr. Tennant. After plough- ing the fields in the usual manner, but before sow- ing, they divide them into regular small squares, like a chess-board. Each square is surrounded with a shelving border, about four inches high, capable of preventing the escape of water. Between these square inclosures small dykes are formed, for conveying the rivulet over the whole field. \Mien the water has stood a sufficient time in one square, it is let off into the surrounding dyke, and conveyed to another square, and so in succession through the whole field. The fertility induced amply recom- penses the labour, and the neatness imparted to the country by this husbandry is very striking. In other parts of India the water has to be raised from deep wells, several of which are dug in the most elevated parts of each field. The labour of drawing the water is performed by two bullocks, not travelling round in a mill, but pacing in a direct line from the well, and raising from it a leather bag, by means of a rope which passes over a pulley sus- pended above the well's mouth. The various little channels already mentioned radiate from these wells. About Patna the irrigation water is raised from the wells l>v means of a bamboo lever, with' its fmcrtim on a frame about ten feet high ; a weight at the op- posite end being employed to assist the workman in counterpoising the leathern bag of water. This plan is only resorted to when the wells are shallow, and the water near the surface of the earth, and then buckets of leather or iron are used. In this way four bullocks and three labourers are engaged nine days in thoroughly irrigating an acre of land {Indian Rech., vol. ii., p. 276). On the Coromandel coasf, where the soil is thin and sandy, and the water scarce, irrigation is accomplished by much greater exertion, and yet the crops are very light. The importance of this branch of Indian agricul- ture is evidenced by the great number of wells, which even these, the most indolent of people, sink in districts deficient in streams. " You cannot ride out in the neighbourhood of Cavvnpore," adds Dr. Tennant, " without meeting with them in such num- bers that accidents are not. unfrequent of horses tumbling into them with their riders." Near Madras, at Saymbrumbacum, a reservoir more than seven miles long and three broad, has been formed for the purposes of irrigation by merely raising a bank across a natural ravine. In the Tamul language this is called an eraj/. This sup- plies thirty- two villages, containing 5,000 persons employed in agriculture (should the rains fail), for eighteen months. Sluices lined with bricks pass under the bank to supply the fields. The inner opening of the sluice is covered by a flat stone, in which is cut a circular hole, through which the water is allowed to pass as required, by means of a plug fixed to a bamboo, and secured from escape by means of stone pillars and ci'oss-bars. Sir J. Mal- colm remarks that the Persian wheel is very com- mon in Maliva. This is set in motion by means of a horizontal wheel, with cogs fitting into others on the vertical wheel. The horizontal wheel is moA-ed round by bullocks. The leathern bag employed in India to draw water from deep wells holds about forty-five gallons, and is raised by two bullocks and a lad every minute and a-half, from a well forty-four feet deep, and the bullocks will work eight hours a day. The mound at the edge of the well is raised to a height propor- tionate to the elevation of the ground to be watered. There are two ropes to the bag ; one fastened to a stick across its mouth for drawing it up, and the other, fastened to the point in which the other end of the bag terminates, helps to raise it and pour out the water. The ropes are drawn over pulleys by the bullocks descending the slope, and the draught continuing upon the rope attached to the bottom of the bag, after the top has been stopped by the pul- ley, the water is emptied into the channel, prepared so as to begin on a level with the top of the mound. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 195 The bullocks are taught to walk back as soon as the emptying is completed till the bag is again immersed in the water, and partially sank by a stone fastened on one side of its mouth {Malcolm's Report on Muliva, 425). A similar plan is followed in the vicinity of Hyderal)ad {Trans. Ar/ri. nndHnrt. Soc, vol, v., p. 44). Irrigation is said by Sir Henry Fane to be more extensively pursued by tlie agency of the waters of the Indus than he had seen anywhere else in India. It is conveyed l)y canals far into the interior, and raised from them on to the tields by means of Per- sian wheels. This is rendered necessary by the de- ficient supplies of rain, which may be estimated from the fact stated in the same communication, that up to September, 1839, there had not been any rain for three years {Ibid, Oct., 1839, p. 3), Irrigation is also very extensively and scientifically carried on in the Nepaul valley (Ihitl, vol. iv., p, 111). Turning away then from these rude and barbarous modes of elevating water in use in eastern countries, let us inquire at what rate, and at what cost, a steam-engine can accomplish the desirable object of trebling the produce of the grass lands of England, To sufilciently saturate with water a square yard of a soil composed of a calcareous sand, to the depth of one foot, as in irrigation, requires about 30 gallons of water, equal to about 145,000 gallons per imperial acre. That the steam-engine could readily and profitably supply this quantity of water may be concluded from several facts ; for instance, th3 two steam-engines, the one of 80, the other of 60 horses' power, which kept Deeping Fen, near Spalding (containing about 25,000 acres), com- pletely drained, when working in 1835, only 9G days of .2 hours each, raised more than 14,000,000 tons of water several feet. And it has been proved that, by a common condensing steam-engine, one bushel of coals will raise more than 50,000,000 lbs. of water one foot. That the steam-engine, therefore, can, in many instances, be profitably employed in the irrigation of grass land is, I think, an undoubted fact. The wat^r employed may l)e procured from a variety of sources. River water, especially if mixed with the seivage of towns, is excellent. The water of even tilt brightest streams is valuable ; and in some sitiations a copious supply of water might be pro- cured from wells. The well from whence the town of Goydon, for instance, is about to be supplied , furnshes a constant flow of about 1,000 gallons of ■i water per minute. So that, if we allow 250 tons of rwate- to be sufficient for the irrigation of an acre t^pi laid, the steam-engine would supply this from a twell like that of Croydon in about half an hour. And if we annually assign to each acre 18 such floodings, then the quantity needed would be about 4,700 tons per annum. If, instead of sucli sources of supply, sewage water can be thus rendered available, then how much greater the improvement— how far more pro- fitable the result to the landowner ! And, as I have on another occasion observed, I deem the calculated quantity of 4,700 tons per acre annually to be a tolerable approximation to the truth. We find that the mean depth and weight of rain which falls at King's Langley, in Hertfordshire (Mr. J, Dickinson, Jonr. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. v., p. 151), is equal to 20"6l inches, or 2,695 tons per acre ; of this, from April to September inclusive, the mean depth which fell was equal to 12"67 inches, or 1,283 tons per acre, of which 1,192 tons were lost by evaporation, and only 92 tons filtered away through the soil. From October to March, inclusive, the mean depth of rain was 13"95 inches, or 1,412 tons, of which 1,052 filtered down through the soil, and only 360 tons evaporated. In making the experiment, the surface of the soil exposed to the evaporating influence of the sun and wind is supposed to be bare of herbage. In the case of a water-mead densely covered with a luxuriant and rank herbage, the evaporating sur- face is very materially increased, and the demand upon the soil for moisture is proportionately en- larged. Taking, then, these data, allowing, upon an average, 250 tons per acre of sewage water to each irrigation, or a depth of 2^ inches of water, and taking the daily extent of the sewage of the metro- polis to be equal to an area of SO acres, of a depth of 36 inches, we have here offered to us sufiicient water for the daily irrigation of 350 acres of grass land. But as we have seen in the case of the Edinburgh meads that they are irrigated only 13 days in the year, then we find that the sewage of the metropolis is ec^ual to the irrigation of 18 X365 = 20 X 350 — 7,000 acres of water meads. It is not difficult to estimate the money value per acre to the farmer of the thus applied sewage water. Dr. Stark says {Statc7neut, p. 48)— "The more water each portion receives the larger is the crop raised upon it, and the higher the price got for that crop in the market ; so that, while the lots which are watered only once in the fortnight in general bring only from £23 to £'30 per acre an- nually, those which receive a larger supply let from £28 to £50 per acre." Now, if we take the mean rent of thus similarly irrigated meads near London to be £25 per acre (the best meadows of Edinburgh yield from four to five very heavy cuttings annually, the poorest three cuttings only), and that the owner would 196 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gladly give £10 per acre annually for the use of the h-rigation water, we should thence receive an increase of 10X7,000, £70,000 per annum for the agricultural use of the metropolitan sewage waters alone — an income equal, after the payment of four per cent, interest on £1,000,000 capital, to the pay- ment of £30,000 per annum in coals for the steam- engines, repairs, workmen, &c. We see, then, that there is every probability that the proposed mode of dispersing the sewage of London over the thirsty grass lands of the meti'o- politan counties will be a source of gain rather than of loss to the rate-payers, while to the community at large the advantage is great and manifold. Let us only calculate the fertility of the 7,000 acres to which I have alluded (but the same remark applies to many provincial towns and districts), and let us remember, that the thus at least trebling their produce by sewage irrigation is the same thing as if at least 14,000 acres of land were added to the cultivated lands of our country. And this, too, not by any outlay of capital in the purchase of foreign manures, but in the mere diversion of a vast stream of liquid manure fron its present noxious course. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. Lecture on Lime. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's house in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 9th of July, Colonel Challonee, Trustee, in the chair; when Professor Way, the consulting-chenaist to the Society, favoured the members with a lecture on the agricultural employ- ment of lime. Prof. Way commenced his lecture by remarking that lime was an abundant substance in nature, not, how- ever, as lime, chemically considered, and in its pure or caustic state, butin combination with acids, formingchalk, gypsum, bone-earth, and other well-known substances. Caustic or quick-lime for agricultural and building pur- poses was generally obtained from the carbonate of lime, either in its purer forms of chalk or marble, or as existing in mixture with other mineral substances in the varieties of limestone. This carbonate of lime contained by weight about 43| per cent, of carbonic acid or fixed air, which was evolved from the lime in a state of effer- vescence by the superior action of other acids, or driven off from it by the application of a red heat. In the latter case, the limestone was placed along with the requisite quantity of fuel in a suitable kiln, and burnt for a proper time, when the gas escaped into the at- mosphere, and the quicklime was left behind in the kiln. He remarked, however, that when chalk was heated in a crucible covered with a lid, it became fused, without parting with its carbonic acid ; in fact, that the mecha- nical action of the atmosphere was required to carry off the gas from the chalk as it became gradually released from its chemical union with the lime ; for chalk, as long as surrounded by carbonic acid, would be protected from further decomposition, and remain carbonate of lime. On this principle it was that a current of watery vapour was so useful in the lime-kiln in effecting a cir- culation of air through it, and thus removing the gas; and this was occasioned by using fuel yielding much steam, such as twigs, &c. It was also a common practice to throw water into the ash-pit, with the view of attaining the same object. He himself thought that a jet of steam might with advantage be introduced into the kiln. The lime when taken from the kiln was simply that earth uncombined with carbonic acid, and freed from moisture ; but on exposure to the atmosphere it slowly attracted both water and carbonic acid gas, and assumed its original composition, though not its mechanical form, being reduced to an impalpable white powder. Water being poured over the calcined lumps from the kiln, it is rapidly absorbed, and its latent heat being given out, tlie lumps crack, become very hot, and steam rises ; and the lime having become thus slaked by the absorption of about one-third its weight of water, a definite combination, known to chemists as hydrate of lime, is the result. Lime is always used practically in agriculture in this state ; but it was common to cart it from the kiln into the field and leave it in heaps to become gradually converted into hydrate ; it was f lund to yield a finer powder by this exposure to air than by the quicker process of slaking with water. The lime forming these heaps, thus changed into hydrate, would, in the course of time, also take up carbonic gcid from the atmosphere. It was therefore, he thought, not desirable, when the use of quicklime was the object, to let the heaps lie too long before turning into the soil; else, why burn the lime.' It took, however, a long time for the carbonic acid to penetrate into the interior. He referred to examinations of old walls, built centuries ago, the mortar of which contained lime still in its caustic state. To the practical farmer, the quantity to be applied, the proper time of applicatba, the nature of the soils, and the method of action, vera all important topics for their consideration, in reference to this powerful mineral manure. He thought that the action of lime must be regarded as a strictly chemical one, when it was considered how small a per-centsge of increase of lime would be made in the soil by eten large and constant dressings ; in fact, that to impregnate a soil to the depth of 10 inches with one per csnt. only of lime, 300 bushels j'er acre would have to be applied. He considered air-slaking to be more con- sonant with common sense as well as with theoretical views than water- slaking, as the lime would become nore evenly affected by the atmosphere, and in a better state for distribution. He then referred to the relatbn of lime to animal and vegetable manures. He thought it prejudicial with farm-yard manure, unleisu immedat«ly THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 mixed with the soil ; that liming, in fact, ought to answer when taking place either immediately before or after manure ; the ammonia contained in it, set free by the decomposing agency of the lime, and taken up by the absorptive power of tlie soil, being at once at liberty for the supply of food to plants. He recommended small quantities of lime to be mixed with manure in the soil ; but not with manure in the yard. There was no bc'tter way of destroying or dissolving animal and vegetable matter than by mixing lime with the soil. With regard to tlie time of application, lime, if used in small quan- tities, might be put on immediately before or after the manure, as he had already stated. In South Wales liming took place every season, and is so essential a part of their manuring, that comparatively little care is taken of ordi- nary animal or vegetable refuse. To such an extent is the conveyance of the lime carried that the Rebecca riots ia that part of the United Kingdom had their origin in disputes connected with the tolls levied on lime-carts. It is a question what the peculiar success of the Welsh system of liming arises from. Local customs, he remarked, were generally correct, more or less. As a constant appli- cation, lime was no doubt the most powerful agent we could introduce into the land. No substance, he thought, was ever taken up ](roperly, as food, by plants until combined with the soil. The aluminous silicates gene- rally had a great influence in this respect. Boussin- gauit had shown that plants died if placed in solutions of the fixed salts of ammonia, as sulphate or muriate, but lived in vigour when placed in a solution of the volatile carbonate of that alkali. Prof. Way's experiments all tended to show that ammonia unites in a definite form with the soil, such ammonia being either derived at once from the carbonate or from the fixed salts when the alkali is replaced in them by lime ; the sulphate and muriate of ammonia, for instance, being converted into '.he sulphate and muriate of lime, and coming away, 'rhile the ammonia remains in the soil. He then ven- tured t'l put before the meeting a hypothetical statement cf his views on the machinery of this action. He be- lieved that a double silicate of alumina and lime, or something of that kind, existed in the soil. When sul- phate of ammonia is applied, its ammonia goes into the double silicate, and lime comes out to form sulphate of lime. When the ammonia is required by the plant, it leaves the alumina and silica, which then require lime, ic order that it may be restored to action, and prepared again to exchange that earth for ammonia, which in its turn is given up to the plant, and so on, as long as lime is present on the one hand, and ammonia furnished in soaae shape on the other. When farmers add lime to thiir land, they form these double silicates, and, there- fore, it appeared to him more rational that they should, wi;h this view, add only small quantities of lime fre- quently, instead of large doses at once. Perhaps slaked liae with ashes, or lime alone, might be used in the first instance. Lime decomposed animal and vegetable mat- tei, and thus furnished food for plants. It had also been supposed to act on the potash of granitic rocks. Liebig had made much of this setting-free of potash in the soil. Aluminous silicates take up potash, which replaced the lime in them, in the same manner as ammonia had been described as doing. The salts of potash were retained b} soil even after having been heavily limed ; and he thjrefore considered that the theory which supposed the line to act by setting potash free was not so well founded. If and was overlimcd, ammonia would not be absorbed, but would all be set free. Attention should be paid to limng the land, as well as to arranging for the absorp- tion of ammonia. One of the most important conse- queices of overliming is, that the soil is exhausted by setthg free and getting rid of that which constitutes its lapital, namely, its ammonia ; an evil of which the magnitude may be estimated by the means required to repiir the loss, namely, the supply of ammoniacal suits to the exhausted land; and by the fact, mentioned by Mr. Lawes, that while only 17 bu-hels of Wheat were grown without manure, 3.5 bushels were raised by the aid of ammoniacal salts ; the remedy to make good the loss thus marking its extent. He agreed with the Hon. Mr. Clive, that if wc knew the true use of lime we should never omit it as an accessory to our manuring operations ; but while taking advantage of lime, we should never let them supersede thr; use of other ma- nures. In conclusion, he remarked, that in spjall doses of quicklime we had always at hand the ready means of making animal and vegetable manures more available, and also of effecting that decomposition of the silicates which carbonate of lime cannot effect. — Mr. Hammond observed that the more ammonia there was in soils, the more marl they required in Norfolk to secure it; ac- cording to their old adage, " more muck, more marl." — Professor Way remarked that when lime as a stimulant in small doses increased the growth of a crop, it did so for a time, if the plant was there to receive it ; but that if lime was added in such an amount as to set free at once all the ammonia in a soil, such volatile alkali would be floating about too long, and would be lost to all but the first crop. — Mr. Slaney, M.P., inquired of Professor Way how much lime he would recommend on an average soil — 30 or 300 bushels ? In Shropshire they were ac- customed to lime very heavily, 10 or 12 cart loads, or 400 bushels per acre. — Professor Way thought 400 bushels of lime out of all reason ; 30 or 40 would be abundant, in a chemical relation. — Colonel Challoner, the Chairman, remarked that Professor Way merely gave his results as a chemist ; for practical details Mr. Slaney had better court the experience of those of their members present who were most conversant with that particular branch of mineral manuring. — Mr. Thompson stated, that it was the Scotch system to employ large dressings of lime at the bejjinning of a lease, for instance, from 200 to 300 bushels to the acre, and the effect of these was not found to be exhausted by the termination of the lease. Could Prof. Way reconcile that practice with theory .' by one year, or for a great number of years ? — Sir Robert Price referred to the old agricultural adage, " lime light," &c. — Prof. Way thought the result would be in a rapidly decreasing ratio ; the first crop would benefit largely, but towards the end the land would be worse than when first taken in hand. The plants would get a greater amount of food at the beginning than afterwards. In the case referred to there was more than we could see ; the local circum- stances might perhaps constitute it an exception. — Sir John Johnstone considered that it was from practice that we were to glean data on which to frame principles for our guidance in this complicated question. It would be well worth inquiry, whether the rocks of South Wales were of such a nature as to render little animal or vege- table matter requisite in the soils which cover them ; and also, whether in the Welsh course of cropping, any deterioration was found to take place. The lime pro- bably set free potash or some other substance, which pro^ed of value as nutriment to plants. If we knew the peculiar conditions of this case we should ourselves know what to do under similar circumstances. — Sir Robert Price thought, as Professor Way had shown them the theory, and the recommendation founded upon it, to try small doses of lime immediately before and after ma- nuring, it was their own business as practical farmers to put such theory and recommendation to the test of experiment. — Mr. Thompson referred to his own experience of the importance of lime in conjunc- tion with manure, in order to derive full advantage from its application- One of his farms having been 198 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. over-limed many years ago, had since that time been treated in an opposite extreme, and not limed at all. When he took it in hand himself there was not a field on it that would grow a crop of white turnips, or in fact yield anything else. Lime was considered the best 7iieans of restoration. The fingers-and-toes which had come on ihe turnips after the lime had been discon- tinned, gradually disappeared with the new application of lime after the second hoeing : in the first course the piTvcts of the lime did not show themselves, but in the second they were as satisfactory as could be wished. In- deed, \\herev'er a fence had been taken up, the failure vvhcrelhe lime had been omitted was most striking. A square acre was purposely left, on which no lime was apjjlied, hut which was in other respects manured as usual. The result was a crop of only two tons, tops and bottoms included, of white turnips ; while the rest of the field, v\hich had received the application of the lime, yielded 2d tons. He had these turnips analyzed closely, imd found that their chemical constitution was as nearly as possible the same, except that nitrogen was wanting in the bulbs from the unlimed square acre. The fact then came out. Lime, indeed, had appeared to him to have a most material effect in giving to light soils the power of retaining ammoni;i, although nothing definite was known as to the exact mode in which it enables soils to act. The farm to which he had alluded was a light fertile soil on the new red sandstone. Sir Charles Mon- teith refers to this value of lime applied to soils on the same formation, in the following passage (Journal II.; " The farmers of Scotlaud think that they cannot raise good crops of grain without lime, as the greatest part of the south of Scotland is composed of new red saudstone, grau- waeke, and granite, and therefore devoid of lime, which forma a very considerable portion of every fertile soil ; in- deed it was found that the soil in Dumfriesshire did not produce well-filled barley crops till the farmers employed Imie, which they now do to a great extent, and find it equally useful for potatoes and turnip crops, which is amply tosiified by the farmers purchasing lime to the amount of £3,000 annually from my lime quarry at Close Farm." He also adds, " In Craven, Yorkshire, lime is employed very extensively as a top-dressing, even upon a limestone soil. I have found that cattle feed upon pastures well top-dressed with lime much tjuicker, and that the meat is nmch richer and better mixed than upon pa tures apparently equally productive of herbage " — Mr. Charnock, of Wakefield, remarked that it was a common practice in the north to mix lime and manure together for the potato crops, and the growers found the benefit of it on the old-going strong soils of the coun- try. On the magnesian limestone, to crop turnips at all, farm-yard manure was required as well as artificial ; and without even then obtaining a full return for the outlay. The north-west of Yorkshire was the district of mountain limestone, and there little manure was ap- plied, as the lime itself acted on the soil, which contained a larger proportion of potash than magnesia, on account of which circumstance the soil whs maintained in a state of fertihty not seen elsewhere, excepting on the old red sandstone, and the district was distinguished by a luxu- riant growth of beautifully-green grass extending to the tops of the hills. In the neighbourhood of Settle they burned their lime, and had the most fertile grasses on the land where they applied it. The lime, however, was not fully burnt. As the limestone in that district appeared to Mr. Charnock to ha\e, in its natural state, a peculiar efficacy, he suggested, at an agricultural meet- ing held at that place, that the limestone should not be burnt, but ground into a fine powder ; when an old farmer replied that he had tried ground limestone, and had found its effects on the soils and crops to be more permanent than when applied burnt. Mr. Charnock thought Prof. Way's a very good suggestion, that the lime should be applied with the manure. They were told, however, in Yorkshire that such was a bad practice, but the vigour of plants growing on manure heaps indi- cated the excess of ammonia. They had been taught not to set free the ammonia ; but he believed that in strong scils it would be beneficial to do so : first lime, then plough and ridge, and lastly manure in the ridges. — Dr. Calvert refeired to magnesia and the blue lias. Sir Humphrey Davy and others had stated that caustic magnesia de- stroyed the crop. Dr. Calvert coald himself suppose any caustic application to be destruction to vegetation. When ordinary lime and magnesia occurred together in a cal- cined state, he understood the lime first attracted the caibonic acid from the atmosphere, leaving the magnesia caustic until the lime became mild. Magnesian lime on a clover- lea was said to destroy the weeds, and the mag- nesia to lose its causticity in the process. In the north of Yorkshire Lord Feversham applied large quantities of white lime on peaty soil. It is allowed to lie for two or three years, being stirred during that period ; and the peat becomes excellent light land, and grows turnips. He thought it desirable that the real action of lime on peat should be ascertained, as contradictory opinions existed on that point. — Prof. Way remarked, that the active acid qualities of the peat were neutralised by the lime ; which also, by its caustic action, brought into play the inert matter which peat contained. — Dr. Cal- vert considered quick-lime to be a powerful digester of vegetable matter. On grass lands, however, (^halk might be applied where lime would d< stroy. He had found it particularly useful on strong clay land, in pro- moting the growth of grass lawns, in those cases of failure where no renewal of turf will permanently effect the object. He had reason to believe that the half- burnt, and also what was called the " rotten" limestone, might in many cases be employed with advantage. — Mr. Charnock could corroborate the utility of these sub- stances. The rotten white lime was a peculiar kind of stone, and yielded a mild lime, which might be used for improving certain soils, at the rate of 4 or 5 tons an acre. — Dr. Calvert observed that the tenantry of Lord Fever- sham were required to apply to their peaty land 93 bushels of lime every fourth year, after a crop, a fallow, and a gieen crop. This was considered a full dose, but thought to be too much, notwithstanding the peaty cht- racter of the soil. It was a very common practice in Yorkshire to mix manure with lime, for their Potato and Turnip crops. There was, however, somethiig apparently destructive in the Potatoes under this mi- nagement, for the crop of Wheat was inferior where tue Potatoes had been grown. With regard to the WeUh soil, he thought there were some circumstances peculiaily favourable to vegetation ; as in the plain of Catania, in j .Sicily, with which he had in former years been v^ell I acquainted, and where white Wheat was grown in sic- I cessive years. The blue lias limestone contained silica in a fine state of division, and it is so easily fused at high temperatures as to render a mixture of it and ;he white limestone preferable. The fineness of the siica might probably in some measure account for the effect on Wheat. Mr. Thompson stated that there was lie real and the inferior magnesian limestone : where for'.y bushels of the former had been applied nothing grfw again for four or five years, except here and there weela and knot-grasses ; while from seven to nine bushels of the inferior variety was an excellent application. — OoJ. Challoner had often had occasion to remark the affidty of Clover to lime ; and some years ago his father aad drawn his attention to a curious circumstance that had fallen under his observation in connexion with that affinity. A cart having broken down on Bagshot Haith, a heap of lime was left there for two months and hen THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 199 removed. In the following year the lonp; heatli was found to be destroyed, on the spot where the heap had rested, and a beautiful patch of Dutch Clover had come up in its place. Sir John Sinclair quotes a similar cir- cnrastance, as observed by Dr. Fenwick, of Durham : — •* A quantity of very mild lime was laid in a licap, where it remaiued for some time, and wlien it was removed, the spot was covered with white Clover. A heap of hot lime was left for the same space of time : no vegetation took place for a considerable period, and the spot was at length covered with Couch-grass. Neither the Clover nor the Couch-grass could be produced by the heaps of lime, but the circum- stance is thus accounted for : — The hot lime retained its causticity much longer, and in that state destroyed any seeds contained in the soil; but the Couch-grass, being less easily destroyed, or shooting and spreading from the neigh- bouring land, soon took possession of the vacant spot. In regard to the Clover's following the mild lime, there is nothing singular ; as its seed is very generally dilTused, and always vegetates in a calcareous soil." — Code of Aijikulturp, note 225. — Mr. Dyer referred to the injurious effects of liming, where such an application, from the nature and condi- tioii of the soil, was not required. He stated the in- stance of a lai'ge landowner who, on removing from Somersetshire into Hampshire, inquired of Mr. Dyer whether lie should lime his land or not. JNIr. Dyer in- formed him that the soil already contained plenty of that earth, and a further supply would not only be use- less, bnt perfectly injurious. A kiln, however, was erected, bnt it was soon abandoned. On the other hand, chalk was of great benefit to the pasture of a park ; the cattle fed it closer, and it had a better face on it than other parts. To find out the cause of this, the earth was in several places removed about one foot deep, and chalk was found from half an inch to an inch in thick- ness, about six inches below the surface, forming an intermediate layer between the surface-soil and the clay subsoil, towards which it had descended. On inquiry, it was found that the pasture had been chalked about forty years before that time; and Mr. Dyer had often observed that chalk gradually sunk thi'ongli turf, and continued to sink in an undisturbed soil. r\Ir. Dyer would venture to recommend tiie proprietor of the lawn to which Dr. Calvert had referred, to take off the tnif an inch or two, and apply chalk underneath it lialfan inch in thickness; and itwouldgive him pleasure to communicate at any time to membei-s of the Society the result of his experience of the benefit of chalking. — Mr. Buller, of Dilhorne, thought that the effect of burning limestone was merely to reduce it to an impal- pable powder as lime, wdiich it retained on its conver- sion again into chalk when exposed to the atmosphere. — Professor Way remarked that lime entered into new condiinations, which chalk was incapable of effecting. — Mr. J. ]Mainwaring Paine recommended a trial of caustic lime, ground to powder, in its unslaked state. He could fully corroborate the statement of Mr. Thomp- son, in reference to the occurrence of fingers-and-toes, on a gravelly soil, which the tenant would not lime, and as a natural consequence had an excellent crop of those vegetable deformities. He was then induced to lime his laud, when, after the first course of rotation, he had excellent crops of Turnips. — Mr. Hamond observed, that in Norfolk they never used lime, but grew Turnips without disease. They had, however, clay, chalk, and marl, which they put on all new and fiesh lands at the proper time, and in proper quantity. — Mr. BuUer thought that circumstance a corroboration of the correctness of his view, that it was not caustic but mild antacid lime that was required. — Dr. Calvert had understood that chalk was most suitable for farm-yard manure and green crops, while lime was best adapted for grain cultivation ; ac- cording to the remark of Colonel Le Couteur, that wheat dressed with farm-yard manure was coarse and diseas; d. On the motion of Sir Matthew White Ridley, Bart., seconded by Mr. Duller, the best thanks of the Council were voted to Professor Way, for his kindness in delivering a lecture before the members on that occasion. Among the distinguished foreign visitors present were M. Payen, Member of the Institute, and Secretary of the Central Agricultural Society at Paris ; Mr. Johnson, Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society ; M. Nathhorst, Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society of Sweden ; and M. Hedengren, of Stockholm. The Council adjourned to the 30th of July. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 30th of July. Present : Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the , Chair ; Baron Mertens ; Hon. and Rev. Richard Carle- i ton ; Mr. Raymond Barker ; Mr. Hodgson Barrow, j MP. ; Mr. T. Bishop ; Dr. Calvert ; Mr. Dunne, jun. ; I Mr. Dyer; Mr. Gadt'sJen ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; Mr. i Law Hodges, M.P. ; Mr. llurd ; Mr. Kinder; Mr. Rowlandson ; Professor Simonds ; Mr. T. E. Thomas ; ; Professor Way; and Mr. J. L. Wight, I American' Phosphate of Lime. I The Duke of Richmond forwarded to the Council a specimen of American phosphate of lime received from Mr. Johnson, along with the following letter : — " No. 10, Bnry-street, St. James's, July 9, 1851. " I have the honour to present to your Grace, for the Royal Society, a sample of phosphate of lime received by me by a lite steamer from the United States. This specimen is from a deposit on the bauks of Lake Champlain, in the toun of Crown Point, Essex county. New York. The vein of pure phosphate is from two to eight feet wide ; and a shaft has been sunk between twenty-five and thirty feet, and the vein continues pure, and is a true vein, having its regular walls. It has been uncovered for several hundred feet, I understand ; and there is an abundant supply for all time to come. It has beeu analyzed in the United States ; and contauis, I am informed, from 80 to 90 per cent, of phosphate of lime. It is found in a trap dyke formation, which con- tains a portion of iron and alumina. It has been applied to crops in the L'nited States, and has proved beneficial, and marked by excellent effects. An application was made upon wheat last autumn. It was prepared with 201b3. of sulphuric acid, with an equal quantity of water, and lOOIbs. of the phosphate of lime. The wheat upon which it was applied presented a manifest improvement over the other portions of the field. It had a darker green, with a strong growth of leaves and much more vigour ; and continues stdl to manifest the same improvement. I trust it will be analyzed by the excellent chemist of your Society, Professor Waj', and the result communicated to the Society ; and should it be fuund valuable (as I believe it to be), I shall take great pleasure (in behalf of Messrs. Emmery and Hammond, the proprietors of the mine) in introducing it into this country, at a price which will bring it within the reach of all the agriculturists of Great Britain. — (Signed) B. P. Johnson, Secretary New York State A(jricultKral Society." The Council received this communication with their best thanks, and referred the specimen to the chemical investigation of Professor Way, the Consulting Chemist of the Society, who has made the following report on the subject : — AvyHat 20lli, 1851. " The specimen transmitted to me for examination was a mass of perhaps 10 or 12lb8. weight, and of tolerably uniform character throughout. When broken it exhibited an uneven fracture of a dull greeu hue, interspersed with lines of a chocolate colour. Layers of quartz intersected it in various directions, aud the outlines, or casts of shells, were in places tolerably numerous (qnery). The specific gravity of liie mineral is 302. For the analysis, several pounds of the mineral, taken from all parts of the specimen, were broken up and reduced to powder, so that a fair average result 200 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. might be obtained. The composition in 100 parts was found to be as follows : — Per-ceutage Composition wbcu Dried. Bituminous matter, and combined water, expelled at a red heat . . "69 Matter insoluble in acids, consist- ing chiefly of sand 1 6 79 Silica, soluble in acids '65 Phosphoric acid — mean of four de- Bone Earth terminations,29 50,30-33,29-77. Phosphate, and 31-23 80-20 = 62-27 Lime 40-10 Peroxide of iron 6-47 Magnesia 1*08 Chloride of sodium .08 Soda , -20 Potash ; . -25 Sulphuric acid trace Fluorine 241 Loss 1-08 100-00 As the coprolites of the crag foimation contain, on an average, phosphoric acid equal to about 56 per cent, of bone-earth phosphate, atid as the objectionable admix- ture of carbonate of lime with them, which reduces the effective strength of sulphuric ncid with which they are treated for manure, is about couuterbalanced by the equally objectionable existence of fluoride of calcium in the New York mineral, I should estimate the commercial value of the latter, as compared with our own mineral sources of phos- phate of lime, in the relation of their relative proportions of phosphate of lime, which, practically speaking, are vf-ry nearly the same. — (Signed) J. Thomas JVay." Turnip Fly and Insect. The following communications were received on this subject. 1. From Sir Charles Lemon, Bart, M.P., the follow- ing extract from a letter addressed to him by Mr. Booth : " Carolew, 20th July, 1851. " The crops of mangold-wurtzel and turnips wanted rain ranch. Instead of the latter being carried off as usual by the turnip flea-beetle, a new enemy to the farmer has come into the tield in the shape of a tiny ash-coloured moth, not un- like the common clothes-moth, but sni'iller. The rows of turnips swarm with them, and the underside of the leaves are covered with their grubs, which commit sad havoc. In some instances they have cleared the ground as effectually as the black caterpillar did some 15 years ago." 2. From Mr. Fuller, M.P., two letters, from which the following extracts are taken : — " London, 24th July, 1851. "I have just heard from Anglcsea that large yellow grubs, about a quarter of an inch long, .ire destroying every Swede Turnip in that island." " 28th July, 1851, " I have received from my bailiff at Rose Hill, in Sussex, the following account of the grubs attacking our crop in that county, and which seem to be different from the yellow grubs in Anglesea : — ' I have enclosed a few of the insects we have been plagued with on the Swedes and drum-head cab- bages. You will find maggots, caterpillars, and I call the small ones lice ; they have done the most mischief, as they get into the heart of the turnip and cabbage, and will very soon kill them if not prevented; When I saw them first in our cabbages, I noticed the cabbage got yellow, and I ex- amined them, and found the heart full of the small and some of the large insects amongst them ; I got some quicklime and put it in the ha.irt of the cabbage, and that very soon destroyed them. I am glad to say the Swedes get nearly clear of them ; the late fine showers have nearly washed all the vermin olr, and the turnips are growing very fast.' " 3. From Ireland, the following account of the de- struction of the turnip plant in that part of the United Kingdom : — " During the last fortnight samples of turnip leaves, infested with insects, have been forwarded to this oflSce from so many districts, and so distant apart, as to leave no doubt of these pests being very widely and generally diffused, ami their ravages being of a more destructive character than have yet occurred iu Ireland. Last week the specimens came to hand so dried and bruised in the carriage, that, even with the aid of a hit;h magnifying power, we could only hazard a conjec- ture, that the mischief was caused by the larvse of the Phy- tomyza iiigricornis (one of the turnip-leaf miners), or that of the Cerostoma sylostella (turnip, diamond-back moth). This week the specimens came to hand in so fresh and perfect state, as to leave no doubt on our mind that our conjecture was right. There are two different insects, which go by the name of turnip-leafed miners : one is the Drosophila flava, which is found under whitish blisters on the upper side of the leaf : the maggots are covered by the upper cuticle, while they feed on the substance beneath, but no trace can be observed on the under side. The other (Phytomiza nigri- cornis), on the contrary, inhabits the under side of the turnip leaf, burrowing and eating its way iu long, crooked galleries, inside the lower cuticle, and are not visible on the upper side. These insects are also essentially different in both the pupa and perfect state. But as the injury caused by them is not of a very serious character, we proceed to describe that which does the most mischief; and, in some seasons, from its vast numbers, sweeps whole crops away. This is the larva; or caterpillar of the Cerostoma xylostella (turnip, diamond-back moth). They breed so fast and plentifully, that on a small Swede turnip leaf, sent us from the county Sligo, enclosed in a small box, twoand-a-half inches long, half an inch wide, by one-fourth inch deep, we counted over one hundred. These caterpillars are slender, about half an inch long, aud of a greenish colour when full fed, and yel- lowish when not, with a grayish head, aud have sixteen feet. They locate themselves chiefly on the uuder side, but are sometimes found on the upper side ; they are exceedingly nimble, aud upon the least alarm, let themselves down by a thread, like a spider, and climb up it again when the alarm is over. When about to assume the pupa or chrysalis state, they spin a beautiful net-like cocoon upon the remains of the plants, aud also on the ground, in which they pass the season of rest; when the perfect insect comes forth — a small, brownish, white, and yellowish moth, the colours forming on the back, when at rest and t'o.e wings are closed, diamond shapes. Turning poultry through the crop, in sufficient numbers, will thin them ; but dusting the plants and the ground plentifully with quicklime, twice or thrice, early in the morning or late at night, while wet with dew or after rain, will destroy vast numbers of them ; but very little good will be effected by dusting when the plants and ground are dry. As they keep closely to the under side of the leaf, it will be necessary to adopt some method of gently turning up the leaves before the duster : this may be easily done by a person gently dragging the back of a hay-rake along the rows. As by this mode only one-half the foliage is exposed by reversing the action the other half can be similarly treated. As these pests let themselves down by their silken threads npou the least alarm, and quickly ascend again after that is over, it is necessary that the ground be well strewed with the quicklime while damp. Where there arc liquid manure carts, to which a contrivance may be applied to turn up the leaves, lime water and salt may be applied. So numerous are those insects this season, that whole fields are covered over with them, ill almost every quarter, having this week received nu- merous parcels from Cork, Kerry, Sligo, Meath, Kildare, neighbonrhood of Dublin, &c. Their appearance is quite new to our best cultivators, and the greatest fears are enter- tained for the safety of the crop. The remedy we have pro- posed we found effectual in 1849, and if applied as directed, while the plants are wet, so that the lime will slake and stick, we can recommend with great confidence ; but no dry ap- plication, however caustic or pungent, when applied while the plants are dry, will have any effect. Other remedies suggest themselves, such as lime water and pearl ashes, or alkali of any sort, vitriolic acid aud water, &c., but none is so generally bad, or so easily applied, as fresh lime." — Duh- I'm Irish Farmers' Gazette, August 2. " We regret to say that our accounts state that the destruction of the Swede turnip crop, by the larva; of the Cerostoma xylostella is complete in too many districts in Ireland as well as England. The rough-leaved varieties have escaped. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 Transplants of mangolds, Swedes, and cabbages, should be \ substituted at once, when liiey can be obtained ; when they j cannot, globe and early stone turnips, or rape, should be 1 substituted without delay, fust partially levelling the drills, I and re-forming tUam with the double-mould-board plough." j — Ibid, Auyust 9. Suggestions for the removal or destruction of Insects affecting the Turnip Crop will be found in Mr. Curtis's Papers {Journal, II., 211-2, 38G-8 ; III., 74-7,320-1 ; IV., 133-7) ; in the Gardeners' Chronicle for August 2nd and 9th, 1851; in the Gardeners' Journal for August 16th, 1851 ; and in the North British Agricvl- turist for August 20th, 1851. Clover Failure. Mr. Marcott, of Leamington, having favoured the Council with microscopic specimens and the following communications relating to them, they have been re- ferred to the investigation of Professor Simonds, whose report on the subject is appended. "May, 6, 1851. "The slide contains specimens of an undescribed miscroscopic animal occurring in the substance of the broad Clover, and most probably the hitherto unrecognised cause of the fre quent failure of that plant on light land. It will oe observed to have a great resemblance to the grain-worm of Wheat, but appears to be a different species, and perhaps Vibrio Trifolii may be considered an applicable name. The preser- vative liquid in which the specimens are contained (Goadby's fluid) has somewhat injured their natural appearance ; but when compared with the grain-worm, the shortness of the young iudividuals, and the tapering sharp poiuted tails of all, will readily distiuguish them. The present specimens were obtained from a field of light land at Offchnrch, in this county, where the frequent loss of Clover plant had particu- larly engaged my attention, and induced me to attempt to discover the cause. The poisonous excretory theory of De- candolle, and the ash mineral theory of others, were opposed by hostile facts that continually came before my notice, and could neither of them be applied to an explanation of the mystery in question. On proceeding to a field of broad Clover at Oflfchurch, a lew weeks ago, I remarked some ex- tensive bare patche?, where no Clover at all remained ; in other parts ot the field the Clover presented a flaccid appear- ance, while in the rest the plants appeared vigorous. I stumbled upon one plant where the enemy of Clover had killed its victim, and each plant close around was evidently far injured. The flaccid appearance of the foliage, and the radiating character of the mischief in the last in- stance, seem.ed to ponit out some minute funfrous growth, or some microscopic animal (so small as to have escaped the close scrutiny of previous observers), in effecting a hindrance to the sap flow from the soil to the leaves by destroying or choking the carrying vessels. I took up a quantity of flaccid plants, and found many of them that gave no visible indication of any cause of mischief, and con- veyed them home for minute microscopic inquiry. While the above were lying by, awaiting exaraioation, I liad occa- sion to observe a specimen of Dutkv/eed that had been imprisoned iu my herbarium from either 1843 or 1844, when it was originally severely dried by chloiide of calcium. On placing the plant in water, a polyp which had been attached to it completely recovered the active liveliness of movement that had interested me in one of t)ie years before mentioned. This reaniraation after seven or nine years, coupled with the evidence of several observers that the grain-worm did actually sustain privation of food and movement for six or seven years, and would bear moistening (and living) and drying thoroughly, and again exhibit active movements (which I have myself witnessed) by reimmersiou in water, led me to expect to find in the interior of the Clover plant an animal of similar capabilities and rapid iu the multiplica- tion of its species ; limited in its life to within that period (eight years) beyond which experience has shown that Clover may be repeated on light land subject to Clover sickness, if planted in a shorter rotation, and when consequently the whole swarm of animals might have died of starvation. Accordingly, every specimen that I examined of the diseased plants supplied me with numbers of Vibriones, and that from the root, from the stem, and from the leaves of the plants. They seeme.l to have penetrated every part, and to have mul- tiplied in tlieir interior. My acq\iaintance with the Vibriones has beeu too brief for the actual demonstration of my assump- tion, that they can subsist six or seven years without food ; but I have clearly ascertained that it possesses the character of the graiu worm ami the polyp iu recovering its animated movements after it had beeu roused by moisture, aud again lulled to rest by complete drying. I have not yet proceeded to inquire what substance shall he most coveniently poisonous to the Vibrioues ; hut it is self-evident that the compression of loose clover lands, by Crosskill's toothed roller, nnist neces- sarily render the emigration of these parasites from their parent home to the surroimding plants more difllcult, and so partially imitate those stiffer lands where clover has not been usually sick." "August 4, 1851. " I have the gratification of mforming you, that the assump- tion in my previous communication of Clover failure on light lands being attributable to the attacks of au unde- scribed Vibrio, is borne out by a continuation of the inquiry, and I now regard the question as decided. I have to apolo- gise for the indifferent character of the specimens that were forwarded, but shall be able to supply the Society with bet- ter specimens, illustrative of the various phases of the animal, and abundant in number. On referring to my memorandum of the letter I wrote to you, I perceive an expression relative to the ash mineral theory which would probably be misun- derstood ; 1 intended to exclude the Red Clover plant only from the application of the theory iu explanation of Clover sickness, but not for au instant to be understood to doubt the importance of uiineral food to plants, aud the varying importance of diilerent supplies to different plsnts. 1 may mention that I have now examined Red CI ver plants in several stages of growth, aud have witnessed the attack of the Vibrio from the first erosion of a minute bit of cellular tissue at the neck of the plant, and their single and multiple penetration into the interior of the neck (where in one plant so young as to have expanded but one true leaf, I extracted from the axis, where the neck is situated, 23 Vibriones in the \ inch, the further destruction of the bundle of vas- cular tissue, and death of the plant in conseipience) up to the deposit of eggs in krger plants that had escaped an early attack, and the destruction of full-grown plants, more than 12 months old, on land the very highest in the scale of fer- tility, and where I had noticed the Wheat which was seeded down as the most productive I had noticed in last year's crop. I have also had occasion to notice the t ^tal absence of the Clover Vibrio from a field of particularly exctllent Clover, although I found in the same sample of soil numerous Wheat Vibriones readily distinguishable from the other by the h inch object-glass, while in every sample of soil from land that was Clover-sick, I have met w ith the Clover Vibrio in direct quantity to the amount of failure of the plant. I have also to remark that I have met with a third species (which I pro- pose to call V. Faba, and will take care to forward you specimens) in the Bean plant, and so fatal to part of a Bean field as to cause it to be ploughed up ; while in the standing remainder, I found in July Beans in pod dying off daily. I examined the soil of the ploughed-up part, and met with abundance of the V. Faba, as fouiid iu the root of those Beans dying. Tliis appears to be not a single instance, as I observed, in many fields, in travelling by rail, about the third of a good crop, and the same external evidence of disease as in the before-mentioned. To prove beyond the possibility of doubt, that the Wheat and Clover are attacked by dif- ferent species of Vibrunies, and that the recurrence of clover failure was unconnected with the Wheat Vibrio, I boiled a quantity of infested soil iu water for two liours and- a-half, together with three flower-pots; and filling the pots with the boiled soil, planted in each 20 seeds of red Clover, aud added to one pot several hundred active grain- worms, to another about 12 or 11 Clover worms, selected under the microscope, and left the third free, fcr the sake of compari- son. At present, the grain-worm and the free plants look equally well ; but iu the Clever wormed soil only one plant has shown above the surface, and that one has several scars of bites on its seed-leaves, which are not yet expanded ; the termination of the experiment will, of course, give a de- cisive result, i lately contrasted some of the eggs wf the 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. two sorts, au J find those of the Clover worm only two-thirds of the size iu length of those of the Wheat worms. I must also remark, that the attenuated extremely sharp tail does not seem invariable, although I have not, iu one instance, found a difficulty in referring an animal met with in samples of soil. I have not yet met with Clover seeds containing Vibriones ; although, it seems probable, from the habits of the grain-worm, that such do exist, and are a very frequent cause of recurrence of Clover failure on land where all ex- isting N'ihrioues might be supposed killed by caustic lime. The easiest preventive and the surest destructive are still under consideration." (Signed) J. J. Murcott. I'ROF. SIMONDS'S REPORT. "July 21st, 1851. "I have carefully examined, the slide containing some frag- ments of the leaves and stalks of diseased clover plants. The exauiiiiation was first made with an object glass of au inch focus, by which I readily detected numerous worm like bodies, having a pointed extremity, and varying considerably, both ill lengtii and size. Many of these were separate from, while others were attached to the portions of the plant, which they crossed in a variety of directions. On subject- ing these bodies to the magnifying power of a quarter-of-aii- incli object- glass, it was at once seen that they were tlie natural hairs of the vegetable, being bulbous at the end, origiualiy attached to the plant, and tapering from this to a beautifully fine point. As is the case with the hairs of many animals and vegetables, removed from the same indi- vidual, some of them have an internal series of cells, forming a hollow tube-like structure, running through their centres parallel to their length, while others appear to be solid, and free from such an arrangement. To a superficial observer, wlio regarded them as worms, these internal cells might be confounded with an intestinal canal. With this exception, I failed to detect anything in the slide at all similar to vibriones. I subsequently showed the preparation to several microscopists, and, among them, to my friend Mr. Queckett : they all agreed with nie that it contains no worms, or any- thing similar to tliera, excepting the hairs, which it is possible may have been mistaken for worms. If, therefore, these creatures actually existed when the preparation was made, they must have undergone decomposition before it was sub- mitted to my notice, or have been destroyed by the Goad- hy'a liquor eraploj'ed to place them between the slides. Under these circumstance?, [ would suggest that the Council ta!;e steps to procure fresh specimens of the plant m its green state for further investigacion. (Signed) "Jas. B. Simonus." M0UNT.\IN Fl.AX. Prof. Siuionds has also reported on the specimens of Mountain Flax transmitted to the Council by Captain Rusliout, M.P., along with a communication of the evil effects of that plant on the animals which had eaten it in pastui-t s in Worcestershire. Prof. Simonds remarked that this plant was well known, as growing in dry pastures, and producing, when eaten by animals in small quantities, relaxation of the bowels, and in large ones death. It acted, 1, as an irritant of the intestinal canal ; 2, as a disturber of the system ; and 3, as a vegetable poison. The extirpation of the plant from the pastures ought to be effected if po.ssible ; and the animals suffering under its influence ought, 1, to have a cathartic given to them ; and 2, diffusible stimulants and tonics to remove the sedative effects induced. Flax Management. Karon Mertens laid before the Council a sample of flax, prepared in a new and superior mode by a Dutch- man, who kept the secret to himself. The Baron thought this sample very peculiar and instructive for flax- growers, and accordingly was desirous to take the earliest opportunity of calling the attention of the Council to the subject. The sample itself possessed to the eye all the beauty and general character of silk, and altogether appeared so extraordinary a manufactured production, that he hoped it would be taken into consideration. — Mr. Rowl-mdson thought, from an inspection of the ! sample of flax then laid before the Council, and a con- sideration of its peculiar condition, that it had been pre- pared by a process analogous to one which, from experiments he had made some years ago, he believed would prove very efficacious, and which he had himself long meditated to employ : namely, the adoption of the warm water method in combination with an alkali. This he fully believed might be practised without an infringement of any existing patent ; although Schenk had patented a process claiming the right of using warm water only ; others warm water and acid; others still, warm water and alkali. He thought it unfortunate that not one of these methods was complete and perfect within itself, but he fully believed that the great object would be attained by the union of them all, according to circumstance employing as much of eaoh as any particular c ise was found to require. No doubt the Dutchman in question had adopted some plan of this description. The great diffi- culty was in the separation of the long woody tissues. This was effected perhaps the best, Mr. Rowlandson thought, by the putrefactive process, which was as efficient as required if it only acted uniformly through the flax and could be stayed at a certain point ; but when bundles were retting, they were not affected alike throughout their mass, and acquired a dirty colour which it was difficult afterwards to get rid of. Specimens of flax from Belgium and Ireland, in the Great Exhibition, ex- hibited this discoloration. The only process Mr. Rowlandson thought likely to be successful was that in which acids were employed in certain cases and alkalies in others, with warm water and rapid putrefaction. Flax was not however, he remarked, to be grown, and at once, without thought or trouble on the part of the farmer, to be shipjjed off. There was no royal road to a knowledge of this preparative manufacture, any more than it had been found for ages there was to mathematics. The farmer could accomplish all possible things ; but he must not forget in the case of flax, as of others, that he could only attain his object by the hard, up-hill course of learning his business. The Dutch specimen had probably been prepared by maceration alternately in warm alkaline water, and in warm acidulated water. In reply to an inquiry of Baron Mertens, whether he had ever seen finer flax than that now submitted to the Council .' Mr. Rowlandson said that he had seen much finer : the fibre had not escaped injury. A great deal depended on the original fineness of the flax itself ; and in separating the woody fibre from the gum and extraneous matters. The great merit of Claussen's method consisted in the successful manner in which he broke the flax into fine fibres. — Colonel Chal- loner asked Mr. Rowlandson whether he would kindly draw up and submit to the Council a brief statement, instructing farmers what it was best for them to do with their crop of flax fibre after having taken the seed from it for their cattle. — Mr. Rowlandson expressed the plea- sure it would give him to find that any experience of his own could be rendered available to other members of the Society. We accordingly insert in this place the state- ment which Mr. Rowlandson has had the goodness to furnish, agreeably with Colonel Challoner's request. "Brompton, August 6,1851. "The following is a brief account of what I consider the best course for those farmers and lauded proprietors to pursue who have grown flax this year experimentally — generally for seed — but who are unacquainted, or rather, unpractised, in the preparation of the fibre ; the latter, under any circumstances, being the most valuable portion of the crop. It may be well here to remark, that the most difficult part of flax-preparation is the preparation of the fibre after being steeped. The steeping of flax may be disagreeable and troublesome, but it is by no means difficult. The subsequent processes required to make THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 the atiicle marketable are, liowevci', of a railicr coia|ilcx character, and can nevrr be learned properly but by example and experience. Respecting any published or patented method of preparing flax, none are singly of a character to aid the furmer, whilst many are utterly delusive. That im- provements can be made I am quite prepared to admit ; aud I am further conlirmed in this opinion by witnessing the sample produced at the last meeting of the Council by Barou Mertens; but 1 wish here particularly to remind fanners, that if the most perfect system of management was deviaed to-morrow, enlisting the most relined aids of chemical and mechanical science, it would not the less prevent the neces- sity of care, thought, and trouble on the part of the farmer ; for of any system of flax management which may be adopted, the farmer cannot derive the utmost amount of benetit from the crop unless the major part of the labour connected with its preparation is done at the farmstead. The commonest calculation ought to convince any one of the above fact ; for taking tlie value of flax-straw to be £4 per ton, aud the produce two tousper acre, this straw could not be carted and forwarded by sea (400 to 500 miles) at a less cost than £2 per ton ; add to which, there are so many chances against the success of any mode of preparing the tibre of flax for ge- neral manufacture other than some modification of the newest mode. It is certainly steeping that so many persons ; have thrown the flax straw away, seeing that under the worst management of steeping it will always be of value for making sacking, bags, and other coarse kinds of textile fabrics in common use for husbandry pur- poses. Reviewing the whole case of flax-culture, so far as it relates to the experimental attempts niade by various parties this year, I am induced to recommend the following course — ^ viz., to scutch out the seed, which may be done by knocking the heads against a board or barrel, on a cloth, and subse- quently carefully stacking the straw for a spring ret. Care must, however, be taken that the flax-straw is well thatched. ' It is not necessary even to thrash out the seed at the cropping time, as it may be stacked and thatched down for spring thrashing and retting. In the latter case, however, the greatest care must be taken that the flax is quite dry when placed in the stack, and also that not the smallest par- ticle of rain can obtain access to it ; otherwise it will be utterly ruined. The stacking for spring thrashing is a system, however, not to be recommended, except in cases where the (juantity of flax grown is large. lu the course of last year I published an account of preparing flax in the Illustrated London News ; and in the months of January and February of the present year a series of ten letters on the subject appeared in the Morning Post, in which the most approved methods known up to the present time were fully detailed. Notwithstanding the above remarks, 1 am strongly of opinion that further improvements can be made on flax preparation ; but I wish to be emphatically under- stood that these would not be of any material benefit to the farmer, unless he attends to aud executes them himself, aud for this purpose he must undergo a course of attentive special self-education. Even under the worst possible ma- nagement of steeping in, a crop of two tons of flax-straw will realize for common manufactures a greater sum of money than £8 per acre. Let, therefore, experimenters on flax- growing proceed first to secure the seed ; then carefully stack the straw, as they would any other crop ; and, during the leisure of the inclement season of winter, make them- selves as practically acquainted with the mode of steeping and dressing this crop as their circumstances will permit them. This is the most cautious, and, under all the circum- stances, the best advice which I can give them, Ultimately, the successful flax-grower must rely on self-dependeuce and personal skill — the latter only to be practically acquired. (Signed) "Taos. Rowl.\ndson." Mr. Thomas, of Glan-ruGr, near Swansea, informed the Council that the mountain farmers in South Wales were in the habit of growing coarse flax, the fibre of which was made by Carmarthenshire workmen into sacks, and it was used for that and other farm purposes. A friend of his grew three acres of flax, and found it answer well, as a market was found for it among the workmen connected with the great iron foundries of that district. But generally the difficulty was to know what to ilo with the rtii.x tibre wiicn the crop had been grown.- — Mr. Rowlandson recommended stacking it, after taking olT the seed. The seed was in the greatest quantity when the crop was grown on strong land ; but the fibre on the contrary, was, the most inferior in such cases. It was, at all events, always worth hemp price. Al'RIJ. WnE.VT. Mr. Thomas inquired whether a wheat ir.tioduccd into South Wales, from Scotland, and grown with success on the Black Mountains of that principality, was known to any of the members then present, lie had sown it broad- cast, after turnips, in the first week of May, on three acres of a very poor gravelly soil in good condition, and had obtained eighty-six marketable Winchester bushels. The wind could not blow the grain out of the straw (which was similar to that of rye), and it was difficult to be thrashed out by the flail. It was an excellent nurse for clover. The grain became ripe in August, as soon as barley, and fetched as high a price in the market as other kinds of wheat. It was a red bearded-wheat, with a small grain. This wheat made the best bread Mr. Thomas had ever tasted, of that light moist texture and branny flavour which were generally so much liked. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs had frequently grown the wheat referred to by Mr. Thomas, when tliu season was favourable, but it would not answer in E?se,\ when the summers were dry. — Mr. Dunne, junr., was also well acquainted with this late variety of wheat, which was grown in Shrop- shire, as the barley crop. MoVE.Mil.K UaiDCiU. Mr. Mathew, of Wern, in Carmarthenshire, transmit- ted to the Council the model of a simple and ingenious contrivance for crossing wide ditches, with the following communication explanatory of its construction and ad- vantages : — " Wern, July 9, I35I, " I have taken the liberty of forwarding to you a model of my 'marsh laud bridge.' This is a little simple contrivance of mine, and which 1 have found most useful and convenient in my low meadows. You are aware that in this district, in particular, we are much annoyed by the ' mountain sheep,' and to fence against them it is necessary to have the ditches so wide as to make it difficult for the farmer or his men to get from field to field without the aid of common bridges ; aud these often afl'ord the means by which these locusts (for such I call them) trespass beyond their proper bounds. To prevent this, and at the same time to facilitate the means of walkii'.g over my farm with ease and security, I contrived this simple bridge; and I hopeit may be found useful in general, but to ' fen farmers' in particular. With me these bridges are made out of ' larch poles' five inches square, aud of sufficient length to span the ditch they are intended to cross; and after bring squared, they are sawn corner ways, so as to make two triangular pieces, which are fastened together with two, three, or four common iron butt hinges, according to'ihe length of the briHge ; aud at each end are two handle.', for the purpose of opening and shutting as you pass over. This simple contrivance offers, when open, a foot bridge of about 14 inches wide, and when shut up prevents all animals from crossing ; even a dog will find the greatest difficulty in doing so, and at the same time the one rail forms a pro- tection to the other from the weather by means of its sharp edge being uppermost. If these bridges should be adopted in England, I should say the five-inch 'Norway die' is the best material to moke them from. In designating my hum- ble contrivance as a ' portable bridge,' I do not mean that a man is to carry it under his arm from ditch to ditch, but that it might be removed with ease from place to place without being taken to pieces ; aud as they can be made for a mere trifle, I should recommend a number to be laid dowu where they arc most likely to be required. (Signed) "N.VTiiANitL Mathe%v." Tiie Council accepted this present, with their beet thanks to Mr. iNIathew for his attention and liouble in forwarding it to them. 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Cattle Probang and Trocar. Mr. D. Hunting, of Loddon, in Norfolk, transmitted to the Council his hollow probang, for '• relieving the contraction of the oesophagus, or gullet, without injur- ing the passage, and for relieving a hoven bullock, by allowing the air to escape from the stomach of the ani- mal," which, along with the trocar accompanying it, was referred to Professor Simonds, for the favour of his report on these instruments. The Council then adjourned to the 6th of August. A Monthly Council was held ou Wednesdaj'', the 6th of August : present — Mr. Raymond Barker, V.P., in the chair. Lord Camoys, Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Colonel Austen, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Bram- ston, M.P., Mr, Brandreth, Mr, Burke, Mr, W, G, Cavendish, M.P., Mr. Hamond, Mr, Fither Hobbs, Mr, Kinder, Mr. Milward, Professor Sewell, Mr. Shaw (London), Professor Simonds, Mr, Simpson, and Mr. Smith (Exmoor). Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, as Chairman of the Finance Committee, then laid before the Council the Report on the accounts of the Society to the end of the previous mouth ; from which it appeared that the cur- rent cash balance in the hands of the bankers in London and in Windsor, to meet the payments on account of the Windsor meeting, amounted to ,£4,664. The Council confirmed this report, and adopted the recommendation of the Committee that the sum of ,£1,010 should be invested in the public funds, in the name of the Trustees of the Society. The Chairman then laid before the Council the usual quarterly statements, showing the financial state of the Society under different heads of income and expenditure, and of assets and liabilities. Fat Cattle. — The Duke of Richmond transmitted to the Council an official letter addressed to him on the 16th of July last, by the Earl of Hardwicke, one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society, and an exhibitor of Short- horns of the Wimpole variety of breed at the Windsor Meeting, of which the following is the substance ; — " I regret that I am not able from domestic circumstances to be present at- the Show at Wiudsor. I am iuformed by competent persous that the class wlucli six in-calf heifers of mine are showu in, namely No. 4, the animals that have won prizes are fat animals. I am informed that they have been regularly put up and fafted on various kinds of food, and are now shown as competing stock. I have always under- stood, and have myself conformed to the rule, that this show was expressly for lean and breedlmj stock. Had I been aware that it was allowed to show fat stock witli a prospect of success, I should certainly liave abstained from sending six heifers to the Show. I write this letter now, iu order that tlie attention of Your Grace and the Council may be called ou tlie spot to this statement, for the purpose of veri- fying or disproving what I now state ; as, if true, it will form a fit subject (or further proceedings." One of the earliest objects of the Royal Agricultural Society of England having been to encourage improve- ments in the quality of the breed of live-stock for agri- cultural purposes, the Council have constantly had un- der their consideration the best means of promoting this desirable object, in contradistinction to the express ob- ject of the Smithfield Club, which is stated to be — "the supply of the cattle markets of Smithfield and other places wiih the cheapest and best meat;" the animals exhibited at the Christmas shows of the Club not being required to be either of pure breed or qualified by circumstance for the reproduction of their species, or to be restricted in their mode of feeding. The following in- I structions have accordingly been constantly included pro- I minentiy among those given to the judges of stock of the Royal Agricultural Society at its country meetings : — " The Council desire the attention of the judges to be most ' particularly called to the following instructions for their guidance, namely, " 1. As the object of the Society in giving the piizes for !!cat cattle, sheep, and pigs, is to promote improvement in hreerliny stofk, the judges, in making their award, will be instructed not to take into their consideration the present value to the butcher of animals exhibit' d, but to decide according to their relative merits for the purpose of breediny, " 2. In the classes for stallions, mares, and fillies, the judges, in awarding the prizes, will be instructed, iu addition to symmetry, to take activity and strength into their consideration." As complaints have, however, been continued to be made to the Council, that some of the animals to which the Society's prizes have been from time to time awarded have been rather " dressed-up" as fat stock in the re- sults of high-feeding, than exhibited in those natural developments of breed and sound condition which ought to distinguish animals intended to promote im- provements in the breeding-stock of the country, the Council have this year still further pressed upon the judges the responsibility of this distinction in their awards of the Society's prizes. In their report to the last general meeting they referred still more strongly to the subject in the following passage : — " The Council have taken measures for obtaining a greater number of nominations from which to select the Judges for the Country Meetings ; but they still feel the imperfection of all plans hitherto adopted for their appointment. The Council duly appreciate the great importance of a strict and impartial adjudication of the Society's prizes, by men not only disinterested in themselves, but fully qualified by their abilities and exierience for the arduous task confided to them ; and the Council will esteem it a favour if the Mem- bers of the Society at large will from time to time transmit to them any suggestions that may tend to promote this desirable object, and essentiaOy to give effect to that compe- tition for excellence which the Society, by its premiums, evinces so great a wish to excite. They have already referred it to the Judges, as part of their duty, to ascertain and report to the CouncU any failure in the due shearing of the sheep, or any excess in the market condition of the animals inconsistent with their character as breeding stock. They consider that the higher the character of tlieir Judges be- comes, the more powerfully wdl they be able to aid the Council in repressing many of the abuses alleged to take place iu the competition for prizes. Tiiey also hope that the time is not far distant when the judgments given in the Show Yard iu the case of Live Stock will be founded on well-defined and acknowledged principles, having reference, in each class, to some assigned standard of excellence ; and that these judgments, although formed on less distinct and constant data than in the case of implements, may gradually approximate in some degree to \niiforni and consistent re- sults, that may prove, like those in the Implement Yard, satisfactory at the same time both to the Judges and com- peting exhibitors ; and thus tend to establish those points of form, development, and quality which constitute perfec- tion of breed in the different classes of animals adapted for agricultural purposes." In order, too, that no false estimate might be made by the Judges in distinguishing between those developments of condition which result naturally from the healthy ge- nial tone and finely-bred qualities of an animal, and that mere fatness which is occasioned by special feeding, the Council included in each of the letters of appointment to the Judges for the Windsor Meeting the following notification : — " In order to aid the Judges in carrying out the wishes of the Councd, in reference to the healthy condition of the animals as breeding stock, and to their soundness and freedom from infectious or contagious disease, the Council have appointed Professor Simonds, the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, to act as Referee to the Judges at the Wiudsor Meeting." The Council have already received from Professor Simonds some interesting information connected with THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 his general inspection of the animals iu the Show-yard, and his particular examination given of those points to which his attention was specially drawn by such of the Judges as availed themselves of his professional opinion ; which they have reserved for consideration at a future meetiug'. Mr. Fisher llobbs gave notice of his intention to move the following resolution at the Special Council in De- cember, when the prizes for Live Stock at the next Country Meeting shall, agreeably witli the bye-laws, be taken into consideration : — " That iu future, before the Judges sign theif awards. Pro- fessor Simoiula sliall be directed to make an accurate inspec- tion and investigation of the animals to which the Judges intend to give the Prizes of the Society." Imperfect Animals — Mr. Matthew Smith, of Long- brow, near Hexham, having addressed a letter to Prof. Simonds, as the Veterinary- Inspector of the Society, inquiring whether he had certified tliat one of the bulls to which a prize had been awarded at the Windsor Meeting, and which had an imperfection as a breeding animal, could be considered a safe Stock-getter : this letter was laid before the Council. Prof. Simonds stated that he had inspected the bull referred to, and remarked the circumstance to which Mr. Smith made allusion, but not having been called in as referee by the Judges of that division, he had not been required to give any pro- fessional opinion. At the same time, he might remark that nature had with wise foresight endowed animals with duplicates of some of the most important organs of the body, as, for instance, in the case of the eye and the ear. On the particular point to which Mr. Smith referred, he considered, that although the circumstance in every such case ought to be well examined, the particular bull to which the prize had been awarded at Windsor, was not essentially deficient for the purposes required. Cart-Stallions. — Mr. F. Leyborne Popham, of Littlecote, near Hungerford, Berkshire, having received by mistake from the office of the Society a form of Certificate for " Agricultural Stallions of any age" instead of the one he required for " Agricultural Stallions cf two-years-old," he had not perceived the mistake when filling up that certifi- cate for a two-years-old pure cart stallion he intended to exhibit at the Windsor Meeting : nor was the cir- cumstance noticed under subsequent stages of the arrangements in the show-yard, until the Judges had completed their awards and " highly commended" Mr. Popham's colt in competition with horses of " any age." Mr. Popham therefore suggested to the Council that the heading of the form of certificate should be altered in the case of stallions of any age by the addition of the words, " over two years old." — On the motion of Sir Robert Price, the Council directed that the question of limiting the class of stallions of any age, as proposed by Mr. Popham, should be referred to the Special Council in December, when the prize-list of next year would come under consideration ; but that the following anno- tation should in the meantime be placed under the an- nouncement of commendations at the Windsor Meeting, to be published, jas usual, in the next part of the Journal, namely, " In consequence of a mistake in respect to the certificate, this horse was placed in class 1 instead of in class 2 ; and thus was precluded from competing with the horses of his own age." Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the Journal Committee, having addressed to the Council suggestions on the subject of prizes to be offered for next year's essays, the Council took the subject into their consideration, and agreed to the following schedule of prizes, the essays competing for which are to be sent to the secretary on or before March 1, 1852 and 1854 respectively :— Prizes I'ox Essays: 1852. On the l''arming of Cumberland . . . . jLoO On the Farming of Herefordshire . . . . 50 On Diseases and Defects of the Horse and the Ox, either known to be or likely to become Hereditary (those of the Sheep and the I'ig being reserved for consideration in a future year) . . . . 30 On the Manufacture of Sugar from Beet Root . . 30 On the Management of Underwood . . . . 20 On the Management of Clovevseeds, &c. ; and re- medy against clover sickness. . . . . . 20 On any other Agricultural subject . . . . 20 Prize for 1854. On the Geographical Distribution and discovery of new sources for the supply of Guano; accom- panied with samples . . . . . 50 Country Meefmg Committee. — On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, the following General Lewes Committee was appointed: The Duke of Puchmond, Chairman; Mr. Villicrs Shelley, Vice- Chairman ; Colonel Austen, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Brandreth, Col. Challoner, Earl of Chichester, Mr. Darby (of Marklye), Sir Edward C. Dering, Bart., Mr. Ellman (of Glynde), Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Grantham, Mr. Hamond, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Law Hodges, M.P., Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Mr. Jonas, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pusey, M.P., Sir Matthew White Ridley, Bart., Mr. Shaw (of London), and Sir Henry Shiftner, Bart. Agricultural Implements and Machinery. — Colonel Challoner, Chairman of the Implement Committee, transmitted to the Council the following Report of that committee : — " The Implement Committee, having had referred to them by the Council the question of offering prizes at the Lewes Meeting for fixed steam-engines r of the dimensions j stated that plates of iron, s of an inch tluck and 2 shown on the plan, havineen delayed, it being, as stated in the proceedings of last year, considered better that the jiaper should be sent to the author to be revised. It had accordingly been again under the author's hands, and, with the as- sistance of practical gentlemen who had revised it with him, he (Mr. Makgill) believed that the paper would be found to be one of a very valuable nature indeed. The committee had accordingly awarded — 1. The gold medal, or £10, to Robert Bell, archi- tect, Edinburgh, for the best plan and specification of a farm steading. 2. The gold medal, or £10, to WiUiam Goodlet, factor for Lord Blantyre, for a report of an experi- ment conducted on his farm of Beauchamp, Forfar- shire, on the progressive improvement of three lots of cattle fed on turnips raised with different ma- nures, 3. The gold medal, or £10, to Walter Reid, Drem, Haddington, for a report on the compara- tive advantages of fattening cattle in stalls, in loose houses or boxes, and in sheds or hammels. 4. The medium gold medal, or £5, to Dr, Hugh Cleghorn, H.E.I.C.S., for a report on the hedge- plants in India. 5. The medium gold medal, or £5, to Finlay Dunn,V.S., Edinburgh, for a report on the diseases of cattle. Til!': FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 THE SHOW AT I'lCKTH, IN 1852. Mr. AiTCHisoN, of Altlerston, gave in the re- port of the directors on this subject. It stated that tlie directors had much ])leasure in re[)orting that arrangements have been made for a show to be held at Perth in the course of next summer. It is more than fifteen years since Perth has been visited by the societj', and the directors anticipate a highly successful meeting, as well from the support and co-operation promised by the gentlemen of the dis- trict, as from the agricultural importance of the lo- cality, its central situation, and facilities of access. The districts immediately coimected with the show will comprehend the counties of Perth, Fife, Kin- ross, and Clackmannan, and the western division of Forfarshire. THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. Mr. Maconochie, of Meadowbank, after some ol)servations, stated that the directors, after the fullest consideration of the matter, had come to the following resolution : " That it is necessary to adopt measures for ob- taining increased and more adequate means in sup- port of the society's chemical department, and that, for this purpose, an application should be addressed by the treasurer and honorary secretary to those landed proprietors who have not yet subscribed." After some remarks by Mr. Turnbull, of Abbey St, Bathans, and Dr. Anderson, the resolution of Mr. Maconochie was put to the meeting Ijy the noble chairman, and unanimously agreed to. Professor (jogosir reported, for the first time, on the Veterinary College. He was fully aware of his own inefficiency and inability to perform the duties devolving upon him in that capacity as they ought to be performed, and as he was aware they had been performed by his predecessor, Mr. Burn Murdoch. The number of students under exami- nation last season was somewhat less than in the previous year, but not more so than was to be ac- counted for by the variation which always occurred in these matters. Fifty individuals in all had di- plomas conferred on them during the last two years; and of these twenty-three were licensed in the pre- sent season. Mr. Anstrcther gave in the report l)y the di- rectors on the society's Museum. EAST OF BERWICKSHIRE FARMERS' CLUB. {Concluded from our last.) The next report was from Mr. Wilson, of Cum- ledge, whose bad health unfortunately prevented liim from being present at the meeting. 1st. My cattle in previous seasons have been fed in yards and sheds, the sheds having been made by degree^ more and more close, until generally there is now only one opening left. They are of various widths, but the best are fifteen feet inside measure ; they also vary much in length, and contain from four to eight cattle. For many years my cattle have ail been home-bred, brought up and grazed together, and from that circumstance I have never found any inconvenience arise from the greater number being in the same yard ; but where cattle are strangers to each other, there can be no doubt the fewer together the better. My feeding-troughs are covered over, sufficiently wide to protect the cattle when eating their food ; this I deem to be very essential, not merely for the comfort of the cattle, but to protect the food from the effects of the weather, 2nd. I have only tried box feeding! his last season, since October. 3rd. The old sheds being 15 feet wide, admit of two boxes 7i feet wide, and the length is 9 feet, sunk two feet below the surface, with a passage fou!' feet wide 1)etwcen each four boxes for access ; the fitting up done in a very substantial manner, principally with home-grown wood ; cost about thirty shillings each. I have no new erections, but old sheds and other odd places converted to suit this purpose. 4th. The kinds of food used are turnips and straw, and lately a little bean-meal and linseed-meal along with the former. At first the quantity of turnips (giving the cattle as many as they were in- clined to eat) was about 18 stone of white globes each per day; lately they have been eating about 11 stone of swedes without the meal, and about 9 stones with it, about 2lb. of each kind of meal. In preparing the latter kind of food the linseed-meal has been made into mucilage, by mixing it with cold water twenty-four hours, and then adding the bean-meal and chopped straw to give it a proper consistence; and as a means of inducing the ani- mals to eat more straw than they will otherwise do, this mixture has been given once a-day. The cat- tle are very fond of it, and would gladly have a larger quantity, in which case it should be given oftener. In the yards, they have been fed with cut turnips twice a-day on week days; but on Saturday evening as many turnips have been cut and put into the feeding troughs as to serve all Sunday. In the boxes, they have Ijeen fed as often as the troughs arc enij)ty, from seven to five times a day on week days; for Sundays the turnips have all been cut on the Saturday evening, but put into the 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. trouf^lis as they were emptied ; the cattle in the boxes have generally eaten about half a stone more turnips than those in the yards. I may also men- tion that nine heifers I bought in November and fed in boxes have eaten about one-third more tur- ■ nips than my home-bred cattle, although a year older and not quite the weight. 5th. My aim this season has been to ascertain the comparative merits of the shed and yard feeding with that in boxes, according to the system pre- viously practised, and not the most advantageous mode of feeding as regards the kinds and quan- tities of food. From the time the cattle were taken in, in October, till the present day (the 15th of May) I have never been able to discover, either by the eye or measurement, the slightest difterence in their rapidity of fattening ; they have gone on pari passu from first to last, but I believe the extreme mildness of the winter has not given to the boxes the same advantage they would have had in a win- ter of average temperature. With regard to which requires most litter, it requires to be oftener put into the boxes to keep the animals clean ; it should be done twice a day, but double the quantity of manure can easily be made in the yards; the dif- ference in the quality of the manure I have not yet determined, as the boxes have never been cleaned out. Very little urine is discharged from the boxes, but however little, a tank should be prepared for its reception. A little more minute attendance is required for the box feeding than for the yards, but it does not add much to the expense. In all cases, when a limited quantity of any kind of food is given, particularly odcake, linseed, or bean meal, or when the cattle have not been brought up to- gether, there can be little doubt the boxes have a decided preference. But were this system to be adopted entirely, it would be quite necessary to fol- low it up with cut green food in summer, as well as turnips in winter, in order to convert the straw into manure, and which may be the most profitable mode ; but so far as we are yet enlightened (or it may be darkened) in this district, I would be in- clined to recommend that half the feeding accom- modation of a farm should be in boxes and the other half in yards, with comfortable warm sheds, not less than 15 feet wide within, and con- taining from four to six cattle, and that the ac- commodation for all keeping cattle and calves, after they are weaned, should be of the latter de- scription. When new erections are made, I have come to the conclusion that the best, most convenient, and cheapest plan is to construct a house ^vide enough to contain two rows of boxes, 9 feet in length, with a passage 4 feet wide up the middle — that is, 22 feet in all ; the breadth of the boxes may be accord- ing to fancy ; I think 8 feet suflkient, great care being taken to have proper ventilation. A shed close to one end for storing turnips is quite essen- tial. If the farm is upon a large scale, it would be a desirable object to have the feeding house so placed that a belt could be brought from the thrashing mill ])owei", to drive the turnip cutter in one end of the liouse, from thence a raihvay could be laid along the passage at a cost of Is. 9d. per yard, and from a truck which the attendant could easily shove along, the troughs could be filled on each side with great facihty. The fourth report was from Mr. Middleton, of Cocklaw, and was as follows : — Having had only a very short trial of box-feed- ing, I consider myself scarcely competent to judge of the advantages to be derived from it ; but so far as my short experience has enabled me, I have en- deavoured to answer the queries put by the direc- tors. 1. My cattle were formerly fed in open yards with sheds attached ; these yards varied from 9 to 15 yards square, and the average number of ani- mals fed together was from 4 to 12. 2. I tried box feeding for the first time last year, but it was on a small scale ; this year 1 have fed 50 cattle on this system. 3. The dimensions of my boxes are 10 feet by 14 for two cattle, and 7 feet by 14 feet for a single animal, I have one box 7 5 feet by 9, which answers very well for a small-sized animal. I have 31 boxes which cost me about £6, but this is exclusive of the wood, which was kindly supplied to ine by my landlord, Mr. Innes, of Ayton. There are no new buildings, the old sheds having been converted to suit the purpose. 4. My cattle are fed twice a day upon Swedish turnip, but I give them no measured quantity. About two months before they are sold I give from 2 to 4lbs. of linseed cake daily to each of them. 5. I find that box-feeding possesses some advan- tages over the plan of open yards, for the following reasons : — 1. The animal fattens more rapidly. 2. Never having weighed the quantities of food given, I cannot say on which plan a given quan- tity would j)roduce the greatest increase, but consider that box-feeding would, because each animal gets its food undisturbed. 3. Box-feeding requires most litter, and produces the best manure. I have no means of preserving the urine. The cattle requires a little more attendance ; this last winter it cost me about 4d. per day more than it would have done if I had fed them in the yards. Mr. Clay, Mr. Herriot, Mr. Murray, and Dr. Hood shortly stated their experience and views on the subject, none of which were decidedly favour- able to the box-feeding system. The Chairman considered the meeting highly indebted to the gentlemen who had given in the re- ports which had been read. Although in some particulars there was a diflference in the reports, they seemed all to a certain extent favourable. He directed the attention of the members to the state- ment in Mr. Ogden's report as to the reduced quantity of turnips required, in consequence of the use of turnips and chopped straw, by which a con- siderable saving must l)e ertected. This had been corroborated by Mr. Milne in his report. Against this, however, had to be placed Mr. Wilson's state- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 ment, that the cattle in the hoxcs had consumed more turnips than those in the sheds. lie thought this might be explained thus. It was believed that one great reason for cattle fattening faster in boxes than in curtains, was on account of the greater warmth in the boxes ; less food being absorbed in the maintenance of the necessary animal heat, but there was an extremity on both sides. At Cum- ledge, now, he happened to be aware that much surprise had been occasioned by finding the ani- mals in the boxes frequently, almost constantly, in a state of perspiration. A great deal of food was thus sweat out of them, and more food of course was required to make them fatten. He himself had made some small experiments in box-feeding, and so far as they went, they appeared to him to be in favour of that system. He was bound to say, however, that the difference in favour of box- feeding was mostly visible for the first two months in the cold weather; and he was prepared to believe that, had the winter been frosty and severe, the difference would have been much greater. Another point, also, to which he would direct atten- tion was, that, upon the whole, less straw for lit- ter was required. And to him it appeared that on such farms as it was desirable to make tur- nips go as far as possible, and to get straw well broken down, this system of box-feeding was de- cidedly the preferable one. After some further conversation, the following resolution was come to : — The meeting having fully considered the reports submitted to them, as well as additional statements made verbally by several members, are of opinion that there is a jireponderance of evidence in favour of box-feeding — particularlj', 1st. That in well constructed boxes cattle can be kept clean and comfortable with about half the litter required for the same number in open yards with sheds. 2nd. That when it is wished to xise linseed-cake meal, or similar feeding stuffs, these can be given to the cattle more advantageously in boxes than when several are fed promiscuously ; and farther, that by mixing these substances with a consider- able bulk of chopped straw, as described in the reports, an equally favourable result can be at- tained with about half the turnips otherwise neces- sary. 3rd. That when turnips only are used in fattening cattle, and, when it is an object to break down as much strav/ as possible, with a limited number of animals, open yards with roomy warm sheds are preferable to boxes. 4th. That from the greatly increased breadth of turnips grown, a consequent increased number of cattle fattened in this district without any corres- ponding increase of accommodation at homesteads, the occupiers are constantly obliged to crowd a greater number of animals together than is de- sirable, and that much loss is annually sustained from this cause. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. — PREMIUMS. The usual period of the meetings of the different agricultural societies again affords us an opportunity of reviewing their position, and the success which has attended them is quite indicative of the hold they have on the public mind. It was very seriously feared that they would not stand the crash of ruin Avhich agriculture has sustained; but wither, like a summer flower, before the blasts of winter. The downfall of all the small local shows, or nearly so, was an evidence of decadence, it was said, felt first by the public ; but it is really just the reverse. It is the breaking up of the small societies, of limited competition, small funds, feeble support, and in- deed, we may add, questionable advantage ; and it is a better and more useful concentration of strength, a wider field of competition, more ample funds, and better and more extensive fields of use- fulness. The Royal Society's Meeting, without its array of implements, was large, and highly success- ful ; extensive as regards the quantity', and nearly equal to York, when its best quality of animals was exhibited. Where there are great numbers of animals there must be some indifferent ; but where there are so many good, the bad are useful at least for contrast. Then the numbers of people, also, are encouraging and satisfactory, keeping up the funds of the society and the interest of the exhibi- tion ; for only monster things are those which are now accounted of. But it is not the Royal Society of England alone which promises to be successful. We hear the best accounts of the sister socie- ties for the adjoining countries ; and the local shows of great dimensions are, we understand, of the most promising kind. The Great Yorkshire is on the eve of a most brilliant meeting — a large entry and great interest ; the Northumberland is also the same; the Durham County, just over, is success- ful; and the certainty of grand meetings at the North Lancashire and the Lincolnshire societies shows that when there is a wide field and amjjle scope for competition there is no lack of success. A right direction in the objects of these societies is 2-20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. no doubt important. An old writer in the Journal gives us some severe animadversions on some of these exhibitions ; with which although we do not agree, we cannot help inserting. He says, on AGRICULTURAL PREMIUMS, Sir, — A few remarks on agricultural premiums may probably be considered not unseasonable at this time. The prosperity of a public institution such as the Agri- cultural Society depends greatly on the judicious appro- priation of its funds ; and it seems desirable to consider whether a change of circumstances may not require a suit- able modification. Formerly it was desirable to give pre- miums for improvement in breeding stock, and exhibit fat animals, to draw farmers together. But now, since good live stock is so commonly found, would it not be better to lessen the amount given in premiums for cattle, and give more for cultivation, for experiments, and for essays ? Suppose but few premiums were offered for live stock, and for tenant farmers only. Landowners and tenants might also compete, cither together or sepa- rately, by means of sweepstakes, and by these means emulation and improvement might be sufficiently stimu- lated in the stock department. All betting might be prevented by means of heavy fines, to be paid to the funds of the society. In the most eminent stock-breed- ing districts, improvement in cultivation is still sadly in the rear. And even in cattle the improvement is pro- bably more apparent than real. Undoubtedly, much has been gained in point of early maturity and quick fattening, but there has been a great sacrifice of milk and of hardiness ; and these are important losses, which it would be very desirable to redeem. Then there is a great want of more certain proofs and principles by which the decision of the judges might be guided : as it is, at present it is too often a mere matter of opinion, in which the most competent judges would differ. As an experienced stock breeder, I would say that each farmer should determine clearly what is the kind and character of stock best suited to his farm, and by persevering selection long continued, he may, notwith- standing all the occasional erratic exceptions recently alluded to, obtain an established stock of the required character : for each district, if not each farm, requires its own peculiar kind ; and some of the famous pre- mium animals would cut a very sorry figure if removed to some farms ; though there are undoubtedly many far distant localities into which they might be advantage- ously introduced. Milking and grazing qualific=itions are rarely united, and they have been considered incompatible ; but that, I well know, is an erroneous idea. There are occasional exceptions, and persevering selection of both males and females of such families is all that is requisite to increase the number and establish the kind. Now, it cannot help striking the most careless ob- server, that some animals have been spoiled as breeders by over feeding. Take an animal naturally disposed to feed, and cram it with anything it likes, luxury m the lower animals as well as in man tends to reduce population — to check inci'ease. But no man does this with all his breeding stock. He takes one animal ; he sees in it a strange pro- pensity to lay on fat, and he encourages the ten- dency till he destroys the power of fcetation. It is a loss, but it still gives him the pov/er of showing what can be done, what the breed is capable of, and it is only objectionable so far as taking one animal with great feeding tendencies, and rendering her useless as such, and is no worse than the cas- trating of a bull, or the spaying of a gelt pig. The breed will produce the same, the race celebrated for fat will be an early mature race, and as such some will be full martins early. But what then ? Fat must be produced, and the object is accomphshed. We must have witnessed, also, that the tendency ot all judges is to reward fat-forming animals. If we carefully recollect the specimens of Hereford cattle as exhibited at the early meetings of the Royal Society, and contrast them with those now ex- hibited, we shall see that the butcher and not tlie dairyman has been consulted in the physiological tendencies of the animals exhibited. They are all earlier mature ; they have the roundness of form indicative of fattening ; and have lost the thin neck and thighs, and the shilly make — the characteristics of the milker. We cannot agree with our correspondent that these qualities, in any great degree, can be com- bined in the same animal. We maj', as a chance, get mediocrity in both ; but we shall never find a very great milker to be a rapid feeder, nor a very rapid fattener a successful animal in the dairy. The conformations are difYerent — are opposite; and a full combination of them both in excess is im- possible.— Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. THE FARMER MAGAZINE. 221 THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. FROM THE TIMES COMMISSIONERS. Lancaster, Oct., 1850. Before entering on a description of North Lan- cashire it will be necessary to notice one point re- garding the southern division of the county, for whicli there was not space in our last letter — that is, the reclamation and cultivation of peat mosses, or hogs, the management of which forms a feature in the husbandry of both north and soutli Lanca- shire. In both divisions of the county these mosses are very extensive. Chat Moss, which lies seven miles west of Manchester, and is traversed by the railway to Liverpool, is about five miles long and three miles l)road, and is situated at an altitude of 100 feet above the level of the sea. Its surface is composed of a long, coarse, sedgy grass and heath, beneath which there is a depth in some places of 34 feet of moss. Under ordinary circumstances we should ex- pect that this dreary waste, demanding considerable capital and great skill in its profitable reclamation, would long remain untouched by the hand of im- provement. But with a railway through its centre, connecting two of the most populous and important towns in the kingdom, and surrounded on all sides by a dense manufacturing population, offering a ready market for every article of produce, and an equally ready and almost inexhaustible supply of manure, the v/onder is, not that anytliing has been done, but that anything still remains to do. The possibility of effecting remunerative improvement is not a matter of doubt — the thing has been done with eminent success ; yet two-thirds of this great tract still remain waste and unproductive. There are other extensive tracts of moss in the southern division of the county — White Moss, near Middleton, Rainford and Kirby Moss, between Knowsley and Ormskirk, Halsall Moss, near South- port, Rufford Moss, &c. ; and, as these are in every instance either traversed by railways, or in the close vicinity of canals, they possess facilities for improve- ment unknown to many other districts of the coun- try in which moss land has been profitably culti- vated. In the northern division of the county there are also extensive tracts of moss. The most valu- able of these are in the Fylde, to t)ie north of the Wyre, and are estimated by Mr. Garnet to extend to 20,000 acres altogether. Besides the advantage of locality which the moss lands of this county possess, they have generally, either beneath their surface or in their immediate vicinity, beds of rich calcareous marl, by the application of which, in conjunction with drainage, they can be converted from worthless unwholesome wastes into rich and productive lands. The process of improvement by which this is effected it would be out of place here to enter into at length. On Chat Moss the principal improvers have been the late Mr. Baines, of the Leeds Mercuri/, Mr. Reed, Messrs. Evans and Co., Lord Ellesmere, and Colonel Ross. Large open ditches are cut, into which the covered drains, laid ten yards apart, are run ; but, as great subsidence takes ])lace at the first drainage of moss lands, these covered drains are not completed at first; sufficient time is allowed for the land to consolidate, the drains are then cut to the requisite depth, and in many cases laid with the top sod, dried by expo- sure to the air, being pressed wedgelike into the drain, where it leaves a hollow space for the water, some six inches in depth. The surface plants are then burnt off, and the turf torn to pieces by plough- ing and cross-ploughing. When this has been sufficiently broken the next great step in moss im- proveme'nt is begun by laying on the marl, which is most easily effected by the use of a moveable railway. 1 00 to 1 50 tons of marl are laid on an acre. So soft is the moss at this stage of opera- tions that it is frequently necessary for both men and horses to have flat pieces of wood attached to their feet, to prevent them from sinking. The land is now fit for potatoes, for which it receives a fur- ther heavy application of nightsoil and ashes. Great crops are got, which, till within the last year or two, were nearly exempt from disease. That is not now the case, and seems to be owing to the presence of marl, as on unmarled moss the potato crop continues to grow successfully. A mixture of lime and salt has been tried by Mr. Evans, which, besides being much less bulky than marl, is found very effective in destroying the surface moss, and preparing it for potatoes. Turnips, oats, and pota- toes are found by experience the most paying and certain crops, though, on some improved mosses, the regular four-course rotation is adopted. North of the Wyre, Mr. Wilson Ffrance, of Rawchffe Hall, is one of the most extensive and judicious moss improvers. On 736 acres allotted to him, 19 years ago, he has drained, made roads, and marled the whole. Marling, v/ith the assistance of a move- able railway, costs him about £3 an acre ; drainage (with peat turfs), £1 Os. To this must be added the expense of main drains, roads, and farm-build- ings, which, on Mr. Ffrance's allotment, amounted altogether to between £9 and £10 an acre. The j produce of potatoes on this improved moss is very ! great; and, as soon as it is ready for being cropped, each ])ortion is competed for eagerly, and lets at high rents. Some of it fetches as much as £2 per acre, and the whole extent cannot be estimated at less than £1 per acre, which, on an outlay of £7,000 over 736 acres, is rather more than 10 per cent. On some of the mosses in the manufacturing districts the whole produce is sold, and manure bought ; no stock except the working horses being kept on the land. Large crojis of swedes, common 222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. turni])y, and mangold are grown, and oats fre- quently yield 60 bushels or more per acre, besides a great bulk of straw, which in such localities can be very profitably converted into cash, and replaced much more cheaply by manure. Such is a very short sketch of the present condi- tion of the peat mosses of Lancashire. Many in- teresting details may be learned by a jierusal of Mr. Garnett's prize essay on the farming of the county. Our purpose is rather to direct attention to the fact of the existence of such com])aratively unopened mines of wealth ; for such they are, when regard is had to their locality. The bogs of the west of Ire- land have been and are being reclaimed to advan- tage; but here, in the midst of the greatest manu- factvu-ing wealth, and possessing the best markets in the world, thousands of acres are still lying waste and unimproved. If left to the native farmers the reclamation will be slow, for, as a class, they are individually possessed of little capital and no great enterprise ; and where allotments are made to them they show no readiness to improve them. Lancashire, north of the Ribble, differs in many important respects from the southern division al- ready described. The populous manufacturing towns and villages disappear ; and, with the excej)- tion of the extensive and pecuhar district called the Fylde, the country is narrowed into a strip a few miles in breadth, extending from the sea to the mountainous tract which on the east divides it from Yorkshire. To the north, and disjoined from the rest of the county by Morecombe-bay, lies the rich district of Furness. The coal measures are now left behind ; red sandstone, millstone-grit, moun- tain limestone, and clay slate, form the geological features of the district. The outline is on the whole more picturesque, the fields and trees look fresher and greener, though, except in vallies and sheltered glens or bays protected by bluff head- lands, the stunted appearance of the hedgerow trees, and their inclination from the west, show the effects of the prevailing westerly sea winds. Near the coast the land is managed chiefly in alternate husbandry ; as it begins to rise towards the hills it is principally in grass, held by small dairy farmers, and the hills are stocked with blackfaced sheep. The extensive district called the Fylde first de- mands our attention. It embraces all that low r.l- luvial district lying westward of the Preston and Lancaster Railway, and extending to the coast. It is divided by the river Wyre, which falls into the sea above Fleetwood, and is traversed by the Preston and Fleetwood Railway. Along the coast the climate is very mild, and the towns of Lytham, Blackpool, and Fleetwood are much resorted to for sea bathing by the inhabitants of the manufacturing districts in the interior. Containing many varieties of soil, from a blowing sand to a strong alluvial clay, it gives scope to different systems of management, and, on the whole, it is naturally a rich agricultural district, requiring only the hand of enterprise and the judicious investment of capital for its profitable cultivation. The Earl of Derby, Mr. Clifton, of Lytham, and Mr. Wilson Ffranee, are the ]n-inci- pal landowners ; 20 years ago many parts of this district were nearly inaccessible, and even yet a Stranger would find it difficult to get through some parts of it but for the railway. In 1831, on Lord Derby's estate, extending to 1 2,000 acres of land, in the neighbourhood of Preston, there was not a field-turnip grown ; a few for table use might be seen in the farmers' gardens. Up to that time the only tenure known on that extensive estate was by leases of three lives, with fines for renewal. These fines varied, according to the extent and value of the holding, from £100 up to as much as £2,000, and the right of property was maintained by a small annual payment, often not more than 40s., for a considerable farm. In this way the proprietor lost all immediate interest in the property, and the tenant, even if he had the requisite skill, had pro- bably parted with all the available capital he pos- sessed in paying the fine. Improvement there was none, and though since 1831 Lord Derby has granted no renewals, that very circumstance j)re- vents improvement, as the tenants feel that when their leases run out they will be placed under a dif- ferent tenure. On other parts of the Fylde the same system prevailed, though not up to so late a period ; but a considerable portion of this extensive district is still held on long leases, and many years must elapse before the evil effects of the practice can entirely disappear. Instances are known of tenants, through indolence and inactivity, being reduced to poverty when their payments for rent were merely nominal, and of the same men, on the same farms, when compelled to exert themselves to pay a regular rent, casting off their sloth, retrieving their circumstances, and becoming at last compa- ratively independent. On the extensive estate of Mr. Clifton, of Lytham, very large and vigorous imjjrovements have been made. One large open drain, emptying itself into the harbour of Lytham through floodgates which exclude the tide at high water, extends five or six miles inland, and cost the proprietor £3,000. It has laid dry a great extent of flat country, from which there was formerly no outlet for the water. Mr. Chfton has enlarged several of his farms, and introduced upon different parts of his estate farmers of capital, occupying 400 acres and upwards, on leases of 19 or 21 years. Their farms have been drained at the joint expense of landlord and tenant, and handsome residences and farm buildings have been erected by the landlord. The rotation of crops prescribed on other parts of this estate is (1) oats, (2) green crop, (3) wheat or barley, and three years in grass — while a portion is likewise reserved for permanent grass and meadow, as most of the farmers keep a dairy stock. As there is occasion- ally a good demand and corresponding prices for hay, straw, and turnips, the tenants are allowed to dispose of these, on condition that they bring upon their farms the following quantities of manure — 4 tons of manure, for 1 ton of hay sold, 3 ditto ditto wheat straw. 2 tons per acre, in addition to manure already applied, on fields whence turnips are sold. On the sandy lands along the sea-coast on this estate great improvements have been made by marl- ing, of which there very frequently is found a bank in convenient proximity. These soils are now the most successful in ])otato culture, and, being very inexpensive to work, are much sought after by THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 tenants. They let, according to quality, at 21s. to 30s. per acre, and the better class of soils on this estate at 30s. to 36s. per acre, inclusive of tithe. The general class of farms in the Fylde are from 40 to 160 acres in extent. The fields are small, and the fences zigzag about in all directions. In almost every field there is a marl-pit, the applica- tion of which, in former times, was the only im- provement known to the farmers. It is still prac- tised, but not in the same wholesale manner as for- merly. One of the conditions of the holding was generally that the tenant was to lay the whole dung of tlie farm uj)on his meadow ; consequently, the little jiortion they did cultivate could not get any justice. To this condition they were rigorously bound, many instances being known of men being heavily fined for transgrcssmg it. The dairy forms their principal source of income, and in its manage- ment they display much cleanliness and care. Their arable was limited to a very small portion, from which it was, and is, usual to take one or two oat crops, then a bare fallow, followed by wheat ; after which the land was either sown with such hay- seeds as the farmer had, or left to grass itself over ; this course being justified on the principle that the old roots had not by their husbandry been de- stroyed. Draining, to a very limited extent, was carried on ; dried peat being used as a wedge to form the watercourse. Where well executed, these peat drains are effective, and last many years. The contrast betwixt drained and undrained land in the Fylde is very perceptible. Crossing a fence which divides two fields of precisely the same soil you may step from one not worth 10s. an acre into ano- ther better worth 40s., the whole difference being due to drainage and improved management. In this flat country there is sometimes much difficulty in getting an outfall for the drainage ; but, besides that material difficulty, there is an artificial ob- struction at a place called Skippool, where the pro- prietor of a small meal-mill has the power of damming up the water to turn his mill, and in this way actually keeps up the drainage and sets back the water over several hundred acres of valuable land. It would appear that the neighbouring pro- prietors and their tenants, who are injured by it, have no power to compel the removal of this ob- struction, and negotiations for the purpose of buy- ing up the privilege have hitherto failed. After a clean bare fallow the crop of wheat yields from 24 to 28 bushels an acre ; 36 to 40 of beans are rec- koned a full crop. From the level character of the country it is exposed to severe cold winds. On Mr. Begbie's farm boarded hurdles are erected to shelter his ewe flock, which are kept for the supply of lambs to the coast villages, whence there is an excellent and increasing demand during the sea- bathing season. Two-thirds of the Fylde district are still undrained, and comparatively un-improved. To the east of the Lancaster and Preston Rail- way the country is chiefly under grass, and let to dairy farmers. The farms are generally held on seven years' leases, some on 1 4 ; they extend from 40 to ISO or 200 acres, but may average about SO acres. They are precisely of that character which most encourages competition, being chiefly in grass, and believed to require no great skill, and not much capital, in their management. " Railway men"— that is to say, men who have made a little money by railway contracts — are anxious to retire to them ; and when a farm comes into the market, there are often as many as 20 competitors for it, if a small farm, and three or four, if a large one. This competition is recklessly taken advantage of to the utmost by most of the landlords in the district, httle regard being paid to the qualifications of the tenant, provided only he offers the highest rent. Many farms are at this moment being let at an increase of 10 per cent, and upwards on the old rent, without the landlord undertaking any of those permanent improvements by which alone an in- creased rent, with lower prices, can possibly be realized. It would be wrong to designate such conduct by another name than the most short- sighted folly on the part of men whose jjosition and information should guard them from acquiescing in the over-sanguine anticipations (if they really do look before them at all) of unskilful and inexpe- rienced candidates. Where such competition exists, it can hardly be expected that much abatement of rent should be made by the landlords. Ten per cent., in one or two instances, has been given back, and in others a certain proportion has been allowed for drainage and other improvements. On the estate of Mr, Garnett, of Quernmore Park, a very judicious system is adopted. The landlord drains his farm and buys bones for top-dressing the grass land, for both of which outlays he charges five per cent. The bones are applied to the drained grass lands at the rate of one ton per acre, costing £6 ; and their effect has in every respect been as great as we found it in Cheshire, in all cases improving the quality, and almost doubling the quantity, of herbage. By this means a dairy farmer is at once placed in a position in which he may with success meet somewhat diminished prices. At Bleasdale Tower, between 600 and 700 feet above the sea- level, the effect of bones in improving grass land is very striking. A wild and barren country is here being reclaimed for the use of man. Farm build- ings of the most substantial and convenient cha- racter, and with all requisite shelter for this elevated district, are ])eing erected, and every encourage- ment to industry afforded, and regard to the per- sonal comfort of his tenants and their families bestowed, by the liberality of the proprietor, Mr. Garnett. It may be interesting to compare the present rates of rent, labour, and the value of produce with what they were in the same locality in 1770. An exact comparison cannot be made, as Arthur Young does not mention the exact situation of the places he describes. Between Lancaster and Gar- stang a dairy farm seems to have borne something like the following proportions : In 1770 In 1850. Rent, 21s. an acre Rates, 3d. per pound Tithes, compounded for Rent, 41s. an acre Rates, 3s. 9d. per pound Tithes, commuted, and in- cluded in rent 4-7ths of farm in grass 4-5ths of farm in grass 3-7ths arable 1 5th arable Annual produce of a cow, Annual produce of a cow, £4 £9 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In 1770 AN Six horses in a plough^ and do an acre a day First man's wages, £9 a year, and his board Second man, £b a year, and board Dairymaid, £3, and board Bread (oat), ll!b. for Is. Cheese, 3d. per lb. Butter, 8d. per lb. Beef, 2^d. per lb. Mutton", 2id. per lb. Labourer's house-rent, 20s. D In 1850. Two, and sometimes three, horses in a plough First man's wages, £15 to <£'l(j a year, and board Second man, ^"'10 a year, and board ])airymnid, £7 lO.s., and board Bread, 4d. per 41b. loaf coarse whealen bread ; 5d. per 4ib., best Cheese, 5d. per lb. Butter, lid. to Is. per lb. Beef, 5d. to 6d. Mutton, 6d. Labourer's house-rent, 50s. to 100s. These prices suggest many reflections which it is unnecessary at present to dwell upon, further than to point out that, while rent, rates, and wages of labour have more than doubled, the value of produce has increased in a hke proportion, and that oat-bread, which then formed the sole bread of the people, is now much superseded, even in the country districts, by wheaten bread, at a price very little higher per pound in 1850 than oat-bread in 1770. The wages of labour throughout Lancashire will be reckoned high as compared with the southern counties. In South Lancashire, 128. to 15s. a week is the usual rate for Englishmen, and 9s. a week for Irishmen. In that district native labour is so scarce, that the farmers declare they could not get on at all without the aid of the Irish. Cottage- rents are from £3 to £5 a year, according to accom- modation ; and those on the large estates are always provided with a moderate piece of garden- ground. In some cases, when labourers' cottages fall into decay, they are not rebuilt; and the labourers are, consequently, driven into the neigh- bouring towns. But, from the denseness of the population, this is not attended with the inconve- nience we have sometimes witnessed, as in this county a labourer has seldom to walk so much as two miles to his work. In the Fylde labourers' wages are lower, ys. and iOs. a week being com- mon. To the north and east of the Fylde wages are higher, 12s. and 14s. a week being the present rate. Women are seldom employed in the fields at hoeing or other light work, there being better pay- ment for them indoors, at the factories. It is ne- cessary, therefore, to employ men in this county at many operations for which women or boys are found competent in other districts. And this makes the manual labour in the turnip crop nearly double the cost in Lancashire, as compared with such counties. Fuel is abundant and cheap. A report of the agriculture of Lancashire would be incomplete if it bore no testimony to the influ- ence which the two district societies have had in promoting agricultural improvement. In South Lancashire the Manchester and Liverpool Agricid- tural Society, of which Mr. Henry White, of Warrington, is the secretary, holds an annual meet- ing in different parts of the district in turn, at which, besides the usual prizes for stock, competi- tion is also invited in the management of farms. including, under separate heads, draining, subsoil-* ing, irrigating, laying down land to grass, marling, and green crops, besides rewards to farm-labourers for good conduct and irroiiciency. Inspectors are appointed by the society to examine the dift'erent farms and crops entered for competition ; and, be- sides the direct benefit of that competition, the re- ports convey much useful instruction by describing the best processes which come under the observa- tion of the inspectors. In the northern district, the eftbrts of the North Lancashire Society have been very successfixl in introducing improved breeds of stock, and in encouraging competition among both landlords and tenants, Wakefield, Nov., 1850. Crossing from Lancaster to the West Riding by the new line of the North-Western Railway, the traveller is carried up the picturesque valley of the Lune, whence, after ])assing through a bleak high country, he begins to descend into the grassy dales of the upland district of Yorkshire. Here in the sheltered valleys of the mountain limestone the fields are completely inclosed, and though for many miles yet scarcely a ploughed field is to be seen, there is everywhere evidenced a skilful and painstaking management of grass. The mixed breed of short- horns, long-horns, Irish, and polled Galloways, which satisfy the dairy farmers of Lancashire, now give place to the improved short-horns, which with occasional exceptions are the distinctive breed of this riding. Around Settle the country is all in grass, and continues so to Skipton, eastward of which a few cultivated fields appear, but so small in proportion as to be quite a subordinate feature in the landscape. As we approach the coal district the factories become more nitmerous. Entering it at Keighley, we pass through Bingley and Shipley to Bradford and Leeds, still environed by small fields of grass land, generally well drained and in good condition. At Bingley is the estate of Mr. Ferrand, whose advocacy of the cause of Protection cannot be charged to selfishness, inasmuch as his tenants depending chiefly on grass, must be greatly benefited by the prosperity of their customers in the neighbouring mills, who buy all they have to sell, while the winter food for their dairy cattle is im- proved and cheapened by the choice aff'orded them in the difl^erent sorts of low priced grain now im- ported into the country. We are now in the coal district of Yorkshire, as much distinguished for its woollen and worsted manufacture as Lancashire for its cotton. With a population of about a milUon and a quarter chiefly employed in trade agriculture in the most densely inhabited parts of the West Riding is of secondary importance; and yet it differs from the cotton districts in this — that all classes engaged in the woollen manufacture seem to have a taste for the occupation of land. Besides those employed in the large mills, there is a class called " clothiers," who hold a considerable portion of the land within several miles of the manufac- turing towns ; they have looms in their houses and unite the business of weavers and farmers. When trade is good the farm is neglected ; when trade is dull the weaver becomes a more attentive farmer. His holding is generally under 20 acres, and his THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 225 chief stock consists of dairy cows, with a horse to convey his manufactured goods and his milk to market. This union of trades has heeii long in existence in this part of the country, hut it seldom leads to much success on the part of the weaver- farmer himself, and the land he occupies is jjelieved to be tlie worst managed in the district. Being chiefly in grass, und not permitted to he sublet or subdivided, it has not led to the same evils which some years ago existed in the north of Ireland, under a much similar state of things among the handloom weavers of that country. Ascending higher in the scale, successful tradesmen buy small properties and cultivate them, while the capitalist manufacturer is in many parts of the West Riding purchasing the estates and taking the position of the old gentry of the country. Some who do not purchase the land occupy large farms as tenants, and into tlie management of these they carry the same business habits and the same command of capital which gained thera success in trade. At Burley, in Wharfdale, Mr. Horsfall, a wealthy manufacturer and landowner, spares neither time nor personal exertion in increasing the produce of his land. By irrigation he has improved his pasture land 50 percent., and finds after trial, that by farm- ing himself and attending to details, he can make £7 an acre from the produce of land, which if let would not yield him more than from £3 to £4. He thus feels himself well compensated for his own trouble and the capital he invests as a farmer. In the neighbourhood of all the manufacturing towns the system of husbandry is chiefly grass farming for the supply of the towns with milk and butter. Besides the "clothiers" there are small milk farmers who carry on a lucrative business of this kind ; they give their whole attention to it, and when their stock is judiciously selected and well fed they in many cases make an average produce of £20 from each cow, after deducting the loss occasioned by selling a cow whose milk has failed to replace her with one in full milk. Besides the manure collected on their lands, they can purchase in the towns and villages any quantity at a cheap rate for top dressing their meadows. From what has been said, it will be easily seen that the manufacturing districts of the West Hiding have an agriculture of their own, as little influenced by the price of corn, or dependent on it for success, as that of South Lancashire. Small farms are the rule, but as we pass eastwards towards Wharfdale they increase in size, and at Esholt the home farm of Mr. Stansfield, M.P., under the management oi Mr. White, presents several features of interest. It is managed strictly on the four-course system, but being highly manured and cultivated it is very jn-o- ductive. A certain portion is kept under meadow, which is irrigated, and with great advantage, as the water is enriched by the drainage of a populous neighbourhood. To supply food for the farm horses and other house-fed stock, a small field adjoining the farmyard, three acres in extent, has been kept for the last nine years under Italian ryegrass. The produce of this field is always cut and carried into the stab for consumption. Last year it was cut six times, and after each cutting was watered with liquid manure from the tank in the farmyard. One half of the field is broken up every second year for renev/al, as the grass after the second year ceases to be productive. The ground is ploughed in Sep- tember, well torn to pieces, and all root-weeds picked ofi" and burnt, the ashes being then scattered over the surface and ploughed in with a light fur- row ; after which the seed (which is got from Dick- inson, of London) is sown thick, at the rate of from four to five bushels an acre. Next season it is ready for cutting, and the '^mall field of three acres so managed yields the entire summer food of six work horses and five bulls, besides supplying a fresh bite for the cows twice a-day when they are brought in to be milked. The produce is thus applied solely to the stock of the farm, but in the vicinity of the poj)ulous towns probably nothing would pay a farmer better than to cultivate Italian ryegrass on a larger scale for sale. Its growth might be stimulated almost to any extent by manure, and when given in a fresh and succulent state it is eagerly eaten by all kinds of stock. Under good management the successive cuttings in one year would yield from 30 to 40 tons an acre of green food, which, at the common price for that article from dairy and horse keepers in a manufacturing town, could not be less in value than £40 to £50. In the management of the arable land the following details may be interesting : — Seeds are sown every fourth year in these proportions per acre : lOlb. red clover, lOlb. white clover, 4lb. trefoil, and 4lb. rib grass, being 28lb. in all, and a full plant is inva- riably got. From the middle of April till Septem- ber two acres of seeds yield food for 16 to 20 sheep and one beast. They are then ploughed, and after being harrowed the land is sown in October with wheat. Wheat yields from four to seven quarters an acre according to season, the bulkiest crop not always proving the best on the barn floor. Excel- lent crops of Swedes are grown with superphosphate of lime, which is highly approved of as a manure. The barley crop averages eight quarters an acre, but it is not on the whole so certain a crop as wheat. Labour here is very expensive, 14s. a week being the present rate for farm labourers. The harvest could not be accomplished without the aid of the Irish, and even with their assistance the expense of cutting a heavy crop of wheat is as much as l6s. an acre, and other corn crops may average r2s. an acre. Cow cabbage, or kohl rabi, is cultivated both here and by Mr. Horsfall, of Burley, with advantage. It is found to yield as much per acre as the Swede, and when given to cows it does not affect the taste of their milk. Land lets here at from 30s. to 50s. an acre according to quality and situation, and as the farms are small there is great competition for them ; but that is not taken advantage of, as in North Lancashire. The best man is invariably made choice of, and he gets the farm at a fair valua- tion. There are few leases, the holding being chiefly from year to year ; but a good tenant is never disturbed, and even a bad one is long borne with . Proceeding down Wharfdale by Burley, Otley, and Arthington, to Harewood, a rich country is passed through, a large proportion of which is in grass, stocked, as at Farnley, with fine herds of short-horns and Leicester sheep. The arable land Q 2 226 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. does not indicate more than ordinary management, and cannot yield so large a net produce to its occu- l)ier as the neighbouring grass lands. On the sides of the valley near Otley and the plains beyond it the farms are chiefly arable. They average 200 acres in extent and are managed on the four course sys- tem. For green crops no artificial manures are used, the farmer depending solely on his farm for sources of reproduction. They all keep dairies, the produce of which is made into butter and sold in the manufacturing towns. A cow's produce is reckoned to be worth £12 yearly. Rents vary from l(:»s. on the poorest arable farms to £3, inclusive of tythe, for the best grazing land on the banks of the river. Poor and highway rates amount to Is. per pound in the country districts, and rise to 2s. 6d. and 5s. near manufacturing villages, where some- times as much as 10s. in the ])ound has been paid by the farmer for poor rates alone. The farmers as a class are not possessed of much capital, and their cultivation does not bespeak great energy or skill. The price of wheat to the farmers here at present is from 42s. to 46s. a quarter. As we approach Hare- wood the cultivation improves, and a fine tract of rich well-managed land is traversed. The farmers are busily engaged with wheat sowing, for which in many places the land, after being jjloughed and harrowed is prepared by being "ribbed" with a light single-horse plough, which produces much the same effect as the presser, the seed falling into the ruts made by the plough, where the roots take firm hold and come up in rows as when drilled. Farm labourers are paid 128, to 14s. a week, their cottage rents vary from £4 to £5. The landlords have made no abatement of rent, and any farm that comes into the market is eagerly sought for. In the neighbourhood of Leeds the land is well farmed, whether occupied as arable, pasture, or market garden. On the strong loams near Wake- field heavy crops are grown by good management in the market gardens here situated, and which supply several of the thickly peopled districts of the Riding. In other parts of the coal district the local value of produce and the facility of getting manure have enabled the farmer to grow a succes- sion of crops, which mthout these advantages he could not continue long with benefit. The follow- ing rotation is not uncommon in such localities :- 1, turnips; 2, wheat; 3 and 4, seeds eaten on; .5, wheat ; 6, wheat or barley, according to the nature of the soil. In some cases wheat is taken every alternate year, and Mr. Charnock, in his report of the West Riding, mentions an instance, on the banks of the Calder, of wheat having been taken from the same field for 30 years in succession, with only four exceptions— one of these having been a bean crop, another barley, the third fallow, and the fourth potatoes. The crops during the whole period are said to have averaged 39 to 42 bushels per acre. The farm occupied by Mr. Johnson, of Che\-et Grange, between Wakefield and Barnsley, may be taken as a favourable sample of the arable farming of the lower district of the West Riding. It contains 280 acres of sound good land capable of growing good crops of wheat and barley, and dry enough for eating the turnips off with sheep. One-third of the farm is, by the common rule of the district, kept in permanent grass and meadow; the other two thirds — 180 acres in extent — are managed in the four-course rotation. Previous to the seeds being ploughed up for wheat the ground is sown with a few cwts. of salt for the purpose of kijhng snails. It is ploughed in October, and, after being harrowed, 8 to lO pecks of seed are drilled at seven inches apart. The seed is a mix- ture of Spalding's red and Australian white, in the proportion of three of the former to one of the lat- ter. The two kinds ripen together, and the mixed sample sells considerably better than if it had been all red, while the produce is believed not to be di- minished. It is not found necessary to hand or horse hoe the wheat crop, as the land is never allowed to get foul. The average produce is five quarters an acre. The preparation of the land for the turnip crop is the next process, and for this the wheat stubble is ploughed, with three horses abreast, a deep strong furrow, and the only furrow of the same strength given in the course. In spring the land is wrought to a sufficient de- gree of fineness by repeated ploughings and har- rowings, or " dressings," as the conjoint operation is termed here ; after which six loads an acre of manure from the farmyard are spread over it and lightly ploughed in. Lime is applied once in eight years, at a cost of 36s. to 40s. an acre. The seed is then drilled on the flat, the drill at the same time depositing a mixture of eight bushels of bones'and two cwt. of superphosphate per acre. The rows are 19 inches apart, and when the turnips are ready they are hand-hoed twice, and horse hoed. About 1-1 5th of the crop is swedes, tlie rest white, and other soft turnips. Almost the whole is eaten on the ground by sheep, which are confined by nets, and shifted from space to space as the crop is consumed. The sheep eat the turnips from the ground, the scooped out bottoms being afterwards "dragged" up to be eaten. Boxes with cut straw chafFand a little salt are placed for the sheep to eat, as this is found to keep them healthy, and they are not on this farm put on the turni])s until these have become ripe, which is indicated by the leaves be- ginning to decay. When put on at an earlier stage, young sheep are apt to die, and are, at any rate, very subject to scour. The turnip crop is reckoned to keej) eight or ten young sheep per acre for 20 weeks. In spring the land is ploughed and sown with barley, of which six quarters are considered an average crop. Red clover is sown on one-third of the land, mixed seeds on another, and the other is left unsown, to be followed by a pulse crop (peas or beans drilled at 19 inches apart) ni the following spring. By this arrangement red clover comes only once in 1 2 years. The seeds carry from three to five sheep an acre when pastured. A part is cut for hay, and in autumn the course is completed. 20 to 30 beasts are wintered in the yards on straw, and 4lb. each of oilcake daily. Eight work horses are kejjt on this farm, the thrashing being done by horse power. In winter they are fed on a mixture of oat and wheat straw, and a small portion of clover hay, cut together into chatt'. This is placed in the horses' manger, and then slightly damped with water, after which about a quart of bean meal is strewed over it, which, being well mixed by hand, THE FARMER MAGAZINE. 227 adheres to the wet chaff, and makes the whole a palatable and nutritious feed for the farm horse. At night the horses are all turned loose into a yard, where they are supplied with straw in racks. In summer they are put on the old grass land. A good many pigs are fed on Egyptian beans, which have been previously steeped 12 hours in cold water, and then, after having lain 24 hours longer to soften and germinate, are found an excellent and economical grain for ])ig feeding. The pigs receive as much as they can eat, and get nothing else. Four plough- men and three extra men are required for the labour of this farm, besides additional labour during harvest. They are paid 14s., 13s., and 12s. a week, according to ability. The farm is very compact, and the different operations are carried on with much neatness. The fields are divided by closely trimmed and straight lines of hedges. The farm buildings comprise a huge barn, with stables for the horses and sheds and open yards for the cattle. In the stackyard the crop is secured in high long stacks, in the Lin- colnshire fashion— the largest of which is estimated to contain not less than 1000 bushels of wheat. Besides this farm Mr. Johnson occupies other ex- tensive farms in the neighbourhood, managed on the same plan. It is impossible within the limits of a single letter, to include all the interesting details connected with the farming of this part of the Riding. Near Don- caster the land is considerably lighter, and there sheep husbandry is more exclusively followed. In the neighbourhood of Pontefract licoriceis cultivated, the roots of which are from two to three feet in length, and require a great depth of soil for their successful culture. The roots are the article of commerce. Flax, teazle, and woad are also largely cultivated on some of the alluvial soils which most favour their growth. On the warp soils, near Goole and Selby, potatoes are grown both for the London and local markets, for either of which the navigable rivers present ready access to the farmers. On the better class of these soils two crops are in some instances got in a year, while in others they are grown alternately with oats or wheat : and where the soil is particularly favourable, and the command of manure sufficient, they are grown in succession year after year. The prevailing breed of cattle throughout the West Riding is the improved short-horn, of which there are several celebrated herds in the district. The draught horses are light and active, and excel- lent hunters are reared in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, Wetherby, and Ripon. The pure Lei- cester sheep is being superseded by a cross with the Shropshire ram and Leicester ewe, the produce of which yields a much l)etter mixture of fat and lean meat, and commands Id. per lb. more in the market. Some feed the hoggets fat at a year old by giving cake with the turnips, and this is done where the land is naturally poor and requires this high feeding to enrich it for the following corn crop. Where the land is itself of su])erior quality, this mode of feeding, it is said, would make it too rich for the corn crop, and on such lands accordingly the hoggets are not fed fat the first year, but after being jjastured during the summer they are fattened on the turnips the second winter. The breed of pigs is very superior. On the southern and eastern sides of the West Riding, where the larger arable farms are situated, leases are not very common ; but the farmers are sufficiently protected by the system of tenant-right, or compensation for imexhausted improvement, which prevails. We shall more particularly refer to this when we have seen its effects in other parts of the county. In many instances temporary aljate- ments of 10 per cent, have been made on account of the low scale of prices, but no permanent ar- rangement has yet been entered upon for the future. The better class of tenants consider it unfair to press their landlords for a permanent reduction until it should be seen what the future range of prices may be, and a good feeling exists between landlord and tenant in this part of the Riding. The landlords are looked upon as "steady" men, who have never shown any proneness to take advantage of their tenants in times of competition. Corn rents have not been introduced, though many farmers express a wish for them. On the whole, the farming of the agricultural division of the West Riding cannot claim a very prominent i)lace. Eminent individual exceptions there are, but the great extent of imperfectly drained land, the foul stubbles, the very light, and in many cases carelessly managed turnip crops, show that much yet remains to be done by both landlord and tenant. Of so little value is the turnip crop accounted, both intrinsically and from the mode in which it is here consumed, that the selling price at present is only from 40s. to 45s. an acre ; and, taking the district from Barnsley to Church Fenton, we should say that for one field of swedes which averages 10 tons an acre there are five which do not reach half that amount. THE SPARKENHOE FARMERS' CLUB. A special meeting of the members of this useful club was held at the Dixie Arms, Market Bosworth, on Wednesday the 4th June last, when the im- portant subject of " Farm Covenants" formed the topic of discussion. The chair was taken by Mr. J. Mayne, who said. Gentlemen, — In opening to you the present meeting of the Sparkenhoe Hundred Farmers' Club, I would just state, that the object of it is to discuss the sub- ject of Agricultural Covenants, by which we mean the terms and conditions relative to the manage- ment of land agreed upon between landlord and tenant. This subject a])pears to those members of the club who meet occasionally to discuss subjects 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. intimately connected with the improvement of agri- j culture, to be of some importance. The purport of' the usual covenants of the present day — with but 1 few exceptions, I believe— is to secure to the land- lord his rent, and to preserve the farm from getting into a worse state than when entered upon. So far, the intention of them is good. But, gentlemen, these covenants do not meet the exigency of the present times. Such covenants do not recognize the making of any improvement in agricultural practice. Now, every practical farmer knows and feels too, that with the present low prices of grain, if he does not make his land produce more than it has done hitherto, his receipts will not equal his payments, but, to make land more productive re- quires, of course, a larger investment of capital in the soil, and a considerable improvement of the estate; therefore for whatever sums the landlord and the tenant lay out in such improvements, it is only equitable that agricultural covenants should insure interest to the one, and compensation or recovery to the other. But it is not individual interest only, at which we should look in advocating covenants being framed upon principles which tend to encourage and to improve agriculture, but as being advan- tageous to the community, and therefore of some importance in a national point of view. Looking at the subject in this light, the club adjourned a former meeting to the present place, and to the present time, with the hope that we might be assisted in the discussion by friends who are not members of the club, and also of affording our brother farmers of the Market Bosworth District an opportunity of expressing their opinion (if they think proper) by giving their sanction to the resolutions which will presently be proposed to the meeting. I now call upon Mr. Harrison to read to us his paper upon the subject, and thereby more fully to open the dis- cussion. Mr. Harrison, of Bagworth Park, then spoke as follows : — Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, — When the subjects proposed for discussion by the Spar- kenhoe Hundred P^armers' Club were assigned, at the commencement of the season, to the several members for introduction at our monthly meetings, a paper upon Covenants was required from me, as my contribution towards the general fund. I cer- tainly did not at that time contemplate being called thus before the public uportthis subject, but when the wishes of the club were so decidedly expressed that the discussion upon covenants should be resumed at a future period, I felt that I ought at once to facilitate those wishes, and comply with a request for a repetition of my paper. As the club has some- what travelled out of its usual course by inviting the assistance of the public in this discussion, I think it right here to disclaim for myself (as I feel I may do for every other member) all wish or intention to interfere with the rights or compromise in any degree the interest of other classes of society. I have entered upon the task of advocating greater liberality in covenants for the letting of land than at present generally prevails, both as a measure of equity to the tenants and of good policy towards the public ; but whilst I attempt to do this, I shall en- deavour to avoid everything which may appear to affect prejudicially the landlords of this county, or be unfavourable to the owner of the soil. I shall now set before you a few covenants of existing leases. One as follows : — " And shall and will in a proper and husbandlike manner consume and ex- pend on the said farm and lands all the hay, clover, straw, stover, turnips, and cole grown on the said land ; and shall and will at all times bring in and lay up in the barns, and lay up or stack, in other parts of the said premises, all the corn, hay, straw, and stover, that shall yearly grow upon or arise from the said premises ; and shall not, nor will carry off or sell, or suffer to be carried off, and sold from the said premises, any of the hay, straw, or stover, or any grain in the stravs^, or any of the muck, dung, soil, or compost arising or to be made upon the said premises ; and shall and will leave upon the said premises all the straw and stover arising therefrom, which may not have been consumed by the said tenant, his executors, or administrators ; and also all muck, dung, and compost as shall arise or be made upon the said premises, and which he shall not have consumed or expended at the time of his quitting the said farm, without any allowance being made for the same." Again : —"And shall and will not grow any hemp, flax, rape, woad, under a penalty of ten pounds per acre." Again: — "And yielding and paying an additional rent of twenty pounds per acre (and at the same rate for any greater or less quantity than an acre) of the said pasture or meadow land, that shall have been broken up or converted into tillage, without the consent of the said landlord, his heir, or assigns." I might go on for some time enumerating one-sided covenants, such as the reservation and the right of preservation of game to the landlord, certain courses of cropping, certain methods and times of manuring, all to be applicable to the farm demised, however variable may be the nature and quality of its soils. But I will trouble you with only one more: — "And if the said tenant, his executors, and administrators shall become bankrupt, or insolvent, or compounds with his or their creditors, or do or commit any other act whereby or by reason whereof the possession of the premises shall be by force of law or equity taken from him or them, or if the said tenant, or his executors, should assign or set over, or part with the possession of the said premises, or any part THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 229 thereof, to any person or persona whatsoever, for any time or term whatsoever, without tlie hcense of the landlord, his heirs, or assigns, or if the said tenant, his executors, or administrators shall make default or breach in any of the covenants hereinafter to be contained on his or their part to he performed — then and thenceforth in either of the said cases it shall be lawful for the said landlord, his heir or assigns, into the said premises, or any part thereof, to re-enter, and the said tenant, his executors, ad- ministrators, and all other occu])iers thereof, there- out to expel and put out, this indenture and any- thing herein contained to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding." I think it must be ad- mitted on all hands, that the covenants which I have laid before you as examples of the contents of the majority of leases, are restrictive and preventive in their nature, and have a tendency to hamper and confine the intelligent and enterprising farmer, and to cramp his efforts in the successful cultivation of his land. I think too, it must be on all sides al- lowed, that sucli covenants are framed exclusively for the landlord's benefit — that their object and design is to prevent the deterioration of his property and effectually secure his interest. Now you must not suppose, even for a moment, that I would deny to the landlord the undoubted right of securing his land from deterioration and his property from waste. I most readily and cordially admit his right to do this, but at the same time I must advance and sup- port this opinion — other interests besides those of the owner are comprised in and are affected by a proj)er cultivation of the land ; and I would, therefore, wish to make all co\-enants and agreements care equally for the interest of the landlord, for the interest of the tenant, and for the interest of the communily at large. It is very possible that one and all of the covenants I have quoted might have been reasonable and necessary half-a-century ago; but by the spreading of agricultural knowledge — by the increase of population — by the facilities afforded by steam and railway transit, they are shown to be comparatively useless in their object, whilst every day experience proves them to be prejudicial in many of their effects. Has not chemistry lately disclosed to us that dung made by trampling straw by cattle, in an open fold-yard, can add but little to the corn bearing power of the soil ? Now, sir, I do not expect that a farmer (at least such as are far distant from a town) would ever make a profit by the general sale of hay and straw, but still there are seasons when he might find it greatly to his advan- tage to be free from a restriction, which compels him to consume (and perhaps at no profit, but solely to make a valueless dung) that which might be profitably disposed of elsewhere. Has not che- mistry lately told us that land may bear successive crops without sustaining permanent injury, and that by a proper alternation all may be made to thrive ? A crop of flax may be grown upon land without robbing its cereal successor ; and, l)y using the seed as a fattening substance for cattle, a farmer may advance the cultivation and fertility of his farm : and at this time it is a question occupying considerable attention, whether this hitherto pre- scribed plant may not be cultivated with national advantage. There was formerly a period when the inhabitants of tliis kingdom were less than one- tenth of the present population ; at such time, when hands to labour and mouths to consume were few in number, there might have been some reason and policy in keeping in old though worthless pas- turage so large a ])ortion of our fields. But what can now be the good of this generally extended yet absurd prohibition, which restrains us in the growth of our own food, whilst we draw annually many millions of quarters of corn from foreign lands ? What can now be the good of such prohibitions, which tie up a large quantity of land from the em- ployment of labour, whilst numbers of the popula- tion, in almost every agricultural district in England, are continually asking us for work ? I have always considered that the landlords who stipulate for the preservation of game show little regard for the inte- rest of others ; and if tenants can be found who will submit to have their wheat, seeds, tares, and turnips fed off by another person's stock, the public have still a right to require that such wheat, tares, and turnips shall be eaten by the most profitable stock, and to raise the question—" Vvhich are the most profitable ; hares and rabbits, or sheep and cattle ?" Now, gentlemen, I need not proceed in the further examination of covenants, which, I think you will agree with me, might now profitably be blotted from farm leases. I will proceed to an- other portion of my subject; and liere allow me to observe, that I might have connected these portions of my paper by a notice of those circumstances which, though working silently, are now producing their effects, and ere long will bring about a full revision of the laws affecting the letting of land. For the sake of brevity I will assume, as a general rule, that it would be good for the landlord, good for the tenant, and good for the nation, to have every acre of this kingdom in a high and perfectly productive state of cultivation : for the landlord would be more certain of his rent, the tenant would receive a greater return for his labour, there would be more food produced for the multitude to eat, and more materials to make their clothing. But before the land of England is in this highly culti- vated state, and even before the larger portion of its fields are made moderately productive, there must be a vast amount of skill, labour, and capital 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. expended upon it. Without a sufficient quantity of these elements of fertility, land naturally of the richest quality cannot be maintained in its condi- tion; and without a still greater expenditure of these, the weaker and exhausted soils can never be improved. All who are acquainted with the opera- tions of farming, well know that skill and labour expended upon land do not obtain (at least to their full vahie) an immediate return. All of us who have embarked our capital in the improvement of our farms, are well satisfied that a lengthened period is required (even under favourable circum- stances) for the full repayment of the outlay which has been made upon the land. If it is admitted that it would be good for all interests that the land of the kingdom should be put into, and kept in, a high state of cultivation — if it is also acknowledged that skill, labour, capital, are elements of fertility, and must be brought to bear, and be expended by the farmer upon his land, ere his farm can be tho- roughly productive — if these two points are ad- mitted (and I ])elieve they cannot be contradicted), then every thinking and considerate individual will see it to be his duty to endeavour to bring about such desirable object, and, as far as in him lies, seek to remove the great impediment to the employ- ment of skill and capital in the improvement of land, viz., the present uncertainty of its return. There are many large landed proprietors in England who act upon such enlightened and patriotic views, and who, by their covenant in leases and agreement, endeavour to encourage the improvement of their property, and, by an increased fertility, to make it more serviceable to the community. And I believe that at this moment, where liberal covenants have been adopted, the farms are better cultivated, and the occupiers are in a better position than the gene- rality of our class to meet that shock which free- trade policy has given to us all. I believe that if a landlord saw his own interest clearly, he would, if satisfied with the integrity and energy of his tenant, say to that tenant, " I shall expect from you all the appliances of skill and experience, and I shall give in return full security that you or your representa- tive shall profit by your industry, and shall have full time to procure a repayment of your outlay and expenditure." A long time will pass ere all land- lords see the propriety of adopting this liberal and judicious policy ; but, in the meantime, I humbly conceive that the legislature of the countr}' — which ought to be the protector and eneourager of all classes, and the promoter of improvements — sh ould step in with some general measures tending to give security to the tenants' outlay of capital, and th ;reby to promote the advance of English agriculture, thus giving an enlarged sup])ly of indigenous com modi- ties to the ever-increasing population of our king- dom. Perhaps it may be said, although such mea- sure may be right in principle, still there hangs about the question such difficulty in carrying it out, and such supineness on the part of government to the interests of agriculture, that we must never ex- pect any legislative enactment that will give security to the tenant for the outlay of capital. The day may yet be distant, but such eventually will come, when the justr claims of the tenant occupier will be regarded, and when the executive of the country will deem it more judicious to make corn cheap to the manufacturing intei-est by stimulating its growth in our own fields, and by the employment of our own population, rather than by drawing our sup- plies from foreign lands. I cnnnot here forbear ex- pressing an opinion, that the restrictive policy of the landlords of England, the very prevalent adherence to antiquated systems unsuited to the growing intel- ligence and wants of the community, has very much contributed to bring agriculture into its present de- plorable condition, and to plunge thousands of farmers into difficulty and distress. But, sir, should ruin stalk for some time through our ranks, should distress continue, and should the price of grain remain low, still men must labour, still ploughing and reaping and sowing must go forward, and wants and expenditure must be adapted to our circum- stances. Suppose the production of corn and cattle to continue less remunerating than other em- ployments, still an immense amount of English capital will ever be employed in the cultivation of the land. It is reported to have been said by some landlords of this neighbourhood, when the tenantry have asked for an abatement of rent, " No, the times are very bad to be sure, but you must meet them by increased energy and enlarged produc- tion." The manufacturing interest tell us the same thing. They have said, " the deficiency in price must be made up out of your labour by hard work, and by the sweat of your brow." But, sir, I would remind such landlords that increased pro- duction involves an increased expenditure, and if they require such increased expenditure, it is only just and equitable on their part that they afl:brd in- creased facilities for securing the repayment of the capital employed. I would also inquire of the ma- nufacturer whether he does not think it right, when the farmer has been called upon to give up so much for his advantage, that he, the manufacturer, should join with him in requiring from government a bet- ter security for the employment of that capital which yet remains to the agriculturist— a security that he shall reap the benefit of his outlay, and a full recompense for his increased labour and toil. Looking to what I conceive to be the just claim which the tenant occupier has upon the landlord, and also to his claim upon the manufacturer for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 sympathy and support, I cannot conceive that the question which lias come before iiarliament under the title of tenant-ri^ht will wait its final settlement for many years. I beheve, sir, that the time is not far distant when the man who employs his money in producing corn, and in the improvement of ano- ther's land, will do so under the security of well- defined and general laws, which in most cases shall do away with all restrictive, jn-eventive, and one- sided agreements, and supersede the necessity of covenants. I have intimated that there are Eng- lish landlords to be found who seek, by just cove- nants, to give a stimulus to agriculture. In the leases of such will be found clauses to the follow- ing effect :-" Except lime applied to the arable lands, and other artificial manure which may have l)een purchased and consumed upon the said farm, and for which the said tenant, his executors, and administrators, shall not have received a fair return and profit, the amount to be paid for such lime and other artificial manure, according to a valuation to be made by two indifferent persons or their umpire, chosen in the usual way ; and also, except for lin- seed cake which the said tenant shall have con- sumed in the yards for his cattle in making the said manure, when an allowance of one-fourth per ton shall be made for every ton so used in the two last winters, excej)t fraud should be attempted, or wilful neglect proved * * And provided the said tenant shall not have had more than a turnip crop on the lands on which the said manure shall be spread." Again — " And it is also further agreed that the said tenant, his executors and ad ministrators, shall be allowed for all under-draining properly done at his or their expense, with stones or tiles, after the rate and manner following : Ujion arable land, if drained in fallows in the last year of this lease, the whole cost and carriage ; when one crop has been grown, two-thirds of the cost and carriage; when two crops, either of corn or seeds, one-half of the cost and carriage; when three crops, either of corn or seeds, one-third of the cost and carriage ; after which period all claim for the same shall cease. Upon grass land the labour and expense of carriage to extend to five years back from the time of quitting, to be divided in equal proportions for each year's occupation, and paid for accordingly ; after that period all claim for com- pensation shall cease. And to ensure their allow- ances on draining, the said tenant, his heir, or administrator, will be required to deliver to the said landlord, his heir or assigns, or his stewards for the time being, a bill of the expenses of such drainingjlone in the preceding year, at every Lady- day, which will be examined and approved ; and as approved allowed to be paid according to this agree- ment." Now, I do not give these as examples to be copied, for 1 do not think they hold out suffi- cient inducement to a tenant to ex})end his money under a possibility of receiving a notice to quit. But, gentlemen, I quote them to show the prinniple is at work — that a tenant-right is admitted in some parts of the kinydom ; and that a means is already devised of securing the landlord from injury and fraud. There are many large landed proprietors in this country, who offer a lease of their farms for a term of years. Such offer implies a wish on their part to give full security to their tenants. This is unquestionably a better holding than a bare tenancy at will ; but still it is not without its objections. I have known a farm under lease greatly improved the first few years, well managed through the mid- dle portion, and run to waste before the expiration of the term. A lease may, in a very great degree, secure to the occupier the re-payment of an outlay made in an early improvement, but in my humble opinion it does not secure to the public a pro- gressive and steady advancement in the fertility and productions of the land. I believe that the very best system to be adopted in the letting of land, would be a yearly tenancy under such equitable and well-defined principles as a few honest, dis- creet, and practical men, by comparing notes and opinions, might very readily lay down. The l)asis of all rules and regulations should be justice to all parties, and tlieir object and aim should be that a tenant leaving his farm either of his own free will or from a notice from his landlord, should leave it in high condition and cultivation, yet not one shil- ling in his debt. It will doubtless be remembered by many members present, that we were some time ago requested to send to the secretary of the Lon- don Farmers' Club our views uj)on the subject of tenant-right. Referring to my notes of our meet- ing held for that purpose, I find some resolutions expressive of our opinion as to the length of time which ought to measure the tenant's interest in his improvements were unanimously passed. As they are very applicable to our purpose, as they furnish evidence that my o])inions are not got up especially for the present occasion ; and as they will show that tenant occupiers are not totally regardless of the landlords' interest, I shall take the liberty to quote them here. I will call the first paragraph quoted the preamble, which is as follows : — " Whereas a long period of time may elapse before caj)ital invested in improvements can be repaid, it is fair and equitable that a tenant should be as- sured to himself or his family an interest in liis outlay upon such improvements, to the full extent of such period of time. And if his occupancy should terminate before the expiration of that term, it is only justice that he or his representa- tives should receive a compensation equivalent 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to that portion of his capital which is left for the advantage and enjoyment of another." I next quote the opinion we then expressed as to what should be the tenant's interest in buildings erected at his expense, as follows : — " That in all outlay in labour, materials, and haulage, upon good and substantial buildings, erected after the prevail- ing fashion of the country, for the use of the farm, and the permanent advantage of the occupation, and at the sole expense of the tenant, he (the tenant) should be deemed to possess a twenty years' interest from the period of their erection and fitness for use ; and in case his occupation should cease before the expiration of that term, he should be entitled to claim one-twentieth part of their ori- ginal cost for every year oi' that term yet unexpired; or, if such claim be objected to on the part of the landlord, be at full liberty to take down the mate- rials and carry away the same. Bat it shall be im- perative on the tenant that he shall deliver to the landlord or his accredited agent an account of cost of labour, materials and haulage, of all buildings erected by him, with proper vouchers and recei])ts for the same, within three months of their comple- tion and use, or shall be deemed to have forfeited his right and interest therein," Next follows our opinions upon drainage : — "That the tenant should be deemed to possess a twenty years' interest in the labour, materials, and haulage of all drains of six feet deep and upwards, which shall be laid with pipes, tiles, or other enduring materials, solely at his expense ; and in all materials, labour, and haulage expended in the erection of brick or stone bridges, for occupation roads ; and also in flood-gates and drains of enduring materials for the purposes of irrigation ; and also in all wells sunk, pits and drains made, and pumps or pipes put or laid down for supplying the house, premises, or land with water : and his claim should be admitted to re- ceive one-twentieth of the original outlay for every year of the said twenty years' term which might be unexpired at the end of his occupancy. But it .'-hould he, imperative upon the tenant to deliver a full account of all outlay to the landlord or his agent, within three months of the completion of the work, with proper vouchers for the same, or he should be deemed to have forfeited all claim or in- terest in the same. Furthermore, that the landlord should l)e relieved from the purchase of all or any such portion of interest in the tenant's unexpired term, as a jury (upon proof of fraud or useless and injudicious expenditure) may think fit to disallow." " That the tenant should be deemed to possess a ten years' interest in all drainage of less depth than six feet, executed with tiles or other durable mate- x'ials, solely at his expense ; and also in the mate- rials, labour, and haulage expended in the forma- tion of new occupation roads ; and also the outlay of labour, material, and haulage, of constructing water-courses and levelling land for the purposes of irrigation; and also in cutting new, and filling up old brooks, also in reclaiming bogs and waste lands, also in planting new fences and building fence walls of imperishable materials, with oaken or iron gates or posts therein, and also in planting orchards of fruit trees, or shrubberies for ornament or shelter — and he (the tenant) ought to be allowed one-tenth part of the outlay so made for every year of the term of ten years yet unexpired at the ter- mination of his occupancy. But he should be re- quired to })roduce bills aad vouchers, as before specified, and the landlord ought to have the before-mentioned redress against overcharge and useless or injudicious expenditure. That in all labour and haulage for draining of less than six six feet deep, where the landlord may have found tiles or other imperishable materials, and also in the cost of labour, material, and haulage of claying or chalking land, and also in the labour of cutting up ant-banks in old pastures ; the tenant should be deemed to possess a five j'ears' interest, and should be allowed one- fifth of the original cost for every year of that term unexpired at the end of his oc- cupation. But the landlord's security from impo- sition and improvident outlay should be provided for, by ]ii-oduction of bills and vouchers as afore- said, and by allowing him redress by the verdict of of a jury. That in all manures and fertilizers of the soil purchased and laid upon the land, the out- going tenant should be deemed to possess a three- crop interest, and should he allowed one-third part of their original cost, together with the expense of haulage of the same, for every year of such term of three years unexpired at the close of his tenancy. And the commencement of such period of three years should be deemed to take place from the time of its application to the land : but all years of fal- low for turnips, or in which vetches, cabbages, carrots, rye (as a green crop), mangold-wurtzel, or other such crop shall be grown and wholly con- sumed on the farm, should be omitted in the calcu- lation of the ter.m of three years. But the tenant shall be obliged to i)roduce bills and vouchers for the incurred outlay, or shall lose all interest therein. Also that the outgoing tenant ought to be deemed to possess an interest in oilcake, and other fattening substances, purchased by him and consumed upon the farm, in the feeding of cattle, equivalent to one-fourth of the original cost, and that this interest should go back three years from the termination of his occupancy, de- creasing after the rate of one third of such interest for every year, he may or might have derived ad- vantage therefrom. But bills and vouchers should THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 233 be produced yearly, or he (the tenant) should lose all interest therein." I do not lay these propositions before you as full and complete. Ex[)erience might show that additions and modifications were neces- sary : but honest and practical men taking an un- prejudiced view of the whole subject would readily reconcile conflicting interests and opinions and lay down rules which should work for the general good. Before I close my sultject I must observe, that, whether under yearly tenancy, or under lease for a term of years, the tenant's interest should be so well defined and set forth, that he should be en- abled to do, in Em/lfind, what I understand they can do in Scotland, obtain a loan upon it. I would make the tenant's interest in the outlay upon land as good a security (as far as it goes) and as avail- able to him in his need, as the fee simple of the land is, to the wants of his landlord. In most cases a clause is inserted which prevents a tenant from transferring the lease without the consent of the landlord. A person under lease for twenty-one years, may have laid out £2,000 or £3,000 ofi his farm. He may by his onlay have too far anticipated his profits, and may, in consequence^ feel himself involved. He may wish to bor- row upon this outlay, or to part with his occu-. pation altogether. But a few strokes of the pen — one line in his lease — prevents the accomplishment of either of these wishes, as he cannot transfer with- out the consent of his landlord, it is useless to him either for security or sale. Now this cannot h? called an equitable covenant. It may be right for the landlord to secure himself from the annoyance of an unpleasant tenant ; bnt surely this could be accomplished by requiring the offer of surrendering the lease to be made first to the landlord, upon some just and equitable terms. A legal friend of mine, who has kindly offered me an ojiinion on this head, writes thus : — " I think the tenant by giving dua notice to his landlord of his intention to part with possession of his farm, should have the i)Ower of obtaining (with the concurrence of his landlord) a valuation of his tenant-right, and if the landlord will not concur after due notice, then an ex-parte valuation shall be made, and if the landlord will not take to the farm, and pay such valuation &c., then the tenant to be at liberty to part with possession to another party, his individual responsibility to the landlord still subsisting. Such a plan would, I think, be fair and equitable. I quite think also that a tenant should have the power to borrow money and give a valid security ujion his tenant-right." 1 have another matter to notice ere I close, which bears somewhat upon this subject. Under many agreements and leases insurance against fire is re- quired of the tenant ; this in principle is unfair ; but I wish more particularly to call your attention to another fact in connexion with it, which is this : I consider it wrong that a tenant should be called ujjon to pay a duty to Government upon such in- surance to an amount exceeding the risk. I believe that it was under Lord Althorpe's presidency over the Exchequer that the. duty upon farming stock insurance was repealed j why it was suffered to re- main upon farm buildings is an anomaly which can only be accounted for on the supposition tliat it was expected landlords insured their own property, and that they (as a class) did not need the boon. Since my pajier was written thus far, the draft of an agree- ment has been put into my hands, which concludes with the following clause :—" At any time during the last quarter of a year's tenancy under this agreement, it shall be lawful for the landlord or his agents to enter upon any part of the said farm and premises, and distrain for the whole rent then due, together with the then accruing or next quarter's rent, and all such of the said additional rents by way of penalty, which may have become payable." I have, gentlemen, expressed (before this time, and in this town of Market Bosworth)my opinion upon the baneful effects of the law of distraint ; but I must reiterate this opinion, that, if any one law is more prejudicial to the tenant occupier than another, it is that law which abets and assists the landlord in setting up the competition of a man of insufficient means with the tenant of capital. I do not here in- tend to assert or even to insinuate that landlords use this law directly to enhance the value of their land, but I do insist that its indirect action is to render landlords careless of substantiality; thence arises a greater and unfair competition, and thence from a greater competition comes a higher rent of farms. In the agreement from which I have made the last quotation, I cannot find a single clause in favour of the tenant; yet looking at the liberal abatement of rents which has been madj to the tenants on the same estate, and looking to the kind feeling which I know the landlord himself has ex- pressed, and looking also to the enlightened views which I know to be held by his agents, I am bound to regard this as no unfair example of the letting of the land of the neighbourhood. Ha])py will be the day for the agricultureof this country, when thelandlords of England sb.all willingly abrogate this remains of feudalism, shall look upon their tenants as parties en- titled to equal interest with themselves in a fair and equitable I)argain, and shall say to them, " Invest your money freely, under the sanction of a law which shall secure you its full return." I shall close my paper with the expression of my firm con- viction that more equitable covenants than those now generally existing would tend greatly to the advancement of agriculture ; and that the establish- ment of a well-defined and general law, having for 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. its object the security of the tenants' interest in all outlay in agricultural improvements, would ulti- mately be beneficial to the landlords, would be serviceable to the tenantry, would conduce to the industrious habits of the agricultural labourer, and to the welfare of the whole population of this kingdom. At the conclusion of Mr. Harrison's paper, the meeting warmly testified their approval of it; and a very interesting discussion ensued. Mr. J. N. GiMSON moved the first resolution (which affirmed the necessity for a change in the principle upon which farm covenants were drawn up), and thanked Mr. Harrison for the very able paper he had prepared. Mr. Smith, of Elmsthorpe, seconded the reso- lution, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Chapman, jun., of Upton, moved the se- cond resolution, which affirmed that " it is neces- sary to secure to the tenant a just and equitable repayment of money invested." Mr. Chapman then observed : The labourer at the end of the week receives a repayment for his capital, which is his labour; but the tenant-farmer's capital is his money, energy, skill, and labour combined. Therefore, it must take a longer time for the tenant to gain a remuneration for his capital. And, since times and persons often change, the tenant ought to have the best possible security that he he shall have a "just and equitable return for money in- vested." There does not appear any inducement at the present time to embark more capital than necessary in land ; for that already invested is a losing afi'air. Capital and labour are two old anta- gonists, each trying to get the mastery; but it must be admitted that money has yet the best of it, for the present policy of our legislators is to make everything cheap except money (Hear, hear). Many persons think the only way to bring pros- perity to the agriculturist is to bring down money to the cheapness of labour ; and no doubt this is an important item ; yet I think every honest and thinking man must come to the conclusion that the only sure and safe way of securing a repayment of capital invested in the cultivation of the soil is a return to the policy we have left — viz., justice and protection to British labour and British corn (Hear, and laughter). A farmer can have no con- fidence, under one-sided free trade, or receiving a just return for his capital; and therefore I think those are his best friends who say, " Let not go the bird in the hand for two in the bush ;" for it must be evident to every one that capital laid out even economically is over the left shoulder. There are many quack doctors who tell us that, with more capital invested, a revision of the fettered laws of the currency, an equalization of taxation, and a better system of tenant-right, or a compensation for unexhausted improvements, will be found the anti- dote to our suffering. But, while I think these changes are necessary to enable us to bear the " burden and heat of the da3^" and when we have better times to go on more prosperously, yet I think the only remedy for our complaints, and the one which strikes at the root and bottom of the wound, and not merely heals the surface over, and leaving the sore at the bottom unhealed, is a return to the good old way, to the system of our an- cestors— viz., to a just and fair protection to British agriculture in all its branches. This would ensure to the tenant a just and equitable repayment of money invested (Hear, and laughter). Mr. C. Noel seconded the resolution, and dwelt at some length upon the advantages and al- leged disadvantages of leases, expressing himself in favour of improved covenants and a greater cer- tainty of tenure, though he thought the too- stringent clauses now to be found in leases or agreements were much modified by that " higher law" involved in the Christian coiTimand, " Do unto others as ye would they should do unto you." Mr. CowDELL, iun. (solicitor) pointed out the necessity for an improvement in the covenants contained in yearly agreements, as well as in leases for terms of years ; and afterwards suggested the importance of every proposed improvement or al- teration being put on paper and submitted to the first legal practitioners in London, for them to form a model lease upon. The resolution was then carried unanimously. The third resolution was moved by Mr. Bur- bury, and seconded by Mr. G. Kilby, in a lengthened address, in which he gave a compre- hensive epitome of the existing law of leases, and pointed out the numerous amendments of which it was susceptible. The resolution having been carried unanimously, Mr. BucKNiLL moved, and Mr. Kilby se- conded, a vote of thanks to Mr. Harrison for his able paper ; and after the Chairman had been thanked for his services, the meetings of the Club were adjourned to the first Thursday in Septem- ber,— Leicester Journal. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS, (From the Morning Chronicle.) ,nokkolk, suffolk, and essex. Letter XXH. I propose in the present letter to consider the state of the labourer with regard to his habits of |)rovidence — if such a term be not misapj)hed when used in connection with a body of men whose earn- ings appear to be barely sufficient to procure them the means of present existence, much less to enable them to i)rovide for the future. Out of the scanty l)ittance of his wages, the labourer, however, by a process mysterious to the most sagacious econo- mist, does contrive to devote a portion to the means of providing himself with assistance in the time of sickness and death. In order to accomplish this laudable end, he has recourse to the machinery of benefit societies — which in too many instances are, to him, only such in name— and clubs. Of these associations, thus called into being by the wants, and supported by the hard-earned pence of the labourer, it is my intention in the present letter to treat. By far the most important of the class, though happily not the most numerous, are the " Burial'' or " Death" Clubs. The disclosures which have recently been made with respect to the mischievous effects of these clubs have given to the county of Essex an unenviable notoriety in the cri- minal annals of the country. Before proceeding to describe the numbers and the ettects of clubs of this kind, it will be as well if I allude to their ob- jects, to the mode in which they are generally conducted, and to the chief causes of their esta- blishment. Altliough the Burial Clubs have been brought prominently before the notice of the public in con- nection with the county of Essex, they are by no means peculiar to that county. Great numbers of them exist in various other parts of the country, in the manufacturing districts, and in the metropolis. The clubs for the labouring classes in Essex are almost invariably got up by an undertaker and by the publican at whose house their meetings are generally held ; and in passing along the streets the passenger may frequently see placards in the win- dows of the public-houses, bearing such headings as, " All flesh is grass," " In the midst of hfe we are in death," and other texts or mottos. Beneath these may also be occasionally seen a ghastly- looking death's head and bones. In cases where the clubs are the joint speculation of the publican and the imdertaker, mutual agreements appear to l)e entered into for the promotion of their respec- tive interests. Provision is made in the rules of the society that the " box" shall not be removed from the publican's house — the publican being almost invariably appointed the treasurer ; and the undertaker is guaranteed the exclusive right to the performance of his professional duties for such members of the club as may require it. Indeed, in the case of one club, a portion of the rules of which I have before me, 1 perceive that the office of undertaker is not only vested permanently and immoveably in the originator of the club, but it is even made hereditary in his family. One of the fundamental rules of the society is, " That , being the founder of this society, shall be the un- dertaker, and no future articles shall remove him, as long as he gives general satisfaction to the society ; and in case of his death, his eldest son shall claim the same for the benefit of the widow, and at her decease the same shall devolve on the eldest son living." The ostensible object of these societies may perhaps be gathered from the following somewhat obscure preamble, prefixed to the rules of one of the clubs : — "■ In contemplating the many vicissitudes and changes incident to all persons of every station in life, and the many anxieties that crowd about our advancing years, more particularly the labouring class, through the uncertainty of employment, by long illness, or for want of friends, reduced to ex- treme distress, and after a long and miserable life, and in expectation of that awful change which we must one time or other undergo, without ever pro- viding for a decent interment, it will he some alle- viation to our suflferings to remember that we bring no pecuniary ])urthen on our commiserating friends and relations, that at least we have divested our suffering families of that anxiety respecting our mortal remains which would add another pang to their already lacerated hearts : it too frequently occurs, to the sorrow of many a feeling heart, who mourns over the deplorable loss of a beloved hus- band, wife, or friend : to obtain this desirable ob- ject, this society offers to the public, on easy terms, advantages worthy the consideration of ])ersons in all stations of life." The contributions to these societies, and the amount derived from them in cases of death, vary considerably in different clubs. In some cases the subscriptions are id. per week, and id. or 4d. per qr. for expenses; in others the payments are 4d. per qr. for expenses, and 6d. at the time of a death, from each member. In a few of them the amount of subscription is regulated according to the age of the party, and the amount paid upon death is dependent upon the class to which the member may belong ; while in others, persons of 230 THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. all v.ges admitted into the club pay a like sum, and the survivors or nominees receive an equal amount upon the death of the member. The reason which I have most frequently heard assigned for the existence of these clubs is, the great desire felt by the poor of procuring decent interment. There appears to be nothing more re- pugnant to the feelings of great numbers of the labouring population than the idea of being buried as a pauper by the parish. Several old persons in the different workhouses have, after telling me that so far as their present existence was concerned they were tolerably comfortable, added, with evident emotion, " But I suppose I shall be buried by the parish." " There," said another to me, pointing to a small enclosed spot, which the small green mounds marked as the jiaupers' burial ground, " there will be my home at last, and it's not a ])leasant thought neither ; is it ? — to be buried like a pauper." An- other person, who was employed as an agricultural labourer, said to me, when speaking of the hard struggle which he had to maintain for an existence, " So as I can but rub through, master, and pay up the club, and be buried decently after all, I don't mind working hard." The enormously high price which the labourer has to pay for the gratification of this, the almost only object of his ambition, forces him to become a member of one or more of the numerous clubs which hold out to him the prospect of a realization of his wishes ; and he will endure almost any amount of privation, and subject him- self to any inconvenience, in order to pay up his " death money," or the subscription to his benefit club. So strongly does this desire for decent in- terment prevail among the working classes, that many of them who are in a condition to do so will leave deposits in the savings bank, or in provident institutions, for the purjiose of ensuring the object of their wishes ; and in not a few cases it has hap- pened that upon the death of the party he has been found to have died an inmate of a poor-house, and destitute of every kind of property save the little fund which he had set apart for his funeral, There is nothing perhaps which has tended more to the establishment and growth of these badly constituted clubs, than the enormous expense to which the poor are invariably put at the time of a funeral. The expenses upon these occasions are seldom less than £4, and they not unfrequently exceed £6. I have found upon inquiry, that, for a person in the condition of an agiicultural la!)ourer, in cases where the survivor does not receive gratuitous assistance in one form or other, the expense of the funeral is upon an average about £4 10s. At the time of death, the widow, generally speaking, knows not to whom to apply for assistance and counsel under the distressing circumstances in which she is placed J she is consequently led to apply to the nearest person whom she thinks can atFord her any advice, and she not unfrequently becomes the prey of some unprincipled individual, whose sole desire is to make as much as he can out of the transaction. I was informed that at Harwich and some other large towns funerals were frequently performed what is called " three deep" — that is, the person really conducting the funeral does it for another person, who in his turn is employed by the party to whom the order was originally given. The men who act as bearers or attendants frequently find themselves thus raised to the dignity of undertakers, although in all j)robability it may be the first affair of the kind they ever attempted. Each of the parties through whose hands the work goes receives his share of the profit, and the price is consequently greatly enhanced to the family of the deceased, who too frequently ai'e reduced to the greatest possible straits in order to pay the expense. In great num- l)ers of cases there is no doubt that, if it were not for the undertaker giving them a little time for pay- ment, by allowing them to defray the funeral charges by weekly or monthly instalments, they would not be able to bury the corpse at all. In the course of my inquiries in Essex, I was enabled to collect information with respect to eight of these burial clubs, which are confined to the Tendring hundred. I was not able to ascertain the existence of any burial clubs in Norfolk. At Ips- wich there are two or three, I believe, but I could obtain no information respecting them. The in- formation which I succeeded in procuring with re- sjject to the clubs in the Tendring hundred I will now ])roceed to lay before the reader. These clubs are distributed in the following places : — At Thorpe there is one held at the Rose and Crown ; in Great Oakley there are two, one of them bemg held at the May Bush Inn, and the oiher at the Cups Inn. The Hand-in-Hmd Burial Society is held at St. Coyth, and adopts as its motto, " Bear ye one an- other's burdens." At Brightlingsea there are two clubs, each of which is called the Mourner's Friend Society. At Harwich there is one bearing a similar title, which is held at the Globe Inn ; and another, of which the notorious Mary May was a member, is called " The New Society for rendering mutual Assistance in Cases of Mor ality," and meets at the Privateer Inn, in Harwich. In one of these clubs no person is admitted as a member whose age ex- ceeds fifty years, or is less than fourteen ; m two others, the respective ages are sLxty and fourteen ; in four, the age at which persons are admitted is from fourteen to fixty-five ; while in the eighth the minimum age is set down at sixteen, the maximum being left blank, " sixty " being the age, as I un- derstood, which has been actually adopted. In the majority of the clubs the number of members is limited to 420. In seven of the clubs the entrance money is one shilling " for the use of the society," and threepence for the rules and regulations, the per- son admitted being requested to appoint a nominee. In the eighth the entrance money is 9d. The mode in which seven of the clubs are conducted is contained in the following rule : — " It is also agreed that this society be under the direction of a collector or col- lectors, who shall be chosen by the committee ; and the said collector or collectors shall collect 6d. from every member at the death of either a member or nominee ; 4d. per quarter to be sent to the col- lector from every member ; Is. of the same to be allowed the collector a quarter, and 4s. at the death of every member or nominee for his trouble and loss of time in collecting the said money for deaths, &c., the remainder to pay the secretary's salary and other expenses, and the surplus (if any) to form a fund till there be a sufficiency to pay at a death or THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 deaths." A secretary is chocien auniuiUy, and is allowed tlie sum of one pound per annum. A fol- lowing rult! provides "Thai should it be discovered and proved by the committee that he (the secretary) has acted dishonestly, he shall be dismissed the so- ciety, and forfeit all claims thereon." Another rule j)rovidcs " That if one or more of the com- mittee, secretary, or collectors, shall lose any of the moneys or property belonging to the society, they shall replace the same at their own expense, or be excluded from all benefits of this society." Other regulations set forth the duties of the president and of tlie secretary, the latter of whom, upon receiving notice of the death of a member or nominee, is to give a written order to the collector to collect the sixpences from the members, " all defaulters to be excluded." All causes of complaint against mem- bers or nominees are to be reported " to the com- mittee, and five or more of them have power to act as they shall think proper." The committee are also " empowered to alter or amend any of the foregoing rules, as may appear to them for the benefit of the society." " The Provident Mourn- er's Friend Society," held at the Rose and Crown, in Thorpe, is conducted upon the plan of paying thirteenpence per quarter, instead of sixpence, upon the death of a member or nominee. The numbers of members in the different clubs vary considerably. The average for the whole, as calculated upon the numbers given to me for each club, and with the details of which it will be un- necessary to trouble the reader, is 2,395 ; but as each member is required to appoint a nominee, the clubs have " to stand the mortality" of 4,790, or double the number of members. Upon the death of a nominee, the member who may have appointed him of course receives the money, and in the event of the death of the member the nominee whom he may have appointed receives the money. The ave- rage number of deaths per annum is 96'6 ; this is exclusive of 10 deaths in the two Harwich clubs, the dues on which were in course of collection ; these I have not included in the average mortality, as I was informed there had been ten cases of cho- lera in connection with those clubs, and my object was to ascertain the proportion of deaths among members of the clubs, uninfluenced by any visita- tion such as that of the cholera. The lov/est amount paid in any of the societies is in the one in Thorpe, where the amount paid was only £2 14s. ; in the St. Asyth Club the amount was £5 1 5s.; and in the larger ones, in most cases, between £9 and £10 has been the amount paid uj)on the death of a member or nominee. Having thus stated the principle upon which the burial clubs in Essx are conducted, the number of members who belong to them, and the amount of benefit received by them, I now proceed to consider whether any sufficient grounds exist for the general opinion that there is a higher rate of mortality among persons connected with these societies than among those who are not so connected. The ques- tion is a difficult one to decide, and, involving as it does matters of so grave and serious a character, I feel some reluctance in expressing an opinion upon it ; but if the information which I have received be correct — and I have every reason to believe that it is so, since it was furnished to me by the presidents, secretaries, or collectors of the different clubs — the results which it discloses are yuch as to call for at least some more extensive inquiry, and for the adoption of some very stringent measures for the regulation of these clubs, I have stated that the average annual number of deaths of persons connected with the clubs of Essex is 9G'6, being a per centageof 2*1 upon the number of their members and nominees. Now, in order to ascertain whether the per centage of deaths is higher in the clubs than out of them, it is necessary in the first i)lace to discover what is the rate of mortality for the district in which they are situated. The whole of these clubs are situated in the Tendring hundred, a district in which the rate of mortality is considerably lower than in any ])art of Essex. The annual mortality for the whole of Essex upon an average of seven years — 1838-44 — was at the rate of one death to 49'5 persons living ; while for the Tendring imndred for the same period it was only at the rate of one death to 53 persons living — being in the former case 2019 per cent., and in the latter 1"S84. This rate of mortality, however, ap- plies to all ages, and does not, of course, bear upon the mortality of the clubs ; and I only use it in order to show that there is nothing in the Tendring hundred to lead us to siqipose that the natural mor- tality is higher there than elsewhere. In point of fact, there are thirty-nine counties in which the rate of mortality is higher than that of the hvindred of Tendring — only twenty-four in which it is higher than that of Essex — and but eighteen in which it is higher than in the burial clubs of Tendring. In order fairly to compare the mortality of the burial clubs with that of the surrounding district, it will, of course, be necessary to take the same conditions as to age in both cases. No person is admitted into these clubs under the age of fourteen, and in the case of some of them they are admitted up to the age of sixty-five ; but it is only within the last year or two that restrictions as to the maximum age have been imposed at all, and it may be fairly assumed that among the members of the burial clubs are included persons of all ages above fourteen years ; and we have al- ready seen that this number, including nominees, is 4,790, the average rate of mortality since the for- mation of the clubs being 96'6. The population of Essex', which we will take as a point of comparison, was, in 1841, 320,811 of all ages. Of this number there wei'o under fourteen years of age, males, 61,212; females, 61,365; making a total of 122,577. This number, deducted from the total population, will gi\'e us the popu^-ition of Essex above fourteen years of age equal to 198,234. The amount of mortality for the whole of Essex for the seven years 1838-44, was 45,364, including all ages. The returns of this amount of mortahty are given in quinquennial periods ; and in order to obtain the proportion out of this number which would repre- sent the deaths under fourteen years of age, I have taken one-fifth from the number of deaths as between the ages of ten and fifteen, adding tlie re- mainder to the total number under ten years of age : the result of this is, that there were in the seven years above-mentioned 22,584 deaths under four- 238 THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE. teen years of age, which, taken from the numher of all ages, woud leave the mortality above fourteen years of age 22,780. As the seven years 1838-44 include the three years before and the three years after 1841 — the year in which the census was taken — it may be supposed to be a fair average of the mortality. The population above fourteen years of age was 198,234, and the deaths above fourteen years of age for the seven years were 22,780, being equal to ir45 per cent., or r63 per cent, per annum. The mortality of the Tendring hundred is lower, as we have already seen, than that of Essex gene- rally ; and, to avoid a wearisome multiplication of figures, it will be necessary to give the mortality of that district — a larger area, like Essex, aftbrding also a better criterion by which to judge of the mortality of the burial clubs. In the whole of Essex, then, the mortality above fourteen years of age is r637 per cent., while for the clul)s it is 2*1 per cent. — showing an increase as against the clubs of •463. The value of this decimal, as applied to the whole population of Essex, wound increase its mortality by not less tlian 700 persons annually. Supposing the same rate of mortality to apply to the burial clubs as prevails in Essex, the propor- tion of deaths to the 4,790 members and nominees of the clubs ought to be only 75'2 instead of 96'6 — or 22'4 less than the returns which I have obtained show to be the existing rate of mortality among them. Making every allowance for any incorrect statements which may have been made — deduct even one-half from the excess — and still a fearful and grave suspicion must rest upon these clubs, which it would be well if a more extensive and seai'ching investigation were able to remove. In addition, however, to the great disparity in the rates of mortality in and out of the clubs, as shown by a comparison with the mortality of the seven years from 183s to 1844, suspicion is also aroused by the evidence contained in the register of burials in some of the districts where these societies are situated. None of the clubs in Essex have been established more than four or five yaars ; and I was curious to ascertain whether the parish registers of burials would throw any light upon the working of these associations. I found, upon looking over the register of the parish of Wickes, that in the four years previous to the establishment of the clubs the number of deaths had been 36 — whereas in the foiu* years of the existence of the clubs the number had increased to 47. In both of the periods the deaths only are included of persons above the age of four- teen. The population of Wickes is about 800 ; there has been no cholera nor any other epidemic disease to explain the increased mortality; neither can it be accounted for by any increase in the popu- lation, as the numbers are at present somewhat lower than they were in 1841. In Great Oakley parish I was only able to obtain the number of deaths of persons of all ages ; it cannot therefore be considered as of much value for the purposes of comparison. In the one period, however, the num- ber of deaths was 90, as compared with 76 in the period preceding the formation of the clubs. The suspicion that a great deal of "foul play" exists with respects to these clubs is supported not only by a comparison of the different rates of mortality, but it is considerably strengthened by the facts proved upon the trial of Mary May, The Rev. Mr. Wilkins, the vicar of Wickes, who was mainly in- strumental in bringing the case before a court of justice, stated to me, that from the time of Mary May coming to live in his parish, he was determined to keep a very strict watch upon her movements, as he had heard that fourteen of her children had previously died suddenly. A few weeks after her arrival in his parish, she called upon him to request him to bury one of her children. Upon his asking her which of the children it was, she told him that it was "Eliza" — a fine, healthy-looking child of ten years old. Upon his expressing some surprise that she should have died so suddenly, she said, " Oh, sir, she went off like a snuff; all my other children did so, too." A short time elapsed, and she again waited upon the vicar, to request him to bury her brother as soon as he could. His suspicions were aroused, and he endeavoured to postpone the funeral for a few days, in order to enable him to make some inquiries. Not succeeding in obtaining any information which would warrant further delay in burying the corpse, he most reluctantly pro- ceeded in the discharge of his duty. About a week after the funeral Mary May again waited upon him, to request him to sign a certificate to the effect that her brother was in perfect health a fortnight before he died — that being the time at which, as it subse- quently appeared, she had entered him as nominee in the Harwich Burial Club. Upon inquiring as to the reason of her desiring this certificate, she told him that unless she got it she could not get the money for him from the club. This at once supplied the vicar with what appeared to be a motive for "foul play," on the part of the woman. He accordingly obtained permission to have the body of the brother exhumed ; doses of arsenic were detected, and the woman was arrested. With the evidence given upon the trial the reader is no doubt perfectly conversant, and it will be vmneces- sary for me to detail it. She was convicted. Pre- viously to her execution, she refused to make any confession, but said, " If I were to tell all I know it would give the hangman work for the next twelve- months. Undue weight ought not to be attached to the declaration of such a woman as Mary May — but, coupled with the disclosures that took place upon the trial with respect to some of her neigh- bours and accomplices, and with the extraordinary rate of mortality among the clubs, it certainly does appear that the general opinion with respect to the mischievous effects of these societies is not altogether without foundation. Although there are not in Essex, at present, any burial clubs in which children are admitted under 14 years of age, as members or nominees, still, as illustrating the evils arising from these clubs, I may state that many persons who are fully conversant with the working of such institutions have stated that they have frequently been shocked by hearing women of the lower classes, when speaking of a neighbour's child, make use of such expressions as — " Oh, depend upon it, the child 'II not live ; it's in the burial club." When speaking to the parents of a child who may be unwell, it is not unfrequently THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 239 and now he's that tliey say, " You should do so and so," or "you I she was livinc{ with another man, should not do so and so;" "you should not treat | fione they'll have a jollitication with Uie '"oney it in that way; is it in the burial clul) ?" Instances ' ■ '' '■■' i..-^.„„ ..,.,„„ . ot the most culpable neglect, if not of graver ottences, are continually occurring in districts where clubs exist in which children are admitted. A collector of one of the most extensive burial societies gave it as his opinion, founded upon liis experience, that it liad become a constant practice to neglect the children for the sake of the allowance from the clul)s, and he supported his opinion by several cases which had come under his own obser- vation. But setting aside for a moment all considerations with respect to "foul i^lay" among adults, and neglect of children arising from the existence of these clubs, there are other points of view in which they are productive of the greatest evils; and fore- most among many others may be mentioned their demoralizing influence upon the members of the clubs. Great numbers of persons enter these societies as a speculation ; they have the power of apjiointing as nominee a person of any age, or in any state of health, for although some of the rules of the society state that none but healthy members can be admitted, still no care is taken to prevent the admission of unhealthy lives. One of the persons to whom I was speaking on the subject of burial clubs — a small tradesman of a village — said, " Well, I never joined any of 'em but once, and that was one close by here. I put in an old aunt of mine who was 82 — and she was in the workhouse — and I thought she'd be a good 'un to name, but 1 paid three years for her and she wouldn't die, so I gave it up, I wouldn't pay no longer. Well, do you know, two or three months after I'd left off' paying on her, she went off, and hang me it I didn't lose ten pound by lier, for the club just then was j)aying full." I was told of another instance, in I asked him if there was no regulation in the club compelling the party receiving the money to see that the deceased was decently interred, and I was told, " that there was none whatever ; that it was no part of their business to look after that; it was no odds to them who buried 'em, or how they were buried, whether it was by the parish or anybody else ; all they wanted was i)roof of the death of the party." To this almost entire oljliteration of the feeling with which the occasion of a death ought to be regarded, is to be added the evil, inseparable from most of the clubs, of compelling the survivors to find large quantities of drink for their friends and the undertaker's men. A working man, who is the secretary to one of these societies, stated that he had known drink to be given to such excess, that the undertaker's men were Ircquently unfit to perform tlieir duty, and sometimes even reeled while carrying the coffin. "The men," he says, " who stand as mutes at the door, as they stand out in the cold, are supposed to require most drink, and receive it most liberally. I have seen these men reel about the road, and after the l)urial we have been obliged to put these mutes and their staves into the interior of the hearse, and drive them home, as they were incapable of walking. After the return from the funeral, the mourners commonly have drink again at the houses." In the case of a death, the publican at whose house the club is held claims that a certain portion of the " funeral allowances " should be spent with him. It has been calculated that in 90 of these societies, if one year's expenditure on drink, feast, and decoration money were placed out in the savings' banks at interest, together with the amount of losses from mismanagement, the amount due to the contributors would, at the end of ten years, amount which a person had paid in for some time upon to not less than £5,328. , . . ., another old woman, of upwards of eighty, but he The excessive amount of the suoscnptions paid also left the club in consequence of his not seeing | by the members is also an evd deservmg of the any immediate prospect of gain from the decease of the poor woman. Another instance, which illus- trates the feeling with which the death of a member of one of these clubs is generally regarded, was afforded me by the secretary of one of them. \Vhile I was v/ith him, he received a letter from one of the members, which he read to me for the purpose of showing the benefit which these societies were to the poor people, and the mode in which the money was usually obtained from the club. The letter was dated London, and was as follows ; — " I am sorry to inform you of the death of poor dear Mr. , which took place last Monday night, as he was a member of the Mourner's Friend Society, of which you are secretary. Mrs. •, who was Mr. 's nominee, will sign the order, if you forward it to her at Mr. 's, farmer, as I have written to inform her of it." The secretary having I'ead the letter, repeated the words at its commencement — " I am sorry to inform you of the death of poor dear Mr. ." "That's what I laugh at always in these to 1 most serious attention. In the case, for instance, of one of the clubs in Essex, the number of mem- bers and nominees might be taken to be about 800. The average age of the members was, I was informed, about' 45 ; of this number about 75 die in five years. Their ])laces, we may assume, are supplied by persons of tlie same age as the original members; the club will then consist of T2o per- sons at the average age of 50, they being ['wi years older than when it first started, and 75 of the age of 45. At the end of the next five years, as- suming the rate of mortality to be the same, the club will consist of G50 persons of 55 years of age, 75 at 50, and 75 at 45, the average age of the whole club being 52. But notwithstanding the increased risk in consequence of the greater age of the members, the rate of subscription remains the same. The 50th member of the clul) who may die will have paid, supposing that the nominees die at the same rate as the members -for the deaths of 99 members and nominees, together th his quarterly subscrij)tions, ±'2 I7s. 9d. ; ember, £5 l6s. id.; the 200th mem- s. 9d.; the 300th, £.17 9s. od. ; and jeai ..MI. . inaiswnaii jaugu at an\ays uv.u.-wo v.. ^, n these kind of letters — 'J am sorry ;' if they were with his q\i ,0 say what they mean, they'd all say ' I am glad.' i the 100th m rhis woman has been wishing for a long time that her, £11 12 . , , oor dear would go off'; when he was alive the 400th, supposing the club to exist so long, n *2!0 THE FAKMblV^ MAGAZINK. £23 Gs, I'J.: while ihv amovmi lliat ivic.y la- jiaid Uj-'on his death will r.ot exceed £10. and in every ])robal)ilit}' it would l;c considciahly less th.an that sum. Takii.^ti: the cxj)ense of the funeral at £.'>, thei"e would not he inoie than bO memljfrs who would have j)aid into tlie club a less sum than would he sufficient to provide for the expense of iheir funeral, while the remaining 320 would pay in more than that sum ; and in the case of some of them ihey would pay four or five times the amount of their funeral expenses — to say nothing of the loss of the interest of their money, which they might have obtained h.ad they invested it in other funds, and the extra expenses which they had incurred for drink in connection with the various meetings of tlie club at the jjublic-house. A comparison of the rates charged in the difler- ent burial clubs for the benefits insured, with i-itnilar I'ates charged by assurance societies, shows that for a risk for which, if the Northampton tables were taken as the basis of the assurance, a pre- mium of 3s. 9d. only would be demanded by an assurance office, 7s. lOd. is taken from the con- trib'.itors to the club; in anothtr. for a risk for whicli 3s. 9d. would sutlice in the Northampton tables, Us. 5d. is received ; instead of an average premium of 5s. 2d., a third society takes lis. id. If we add 25 per cent, to the premium that would be charged according to the Northampton rate fwhich is supposed to represent a higher mortality than the average), for expenses of management, including books, stationery, See. — and to cover the loss of interest occasioned by weekly or monthly contributions, instead of annual premiums ])ayable at the beginning of each year— in nearly all these clubs the jioor man pays an excess for Ijurial of at least one-third, independently of the extra expenses of drink in connection with these clubs, and his quarterly subscriptions. The following graduated table of vi'eekly contri- butions has been drawn u]) by Mr. Finlaison, the actuary to the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, and it is matter for regret that it is not more generally acted upon by the mana- gers of these clubs : — tONTItHJlTJONS PAYABLK. BENEl-ITS. Age of Members. 0 and under ]2 Gd. 12 „ „ lb Is, 18 „ „ 23 ■ Is. Od, 23 „ „ 28' Twelve 2s. 28 „ „ 33- 1 2s. Od. 33 „ „ 38; ' 3s. 38 „ „ 43' Months ' 3s. Gd. 43 „ „ 48 i 4s. 48 „ „ 53 i 4s. 6d. 53 „ „ go' ! 5s. Id. £4. Nil. .'.d. £7. Nil. ^d. ' £10. £3. Id. £io. £4. Ud, £10. £5. l.\d. £10. £5. l^d. £10. £5. 2d. £10. £5. 2id. £10. £5. 3d. £10. , £5. The majority of biuial clubs lune no funds from v.'hich they are enabled to ]iay the amount on the death of a member : the plan adopted is, as may be seen by one of their rules, that of collecting so much money from each member upon the occasion of a death. Clubs of this kind cannot therefore be said to become insolvent in the true sense of the word. The members of the chdj find it impossible to keej) \ip the ])ayments of from lOs. to i2s. per year in clubs consisting of about 400 members ; they are excluded for default— the lunnber of defaulters gradually increases, till the amount payable on (leath is reduced to a mere triile — and the club then becomes extinct. In Manningtree there were three of these societies which were dissolved in this manner; and there is every i)robability that the M'hole of them, in Essex at least, will follow in the same track. None of the clu1)s have at present theii' full conj])lement of members, and in two of those at Harwich they have ten deaths in the course of collection, the sidjscrijitions for which they are vmable to obtain. Of course when the clubs break up, the members lose all that they have sub- scribed, for there is no property to divide : they are left heljjlessand unprovided for — their previous subscriptions have been, at least, so far as their own benefit is concerned, completely thrown away — they have perhaps passed the age at whicli they can be admitted into a friendly society— and nothing remains for them but the dreaded prospect of a l)arish shell and a pauper's grave. 1 was in- formed by a clergyman of a case of hardship of this kind. A poor man had paid for several )-ears to his club, which however had broken up. Upon his death the widow came to him, begging for some assistance. He had helped the family to a considerable extent during the husband's life-time. The woman begged hard that he would do some- thing for her, and not allow her husband to be buried by the parish. He very readily waived his burial fees, and by the assistance of lier neighbours a coffin was obtained, which cost 14s.; the charge to the sexton was 2s. ; passing the bell. Is. Four of the poor man's neighbours gave up half of their day's wages to carry the corpse to the ground-- the clerk was paid Gd. — and 6d. was also paid fo THE FARMER^S MAGAZlMv. 2U (lie use of the pall, wliicli was kept by the elork, ' J>y this means the funeral way pei formed at an ' cx])ense of only ISs. to the widow, who had the [ satisfaction of knowing that her husband was not i buried as a j)auper. 1 Unreasona])le as may be the charges which are usually made for the burial of the labourer, still they arc considerably more than covered by the amount received from the clubs— and it is this ex- cessive amount paid to the meml)ers which consti- tutes one of the worst features of these associations. The usual charge for tlie funeral of an adult of lliis class is between f :> and £4. This charge is made up of the following items : —CoHin, 30s.; shroud and pillov,', !Ss. Gd. ; church fees, including grave-digger, 10s.; bearers, Os.; use of pall, 5s. ; scarfs and bands for mourners, Ijs. — leaving a u)argin of upwards of £0 of the clu)j money, the greater ))orlion of which is mostly spent in drink, and in treating the mourners and undertaker's | men. There is one other point in connection with these (labs which ought not to be overlooked — and that is, that no jirecauti jns whatever are taken either i with respect to the admission of members, or in as- \ tertaining the cause of the death of the party. ' With res])ect to the admission of members, Mr. I Jenkins, the secretary to one of the societies, stated before a commitee of the House of Commons, in j ;mswer to a question as to how tliey ascertained whether the ajjphcants for admission were in good i health — " ^^'e take their word for it ; we do not j submit them to any medical examination; and as to their age, the same \\'ith regard to that, we take tlieir word for it. If we think they appear to be anything like the age, wc take it for granted. We take what they represent to be the fact as to their health and age. We ask the question, ' Are you in good health ?' They say ' Yes.' Then we take them." In answer to the question put to the same witness, " Supposing a parent proposed to you to admit a child that any one of you who might have the direction of affairs knew to be unhealthj', do you object to it?" — the answer was, "If a whole family be entered, we do not object to it." Indeed, it is, in almost all cases, to the interest of the ma- nagers of the club to admit unhealthy lives, as, in the words of one of the managers, who was an un- dertaker, "it brings grist to the mill." Every one connected with the clubs, except the luifortunate members upon whom this species of " black mail" is levied, has a direct interest in the number of deaths that may take place. To the treasurer, who is mostly the publican, the news of a death is equi- valent to an order for so much liquor; to the se- cretary it gives an additional fee ; and to the collectors their per centage upon the amount col- lected by them. There is, therefore, no person whatever to look after the interests of the poor peo- l)le who may belong to the club. All that they have to do is to pay their contriliution when called upon, or to be excluded from the society; or, if they attempt to inquire for themselves into its af- fairs, or to make any charge against any of its ma- nagers, they are forthwith stopped by the terrors of one of the rules — " That if any member charge the committee or any member thereof, or trustees or secretary, witii any improper practice in the ma- nagement of the society, and cannot make it appear just" — and that to the satisfaction of a self consti- tuted committee — "he or she shall be fined 5s. or be excluded." Among numerous cases of fraud in connection with the clubs might be mentioned a case which has been kindly furnished to mc by a gentleman who has devoted considerable time and attention to the subject — and which, but for the visit of one of the officers of the clubs, whose duty it was to see the corpse, would no doubt have been perfectly successful. A man and his wife agreed that one of them — namely, the husband —should pretend to be dead, in order that the wife might receive his fune- ral money. Accordingly the wife proceeded in due form to give notice of his death. The visiting of- ficer on behalf of the society, whose duty it was to see the corpse, repaired to the house, entered the chamber, and inquired for the deceased ; the would-be disconsolate widow pointed him to the body of her late husband, whose chin Avas tied up with a handkerchief in the attitude of death. He surveyed the corpse, the eyelids seemed to move; he felt the pulse, the certain signs of life were there; the officer pronounced him not dead; she in retui'n said — "He is dead, for there has not been a breath in him since twelve o'clock last night." The neighbours were called in ; a discussion ensued between the wife and the officer; some declared they saw the husband at the door that morning, giving a light. The officer required her to bring a doctoi- ; she went, and said she could not get one to come ; the officer went and brought one, who ordered the man to be raised up in the bed -and, having obtained some water, the doctor, while the man was sitting up, dashed it in his face. It need scarcely be added that the effect of the cold water was perfectly invigorating upon the pretended corpse. I'he well-known insecurity of these clubs among the labourers has had the effect of inducing them to join several, in the hope that one at least of the number may be able to stand. Several of the per- sons with whom I entered into conversation on the subject informed me that they were meinberr, of two, three, and four of these clubs. In case of death their survivors would, of course, receive the money from each of these societies, but at the same time they were compelled, to use their own words, " to stand the mortality of the members and nominees of four clubs," the expense of which could not be less than £2 per annum. The amount received from the v/hole of the clubs being enor- mously disproportioned to the amount required for burial, naturally increases the inducement to have recourse to " foul play," in order to obtain so large a sum of money. Of the whole of the burial clubs in Essex, there is not one that is enroUed— which is an additional injury to the poor people, inasmuch as they have no remedy against the dishonesty of the managers. The rule requiring that if any of the collectors or others should lose any of the moneys or property of the club, it should be made good at their own expense, is a perfect dead letter — the only means which they have of compelling the party to make good the loss n 2 24'2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. heing the exj^ulsion of thg defaiilling member. In ilte case of one of the clubs at Great Oakle)', application was made to Mr. Tidd Pratt on the subject of enrol- ment, andacopy of therule was transmitted to him. Before allowing the club to be enrolled, he required, liowever, tlie insertion of rules to the effect, that three trustees should Ije elected on a quarterly night to continue in oflice during the pleasure of the so- ciety, vacancies to be filled in the same manner ; that the funds should be invested with the consent of the members on each quarterly night; that the stewards should prepare annurdly a statement of the funds and efFects belonging to the society, to a copy of which every member should be entitled upon pay- ment of twopence ; and that, in cases of dispute be- tween the society and any of its members, reference should be made to justices of the peace. He also required that books should be kept, in which all moneys received or paid on account of any ])articular fund or benefit should be entered in se])arate ac- counts. The sixth requirement was, that the returns of the rates of mortality in the clubs, together with an account of the assets and liabilities, should be sent to the registrar of friendly societies once in every year. The seventh article imposed penalties, recoverable by the sale of the chattels and goods, upon the persons neglecting to make the required returns. To one and all of these reasonable re- quirements the managers of the clubs demurred, and tliey refused to have the club enrolled " upon any such conditions." Regulations of this kind could not be too strict wilh respect to these clubs, especially with regard to their accounts, for anything more slovenly or disgraceful than the state of what by courtesy were called their books, I never saw, than was shown me by the collectors and secretaries of some of them. In scarcely one of the clubs was there any account kept of the number of deaths that had taken place— the only way of arriving at the re- sult being by extracting from a series of dirty-look- ing papers, the number of " crosses" and " sixes" jotted down witli lead ])encil against the names of the numbers in the collector's book. The apjjoint- ment of trustees and the investment of the funds would have the effect of taking from the secretaries the jirivilege of holding the little money belonging to tbem in their own hands, which is the case at present. Reference to the magistrate in cases of dispute was strongly protested against by the secre- tary of one of the societies, on the ground "that they didn't want to have nothing to do with law or Ir.vyers, and that they were quite able to manage tht;ir own affairs witliout either of 'em." And as to levying a penalty upon the officers for neglect of duty, " by the sale of goods and chattels"— it was " a thinir they wasn't used to." And so, until these societies are by some nieans or other brought under efficient control, the labourer must continue to be defrauded of a portion of his scanty earnings ; he will be called upon to pay excessively for an object which, after all, is but poorly ol)tained ; the demo- ralization of the people will spread wider and wider, and a total disregard of human life will usurp the place of the better feelings of our nature. I have gone somewhat more fully into the ques- tion of the burial clubs than I had intended; the mischievous effects which are produced by them, and the urgent necessity which exists for the adop- tion of some measures for their regulation, have led me beyond the bounds which I had assigned to myself for the consideration of the subject. The next associations in connection with the provident habits of the labouring classes, are the Benefit and Friendly societies. Many of the observations with [ respect to the government and management of the j burial clubs apply with equal propriety to large i members of the friendly societies. The payments I of the members are regulated without reference to j the amount of risk ; the meetings are mostly held ' at public-houses ; and a large portion of the con- tributions is required to be expended in drink by the members. The objects which they embrace are more extensive in their character than those of the burial clubs — the one having reference only to death, the other to a state of both sickness and death, and even to the prevention of want, as may be gathered from the following preamble to the ; Union Benefit Society, held at the Bell Inn/fhorpe, I Essex : — I " Let us love one another. — Man is formed [ a social being. The sovereign Ruler of the world I has been pleased to place us in this life as dependent upon each othei', and in continual need of mutual assistance and support, and has inter- woven in our constitutions those humane and sym- pathetic affections which we always feel at the distresses of our fellow-creatures ; how greatly is the beneficent and generous spirit rewarded in con- ; tributing to relieve that distress ! Of all the de- lights human nature is capable of enjoying, the ■ most lively and transporting are those which flow 1 from sympathy and social passion, as they are not ' only the most pleasing in their immediate exercise, ! but also in contemplation and reflection ; every I I)enevolent mind, therefore, that sincerely delights [ in the good of others, will not fail to improve every opportunity to promote their happiness and com- fort, particularly of those who are afflicted with sickness, lameness, blindness, or any such calamity j by which they are deprived of the means and power of supporting, not only themselves, but perhaps a numerous family. That this is the true and laudable intent of this society, the following articles will sufficiently explain ; where every disorder with which any of its members may be afflicted is, as far as is consistent with the general good of the whole societ}', so relieved as at least to prevent want from coming within his doors." — kSigned "Gabriel Bones," and other members of the committee. In order to give effect to the very laudable pur- })ose expressed in the above preamble, the rules of the society go onto declare, that ever member must pay to the society Is. 9d. per month, and 4d. to be spent at each meeting; the benefits promised in return being, an annual feast at Whitsuntide (for the arrangement of which the officers are to receive each Is.) — the sum of £5 upon the death of any member, to be paid to his widow, heirs, or executors — and if at any time it shall please God to afflict any free member with hurt, sickness, lameness, or other infirmity, the said member shall receive 10s. per week for three calendar months ; and if not re- covered from his affliction within that period, he shall receive 8s, per week for three months longer; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2i:i if he continues unwell at the expiration of (hat period, he receives 6s. per weelc for a further period of three months ; and if he still remains unwell, the sum of 4s. per week for three further months, and a sum of 2s. for each and every week afterwards, so long as he may continue so aiflicted as not to he able to earn his livelihood. There are numerous minor rules for the regulation of the i)roceedings at the meetings of the club, and the mode in which the drink is to be ordered and paid for by the members. Among other things, it is declared, that, in order to preserve decency, good order, &c., " any member who may call for or order liquor to be brought into the club-room during club hours, without first asking leave of the president, shall pay for it himself;" and further on, " if any mem- ber feels disposed to drink his share, or spend his fourpence aforesaid by himself, he may; and if any member drink the same without his or their con- sent, he shall pay for it." The regulations with respect to the drinking department of the clubs ajjpear to have occupied by far the greater share of the attention of the framers of the regulations, some of which are so obscurely worded that it is difficult at first sight to understand their import. In one of the dabs, called the Rock Club, held at Kii by, it is provided, among other things, " that there shall be a si.xpenny club for beer, at which every member shall attend or forfeit 3d., besides his eighteenpence, or be excluded. Also, that all the members shall meet every yeai', by 12 o'clock, at the house wher.; the club is kept, or send their money, or in failure thereof to forfeit 6d. each; and there shall be a feast provided for them by order of the stewards and assistants." In one of the clubs it is agreed " that if any member sits down to drink with the stewards he shall be fined sixpence." In another, " if any person sits down to drink with the com- mittee, he is to pay sixpence." There are other regulations, which provide "that if any member shall call for liquor out of the club-room, without being ordered by the steward, and the club be charged with the same, he shall forfeit one shilling for every sixpence so charged." The fair sex are strictly jirohihited from entering the club-room; for, "if the wife of any member shall come into the club-room without the consent of the societ}', her husband shall forfeit sixpence : no woman to be present at any public or other meeting, tlie mistress or servant of the house excepted." With respect to the custody and disposal of the funds, it is ordered in the Rock Club " that there shall be a chest with five locks and keys provided, the stewards' assistants and clerks shall each of them have one" — whether lock or key is not stated — in which the money is to be deposited. Anxious to provide for every -possible contin.uency, the same club have agreed, " that every member belonging to this society shall have liberty to dispose of bis privilege therein before his departure out of this life, viz., the stewards shall pay £3 to the widow of the deceased if married — if single, to any friend whom the deceased shall have named." It is also provided, " that if the wife of any member, who shall have been a member for the space of two years shall die, the stewards shall pay the said member the sum of 40s. for the wife only, and on the next quarterly meeting night every member shall bring or send one extraordinary shilliny towards raisimj the same oijain ;" from the fact of an " extraordinary shillinf being required, one would almost suppose, upon reading the above, that it was the *''one wife only" who was to be "raised again." Of benefit and friendly societies there are enrolled in Essex 13S, in Suflulk 112, and in Norfolk 109, These numbers, however, by no means rejiresent the whole of the societies of this kind in existence in those counties. The number of unenrolled clubs is probably equal to, if not more numerous than, those which are enrolled. The greatest distress is frequently felt by the members of the clubs in con- sequence of the " box " being closed at the time when they stand in need of the assistance which they had a right to expect in return for their con- tributions. As illustrating the instability and in- jurious eftects of these clubs, it was stated by Mr. Tidd Pratt, in the course of one of the late sanitary inquiries, that, at a recent election of a ]JOor man to a vacancy in the Metropolitan Benefit Societies' Asylum — a condition of which was that the candi- date must be above sixty years of age, and have been a member of a benefit society more than ten years — there were 32 candidates, from whose docu- ments it appeared that the societies of no less than 14 out of the 32 had been dissolved, and that some of them had belonged to two socieiies, and that both had failed them. Such societies are, never- theless, constantly renewed on the old and unsafe foundations ; and so intense is the prevalent feeling on the subject of decent interments, and the desire to obtain some assistance iu case of sickness, th t numbers of poor people, as in the case of the burial clubs, join several, in the hoj)e that one may at the last avail them. I have met with several cases in which ])oor people have told me that they bad been compelled to ai)])ly to the jjarish for relief solely in consequence of the clubs having failed to supply them with the assistance upon which they had cal- culated. " I paid fourteen years," said one man to me, "to my club, and never had a farthing out of it in my life, and I've paid towards twelve deaths ; but now, when I come to be ill myself, I can't get a ha'penny from 'em ; the box is shut they say." Another woman told me that her husband had also paid for a long time, and never had but one week's money from the club. " If I had," said she, " but all the money he has paid to the bother- ing club, ray children wouldn't be in the ragged state they're now in, nor be so hungry as they are sometimes." When treating of the wages of the labourer, it was shown that it was impossible for him to do more than merely obtain a bare sufliciency of food for hiiuself and family with the amount v.-hich he usually received. The means by which he obtains his clothing is admitted by almost every one to ba a mystery. So impressed have many of the more wealthy persons residing in the neighbourhood of small towns been with the utter impossibility of the labourer obtaining clothing for himself and his family, that they liave formed in many places what are called "clothing clubs." These clubs are con- ducted on the principle of allowing the labourer to contribute one penny or more per week, according 2-il TifK FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. as he can afford it, and al tlie end of the jear the person so contributing receives an order upon some tailor or dra])er in the toM*n, to the amount of lOs. or 15s. for every ;"s. which he may have subscribed himself; the increased sum being made up from the contributions of charitable individuals in the town, some of whom are contributors to the ex- tent of £1, £2, and £") each. In the town of Hales- worth, ujjwards of £200 is thus annually distributed for clothing for the labourers in the immediate neighbourhood. In many other parts of the coun- try, clubs of a similar character abound. The su))- ]ily of coals, too, is not unfrequently obtained through the same agency by the labourers. Without these associations for enabling the la- bourer to obtain fuel, clothing, relief in sickness, and burial at his death, his condition would be, if possil)le, far v.-ors^e than it is at present. Even from the friendly and burial clubs, badly con- structed as they are, an enormous amount of assis- tance is afforded to the poor man, but under an im- proved system of management the benefits would be increased tenfold. IJnfortunatelv the present state of the labourer, in the absence of any material improvement in his condition, imperatively demands the assistance of associations of this kind. His whole life apj)ears to be constantly wavering be- tween toil and charity. The parish doctor attends at (in all probal)ility) his illegitimate birth ; he is swathed in linen ]irovided for him by the hands of some charitable individual, orbenevolent association. A charity school doles out to him his scanty cdu- pation in the irregular intervals of his youthful labour; as he advances in years the subscriptions of the more affluent are necessary to provide him with clothing; M'hen unemjiloyed, or unable through old age or infirmity to do a' fair day's work, the workhouse is his refuge; in sickness the parish doctor attends him, and his club supports him ; in death, if his club be in existence, the funds for his burial are provided by a jjortion of the hard earn- ings of his club-mates— for many of whom, who may have passed away before him, he had been called upon to perform the like act of self-denying charity. If his club be closed, as is frequently the case, the parish will find him a shell ; four of his neighbours, perhaps poorer than himself, sacrifice their half-day's wages to bear him gratuitously to the spot which the guardians of the poor have ap- pointed as the paui)er's final resting-place, and in which his ancestors and some of his offspring were perhajjs laid before him. The clergyman waives his burial fees, or the union chaplain consigns him to the ground which for half a century, in seed time and in harvest, he had m.oistened with his sweat and enriched by his toil. Such is by no means an exaggerated descrijUion of the mode of existence and end of vast masses of the agricultural labourers in the three counties which are named at the head of this letter. I have endeavoured calmly, temperately, and I trust im- partially, to describe what I have myself seen and heard among them — and I now leave them in tlie hands of those whose duty it may be, to consider and devise the best means for the im])rovement of their social, moral, and physical condition, CARLISLE DISTRICT FARMERS' CLUB. " On the best mode of making and securing hay," was introduced by Mr. Graingei', of Soutlier- , field ; the high-sheriff, the president of the institu- tion, in the chair. Mr. (jRAiNGER highly approved of such institu- tions as the one he was addressing, for from what he had seen of their working he knew they were productive of highly important results. He could bear testimony by experience and observation to some of their up8s, even when on a very limited scale, and not possessing the aids which many, and he hoped this one, would enjoy. He believed them to be instrumental in removing the prejudices of farmers, and eminently calculated to improve the agriculture of the neighbourhood in which they were situated. There was one very pleasing refiec- tion arising from the adoption of improved systems of farming, which was, that generally whilst we ad- vanced the interest of the occupier, the benefit ex- tended through him to the wh.ole community; more especially to the labourei-, for rarely indeed did it happen that a better system in farming was adopted without causing an increased demand for labour (Hear, hear). One consideration had gone far to overcome his reluctance to place himself so ju'ominently before the club, viz., that in order to reap the fullest advantage from these discussions practical farmers who might not have been favoured with a liberal education should freely express their sentiments (Hear, hear). The subject, said Mr. Grainger, proposed for discussion to-day is, as you are probably all aware, " On the best mode of making and securing hay;" an operation very generally performed in this district at the present time, and during the last week of beautiful weather of easy accomplishment; but probably, inordinary seasons, in our moist climate, requiring more atten- tion and exertion on the part of the farmer and his labourers duri»g the period they are engaged in it, than any other belonging to the farm. This sub- ject, although apparently more simple than many, has been frequently discussed at farmers' clubs ^Hear). I have experienced the truth of a remark made bv the learned Professor, in his excellent lee- THE FARMKR'S ^JACAZINE. 2\r) tiue in this room last SatinJay, having found it ! crop." Dr. Tlionij)Son, on the food of animal', necessary '"to consult a orreatnumberof Ijooks, and gives the following? table, which aftbrds a view of to ask the opinions of many practical men " (Hear, , the composition of rye-grass before and after ripen hear). I shall commence with the time of cutting ing the grass ; the manner of cutting, I should suppose, i will scarcely admit of argument, for upon the im- | Solid Matter. 2.3.81 i8.7r 31.00 Water. 18th June TO-MJ , ^ 1 f ,.1 ^ ■ ^y • T I ■ t I A \ -3rd June 81. 2:1 ]>lement used for that purpose m this district 1 do 1 , y , , ^^^^ not e.vpect to see any improvement. With regard to the time, I believe that scientific men and the "These," Kays Dr. Thompson, -are important best haymakers are unanimous in recommending pi'actical facts for the agriculturist ; tor if, as we that the grass should be cut much earlier than usual , l^ave endeavoured to show, the sugar be an impor- (Hear, hear). Probably the best time for cutting \ ^^"1 element of the food of animals, then it should the sown grass is as soon as the weather may prove | '^^ an object with the former to cut grass for tha favourable after the ryegrass has come into Hou'er, I Purpose of hay-making at that iienod when the as I suppose the greatest portion of our artificial i I'-^^'gest amount of matter soluble in water is con- o-ra.ses in this district grown for the purpose of , '•'^'"ed in it. This is assuredly at an earlier pc-nnd bein'T converted into hay consists of rye-grass, red : of its gron-th than when it has shot into seed, for clove", timothy, and trefoil, the ryegrass occupying ; ^t is then that woody matter predoinmates; a sui;- tlie greatest share. If the crop of grass should be stance totally insoluble in water, and therefore less laid,\-hether artificial or natural, it should be mown I f^l"»lated to serve as food to ammals than sub- as soon as the weather is fine. I shall lake the | stances capable of assummg a soluble condition, liberty of reading a few quotations on this part of I This is the first point for consideratiori in the pro- tbesub)ect:-ProfessorJohnston. inhislectureonjf^u'^tionofhay, sinceit ought to be the object ot a.rricultural chemistrv, savs, "As a plant ripens, J ^^^e farmer to preserve the hay for wmter use in the the starch, gum, and'sugar, existing in its sai>, gra- \ condition ino.st resembling the grass in its highest '.ellular and woody fibre, which state of perfection."-Cuthbert Johnson on Hay- making. The variation in the climate of diflferent portions of England is mucli more considerable than is commonly understood. The mean average depth of rain in inches falling in difierent counties during the haymaking months of June and July is June. Hertfordshire 2.2 l:i Manchester 2.502 1 Lancaster 2.512 Kendal 2.722 Glasgow 1.34:1 London 1.73S 13.030 July. 2.287 3.697 4.140 4.959 2.303 2.448 19.834 dually change into cellular and woody are more insoluble in the stomacli than the starch, and are thus less nutritious; the protein compounds, also the albumen, &c., likewise become less soluble ; and from these two classes of changes it arises that fully ripe grass or straw is in practice found lets nutritious as a wliole, weight for weight, than v.dien cut at an earlier period." I take the following from Britisli Husbandry :—'■' It has been ])roved by ex- periments carefully made upon many kinds of her- ])age, at different periods of their growth, that jilants of all sorts if cut when in full vigour, and afterwards carefully dried without any waste of their nutritive juices, contain nearly double the quantity of nutritive matter which they do when allowed to \ In a tabic given ])y Mr. Miller, of Whitehaven, the attain their full growth and make some progress , fall of rain in this county in 1848 is different, in towards decay. It is, however, the opinion of many | the present season I fir.'.t observed bloom on the experienced farmers that the grass should be cut as , ryegrass on the 21.st of June. I commenced cut- soon as the first dowers blow, for at that jieriod it j ting on the first a])pearance of fine weather on the contains all the useful qualities of which it is sus- { 27th, and had it carried in fine condition on the ceptible, and afterwards becomes daily more tough , 30th, although a Sunday intervened. I should re- and sapless. Such is certainly the practice in Mid- | commend to cease mowing on the Saturday after- dlesex, which is celebrated for the quality of Its hay. I noon (Hear, hear). I shall now proceed to the If the cutting of the crop be much protracted the j making of hay. Grass, when made into hay, says best season for making the hay may also be jjassed, i the author of British Uitshundrn, loses about three- the jdants become withered at the bottom of their } fourths of its weight. Dr. Thompson observes, stems, the roots are injured, and the aftermath is , " the best new-made hay that we have examined materially lessened in ' quantity.' " From the Farmers' Ahiimxac of 1S51, I take the following : — '• The farmer too often commits the error of leaving the first crop of seeds too long, a practice alike in- jurious to hl'< hay, to his land, and to the second contained between 14 and 20 per cent, of water or volatile matter, the numbers obtained verging towards the latter. When it contains as much as this it is very liable to ferment. Hyegvass contains at an early period of its growth as much as S 1 per 240 THE FxiRMER'S MAGAZINE. rent, of water, the whole of which may be removed by suhjectifig the grass to a temperature consider- ably imder boiling wa'.er." It is generally admitted that grass when made into hay by even the best method loses a considerable portion of its nutritious juices, but more of these juices are obtained by abstracting the moisture quickly than by a more protracted mode. It is necessary, therefore, to ex- pose it repeatedly to the sun and air, and to defend it as much as possible from rain and dew. It is also desirable to prevent fermentation until the hay is secured (Hear). The mode of making hay in the county of Middlesex has often been adverted to. By frequent spreadings and turnings they were, in fine weather, enabled to carry it on the third day. The details of this method may be seen in several agricultural works. Mr. Turner, of Moresby Hal], has frequently housed meadow hay on the third day. In fine weather he has the grass put into foot cock, on the same day that it is cut, twice, or occasionally three times if he have sufficient force of hands, always shaking out the swathes and cocks by hand, taking care to leave it in cock over night, but never large, and securing it in the barn. I ap- prove of shaking out and turning every day, if veiy fine, until it is ready to lead, including the day on which it is cut, at least up till noon or longer if in a bright sun (Hear, hear). Lea hay grass having stronger stems than the natural grasses may be made with less exposure, and certainly with less tedding ; yet I should not allow it to remain a whole day in a bright sun without at least once turning ; and if cut as early as has just been recommended, vovi need not be afraid of repeated spreadings. Possibly there may be an exception to this where it contains a very large proportion of clover (Hear). In a breeze with little sun there is of course less occasion to shake out. Our aim should be, in all weathers and with all grasses, to make small cocks at an early period after mowing, either by foot or by hand ; the latter is probably to be preferred, especially lap-cocks (Hear). The time required to prepare grass for hay of course varies considerably from several causes, as the weight of the crop, dry- ness of the ground, exposure to sun and air, the richness of the grass — in some cases it may be safely carried on the second day if very drying, and gene- rally on the third. Grass should never remain spread over-night vmless it is very wet, as both capillary attraction and dew will injure it (Hear). In making hay-cocks each armful or portion added should be placed entirely across, for the purpose of more effectually carrying ofi:' the rain. I object to large cocks as well as tramped pikes, on the prin- ciple of aiming at one fermentation only. When hay is fit to lead as a general rule, if it can be ac- comj)hshed, secure it ; if not ready, it will improve more in a small cock in dry weather than a large one, and is also shaken out with greater facility. If both should be saturated with wet, the large one would heat sooner (Hear). These small cocks should always be turned before shaking out, for the purpose of drying the ground where they have stood. If showery they may be turned v>hen it would be unsafe to spread them; indeed hay of very fair quality may be made in cocks of this de- scription from meadow grass, and is, I understand, the usual mode of making clover hay (Hear). When hay-cocks have received a heavy rain, as soon as the weather v/ill permit, the wet portions about the base of the cock and on the side not ex- posed to the wind should be thrown out for a short while, or placed in foot cocks, or on the top of the cock, according to the degree of wetness or appear- ance of the weather; it will then work much more equally when it is all shaken out. WHien the wea- ther has continued long unfavourable, hay-cocks should be placed on fresh ground, first taking off the top entire, turning and shaking the remainder, and next replacing the top. It must be acknow- ledged that the method I have recommended re- quires more labour than the usual manner of work- ing hay; the additional expense will not exceed a farthing per stone, in most cases not half of that sum. What the amount of profit may be in the quick method I am unable to state. In the Transactions of the Hujhland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, "On the feeding qualities of the natural and artificial grasses in different states of dryness," by James F. W. Johnston, five series of experiments are suggested. 1st. What weight per day of green food, newly cut, is necessary to keep a full-grown animal in a given condition ? 2nd. What weight of the same green food, cut in the same state, is necessary when preserved moist and salted after the German method ? 3rd. WHiat weight of the same grass when made into hay after the quick or English method ? 4th. W^hat weight, when won after the protracted Scotch method .' It is only by having recourse to experiments that the materials can be obtained by which the truth upon this, as upon all other agricultural subjects, can ultimately be eUcited (Hear, hear). Professor Johnston says, "The change of starch, gum, and sugar, into woody fibre will be less extensive the more quickly the drying is effected. Samples of hay made after the English and Scots methods are believed — I am correct, I think, in saying they are known to differ in nutritive value. In the dales of Yorkshire cattle can be fattened upon hay alone, which is said to be rarely the case to the north of the Tweed. The main difference between the two methods consists in the greater attention given to the frequent turning of the hay in the south, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 the consequent greater rapidity with which it is chied. More of the suhstance of the hay retains, therefore, its soUible or digestible state. There can be httle doubt that an equal quantity of grass con- verted quiclily into hay will yield more nourishment than if won slowly after the Scotch manner. It requires only a series of carefully conducted exjie- : riinents upon the relative feeding properties of two quantities of hay made from the same field of grass by the longer and the shorter methods, to show in a clear and intelligible light the waste which is j caused by the former, and to ensure the more general and more rapid adoption of the latter method." In a lecture on the " Application of Chemistry to Agriculture," by J. C. Nesbit, Esq., I find the remark that " Good farmers so manage it that the heat from fermentation in the hay-stack shall not exceed 80 or 90 deg." (Hear). If it be necessary to tedd and turn the grass so repeatedlj', it may be well to inquire to what extent we are enabled to substitute machinery for manual labour in lessening the expense. By the kindness of st!anger.«i, as well as friends, I have been favoured with references on the working of the two imple- ments— the tedding machine and horse hay-rake. They are very little used in Scotland ; but the Scotch farmers do not sujiport their general charac- ter in that branch of their pursuit. A farmer in Herts favoured me with the following : — " The tedding machine is a most excellent imi)Iement, and no farmer who mows to any extent ought to be without one. The implement with the double action is the best. With regard to the horse rake I can speak with the same confidence. They both dis- pense with much manual labour, and do the work with greater expedition" (Hear). The tedding machine and horse-rake it is stated will each go over an acre in about an hour ; but I suppose the surface is required to be smooth. In the Quartcrli/ Jour- nal of Agriculture, 1843, on saving meadow-hay in an expeditious manner, I find the following re- marks, by Mr. J. Little, Carlesgill, Langholm, Dumfriesshire, who obtained the premium— gold medal: — " The advantages of saving hay, according to what is called the English system, have been ap- preciated in this district for some years past, and several hay-barns have recently been built in this neighbourhood" (Hear). A neighbour of mine, who makes annually from 3G to 45 acres of meadow hay, and after seven years' experience of the English system, calculates that by it he now saves in a favourable season about one-fourth; in an average one considerably more ; and in a bad one as jnuch as one-half in wages alone ; to which must be added the savings from loss of tops and bottoms in summer ricks, occasional rotting on top of win- ter ricks, ropes, price of material for thatch," &c. I next come to " Securing the Crop," and here I would observe that some of my previous remarks are the result of a very recent inquiry, and a still more recent practice ; but with respect to securing, many years ago, from my own conviction, I adopted the barn in preference to the stack with its at- tendant expense, deterioration, and waste. Bad hay-making is with us, in some measure, the con- sequence of the exposed stack. Indeed, in our climate,*on the average of seasons, the hay-barn, in my opinion, is indispensable for securing hay of fine quality (Hear). The cost of erecting a hay- barn varies of course with the distance of any par- ticular locality from materials for building. I have prepared an estimate which may possibly be ap- plicable to some situations in this district. Sup- pose the building 60 feet in length, 21 feet in width v/ithin, and ] 5 feet in height, having rubble wall on one side and one end, with brick pillars on a stone foundation on the other side and end ; the roof substantially wooded and covered with Welsh slate. The estimate of cost of building one length of tim- ber of 10 feet in hay-bara is — £ s. d. Rubble wall, at 3s. per yard 2 10 0 Brick pillar i o 0 One-sixth of cost of end wall 1 4 0 Do. do. of coignes 0 5 0 Timber, including nails, labour, &c., at 2s. 4d. -per yard 3 12 4 Slate, at 2s. per yard 3 4 0 Ridgings 0 4 8 12 0 0 In some places it would require 4s. per yard for the wall, and 2s. 3d, do. for slate; the cost would then be £13 12s. 8d.; if brick pillars only £11; if ad- joining a building on one s.de £10 (Hear). This portion of the building would hold about 140 cubic yards of hay, v/hich at 8 stones for each cubic yard, and 70 stones to a cartload, would contain 16 cart- loads. Taking the cost at £12, having a wall at one side and one end, 9d. per cart-load per annum would pay 5 per cent, for the outlay. I hope, how- ever, that in the event of buildings of this nature being erected by the landlord, the tenant farmer will be allowed to omit the item of interest for capital expended (Hear, hear, and a laugh). Mr. .Tames Little, Dumfriesshire, has given an estimate of the cost of a shed 45 feet in length, 16 feet in width, and 12 feet in height; inside measure these dimensions contain 290 cubic 3'ards, which, at 7 stones to the yard, is capable of containing 2,030 stones, probably about 30 single horse cart-loads. The cost of wood amounts to £23; if covered with Lancashire second slate £31. Mr. Dickinson, in his " Essay on the Agriculture of West Cumber- land," says— "A few hay-barns have been erected 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. on high stone pillars, antl oi^en oi the sides in (hf- feicnt parts of the division, which save much of the expense of stackint^. In the jiarish of Arlecdon the Dickinsons located there have had a few move- able hay covers erected on larch poles, for protecting hay, after the Canadian models. Hay is found to keep better in this way than in the ordinary stack, as the roof is a safe covering in all weathers; and a current of air, temporarily admitted through a narrow opening below the cover-;, carries oft' all moisture arising from the fermentation of the new hay more readily than can be done in the close barn or loft. The convenience and advantage of being a]»le to put in or take out a few carts at any time is very great in broken weather, because the cover is always ready for either lowering or raising, as may be required ; and the certainty of always having the hay safe under dry cover is a very comfortable feeling when contrasted with the anxiety, heavy cost, and usual waste attending the open stack. The cost of erecting such a cover, on larch pillars let into stone pedestals, and v.'ith a light and well tarred sheet-iron roof on a pine framing, to contairi 270 cubic yards, has been ten guineas " (Hear, hear). Professor Johnston says that " the method recommended by Mr. Little of stowing the hay into hay-barns renders unnecessary either the excessive drying of the Scotch method, orttie less prolonged drying of such English hay as is intended to be preserved in stacks in the usual manner. It may be a matter of doubt whether, ultimately, any more water will remain in the less dried hay thus stowed away in barns ; it is, however, a fair, and it would be an interesting subject of trial to the enlightened feeder, whether the same quick-won hay acted in a very different manner upon cattle, either in retain- ing them in condition, in adding to their weight, or in increasing the quantity or cjnality of their milk, when built up into stacks in the usual way, than Vv'hen carried in a more moist state into barns erected for that jjurpose." Mr. Little, in his prize essay, observes, " Were the landlord sufficiently alive to the value of the hay-barn, v/e should have one on every steading as certainly as the stable and cow-house (Hear, hear). Possessed of a hay-barn, a farmer may almost be said to be independent of weather, in the precarious season of the hay-harvest (Hear, hear). In a good year he saves his crop without the loss of a handful, and at the smallest possiljle expense ; in a bad one he may have all, or the greater i)art of it, snug in his barn, whilst his neighbour's is bleaching in coils, or rotting in summer-ricks, one-tenth or one-twelfth of which may be fit for the dunghill before lie has an oppor- tunity of carting it home to be j)nt into the winter rick again, to be at the mercy of the elements until the weather permits it to be secured under '' thack and rape '" (Hear, hear, and ajjplause). The cost of a hay-shed 50 feet long, IG feet wide inside the posts, and 12.^ feet high, su])ported on larch posts, and covered with larch boards, \\'ould be com- [)aratively trifling. This roof, with timely repairs, and a biennial or trennial coating of pitch or coal- tar, I am told will last 25 or 30 years. Cost, exclu- sive of carriage of the wood, £25 I7s.'' (Hear.) Where there exists a dread of over-heating in the stack many jieople carry up a chimney in the centre by nailing four boards together, or by a bag filled with straw or hay, pulling it up from time to time, taking care to tread the stack well near the tunnel. I prefer mixing with oat-straw in such cases in (luantity pro]iortioned to the apprehended danger (Hear). In Stephens' " Book of the Farm *' I find that the price in Scotland of a rick-cloth 36 feet in length by 30 feet in width is :— "Canvass, £9 iGs.; blocks and hooks, 14s. ; ropes, £2; three Norway spars, l-i?.; smith's work, (5s.; total, £14. In England the cost would be £19." With regard to the practice of salting hay, many farmers recom- mend mixing salt with hay, particularly if coarse or not well got in. Some of my neighbours highly approve of it in unfavourable seasons. I have tried it to a very small extent, but was not aware of any improvement. From published experiments it does not ai)pear to add to the nutritive quality of the hay (Hear). Pcrhaj)s the ])roximity to the sea of this district may be the cause of its not being re- quired either as food for the cattle or as a manure to the soil. Stephens' " liook of the Farm," says — "that salt has been recommended to be used among artificial hay, and when hay is in a damp state in consequence of bad weather, salt is an ex- cellent remedy against mouldiness. Salted hay is much relished by all kinds of stock." Cuthbert Johnson, Esq., in the Fanner's McKjnzlne, says — " For the use of salt, as a valual)le addition to the hay-stack, 1 have long contended." On the other hand, " Salting hay in the rick,'" says Mr. Wintei-, " is a most destructive practice. Nothing could be more ill-judged. In this manner I have seen many hundred tons of good hay greatly deteriorated. It is preferable to adopt any other method of ad- ministering salt than that of brining the hay in the stack" (Hear). I find that otlier clubs have dis- cussed this subjact, and have passed resolutions upon it, and I hope it will not be uninteresting to you if I read one or two of the residts of those dis- cussions, as reported in the F.nincr's Magazine (Hear, hear). In Suffolk, the subject discussed at the Ixworth Farmers' Club, was " The best method of converting artificial and other grasses into hay so as to preserve in the greate.st degree their r.utri- tious qualities ;" and the resolution adnjited, "That it is the opinion of tliis meeting that in order to TIIK I'ARMICR'S MAGAZINE. tliO convert the natural grasses into liay it is expedient )i) presprve their nutritious qualities; that the grasses should be strewn out during th.o day, immediately after being cut, and kept ronsinntly moving about and cocked at night, and so to he strewn out by day, and re-cocked at night, making them larger from time to time. Tiiis process to be continued till the hay is made. That for the artificial grasses it is considered right to let them lay on the swathe, and move them as little as possible till they are ready to cart. That salt is highly recommended to be strewn on the stack, in order not only to check fermentation, but to make the hay more nutritious and palatable to cattle. That the best time to cut natural grasses is just at the time of flowering " (Hear, hear). At the Woodbridge Farmers' Club, " On the management of the hay crop," the fol- lowing resolutions were agreed to : — " That the crop should be cut at the period when the greatest pro- jjortion of the grasses are in full bloom, or rathei- before that time. That the hay should he quickly made, and frequently shaken up. That it should be cocked every night, the size of cocks and time of carting to be governed by circumstances. That it was proper to mix salt with the crop when put into the stack. That the operation of haymaking ilepends so much on the circumstances of weather, I.K.C., that it is difheult to lay down precise rides on the subject." At the Framlingham Farmers' Club, in Suftblk, " On the best mode of making hay," it was resolved "That grass be cut and strewed the same day, wind-rowed the next morning, shaken out and cocked the same evening." The minority voted " Taat if dry, it should be ]nit uj)on grass cocks the same night." At the Braintrec Farmers' Club, it was resolved — " That it is the opinion of this meeting that the prt/per time for cutting grass for hay is when it is in full blossom ■ great care must then be taken that it be well strewed out either with the tedding-macliine or by hand, for on this in a great measure de[)ends all the remaining stages of the operation, It must afterwards be rake-rowed and cocked according to the state of the weather and the nature of the grasses. This meet- ing strongly recommends the use of the tedding- machine and the Leicestershire hay-rake." At the Ijeominster Farmers' Club, " On the most proper time for cutting, and the best and chea])est method of making and securing hay and clover," it was re- solved— "That the proper time for cutting meadow grasses is l)efore the seed has arrived at maturity, and that clover and other artificial grasses when cut for hay should be mown when the heads appear in full blossom, but rather sooner than latter. A general approval of hay-making machines was ex- pressed by a majority of the members — hay-barns were also strongly recommended, not only for their j chea]mess. Init for their convenience, it being be- lieved that they prevent loo great an excess of fer- I mentation, and do not require the hay to he so ertectually made," At the Wenlock Farmers' Club, in Shropshire, " On the harvesting of hay," it was resolved— -"That whilst every hand should be got among the hay when fi.ie, yet that in anything like uncertain weather it was better to let it remain in swathe until the weather settled, only turning when the bottom became yellow, and that a liberal supply of salt should at all times be thrown into the rif*k at the time of making." Having concluded his re- marks upon the subj3ct before the meeting, Mr. Grainger thanked the members for the patient at- tention with which they had listened to him, and hoped that what had been said would bs followed by an animated discussion, for his object in joining the club had been to learn and not to teach (Loud applause). Mr. Rome highly approved of most of the re- marks which had fallen from Mr. (irainger; in fact he should not have adopted, as he had done, the suggestions made with respect to irrigation and cut- ting, had he not long since conceived them of the greatest im])ortance (Hear). On the ■22nd of June last he commenced cutting twenty-two acres of sown grass, and it was finished last Thursday morning, and the field cleared. From that crop he had taken S4 cartloads of hay (Hear, hear). He had been struck with the remarks of Professor Johnston on the early cutting of hay, and the fact of its losing a portion of its nutritiousness if allowed to remain too long (Hear), He u'as the more pleased that those remarks entirely coincided with his own views upon the subject, and his practice proved that he was favourable to early cutting (Hear, hear). Mr. Gibbons remarked that there was a diPier- ence in the manufacture of hay from artificial and from natural grass, and they miglit go to too great a length in spreading and tedding lea and clover hay. The method he should adopt in making hay from sown grasses v.-ould be to be careful in cutting- it dry, if possible not to cut it wet, to let it lie on the ground till it was dry on one side, then turn it over, and as soon as it was perfectly dry in the swathe, to put it up in the pike, which was a much more secure method in this variable climate than any other (Hear, hear). He would not, however, allow it to remain so long in the pike as to risk its being spoiled. The greatest judgment was required in attending to this, as the climate was so variable that Vv'hat they did must be guided by the weather (Hear, hear). His opinion upon the general sub- ject of haj'-making was that the more tedding the grass got, and the sooner it was secured, the ])etter it was for the hay (Hear, hear). The High Sheuiff thought that in this county 250 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. they were in the habit of cutting grass after the seed was ripe, and in passing through tlie fields they would find the seed shaken outupon the ground. He hoped that Mr. Grainger's remarks would not be lost, but that they would all take the benefit of his counsel. What had been suggested was a very great improvement upon the old plan ; they got the crop in soon and in better growth ; if an early sea- son they got in the crop with very little loss of her- bage (Hear, hear). He hoped that their meetings would always be well attended, and that their prO' ceedings might be as interesting as they had been that day (Applause). Mr. Rome moved, " That this club approves generally of the mode of making and securing hay which Mr. Grainger has given in his address; and that the best thanks of the club be given to Mr. , Grainger for the very able way in which he has brought the subject before the club." ■ Capt. James seconded the proposition, and it was carried with applause. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE We might ere this have alluded to the war of words between Mr. Pusey and the Baron Liebig on the progress of agricultural science. Mr. Pusey said, in his celebrated article, to which we alluded at the time as being a very valuable synopsis of all that had been achieved by the immense efforts of the scientific in chemistry, in vegetable and ani- mal physiology, and in geology — he states just as much as we think he was warranted and justified in saying— that, while many things had been eluci- dated and explained by scientific investigations, it had in many respects failed. Especially does he take exception to the peculiar theories of Liebig on the mineral system. He said: "The mineral theory too hastily adopted by Liebig— namely, that crops rise and fall in direct ])roportion to the quantity of mineral substances present in the soil, or to the ad- dition or abstraction of these substances which are added in the manure — has received its death-blow from the experiments of Mr. Lawes." Nay, Mr. Pusey might have gone further; he might have said, which he did not, that the very respectable firm which took up the Professor's mineral manure, and which no doubt gave it every assistance in their power, failed to satisfy the wants of the people or the necessities of the soil, and the application of the very manure the Baron recom- mended, and the chemists patented, has been little better than a failure. Liebig thus answers this part cf the diflficulty : " I do not conceal from myself that the discredit into which the employment of the constituents of the ashes of plants as manure may have fallen in England arises in part from the so-called patent mineral manure. It was the discovery of a new and remarkable compound of carbonate of potash with carbonate of lime which led at the time to the idea of the composition of this manure. As it was on account of this compound, which appeared likely to he of use in other ways, that according to the cus- tom of England, and by the advice of sagacious men, the manure was patented. The composition of the manure itself could be no secret, since every plant showed by its ashes the due proportion of the constituents essential to its growth. It was a circumstance deeply to be regretted that the idea which this manure was intended to bring into operation took the form of a commercial specula- tion." Now the Baron blames Mr. Pusey, and says it will astonish the chemists of Germany and France to hear that phosphoric acid and ammonia will ge- nerally su])ply the needful constituents of an Eng- lish soil. The same thing, he argues, was once thought of gypsum and of many other substances ; but experience has decided against them. Now, we think the censure applies partly to the Baron himself. We know of no reason why if the recommendation of one or two manures is so cen- surable, that any more blame attaches to it, in fact, than to the recommendation and sale of some new combination of two substances — viz., carbonate of potash and carbonate of lime; and the German and French chemists may laugh if they win ; let them find some two substances which will equally answer for France and Germany as ammonia and i)hospho- ric acid, and the English can well afford the joke. The Baron, moreover, objects that the experi- ments of Mr. Lawes are not so useful as they might be, owing to their being negative. But we would ask him, of the very much that is known, how much is anything else ? To know what will not answer, to know what will be deficient, is of all others a very important point. It is useless and futile to say that " every thing in the action of any manure depends on the composition of the soil to which it is added : to pulverize a soil for grain by means of ammonia alone is like trying to rear an ox with food from which the elements of his bones THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 251 and blood are excbided ;" and for this reason, that if the soils of England are so different from the soils of Germany and France, in some respects, why may not a class of manures act properly and effec- tively in our soils when the rest are in abundance, and fail in the other cases where they are deficient? We quite admit that a dilVerent conclusion to that of Mr. Lawcs' may well take place abroad, where different agencies, different soils, different geological strata, and, above all, different climates prevail. A frost which in England will disintegrate any one of five or six soils, will be useless in another coun- try where no such soil prevails; whereas a manure, valuable and even necessary abroad, will be of little use here, where our almost incessant rains dissolve out sufficient quantity to do all that is necessary for us. Liebig would have done well to have made proper allowance for English climate and English soil, more acted upon by the peculiarities of posi- tion than can be well imagined. Why, if we take chlorine we shall find that the winds which prevail on our western coast convey this material from the soa-sj)ray, directly across the island, and so supply that material ; but on the continent this can hardly be, and there they will require supplies of chlorine, and possibly of soda. ^Ye wish the Baron had let Mr. Pusey alone. He can judge the best, and should be allowed so to judge of his own country by far better than any fo- reign professor, however great he might be, as we must confess Professor Liebig most undoubtedly is, — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD. FRANCE.— No. XIV. THE PYRENEES — THE VAL d'oSSAN— AND THE PYRENEAN BREED OF HORSES. [from the special correspondent of the morning chronicle.] From Pau to Eaux Bonnes is a six hours' journey through one of the finest valleys of the Pyrenees, which afford specimens of most of the varying ])hases of Pyrenean glen scenery, from the green hilly strath to the chasm-hke gorge, in which, deep among the mountains, the road for wheeled vehicles usually terminates. Leaving behind the antique towers v^•here Henri Quatre first saw the light, and crossing the brightly flashing stream of the Gave rippling rapidly over its bed of while rolled pebbles, we proceed through a flat expanse of Indian corn towards the hills. Upon the right, the vineyards of Jenancen stfetch along winding slopes. Many cottages and clusters of huts, half hidden amid the vines which are trailed in screens and tunnels from stake to stake and tree to tree — and, on each side of the way, hedges of boxwood, growing in luxu- riant thickets which would delight the heart of an English gardener— give note of one of the charac- teristic natural harvests of the Pyrenees. The soil and the climate are indeed such that the ])lace which, in more northern mountain regions, would be occupied by furze and heather, is hereabouts taken up by perfect thickets and jungles of thriving boxwood. The flat strip of ground bordering the stream at the bottom of the valley is divided into small meadows, from which, at the time of my visit, the people were gathering in their third hay harvest. The crop, indeed, did not seem a particularly rich one. The first two are intended for the horses and oxen, and the third for the shee]), when they descend from the hills. The position of these meadows ensures them some degree of natural drainage, but no pains are taken to improve the land by artificial means. The intense and vivid green of the grass is beautiful to see ; but the hay which it produces, so far at least as the third crop is concerned, is poor black stuff". The bits of mea- dow ground, so situated as to afford no natural outlet to the surface water, are spongy and marshy, producing growths of rank coarse grass. Upon the lower slopes and ledges of table land maize is the principal crop cultivated ; and haricot beans, and such like vegetables, are not unfrequently sown between the lines of the principal produce. The quantity of ground lost in hedges and hedge- rows is immense, the whole lower part of the valley being cut up into infinitesimal fields and meadows. Th? vineyards, though carefully tended, have a rough, straggling appearance, compared with those of Medoc, occasioned principally by the considerable difference between the size and the manner of growth of the vines, some of them growing low along the ground, others clambering up into the top- most branches of supporting trees. The houses of the peasantry are, with here and there an exception, wretchedly poor, ill built, and of the worst materials. Many are mere hovels of wood and clay, so rickety-looking that one wonders that the first squall from the hills does not carry them bodily away. This worst (and unfortuately the most abounding) class of dweUings are composed, for the most part, of one large irregular room, having an earthern floor, with black smoky beams stretching across beneath the thatch. Two or three beds are made up in the darkest corners ; festoons of Indian corn, onions, and heads of garlic are sus- pended from the rafters ; and opposite the huge open fireplace is generally placed the principal piece of furniture of the apartment — a lumbering pile of 252 mv: lAKMER'.S MAGAZINE. ;i (lieiicr, gaiiiishL'J with (lie ciuckeiy uf the liouic- liold. In a very great jn'oportioii of cases the win- dows of these dwellings arc utterly unglazcri. When the rough unpainted outside shutters are dosed, the whole interior is in darkness. In other instances there is a single row of small panes, the rest of the cto/aw being wooden. The above few words of descrijHion apply in some respects to the ])easant tenements which I have described in various ])arts of France; but there was besides an air of decrepit misery and slovenly negligence about the hovels in the valley of Ossan, not generally charac- teristic even of the poorest dwellings in the country. Poultry went freely in and out, and the pig seemed as much at home in the iiarlonr as ever was one of his Tipperary cousins. A large proportion of these dwellings are public-houses, distinguished frequently by no sign save a bunch of box-wood or a wisj) of straw suspended abo\'e the threshold. In some jiortions of France rural taverns are as rare as in other ])laces they are abundant. Not far from AngouKme I remember walking the best ])art of a hot and dusty autumn day without being able to get a draught of wine. In many localities in Nor- mandy, on the contrary, every second house is a cider-selling establishment; and in the vicinity of the Jenancen vineyard there is an equal super- abundance of places of public entertainment. Each house has its garden— frequently the merest patch (>f land — overspread with cabbages or melons, growing beneath the vines. Potato fields are here and there to be seen amongst the maize grounds, but the root is not cultivated to such an extent as to form anything like a staple article of food. Each of the Pyrenean villages — and they are com- monly thickly scattered — has its piece of common- ground, usually covered with oak woods, and extending along the lower slopes of the hills. Thither the ]jigs belonging to the community are driven to fatten upon the acorns, and to acquire that firmness and flavour of flesh v/hich confer upon 13ayonne hams — manufactured, however, almost in- variably in the vicinity of Pau and Orthes — their well-deserved celebrity. Most of the cottagers keep a couple of j)igs — many three or four; and over the swinish multitude furnished by each vil- lage, a herdsman, no unimportant personage in the locality, is appointed sovereign. Every morning this functionary proceeds through the village to collect his charge. At the sound of his horn — a dismal roar it is — there is a general flinging open of sty doors, and out trot the animals, nothing loath, for their daily woodland ramble. They are long- legged, wiry-looking brutes, able to get over the ground at a jiace that would astonish Berkshire swine fattening for an agricultural exhibition. You sometimes observe a drove of them tearing along amongst the trees in a helter-skelter career, worthy of wild boars ; but generally they are to be seen I grubbing amongst the roots of the oaks and coppice wood, or sunning themselves in nests scooped in the river-side shingle, while the swineherd, accom- panied perhaps by all his family, is busily engaged in the usual subsidiary occupation of persons of liis calling— the knitting of worsted stockings. In the evening he marches his flock back to the village, and each pig speedily finds the way to liis own sty. I'or his trouble the swintliLird is jiaid three fiants per annum per pig, so that in a pojnilous village the berth is by no means a bad one. Penalties are im- posed upon any person i)icking up the fallen mast, or acorns, which are by general consent exclusively reserved for the fattening of pigs. Proceeding up the valley, and leaving the strath for the glen, we find a change in the style of domestic building. The rocks hereabouts furnish abundant sujjplies of stone — some of it of a marblush quality; and the houses are naturally constructed of this, as the handiest material. As a general rule, they are larger than the cottages of the lower part of the vale, much more solid and massive looking, and there is an odd taste displayed for heavy vaulted doorv,-ays and ]iortentous arched lintels. A fashion also begins to jn-evail which, higher up among the mountains, is all but universal. The ground-fioor of each house of any considerable dimensions is appropriated as a stable, byre, sty, or cart shed — frequently for all tlie four jnirposes, to say nothing of the refuge which its odd corners afibrd to goats, ducks, and geese. From this nondescript place a wooden staircase usually leads uj) to the living rooms, which, as may be imagined, reek with the savour of the farm-yard menagerie below. Many of the places in question are filthily dirty — rotting litter and manure are jiiled two or three feet deep — in the midst of v/hich he, ])ell-mell, cows, donkeys, pigs, and ponies. The little mountain to^v'n of Aruns is a good specimen of this state of things. The whole ground -floor jjovtion of the place is given up to the use of farmyard animals, and the dwellings of the peojjle rise over a chaos of daily accumulating litter and manure. The town, as may be expected, is a tolerably highly scented one. I have sometimes found, as in the villages of Louvie, Jason, and Bielle, the lower story j^artly appro- priated to workshops, jiartly to stables and cow- liouses. A few looms were driven in these places by both male and female weavers. They were pro- ducing the coarsest and most unevenly woven canvas I ever saw, intended to be used as sacking, as coverings for the draught oxen, and as sheets. The wages which they could earn were not above ten or fifteen sous per day; and the aspect of the place in which they worked — the looms set amid hay-racks, piles of harness, dilapidated ploughs, long perches for poultry, and masses of stable litter — was strange and primitive in the extreme. The spinning of the thread, of whatever fibre, is invariably managed by the help of the distafl'. If a woman in the Pyrenees has the spade, the hoe, the gcad, or the plough-stilt a moment out of her hand, she invariably has the distaffin full o])eration. You see blind old crones, and children hardly able to walk, alike twisting the coarse woollen or fiaxen threads ; and if you peep beneath the vast burdeji of oak or ])ine thinnings which you observe the women bearing homo upon their heads, you will invariably find the everlasting thread-making pro- cess still going on beneath. J y)ro^;os of carrying burdens on the head, the peasants of the Pyrenees invariably adopt this Oriental fashion. The women and girls frequently walk from the river side and the fountains with enormous pails and flagons, full to the brim, neatly balanced upon their heads. As 'na-; rAUMioiv.s MAjiAziNi;, 0o3 fur llif iiiLi), I never saw one of lliciii liuu!>lo hiiii- yelf with any burden whatever. 'i'hc (•ou[)]e of days wliich I passed in the ^'al (]"()^san 1 witnessed the shcGj) retnniinj;^ in largo lioeks from the high mountain j)astnres, tlion jnst covered with snow. The animals ^^•crc small, about the size of Welsh sh.ee]), with long ears folding back and downwards along tlieir necks, and j)roducing a long wool of medium quality. 'J'he iloeks were ]iroceeding to their winter quarters near Pan. The shepherds were the first thorough specimen?; of the unadulterated Val d'Ossan jieasants which I had seen; wearing, in the majority of cases, the mountain jacket, broad bonnet, breeches, and long whitish cloth, covering the head with a j)eaked hood, and giving the whole figure a ghastly, winding-sheet sort of appearance. When a passing sliower came rattling down upon the wind, the herdsmen, stalk- ing slowly across the fields, enveloped from head to foot in these long, gre^v, shapeless robes, looked like so many Ossianic ghosts flitting among the mountains. Under their drapery, however, there is nothing but very substantial stuff in the composition of these hardy herdsmen. They are a gaunt, sinewy race, lean and big-boned, with swarthy skins, fine aquiline noses — the feature is almost universal — small dark eyes, and long, soft black luiir, allowed to float freely down over the shoidders. i'^ach man carried slung round him a little orna- mented jionch, full of salt, a handful of which is used to entice within reach any sheep which he wishes to get hold of. One and all, they were busy at the manufacture of worsted stockings, and kept slowly stalking through the ineado\vs where their flocks pastured, with the lounging gait of men thoroughly broken in to a solitary, monotonous routine of sluggish life. Many of these shepherds were accompanied by their children — the boys dressed in exact miniature imitation of their fathers. Indeed the ])revalence of this style of juvenile cos- tume in the Pyrenees makes the boys and girls look exactly like odd, quaint little men and women. The shepherds are assisted by a breed of noble dogs, one or two of which I saw. They are not, however, generally taken down to the low grounds, as they are frequently fierce and vicious in the half-savage stale in Mhich it is of importance to keep them in respect to their avocations amid the be.irs and Avolves. Among themselves I was told that they fought des])erately, often — i)articularly during the lime of heat — killing each other. The dogs I saw were magnificent-looking fellows, of great size and power, their chests of vast breadth and depth, and tiieir limbs jicrfect lumps of mu'^cle. 'i'hey appeared to me to be of a breed which migiit have been originated by a judicious crossing of first-rate >\ew- foundlands. St. Bernard mastiffs, and thorough old English bull-dogs. One wrench from their enor- mous square jaws is perfectly suflicient to crack through the neck vertebne of the largest wolf. The bears, in some sort protected by their thick fur, are tougher customers. Both species of ani- mal are now, howc\er, becoming rarer and rarer in the Pyrenees, and the yearly diminishing numbers are retreating into still wilder and more inaccessible haunts. Tlio ;pjiearance of IJrnin in a district comparatively easy to get at is the signal for a general iiunt, wliieh Usually ends in hio destruction. The wolves are, of course, more numerous, and nmch more dreaded by the shepherds as destroyer^ of stock. 'J'he bear, they say, never kills sheep wantonly, and very seldom more than op.e at a time. ^\'ilh jnaiseworthy moderation Bruin con- tents himself with walking off with one of the fiucot and fattcht of the flock, to be devoured at leisure. Tlie wolves, on the other hand, after their hunger is ai)])?ased, will go on killing and mangling from mere lust of blond. I have been told that a com- l)aratively small flock will slaughter a hundred sheep in a night. It is, of course, however, very rarely that a butchery u])on this scale takes place, and neither wolf nor bear will, under ordinary cir- cumstances, attack a man. It is in the time of very severe winters, v.dien hunger drives the brutes out of the snow-covered wilderness, that they are really dangerous. A little glen was ])ointed out to me, not more than a dozen miles from Pau, which was tlie scene of a tragedy marked by a feature of horrible reality. A jieasant had left th.e town in the afternoon, during a time of long continued snow, to return to his home among the hills. He was at- tacked by a wandering troop of wolves. His cries and their bowlings were heai'd in several cottages, but amid darkness and the snowdrift no aid could be extended. The next morning a clean-picked skeleton was found in tiie snow. Every morsel of clothing even was gone, save the unwieldy sabots, gnawed in every direction, in which vv^ere still de- posited the poor fellow's uninjured feet, which the wolves had been unable to get at. Sometimes a particular wolf is ksiown to haunt a district, perhaps for years, before he gets his quietus— most probably a grey-haired wily veteran, perfectly up to all the devices of the hunter, v.ho can seldom get a shot at him. Bears flourish in the same fashion, and come to be so well known as to be honoured with regular names by which they are spoken of in the country. One old bear of great size, and of the species in question, had taken up his head-quarters upon a rrngeof hills forming a side of a ravine opening uj) from the valley of Ossan. He was called Dominique — jirobably after his fellow Bruin, who long went by the same a])])ellation in the Jardin des Plantes, and v/as known by it to every Parisian, The Py- renean Dominique was a wily monster who had long baffled all the address of his numerous ]iursuers ; and as his depredations were ordinarily confined to the occasional abstraction of a sheep or a goat, and as he never actually committed murder, he long escaped the institution of a regular battue — the ordinary ending of a bear or wolf who manages to make himself particularly conspicuous. At length the peojjle of the district got absolutely jiroud of Dominique. Like the Eagle in Professor j Wilson's fine tale, he was " the pride and pest of I the parish," and might have been so yet, were it not ! that on one unlucky day he was casually espied by I the f/ardc foresficre. This is a functionary wliose duty it is to patrol the hills, taking note that the sheep are confined to their "])ro])er bounds on tlie ; i)astnres. The man had sat down to his dinner on I a ledge of rock, when, looking over it, whom should - he see but the famous Dominique sunning himself upon the bank below. The (jcrde had a gun, and 264 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it was not in the heart of man to resist the tempta-' tion. He fired, Dominique got up on his hind lenjs, roaring grimly, when the contents of the second barrel stretched him on the earth. So great, how- ever, was the f/arcJe''s opinion of the prowess of his victim, that he kept loading and firing long after poor Dominique had quitted this mortal scene. The carcase was too heavy to ])e moved by a single man, but next day it was carried to the nearest village by a funeral party of peasants, not exactly certain as to whether they ought to be glad or sorry at the catastrophe. The summer shealings of the shepherds I was unable to see. They were buried deep in snov/. These abodes are, however, I believe, mere huts of furze, boxwood, and straw. A pot and a stool or two constitute the furniture. Ewe milk, cheese made of the same material, and maize porridge, constitute the summer dietary of the shepherds. For drink they have the water of tlie mountams. The women sometimes go to the hill with supplies of food, but never stay there, having, indeed, to look after the farming operations belo'.v. A con- siderable portion of the cultivation is entirely performed by manual labour, particularly the preparat'.on for seed of the sloping fields upon the hill sides. There the women may be seen hoeing lustily, or carrying on their heads, and distribut- ing, crates full of manure. The plough used is of the roughest — consisting, in very many cases, of one long, crooked stick, attached to the horns of the oxen at one end, and serving as a plough stilt at the other. To the outside of the angle or corner formed by the crook in the shaft a wooden share is nailed, able to turn up a furrow of an inch and a half or so in depth. The country carts are commonly of wicker-work, perched ui)on wheels, and calculated to contain such small loads as the diminutive size of the oxen and the steep rscents and descents in the roads admit of. Many of these carts were to be seen far up in the slopes of the hills, being loaded with lady-fern intended for ma- nure, or making their way along rough zig-zag roads, laden with corn on its way to the mill. These latter structures are very small, but very numerous. The house which contains the me- chanism is generally built over the rivulet whose force is employed, and the old-fashioned single mill-stone is the species of machinery invariably in use. Above the grinding place is the dwelling of the family. In the vicinity of the towns the ])ea- santry sell their corn to the bakers, or rather bar- ter it for loaves, the millers being employed by the latter class. Higher up in the valleys the corn is taken directly from the granary to the mill, and ground, in consideration of a certain allowance — a measure from each sack — taken by the miller. How the customs of primitive countries reproduce each other! Just as in the old days in Scotland, there used to be continual feuds between the mil- lers and the farmers as to the extent of the toll or " gowjjens" to be levied by the former in right of " thirlage," so, amongst the Pyrenees, the same vexata qucBSlio has subsisted from generation to generation. It is the custom with the millers after harvest to send out their wives, mounted upon the ponies of the country, to scour hill and valley, vi.siting every maize plantation in s?arch of grist for the mill. I met with several of these emissaries, in full 7nount:un costume— for the embassy has something of a holiday nature about it— jogging along, and plying, as they went, the eternal distafl'. The hill-slopcs near Aruns abound with slate and marble quarries, which are excavated by task-work. The blocks of marble cut out are dragged down to the roads upon sledges, in the same fashion as felled timber. The slates are generally cut and shaped upon the spot, and women carry tliem away by basketfuls upon their heads. The weights which the latter bear in this way are excessive — they seem every whit as strong as the men, and I have seen them lift into carts sacks of grain and potatoes which many a sturdy man vt'ould stagger under. The business-like way in which they go to work in the fields is also characteristic— driving the ploughing cattle before them — harnessing the animals to the yoke — shouting to, and scolding, and encouraging them at the full pitch of their voices. Notwithstanding this exposed and labo- rious way of life, the women of the Val d'Ossan are frequently finely formed, and in some cases almost beautiful. They are all as dark as Italians or Spaniards, and have thin aquiline noses, and magnificent eyes, full and lustrous, and of the al- mond shape which we generally take to be an Eastern characteristic. Their costume is pretty and singular. A tight-fitting black jacket is worn over a red vest — more or less gaudily ornamented with rough embroidery, and fastening by small belts across the bosom. On the head, a sort of capote or hood of dark cloth, corresponding to that of the jacket and petticoat, is arranged. In good weather, and when a heavy burden is to be cariied, this hood is plaited in square folds across the crown of the head — forming a protection also from the heat of the sun. In cold and rainy days it is allowed to fall down over the shoulders, mingling with the folds of the drapery beneath. Both men and women wear peculiarlj'-shaped stockings, so made as to buldge over the edges of the sabot into which the naked foot is thrust. The dress of the men is of a correspondingly quaint character. On their heads they invariably wear a flat brown bon- net almost a counterpart of the lowland Scotch Tam o'Shanter bonnet. This is called the berreti, and from beneath it the hair flows in the long, straight locks I have described. A round jacket, something like that worn by the women, knee breeches, of blue velvet upon high days and holi- days, and, like the rest of the costume, of coarse home-spun woollen upon ordinary occasions, com- plete the dress. The capa, or hood, is worn only in rough weather. I have described its appearance in the case of the shepherds. In the glens more to the westward sandals of untanned leather are frequently worn, the sole of the foot only being protected. They look very well in pictures, but are fearfully uncomfortable in reality. I saw half- a-dozen peasants tramping in their sandals through the wet streets of Pau amid a storm of snow and rain, and a spectacle full of more intensely rheuma- tic associations could no where be witnessed. Besides their pigs, the peasants of the Pyrenees keep great flocks of geese. The village streets are THE FARMEll'.S MAGAZINE. 235 rfjiuetiincs grey with tlic quackling troops wliicli throng them. These geese are put to very saving gastronomic uses — heing commonly salted and eaten in morsels, as a relish to the ordinary hread, cheese, and maize pudding, or forming the basis of soup. Much of the pnlarje used is, however, of the inu'igre order, made totally without meat — of bread, cabbage, and haricots. Meat is not commonly used as forming the staple of a meal, save on Sun- days. Poor, however, as the ordinary fare may seem, the people thrive upon it — they are generally thin, but musculai-, wiry, hardy, and healthy ; and the children are as rosy and ruddy as could be de- sired. There are few prettier sights than the evening gatherings of the girls and women round the village fountain. Eacli comes bearing upon head a capacious pail made of alternate strips of tin and brass, and j^olished like a mirror. A half hour or so of gossiping ensues. The pails are scrubbed and cleaned with as much care as though they were the utensils of a model dairy, and they are at length carried away brim full without the spilling of a droi). As is common in mountain countries, l)oth men and women sing well. The lungs are finely developed by the constant practice of holding communication from hill to hill, and a similar mode of modulating the voice and causing it to jump in octaves, to that which is practised in the Alps, prevails in the Pyrenees. This vocal feat is well known in some parts of England as " yowdling." Tin-speaking trumpets are also in vogue, and by means of these instrumsnts a skilled performer can make himself understood at an almost fabulous distance. A propos of speaking- trumpets, these implements are in fashion on the rivers as well as in the mountains of France. In a small steamer on the Garonne, on board of which I chanced to sail, the captain was armed with a machine about as big as the hose-tube of a fire en- gine. Through this formidable instrument all his orders to j)eople some half-dozen feet from him were thundered, and at length he amused me by bellowing to the steward to set a camp-stool for him on the paddle-box, with much the same tone of voice with which he might have ordered a close- reefed stay sail in a north-wester off the Cape. But to return to the Pyrenees. The night I stayed in Aruns tiie place was full of shepherds, on their way from the mountains. They ])atrolled the small j)rincii)al square in parties, singing, and with an exceedingly good effect. The airs were almost all jjlaintive minors with long quavering phrases, clinging as it were to the pitch of the key note, and only extending to about a third above or below it. The music was always performed in unison, the words sometimes French and sometimes Beam. The single phrase in the former language which I could distinguish, and which formed the burden of one of the ditties, was, " 3Ia cJiere tiiaitresse." An odd little piece of left-handed honesty, which I experienced in this same village of Aruns, is, I think, net unworthy of being noted. Although tlie ])lace is only some three miles from the fashionable spas of Eau Bonnes and Eau Chaiides, it has re- tained much, if not all, of its primitive features. Few or no visitors to the water stop even for a mo- ment there, and so the anherr/c has not yet mounted to the itylc, title, and dignity of an hotel, remaining a thoroughly good specimen of the old country Pyrenean hostel, in \\'hich you clamber to the kit- chen along a half-ladder, half-staircase, rising from the stable. I had discharged what I considered a very moderate bill, and was departing, when I re- ceived an intimation that there was a little mistake — that the nolo was too much — that it had been made out upon the supposition that I would beat down and bargain upon every item, such Ijeing, as I was assured, the ordinary understood fashion of the country — so that I was fairly entitled to a franc or two off". The great watering-place hotels are not so unso])histicated— charging heavily in summer (said a peasant to mo) because too many people go there, and in winter keeping up the rates because their \-isitors are too few. Spinning, weaving, and knitting are, as may be imagined, the ordinary winter employments of the people. The distaffs used are made of hemlock stalks, and prettily and fancifully ornamented. In every little dealer's shoj) they form a prominent ar- ticle of stock. One of the fireside tasks of the long evenings, of which I casually obtained a glimpse, is the clearing from their husks of the heads of In- dian corn. This is a harvest which, as I have stated, is late in being gathered in. When the grain is ripe the work-people proceed to the fields in small parties, each provided with round white baskets. The large heads of grain are wrenched from the stalks and sent off in the baskets somewhat in the fashion of vintage labour. If the field be large, wicker-work carts drawn by oxen are continually l)lying between the barn and the groups of reapers. The next process is that in question —the clearing away of the husks — and it is generally made the occasion of snug little rustic gatherings of friends and neighbours, the work being crowned every evening with a dance. If the task be performed by hired labourers, these are always women, and they are ])aid about 10 sous per day. Ordinarily, how- ever, neighbour helps neighbour, as in the case of the small Medoc vineyards. Pulling up at a little village auberge after nightfall, I chanced to see the process in full operation. The gloomy straggling room was faintly and imperfectly lighted by a couple of wavering " dips " stuck in massive iron candle- sticks ; but the gnarled logs of oak hea])ed upon the hearth sent out a strong red glare, and a warmth which withstood all the cold currents and eddies of air blowing in through the ill-fitting casements, and the cracks and cre\ices in roof and walls. Above these were the great blackened rafters, gar- nished with festoons of hams and dried vegetables. In the open chimney, a huge cauldron hung sim- mering above the fire, and a couple or so of old men and women were seated on settles within the capacious fire-])lace, and clearly excused from all share in the work in progress ; this was carried on by some dozen of lads and lasses, seated on the floor or on the stools, amid rapidly accumulating piles of the husks, which littered the whole jjlace, and among which were placed baskets for the recep- tion of the yellow heads of corn as they were flayed from their coarse leafy envelopes. The work was going merrily on, enlivened with plenty of jokes ! and laughter, and altogether the fire'^ide and the 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. comfortable-looking aspect of ihe whole place— so snug yet so grotesque, so blithe and yet so indus- trious—was a sight very pleasant to see. I did not stay for the supper or the dance, but have no doubt that both were duly enjoyed. So fai- as I could obtain any information upon the subject, the Pyrenean peasantry in the district about Pau entertain, although not to the same ex- tent, the same class of superstitions prevalent in the Landes. Sorcery is their especial dread, and counter charms of herbs and branches are used to avert the evil effects of the spite of witches and warlocks. Omens, and lucky and unlucky days and actions, are also not without their influence ; for instance, the accidental breakage of certain domestic articles is held to bring good luck, while the smashing of another class of utensils is believed to be the fore- runner of misfortune. I could not find out, how- ever, that these notions assumed any \ery pic- turesque or striking form of belief. In Aruns and the other villages among the hills, every house is furnished with an oven projecting 'from the first floor, like an accidental bulge in the masonry. For thresholds and doorways slabs of marblish-looking stone are universally used, while almost every street and alley has its stream of clear rapidly-flowing water, frequently setting in motion the feeble hammers of small fulling-mills. From the upper windows webs of coarse homespun are hung, weighted with great stones, to stretch them ; and in and out of the cellars, like stables on the ground floors, streams of geese and herds of goats andpigs are perpetually wandering. Each village has its church— a dark damp place,' dressed up with all manner of gaudy ornaments; and among the mountains you now and then come upon a soHtary chap'el — one end open, and only protected by a wooden r/jz'Z/c— where service is celebrated once in a fortnight or three weeks. The weekly markets held in Pau bring flocking into the town great crowds cf the peasantry from miles around, and exhibit a very pretty panorama of costume. Conspicuous among the booths are those for the sale of silk and cotton handkerchiefs to be twisted round the head, and ghstening with every hue in and out of the rainbow. The lady who " disliked gaudy colours, and preferred plain red and yellow," would be in her element among the wares favoured by the peasantry dwelling in the lovyer vales of the Pyrenees. Higher up, the ker- chief gives place to the more sombre but far more elegant capoie. Above the heads of the crowd, huge crosses, some twelve or fifteen feet high, streaming with ribbons, were carried by itinerant merchants of the wares in question, and the brightest yellow and fairest red were sure to go off first. Among the provision stalls were many devoted to the sale of salt meat and fish. The bacon was in general mere lumps of fat, unbroken by a streak of lean. The whole melon and pump- kin tribe of vegetables were in immense force, and the air was fragrant— not with that petit point de Vail immortalised in " Quentin Durward, as that "which Gascons love and Scotsmen do not despise"— but with the fumes of heaped-up masses of the rank vegetable. Leaving Pau, on my way to Tarbes, I passed long strings of country carts, pro- ceeding into town laden with grain — wheat and maize— to be bartered at the bakers; the oxen having frequently their fodder for the day, coarse hay or bunches of maize leaves, tied in bunches to their horns ; while here and there, jogging along beside a burly farmer, would come an honest old country cure', with his bands and three-cornered hat, ensconced in a strange old saddle, embellished by all manner of bags, holsters, and appurtenances, just as Dr. Primrose might have ridden with his neighbour Flamborough to the fair. In all assem- blages of French country people for business or pleasure purposes, there is sure to be an ample dis- play of cheap trashy jewellery. The fondness of the peasantry of the south for glittering gew-gaws of the kind is particularly marked. You see mere urchins of boys in tattered blouses and sabots, with their dirty fingers tricked out with heavy rings of copper or thin hoops of silver. One of the numerous tribe of shoe-blacks at Tarbes, who operated upon me, was thus ornamented, while the women of the lower ranks wear a profusion of paste and gilt trumpery. The road from Pau to Tarbes runs, for about a third of the distance, through a flat thickly-hedged coimtr)', principally laid out in rneadov/s and fields of Indian corn. It then ascends a steep hill and attains an elevated tract of table land, along which it proceeds for another third of the journey, and thence descends by a zig-zag course nearly to its primitive level; the remaining third of the way is accomplished amid similar cliampagne scenery to that prevailing at the outset. The high level in question, extending some ten miles, is a melancholy instance of the lack of agricultural spirit, capital, and enterprise in the district. From side to side the table land is one extent of heathy marsh, soak- ing in water, rank with coarse grass and rushes, and good for nothing in its present state but to feed snipe and plovers— although a system of drainage, for which the country offers obvious natural faciU- ties, is the only thing v/anted to convert scores of square miles into bright meadow or rich corn land. Here and there operations upon a small and isolated scale have, indeed, been begun. On one or two small patches of land, slightly elevated above the adjoining waste, sohtary farm-houses have been erected, and the digging of a few ditches has sufficed to encircle them with smiling and fertile fields. A dozen years ago, I was informed, the entire district was one bog. At present nine-tenths of the land is ready to yield abundant harvests to whoever has the spirit and the capital to free it from the load of surface water under which it lies drowned and use- less. Even the lower plains to the north of the Py- renees offer extraordinary facilities for drainage. The lie of the land slopes imperceptibly to the eye, but still in a sufficient degree to afford a good water-shed to the north, while the extreme tendency of the streams to divide and spread in nearly parallel channels across the country, furnishes a quick and natural outlet for the superfluous fluid conducted into them. The country between Tarbes and Pau is the head- quarters of a large district of the south-west cele- brated for its breed of horses — a breed which the French Government are at present taking great THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 257 pains to improve and promote, 'i'lie liorscs of the wiili iIik stipulation that neither they nor their country are in fact the descendcnts of the ancient ' female progeny are to he removed from the depart- race of Navarre, renowned for speed, endurance, rnent. Two thousand francs are also given hy the and litheness. The hreed is small, slight-limhed, \ local authorities as prizes for the finest bulls and compact, and generally exceedingly docile and good- ^ rams produced at the various local agricultural tempered. The Navarre horse has always been gatherings. I may here mention that there is a esteemed for war purposes. Unable, in the days veterinary college conferring diplomas in the dis- when Froissart sounded his praises, to support \ trict, and that the local insurance comp mies, with advantage the heavy ])anoply of a steel-clad ' granting iiohcies upon the lives of cattle, refuse all knight or a man-at-arms, he was admirably suited indemnity in cases in which animals attacked and for reconnoitring or skirmishing purposes, and the ' carried off by epidemic maladies have not been self-s une cjualities render the breed an advantageous \ seen and treated by veterinary surgeons possessing one at present for the supply of the French hght : the diplomas in question— unless, indeed, the cavalry regiments. These horses arehttle suited for owners of the beasts can prove tiiat no medical help agricultural purposes, being too slim and weak, but ^ existed within a circle of eight kilometres, or five they make good roadsters ; and tolerable hunters ' miles, from the spot. are occasionally bred— a sjiur having been given to \ The depot of stalhons at Tarbes is well worthy of the i)roduction of this class of horse by the establish- ! a visit. When I inspected it, it contained about 1 12 ment at Pau of a pack of foxhounds, the property j stallions, the greater number representing the finest of a Enghsh resident. For a superior animal of the i French breeds, but the most valuable being of high country breed, £100 to £130 is not an uncommon \ English and Arabian blood. According to the last ]irice. The race, however, is rapidly improving, i published statistics the number of blood English and will soon, in all probability, produce still more i stallions was 2S; of Arabian, some of them im- valuable animals. About ten years ago the Govern- 1 ported from Africa, 18. The Norman breed— big ment sent down to the cavalry stables at Tarbes in bone and limb, and producing stanch heavy twelve or fifteen stallions of high breed, the use of i cavalry horses— is encouraged to some extent, but the animals being gratuitously given to the j the English and Arabian steeds are the pride of the rearers of horses in the district. This was the origin j establishment. of the present national depot of stalhons at Tarbes, | The stables are arranged so as to give each horse one of the lions of the place, and a very im])ortant feature in the horse-breeding business of the dis- trict. It is said to be the ultimate intention of the government to convert this establishment into a regular breeding-place for the remount of the'cavalry. At present, however, the depot consists merely of stallions, many of them animals of the highest English and Arabian pedigree. The ])rice at which they are sent forth is almost nominal; but the government reserves a right, occasionally exercised, to purchase their progeny for the national service. The stallions are sent, during the spring and sum- mer months, to stations, scattered through the de- partments of the Ilautes-Pyrenees, Gers, Haute- Garonne, Ariege, and Aude. Tarbes is also the bead-quarters of one of the districts in which the government h.as established regular oflficial races, which it mainly supports. There are eleven of these districts in France, the greater number being in ])rovinces renov/ned for their breeds of horses. The cities near which the respective hippodromes are marked out are Paris, Caen, Nancy, St. Brieuc, Nantes, Angers, Limoges, Pompadour, Aurillac, Bordeaux, and Tarbes. At Pompadour, near Limoges, and at Le Pin, near Marseilles, the prin- cipal breeding-stations are situated. Agents, how- ever, are scattered over all the horse-breeding provinces, continually engaged in selecting and purchasing animals for the use of the cavalry. The races at I'arbes take ]ilace during the month of August. The prizes given by the Minister of Com- merce and Agriculture on the last occasion amounted in all to 22,000 francs, to which sum the department voted an addition of G,GOO francs. Be- sides this last outlay, the department has, since 1842, voted an annual sum of 4,000 francs for the purchase of high-bred marcs. The animals are entrusted to respectable breeders in the district. a comi)artment, approached by a separate door, to^ himself. These compartments are partitioned ofl' from each other by strong wooden fences, some six feet high, crowned by iron railings. The animals can thus see each other; and as each in his cell, or chamber, has perfect lib-rty of movement, they sometimes attempt to make their way over the par- titions. The compartment allotted to each horse cannot be less than 15 feet by 12. It is covered with a thick bed of warm htter, and is provided v/ith a manger in the corner. The cleanliness which reigns throughout the whole place is exquisite. There is a groom to every two horses, besides the veterinary and farriery corps, and a regiment of stable boys and helpers. The value of the highest- priced English and Arabian horses ranges from 28,000 to 32,000 francs. The Arabian are smaller and a much less graceful class of horses than the English thorough-breds ; and of the former, the animals purchased in Africa and imported seem in- ferior both in coat and symmetry to the Arabs reared in France. Several of the class in question were described to me as incarnate fiends in temper, being sometimes in such humour that it is dangerous to enter the stable with them, and impossible to take them out. A few of my English friends, I was concerned to hear, showed an occasional spice of viciousness. Others were exceedingly gentle, and when my conductor opened the door of their compartments, they came up to him and laid their heads along his cheek. Every one of these horses was in the highest possible condition, their skins glancing like metal. My cicerone was elaborate in his recollections of the prizes they had carried off; but I doubt whether the best of them would make his way out of the ruck at Epsom or Newmarket. Tliey are, in fact, rather hunters than racers. s 2 253 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. LAYING OUT GARDE N S . Tlie effect anil beauty of flowers, like that of many otlier objects of decorative and ornamental character, depend very much on arrangement and the surrounding objects by which they are asso- ciated. If this be true of plants generally, it is esijecially so with respect to tall-growing kinds, such as hollyhocks. For hollyhocks, then, which are at present growing so rapidly into public favour, and very deservedly so, the following wood- cut indicates the plan and arrangement of a holly- hock garden, which may now be seen in very great jierfection and beauty, in the grounds of Messrs. Lucombe, Pince, and Co., of Exeter Nursery. The annexed reference will describe the arrange- ment; and those who are accustomed to think of and understand plans and arrangements of this ^^g'. im.-^^ REFERENCES. No, 1. A gravol-walk, a quarter of a mile long". 2. Borders, the whole length (a quarter of a mile) contain splendid specimens of new Coniferse of all sizes, from one to twelve feet high, in wooden cases, for sale, and safe to remove, without any check. These cases are cheaply prepared, and very effectually keeping the roots without cramp- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 lilt; them in proper subjection, ofteriiig the laii(lsca|)e gardener a great advantage, as an Iinmcdiate and permanent effect can tluts be produced. 3. A raised bed, 2G feet in diameter, containing all the best liolls bocks of the present day. 4. Gravel-walk, 8^ feet wide. ."). Dwarf-box edging. n, G, 0, G, A sloping border, 12 feet wide, containing four rows of superb liollyliocks. 7. The dotted marks represent a magnificent circle of Irish yews, nine feet high, and as much in cir. cumference. 8. A laurel hedge, seven feet high. 9. A boundary hornbeam hedge, 20 feet high, forming the circle 90 feet in diameter. The back-ground of hornbeam, 20 feet high, together with the frontage of laurels and Irish yews in the foreground, forms a magnificent relief to the hollyhocks, against which they cut, with their tall, upright spikes, with a grand effect ; for a hollyhock always appears to the greatest advantage when relieved by a massive back- ground. kind will not require to be told that such a garden, seen as at present it may be in the nursery in question, is altogether a very magnificent object, for with the true artistic feeling of landscape gar- deners, they have successfully carried out this jirinciple. The hollyhock is a classical plant, and may with the utmost propriety be used either in a small or a large garden. It is often selected as materials to aid the composition of pictures of the first class. Its pyramidal, towering shape is elegant and chaste. Like the dahlia, it i^ a plant of rapid growth; but the dahlia is a coarse and an in- elegant plant, whilst the hollyhock, whether in flower or not, can never fail to be admired for its stately mien and aristocratic bearing. Every- where the hollyhock is becoming a highly popular plant; and we have not the slightest doubt it will yet become ten times more popular than it is. We would recommend every one to pay a visit and judge for themselves. In front of the mansion of Charles Mills, Esq., of Hillingdon, near Uxbridge, a residence of some antiquity, and associated with fine examples of timber in the park and grounds, has been re- cently formed a parten*e or terrace garden, which struck us as singularly appropriate to the No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. Verheua — Iraperatrice Josepliine (blue) Campanula carpatica alba Unique Geranium Fancy Geraniums Tom Thumb Geranium Verbena — Princess Alice (light) Calceolaria Campanula carpatica — (standard rose in centre, trained down iron support) Ditto ditto Tom Ttiumb Geranium Fancy Geraniums Verbena — Princess Alice REFERENCE TO PLAN. No. 13. Calceolaria ]i. Unique Geranium 15. Campanula carpatica alba 16. Verbena — Vampa (blue) 17. Geranium — Diadimatum rubesceiis 18. Heliotrope 19. Tom Thumb Geranium 20. Verbena — ^Madame Buenzod (light) 21. Calceolaria 22. Ageratum 23. Same as No. 8 24. Verbena — Mrs. Mills (blue) 2.'). Scroll Box Pattern, on gravel, grass edging round 26. Taget£3 tenuifolia No. 27. Same as No. 25 28. Verbena— Mrs. Mills (blue) 29. Tom Thumb Geranium 30. Heliotrope 31. Verbena — Madame Bueiizod (light) 32. Calceolaria 33. Geranium — Diadimatum rubescens 34. Same as No. 8 35. Tom Thumb Geranium 36. Geranium — Miss Dolby (pink) 37. Tom Thumb Geranium 38. Geranium— Miss Dolby 39. Ageratum 40. Basin, with fouutaln in centre. }60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. somewhat peculiar situiiLion in wliicn it had to be placed. For the display of flowers and colour, the arrangement is ako very good, and the general scheme, it will be seen, indicates artistic skill and arrangement of a superior order.* The plan is formed on gravel, with box edging dividing the beds from the walks, and the site on which the parterre is formed sunk a couple of feet or so below the gravel walk in front of the house. By this arrange- ment the flov.'ers are better seen from the windows. Trained against the front wall of the house is a plant of Glycena sinensis, with a stem nine inches in diameter. There is also a plant of the Pome- granate of great age and considerable size. The length of the garden is ItiO feet by 72 feet across, and above is a list of the plants in the different beds numbered. Mr. Constantine the gardener says—" Should any of your readers take the trouble to furnish a few suggestions, or name other plants by which ray garden might be im- ])roved, I should feel much obliged. As our family are absent from May till July, I do not re- quire to make a spring garden. What I want is the best display of flowers from July till the frost cuts down the plants." — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. NEWCASTLE FARMERS' CLUB.-JULY MEETING, 185 1, The monthly meeting of the Newcastle-upon- Tyne Farmers' Club was held on Saturday, July 5th, in the Club Room, Westgate Street, when William Anderson, Esq., of Bent House, South Shields, presided. After some routine business was transacted. The Chairman said they were aware ISIr. Hugh Taylor, of Cramlington, vv'ould read a paper " On the oat — description, cultivation, composition, uses" — a subject of considerable importance to far- mers; and without detaining the meeting further, he should be ha])py to call upon Mr. Taylor to ad- dress them.- Mr. Taylor proceeded to read his paper as fol- lows. It was listened to with marked attention, and frequently applauded. All the varieties of the oat are comprehended in the genus Avena, of which the oat itself is the type ; the genus Avena pertains to the order Grammiuece, or the grasses. There are many species in the genus Alpena, but the following only are cultivated for their seeds — 1st. Avena Strigosa, Bristle-pointed Oat, is cul- tivated as a bread-corn in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland. It is a native of Great Britam. 2nd. Avena Fatua, Wild Oat, is well known as a very troublesome weed. It is sometimes sup- posed that all the cultivated oats have sprung from this species, but there appears little foundation for the opinion. It is indigenous to the British islands. * We have since learned that the design au.l arrangement of this garden are due to the cultivated and refined taste of Jyady Sophia Towers, of Huntsmore Lodge. 3rd. Avena Brevis, Short Oat, was introduced from Germany in 1804. It grows to the height of only about nine inches ; its seeds are small, but numerous. It is cultivated in the central uplands of France, where it is preferred to every olher kind on account of its early ripening, and of its adaptation to poor soils and exposed situations. 4th. Avena Nudosa, Naked Oat or Peel-corn, was at one time in general cultivation through- out Scotland and some parts of England ; and is supposed to have been the only kind of bread-corn known to the ancient inhabitants of Britain (Rural Cyclopcedia.) 5th. Avena Stei-ilis, Animated Oat, was intro- duced from Barbary, 1(540; it is only culti- vated as a curiosity, and as a bait for salmon. 0th. Avena OricntnJis, lartarian Oat, was brought to this country in 17 9S, and is gene- rally cultivated for horse corn. 7th. Avena Sutiva, Common Oat, is the parent of nearly all the varieties cultivated in this country. Every variety of oat in much repute at present has sprung either from the Tartarian or common oat. From the Tartarian there are the black and white varieties ; from the common oat the Potato, Poland, Hopetoun, Angus, and others, in all about forty. The varieties of the oat then are very numerous ; but as some are adapted to one climate and some to another, it is important that every farmer ascer- tain the variety best suited to his own locality. The tests by which he may decide are the follow- ing : early ripening ; produce of meal, grain, and straw; capability of withstanding wet and wind; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 freedom from disease ; streno th of straw, to pre- vent its hemg lodged; fitness for the soil, tempera- ture, and height above the level of the sea, &c. The introduction of other varieties to this district would, without doubt, i)rove hi^^hly advantageous ; for those which have been cultivated for some time in one s])ot have commonly degenerated from the original sample. The selection ol varieties suited to our different soils and situations has been ren- dered comparatively easy by the many trials re- corded in the agricultural publications of the day. A few of these experiments may be noticed. In a very excellent discussion on oats, reported in the Highland Agricultural Society's Journal, Mr. Finnic, one of the best farmers in Scotland, places the varieties in three classes, recommending lirst, for soils having every advantage of climate, the Potato Oat, Hopetoun, or half of each, the lierlic. Early Angus, Sandy, Black Tartarian, Grey Angus, kite Angus, or a mixture of the Hopetoun with the Berlic, Early Angus, Sandy, or Kil- drummie ; second, for climates of a medium cha- racter : Hopetoun, Berlic, Early Angus, Sand}', Early Blainslie, Kildrummie, or Dun Oat; third, exposed situations, for which the earliest varieties should always be taken. Early Angus, Berlic, Sandy, Barbachlaw, or Red Oat. In each case, the varieties are recommended in the order men- tioned, and as best suited to the land as it declines in fertility. Of the produce of the different varieties many trials have been made. On good land, in a favour- able situation, Mr. Sutherland, Dalmore, Ross- shire, obtained the following quantities — From the Dyock 92 bushels. ,, Berlic 78 „ „ Late Angus "17 „ „ Hojietoun 76 „ „ Dun Oat 73 „ „ Early Angus 68 ,, Potato 66 .,, Sandy 62 „ In this experiment the Dyock oat produced fourteen bushels more than any other. The potato, con- trary to what might have been expected, less than any excepting the sandy. Mr. Finnie states that in a medium situation he procured from the same c^uantity of land the follow- ing produce : — Mi.xture of Hopetoun and Kildrummie. . 85 bushels „ Hopetoun and Sandy SO „ ,, Hopetoun and Early Angus IQ ,, Early Angus 77 ,, Kildrummie 77 ,, Dun Oat 76 „ Potato 7"! », Blainslie 70 „ Hopetoun 65 ,, Sandy 61 ,, In this instance evidence is afforded of the advan- tage to be deri\'ed from a mixture of oats. The Early Angus gave a greater return than any other variety sown by itself. On a jioor and elevated soil no experiment has been made on the respective qualities of a great va- riety of oats ; in a comparative trial of the Dyock and Potato Oats, however, made by the Rev. R. W. Fisher, on a poor soil between 400 and 500 feet above the level of the sea, the Dyock Oat far sur- passed the Potato, both in quantity and quality of produce. A new variety usually eclipses all others on iis first introduction, owing chiefly to the greater at- tention paid to insure its freedom from admixture with others, and to the selection of the best samj)Ic8 only for seed. It is well known that cultivated plants rapidly degenerate unless great care be taken in their propagation : that the good properties, therefore, of a new variety of oat may be perpetu- ated, it is not only necessary that a good sample be chosen for seed, but that there be separated from it, by hand if necessary, such grains as fail short of the standard of excellence looked for in the produce. In Scotland and in the jSorth of England oats are usually sown on the lea furrov/; in some cases, however, a change might be of advantage. On each farm, in this neighbourhood, though the soil be a stiff clay, it is necessary to have a few acres of turnips, Vv-hich, it may happen, cannot be carted off in dry weather. Under these circumstances it might be more profitable to sow oats instead of wheat on the turnip land, and to plough early the lea which succeeds, that it may be prepared foi' wheat in November. The preparation of the land for oats should com- mence so soon as that portion intended for turnips and bare-fallow has b?en once ploughed ; as it is of consequence, more particularly on clay soils, that the land be mellowed by the winter frosts. The lea furrow is considered, both by master and man, the most important ploughing of the year, not only because its good or bad execution is perceptible for so long a period, but because it has a material in- fluence on the quantity and quality of the crop. It is unnecessary to mention the various modes by which the seed-bed may be formed ; but I may sug- gest that, on undrained land, the driest bed and most certain crop may be secured by gathering up the ridges. For drained land I can recommend, in some measure from experience, a plan in pretty general use in the northern division of this county, but little practised in this district —that of cross ploughing the lea. Four or six weeks previously to plough- ing, it is marked out at distances of twenty-eight or thirty yards acro:?s the ridges. Wh:-n exposure THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE, to the air has reduced to powder the soil thus thrown out, it is spread, that no impediment remain to the correct turning of the furrow slice : the land is then ploughed across in the usual manner. An objection sometimes urged, that it is verj' difficult to turn the land in the old water furrows, and when the ridges are high, can have little weight ; as no water furrow should be made on drained land, and as the partial levelling, at least, of the ridges is now considered beneficial. Cross ploughing the lea is preferable for the fol- lowing reasons : by the usual methods it is impos- sible to avoid leaving fast land— a nursery for weeds; but by this, with ordinary attention, none remains. The land is all ploughed at the same depth, or " true-ploughed," but this cannot be the case on a ridge set out in the usual manner; a proper distriljution of the active soil, which alone promotes vegetation, is maintained over the whole surface — an advantage appreciated by all who have observed the difference between the puny plants of the furrow, in which little soil is left, and the tall well-filled oats of the top-ridge, on which has been accumulated more than a fair proportion of active soil. In the northern part of the county the lea is sometimes early ploughed to a considerable depth, and in spring it is well harrowed, and ribbed across with small ploughs. This method I have found of manifest advantage, the increased produce much more than compensating the excess of labour. The land should not be sown until it is quite dry on the surface, that it may yield readily to the harrow ; on the other hand, clay soils must be at- tentively watched, lest they become too dry. Should the furrow slices not touch each other, it is advisable slightly to harrow or roll the land, that the oats may be placed at the same depth. The seed may be sown either broadcast or by the drill ; when by the latter, the land should be well harrowed previously, tliat it aflford an easy passage to the coulters ; and the markings of the last " bout" accurately attended to, that a regular distribution of the seed may be obtained. I made use of the drill in a comparative trial with land ribbed, and with that ploughed in the usual way; and judged, only however by the eye, the drilled corn was inferior to both. This result was attributed to the roots being too much crowded together in the narrow rows of the drill. In the ex- periment the ribbed land carried decidedly the best crop. Oats are sown broadcast either by band or by a machine that can be adjusted to sow wheat, barley, oats, peas, or grass-seeds. By the machine the quantity ^of seed per acre can be regulated with great accuracy; the distribntinn of tlio grain is not so much affected by wind, and fewer men are re- quired to sow a given quantity of land. The early or late cutting of the cereal grains has excited much discussion, but it is now pretty ge- nerally agreed that the early varieties of oats should be cut before they are fully ripe, as they suffer much from high winds, and shed their seed easily in the harvest operations : but that, however valuable as fodder the early cutting of late varieties may render the straw, it injuriously affects both the quality and cpiantity of grain. The principal causes of failure in the oat crop are sedging, and attacks of the common grub (larva of the Tipula nloraceci). Liability to sedge may be cured by draining and a good dressing of lime. The grub is most injurious to a crop on land that has been some years in pasture. A writer in tlie Rural Cijclopcedia says that the insect deposits its eggs about the end of August, in grass land ; and recommends, as a preventive, that the land be ploughed before that time. The insect, in obedience to its instinct, will then refrain from depositing its eggs in the naked soil. The chemical composition of the oat may now be shortly considered ; and, in doing so, its straw may be disregarded, as, generally speaking, it is even- tually returned to the land. The grain may be divided into the inorganic part, or ash, and the organic, or that which can be dissipated by heat. The ash averages only about three per cent, of the gross weight of the grain, and is obtained entirely from the soil. The organic part amounts to ninety-seven per cent,, and it may be wholly derived from the atmosphere. The much- debated point, whether the organic matter is de- rived from the atmosphere, is of more interest to the vegetable physiologist than to the farmer ; for the failure of a crop has never been satisfactorily traced to a deficiency of vegetable matter in the soil. The ash of the potato oat consists in 100 parts, according to the analysis of Professor Way, of Lime 1.31 Magnesia S.25 Per-oxide of iron 0.27 Potash 19.70 Soda 1,35 Common salt 0.07 Sulphuric acid 0.10 Phosphoric acid 1S.S7 Sihcic acid 50.03 99.95 As the exhaustion of the soil by tlie respective crops depends \ipon the amount of mineral matter abstracted from it liy each, a comparison of oats, in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. this respect, with tlie other cereal crops, may not be ] uninteresting. In this comparison the sihca is estimated separately, as the luiaks of barley and i oats, whicli contain a large quantity of this sub- stance, are lemoved with the grain. The distinc- j tion is the more necessary, as it is now almost [ established that the removal of a portion of silica : from the soil is of little consequence, as, owing to the action of the atmosphere and of the acids of the soil, the necessary supply, in a soluble state, is constantly maintained. We learn from Johnston's " Agricultural Lec- tures," that the weight of mineral matter removed ])y the grain of each crop, per acre, is — Sihca. Other matter. Wheat 03 29.6;-) Barley 14. 3G 38.64 Oats 23.89 33.11 Rye 01 29.99 Setting aside the silica, oats and barley remove an equal quantity, and wheat and rye twenty-two per cent, less, of mineral matter from the land. But it must be remembered that a very consi- derable proportion of the oats produced is consumed by farm-horses, and that, consequently, a great deal of the ash, even of the grain, is returned to the soil. Phosphoric acid is generally in less quantity in the soil than any other substance ne- cessary to the nutrition of plants. Of this the oat does not require so much as any of the others. Thus, the quantity of phosphoric acid taken from the land i?, l)y a crop of barley, 25.761bs. per acre; by rye, 21.15 ; by wheat, 20.56 ; and by oats, 19.86 lbs. Under these circumstances, the oat may be regarded as the least exhausting of the cereal grains. A just estimation of the organic part of plants (that which may be dissipated by heat) is attended with some difficulty ; for the methods employed to sej)arate the proximate constituents (gum, sugar, &c.) are admitted to be rather unsatisfactory. Proximate analysis, however, may throw some light on the relative value of the following varieties of oats, selected on account of their general cultiva- tion in the county of Northumberland. The ana- lyses of the Hopetoun and potato oats are taken from an interesting and most elaborate paper '" On the Analysis of the Oat," by Prof. Norton. As the meal alone was analyzed, it was necessary to make a calculation of th? per-centage composition, in- cluding the husk, that these varieties may be rea- dily compared with others. The analyses of the Tartary and Angus oats were made by myself: the number given is, in most cases, the mean of two deteiininii'ioiis. 'i'jie proximate ci>m])o«iiij>n is — 2G3 Potato. Starch .. ,46.69 Sugar 2.99 Gum 1.71 Oil 6.17 Protein compounds . 9.37 Husk and epidermisi 33.07 These analyses exi)lain theoretically the high nu- tritive value of the oat ; but, as the subject is of great interest to the farmer, it is deserving of further consideration. The nutritive organic compounds in any kind of food are divided into those containing nitrogen — consequently, adapted to repair the waste of muscle, &c., hence called muscle-forming, nitrogenous, or protein compounds — and those suited to maintain the animal heat, termed respiratory compounds. When the whole quantity of the latter contained in the food is not immediately required for respiration, the surplus is converted into fat : hence, these may be called fat-producing compounds. The muscle- forming compounds are albumen, fibrine, and casein, of both the animal and vegetable king- doms ; the fat-producing are gum, sugar, starch, and oil. The following table, constructed from data in "Johnston's Lectures," will show the relative produce of nutritive matter per acre of the usually- cultivated crops : Thus an acre of oats ranks after barley in yielding fat-producing, and next to beans and peas in muscle- forming compounds. They may, therefore, be con- sidered on the average, equal in nutritive value to any of our cultivated crops. The varieties of oats, however, are not equally nutritious, as shown by the analysis already given ; thus — Husk lF^t"P'o^"cing Muscle-forming 1 Compounds, i Compounds. 9-37 j 11-38 ! 14-37 i 15-31 ' The liusk is considered to possess little nutritive ! value. Tli ^ fat-prodiicing- comiiounds in these Tartarv . . 33-07 57-56 Angus .... 31-25 57-37 Hopetoun .. 24-30 59-44 Potato .... 24-95 58-49 2G4 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. varieties are nearly equal ; but the relative quantity of muscle-forming compounds confirms, in a re- maricable manner, the opinion usually held of their respective value for nutrition. In Scotland and in the North of England the oat is extensively used for human food. The pre- judice, which at one time existed against its employ- ment for such a purpose, has, in a gre^t measure, disa])peared. In England it is principally consumed in the feeding of horses. It seems unnecessary farther to explain how admirably suited it is to either piir[)ose, by supplying the waste of the body consequent on the exercise of the vital functions. Great efforts are now being made to diminish, by better methods of feeding, the quantity of oats ne- cessary for the horse. The object is certainly well M'orthy attention. It is estimated that a million and a half of horses are employed in Great Britian ; supposing that each horse is allowed two bushels of oats per week, the total quantity consumed is 19,500,000 qrs. per annum; worth, at 18s. per qr., £17,550,000. Assuming it were possil^le, by im- proved methods of preparation, to enable the horse to derive as much nourishment from three bushels as he now does from four, (and this will subse- quently be shown as not impossible) a saving would b3 effected equal to £4,387,500 per annum. The limits of this paper will not permit a full con- sideration of the arguments in favour of oats ground, crushed, boiled, or mixed with chaff; but I may allude to one argument in support of the mixture with chaff which has not hitherto, I b?lieve, been noticed. It is now knov.-n to physiologists that the muscle- forming and respiratory compounds are submitted to different processes of digestion; the former being dissolved by the gastric juice : the latter chiefly by the saliva. Dr. Beaumont's experiments estab- lished, that when food is received into the stomach, the muscle-forming compounds are dissolved by the gastric juice, and at once taken up by the ab- sorbents ; but that respiratory compounds suffer no gastric digestion, but pass rapidly from the stomach into the duodenum, in v/hich they undergo a chemical change, chiefly owing to a principle con. tained in the saliva (which has the property of con- verting gun, &c., into sugar) and in a less degree to the action of the bile and pancreatic juice. The food is thus converted into chyme, from which the lacteals of the bowels extract chyle. Starch intro- duced into the stomach without being masticated imdergoes little change : so, in a less degree, if im- perfectly masticated, a certain portion remains un- digested, owing to a deficiency of saliva. Nov/, apply these facLs to the feeding of the horse. Crushed oats probably jjass into the stomach with- out a due admixture of saliva; ground oals with scarcely any. But if the oats, either crushed or whole, are mixed with hay or straw chaff, the proper degree of mastication may be secured. In order to prove that the common methods of feeding do not insure the extraction of all the nu- tritive matter, I tried the following experiment :— The dried faeces of a horse fed in the usual manner were examined by the microscope ; they appeared to contain numerous globules of starch ; but that conclusive evidence might be afforded of this, the powdered ffeces were treated with solution of iodine, when the globules instantly assumed the blue colour so characteristic of the presence of starch. To fol- low out the experiment the fteces of a horse fed on oats mixed with wheat chaff were examined : the blue colour of the iodide of starch was still exhi- bited, but the globules were not so numerous as in the first experiment. Analogy would lead to the supposition that, be- sides starch, portions of the other respiratory and of the muscle-forming compounds were also present. [Here then is proof of the loss attending methods of horse-feeding now in use, and reasonable grounds for anticipating that, by their improvement, the animal may be able to assimlate the nutriment which now is lost, and thus effect that saving to which allusion has been made]. But a thorough mastication is not alone sufficient : the food must also possess a certain bulk (and this the mixture with chaff affords) " that it may be pro- perly acted upon by the muscular contractions of of the stomach." Instinct teaches this truth. The Esquimaux and Kamschatdales mix earth or saw- dust with the train oil on which alone they are fre- quently reduced to live : and the Yeddahs, or wild hunters of Ceylon, mingle the jiovvdered fibres of soft and decayed wood with the honey on which they feed when meat is not to be had. A short recapitulation of the principal topics of this paper may perhaps be permitted : — The species of the Oat have been noticed, and a suggestion has been thrown out, whether other varieties might not be more profitably cultivated in this district. Sowing oats after turnips on clay soils ; plough- ing lea across instead of lengthwise ; ribbing the oat land, more especially if infested by weeds; and the broadcast sowing machine — have been recom- mended for trial. An attempt has been made to show that the oat exhausts the land less than any other of the cereals, and is of equal nutritive value ; that the discovery of better methods of feeding horses is of great im- ])ortance ; that by present modes great loss is sus- tained, but that this may be in som.e measure re- medied, by affording bulk to the allowance of oats, from an admixture of less nutritious food. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2Go The Chairman said, the meetino- felt extremely ()l)lige{l to Mr, Taylor for his very valnahle ])aper. It was always understood that the oat was the must exhausting cereal grown by the fanner, but Mr. Taylor had shewn that to be otherwise. As to cross ])loughing, the observations of Mr. Taylbr were entirely new to him ; but he presumed the land would require to be drained, in order to adapt it to that mode of cultivation. There were several other points on wliich Mr. Taylor had exhibited new ideas, vv'hich would no doubt strike many gentlemen pre- sent, and perhaps many of them would be desirous of making some remarks upon the subject. lie should not, therefore, detain them with any lengthened observations. Since the days of Dr. Johnson, when oats were said to be the food of men in Scotland and of horses in England^ very great improvements had been made, and they felt greatly obliged to Mr. Taylor for having drawn their atten- tion to the subject. Mr. Samuel Donkin said he bad seen cross ploughing and deep ploughing practised, and very good crops had been grown on turnip soils by these modes, but he did not think they were applicable to heavy clay lands. They must have a tilt mould in order to practise cross ploughing effectively. lie should be glad to hear some gentleman explain the cause of the frequency of the grub. He bad tried many plans to get rid of them. Mr. Taylor had referred to a writer in the Fairal Encyclopadia who recommended ploughing in August; but if the writer came into the north of England, and began ploughing the lea in the beginning of August, he would only be laughed at. The grub committed great ravages, and that part of the suijject ought to be inquired into. It was also a remarkable fact that a better crop of cats was grov/n after twice cut clover than after once cut. There was another fact with respect to oats, of which he could speak from his ovv'n experience. He had planted Tartar oats, the seeds of v/hich had been brought from Assam, in the East Indies, and which he had procured from the late Mr. Bigge ; at first they grew extremely well, but after two or three years they entirely de- generated, until they could not be discovered to be the real Tartar oats. IIow did this occur ? If they bought seed in the market, the natural conclu- sion they would come to in sucli a case would be that they had been cheated; but there was no doubt the seed he had sown was that of the genuine Tar tar oat, and yet it had degenerated in the v.-ay he had described. Mr. RoBSox paid a deserved compliment to Mr. Taylor for the very able lecture he had delivered. 'J'iie (jueslion for them to consider was, what was the most profitable kind of oat for the farmer to grow? That depended upon the nature of the soil and tJie local situation. His own o])inion was that the most profitable kind to grow was the Tartarian oat, for the increased quantity obtained was far more than compensation for any decrease of jmce in the market. In his opinion, the farmer derived a greater benefit by growing quantity instead of quality. He had sown some oats which he got from Yorkshire. The first two years the crops were good, but they had since deteriorated, both in quantity and quality, v.-hich showed that jjarticular soils and localities were best adapted for ])articu]ar species. Farmers, in his op/mion, did well to have their lea ploughed early, and great benefit was de- rived from its being well harrowed. He might mention also that he had derived great benefit from top-dressing with guano. Two hundred-weight of guano sown in strong land had been productive of a large return; indeed, scarcely any one who had not tried it would believe the difference produced. He would recommend farmers to try the experi- ment upon a small scale ; they would not only have a large increase of grain, but an increase of straw. One reason that struck him why oats were better where the clover was cut twice was, that the roots of the clover became more extended and distributed, and when the oats were sown they obtained more nutriment than they otherwise would. Mr. G. H. R.\i;sAY remarked that the Tartar oat v/as light, while others were smaller but heavier ; and the question v/as, whether they could ])roduce a larger weight of Tartar oats per acre than of potato oats. Then as to the time of ripening, the Tartar oat was late in ripening. He thought it v/as de- sirable to ascertain by the results of experience the greatest weight of oat the land would produce per acre, and then the period of its ripening, in order to determine what kind was most profitable to the far- mer. As to cross jjloughing, it could only be prac- tised successfully upon drained land. In these parts of the country oats were sown after grass, and it was ])erfectly well known that grass was an excellent preparation for oats ; the oats derived a considerable degree of nutriment, and the roots went down between the furrows. If they cross- piloughed and harrowed the land, they would in a great measure destroy that effect, and besides, it would have to be done at the busy part of the year. He doubted whether land ploughed three times for oats would be as productive as if only once i)loughed. Another point was this : the ploughing here was very light. Mr. DoxKiN : But in the Lothians they plough deep, and it answers extremely v/ell. Mr. Ramsay : But the practice of light plough- ing had answered well here ; and he though deep ploughing for oats in this district would be inju- rious. He had some ground where the effect of 266 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. both systems was extremely obvious, and was de- cidedly the best where the ploughinf>- was light. With respect to the deterioration of the oat alluded to by Mr. Donkin, he was of opinion that if the Tartar oat alone was sown, the jiroduce would be Tartar oats, and the species would not degenerate into any other. When seed was purchased at the seedsman, it was often mixed ; and if the Tartar oat were not carefully separated, by hand if necessary, the consequence would undoubtedly l)e a deteriora- tion. He referred to the saving effected by drill over l)roadcast sowing, and to the discrepancies existing as to the superior advantage of growing wheat or oats, and concluded by recommending increased at- tention to the subject. Mr, CoLBECK said he had started to plough his lea six inches deep, but he was very glad to gi\'e it np. Why they grew oats after lea here, and wheat after lea in the south, was a mystery he never could understand. With regard to the grub, he con- sidered the evil of much longer date than the pre- ceding August, and therefore that the plan of ])loughing the lea in August, as recommended by the writer in the Rural Encydopcedia, would be of little avail. He found when he changed the land with beans that he had much less grub. Mr. Ramsay asked what was the opinion of iSIr. Taylor with respect to feeding milk cows with oats. Mr. Taylor said he had not directed his atten- tion to that part of the subject. After some general remarks from Mr. Brown, on various points in the discussion, a vote of thanks was voted to Mr. Taylor for his very al)le ])aper, and the meeting separated. THE GREAT EXHIBITION. SECTION I. CLASS IV.— VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED IN MANUFACTURES. This is the last division of the section " Raw mate- rials and produce, iUustrative of tlie natural produc- tions on whicli human industry is employed ;" it in- cludes all those animal and vegetable products em- ployed in arts and manuractures ; aud the specimens being exhibited in tlie raw or rouu;h state, they farm, as it were, the groundwork of all that is beautiful and useful; the development of which into more varied forms may be seen and traced through the succeeding classes of machinery, manufactures, and line-arts. To the agriculturist this class is especially interest- ing, as it includes the agricultural products of flax, hemp, wool, hair, 5:c., and other materials for clothing and manufacturing purposes, with which it is moie or less concerned. It may be observed that this class is "subdivided generally into substances of vegetable and subst;mccs of animal origin. Tlie formei'. division comprises gums and resins, oils, acids, dyes and colours, tanning ma- terials, fibrous and cellular substances, timbers, and miscellaneous articles applied to various economical purposes. The latter division includes materials for textile fabrics, and clothing for domestic, ornamental, and manufacturing purposes, for the production of chemical substances, and for pigments and dyes." We propose merely to nofce those collections which are of the greatest interest to the larmer. The mate- rial which I have no doubt will be generally considered the most important is that of wool, and it is to this subject we shall first give oiir attention. The speci- mrns of Knglish growth, or those samples which are mrt with in our markets, are chiefly arranged, with other substances included in this class, in the south gallery P, and succeed in order those belonging to the pre- ceding class. The foreign wools are scattered through- out the departments of tlie respective countries of which they form a part of the produce. Commencing with our own country, we observe Mr. R. Milner, of Dublin, exhibits fleeces of long and short- wools from different Irish counties. The collection (No. 85) of the Sectional Committee on .\nimal Kingdom contains samjdes of wool from Sydney, the Cape of Good Hope^ the Cheviot liills, and frjm other countries. These are valuable, as shovY-iug side by side tlie wools from different localities and from different breeds of sheep. Mr. T. G. Rcbow, of Wivenhoe park, Essex (No. 84), shows some good and large fleeces, which are described as Southdown, but which otherwise might have been taken for half-breds. Close by (No. 80) are some fleeces of Ci eviot wool of viood quality, said to be grown at an elevation of 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mrs. Dorrien, of Chichester, exhibits (No. 81) some samples of Merino wool, which, although good, appear scarcely equal to the fleeces shown in C'UJiinc- tion with the Merino sheep at the late meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Windsor, and which was of peculiarly fine quality. An entire stuffed South- down ewe, seven years old, which had never been shorn, is shown by Mr. John Moore, of Littlecott farm, Pewsey, Wilts; the wool is 25 inches long, and is said to weigh 361bs., or greater than the aggregate Icna'th and weig-ht of wool, taken year bv \c:ir, from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 any otiitr sIjihi hi llict-iiiiic flock. Alliioii^li >lic illiis- f rates 110 inaclicc tliat can possibly bo of advantage to the fanner, tlic stuficd ewe is a great curiosity in its w;iy, and e.vcilcs a good deal of attention : \vc believe tlic same ewe was shown alive by IMr. Moore at tlic local shows of Wilts a few yeari since. Tliere are many other exhibitors of fleeces and samples of wool ; but we need not allude to them further than to observe that they all assist in illustrating this important agri- cultural product. Specimens (No. 88) of " hurry wool" in the original state, with spociinens of the same cleaned by iiKKJiiiiery, aie shown by Messrs. Sands and Co., of Mortimer-street, Leeds: the " burry Viool" contains burs or thorns, which it is necessary to remove previous to the wool being used for manufac- tuiiiig purposes. Mr. C. A. Preller (No. 01) shows samples of English, Mohair, and Australian wools, in the difTerent stages of preparation for manufacture; also yarn from Australian wool, made by a peculiar jn'ocess of combing, of which Mr. Preller is patentee. The Marquis of Breadalbane exhibits (No. i)5) some harsh and hairy specimens of woollen yarn, made from the wool of the bison. In the department of woollen find U'orstcd-inaiuifactuvcd ((rtich:^ (class 12) there is a very interesting collection of samples of the differ- ent kinds of wool produced in Great Britain and Ire- land, arranged in rows according to their staple and nuality. For quality and cleanness some of the wools fiora Australia stand almost unequalled — a bale from South Australi'i, shown by Mr. (i. Cox, with the samples from Tort Phillii), from the ilocks of JMessrs. Lear- mouth and Stevens, are remarkably good. Close by these arc the wools from Van Diemen's Land ; these are good, but will scarcely rank with the best of those from Australia. Among the wools brought from the other British possessions may be seen specimens of the native wools of Hindostan and Thibet. Trance sends pure Merino wool from the establish- ment at Rambouillct ; but this will not bear compari son with a fleece of an improved Merino sheep, which is beautifully fine in its fibre, and one of the best spe- cimens of this class of wool in the whole exhibition. From Spain the specimens are neither so good or so numerous as might have been anticipated from a coun- try once so noted for its flocks ; but probably Spain has been retrograding in wool as well as in other re- spects ; at any rate they do not appear to have kept pace with the improvements made elsewhere in the breeds of sheep. The wools from the United Slates are distinguished by a weak and defective fibre ; however, some of the samples are good. Some of the best are those neatly arranged in a portfolio by Mrs. Garland, of Virginia. There are extensive collections of wools from Ger- many, some of them remarkable for their quality ; one series (No. 23) has the additional attraction of coming from the farm of the cdebratcd Thaer, well known as one of the most distinguished of the scientific agricul- turists of his day — his Princ'qilcs of Ayr halt ure wcyq a few years jince translated into the English language by W. Shaw and ('. \\ . Johnson, Esquires j and e\eu in this country it is held in high repute us a standard work on fanning. These specimens of washed and raw wools, from the staple flock at Moeglin, are shown by A. P. Thaer, councillor, Woeglin, near Wriet/en,on the Oder; they are intended to illustrate the richness and fineness of the Merino wool. In the same depart- ment there are several other samples both of uniform and excellent quality. Baron Rothschild, of Oderberg, Silesia Superior, exhibits (No. 28) fleeces from Merino sheep and lambs, which arc described as being selected from one of the most celebrated flocks in Silesia, and out of it sheep for breeding are sold to Silesia, Hun- gary, Galieia, and Posuania. A one-year-old stuft'ed sheep is shown in the Magdeburgh department; it is re- markable for having all parts of the body well covered with good wool of uniform quality, a property in which some of our English breeds are deficient, however su- perior they may be for grazing purposes. Austria and Hungary arc contributors of some of the best wools; the assorted fleeces of Figdor and Sons, of Vienna, and those of Count Lariscii are the best ; other samples appear to be equally fine, but some are not properly cleaned. From South America we have the wool of the alpaca, llama, kc. ; the cloth prepared from this wool is be- coming a fashionable wear. Although in this country wool is only the secondary product of our flocks, yet an inspection of the samples, of which we have only alluded to a few of the best, scattered here and there through the several depart- ments of the exhibition, will suggest to the farmer the importance of combining a valuable and heavy fleece, with early maturity and aptitude to fatten, as well as the necessity of bringing to market a commodity in clean and good condition, the want cf which is shown in many of the samples. It must be remembered that wool is almost the only article which has held its price in the face of competition with other nations ; and we hopeit will still continue to be a remunerative product of our land. The various fibrous materials, such as flax, hemp, and others of vegetable growth, form a division of this class almost of as much importance to the farmer as that of wool. It includes all the old, with many new fibre-producinj,- plants. The most important, flax, is most extensively illustrated by collections from all parts of the world. In many of these the specimens are arranged to describe the several methods of pre- paring the fibre. The new processes, to which a good deal of attention has been given at the recent council meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society, have also a place in this class. The Sectional Committee on Vegetable kingdom have arranged (No. 40) a most extensive series of spe- cimens of flax and hemp, from almost every country where they are produced, and from which they arc im- ported into this country ; it includes French, Flemish, Dutch, Friesland, Archangel, Riga, English, Egyptian, and New Zealand flax ; with Petersburg clean hemp, Petersburg half-clean hemp, Riga Rein hemp, Riga 268 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Pass liemp, American hemp, Egj'ptiaii heinp, liiiHa Scum hc-mj), Mnnilia hemp, Italian hemp, and Jute hemp. The colleetion (No. 42) of Mr. Wright, of Clieapside, contains specimens of China grass (Urtica iiivea), Bs it comes from Assam and China, and in various stages as manufactured in this country and in India. Mr. Donhm (No. 43) illustrates with specimens his chemical processes for assisting the germination of flax and hemp seeds. Tao Nui, a New Zenlimd chief, has contribuicd through his agent, Mr. Edward Gill- man of Twickenham, samples of flax as prepared in tliat island, with mantles and cords nnide from the same. Messrs. Hives and Atkinson, of Leeds, are (xhibitors of samples of flax in different stages of preparation from the celebrated Courtrai district of Belgium, v.here, in- stead of the flax being steeped in stagnant pools as in this country, the bundles are sunk in the deai- water." of the river Lys, which are said to have the property of giving to the fibre its remnrkable whiteness and purity. It is estimated that Belgium produces annually forty millions of pounds of flax of a superior quality, and of the value of two and a half millions sterling. Of this she expoi'ts about five millions of pounds of flax to England. In this collection are samples of flax from other parts of Belgiu:n ; yellow flax froni Mr. Warnes, of Triniingham; blue flax grown in Yorkshire; together with samples of china grass (a kind of nettle), which is extensively imported into this country for its fibre. Nos. 4G to o4 are collections of flax and linseed from various places. No. 54 is sent by Mr. George Mason, Yately, Hartford-bridge, Hants, and contains, 1, flax gro'>vn, steeped, and scutched at Yately, North Hants; ,2, flax produced in South Hants ; 3, fl ix produced at Ciibham, Surrey ; 4, flax grown and scutched at tht rarnborough workhouse; u, flax scutched by prisoners in the county-gaol at V.'inchester; 0, refusc-tow manu-- factured at Yateley ; 7, coarse tow ; 8, models of tools used and madcat Yately. The Messrs. Marshall and Co., of Leeds, the extensive manufacturers and imporiers, exhibit, for quality and finish, various samples of sew- ing thread maile from Courtrai flax ; with dressed fibre from the China grass ( Urtica nivea) with sewing-thread and pieces of drill made from the yarn spun (rom the same. Collection No. 5Ga is illustrative of the prepa- ration of the fibre by a patent process, from the outer shell of the cocoa-nut. It contains brushes and mats manufactured from the fibre, by tlie inventor of the process, Mr. Barslam, of Kingston-on-Thames. The Flax Improvement Society of Ireland are exhibitors of a very beautiful and instructive series (106) of manu- factured flax fibre from Ireland. As each specimen has attached to it the locality where grown, with its money value, the collection is deserving of attentive inspection by those who wish to increase thoirknowledge of the qua- lity and value of the different flax fibres — tlie growers of bad and low-priced fibres may be led to inquire the cause of the inferiority ol tlicir produce, if they observe that the best fibres are worth £100 and the inferior barbly £43 per ton. Chevalier Claussen, of •J.G, Gre- sham-street, London, is one of the largest contributors (No. 105): he illustrates by samples of flax prepared by Ins patent |iroccss t'.io universal applicability of flax fibre to the purposes of textile manufacture, cither by itself or spun with cotton or wool. Wo must refer for further particulars to the lengthened description of the Chevalier's samples in the Illustrated Catalogue. In concluding our remarks upon the collection of animal and vegetable fibres, we may observe that ap- parently its most important features arc that it places before the manufacturer samples from which he can select those which are most suitable to his wants. It brings into notice new substances, which may be found upon trial to be more applicable for particular pro- cesses of manufacture than those already known. It afi'ords to producers a knowledge of otlier plants that may be suitable for cultivation in other districts, and opens for bis productions new, because hitherto un- known, markets. The gradual development of the raw fibres through their several stages of manufacture (ijiving employment, as it does, to thousands of our workmen), until they become forms of clothing, or of brilliant cmbclHshment, is one of the crand features of the Exhibition itself. No. II. Class IV.— VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL SUB- STANCES USED IN MANUFACTURES. We shall continue our notice of the remaining ob- jects of this class by giving a brief description of the contribution? of timber and ornamental woods, which are from all parts of the globe. Some of the collections arc admirably arranged, with the scientific and local name, liabitat, weiijht per cube foot, of each sjrecimen marked upon it. This practical information is in many instances accompanied by furth.er references as to the uses and peculiar qualities of the timbers. The most prominent collection is the Canadian timber trophy, which is grouped in the western nave amongst the other princijial objects of the Exhibition. It consists of planks and blocks of rough and polished woods, chiefly pine, walnut, elm, birch, and maple, from the forests of North America — the whole surmounted by a rough American canoe. As it is from Canada we de- rive the largest supplies of imported timber, the Cana- dians are justly entitled to the important place which is given them by their trophy being so conspicuously displayed. However, it does not include solely the productions of Canada, as we observe there are large planks of teak; and one end of the trophy is occupied by two remarkable sections of the blue gum timber, from Van Dicman's Land : those sections are taken from one tree at the distance of 134 feet apart; the lower is apparently about o feet and the upper section 2^ feet in diameter, and, unlike our English oak and elm, it seems to grow to this extraordinary height in one straight clear stem. It is described as being equal to oak for ship-building, and it may be obtained in any quantity and of any dimensions up to 200 feet in length : It is sent over by his Excellency Sir W. T. Denison, with other varieties of timber in u?e in Van Dieman's Land for house-building, for cabin-fittings. THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. 209 Othrr sptcimeiis, the piodiicc of the eoloiij', iivc rxlii- bitocl, as bciiipf suitablo. for turning or carviii;^ pur- po?es ; while othcrji, from Huir taking a liigU polishj arc adapted for cabinol-inaking. In the department of India there is u large collec- tion of named woods; but the most strikin;;- objects arc tlie large circular slabs (at least seven feet hi diameter) of Liiii,'0;i. wood faom Molucca; these are cut from tlie projecting spurs of the Liugoa tree; tliey are frequent hi the Junglec of Singapore, and take a fine polish. IJeturning to the Hnglish class in the south-western gallery, the first objects having a relation to this sub- ject are the beautiful specimens of anatomical plants and leaves prepared by Mii>s Emma King, of Edmon- ton. Near them are the pitcher-plants of Mr. E. W. Cooke, of Kensington ; the tube-like leaf of this plant secretes a liquid in which insects are drowned ; and it is coiijectured that in this manner it obtains a supply of nutriment analogous to the well-known Venus's fly- trap. Tiio Messrs. Harrison, of Hull, show an extensive series (No. G) of polished wood, in the unnatural form of volumes of books — if we except the wood irom the palm-tree of India, which re.-emblcs the rou'^h binding of our old churcli-services, we cannot see any connec- tion between book-binding and a collection of timber. TlieefHcacy of Sir\yilliam Burnett's i^roce-s for pre- serving timber by the injection of chloride of zinc, is demonstrated by specimens of prepared and unpre- pareil limber, samples of the disinfecting solutions, and by drawings of the h\ draulic apparatus employed to exhaust the air and to inject the solution into the pores of tlie wood. The latter consists of an iron cylinder, Ciipable of sustaining a very considerable pressure; into tliis cylinder the wood to be prepared is moved (upon tramways), and the cover is closely fitted on. The air contained in the cylinder and in the pores of the wood is withdrawn by a vacuum pump, and the wood is comphtcly saturated by injecting the preservative fluid at a very high jjressure, by means of a jiowerful pump, worked by a steam-engine. There arc drawings of a second apparatus, similar in its deta Is, but mounted on wheels, for the purpose of removal from one place to another. Mr. Newton, of Rotherhithe, illustrates by specimens the application of a patent dessicating process for the seasoning of woods. The moisture is evaporated by r.ipid currents of hot air, by which decay and dry-rot are prevented in a great measure, while the timber is seasoned and made fit for use in a few weeks. Aii^ other process for the preservation of timber is that of Mr. John Bethcll, of 8, Parliament-street, \ycstmin- ster ; he exhibits (No. 21) vaiious specimens from creosoted sleepers, and of piles from Lowestoft har- bour, which are perfectly sound, side by side with un- prepared woi)d in a decaying state, taken from similar tion by thi-i process a['pcurs lo be one of ilu; bt?t, if not the best that can bo adopted. The following is the note at the foot of the reference to Mr. BctheU's nan^e in the Illustrated Catalogue: "Several plans have been patented, having for their object the prevention of timber from decay by injecting certain fluid sub- stances into its ports, and by chemical and mechanical action preventing the growth of fungi — viz., iMr. Kyan's patent, ill 1832, for impregnating with corro- sive sublimate; S.r W. Hurnctt's, in 183G, for injecting the chloride of zinc ; Mr. Bethell's, in 1838, for im- pregnating with oil of tar; and IMr. Payne's, in 1841, for impregnating with metallic oxides or alkalies." The length of time required to season timber by dry- ing in a current of air, and the fact tiiat it Vv'ill again absorb moisture, by which it again becomes liable to dry-rot and decay, render the importance of these pro- cesses for the preservation of timber suuiciently evi- dent. Probably the oldest wood in existence is shown by Mrs. A'lldjo (No. 8a), in the form of a table, the ve- neers of which are cut from a beam of wood, excavated after a lapse of eighteen hundred years, from the ruins of Pompeii. A collection (No. 9) of upwards of 7C0 specimens, shown by Mr. Sanders, of Wandsworth, are arranged geographically; the productions of each country are classified, and each spcciinen is accompa- nied with its scientific and local name, native country, weight per cube foot, and other useful particulars. The contribution (No. 14) of Messrs. HoltzapffL-l and Co., of Ciuxring-cross, includes the woods commonly used by the turner. Mr. T. Classou, of Dublin, has quite a display (_No. 22) of fancy articles, such as calendars, ink and card stands made from bog oa!>, b )g yew, and other orna- mental v.oods oi Ireland. The articles are instructive as well as useful, as the name of the wood from which each aiticlc is made is attached to it. Close by is a uood collection of the industrial and bog timbers from the same countiy. Messrs. Fauntleroy exhibit (No. 13 J) a classified series of foreign hard woods, used for cabinet work, turnery, dyeing, and machinery, as well as specimens of elephant's tusks, mother-of-pearl shells, &:c. In this collection the common and scientific name, the place of produce, and the pur])0se for wliicli each spe* cimen is used, can likewise be distinguislicd. These gentlemen exhibit in the nave a remarkable slab of Honduras mahogany seven and a-half feetin diameter. The forest and park woods of English growth are contributed by Mr. Cross, of BunhiU-row (No. 136); the usefulness of this series, like the one just men- tioned, is much increased by having references in the Illustrated Catalogue. Among tanning substances, the bark of the several descriptions of oak of course occupy the first place; situations. The ravages of the fcrccZo are also shown , but in the collection of Messrs. Curtis (No 126a) there upon the unprepared wood. The wood is impregnated ' are also the bark of many trees from foreign countries, with creosote, oil of tar; and for such situations, where ! which is valuable for its use in the process of tanning a disagreeable smell and the increased inflammability leather, given to the wood, are not objectionable, the prcserva- 1 The remainder of the class is made up of articles 270 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wliicli Will 3caicely admit ol btiuy iiichulcd in an fij^ii- cultiiral notice. 'I'iiey include, IiowGver, llic vegetable substances from wliich dyes and colours arc obtwincd the colours themselves being cxliibitod upon articles of textile niauufacturc. Among the animal substances we have not noticed the contributors of oil, glue, silk, whalebone, hair, and feathers, which are in some cases arranged so as to show the products of diflcrcnt nations, as well as the several methods of prejiaihig the substances for use. Raw and mauufuctuicd silks are shown as the result of experiments in rearing silk worms in England. Even the cook's art of cutting ornaments from carrots, beet-root, and turnips, for the purpose of garnishing the dinner and supper-table does not escape illustration, as we observe some flowers of this kind are scat by Mr. AV. H. I'ursey, of I'ad- dington. Aug. 5, 18^1. W. n. K. (To be continued.) GATHERING AND STORING.— The gathering, storing, and subsequent care of winter fruit, does not in the majority of instances receive from the gardener that degree of attention which the importancsof those par- ticular branches of his calling entitle them to. That such should be so, becomes a matter of astonishment, when we recollect that from such fruit the kitchen and dessert are to be principally supplied for so long a period — at least so far as the winter produce of the garden is concerned. So that the fruit is gathered and conveyed to the fruit room, or to some nondescript structure dignified with that appellation, is often all that is cared for. The performance of the operation is en- trusted to labourers and boys, who possess not the least idea of the importance of their occupation, oi' of the manner in which it should be performed. Stems are plucked out by careless gathering, leaving wounds which soon destroy the fruit. Baskets are heaped one upon another, bruising the majority of the fruit, and inducing ultimate decay. Good and bad are huddled promiscuously together, to be heaped up in the fruit-room till leisure, or a wet day, gives a more fitting opportunity to assort them. The latter operation is often delayed till sad in- roads are made in the better, as well as the more inferior of the fruit. Where well-kept fruits are desired, too much care cannot be bestowed on the gathering and storing. In the former operation, they should be care- fully selected from the trees at a proper season, which a practised eye will alone ascertain. In the baskets, or in whatever receptacle they are conveyed to the fruit -room, they should not be allowed to press one upon another in too great quantities. None but the very prime speci- mens should be associated for long keeping. All inferior or damaged fruit should be put aside, to be used im- mediately, or as occasion requires. When your fine fruit reaches the fruit-room, delicate handling should by no means be disregarded. They should, one by one, be carefully placed where they are to remain ; and not, as is often done, turn them out of the baskets in a mass, damaging half the contents in the process. After storing lias ceased, frctmeiit and careful examiuation, at least among the superior fruits, should be made. Difterent kinds of fruit exhibit peculiarities in their mode of decay, and these peculiarities are constant. Some of them arc, however, more infectious than others. Many early ripening pears decay rapidly, without any outward indi- cations, becoming what is technically termed " sleepy." Various other kinds, which remain in perfection to a lengthened period, decay naturally in a similar manner. The svvan's-egg pear decays in spots on its exterior, which gradually enlarge, till the whole fruit is rotten. The peculiar flavour of the decaying portions of this fruit is confined entirely to itself. The nearest approach to the latter mode of decay takes place in the Ribstone Pippin apple, especially if stored in a damp and impure atmos- phere. Many kinds of decay — premature decay, and the most to be dreaded in a fruit-room — arise from the de- composing substance being attacked by minute fungi in the form of mildew. These minute vegetables disseminate their invisible germs in myriads, ever ready to establish themselves in suitable situations for vegetating. Bruised and damaged fruit ofler the necessary situa- tions; and, being once established, their progress is rapid. Speaking of the Ribstone Pippin as decaying in a confined and impure atmosphere, we may mention an i illustrative instance. Calling one day at a garden, the i superintendent of which was somewhat of the old school, I we were shown into the fruit-room, and our attention I was directed to a number of this fruit, nearly all of which were decaying in the manner before described ; j and the flavour of those not decaying was anything but I palatable. The gardener assured us that he had lost his fruit in the same manner every season since the fruit- room had been budt. We may observe that the room, which was very small, appeared to be the receptacle of every kind of rubbish. On the floor were heaps of po- tatoes, many of them decaying, and emitting no very attractive odours. In one corner, a quantity of half- rotten apples ; in another, a heap of damp rubbish > there, a quantity of cucumbers and vegetable marrows retained for seed, the former half putrid, with numerous other matters equally foreign to a well-regulated fruit- room. But of the Ribstone Pippins : Previously to this fi'uit-room being built, the fruit had for several years been stored in a large, airy room, at some distance from the garden. There, no such symptoms as have been described evinced themselves, and the fruit was invariably of a proper flavour. It is hoped that no comment is necessary on a case like this. It may, however, be observed that the fruit- room is often the receptacle of things which good management would ex- clude. A remarkable proof that careful gathering and storing have much to do in the preservation of apples and pears to a lengthened period is afforded by the exa- mination of such kinds of fruit in the hands of good garden amateurs, who possess but limited quantities, and are careful of its preservation. Such persons will produce a dessert of such for their own tables, or to grace the tables of a provincial horticultural show, when the majority of larger establishments are unable to do so, Gardeners' and Farmers' .Tournal, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 271 REAPING MACHINES (from the mark lane express of august 18.) It will be seen by a letter from the Messrs. Garrett, of Leiston, that tlieir reaping machine " will be at work a portion of every day on their own farm, near the works at Leiston, cutting the different crops, until Monday, the 25th," and will be open to the inspection of visitors. They also state that " a machine, similar in construction," 18 now to be seen in the Crystal Palace. There appears to be every probability that reaping ma- chines will come into general use in this country. We have already called attention to M'Cormick's reaping machine, which was tried at Mr. Mechi's meeting at Tiptree Hall. The following letter upon the subject from Mr. Mechi has since appeared in the Times : — REAPING BY MACHINERY. Sir, — I write a liasty liue to say that the American reaping machine, by McCormick, has been at work all day on my farm, cuttin<; a heavy crop of wheat, very long in the straw, partially laid, and estiuiated at five quarters per acre. I have arrived at the following conclusions : — Tliatit will act perfectly on level land, with a standing crop. That it will cut from 10 to 16 acres per day, according to circumstances. That the quantity cut depends more on the activity and strength of the man who has to remove it by rake from the board on which it falls. It is hard work for a man to remove one acre and a quarter per hour. That our open furrows and deep water furrows are much against the perfect action of the machine. That the paddle-wheels do not in any way beat out or injure the corn. That certain trifling modifications in its details will be re- quired where (as in my case) the straw is very long. That it will cut laid corn where it falls towards the machine. That where it falls from it, it is desirable to cut such por- tions by hand. That a proportionate number of hands to bind the cut corn I will be required according to the crop. , The machine will be cutting all day to-morrow. I should \ ■wish to have finished ray harvest with it, but the proprietor desires to try it in other counties. In conclusion, I feel a conviction that all our reaping will soon be done by horse or steam machines. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, J. J. Mechi. Tqilree-hall, Keloedoa, Esisex, Aug. 11. A trial of this machine was made on Wednesday last, on a farm at Farningham, in Kent ; and the result was wholly satisfactory to a large party of agriculturists. The Sussex Express thus reports the result of another trial on Thursday last : On Thursday an interesting experiment was tried with the new patent reaping machine invented by Mr. C. H. M'Cormick, aa American. The field selected for the trial was the " Anthony's Piec■^" a 12-acre field on the Christmas Pie Farm, Warnborough, near Guildford, the property of R. D. Mangles, Esq., M.P. Tlie ground was very strong and uneven, with deep furrows, and lint a slight crop ; indeed it was altogether as bad a spot as could have been chosen, it being the worst field and crop upon the farm. The ground had undergone no manner of preparation for such a trial, by stone picking in the spring of the year, &c. ; spite of all these obstacles, however' the general opinion of the numerous agriculturists present was that the machine did its work admirably. It must be con - fcsscd that its powers were well tested. The time occupied in cutting one acre of wheat was twenty-four minutes ; and the experiment fully proved the great value of theui, and the vast amount of saving that will be eifected both in lime and ia money by its general use. Ttiere were a great many spectators present, including the leading gentry, agri- culturists, and others, of the neighbourhood, as well as many from considerable distances, and among them we ob- served— the Eight Hon. the Earl of Lovelace (Lord Lieute- nant of the county). Lord Lovaine, Sir A. Macdonald, Col. W. II. Sumner (Ilatchlands), Rev. A. Mangles, Rev. G. More Molynenx, Dr. Buchanan (Herefordshire), Capt. C. Mangles, Capt. H. M. Parratt, Capt Preston, R. N., Capt. Fitzroy (Epsom), F. R. Thresher, Esq., (Chairman of the Winchester Sessions), J. Slack, Esq., (Esher), H. W. R. \V. Halsey, Esq., (Henley Park), L. A. Cousmaker, Esq. (Westwood), S. White, Esq. (Compton), S. Haydon, Esq. (Manor of Guildford), H. Marshall, Esq. (Godalming), M. Marshall, Esq. (Godalming), E. Bray, Esq. (Shere). E. Nichoils, Esq., — Paine, Esq., W. Messenger, Esq., R. Goldhawke, Esq. (Hazle Hall), C. Junes, Esq., C. Cooper, Esq., F. Elkins, Esq., T. J. Sells, Esq., T. Madeley, Esq. (Westbrook), &c., &c., &c.. and Messrs. G. Thompson, G. Turvil, J. Ellis, E. Chitty, J. Evershed, jnn., W. Chennell, J. Chennell, M. Turner, J. Wakeford, E. Finney, Chase, Baker (Guildford), Baker (Toyting), Bicknell, C. Wilk- ing, J. Wilkins, J. Bonner, E. Goodham, W. Smeed, T. Bowyer, W. Mathews, W. Williamson, J. Lockwood, Lyon, A. Pimm, H. Keene, J. White, G. White, East, R. Eager, &c., &c., «&c., in all above 500 persons. We were present at the trial on Mr. Mangles's farm, and fully concur in the statement of our co- temporary as to the disadvantageous circumstances of a very light crop, deep furrows, and rough, stony land. Nevertheless, the work was well exe- cuted, except where the crop had been trodden down. We entertain no doubt that there will be a considerable saving in harvesting corn with the reaping machine, as compared with the present mode; but tliat forms a trifling consider- ation as compared with the I)enetits to be derived from the expedition with which the crops may be secured by the aid of these machines. We observe by a paragraph in a Cambridgeshire paper that our friend Mr. J(mas, of Ickleton, secured 400 acres of wheat in an incredibly short space of time by manual labour. This can only have arisen through an excess in the sujjply of labour over the demand existing in his dis- trict, which we have reason to believe is some- what peculiar in that respect. It is stated that in Lincolnshire, and in some other jjlaces, there is a dearth of labour to get in the harvest. We are sanguine in the belief that reaping machines will become as common in this countiy as haymaking machines, and of greater value to the farmer. A gentleman, who keeps accurate accounts, states that he saved the price of his haymaking machine the first year. Mr. M'Cormick's reaping machine comes before us under the most favourable circumstances, it being now known that the great medal of the Exhibition has been awarded to it. 272 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — A repoct having: inadvertently hceu circulated by one or two of the London journals, and thence through the pro- vincial pres.;, that at the trial of corn-reaping machines, at Mr. Mechi'a farm at Tiptrec, on the 24th of July, the one of our make was Tried, and proved a failure, whereas it was never even taken into a corn-field at Tiptree on that day, we trust you will permit us, through the medium of your columns, to give the result of our experience with the machine in question during the last few days. We have been using the renping- machine on our own farm every day during the past wetli, and have much pleasure in declaring our full satisfaction at the re- sult, which, as a first attempt, has proved not only most suc- cessful, but far beyond our expectations ; indeed it performs the work so perfectly, cutting the corn with such ease and re- gularity, and leaving the stubble so even and regular, and so far superior to manual labour, that it is altogether impossible ta form an adequate idea of its capabilities without seeing it in operation. We have worked it on lands ploughed on tlie flat as well as in stetches, both lengthways and across the furrows ; and in every case the result has been equally satisfactory. As such an important revolution in harvest operations is likely to be brought about by the introduction of this machine, and considerable interest appears to have been manifested as to the result of these trials, we beg to say that a machine simi- lar in construction to the one now exhibited by us at the Crys- tal Palace (witli some further improvements which practice has suggested) will be at work a portion of every day on our own farm, near the Works at Lei^ton, cutting the different crops until Monday the 25th inst.,and that it will afford us great plea- sure to show it to any agriculturist who will favour us with a visit, and may be desirous of seeing it in operation. We remain, Sir, Your very obedient servants, Richard Garuett & Son. Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, Suffolk, Aug. 14, 1851. (jTROM THE M.ARK LANE EXPRESS OF AUGUST 21) Dear-bought experience has proved incontestably that much care and caution should be exercised by the practical farmer ere he adopts any new system of cultivation, however vauntingly recommended as " new or improved;" or incur the expense of purchasing " new or improved" implements, unless well satisfied that they have undergone a sufficient trial under the superintendence and observation of practical men, to prove their usefulness. Believ- ing that " reaping machines" are destined to take a l^rominent position amongst British agricultural implements, we deem no apology necessary for again occupying our columns by directing attention to what is going on in reference to them. We are the more earnestly prompted to a continu- ous notice of the subject, because, if numerous trials of these machines can be made in different parts of the country during the present harvest, so that they may be seen in operation by a consider- able number of practical farmers, such an opinion may be formed of their capabihties and value as will safely guide those who have not seen them at work; and thus a season may be gained in their introduc- tion to use. We well remember the doubt and appre- hension which attended the introduction of the hay- making machine in the part of the country in which we then resided, and we are therefore fully prepared for a similar demonstration of feel- ing in reference to the reaping machine. We now submit to the notice of our readers a report from the Times, of the proceedings at a trial of Mr. M'Cormick's reaping machine, made on Friday last, on the farm of the Royal Agricul- tural College at Cirencester. A better spot than Cirencester, situated as it is in the corn-growing district of Gloucestershire, could not have been selected. We may here take the oppor- tunity of correcting an error in the report which we extracted from the Sussex Express last week, in reference to the time occupied by Mr. M'Cormick's machine in cutting an acre of wheat on Mr. Mangles' farm, near GuUdford, and which should have been tweuty-four minutes and not/o/-/y-four as there stated. We also submit an account, by Messrs. Garrett and Son, of Leis- ton, of the origin and progress of their machine, to the successful working of which testimony is borne by a number of farmers, amongst whom we recog- nize the names of many well known as ranking in thelist ofthemostable and intelligent that thecounty of Suffolk can produce — no mean commendation. It appears from the statement of the Messrs. Gar- rett that their reaping machine is an American machine, introduced to their notice by the Hon. Thomas Tollemache, M.P. ; and in which they have effected some improvements. It is not stated by whom this machine was made in America. Thus, then, the race of competition will be, untQ other competitors appear, between an American machine in the hands of an American, Mr. M'Cormick, and another American machine, in the hands of one of the best English agricul- tural implement makers of the day. The southern harvest, especially for wheat, may be said to be com- pleted ; but, by progressing gradually northwards, there is yet a month during which the judgment of the " northerns" may be obtained on these machines. We would therefore recommend the owners of both reaping machines to avail them- selves of the remainder of the season to exhibit them in operation ; and we would advise our northern agriculturists to make the necessary arrangements for trials, and to invite these gen- tlemen into their respective districts, taking care to give timely notice, so that as large a number of farmers as possible may have an opportunity of witnessing the working of the machines. It is as much the interest of the owners of these imple- ments as of the agricultural class that this course should be adopted, for they may rely upon it that their machines will never get into general use until they have successfully undergone the test of prac- tical experience. REAPING CORN BY MACHINERY. The announcement of a machine for the purpose of cutting wheat and other crops, will, no doubt, be received with equal surprise and satisfaction by the farmers of this country. The want of an implement that would supersede the scythe, sickle, and hook, and all their expensive contingencies, has long been felt, and it is with a feeling of pleasure that R. Garrett and Son now introduce to their connexion one that is calculated to work an important change in harvesting operations. The implement referred to is of American invention. The plan of it was first suggested to the manufacturers by the Hon. Thomas Tollemache, M.P. for Cheshire, who had seen one at work in America, and from whose accurate description they were enabled to proceed with the construction of one for trial. Prior, however, to its completion, a machine was procured from America through Mr. Tollemache's instrumentality, which served still further to enable the makers to render the one they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 273 were constructing efficient and complete. It was entered for exhibition in the Crystal i'alace in April last, since which time a ?reat deal of attention has been bestowed upon it, with a view to have it ready for trial during the present harvest, and R. Garrett and Son have now ho hesitation in affirming that, as a new implement, it has far exceeded their expectations, and is every thing that could be desired. It will cut wheat with great facility, and in a manner far superior to that done by hand ; the corn being cut more regularly, and the stubble left more even and perfect. Two horses, a man, and lad will do about an acre per hour ; but with a change of horses and long days, a much larger space might be gone over if necessity required. The corn is delivered in heaps of a proper size for a sheaf, and laid even so as to be as easily tied up as it could be from the sickle. It is most easy of management, and almost impossible to put it out of repair, the shape of the knives being such as to keep them always in good cutting condition, and to work fora wliole season without even requiring to be sharpened. It has been tested on lands ploughed flat, as well as on stetches or ridges, both lengthways aud across the furrows, and in every case the result has been perfectly satisfactory. The construction of the machine is very simple. The corn is cut by a series of triangular knives, placed on a horizontal sliding bar, intersecting or working between a like series of iron tines, which are fi.xed to a wooden platform, provided to receive the corn as it falls. Motion is communicated to the knives by means of a crank-shaft, worked by the revolution of the travelling wheel of the machine. As the implement pro- ceeds in its work, the com is received and cut between the knives and tines, and falls on the stage, from which it is raked off at intervals by the man in attendance for that purpose. The advantage of cutting corn aud other crops by machinery ■will be too ohviou3 to require much comment. Independent of the great saving of expense in manual labour, which alone is very considerable, the advantage of increased expedition can- not be overrated in a climate so variable and uncertain as our own, where it not uufrequently occurs that there is great diffi- culty in harvesting the crops in good condition. R. Garrett aud Sou have been very desirous that the ma- chine should be publicly tested during the present harvest, and for this purpose have had it at work daily on their farm adjoin- ing the Works, at Leiston, cutting the different crops. The following is a copy of the certificate signed by those gentlemen who have witnessed its performance up to the date of this circular. Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, Suffolk, Aug. 20, 1831 , We the undersigned have seen Messrs. Garrett's Corn Reaping Machine at work, at their farm, near the Works at Leiston, and are perfectly satisfied with its operation. J. G. Cooper, Blybro' Lodge, Wangford, Suffolk, Thos. E. Capon, Darsham, Yoxford, Suffolk, A. Stanford, Hinton, Yoxford. Suffolk, r. Stanford, Darsham, Yoxford, Suff.>lk, R. Bond, Sternfield, Saxrauudham, Suffolk, J. R. Cooper, Huntingfield, Yoxford, Suffolk, Geo. Bond, Earl Soham, Framlingham, Suffolk, Thos. Freeman, Henhani, Wansrfurd, Suffolk, Jno. Gobbitt, Iken Hall, Woodbriilge, Suffolk. Robt. Crisp, Leiston Abbey, near Saxmiindham, John P. Budd, Wickham-raarket, Woodbridge, B. Spurling, Shotley, Ipswich, lleury Clark, Parliam, Woodbridge, Geo. Largent, Eyke, Woodbridge, Geo. Diirrant, St. Margaret's, Bungay, Geo. F Pretty, Wingtield, Woodbridge, John Chandler, Middleton, Saxmuudham, Isaac Everett, Capel, near Ipswich, J. Wase, Bruisyard, Saxmuudham, George Geduey, Eye, Samuel Cross, Wantisden, Woodbridge, Jno. Foulsham, Sixmundhara, John Sliibley, Rendham, Saxmuudham, J. Hart, Framlingham, Francis Peacock, Blakenham, Ipswich, Wn-i. Collins, Framlingham, H. S. Wood, Blakenham, Ipswich, C. Kersey, Framsden Hall, Stonham, R. Kersey, Hadleigh, H. Hambey, Ipswich, R. Last, Aldeburgh. Tiios. Crisp, Gedgrave, Woodbnil^e, H. Muller, Aldeburgh Hall, S. A. Woods, junr., Westleton, Saxmundham, T. Mayhew, Westleton Rectory, R. Holmes, Saxmuudham, L. O. Cottingham, Leiston Hall, Saxmundham, lleury Shaw, Wisset, Halesworth, ,lohn Burgess, Cratfield, Halesworth, J. Brooke, Sibtou Park, Saxmundham, Geo. Payne, Sibton, Saxmundham, Jno. Grimsey, Leiston, near Saxmundham, J. C. Blathwayt, Leiston Rectory, Saxmundham, G. A. Whittaker, Knoddishall Rectory, Saxmundham, M. Mitchell, H. M. Inspector of Schools. M'CORMICK'S AMERICAN REAPING MACHINE. This implement, which, it will be seen from our Exhibition article, has carried away one of the council medals, is now per- forming a highly successful experimental tour through the country. It commenced operations at Tiptree Farm, and was next heard of at Faruingham ; then its capabilities were dis- played at Mr. Mangles's ; and yesterday it was shown at work OQ the large farm attached to the Agricultural College at Ciren. cester. The season of the year and the ecla> of the Great Ex- hibition pressut the inventor with unusual facilities for demonstrating practically the value of his machine. While the harvest is in progress he will Cud little difficulty in showing it off, wherever he desires to do so, before a numerous aud dis- cerning body of spectators ; aud, for the rest, there will be no disposition to disparage an addition to our agricultural me- chanics which is not only well-timed, but highly important in its character. In this country, dense as our population is, it has not been found sufficient to meet the requirements of harvest time, aud during the autumn months the usual currci t of the labour-market is disturbed to such au extent that hordia of miserable wretches are induced to come over from Ireland by the prospect of earning a few weeks' decent wages. Where this means of relief does not reach the farmer he scours the dis- tricts of country near him which have the greatest supply of hands. Poachers and idlers who during the rest of the year do little or nothing to earn au honest livelihood are taken into employment; the workhouses are temporarily relieved from their load of pauperism, and under the pressure of a sudden emergency the superabundant supply of the labour-market, the crying evil of the country, is for a moment unhealthily, because unnaturally absorbed. What is the consequence of this ? In rural parishes the adaptation of the number of hands capable of working to the wants of each district is found impossible. If you cut the population down to the level of the re-ular demanrf, the excessive requirements of harvest overtake you, aud you lose more while waiting at the critical moment for hands to se- cure your corn than you have gaiued by all your regard for poor-rate economy. The American reaping machine, a very simple implement, the chief wonder connected with which is that it has not been long ago in operation throughout Great Britain, presents us with the means of curing all this. The reader will bear in miud that, being quite a new invention, it is no doubt capable of many improvements that would add vastly to its efficiency, but even now, drawn by a pair of horses aud requiring two men to work it, on a very moderate average it will cut 15 acres of corn per day. Every agriculturist can readily realize to himself benefit which such an implement must confer— the saving which it effects in the enormous expense of harvesting opera- lions, the extent to which it relieves him from the necessity of having any unusual supply of labour within call to meet emer- gencies, aud, above all, the power which it gives him in au un- certain climate like ours of securing his crop at those critical moments and during those golden hours when the weather permits. That this invention should come to us from America is not surprising, when the agricultural system of that country, the breadth of land under cultivation, and the want of hands to clear the crop when ripened, are remembered. We suffer from that necessity in a less degree, and if we adopt this ma- chine, its greatest use with us will be the new defence it puts into the hands of our agriculturists against the vicissitudes of the climate. It not only saves us from the delay which arises in getting work-people together, but it enables us to cut our T 2 274 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. crops with a rapidity which the largest supply of labourers did not enable us formerly to command. With all thpse ailvautasf^s to recommend it, the public will not be surprised to hear that this implement is attracting an immense amount of attention and interest ataong farmers. On its first successful trial at Tiptree the agriculturists present raised a cheer. At Farning- ham the enthusiasm manifested was still greater ; and yester- day at Cirencester there was no lack either of curiosity or approval among the crowds assembled. It was tried on barley, wheat, and oats, and under circumstances fairly calculated to test its merits. To say that where corn is badly lodged or thin, or where the land is rough with stones, its success is only partial, is to state what everybody of sense would expect, for machines must have fair play shown them, and it is the duty of the farmer so to cultivate his soil that mechanical facilities can be brought to bear upon it with every reasonable advantage. Yet it is wonderful how well, coming upon a system of agriculture totally unprepared for it, the American reaper does its work. A stubble longer and more irregularly cut will occasionally mark a spot whene the crop was so trampled or borne down that it could not be well got at ; but, wherever it stands at all well, it is removed with perfect pre- cision and evenness, both on level land and on the most rapid declivities and curves. This was fully shown yesterday, the fields where the experiments were made presenting a very un- dulating surface. There cannot be a doubt that if the machine is taken up in this country as it ought, it will speedily under- ,go extensive improvements. We see no reason why it should not be made to deliver the crop after cutting it, thereby dis- pensing with the use of one man, whose sole occupation is to rake off the receiving board its accumulations, and whose labours will be better estimated when it is remembered that the imple- ment gets over fifteen acres per day. With respect to cost also tiiere appears room for a reduction of price, which would render its adoption far more rapid and general than it can be if the present charge of £28 be maintained. There is nothing in the nature of the machine which should render it so ex- pensive. The farmers of Cotteswold appeared greatly pleased with the experiments of yesterday, and assembled to witness them in numbers which did credit to their enter(irise and their desire to go ahead, 'i'hey are generally a substantial body of men, with large holdings, and vastly superior in almost every respect to their brother agriculturists on the low grounds ; but they pay their labourers wretchedly ill, pursuing in this an economy which is both shortsighted and cruel. We were glad to be present at a series of experiments which drew so large a number of practical men round the college of Cirencester for information. Whether it has been oppressed hitherto by the patronage of the great, or by over-building, or by inappropriate management, that institution, founded for the best and noblest objects, has not succeeded in securing what can alone give it strength and permanence — the good opinion and support of farmers. The incident of yesterday looks auspicious, and is, we trust, the commencement of a new era in the history of the college, the managers of whicli should avail themselves of every opportunity to establish a feeling among the agricultural com- munity which surrounds them that may enable them to circu- late freely and witthout prejudice the increasing light which is pouring in upon the science and practice of farming. Among those who witnessed the operations of the reaping-machine were Earl Bathurst and a party of friends, which included the Duke and Duchess of Bedford. — Times. THE CONICAL FLOUR MILL. (from the mark lane express.) The general principles enunciated in the remarks which we have made above, in reference to the " reaping machines," will apply with equal force to the " Conical Flour Mill," which we have noticed upon several occasions. Millers, any more than farmers, will not be induced to expend money in new machinery unless clearly demonstrated to possess practical advantages. We have now before us a prospectus of " The Conical Flour Mill Company," which has just been issued, and in whicli Will be found a comprehensive description of the origin of the invention, the principle upon which it works, the advantages over the present system of manufacturing flour, the result of trials made in competition with one of the best steam- mills in the neighbourhood of London, and the opinions of bakers who have used the flour. From this prospectus, which may be obtained by ajjpli- cation at the office of the company, either per- sonally or by letter (see advertisement), we learn that Mr. Westrup, the inventor, has been "himself a miller all his life," a circumstance which we re- gard as of great importance, and which induces us fully to concur in the language of the pros- pectus, which says — " We have more confidence then in the soundness of an in- vention, which has sprung from the persevering iiiseuuity of the same class of men to which the world already owes so many of its important and profitable improvements in the use- ful arts — that manufacturing class whose daily labours make them best acq jainted with the defects of tlieir trade, and whose mechanical genius suggests the simplest and most efficient means of remedying them." The principle of " the Conical Flour Mill" is thus described in the prospectus : — " To appreciate the superiority of a new principle of grinding, it is first necessary to understand the defects of the old. " For a pair of stones 4 feet diameter, an engine of 4-horse power, actual, is required. The lower stone is fixed ; the upper one, weighing 14 cwt., revolves, the grinding surface working at a mean velocity of 15184 feet per second, when the stone makes 120 revolutions per minute, the average number for this power. Through a hole of tea inches diameter, called the eye, in the middle of this revolving stone, the wheat enters, and is drawn between the stones and ground, the stones being slightly chiselled out in lines, called dressing, to produce the grinding surfaces. " So heavy a weight, flying round at this high velocity, soon crushes the wheat, and reduces the contents to flour, when it ought immediately to escape, but cannot ; so large is the area of the stones, so great is the pressure of the top stone, and so clogged up do they become by the sticky meal having to travel so far. Thus, from the instant that the meal is retained be- yond the time required to grind it, deterioration commences, and power begins to be uselessly consumed in getting it out of the way, which it can only do very slowly ; for every particle must describe a volute, with minute, but gradually enlarging circles, until it gets to the edge, or skirt, of the stone, and is discharged. And were the co-elRcient of friction resistauce to the centrifugal velocity ascertained, the actual distance the meal is subject to this grinding action could be determined. But it must be very great, circling rcuad a stone of 4 feet diameter, the friction resistance of an adhesive substance like meal to the centrifugal action is so considerable. It is thus easy to see how some portion of the bread-making properties of the flour must be destroyed by so much unnecessary tritu- ration, and how much power must be consumed in getting rid of a material so retarding as meal, beyond that required merely to grind the wheat. " The conical mill obviates these defects to as great an extent as is practicable, because it is the nearest approach to natural mechanics; and the more closely man imitates those mechanical principles which the Great Mechanic thought best adapted for the purpose when he made animate machines, the nearer is absolute perfection reached. For we may be veiy sure that there must be excellent reasons why his coutrivai;cts are best, though we fail to discover tliem. AVe can see, how- ever, with what admirable economy of power the jaws of the horse are contrived to grind his corn. The heavy, head- bearing, upper jaw is fixed; the lower cue moves, and being of little weight, requires but little power to move it. It is also an upward pressure, so that no weight rests upon the corn, as in the present erroneous system. Its pressure, therefore, is exactly proportioned to the work it has to do, and no more ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 270 whilst the lovrer grinders, with their serrated edges, may be likened to little raillstcnes of small surface, which, with a semi-rotary motiou, reduce the corn to meal. Designedly or not, tlie conical mill is on precisely the same principles through- out. The upper stone is fixed, the lower one revolves ; and instead of being 14 cwt., like the upper revolving stone of the present mills, is only 1 cwt. 2 qrs. Thus the upward pressure is as nicely proportioned as the liorse's jaw; sufficient only to open, not to crush, the corn. It is, too, of small surface, like the grinders of the horse ; and set at au angle not many de- grees removed from that of the horse's jaws. " These natural principles of grinding, Mr. Westrup has very ingeniously carried out. Instead of having one small conical surface, whereby some of the meul would be re-ground, and the stones become clogged, though not to the same extent as on the old principle, he divides even this smaller surface into two, by having two pairs of conical stones on the same shaft, the lower pair about 2 feet 3 inches beneath the upper, so that each surface is only as 1 to 334 of the old. And to prevent any portion being re-ground, the first object to be avoided in good milling, there are vertical brushes fixed to the shaft, between the two pairs of stones, extending to a radius of 14 or 15 inches, and nearly touching a fine meshed cylinder that surrounds the whole mill. No sooner then is the fine flour liberated from the uppei stones than it is sent through the cylinder by these revolving brushes, whilst all that will not go through has not been sufficiently ground, and so passes down into the second pair of stones, which complete the process." As regards the advantages over the present sys- tem, the result of trials made in competition with the present system, we cannot do hetter than place before onr readers an extract from the report of the engineer who superintended the trials (Mr. Smith), who says : — "From these experiments 1 draw the following conclusions in favour of the conical flour mill. First, as regards the pro- duce ; second, as regards the pow er required ; third, as regards the advantages. " 1st. The loss in grinding is less, and the produce of the more valuable portions of the wheat is increased ; that is, the husk of the clavel is more thoroughly deprived of the flour by the patent than by the ordinary method. The quality of the flour is also materially better by the patent plan, and being stronger, it makes a greater quantity of bread. "The conical mill also produces a flour from some of the cheaper wheats as strong as can be obtained from many of the dear foreign 'wheats, which is also a source of economy. " The bran is produced perfectly open, and clean, and so much larger as to shew that it, and consequently the flour, has not been so much destroyed by constant grinding as in the ordinary process. " 2nd. As regards the power. The ordinary work of a pair of 4 feet French stones is 3 J^ bushels per hour; and the power required is 4 horses' power. " But the conical flour mill will grind nearly 7 bushels per hour, with only four horses' power, so that there is a saving of nearly one-half of the cost of the steam-power, fuel and labour usually employed ; besides making a better article. " 3rd. As regards the advantages of the conical mill, inde- pendent of its economy. "The meal leaves the stones so cool that it may be dressed at once, instead of waiting to become cool, as in the usual plan ; an advantage of great value iu practice. " The stones being only 2 feet G in diameter, and not weigh- ing more than C cwt., and the ordinary pair of stones weighing 28 cwt., and being 4 feet iu diameter, the new mill is more portable for country or export mills. " The arrangements for adjusting the relative distances of the stones from each other are much more complete than the usual mo le, admitting of a nicety hitherto unknown. "The feed likewise is on a new and improved plan; being self-acting, it is easily adjusted, and cannot stop olf : and the whole gear and tackle may be much lighter than on the old plan. " It is proper to say, in conclusion, that I consider the Patent Mill was severelv tested by my trying it against one of the best ordinary mills I could find— the Anchor Steam Flour Mills of Messrs. Pavitt, at Wapping, which are noted for their ex- cellence. They are certainly superior to the average, and were in excellent working order ; and the best pair of stones they had was chosen." As regards the certificates of the bakers who have used the flour, we must content ourselves with observing that they are of the most conclusive and satisfactory character. It will be seen from the ])rospectus, which we recommend all those who possess or desire to take an interest in so impor- tant an undertaking, to jn-ocure, that " It was after twelve months' experience, and very careful trials against one of the best steam flour-mills on the old prin- ciple, that the Directors of this Company (some of them well known in the trade to be largely connected with the present system) became so satislic.l of the superiority of the new prin- ciple, as to agree to purchase the exclusive patent right, with the view of forming a company for its introduction, believing it will be a good investment, and of great public benefit." Thus, then, it must be noted that this invention is not the offspring of the brain of a mere theorist, who, having learnt the defects of the present system of manufacturing flour, might seek to devise a remedy, neither has the bringing it before the pubhc been en- gaged in hastily, or by men practically unacquainted with the business. As we stated when we first in- troduced the " Conical Flour Mill" to the notice of the trade, we feel a confidence in the soundness of the principle, because men well known practically in the trade have sedulously and perseveringly ex- amined into its merits, and have unhesitatingly pronounced a well-considered verdict in its favour. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— SEPTEMBER. Retrospect. — The meteorological diary will convey an idea of the changeable weather and cool temperature which prevailed from the date of the last calendar till the 29th of July, when a change took place that introduced the warm and perfectly dry weather of the following fortnight. This had great maturing influence upon the crops. Rain became desirable, and some short, brisk showers fell on the 14th and I7th Aug., when again the barometer began to ascend. Vegetables have been abundant ; and in shady situations a fair supply of I red currants and gooseberries is still continued. Potatoes remained fine and healthy till the end of ' the first week, so far as my own observation could decide; but at length, about the 10th, some dis- coloration in the haulm of the earlier varieties be- came apparent ; the later plants, even when close adjoining to those so touched, remained verdant. The suddenness of the attack (even admitting a pre-existing taint in the tubers planted) perplexes 276 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. us, and leaves the judgment as much in the dark as ever. The yellow tint of healthy maturity still prevails; hut it is quite a different thing from that scorched hlackness of the leaves, accompanied with a blotching of the stems, which characterises the real disease. As yet (18th) the tubers in the market have no defect excepting a black spotting of the skin, which requires a good deal of attention in preparing them for the table. We will watch and report the progress of the threat before closing the article. Operations in the Vegetable Garden. 1. Broccoli — transplant into a plotof ground, or in trenches, dog deeply, and made rich with spit dung, improved by true Peruvian guano— the proportions must ever be dependent upon qualities. If the manure be very old and black, it amounts to little more than decayed humus and charcoal, the am- monia and neutral salts having been lost by fer- mentation and washing. One shovel of guano to a large barrowful would restore those substances, and, moreover, superadd bone-earth and the urates. As a practical hint, I may here suggest that horse- droppings, scraped from the public roads, and sheep dung, if procurable, half-decayed, and thus blended with sound guano, constitute excellent manures for those who keep no stock of any kind. Prick out some of the August sown cabhage- seedlings. Plant out cabbage-nurse-plants, cole- worts for greens, and savoys. 2. Cauliflowers, sown in August, may be transferred to a nursery bed, about the middle of the month. The plants which were set out in July for Michael- mas should be encouraged by hoeing, drawing fine earth around the stems, and if the weather prove very dry and warm, should be assisted by forming the earth like a basin, and supplying a quantity of weak guano-water (^ ounce to the gallon), once or twice in the interval using only soft water. Thus very fine and large cauliflowers can be obtained in October. Mushrooms — September is their best natural season ; in it also the spawn should be provided, either for making out-of-door beds, or for spawning the beds in houses. Truly, unless there be a strong fancy for these Agarics, the trouble they occasion is not remunerated. In proof of this the lengthy ar- ticle given by Abercrombie, in Tegg's new edition of " Every Man his own Gardener," may be con- fidently referred to. Celery — plant a trench or two in the first week, and again, finally, about the third week. Every plant selected should be strong, well grown, and have every offset shoot carefully removed. Earth up the earUest plants fully and at once : they will soon be blanched for table use. Tie up endive, and cover some with pots. Winter spinach, sown in August, should be thinned to stand an inch or two apart : if kept clean by the hoe, and the weather prove fine, some may be taken soon in thinning order for table use. If a crop have failed, I have seen good plants raised even when the seed was sown early in September. Scarlet runner beans will continue to bear well, if strong frosts do not occur ; but care should be taken to gather every pod, not leaving one to ripen its seed. Weed the last sown young onions, and carefully take up and dry the ripened bulb crop, if any re- main on the beds. Turnips — hoe out to six or eight inches, bulb from bulb, and clear the ground from weeds. In digging the early shaws {potato) remove every tuber, if possible, from the spot. Small salading — sow early on warm borders, or, what is better after the middle of the month, in frames. Transplant in frames also the lettuce sown in August ; some of the hardiest brown vai'ietiea may be tried upon open ridges with a trench on each side ; they thus are less affected by moisture and wet ground. Collect ripe seeds : those of the cauliflower should be kept in the seed vessels, exposed to sun till quite dry ; when the seed may be rubbed out, and kept in a brown paper packet. Hardy Fruit Department. Strawberries — Give the earliest attention to new plantations : August, if the weather be showery toward the middle of the month, is the fitting period; but as it has been, and is, droughty, the runner- plants will be in general indifferently rooted ; we must, therefore, take advantage of the early moist days of September. Many planters — the truly great T. Andrew Knight, among others— made it a rule to form new beds every year; but the trouble is great, and ray experience has proved that fine and highly flavoured berries will be abundantly produced by plants of the third summer. Garden- ers who have ample space ought to choose new ground ; but others, where it is limited, must trust to two feet deep trenching, raising the lower earth, and forking much manure into the bottom ; or, they must introduce a good stratum of unctuous and strong loam from without. Plant the best rooted plantlets of those first produced ; water till faii'ly established, if dry ; and v/hen so, mulch round each with decaying horse-droppings and leaves — spent brewers' hops are sometimes em- ployed, or decaying tanners' bark. The plants should be placed, if in single border row, two feet apart, or if in beds, in rows at that distance, 15 or 18 inches asunder in the rows. Peaches and nectarines ripen : go over these and all other wall trees, to see that the fruit-bearing THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 i shoots are firm in their places. Remove a few leaves if the fruit be darkened or shaded too much, but still a slight covering of foliage is moi'e bene- ficial than otherwise. Wasps and flies, ants and earwigs, are horrible pests : phials of sugar or honey-water, suspended here and there among the branches, catch many of the two former; but per- haps the best security for the peach and nectarine would be found in thin crape and gauze bags. Coe's Golden Drop plum, and the Imperative merit protection by netting. Vines — cut hack all the secondary laterals, and such new shoots, everywhere as are not wanted for next year's bearing wood ; admit sun enough to colour the grapes, but do not cut off any leaf that accompanies the fruit. Protect the fruit by bag- ging the best clusters. Prepare for October planting by thorough deep trenching, and draining to an extent that will re- move the possibility of stagnant water. Fruits under Glass. Pmes. — Fire will be occasionally required for autumnal fruit ; great heat by night need not be raised ; but solar light and heat, with air, cannot well be too powerful by day, and the sashes should be closed in the afternoon. If the old system of fruiting pines in large pots for the next summer be still practised, let the best full-grown plants (if not already finally shifted), go at once, ball entire, into their largest pots, and be plunged either in their bark bed, which should be revived by sufficient new tan well incorporated, or into a bed of earth or other material heated by tank and hot- water pipes. Sand and charcoal dust made and kept just sensibly moist, has always appeared to me the purest of media, and little inclined to sink or diminish. A fine collection of large plants plunged — the pots being at least two feet asunder, in three or four rows — presents a noble display. More of this hereafter. Vines, now ripening, are to have abundance of air, with occasional increase of temperature by early lighted fires, as external cold increases. Dampness, however, is the insidious enemy most to be guarded against. Dry air appears to be the best preventive of mildew, for sulphur is and must ever be objec- tionable (I have just received a statement that mil- dew occurs in Hertfordshire). Flower and Ornamental Departments- Scarlet geraniums. — Continue to take cuttings just below a joint, and plant them each, with a trifle of silver sand, in a hole made in a sheltered place ; they will soon take root, or become in a state to be potted off. Verbenas may be put into stoi'e pots, selecting proper cuttings at a joint, on some of which root processes are already developed ; numbers of plants for the parterre system can be struck and kept in cold pits. All the greenhouse plants in the open ground that are to be preserved, should be carefully taken up at once, potted in decayed turfy loam and heath soil, and placed in glazed pits, covered and shaded till the roots be established. Clear all the plots and borders from weeds, leaves, and decaying plants, and make the surface-earth trim and neat ; clip the box edgings and sweep the walks. Standard roses should not be pruned, but be merely deprived of ill-placed decaymg wood and seed vessels. The varieties called perpetual are to be looked over, removing dead flowers and un- sightly portions of shoots, cutting so as only to assist the free advance of the new shoots, which, if the weather be propitious, will furnish another set of beautiful flowers, perhaps till mid November. Deprive every tree of wild wood shoots. Water about the roots freely, once or twice, if September be dry and warm. Select the best placed shoots of the crysanthe- nrnms, and support them in a neat figure, whether they stand against a fence, or in the open border, or in pots. Their varieties produce the best orna- ments of a kind and genial late autumn. Carnation layers, &\\A.pink pipings, when rooted, should be planted in rows or pots. The shrubberies require much attention to pre- serve neatness of order, by judicious management of the deciduous and evergreen shrubs. The lawns must be timely rolled, and occasionally mown and swept. The greenhouse ought to consist of two depart- ments—one for the soft-wooded plants, of which the show pelargoniums form the type ; the other, for those with hard wood, or numerous hair-hke root-fibres: among these are the heaths \n particular. Epacris, azalia, camellia, and the like, may in- habit the same department; for all prefer a cool and airy situation, with general freedom from hot sun. A good double-aspected house, with span roof, may furnish every requirement. Final Retrospect. — The atmosphere is still very warm, full 75°, and 30 degs. higher in the sun at 3 or 4 p. m. Verdure in some degree fades, but harvesting progresses most rapidly. I perceive no increase of discoloration in potato foliage ; and hear that the tubers are little, if at all, affected : our supply improves in mealiness. Turnips suffer from the heat and lack of rain. The barometer declines a little at the moment, but is very high : 24 hours' rain, if not attended with heavy hail (as lately mentioned) would be very beneficial. Croydon, Aug. 21, J. TowEBS, 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Day. 8 a.in. lOp.ra Aug 22 23 24; 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 , 1 2 i 7j 8 9,' 10 11 12 13 ]4 15 16 171 18; 19; 20| 211 ill. cts. 30.03 29.90 29.50 29.49 29.63 29.90 29.94 29.83 29.90 30.01 29.86 30.00 30.06 30.10 30.28 30.25 30.12 30.04 30.06 30.08 30.10 30.10 30.00 29.98 29.90 30.00 29.95 30.10 30.34 30.33 30.20 in. cts. 29.96 29.69 29.52 29.54 29.77 29.94 29.83 29.90 30.00 29.90 29.86 30.04 30.09 30.20 30.25 30.17 30.04 30.04 30.06 30.08 30.10 30.09 29.90 i 29.88 29.98 29.95 29.88 30.26 30.33 30.20 30.08 Wind and State. Direction. Easterly, S.E. Easterly, S.E. \V. by North Northerly Westerly W., South S. West S. West W.byS., N.E W.S.W. Westerly W. by South West N. East E. by N. E. by N. E. by N. E. by N. N. W., East N. N. West S. by East S. by East Every way S. West W. by North S. West S. West N. by W. by E. Easterly South, or by E. West by S. Force. gentle gentle gentle gentle calm lively lively gentle gentle gentle variab. lively lively brisk very b. very b. brisk lively gentle gentle gentle gentle gentle fresh gentle lively gentle gentle gentle gentle lively j At viosphere. Weath. 1 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10p.m. ! fine sun cloudy dry cloudy cloudy cloudy rain cloudy cloudy cloudy rain cloudy sun cloudy dry cloudy sun cloudy rain fine cloudy cloudy rain cloudy cloudy cloudy rain fine sun fine dry haze cloudy cloudy rain cloudy cloudy cloudy dry cloudy cloudy cloudy dry cloudy sun fine dry fine sun fine dry fine sun fine dry fine sun fine dry cloudy sun fine dry cloudy sun fine dry fine sun fine dry cloudy cloudy cloudy dry cloudy sun fine dry cloudy sun fine dry fine sun cloudy dry fine fine fine rain fine cloudy cloudy rain cloudy sun fine dry cloudy cloudy cloudy dry fine cloudy fine rain fine sun fine 1 dry fine sun fine dry fine sun fine dry fine sun fine dry estimated averages of august. Barometer. Thermometer. Hish. j Low. High. I Low I Mean. 36*26 I 29.35 : 82 I 41 I 61.6 real average temperature of the period. Highest. I Lowest. 1 Mean. 70.9 I 55.29 I 63.095 Weather and Phenomena. July 22 — Much cirro-stratus. 23 — Soaking showers, some thunder. 24 — Wet till 3 p.m. 25 — Pretty fine. 26 — Warm, hazy, cloudy. 27 — One heavy shower, splendid crimson sunset. 28 — Slight shower. 26— Genial maturing weather. 30 — Thunder masses, two or three rolls ; three hours rain. 31 — Cirro-stratus clouds. Lunations. — New moon. 28th day 2 h. 40 m. afternoon. August 1 — Closely warm, massive clouds. 2 — Fine lively day. 3— Very fine. 4 — Sultry hazy atmosphere. 5 — Strong easterly currents. 6. — Cloudy, with gleams. 7— Sultry heat. 8 — Fine and hot. 9 — Overcast. 10 — Cool morning; fine ripening day, 11 — Same. 12 — Close heat. 13 — Hottest day; thunder cumuli p.m., gloriously illuminated lightning. 14 — A gentle shower. 15 —Fine till afternoon; cloudy, hint of rain at night. 16 — Warm, generally overcast. 17 — Seve- ral brisk showers, lightning in the evening. 18 — Fine. 19 — Superb day, after a singularly keen night. 20 — Fine and hot, black rays about sunset. 2 1 — Very hot, green sky about sunset. Lunations. — First quarter, 4th day 5 h. 7 m. morning. Full moon, Uth day 9 h. 43 m. even- ing. Last quarter, 20th day 0 h. 08 m. morning. Remarks referring to Agriculture, — The cool showery weather of July retarded the harvest, but did the spring crops much service. The noble weather of the last three weeks has set all hands to work, and the labourers — chiefly shoals of Irish — have been numerous. Acres of the finest wheat have been cleared with great despatch, and some barley is also harvested. Heat and drought, however, have caused the turnips and swedes to cut a sorry figure. But otherwise — excepting partial scourgings of prodigious hail, so reported at least — a more propitious ingathering has rarely been witnessed. J. Towers. Croydon, J THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 279 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR AUGUST. The unusually fine weather experienced in all parts of the United Kingdom, up to the 25th of this month, was productive of the greatest advantages to the agricultural bod)'. In most of the forward districts in England the cutting of wheat became general about the l6th, and from that date to the l)eriod above stated immense breadths of corn were cut and carried in the best possible condition. The somewhat heavy rains which have since fallen have liad the eflfect of checking the progress of harvest work in the north ; nevertheless, it is gratifying to observe that, up to the period we are writing, little or no damage has been sustained, although in some exposed situations the crops have been laid by the lipHvy gales. Up to the present time the harvest is certainly forward, and our accounts in reference to the yield of the new wheat wear a most favour- able complexion. The samples exhibited and dis- posed of in Mark Lane from Essex and Kent have weighed from 62 to 64lbs. per bushel, and it is as- serted by those fully competent to judge of such matters, that this is nearly an average for many other districts. Should this estimate prove correct, we may safely assume that the quantity of wheat grown this year is considerably in excess of some former seasons. Of course much depends upon the state of the atmosphere between this and the mid- dle of next month, so far as regards the condition of the northern supplies ; but we may, we con- ceive, fairly argue in favour of an abundant general cro]). As regards the produce of spring corn, much difference of opinion prevails. Although liarley was mostly sown under unfavourable auspices, the yield promises much better than was the case a month since; and it cannot be doubted but that that of oats, beans, and peas, will be a good one. In all parts of the country the stocks of old wheat liave been reduced to a very low ebb ; indeed, they are now smaller than for some years past at this particular season ; yet the demand for all kinds, under the influence of immense impor- tations from abroad, and the fineness of the wea- ther, has been in a very depressed state, at a decline in the quotations during the month of from 3s. to 5s. per qr. Tlie same state of things has prevailed abroad, especially in France, where the value of flour has given way from 2s. to 2s. Cd. ])er sack, thereby offering greater inducements to parties from this side to speculate. The next matter for consideration is the ])otato crop. Notwith- standing that very favourable reports have come to hand on the subject, that the various markets are heavily supplied, and that all kinds are looking well, we are told by some parties that the mildew has firmly established itself. Now we freely admit that losses, common in all seasons, will be met with ; but we contend that the aggregate produce will be immense. It is stated that a singular dis- ease has made its appearance amongst beans. It is thus described :— " Its first appearance is that of papillary well-defined ])ustules, confined in its more normal form to the pods, varying considerably in size, perfectly smooth, and far brighter, and fre- quently darker in colour than the portion of plant on which they are developed. These pustules are beautifully transparent and very juicy, and present in their structure nothing to attract particular attention. There is no discoloration of the tissues at first ; and no a])pearance of disease except that of hypertrophy or excessive development. After a time, however, partial discoloration takes place, aa in so many forms of vegetable disease, and the walls of the cells become minutely granulated and red- dish-brown. This appearance soon extends to the cells at the apex of the pustules, which at length burst through the cuticle, and present the form of a rough black scab, the cells of which are of a dark rich-coloured brown, some inclining to carmine or purple." The crop of seed grasses, &c.,is turning out very good. New rapeseed has been sold as low as £21 to £22 per last; whilst linseed cakes have been worth only from £8 10s. to £9 10s. per 1,000. The general appearance of the carrot and turnip crop is good ; and we hear of very few losses from fly, &c. In the early part of the month very unfavourable reports reached us in reference to the hop bine, and the duty declined to £75,000; but since the 20th the accounts have greatly improved, and the betting has run up to from £100,000 to £105,000. The prospect of a return, however, is by no means good. Letters from Ireland and Scotland state that in the former country large quantities of wheat and oats have been carried in good condition; but in the latter the progress of harvest work has not been very satisfactory ; nevertheless a good average yield is pretty generally anticipated. The growth of fruit is turning out a large one, especially apples ; but the heavy imports from abroad have materially interfered with the home- growers' profits. 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding that prices have continued to rule exceedingly low in the whole of our large con- suming markets, but more particularly in Smith- field, a considerable increase has taken place in the imports of each kind of foreign stock into London. The supplies received during the past month have amounted to fully one-fourth of the total consump- tion in the metropolis. Thus it will be perceived that low currencies have failed to have the effect anticipated by some parties, viz., that they would produce a material falling off in the arrivals. In our last we alluded at some length to the state of the cattle trade abroad, and we have now to confirm in every leading particular the statements we then made. The efforts made by the Dutch agriculturists in supplying our markets with cattle have produced a corresponding degree of activity in some parts of Germany, as well as in Jutland, and the only drawback to increased im- ports from the latter country is the impoverished state of the soil, and the inferior condition in which the cattle are mostly shipped ; but it is scarcely possible, looking to the increasing means of the Jutlanders, and the improved modes of cultivating the land now introduced in some quarters, that matters will long remain in their present state. Half a century since, and it would have been consi- dered impossible for Scotland to forward to London from. 10,000 to 12,000 head of the finest beasts that can be produced in the United Kingdom ; and yet that number, which is wholly exclusive of the immense droves in a lean state which are disposed of at our various fairs, has been regularly trans- mitted during the last fifteen years. The Scotch have had to contend with an ungenial climate, and, in many instances, with a very poor soil ; and yet, to their credit be it said, by the introduction of improved modes of agriculture, and by the tempta- tion of a good market in the south, they have brought the fattening of beasts to the highest state of perfection. We might, also, refer to Norfolk, which, within the recollection of some persons, was a patch of sand ; and yet through chiefly the instrumentality of one person — we mean the late Earl of Leicester— its wastes were converted into land of the greatest fertility. And why should not the same results follow abroad ? The one thing needful — capital — so long required by the Dutch and other graziers, is now within their grasp ; and we should not be at all surprised were our imports of cattle to double their present amount within the next two or three years. The total returns of the stock disposed of in Smithfield are large ; but it is evident, on com.parison with most former corresponding periods, that the demand for home- fed beasts and sheep has fallen off. The inference, with other data, is that most farms are heavily stocked, with little or no prospect of any falling off in the number for a considerable period, unless indeed we should have a return of any epidemic fatality. That the introduction of foreign stock free of duty has checked the consumption of oil- cake, and rendered home-fed stock more dependent upon natural food, does not admit of a doubt. The following supplies of foreign stock have come to hand in the port London : — Head. Beasts 5,342 Sheep 24,342 Lambs 4,431 Calves 2,569 Pigs 2,009 IMPORTS AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS. Beasts. 4,185 Aug. 1847 1848 .. 2,526 1849 .. 2,913 1850 . . 4,277 Sheep. 18,489 14,266 15,981 17,376 Lambs. 874 871 1,179 2,370 Calves. 1,942 -- 2,135 — 1,000 302 1,945 581 It must be observed that only a portion of the above imports in the past month has been shown in Smithfield, large transactions having taken place in the lairs, &c., in the immediate neighbour- hood of the metropohs shortly after the landing of the stock fi'om the various steamers. The total supplies of English and foreign stock exhibited in Smithfield have been as under : Head. Beasts 20,317 Cows . 450 Sheep and lambs 181,900 Calves 2,648 Pigs 2,732 STOCK SHOWN AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS. Aug., Aug., Aug., Aug., 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. Beasts 19,073 17,975 18,133 19,390 Cows 878 497 454 475 Sheep and Lambs.. 225,390 153,280 173,620 181,490 Calves.,.. 3,860 3,840 2,480 2,348 Pigs 2,227 2,443 2,200 2,291 The quantity of English stock kept back from the metropolitan markets during the present year has been immense; and this must be apparent when we observe that, notwithstanding the abund- ance all over the country, since we last wrote, under 15,000 Enghsh and Scotch beasts, and 160,000 English sheep, have been on sale. Twenty years ago, when the pojiulation of London was barely 2,000,000 souls, the supply was in excess of those numbers. It may be that some of the local mar- kets—such as Romford, Southall, Croydon, &c. — have increased in importance ; but it is quite evi- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 dent that the undue advantagfes possessed by the foreigner are rapitily destroying the trade in the \ best market ever possessed by the EngUsh grazier — \ we mean, so far as regards the actual profits once derived from it. The bullock-droves from the north of England : have amounted to about 5,000 head ; from Norfolk, ; Suffolk, &c., the same number ; and from other parts of England, 1,500. The receipts from Scot- land, chiefly per steamers, have been confined to 558 horned and polled Scots. The average prices of English stock have been — for beef, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 6d. ; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd.; lamb, 3s. lOd. to 4s. lOd.; veal, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 6d. ; pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per Bibs., to sink the offal. The foreign beasts have changed hands at from Is. lOd. to 2s. 6d. ; the sheep, 2s. to 2s. 6d.; lambs, 3s. 6d. to 4s.; calves. Is. lOd. to 2s. lOd.; and pigs. Is. lOd. to 2s. 2d. per Slbs. In every instance, therefore, have our graziers been greatly undersold. COMPARISON OF PRICES. Per Bibs., to sink the offals. Aug., 1B47. Aug., 1848. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. Beef, from 3 4 to 5 6 2 10 to 4 4 Mutton 3 8 5 4 3 10 5 0 Lamb 4 10 6 2 4 0 5 2 Veal 4 0 5 0 3 6 4 2 Pork 4 0 4 10 3 8 4 6 Aug., 1849. Aug., 1850. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. Beef, from .... 2 8 to 3 10 2 6 to 3 10 Mutton 2 10 4 0 3 2 4 2 Lamb 4 0 5 0 3 6 4 6 Veal 3 0 3 6 3 0 4 0 Pork 3 2 4 0 3 2 4 0 Owing to the hot weather, very limited supplies of meat have been on sale in Newgate and Leaden- hall ; nevertheless, the general demand has ruled heavy, and prices have been with difficulty sup- ported. Beef, from 2s. to 3s. 4d.; mutton, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. ; lamb, 3s. 6d. to 4s. tid.; veal, 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; and pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 8d. per 8lbs., by the carcass. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF AUGUST. The low range of temperature experienced during part of July, and the occurrence of night frosts on one or two occasions in that month, had given rise to a considerable amount of uneasiness ; and when we last addressed our readers the probable result of the harvest was viewed with a good deal of doubt and apprehension. Large breadths of grain had been badly laid, and it was feared that the crops would be affected by blight and mildew, more especially on the fen lands in Lincolnshire, Cam- bridgeshire, &c. The uninterruptedly fine weather with which we have since been favoured has worked a most wonderful change: in the more backward districts the grain has been brought to maturity much sooner than could at one period have been expected, whilst the absence of rain (ex- cepting an occasional thunder shower) has enabled farmers in the south to secure the great bulk of their crops in the finest possible condition, and at less expense than in seasons when the work is in- terrupted by rain. Even in those districts where the corn had been lodged, it has been harvested with comparatively little trouble, and the extent of injury sustained from that cause is far less than it would have been had the weather been unsettled. Under these circumstances, we are disposed to take a higher estimate of the yield than we were at the close of July, and, from all the information wehavehitherto been enabled to collect, we have come to the con- clusion that the produce of wheat of the United Kingdom will amount to a full average in quantity, and that the quality will be finer than we have had for several years past. "We have scarcely heard of a lighter weight than 60 lbs. per bushel, and the general average will, we think, be close upon 63 lbs. The extra weight will assist to swell the amount, even where the acreable produce is not large, but we have heard of plenty of instances of a large quantity to the acre. Reaping was partially com- menced before the close of July, but did not become general until the 11th of August: since that period cutting and carrying have succeeded each other rapidly; the corn being thoroughly ripe and dry, was fit for carting almost as soon as cut, and in most of the counties south of the river Humber the greater part of the wheat and oats, and a considerable proportion of the barley and beans, have been housed. Peas are almost all saved. The spring-sown crops are variously estimated, but there are not many serious complaints. On some of the hot dry soils, barley has, it is said, yielded but indifferently, and we are disposed to think that the total quantity will hardly come U]) to that of good average seasons. Some of the samples of new leave little to be desired in regard to quality ; others are, however, thin and flinty, and are not approved of by the maltsters. Oats have not been very extensively'grown in England ; in proportion '282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to the breadth of land cultivated, the return will, we believe, prove tolerably good. In Ireland, a very large breadth was sown, and the accounts from thence speak very well of the crop ; the aggre- gate produce of the kingdom is likely, therefore, to be larger than it has been of late years, even if the growth of Scotland should (as is stated to be the case) prove somewhat short. Beans are a large crop in many districts, and peas far exceed the produce of last year, both in quantity and quality. There are, consequently, ample grounds for satis- faction resjjecting the result of the grain and pulse crops ; and, though it may be somewhat premature to speak thus positively while a large portion of the northern harvest is still abroad, we have strong hopes that our estimate will not prove too high. As regards potatoes, a definite opinion can hardly as yet be given, as the raising of the late or main crop has not hitherto been commenced ; we may, however, state that much less has been said about the disease since the fine dry weather set in than previously, and we are inclined to think that the disorder was checked thereby. The early sorts have produced abundantly, and are of excellent quahty ; and should the late kinds turn out well, the aggregate amount of human food raised in the British Islands would be greater than in any pre- vious season for some years past. We now come to the consideration as to what may ])robably be the future range of prices, and on this subject we can, we are sorry to say, hold out little encouragement to our agricultural friends. Experience has proved that, with free trade, supplies of foreign grain will come forward, whether wanted or not ; in fact, that the surplus growth of the rest of the world will be sent to this country. Last year our harvest was very deficient in quantity and inferior in quality, and it might therefore have been expected that nearly all the foreign grain whicli could be sent would not have depressed prices to a very low point ; but so greatly did the supply exceed the demand, that our farmers were unable to obtain anything like a remunerating re- turn ; and with the exception of a short time during the summer, when few of our growers had any- thing to dispose of, the average price of wheat for the kingdom rarely exceeded 40s. per qr. This rate cannot pay even with good crops ; but is it likely to be maintained under existing circum- stances ? We fear not. France, it is true, will not be in a position to supply us so largely with flour as she has done the last two years, but any falling off in the receipts from thence are likely to be more than counterbalanced by the increased shipments of that article from America, and of wheat from the north of Europe. Already, very capital new wheat, weighing 63lb9 per bushel, has been offered in the agricultural markets below 40s. per qr. And so soon as the harvest shall have been completed, many farmers will be compelled to thrash freely and sell at whatever price they may be enabled to obtain. The foreign competition is likely, therefore, to be severely felt ; and what we have all along maintained, viz., that Great Britain cannot grow wheat to compete with the American and Russian producer, whatever the seasons may be, will be further proved to the cost of our far- mers. The splendid harvest weather, and the in- creasingly auspicious reports from all parts of the kingdom in reference to the crops, have had their usual and natural results, and the grain trade has been excessively depressed ever since the beginning of the month. The depression has, no doubt, been aided by the constant arrivals from abroad, and the well-founded belief that the sup- plies of foreign breadstuffs will increase rather than fall off later in the year. Farmers have in general been too busily engaged in the fields to bring much corn to market, and in the first fortnight in August the deliveries from the growers were very short; since then, however, some increase has taken place. The weekly supply of wheat, coastwise, into the port of London has proved more than sufficient to satisfy the demand, and prices have tended down- wards at Mark Lane as decidedly as at any of the provincial markets, Liverpool included. The total decline since the close of last month may be fairly estimated at 5s. per qr. On Monday, the 4th inst., the town millers refused to buy until factors acceded to a reduction of 2s. per qr. on the rates current on that day se'nnight; the fall from that point up to the 11th of the month was Is. to 2s.; on the 18th a further reduction of Is.; and on Monday last, the 25th, prices were again Is. per qr. lower. No supply of new wheat worth naming appeared at market before the 18th inst., when we had up- wards of 1,000 qrs. from Essex, and about half that quantity from Kent, besides several lots from Cam- bridgeshire and Lincolnshire. The quality was without exception good, the greater part being fine, and some parcels very superior ; several samples weighing 65lbs. and some even 661bs. per bushel. The average weight was computed to be 63lbs. per bushel. Most of the red was sold at 40s., and the bulk of the white at 43s. to 44s.; picked lots of either sort Is. to 2s. per qr. higher. These may be considered the opening prices. Notwithstanding the well-grounded fears which were until lately felt in regard to the backwardness of the season, we find, on referring back, that the first supply of new wheat at Mark Lane last year appeared on the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 corresponding day as this year, viz., the third Mon- day in August. The prices then obtained, though deemed miserably low, were 3s. to 4s. per qr. higher than those now current ; the red brought 43s. to 44s., and the white 46s. and 48s. per qr. The dry condition in which the crops have been secured is Ukely to tell against holders of old foreign wheat, as ;i less quantity than usual will be needed for mixing; meanwhile the imports con- tinue on rather a liberal scale, and stocks in granary accumulate. The importation into the United Kingdom during the month ending 5th inst. consisted of 480,992 qrs. of wheat, and 4/3,448 cwts. flour. The arrivals into the port of London in the three weeks ending ^Srd August, have comprised 43,912 qrs. wheat, 5,605 sacks and 40,180 barrels flour. The country demand for foreign wheat has throughout the month been languid in the extreme, and the town millers have conducted their operations with much caution. Parties anxious to sell have therefore been under the necessity of lowering their pretensions in propor- tion to the fall on English wheat. The greatest decline has been on Danzig qualities, the supplies from thence having formed a large portion of the quantity received. Good mixed samples have lately been sold at 40s., and fair high-mi.xed at 42s. per qr., being very little above the quotations of similar sorts free on board at Danzig. Comparing these rates with those current at the close of last month, the fall will be found to be quite 5s. per qr. On red the reduction has not been so great ; but all, except picked quahties of J^ostock, have receded 3s. to 4s. per qr. at least, and the decline on the latter is considerable, it being at present difficult to exceed 42s. per qr., even for the best. The amount of business which has been done in floating cargoes has not been large, and the greater number of those arrived off Falmouth and Queens- town, from ports east of Gibraltar, have been ordered to Ireland and the Channel ports, on ac- count of the parties concerned ; it having been impracticable to effect sales floating. The present nominal quotation for Polish Odessa is 32s. to 33s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance ; and other de- scriptions might be had on corresponding terms, A novel attempt is being made to establish a simi- lar plan to that pursued in Mincing-lane with colonial produce, viz., to effect sales of grain, &c., by public auction. The success of this system would of course prove injurious to the interest of the cornfactors, who are consequently by no means disposed to favour the invention. The first sale was advertised to take place on the 25th inst. ; the brokers' rooms were crowdedly attended, but not by buyers ; and for want of bidders the whole of the property oflTered had to be bought in. Tlij ilour trade has been excec lingly dull throughout the month, the bakers having held ofli' in expectation of a reduction in prices; bnt hitherto the town millers continue to quote 39s. per sack as the nominal top ])rice : this can, however, hardly be taken as a rriterion of real value, house- hold flour having been sold on relatively low terms, and the receipts from France and America having also been offered at moderate rates. Nor- folk household is not now worth more than 27s. 6d. to 28s., and good to fine samples of French may be had at 30s. to 32s. per sack. The late arrivals from America have varied more in quality than is usual in the supplies from thence; a con- siderable part may be described as decidedly in- ferior, and only a small quantity as really fine : the former has been difficult of sale at 15s. to 18s., while the latter has brought 19s. to 21s. per barrel. The quantity of new English barley as yet brought forward at Mark Lane has been trifling, nor have the supplies at any of the markets in the agricultural districts been large. Relatively higher prices have therefore been obtained for this grain than for wheat. The ordinary malting sorts have sold at Mark Lane at 27s. to 2Ss., and fine lots at 29s. to 30s. per qr. Whether these rates will be maintained when sup])lies increase may be ques- tioned, but no immediate fall of importance seems likely to occur. Of grinding barley we have had ample arrivals from abroad, viz., 32,000 qrs. Quotations have been better supported than might under the circumstances have been expected, present prices being only about Is. per qr. below those current at the close of July. Malt has been rather more jn-essingly offered than it was last month, which we are inclined to attribute to the belief that the new barley will make a finer sample of malt than that of last year's growth, and that it may therefore be desirable to get out of stock as far as practicable before sup- plies of new increase. Sellers have, however, managed to obtain prices very little below those previously current, but the tendency has certainly been towards a decline. The arrivals of home-grown oats have been quite moderate; a few samples of new English and Irish have appeared, mostly of very satisfactory quality, and for such comparatively good prices have been realized : tlie principal business has, however, been in foreign, of which the great bulk of the supply has consisted. The large receipts of July have been followed by more aini)le arrivals than had been calculated on, and the effect of this has been to prevent any jjermanent rally in the value of the article : during the three weeks ending 23rd inst. the importations of foreign oats (principally from Russia) into London, exceed 105,000 qrs. Ou 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the first Monday in the month (3rd August) all kinds of foreign oats were quoted Is. to Is. 6d. per qr. lower. At this reduction the dealers showed some disposition to buy ; prices continued, never- theless, to recede, and on that day se'nnight a further fall of about 6d. per qr. occurred. The week following, the last-named decline was re- covered, to be again lost on the 25th, and prices may therefore be considered nearly 2s. per qr. lower than when we last addressed our readers. Low qualities of Russian oats, which were then worth 18s., have lately been sold at l6s., and good Riga and Archangel may at present be bought at l7s per qr. These low rates have failed hitherto to tempt the large dealers, and the trade has during the last eight or ten days been excessively heavy. The few samples of new beans which have ap- peared at luarket have proved of handsome quality, and have come to hand in excellent condition ; not- withstanding which, sales have been made with difficulty. Old beans have likewise hung heavily on hand, but no quotable alteration has occurred in prices. j Fair supplies of new peas have been received ; ' the fresh lots brought 28s. per qr., but since then very good boilers have been sold at 26s. per qr. Grey peas have receded in the same proportion, i and may at present be had at 25s. per qr. In old foreign peas there has been very little doing, and quotations have become almost nominal. In pro- portion as the reports from Ireland, in reference to the state of the potato crop, have improved, so has the inclination to make speculative purchases of Indian corn afloat abated. In the early part of the month a good many contracts were closed for this article free on board at distant ports, while there was httle demand for parcels arrived oflf the coast or close at hand ; latterly, however, the disposition to buy has in a great measure ceased, and few bar- gains have been concluded during the last week or two ; the last sales of which we heard were at 26s. 6d. per qr., including freight and insurance from Galatz ; but we question whether buyers at that price could now be met with. Less influence has hitherto been produced on prices of grain abroad by the continued dull ad- vices from hence than might have been expected ; still the tendency has been decidedly downwards, and notwithstanding the firmness which foreign holders have displayed, they will without doubt after a time have to accommodate themselves to circumstances, and come down in their pretensions. Some of the speculators at the principal Baltic ports are likely to lose rather extensively : they have bought all through the summer, and have kept quotations relatively above those which have been current iu this country, under the impression that the harvest in England would prove short, and British orders for the purchase of wheat, &c., would ultimately be received, and enable them to get out of their stocks profitably. In this, however, they have been disappointed, and it is probable that when supplies from the grower begin to increase, the prices abroad will be brought down to our level. The accounts respecting the harvest in Russia, Poland, and Germany are not, on the whole, favourable ; but it may be remarked that about the time the latest advices were despatched, the weather in those countries was wet, which circumstance no doubt influenced the tone of the accounts, and we are decidedly of opinion that the produce of the different kinds of grain in the north of Europe will be quite sufficient to afford a considerable sur- plus (over what will be wanted for local consump- tion) to ship to England, and that such supplies will sooner or later find their way to our shores. The most recent letters in town from Danzig are of the 22nd inst. Some days previous a large operator had purchased 62lbs. Polish high-mixed wheat at 41s. per qr., but the advance of Is. per qr. then established was not only lost subsequentl}', but oq the 22nd really fine qualities were offered at 39s. to 39s. 6d. per qr. free on board; and other descrip- tions at proportionate rates. The potato disease was believed to be very general in the neighbour- i hood of Danzig, and a materially increased con- sumption of rye was consequently calculated on ; for new, weighing 361bs. per bushel, the high price of 26s. per qr. had been paid. Vessels were rather plentiful, and there being little grain offering for shipment, freights had receded, and charters for London might then have been closed at 2s. 6d. per qr. The accounts from Konigsberg are of a similar character to those from Danzig ; but, allowing for the difference of quality, prices are lowest at the last-named place. i The yield of spring-sown corn is generally de- I scribed as good in most of the northern countries of Europe, and our Danzig and Konigsberg letters speak highly of the quality and quantity of the peas grown in those parts t a partial failure of the potato crop would therefore most likely be less felt than in former seasons. From the Lower Baltic ports the accounts in reference to the state of the potato crop are not so bad ; and as the grain harvest had made rapid pro- gress in Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Silesia, &c., the different markets had felt the influence of the dis- couraging English reports, though scarcely to an extent which might have been expected. Most of the accounts agree in stating that the quality of the new wheat will be fine, but in regard to the yield the reports are not so universally favourable; it is, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 285 however, pretty generally admitted that there is not j the cultivation of wheat has been materially ex- tended in southern Russia, and we may therefore, in case the harvest should have been tolerably well saved in that quarter, calculate on large autumn shipments from Odessa, &c. We have advices of recent dates from the United States ; the wheat crop was generally secured, but of Indian corn some quantity still remained abroad. The latter article was supposed to have suffered more or less, in consequence of protracted drought; but wheat had given a large return in quantity, and the quality was highly spoken of. Under these circumstances the discouraging English advices had had a depressing influence, and good shipping brands of Western Canal flour were obtainable at New York, on the l6th inst., at 17s. 5d. to 17s. 8d. per brl. Freights had fallen, and several par- cels of flour had been taken for Liverpool, at the low freight of Is. per brl. The exports of breadstufFs from the United States to Great Britain had been, since 1st Sept., 1850, from — much to complain of. Rostock letters of the '22nd August state that the bulk of the corn had been secured in excellent condition. Quotations were then — for 62lbs. wheat, 37s.; barley, of 52lbs. weight, 18s. 6d. to 19s.; and 38lbs. oats l6s. 6d. to I7s. per qr. free on board. At Stettin, on the 23rd instant, prices were drooping; red wheat (Stettin) of 60lbs. weight being then offered at 33s. 4d. ; Uckermark, GUlbs., at 34s. 5d. ; and Pomeranian, of 62lbs., at 35s. per qr. free on board. Spring corn was relatively high ; say, Pomeranian barley, of 52lbs., 18s.; and oats, weighing 37lbs., l6s. 6d. per qr. At the near ports the markets have been more readily aflected by the state of the trade here ; and the latest accounts from Hamburg state that during some days hardly a sale of wheat had been made for export ; the stocks being light, holders had re- fused to make such concession as to admit of the execution of the few orders received from hence. Good Wahren wheat on the spot, weighing 6 libs., had not been offered below 39s. 6d.; and mode- rately good 60 to 6 libs. Upland was then quoted 37s. up to 3Ss. 6d. per qr. free on board. From the Lower Baltic ports offers had been received at Hamburg to ship good 6] jibs, qualities at rates equal to 37s. 6d. per qr. free on board. No new Saale barley had appeared at market; the quality was well spoken of, and prices would open high, it was expected. From some parts of Holland the accounts in reference to the state of the potato disease are rather alarming, but the fears entertained on that subject do not appear to have influenced the grain trade, and the tendency of prices had been downward at most of the Dutch markets. In Belgium the crops of wheat, barley, &c., have generally yielded well, but potatoes are said to have been partially blighted. From France the reports as to the result of the crops are still contradictory, but it may be regarded as tolerably certain that the produce of wheat is considerably better than was at one time antici- pated. In many of the best wheat-producing de- partments the yield is stated to be a full average, and in few parts of France is the quantity said to be below that of average seasons. The quality is fine, and the weight heavier than last year. Prices being for the moment relatively higher in the French markets than in London, Liverpool, &c., compara- tively little is being shipped for England ; but there can be no doubt that later in the year considerable supplies of flour will reach us from thence. From the Black Sea ports notViing very definite is yet known as to the crops, but it is probable that Indian Flour. Wheat. Maize. Meal, brh. bush. bush. brls. New York, to Aug. 12. 981,235 1,012,283 1,412,313 1,637 New Orleans Philadelphia Baltimore Boston Other norts 2. 212,223 56,103 — 8. 122,837 273.542 537,045 3,91G 8. 75,339 33,080 133,644 — 9. 19.508 — 73,381 — 2. 15,203 — 27,000 — Same time last year 1,426,345 1,318,905 2,239,486 5,553 392,742 432,939 4,813,373 6,086 CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. Shiilin^npar Quarter Whtat, Essex and Kent, white 38 to 42 fineup to 46 Ditto ditto old .,40 43 „ 47 Ditto ditto red, new 38 40 „ 41 Ditto ditto old .... 35 40 „ 42 Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 35 38 „ 40 Ditto ditto old 36 40 „ 42 Ditto ditto white new 36 38 „ 43 Ditto ditto old 38 42 „ 43 Barley, malting, new 26 28 Chevalier 30 31 Distilling .^, 23 25 Grinding 21 2Z 24 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suif oik, new 44 46 extra 50 Ditto ditto old 45 48 „ 51 Kingstou,Ware,and townmade,new50 53 „ 55 Ditto ditto old 48 54 „ 56 Oats, English feed 17 18 fine 20 Potato 19 22 extra 25 Scotch feed 19 22 fine 24 Irish feed, white 17 18 fine 21 Ditto, black 16 18 fine 19 Byk 24 26 old 23 25 Beans, Mazagan 27 29 „ 22 29 Ticks 28 30 .,28 31 Harrow 28 31 .,30 32 Pigeon 29 31 „ 31 34 Peas, white boilers 25 27 „ 26 28 Maple 25 26 ,.26 27 Grey 25 26 „ 26 27 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — „ 34 39 Country marks — — » 28 S3 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IMPERIAL AVERAGES. JFOR THE LAST SiX WeEKS. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beaus Peas. Wees Ending : s. d. s. d. s. d. a. d. s. d. 3. d. July 12,1851.. 43 6 25 8 22 0 32 5 32 6 28 8 July 19. 1S51.. 42 7 25 6 21 11 28 2'31 5 28 6 July 26.1851.. 42 5 25 7 22 C 27 0 32 3 28 7 Aug. 2,1851.. 42 4 25 9 22 7 25 731 1 28 3 Aug. 9,1851.. 42 3 25 11 21 7 28 5 31 4 28 1 Aug. 16, 1851.. 41 4 26 4 21 9 27 0 30 8 27 2 Aggregate average of last six weeks 42 5 25 10 22 0 28 131 7 28 2 Comparative avge. same time last year 43 1 22 2 18 0 23 3 27 7 27 2 Duties 1 n 1 0 1 0 10 10 1 0 DIAGRAM SHOWINO THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT durino the six WEEKS ENDIXG AUGUST 16, 1851. Aug. 9. Aug le An Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom in the month ended 5th August, 1851, the Quantities upon which Duties have been paid for Home Consumption during the same month, and the quantities remaining in warehouse at the close thereof. Quantity remaining in warehou.se. Species of Grain. Wheat, from Britisli Possrssions Barley, do Oats, do Peas, do Maize or Indian Corn,do Wlieat, foreign Barley, do Oats, do Eye ... Peas, do. Beans, do Maize or Indian Corn, do Buckwiioat •... ... Malt .. Beer or Bigg . Flour from Critis sessions.. ...... Flour, foreign . ros- Quantity imported. qrs. bush 22S0 4 S9>7 6 3.597 0 478145 4 1111.33 2 2S4057 6 7506 5 1 82.>5 2 .39851 5 209711 0 434 2 cwts. qrs.lbs. 04542 8 2 ;3-f879 0 4 tered for consumption. qrs. bush. 2280 4 2957 6 3597 0 47871 2 5 1111.33 2 284057 e 7506 5 18255 2 89851 a 209711 0 434 2 cwts.qrs AU. 91542 8 2 378906 0 4 qrs. bush. 9106 7 15 5 24 0 155 3 5008 5 BOROUGH HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, Aug. 25. There is a further improvement in many districts of the Plantation, and the Duty is now estimated at ^'105,000. The transactions in our market are to a trifling extent, and, where sales are pressed, prices arc maintained with difl5culty. Sussex pockets 95s. to 108s. Weald of Kent 98s. to 112s. Mid and East Kents .. . . 100s. to 140s. WORCESTER, (Saturday last.) — Our Hops are going on very well, and picking will commence in about a fortnight or three weeks. Market is firm, at former rates for all fine Hops. ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. Monday, August 25. We note a dull trade, without alteration in prices. Dorset, fine weekly SOs. to 82s. per cwt. Do. middling 62s. to 72s. Devon 74s. to 76s. Fresh 8s. to 1 Is. per doz. lbs. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price. 653. to 733. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 7|d. per lb. Bacon, 45s. to 47s.; Hams, prime, 623. to 663. per cwt.; second quality, 563. to 583.; Mesa Pork, 623. to 643. per brl.; refined American Lard, in bladders, 52s. to 54s. ; kegs and firkms, 52s. ; Irish Lard, in bladders, 52s. to 56s. ; kegs or firkins, 5:is. per cwt. Butter, Baoon, [Dried Ham.'!, 'Mess I ork. percwt. (jercwl. ] per cwt. i>ir '.rl. 8. d. 8. d. s. d . 6. (i. 8. d. R. (Is. d. s. d. 87 1! 88 I) ' 64 i) 72 o! 75 0 82 0 77 6 82 0 72 0 80 0 60 0 64 0 66 0 82 0 80 0 82 0 60 0 66 0 48 0 50 0; 68 0 75 0 76 0 78 0 01 1) 70 0 I 37 0 42 Oj 65 0 70 0 60 0 62 0 65 0 73 0 4) 0 47 0' 62 0 66 0164 0 Aug. 21. 1847 1 848 1849 1850 1851 66 0 CWts. qrs.lbs. I 3 18 ! 1243 2 16 I SEED MARKET. BRITISH SEED&. Linseed (per 4r.;. . sowing 60s. to 65si. ; crashing 48s. to 52s. Linseed Cakes iper 1,000 of 3 lbs. each).. £8 lOs, to £10 Os Co« Grass (nominal) £ — to £ — Trefoil (per cwt.. I63. to 2l3. Rapeseed, (per last) new £21 to £22 old £— to £— Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 Os. to £4 10s. Mustard (per bushel) white 7s. to 8s. ; . . brown, 7s. to 12s. Coriander (per c\n.) 16s. to 243. Canary (per qr.) 38s. to 423. Taies, Winter, per bush., 4s. Od. to 43. 3d,; Spring, nominal. Carraway (per cwt.) new, 31s. to 33s. ; fine 34s. Turnip, white (per bush.) 63. to lOs.; do. Swedish, — s.to — a. Cloverseed red 40s. to 48s., fine SOs. to 55s FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) per cwt. 35s. to 45s„ super. SOs, Ditto, wliite (duty 5s. per cwt.) per cwt 35s. to 45s. Linseed (per qr.) . . Baltic 44s. to 47s. ; Odessa, 46s. to SOs. Linseed Cake (per ton) £6 Os. to £7 10s. Rape Cake (per ton) £4 Os. to £4 10s. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 32s. to 333., Do. Dutch, 34s. to 363 Tares, (per qr.) small 223. to 25s., large SOs. to 333. Rye Grass (per qr.) — s. to — s. Coriander (per cwt) — s. to — s. OILS. Linseed, 323. 9d. per cwt. ; Rapeseed, English refined; 333.; do. foreign, 35s. to 36s.; GalUpoli, per tun 383., Spanish, 36^. lOs. ; sperm, 85?.; do. bagged, 84i. ; South Sea 301. to 33Z.; Seal, pale, 34/. lOs.; do., coloured, 29/.; Cod 38/. ; Cocoa Nut, per ton, 381. to 40/. ; Palm, 29/. 68. WOOL MARKET. BRITISH WOOL. LEEDS, Aug. 22. — Sales of combing wools this week have been confined to a supply of the immediate wants of the manu- facturers. Prices are quoted the same as last week. Low clothing wools are in good demand at firm prices. TAUNTON, Aug. 23.— First quality wool £10 Ss. to £11 pc pack. LIVERPOOL, Aug. 23. Scotch. — The new clip of Laid Highland is coming more freely to market, as well as other descriptions of Scotch. The demand for all kinds continues moderate at late rates. 9. (1. 8. d. Laid Highland Wool, pel- '.iiibs.... 9 6tol0 0 White Highland do...... 12 0 13 0 Laid Crossed do.. .unwashed .... 11 0 12 9 Do. do...waslied 11 9 13 6 Laid Cheviot do...unwas!iou .... 12 0 14 0 Do. do.. v.'as!:c'i..o... 14 0 16 6 Wliite Cheviot do... do 22 0 24 6 Foreign. — At the public sale here on the 20tli inst. altogether about 4,000 bales were offered. The East India's offered sold with great spirit at very full prices. Oportos went off at former rates. Russian fetched from 7Jd. to 8id. per lb., and all sold. The Egyptians brought great prices, though indifferently got up. Buenos Ayres, Scotch, and other sorts, were principally withdrawn. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 246, Strand, London. ^^il^ftin'r'I'Mvp '" ^_i Cr THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. OCTOBER, 1851 No. 4.— Vol. XXIV.] [Second Series. PLATE I. A DEVON OX. The subject of the first plate is a Devon Ox, the property of Mr. John Tucker, of Staple Grove, near Taunton, for which the first prize of Thirty Sovereigns was awarded at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show in December, 1850. PLATE II. OUTLINE OF THE CHALK OF ENGLAND ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF CHALK SOILS, (WITH A MAP OF THE OUTLINE OF THE CHALK OF ENGLAND). BY M. M. M, There is not a more interesting class of soils, nor one on which a greater improvement has been effected at a small cost, than those which rest upon the chalk formations of the country. And they are of a very considerable area— occupying, with slight interruptions, almost a semicircle, com- mencing at Flamborough Head, and extending to the sea-coast of Dorsetshire, and averaging some twenty miles in breadth throughout the tract, com- mencing at one of the most beautiful and pictur- esque portions of the county. Flamborough Head presents a bold headland to the sea, more or less precipitous, but being 150 to 200 feet above the level of the sea. The fury of the waves has for ages dashed in vain against tliis magnificent na- tional defence; and though year after year the ocean has expended its fury on its snow-white sides, they stand out miles into the sea, as regards the general coast-line of the country, while the softer materials of the bays of Filey and Burlington have OhD SERIES.] given way before the raging and destructive ele- ment. The remains of its vengeance are grand beyond description. Here we have a gloomy cavern, bottomed out of the chalk rock, with floor as white and clean, and almost as polished as mar- ble ; while above are the flints and chalk covering, dyed by the water in variety of colour and tint exceeding all the imaginations of the painter; and so grand and striking is the blending of the colours, that if a painter should attempt their re- presentation, it would be declared to be unnatural, while the enchained observer, surrounded by gloom and grotesque forms and resplendent colours, hearing the moaning of the wind and the beating of the surf, with its slow and gradual murmur, has the greatest diflSculty to realize his position, but fancies himself in some dreamy region of fairyland. Nor are the forms into which the rock is broken by the sea externally less wonderful : arches, bridges, porches, and the most grotesque figures u [No. 4.— VOL. XXXV. 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. surround the aatonislied spectator on every hand, and induce the wonder how they have been formed, and, above all, preserved in a form and position so wonderful. At this point the chalk substratum is some twenty miles broad, and forms the celebrated Yorkshire wolds : it is then cut in two by the Humber, and again rises in Lincolnshire, where it is narrower by from twelve to fifteen miles in breadth, and disappears below the marshes near Wainfleet, and doubtless passes under that arm of the sea called the Wash. It rises again in Nor- folk on the opposite side, and forms a coast head- land almost as far as Cromer. It proceeds along West Norfolk and Suffolk, and enters Cambridge- shire, touching Esisex, and occupying a large por- tion of Hertfordshire, and passes through Buck- inghamshire and Berkshire, takes a turn so as to cover a great part of Wiltshire and Hampshire, and ceases at the coast by a narrower strip in Dor- setshire. Another strip, of an almost similar width, passes through Surrey and Kent, ending also with the sea-coast, and forming the snow-white cliffs of England, which gained it the name of " Albion," at Dover, Deal, and Ramsgate. The thickness of this bed is from 500 to 1000 feet, and it is generally more or less elevated in its position, the land at the top of these chalk hills being called Wolds in the north, in Yorkshire and in Lincolnshire, and Downs in Wiltshire, Hamp- shire, &c. The greatest heightof the chalk above the level of the sea, is the Inkpen beacon in Wiltshire, which is 1,011 feet above the sea level. The Wilton beacon, in Yorkshire, is 809 feet above the level of the sea. The snowy whiteness of the chalk enables the observer to discern it from a very great distance ; and hence, when the grass is removed from any hill-side, colossal figures may be drawn, which will have a pictorial effect for a very great distance. A large white horse is thus represented above Uffington, in Berkshire, occupying an acre of ground. Near Cerne is a figure of a giant, one hundred and eighty feet high. These objects can sometimes be seen as far as twelve miles, and are interesting objects as illustrative of the character of this remarkable stratification. ORIGIN OF THE CHALK. Much controversy has taken place as to the origin of this comparatively recent deposit. All agree, however, that how high soever it may now be raised, it was at one time deposited at the bottom of an ocean. There are moreover two kinds of chalk : the upper chalk, which is generally white and soft, and is mixed with a considerable propor- tion of flints ; and the lower, which is more solid and hard, without any flints generally, but the whole is more or less porous, and admits of the perco- lation of water. Below these chalks are either the chalk-marl — a soft saponaceous white clayey ma- terial; the gault — a dark clayey mass, very full of fossils, and abounding in phosphoric acid ; and the two green sands, very abundant also in phosphoric acid, but contaming also, in many instances, a large proportion of iron ochre. The chalk is almost pure carbonate of lime ; and its difference from lime consists in its holding a larger proportion of water, and being of a more hydrate character than the limestones. The flints in the upper chalk contain, in addition to silica, both potash and alumina, and, also, as may be ex- pected, some carbonate of lime. The Swedish flints, analyzed by Berzelius, contained 1.34 per 1000 parts of potash, 1.2 of oxide of iron and alumina, and 5.74 of lime. The whole of the chalk series contains a varying per-centage also of phosphoric acid. In the upper chalk. Professor Way found 0.26 per cent, of phosphate of lime ; but usually the lower the strata the more abundant is phosphate, while the gault and green sand are both very abundant in this material. As much as 27.60 per cent, is given in some instances. The gault fos- sils contain 24.28 per cent, of phosphoric acid, showing perhaps the most abundant source known of that indispensable agent in cultivation. When the chalk is carefully examined, it will be found to consist almost exclusively of fossils. These thousands of acres of chalk rock in all their grandeur are the grave of infusoria. At one period the origin of the chalk deposit was supposed to be due to the agency of thermal springs. It was imagined that hot springs charged with calcareous particles, being poured into the cold sea, were deposited in layers at its bottom as chalk. More recent and more minute observations, however, showed that instead of its being a mere mineral deposit, it consisted, as we have stated, of one vast conglomeration of fossils. A grain of chalk not only exhibits a complete mass of shells, but the very inmates of these shells also existing by thousands in every grain of chalk, and visible only by the aid of the microscope. Processes analogical to this are even now ' in existence in the South Seas, where the mi- nutest insects are by their agency raising coral veefs and islands ; and probably ere many ages have rolled over, a new island or even a con- tinent may have emerged from the bosom of the deep. Now these coral reefs are constantly subject to the washings of the waves ; and the de- struction of these from time to time, and the drift- ings of their detritus, form at length a white calcareous stone, somewhat resembling chalk in its character. It is from circumstances like this that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2fi9 Lyall inferred that there were processes enough at j)resent in existence to account for all the geologi- cal phenomena we now behold, and founded upon this a still more extensive superstructure ; and at the rate at which abrasions and formations were now going on, he proceeded to calculate the time which it would require to form our present world, carrying back its origin to ages so remote as to verge on the extreme of absurdity. But he omitted from the calculation that on which perhaps all de- pended— we mean eneri^y J for though we may have the same processes now in operation as were before, yet the agency might, at the first fiat which or- dained the law, be so active as to accomphsh in a day what now may take an age. Any attempt, therefore, at a remote geological chronology is stretching a science far beyond its proper and legi- timate limits. We have attempted a sketch and section of the chalk formation of England. The origin of the flint has also been shown to be identical with that of the chalk. The Marquis of Northampton showed even the flint to be composed of myriads of a minute univalve shell ; and Mr. Bowerbank declared the flint to be due to marine sponges, the pores of which are filled by these univalve shells, and by the scales of fishes and ether marine detritus. How the crystaHization could be- come so perfect is perhaps amongst those matters which present difficulty in the present amount of our knowledge. Speaking of the chalk range, Richard- son says : — " We have evidence that these varied strata are the minerahzed bed of a vast and exten- sive ocean, which rivalled in grandeur and expanse those which prevail in the southern hemisphere at the present day. It abounded in the usual forms of organic existence, and fossil remains of its former inhabitants are sea-weeds, sponges, corals, zoo- phytes, shells, Crustacea, fish, and reptiles." He goes further on to speak of the tropical character of its cUmate, and other speculations which have given such discredit to the more simple and easily deducible facts of geology. CHARACTER OF THE SOILS ON CHALK. These vary very considerably in their character, arid are in some cases a very thin coating of nearly decomposed chalk, where pieces of that rock, vary- ing from the size of a peach to a walnut, are in great abundance, mixed with a yellowish soil, and very thinly spread over the surface of a broken porous subsoil, admitting the free percolation of water, and admitting the drought somewhat freely. A second soil is where a diluvial action has been at work, as on the sea-coasts of Norfolk and Yorkshire, and where a deep stratum of clay, or at least of almost strong loam, has sustained itself. Where argilla- ceous or tenacious soil has been placed over a drain so natural as a chalk rock, almost every condition of the plant is secured favourable to its utmost vigour; and here we see some of the finest land of the country a deep rich alluvial soil, possessing the requisites both of receiving and holding the manure and crops with facihty. So much for the soils resting on the upper chalk. The lower beds being richer in the phosphates and some abutting on the gault or green sand, and often forming the sides of the slope, are amongst the very best of soils, and the most productive in the kingdom. They will produce more corn and tur- nips per acre ; will yield a better sample of the one, and a more nutritious supply of the other ; and hence these soils are amongst the best on the chalk formation. Both the kinds afford herbage useful to sheep : the thinner the soil the poorer the herbage ; but still its dryness is a source of health to the animals, and the one is as useful to a breeding stock of ewes as the other is to one of fattening sheep. Formerly the chalk soils were but httle regarded ; but now bone manure, sheep-treading, and the al- ternate husbandry, have made them all that could be wished for —at least in the north of England, and they are amongst the most productive and remu- nerative of soils. They are nearly all under tillage, for they bear but indifferent grass, and will feed more mutton with one crop of turnips than they would do five years in natural or perennial grass. Hence tillage of chalk is as necessary to its success as pasturage is to the alluvial banks and valleys of rivers in the north of England; but in the south it is alleged that it is more judicious and proper to allow them to remain in sheepwalks, for they are not either productive or profitable in tillage. We believe climate is the entire solvent to this difficulty. The north has that atmospheric moist- ure necessary to the turnip, which will overcome the natural dryness of the chalk; while in the south the paucity of rain may render the turnip on such soils a doubtful crop ; while the stirring of the soil by arable cultivation is by far more ex- pensive of moisture than any rest which the soils have under pasture, how closely eaten soever it may be. Hence we are not decidedly certain of the Wold cultivation of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire being equally profitable in the counties of Wiltshire and Hampshire. Still it must be admitted that there was at one time great prejudice against the cidtiva- tion of these upland sheep-walks. Arthur Young, speaking of the strictly Wold district of Yorkshire, describes it as chiefly open Wolds, and letting at from two shillings to seven shiUings and sixpence per acre, while in another district it let at from four- pence to four shillings per acre. " They plough U 2 290 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. up the turf,",,he says— the natural grass self-sown upon the decomposed chalk—" and sow barley, or more often oats, and then leave the soil to ffain itself a new sward ; this is their management every six years"— and perhaps a more utterly ruinous one could not have been devised. Sir Digby Legard, Bart,, who corresponded with Young, describes " the tillage land as lying at a great dis- tance from the farm-houses, which are all situated at the foot of the hills," so that " it is impracticable for the farmer to get his dung conveyed thither at any moderate expense.f ^«He never attempts it He every year has been accustomed to plough up a fresh part of his sheep-walk, to take a crop or two, and then let it lie fifteen or twenty years till the natural grass has again formed a kind of turf; but it will sometimes be forty years before the land is completely sodded well." This was about 1770. The crops of course were extremely hght. Twelve bushels of oats per acre, and five bushels of barley, were given as the jjroduce; and the pasturage kept on an average one sheep per acre. Mr. Strickland, who wrote the survey for the Board of Agriculture, laments the ploughing up of the sheep-walks, and calls the advanced rent obtained for permission to do so " an irresistible temptation to modern avarice." The practice he describes difFers only from the former in sowing grass seeds in preference to allowing the land to lie to recover its own sward from the arable or out- field land. " A crop of oats was taken every third, fourth, or fifth year, and which was left without either manure or grass seeds, to be depastured with sheep till it came again into the course to be ploughed up." The produce he gives is an improvement upon the former course. Four quarters of oats per acre was given as the Wold produce, and the wheat 12 to 24 bushels per acre. Sinclair laments equally over the unfair proceed- ings adopted towards the southern chalk Downs. He described them as distant from the homesteads, and hence often' approached by steep hills, so that the crops raised never found their way back in the shape of manure ; while the sheep were for shelter often brought^, down also; and he recommends green cropping— a proof that this was neglected on the chalk uplands. He arrives at the conclusion that chalk soils are in general fitter for tillage than for grazing ; but contends that the chalky Downs of Dorsetshire, called "ewe leases," ought not to be interfered with. Such was the system, and to some extent such is still the system in the south of England, on the chalky soils— thought to be of so little value as fourpence per acre ! MEANS OF IMPROVEMENT. Great controversies are always taking place as to the policy or otherwise of paring and burning poor soil, previous to its being taken out of the grass it may be growing. When a soil is so thin as it is often found to be on the chalk Downs, varying from four to six or eight inches generally — the first-named depth, at least, in most of the sheep- walks — and where there is a vast waste of mineral, and very little vegetable matter, it would seem to be the grossest impolicy to destroy the small quan- tity there is, in order to increase the mineral appli- cation. Experience, however, shows that it is by no means a bad practice. The grass is coarse and mossy, and the vegetable matter is so woody and sterile in its character, that its decomposition would be so slow that it would be long ere the plants which might be sown could derive any great ad- vantage from its decay. Whereas the action of fire would at once render it energetic. The ele- ments of the plants would be liberated; and once secure a crop upon the land, it becomes quite easy to sustain a succession. Another effect is the active state in which the burning of the turf places the eiFete lime. Particles of the chalk are continually inter- spersed and embedded in the soil, and amongst the roots of the grasses and musci which abound on chalk Downs. This becomes quick, or caustic, by the operation of burning ; and hence a new appli- cation of lime is given to the soil, as well as the ashes of the vegetables which have grown, and the charcoal of the woody fibre which becomes carbon- ized by that process. Besides, it is not only chalk to which the plants are reduced, nor to which the soil has changed by the operations of burning. A Wold soil contains a variety of foreign materials, which a common observer might be surprised at ; for while the chalk alone may be described by an analysis of a very simple kind, and may be said to consist of some 85 i parts per cent, of carbonate of lime, i part of carbonate of magnesia, 3 parts of alumina and oxide of iron, 6 parts of silica, and 5 parts of water, the soU on a very thin Down de- scription of land contains — Silicious sand 62, per cent. Alumina 4. „ Oxide of iron 6.4 „ Carbonate of lime 5. „ Phosphate of lime 0.1 „ Carbonate of magnesia. ... 1.6 ,. Potash C.l „ Organic matter 10.7 „ Water 9. „ Loss 1 • 1 >, 100. Hence it is not difficult to imagine how a soil like this, rendered active by the action of fire. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 would give an impetus to the then cultivated crop ; and though if subsequent corn cropping were the object, the plan would hasten the deterioration of the soil, it acts differently when employed in ob- taining a gi-een crop for consumption by sheep, and may give a stimulus to production which good management afterwards will take care not to forget. Having spoken of the porous nature of the soil, we have to observe that it never needs drainage ; a natural hollow might give an outlet, because the water may come in from all sides in a larger degree than the porosity of the soil can carry down ; but it can only be of so very slight an area that it may be said no drainage is necessary, and hence it is so far in advance of every description of soil, for we know of no other where the same remark can be so generally applicable. The next question is, how to obtain a valuable manure, easy of transport up the hills, on which, as we have said, the chalk soil generally rests, and one which will supply the deficiencies of the soil, and the wants of the cultivated plants. The first discovered, and one of the best, is bones. These have long been used, but in a very imperfect man- ner. As many as 60 to 70 bushels to the acre were applied before the termination of the last century, but they were almost comparatively un- broken— the hammer being theonlyinstrument; and in these large masses, but a small quantity would decompose, and hence their value would be vastly reduced as a manure. The application of small ground or powdered bones, however, is the real sheet-anchor of the improvement of chalk soils. They furnish the phosphates which the rain washes out downwards, and which the crops carry off upon the surface; while the gelatinous matter of the bone affords ammonia sufficient to invigorate the crop, and to secure that best of all improvers — the turnip crop. Experience, beyond all doubt, has mani- fested that sixteen bushels of bones per acre alone are ample to secure a crop of turnips on a medium Wold soil ; and this not for one year, or for a couple of rotations or so, but for a great number of years in succession. The first crop of turnips upon a newly broken-up field is seldom so good upon chalk as it is on any other description of grass. The subsoil or rock below is but httle broken by the action of the air, or by the mechani- cal influence of agricultural implements, and hence there is neither that depth for the roots of plants to penetrate, nor that free admission of oxygen to the roots, which takes place in a better pulverized soil. Turnips once obtained, it is desirable to have the rows wider on chalk than on most other soils, for they will not only grow to a much longer and later period, but it is also desirable to stir and aerate the soil between the rows as much as possible, to assist in the disintegration of the chalk. Hence they should be 25 to 27 inches apart ; and then eaten on the land with fatting sheep. Enough attention is not paid to this particular in improving land generally ; but as the phosphates and ammo- nia are the main manures required by the wants and deficiencies of the chalk series, it is manifestly defeating the very object of all cultivation to de- pasture turnips raised as an improving crop, at the great expense of purchased fertilizers contain- ing these ingredients, on the one hand ; and wasting and selling them off by depasturation with animals which appropriate them, on the other. If fattening animals are kept, it is true they will require and appropriate both the phosphates and ammonia. Their existence, it is shown, depends upon their being supplied ; but there is this striking difference between these and growing animals — that while the former consume them only to supply waste, which takes place in the system, and is left in the land by their ejectment, the latter take up and appropriate the materials for the building-up of their structures, and carry them off in the shape of bone, sinew, and muscle. The good cultivator will aim at assisting his sheep in consolidating the land, and leaving the fertilizing materials ; and for this purpose another portable and useful material is afforded in the shape of oil-cake. Science used to teach us that the refuse of linseed when crushed was one of the best fattening media ; but subsequent discoveries have helped us to a very efficient substitute in the shape of rape-cake. We were assured by a gentle- man who had great prejudices against this material, and who tried it to prove the correctness of his opinions as he thought, has quite changed his opinion on the subject, and commencing with giving his sheep and cattle a mixture of linseed and rape-cake, and gradually diminishing the former and in- creasing the latter, he has found it a most efficient substitute, and is unable to discriminate in efficacy between the one and the other. Half a pound per day of either will enable the sheep to consolidate the soil, will improve them in flesh and fat, and will be found a rich addition to the soil the farmer is anxious to improve. The chalk is, however, a soil which soon decom- poses manure. For the first year it will be most grateful ; but in future it will require petting and pampering in no small degree. For improving soils it is absolutely necessary to give cake to the sheep on the seed-leys. It will pay more or less according as the price of mutton may be remune- rating or otherwise ; but all experience shows, that to improve— nay, even to keep chalk soils in a high THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. state of cultivation, it is necessary to apply some manure to the seed-leys. The great failing of chalk farmers is the bad management of their manure. They as sheep farmers cannot afford to rob the soil by pulling oft' turnips; and hence they attend less to the cattle than they should— in a general way, at least ; and their straw-stacks accumulate, and remain to be rotted down by the action of the weather in some cases, rather than be allowed to be consumed by a proper store of cattle. Now while we agree with the pohcy of pulling off as few turnips as possible, we think a little outlay in artificial food, and a little trouble in preparing cooked food for these animals, will well repay the outlay and the effort in the farm -yard manure. The farm-yard dung, such as it is, however, seems by pretty general consent to be applied to the clover-leys, either when the clovers are young, or, v/hat is more general, antecedent to the wheat crop. Mr. Huxtable says this is a scientific arrangement. The wheat, he says, which follows takes up and removes the ammonia from the manure, and leaves the carbon for the subsequent turnip crop— the one taking up what would be no use for the other, and the other using, in its turn, the refuse of its predecessor. For improving soils, however, it is clear the oil-cake might be either an addition or an auxiliary ; while the artificial feeding of stock in the yards by cooked hnseed, bean-meal, or bruised corn, would materially assist the process. The question of how far can a chalk soil safely be deepened, is one of the disputed points. That four to six or even eight inches is a sufficient depth for the wants of plants, is a most unreasonable opinion— opposed to vegetable physiology, as it is to fact and to common sense. But, again, all agree that if the poor upper chalk is brought to the sur- face, it will require another improving process to be gone through with the land before it will resume even the point of fertility antecedent to the opera- tion. Mr. Charles Charnock vastly improved his soil by subsoiling the brash of the magnesian lime- stone ; but Hewitt Davis went so far as to deep- plough and bring to the surface seven or eight inches of poor thin upper chalk. At first he saw no great difference ; but it satisfied him to see that no injury had been done. As the chalk became more and more subjected to the action of the weather, it gradually improved the soil. He grew better crops of clover, turnips, and mangel, and declared, as a land-agent, that he had trebled the value of the land. We certainly prefer a more cautious process. We would say, subsoil die chalk first once or twice. On tliis let the air, the rain, the frost operate : then cautiously and slowly lift up the broken chalk ;f and as cautiously go on with phosphoric and am- moniacal manures, and trust to the integrity of the principle to see a prosperous crop. APPLICATION OF CHALK TO THE LAND'.' By one uniform system of cropping, of almost any kind whatever, the soil will after a series of years be found to deteriorate. The crops will fall off; the turnips will grub, and go away by club- bing, or the disease more generally known as fingers-and-toes ; the clover will fail, or be thin and patchy — all giving evidences that the freshness of the soil is gone : it is robbed of some of its consti- tuent elements of fertility. Now a dressing of fresh chalk will cure this. This is extraor- dinary, but it is true. An application of the thin surface flinty chalk seldom does much good : it is the lower strata which are the richest in the phos- phates, and which afford the best fertilizers. Hence in some instances the upper stratum is cut through, and the under chalk brought to the sur- face at a considerable expense. As much as 80 to 100 cubic yards of chalk per acre is said to be a necessary application. The expense will often be as much as fourpence to sixpence per cubic yard for the labour alone ; and in some cases a sum so large as the last-named is necessary to bring up the chalk through shafts which are sunk down, and the valuable material brought to the surface in baskets. When nearer the surface it is merely quarried, and the quarry serves the purpose of a pond for retain- ing water — generally a scarce material on these members of the chalk formation. In some parts of Suffolk where the upper flinty chalk only is within their reach, they send as far as Kent for appUcations of the lower bed. This partakes more of the chalk marl we previously alluded to, and acts a little in consolidating the very porous soil of the superior member of the formation, the flinty chalk. A period of ten to twelve years is thought pro- per to elapse between each application ; and in some cases it is said to be a stimulus to grass land — to be very useful up to a certain point, and to do injury afterwards. Perhaps this may be said of any manure which varies little in its constituent parts. If a given quantity, say of ammonia, be present in a soil calculated to produce, with the phosphates of the same soil, one ton of grass per acre — and phosphates are supplied capable of jiro- ducing, and indeed stimulating the soil to produce a ton and a half — here is clearly a demand made on the soil for 50 per cent, more ammonia than it had to spare in that year ; and hence, though rich in phosphates, it will become poor in ammonia, and the former \vill be called a stimulant rather THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 than arestorant to the soil. We believe this is the real principle of any exhausting effect which may be flue to the chalking of land ; but it may also assist in the decomposition of the vegetable matter in the soil— a notion which seems to prevail in Wold districts ; for when a soil is believed to require a dressing of chalk it is usually denominated "sour." Another mode of using chalk is to burn it as lime. On strong clays — which sometimes, as we said, are found above the chalk — this is one of the most useful application, and near the sea-coast it is particularly valuable. The abraded chalk, satu- rated with alumina and chlorine from the ocean, and burnt, is found to be a most valuable applica- tion, and it is often raised by a rope and a wind- lass, and coals are brought from a great distance to burn it into lime. We have recently seen the wonderful effects of sea-weed, a little decomposed, applied to the seed- leys, as a ])reparation for wheat on the chalk soils. It is regularly collected by parties with donkeys, who are paid by the ton, and mixed with farm- yard manure in nearly equal proportions. The heap ferments a little, and the whole is apphed pretty liberally to the seed-leys as a preparation for wheat, and with the most decided success. To conclude : we do not know a more promising soil to farm, in a good climate, than a deej) soil upon chalk. It is, for one thing, usually free from conch — the pest of light land, and is always grate- ful for a liberal application of manure. Sowerbxj, TldrsTc, Aug. 22, 1851. SANITARY MEASURES. — PEAT CHARCOAL V J. TOWERS, MEMBER R.A.S,, H.S. OF LONDON, ETC. BY It was my intention to offer a few remarks upon a different subject ; but meeting with an article (taken from the Artizan)\n the Marh-lane Express of Sept. 1st, p. 10, "On the Properties of Peat," the prior urgency of the subject appeared to call for the earliest attention to it. There is an old saying that " Doctors disagree !" If this be, unfortunately, confirmed by the protracted sufferings of those who labour under chronic dis- eases, it applies with no less certainty to the theories on the economical employment of bog peat, not only as a disinfector, but as a fertilizer of pre-eminent efficiency. Tlie article before me con- tains proofs — (would I had the means and instru- ments to confirm them, as such!) of the immense value of " a material at present worse than useless, by which" — it is asserted — " a marketable commo- dity would be produced admirably adapted to pro- mote the public health, and which, when it had fulfilled this important mission, would vastly and cheaply increase the productive powers of the soil." Dr. Thomas Anderson, M.D., chemist to the Highland Society, is, we have every reason to believe, one of the most able and faithful analytic chemists among the many that adorn science as connected with cultivation. His Report on the Uses of Peat is now open before me at p. 549 of the Trans- actions (Journal of Agr., No. 32, 1851). It had its origin in a desire expressed by the Society's Com- mittee, that certain experiments should be instituted by which the value and uses of peat might be ob- tained. Such analytic processes were undertaken. and carried through so extensively, that fifteen Svo. pages are occupied in their detail, the results of which in all their comprehensive bearings — so far as Dr. Anderson's weighty authority may be taken in evi- dence—led to the following conclusions : " 1st. That the value of peat charcoal, 'as a ma- nure, and an absorbent of the valuable constituents of manures, is not such as to justify the farmer in employing it, or to encourage us in attempting its introduction into Scotland. "2nd. That dry peat" (that is, in contradis- tinction from peat carbonized by combustion) " is a valuable absorbent of ammonia, and as such de- serves the attention of the agriculturist to a greater extent even than it has yet done. " 3rd. That the profits of the distillation of peat appear to be greatly exaggerated ; and the failure of all previous attempts to employ them entitles us to look with great caution on the present attempts." From these prefatory remarks it will be obvious that, opinions being so evidently opposed, notwith- standing the evidences already afforded, we must be left in doubt sufficiently perplexing. And now, to particularize. I come first to the following paragraph from the Mark-lane Express, col. 1, p. 10:— "Peat charcoal by being merely brought into contact with feculent, or any other offensive and noxious matter, would instantaneously render it completely and permanently inoffensive and innoxious ; in brief, that charcoal was an un- failing deodorant and disinfectant, so far as disease was induced or generated by offensive exhalation. 291 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. " Much misapprehension exists as to what is meant by disinfectant, some using the word as if it and deodorant were convertible terms. Infectious and contagious diseases may exist with intensity for a long time, and be propagated without the ex- istence of any offensive odour" (Query, by invisi- ble spores of fungoids or mildews floating in the atmosphere ?); " but the converse of the proposition is not true, for you cannot have the continuance of an offensive smell, such as that emitted by decom- posing animal or vegetable matter, without lower- ing the vital powers, predisposing those exposed to its influence to the attacks of fever, or to the ra- vages of any prevailing epidemic ; and should the offensive effluvia prevail with intensity, then, in- stead of being merely the remote or predisposing cause, it becomes the undoubted and immediate cause of disease and death !" These are great truths, but they require some qualification. There are substances which emit most offensive odours, perfectly innocuous in them- selves; assafogtida is one of these, and many flowers might be cited that are " redolent" of any- thing but " sweets." One condition is required as indispensable, that of putrefactive fermentation, whereby hydrogen gas combined with either sul- phur or phosphorus is extricated. Thus, by way of analogy, I need only remind the chemical reader that when black-ash, which contains a large quan- tity of sulphuretted alkali, was employed in the great waj' as a substitute for kelp, everything in the range of its gas {containing a metal) became discoloured, and all pieces of silver were tarnished. In like manner, in the precipitation of sulphur (from sulphuret of lime, by means of muriatic acid) a deadly atmosphere of sulphur dissolved in hy- drogen is developed in great volume. One instance occurred, many years ago, in our own laboratory, where the operator was struck senseless to the ground by merely— for one instant— looking into an open vessel to examine the precipitation of sul- phur. If, in a word, any fermenting compound yield a gas which possesses strong afllinity for the oxygen of atmospheric air, it becomes inimical to breathing life, first by degrading that air while de- priving it of its life-sustaining oxygen, and secondly by leaving the greater part of its \o\wm&— nitrogen — at full liberty to exert its own life-destroying in- fluence. Now, this is exactly the effect produced by the gases developed during putrefactive fermen- tation in foul drains and cesspools containing masses of sulphated and phosphated compounds j and if any process accomplishable by chemical science and pecuniary aid can eflfectually be made to neutralize and destroy those baneful exhalations which being taken into the lungs produce depression of the animal spirits, languor, and debility (all which amount to symptomatic warnings of those diseases of the system that threaten a fatal termi- nation), not only will an intolerable nuisance be removed, but a vast benefit conferred on agricul- ture by the introduction of a very powerful manure, equal — perhaps superior — to nine-tenths of those guanos, for which the farmers pay £8 or £9 per ton. But here the question meets us — can peat char- coal effect these important purposes, and justify the high character bestowed on it by its zealous advo- cates ? Referring to Dr. Anderson's article, at p. 554, we find that one ton of peat charcoal, consi- dered as a manure, contains — 12lb. of ammonia, which, at 6d. per lb., is G 0 /ilb. of phosphoric acid, as phosphate of lime Oil lllb.of potash, at 2^d 2 1 9 0 But one ton of it costs, in Ireland, £1 3s. ; while peat, merely dried, of which it requires 4 tons to produce 1 ton of the charcoal, is valued at 4s. only, though in Scotland labour and expenses would raise it to 5s. 6d. " It is very clear that the value of peat charcoal must be dependent on its absorptive powers ; and that is, in fact, the point which gene- rally has been most insisted on ; and in support of it the oft-quoted experiment has been produced, by which charcoal has been shown to absorb 95 times its volume of ammonia." The delusion occasioned by this statement is exposed at p. 555, and then follows a detail of seven experiments, made for the purpose of determining the amount of ammonia which can be absorbed by peat charcoal. I extract the first and fifth of these experiments. A glass tube, about half an inch in diameter, had a piece of cloth tied over its lower end, and was filled to the depth of about 12 inches with Irish peat charcoal, and a solution of ammonia, contain- ing 2*42 grains to the cubic inch, poured into it. The first drop of fluid which filtered through was as distinctly alkaline as the original fluid, indicat- ing that no rapid or abundant absorption had taken place. Experiment 5. — 500 grains of peat charcoal were mixed with 1 cubic inch of putrid urine. The putrid odour immediately disappeared, but the smell of ammonia remained distinct, and the mixture showed an alkaline reaction to test-paper sus- pended in the upper part of the vessel. After standing for some hours it was spread out in a thin layer, and left for several days. It then weighed 513 grains, and was found to contain TOS per cent, of nitrogen ; which would give, in the whole 6 1 3 grains, 5*28 of nitrogen ; but as the 500 grains of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 393 charcoal originally contain 4*5 of nitrogen, the whole I space fails; and the important comparisons and quantity absorbed is no more than ()'78 grains of their results must furnish matter for a second article nitrogen — equivalent to 0*94 of ammonia. Here 1 in the next number. -iu3n§B no b 980/IJ lo — -^ — WHEAT MANURING. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. As this paper will be read by the farmer when wheat sowing is going on in every direction, it will be useful, perhaps, if we refresh our memories with a few facts relating to the manures which have proved most profitable for this great crop. I have been long used to commence these kind of inquiries by recurring to the aid of the chemist, since he informs us, when examining the food most grateful to a plant, of what at least the mineral portion of that food consists. Now this very inquiry has been pretty well answered by the labours of Professor Way. He examined several varieties of wheat, and also specimens of the same variety grown on different soils. By this means, we learn not only the nature of the mineral food required, but to what extent the proportion of that food present in the plant is influenced by the che- mical composition of the soil on which the wheat plant is grown. The wheat plants examined by this chemist {Jour. Roy. Ayr. Soc, vol. vii., p. 593) were grown in the season of 1846. His analysis of the ash of the straw and chaff of the Hopetoun and red-straw white wheat gave the following results : — Hope- toun. Sand. Silica Phosphoric acid .... Sulphuric acid ... Lime j Magnesia . . Peroxide of iron .... Potash . . . . ; Soda I Ash of chaff Ash of straw' 69-36 5-24 4-45 6-96 1-45 0*73 11-79 10-36 4-16 Red-straw white from Sil. loam. 70-50 5-77 3-31 3-53 3-29 0-14 12-76 o-gb 13-78 4-68 Cal. brash. Clay. ! 71-49 68-92 3-37 3-21 2-28 2-21 7-34 5-63 3-53 1-76 1-11 0-43 9-47 15-50 1-39 2-29 7-00 9'45 2-74 4-20 Cal. clay. 66-13 8-85 2-23 6-82 3-62 0-54 11-76 9-63 4-95 Calculating, then, from these data, the next table gives the amount of mineral matters per ton of wheat straw and chaff, and the proportions removed from an acre in 28 bushels (6 1 lbs.), and in 18 cwt. 91 lbs, of straw and chafl';— Silica . . Phosphoric acid S ulphuric acid Lime Magnesia . . Peroxide of iron .... Potash. . . . Soda .... Inal on of Removed per acre in straw. chaff. grain. ]st., chff lbs, oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 60 0 172 3 1 0 6-lOths! 83 8 2 8 i 9 2 12 13 7 3 2 14 — 0 1 5-10 „ 3 12 7 0 4 010 3-10,, 7 1 1 13 2 llj 3 8 3-10 „ 2 13 0 6 0 14 0 3 6-10 „ 0 10 17 0 19 6 8 15 13 15 2 5 3 12 0 12 3-10 „ 0 13 Let us next examine, as I have on another occa- sion remarked (On the Fertilizers, 3rd edition, p. 453), a portion of the more recent evidence which has appeared in favour of the steady consideration and careful estimate of the comparative advantage of employing for wheat the manure of the farm- yard (either by itself or mixed with other artificially prepared fertilizers), or from using these new dressings by themselves. Here, however, we must avoid an error far too common in the busy time of harvest — a neglect, in such valuable comparative trials, of the balance and the bushel. This is the more to be lamented, since, without these strict tests of the apparent results, many an otherwise valuable experiment is rendered of little use to agriculture. The erroneous conclusions, in fact, arising from a too careless examination of the re- sults of a practical course of cultivation, are, as I have elsewhere remarked {BeWs Messenger, No. 2662), much more common, much more extensive, than the young farmer is always willing to believe. The same remark, indeed, applies to many experi- ments with different manures ; to the eye success seems attained to an extent which the after- admeasurement of the corn produced, or its quality in such comparative trials, does not always support. To the correctness of this remark we have, amid that of many other experienced farmers, the evidence of an excellent and successful practical farmer of a midland county, who in a recent dis- 296 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cussion on this subject remarked to me, with per- fect confidence in the truth of his observation, that he was quite sure that many of his neighbours in Bedfordshire produced, it is true, excellent crops of strrnv, but that many a farmer sent more corn to market per acre, by growing crops which, although they did not appear so luxuriant, yet yielded more corn. He was Cjuite certain, too, that certain fertilizers, which he had carefully tried, very often induced the pi'oduction of straw rather than corn, and were better adapted for the production of grass than of seeds. Let us, in the first instance, confine our attention to some of the researches upon, perhaps, the two most extensively employed of modern fertilizers — cubic petre and the salts of ammonia ; this last in- volving also in some degree the chief ingredient in guano, a still more extensively employed and recent introduction into the list of manures. In my own trials and observations the eflFect of cubic petre has always appeared to me to be of the most uncertain description ; and that in the generality of cases, the result of top-dressing corn with it had the effect of more frequently improving the colour and size of the growing plant, than of adding materially to the quantity or to the quality of the seed. The remarks of many farmers have been to the same effect. But this is not always the case; thus Mr. Raymond Barker, in his trials on a poor, thin, light soil, on the stonebrash, by using 42lbs. of nitrate of soda on a quarter of an acre of white Hereford wheat, obtained, per acre, the following result {Jour. Roy. A(jr, Soc, vol. \\.,p. 133) : — Drilled at nine inches. Grain. Straw. Soil simple. ... 6 bush. 0 pecks. 3 cwt. 22 lbs. „ with cubic petre 8 „ 2 „ 4 „ 39 „ Drilled at six inches. Soil simple .... 6 bush. 1 peck. 3 cwt. 87 lbs. „ with cubie petre 8 ,, 3 pecks. 5 cwt. 56 „ Here the increase of straw was attended by a similar increase in the amount of the grain. The general varying effects of this fertilizer have, how- ever, in this respect, being remarked by many very skilful farmers. Mr. C. Stevenson, of Redside, in East Lothian, observes v/ith regard to cubic petre {Trans. High. Soc, vol. ix.,p. 329), after detailing the results of a series of experiments with wheat, " The produce was in favour of no apphcation, as other experiments showed that nitrate affects the straw more than the grain." In the experiments, however, of Mr. Pusey {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. ii., p. 120), a different result was obtained; the produce of the grain and straw pretty nearly corresponded in amount, the nitrate in this case being sown by hand in the second week in June. " The dark green which the nitrate produces," ob- serves Mr. Pusey, "showed itself within four days; the blade soon became broader, and the superior vigour of the corn which had been dressed might be seen from a great distance. This appearance, however, might be delusive ; at harvest time, how- ever, a clear difference still showed itself between the dressed and the undressed wheat on each side of the boundary furrows. It was not that the corn stood thicker where it had received the nitrate, which had been ajiplied too late to make it tiller out : but on the undressed side there were many short, or underling straws, as they are called, with short ears. On the other side there were none of these ; all the straws were of equal length, and all their ears were evidently longer." The results ob- tained per acre, in six trials, were : — Grain. Straw. 1 . Soil simple .... 27 bush. . . 2760 lbs. — nitred 39 1-9 . . 385S „ 2. Soil simple 213-4 . . 2260 „ — nitred 26 1-10 . . 2856 „ 3. Soil simple 20 1-3 .. 2252 „ — nitred 24 4-5 . . 2732 „ From some late experiments of Mr Piisey {Jour. R. A. Soc. vol. xii, p. 203) it would seem desirable to mix the nitrate of soda with an equal weight of common salt, since the common salt counteracts the tendency of the cubic petre to lay the corn, and produce the mildew. In his trials with white wheat, grown on a sandy soil, the following were the results per acre : — Soil simple produced 21 bush. Soil top-dressed with 2 cwis. of guano 24 ,, Soil with 1 cwt. of cubic petre, and 1 cwt. of salt 251 „ With red wheat the produce was as follows : — Soil simple 19 2-5 bush. Nitrated 27 4-5 „ INFLUENCE OF MANURE ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE CROP. "I must admit, however," continues Mr. Pusey, " that when some of the corn v/as ground, the yield in flour did not bear out the equality of price for which it had sold. A bushel of the wheat which had not received nitre weighed 62:|lbs., of the other v/heat only 60ilbs. ; and this difference of weight told in the produce of four bushels of each which were sent to the mill, as a])pears by the following account : — Weight.FIour.PoUard. Bran. Waste, lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Wheat, nitred.. 241 .. 176 .. 17 . . 40 . . S Do., not nitred 251 .. 197 .. 13 .. 33 . . S The nitred wheat yielded less than its proportion THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 297 of flour, not only according to measure, as might have been expected, but even according to weight ; for the 241 lbs. of wheat should have given 189 lbs. of flour, but they gave only 170 lbs., a further serious deficiency of 7 per cent. So that the bushel of wheat not nitred gave 49ilbs. of flour; that of nitred wheat, 44 lbs. only — nearly 10 per cent, less of flour, according to measure. One miller, who ground some of each wheat, stated to me that the condition of the two parcels was very different; one appearing to him to be so very so't that lie had no doubt it had h'een badly harvested. They had grown, however, on neighbouiing ridges, and had been cut and carried together. It was the nitred wheat, of course, which was soft, and as the miller stated, gave out its flour ill. The same miller informed me that, even in the golden drop wheat he had found this defect. He also stated, generally, that wheats which are grown on farms where that crop occurs oftener than every four years, though well farmed superior soils, yield less flour than corn produced upon poorer soils, on which the four-course rotation is observed. Hence it appears, that whether we increase the produce of wheat by manure, by improved seed, or by a more rapid succession, we have to contend against this deduction — that the produce of flour does not in- crease in the same proportion ; still in the present case the produce of wheat per acre turned out favourably. Bush, of Wheat. Lbs. of Flour. Acre with nitre 30 at 44 lbs. .. 1320 Do. without nitre. . 24 at 49i lbs. . . 1077 Not only, however, did equal measures of the two wheats give unequal v/eights, and equal weights unequal measures of flour, but even the same quantities of flour did not give precisely the sama weight of bread. In six successive bakings 9 lbs. of each flour were separately made into bread ; there was always a deficiency, more or less consi- derable, in the bread produced by the nitred flour. The last trial may be taken as an average one. Nine pounds of each flour previously dried were made into dough, according to the process of Col. Le Couteur. Dough. Bread. lb. oz. lb. oz. 9lbs. of nitred flour gave . . IJ 8 11 6 9lbs. of unnitred flour gave 13 10 11 10 "The bread of the nitred wheat," adds Mr. Pu?ey, " I must say, seemed the best and most agreeable, resembling the common white bread made in the south of Spain, the wheat of which country abounds, I believe, in gluten." It is worthy of remark, that the effect of those manu)-es, such as putrid urine, the refuse of gas- works, soot, guano, &c., when applied as top- dressings to a growing crop of the grasses, is to produce a dark green colour ; and, as Mr. Pusey remarks, they have "a tendency to lengthen, but weaken tlie straw ; to increase the bulk, but dimi- nish the weight of the grain." Now all these ferti- lizers agree only in one common property, that of containing ammonia, which is a compovind of ni- trogen and hydrogen. We know, also, that nitro- gen enters into the composition of nitrate of soda, and that this salt produces the same eftect upon the common and cereal grasses as the ammoniacal fertiUzers. We may further note, too, that these are suiiposed to increase the jsroportion of gluten in flour, and moreover, that gluten is the chief vegetable substance in which nitrogen is found ; that from wheat flour containing, according to the analysis of Boussingault {Farmers^ Almanac, vol. ii. p. 263)— Nitrogen .. .. .. 13*9 Carbon . . . . . . 54"2 Hydrogen . . . . . . 7'5 Oxygen . . . . . . 24'4 That the action of cubic petre, when used as a top-dressing for wheat, is to increase the propor- tion of the gluten in its seeds, is a conclusion sup- ported by the following results of two examinations given by Mr. Hyett, of Painswick, of some wheat grown on the cornbrash {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. ii. p. 143). He found in the wheat from — Nitrated Unnitrated soil. soil. Bran 250 24-0 Gluten 23-25 i9'0 Starch 49*5 55-5 Albumen 1'375 0*625 Extract 0-375 0*25 Loss and water 0-5 0-625 And this peculiarity of action, as to the propor- tion of gluten found in wheat, is not confined to nitrate of soda; it has been shown that 100 parts of wheat grown on the same soil, but manured with different fertilizers (also abounding with nitrogen) contained different proportions of gluten and starch [Johnson and Shaw's Farmers' Almanac, vol. i., p. 237). The crop, then, dressed with these fertilizers con- tains an increased proportion of nitrogen ; an in- crease, however, which has been shown by Pro- fessor Johnston {Lectures on Agricvltural Che- mistry) to be generally much greater in the case of either corn or hay than that v/hich was contained in the nitrate with which the field has been dressed. One or two other facts bearing on this {)roportion of nitrogen found in plants have been noted. That the proportion of gluten or albumen found in dif- ferent wheat varies very considerably has been shown by Professor Gregory {ibid, \-ol. ii., p. 4 ; Agricultural Gazette, vol. xi., p. Gl8). He found, pi ; '■ent., in 308 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Coal wheat Tremois . . Silesian Talavera . . Wolgost Hunter's Ducksbill 21-8 14*4 12-1 iro 9-3 9-2 9-2 Sir H. Davy found that the proportion of ghiten was less considerable in auturan-sown than in spring wheat. He found in some varieties of the first only 19 per cent, of gluten, but in spring wheat 24 per cent. He noted, also, a greater pro- portion of it in the wheat of the south of Europe than in that of the north ; and to this he ascribed the greater fitness of the former for making maca- roni and vermicelli. In the season of 1847 a series of experiments upon the effect produced upon wheat by various chemical substances employed as top-dressings was carried on by Mr. J. Main, of Whitehill, in Mid-Lothian. In the following table, the columns marked I. gives the substance employed ; II., the cost per acre ; III., the produce per acre in quar- ters and bushels ; IV., the weight of the straw in cwts. The following trials were with Hunter's wheat, on a hghtish clay soil, previously manured with IS tons per acre of home manure, and 6 cwt. of rape- cake. The top-dressings were applied on the 31st of May — I. II. III. IV. s. Soil simple — 5 5 25i Bones 104 lbs."] Sulphuric acid. ... 52 „ | Carb. of potash .. 18 „ )>25 6 0 28 Carb. of soda .... 13 „ j Carb. of magnesia 35 „ J G 0 5 6 G 1 ul.t 33o 27 I. II. III. IV. Bones 104 „ ^ s. n Sulphuric acid. ... 52 „ I Carb. of potash . . 26 „ ^33 Carb. of soda .... 17 „ | Carb. of magnesia Go „ J Bones , .. 104 „ \ Sulphuric acid. ... 52 „ | Sulph. of potash. . 26 „ ^26 Sulph. of soda . . 30 „ | Sulph. of magnesia 94 „ J Bones 104 „ | Sulphuric acid. .. . 52 „ j Sulph. of soda. ... 45 „ ^35 Sulph. of potash. . 41 „ | Sulph. of magnesia 148 „ J Bones 132 „ | Sulphuric acid. ... 66 „ ( Sulph. of potash.. 34 „ >-34 6 3 29 J Sulph. of soda. ... 38 „ | Sulph. of magnesia 122 „ J Tlie young farmer \vill remark, from the various facts alluded to in these valuable inquiries, how cautious we ought to be in all such investigations ; how many questions are to be solved ; how many sources of error avoided. It is certain, however, that the reward to be reaped is fully equal to the labour of the inquiry. For a very long series of years the average produce of wheat per acre has been gradually increasing throughout England ; and of late the average growth of many farms has in- creased to an extent which former generations of farmers would have deemed impossible. Occa- sional crops, too (as in the season of ] 850), even on soils not very remarkable for their general produc- tiveness, have shown the possibility, at least, of growmg an almost incredible amount of grain. As the stream of improvement therefore flows on, we are well wan-anted in the conclusion that still more bounteous average crops of wheat will yet reward the skill, the enterprise, and the noble energy of the yet unbeaten English farmers. MINING AND MINERAL PRODUCTS.— NOTICE OF PHOSPHORIC MINERALS AND STRATA AT THE GREAT EXHIBITION. [from the morning post.] It was remarked by the late Sir John Sinclair, Bart., that the introduction of bones had added 25 per cent, to the average value of all the land in the British dominions. With their increased cost, their value as a source of profit to both the landowner and the farmer became greatly diminished; as, however, a very much larger produce was obtained from the land owing to their application, the com- munity in general became great gainers. That the price of bones would have become exorbitantly high, if it had not been for the introduction of co- prolites and guano, is most certain ; and while for the latter we are and ever must be indebted to a foreign source for a supply, for the former we have most extensive and apparently inexhaustible sources at home, the proper development and application of which is of the utmost importance to the agri- culturist, particularly at a pressing season like the present. The vicinity of Farnham, with the Norfolk and Suffolk crag, have been the principal sources whence these phosphoric «ninerals have been principally obtained — the former being from the green-sand ; the latter from a recent formation, which has ob- tained the name of the Norfolk crag, and belong- ing to one of the most recent geological epochs. A large portion of the crag is covered with other deposits ; so much so, that excepting in cases where clitFs are exposed to the sea, or denudation has otherwise taken place, it is not unfrequently difficult to obtain coprolites therefrom. The major part are obtained from the sea beach, and these fossils can now be obtained from persons who make a living by collecting theni, at the rate gf about 2ps, per ton, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 The Norwich or mammalian crag consists of a ] marine or fluvio-marine deposit of very irregular thickness, containing tlie bones of elephant and other mammals of extinct specie, accompanied by marine shells (mixed in some places with fresh water shells), a very large proportion of which belong to existing species. Its most constant members is a collection of large chalk flints two or three feet thick, embedded in a base of ferruginous sand and gravel, mixed with marine shells, and resting on chalk. It is in this part of the deposit that the bones and teeth of elephants, and other mammalian remains found in the crag, together with phosphoric minerals, are found principally to occur. lu other parts it con- consists of beds of sand and gravel, varying in depth to the extent of 20 feet. Its boundaries in Norfolk, as far as they can be ascertained in consequence of the depth of covering, are as follows : — On the north, the east, and the south, by the ocean and the marshes of Yarmouth estuary, south of which it reappears in Suffolk. Its western boundary is an irregular and not very well ascertained line, which may be described in general terms as ranging from Wey- bourne to some point between Bungay and Diss, ramifying among the hollows in the chalk. The outcrop of the strata to the westward brings to the surface the lower beds of hard chalk, from beneath which the gault and the representatives of the green- sand — the red chalk and the carstone — successively emerge. The crag appears in Suffolk near Felix- towe, where the London clay terminates. The latter, however, contains phosphoric nodules. It is found in the form of a ferruginous sand fuU of shells. At Walton-on-the-Naze it is about two yards thick, and abounds with spiral univalves, shark's teeth, &c. At Harwich it is scarcely discoverable; and at Felixstowe it is reduced to a shingle bed, which, however, to the agriculturists is of the greatest im- portance, as it is composed principally of nodules containing 50 per cent, of phosphate of lime. At Aldborough and Orford the crag becomes coralline. At Woodbridge there is the red-crag with the same shells as at Walton ; and near Southwold are the newest beds of crag, containing teeth of the masto- don and elephant, mixed with shells of moluscs still living on our coasts. Between Southwold and Yarmouth the cliffs consist of sand and gravel. It will thus be seen that the crag which yields phosphoric minerals does not occupy any consider- able area. In this respect the green sand is much more extensively developed at the surface in vari- ous and far distant portions of England; the former, however, possess the great advantage of being on a sea board, and consequently capable of facile carriage to distant places — and also from the circumstance that they can be picked up pretty plentifully on the beach. The green sand forma- tion is of importance in consequence of its stretch- ing through such an extensive district, though only in a very narrow band, seldom expanding to any extent — the widest areas being between De- vizes and Pewsey. At WaUingford, Alton, and Farnham, in parts of Wiltshire, Cambridge, Bed- ford, Dorset, the South of Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight, &c., this formation is also found, and in every case with the same results — viz., the remark- ably fertile character of the soil wherever it appears. From the small development of the upper green- sand and the absence of sections, this formation has not attracted so much attention, as a source of fossil phosphates, as its great interest deserves. Mr. Nesbit exhibits more numerous specimens of these minerals from various parts of this formation than any other person : as might be anticipated, however, even his collection is an imperfect one, owing to the great length of country through which this series is found. In Wiltshire, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Surrey, it is generally divided into two members — an upper one, consisting of loose or semi-indurated green sands, more or less argillaceous; a lower one of soft green sandstones, and of fine-grained, compact, thin-bedded, and fissile calcareous sand- stones, often very marly, of a very light green, or whitish colour, and overlying another, but thinner, bed of greenish sand, which passes into the gault. Its thickness varies from 40 to 50 feet in Surrey; to 140 at least in Wiltshire. The north-eastern portion of the upper greensand outcrops in a low tract of country, ranging from the north-east corner of Norfolk, southward through Cambridgeshire ; but in part of its course it is so covered by beds of drift that it is extremely difficult to be discovered occasionally. It has been estimated by Dr. Fitton to vary in this district from 2 to 11 feet in thickness. Its superficial extent bears but a very small proportion to the tract of country under which this deposit sinks ; as it doubtlessly ranges co-extensively with the chalk, beneath which it dips, at a slight angle, through the greater part of Norfolk, and the whole of Suf- folk and Essex. At two places within this area, the chalk has been pierced in well-sinking, and the upper green sand found under it. In one case at Diss the chalk proved to be 5 10 feet thick, under which was found a stratum of five feet of green- sand. At Mildenhall, 250 feet of chalk and chalk marl were passed through, when eleven feet of greensand were found. To the south-west of Cambridge, this bed of upper green sand continues in a narrow line through Biggleswade, passing near Hitchin and Tring to Princes Risborough, where it expands considerably ; and forms a zone of variable breadth at the base of the Chalk Hills to Swindon ; at which last-named place it again contracts to very narrow dimensions, passing near Calne to Devizes. At the latter place it expands into the expansive and fertile vale of Pewsey, from which it courses in a very irregular and narrow band to the sea, near Weymouth. As a whole, the area of the outcrop of the country just described as occupied with the upper green sand is consider- able, and is pretty generally free from accumula- tions of drift. The strata for the most part is arenaceous, and of considerable thickness — the length of the outcrop from near Cambridge to the British channel being 152 miles, the superficial area 120 square miles, and the mean average thick- ness 75 feet. The mineral character differs at first hut little from that described as situated at the north-east of Cambridge; but in proceeding eastward the lower fissile beds become much more argillaceous, and on the hills between Tetsworth and Cuxhara it assumes in a great measure the character of the Malm rock of Western Surrey, whilst at the same 3oO THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. time the upper sandy division gradually decreases in thickness, and exhibits a persistent bed of dark green sand. Further eastward the whole mass be- comes much thinner, and assumes a more argil- laceous condition, until in Hertfordshire it can scarcely, in some places, be distinguished from the chalk marl or the gault. In Wiltshire it usually forms a high but narrow platform, or a narrow ridge of hills, advancing beyond the escapement of the chalk; but.occasionally its slope is continuous with, and not to be distinguished from that of the chalk. At one of its widest parts, namely, between the hill of the White Horse and thence by Vv^an- tage and Wallingford to nearTetsworth, it forms a range of low hills. In Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire it may be distinguished at intervals, as at Henton, near Princes Risborough, and at the foot of the Sundon Downs, near Toddington, as a low and unimportant ridge at the base of the high chalk hills. In Hertfordshire and Cam- bridgeshire it merges in the broad valley of the gault. The dip of the strata along this line of out- crop is regular, and at a moderate and small angle, except when approaching the proximity of the British Channel. Aaother upper greensand district exists in the southern counties, havmg an irregular contour passing from Folkestone to Farnhara and Alton, where it bends to the eastward, and so continues to near Beachy-Head. The outcrop of this band, commencing at Folkestone, ranges along the foot of the North Downs to Godstone ; at the former place it consists of a green sandstone 15 feet thick, overlaid by 17 feet of beds passing into the chalk marl above ; and at the latter place is from 40 to 50 feet thick, dipping beneath the chalk at an angle from 5 deg. to 20 deg. Its dimensions within the district named are as follows :— length of outcrop 67 miles, superficial area 7 square miles, with a mean average thickness of 25 feet. There is a tolerable absence of drift along the line of outcrop from Folkestone to Godstone — a circumstance favourable to the sinking of pits for the extraction of phosphoric minerals. From Godstone the upper gi'eensand ranges westward, along the base of the North Downs by Merstham to Farnham, from which latter point it tends to the south, owing to an extension of the chalk in that direction, 'ihe thickness between Godstone and Reigate is from 50 to 60 feet, at Dorking about 40 feet, near Guddford 50 feet, whilst at Farnhara it is from SO to 90 feet ; the greatest superficial extent on this line is attained near Merstham, forming a range of low hills at the foot of the chalk downs. Beyond Betchworth it is not so well exhibited, but may be traced without difficulty by Dorking to Albury. Thence by Guildford to Farnham it is less conspicuous. At Farnham it again spreads out, occupying a wider and higher belt, and in- creasing in breadth as it ranges southward towards Alton and Selborne. In this district it is much more argillaceous than at Merstham, and is known as the Malm rock. Generally, in Surrey, soft light-coloured calca- reous green sandstones, and hard compact cal- careous beds — interstratified with sandy maiis — predominate, below which is a bed or green sand. The upper beds are very argillaceouL:, and pass into the chalk marl. The upper green sand iu this di- vision is completely denuded, except when inter- sected by tlie transverse valleys of the Moie and the Wey, where it is covered with a drift of gravel. From Selborne it extends in an irregular line to near Beachy Head, environing the Hastings and Tilgate beds. The upper green sand may be seen at the fire- stone pits, one mile north of Godstone; in the quarries at the foot of the chalk downs, one mile and a half due north of Bletchingly ; the pits at Merstham and Gatton ; the quarries one mile east of Reigate church, and one furlong north-east of the Bletchworth station ; the cutting on the rail- way, three furlongs north of the Merstham station, and the one immediately east of the Dorking station ; the hills between Farnham-castle and Ridgway; the road from Devises to Pottern ; the road from East Challow to Wantage ; and the hill by Knights- bridge-lane, two miles north by east of Watlington. Detached portions are found at Kingsclere and Selborne. From the above outline it will be seen that the two lines of upper green sand extend thi'ough a line of country not less than 280 miles in length, outcropping portions of which, containing the beds with the i^hosphoric minerals, are to be found within reasonable distances of each other, seldom so far oflf as to render their economical attainment impracticable. The soil derived from the debris of the whole of the upper green sand is notorious for the luxurious- ness of its crops, more particularly those of wheat and hops. In the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Hampshire, it is on this particular geological for- mation that some of the richest plantations of hops flourish. The gault, which divides the upper from the lower green sand, is most unmistakeably recognised by its blue colour, almost merging into black in its lower portions, and also by its vvet clayey texture. In its natural condition, it is best adapted for pastures, and is celebrated for the growth of splen- did oak timber ; but when this soil is deeply and thoroughly drained, it is capable of producing the heaviest crops of wheat, beans, clover, hops, &c. The fossils in this stratum, though too few to be collected for agricultural purposes, are invariably the richest in phosphate of lime. Reverting to the upper green sand, or zone of fossihferous green marl, the positions and thick- nesses of which have ah'eady been noticed, it may be as well to observe, that the greenest marl is not always the richest ; but, on the contrary, that which is intermixed with calcareous matter, of a white and brown colour, affords the largest per- centage of phosphoric acid. The fossils which are enveloped in the marl are by no means evenly dis- persed through the bulk, but often lie in very irregular heaps, in which respect, as well as in the thickness of the deposit, there seems to be no ap- proach to uniformity. Frequently the fossils are found in great abundance, the principal constituent being phosphate of lime. The organic remains found comprise a great variety of zoophytes, many shells, chini, amonites, fishes' teeth and wood, examples of all which will be found among the arti- THE lAKMli^l'S MAGAZINE 301 cles bhown by tlie exhiljitors whuse colliictious wci'c alluded to at the cominenccaicnt of this paper. A large prO()ortional ingredient of the marl which envelopes the phosphoric fossils consists of plios- j)hatc of lime, containing frequently from 10 to 15 per cent, of that substance, and in some instances more. In the Isle of Wight the jihosphoric marl of the upper green sand is extensively develojied ; as it is found in enormous quantities at the back of the island, especially at the top of the UnderclitF, v/here it may be traced for several miles, lying within a few feet of the surface. The thickness of the band varies from 3 to 7 and S feet, and is there- fore easily attainable. Organic remains abound in it, particularly amonites (extinct species of the nautili), and sponges, the analysis of which and the marl have shown that they are of the same com- position as specimens taken from various parts of the upper green sand in different districts of England. is^ear Sutton Waklron, in Dorsetshire, the upper green sand covers a tolerably wide expanse. Its junction v/ith the soft, dirty, white marl above, so frequently alluded to, is well defined ; but in other respects it differs from the corresponding strata of Kent, Surrey, and Hampshire. In some places the marl degenerates to sand, which is sufficiently arenaceous to be used for making mortar. It con- tains comparatively but a very trifling quantity of lihosphoric acid, whilst the chief constituent of its fossils, which are numerous in some parts, is carbo- nate of hme. Casts of amonites have been found, which were found to contain a high per-centage of phosphoric acid. The neighbourhood is conse- quently worthy of a fuller investigation. At Mintern, on the contrary, both the marl and its fossils are richer in phosphates — a speckled marl yielding 11.04, a green sandstone 6.07, fossils in brown marl 40.74, in the marl 9.10 per cent, of phosphate of lime respectively. The last-named substance is very rich in fossil remains, amongst which specimens of a species of snjall scaphites are very numerous. Phosphoric fossils belonging to the upper green sand have been found so far in the west of England as Chard, in Somersetshire, which contain 10.16 per cent, of phosphoric acid, or equal to 20.97 per cent, of bone earth phosphate. The position of the upper green sand beds is given at length, in order to enable persons residing in its vicinity to explore it with greater facility for the purpose of obtaining phosphoric minerals. Although the upper green sand is described as being continuous throughout a great length of country, that expression is only used in a geological sense, and is not to be understood as forming the surface soil throughout, portions only outcropping. The positions of several such outcrops have already been named ; but it is highly probable that the upper green sand either outcrops or approaches near the surface, at many other points, and in places, too, where a cheaper suj)ply of phosphates would be of the greatest advantage to the landowner and farmer. For example — a farmer occupying land on the chalk hills of Bedford finds the pasture and tdlago crops improved by tlie use of bones or superphosphate of lime. He probably proceeds to jiurchase one or both from a metropolitan dealer taiueii from the coast of Suffolk ; whereas by a trilling search he could have obtained a cheap and l^ermanent sn])ply at the base of his own chalk hills. When the distance required for carriage is not too great, the cheapest source of phosi)horic manure will sometimes be found in the use of the phosphoric marl which so generally accompanies the nodules, which are rich in phosphate of lime. Although the jjhosphoric stratum may not be dis- covered at the surface, the character of the vege- tation wdl occasionally indicate it^being present at no great depth. In the jjarish of Farnham, for in- stance, where the bed traverses its whole extent from east to west, coinciding {precisely with the line of the very best hop ground, it has here been generally observed that in wet summers the growth of the bine of the hops upon these outcroi)s is too luxuriant, and the fruit invariably ripens later; whilst in dry summers, they are conspicuously large, 28 bushels of hops having once been picked from four successive hills on the site of one of the richest of the fossiliferoas green sand beds, being at the rate of four tons per acre, or ten times the average growth of the best soils. As another in- stance of the extraordinary fertilizing ])roperty of these beds, may be mentioned the fact that a field was planted with hops where the superficial soil consisted of diluvial drift gravel about two feet thick; from which circumstance heavy or even good crops were not anticipated ; yet, contrary to expectation, an average crop was produced, and an examination of the subsoil disclosed a rich vein of the fossil marl, four to five feet below the surface. It is difficult to calculate the extent of benefits which the farmer may derive from a judicious de- velopment of these sources of mineral manures, especially by those whose farms are contiguous to the upper green sand fossil beds. We purposely use the word " contiguous," because on the beds themselves phosphate manures have not been found of any service — forty bushels of pulverized bones having been a])plied per [acre v/ithout the slightest beneficial result. It must not be supposed that these highly fertilizing properties are solely attribu- table to the presence of the phosphoric mineral, a fully equal share being due to the presence of pot- ash in a more than ordinary proportion in the ac- companying marl. These two most im])ortant mineral ingredients to the growth of vegetation being present in abundance, it is found that ferti- lity is only increased by the application of nitrogen- ized substances. Old woollen rags, for instance, have proved particularly fertihzing to the hop j^lant, having from their slow decomposition a last'my quality. In the vicinity of Farnham there have been noticed some striking instances of the in- fluence of the phosphoric marl upon corn, and upon wheat especially. In a field at the north-east ex- tremity of the parish, the strata are nearly vertical, and the band being very thin, its direction across the field can always be traced by a rank green luxuriant belt. The following lithological and chemical descrip- tion of the principal beds and fossils, calculated to be advantageous to the interests of tlie agricul- turists, will probably be found serviceable to such as may be induced to search them out in their im- the latter article manufactured from coprolites, ob- mediate localities; and if additional illustrations 302 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. are needed, we must refer them to the engravings in the fourth volume of the Geological Transactions, and the plates in the second volume of Parkinson's Organic Remains ; sponges comprising varieties of almost every order of organization are, however, the most prominent and characteristic kinds. The analysis of one of these sponges (a branching alcyonite) gave Insoluble siUcious matter and soluble silica . . . . » 7.68 Phosphoric acid (equal to 61.30 of bone earth phosphate) 29.87 Carbonic acid 8.77 Lime 42,29 Oxide of iron and alumina 6. 87 Water, organic matter, fluorine, and loss 4.52 100.00 Besides the sponges of definite form, there are often associated with them in the midst of the other fossils, large amorphous spongoid bodies, some- what resembling masses of recent sponge, which, though shapeless, possesses a general imiformity of structure, so as to be immediately recognized by a practised eye. Externally, some of them are much erroded. They are extremely heavy for their size, and are of every dimensions, varying in weight from a few ounces to 8 or 10 lbs. each. There is a pecuharity in this class of fossils, for whilst the general mass of organic remains in the green marl beds individually agree in their chemi- cal composition, these spongoid bodies differ from them, and from each other, particularly so far as relates to the proportion of ])hosphate of lime, which varys from five to fifty per cent., the richest usually lying in the centre of the bed, and the ])oorer below. They vary also in their own com- ponent parts, being richer in the exterior. To as- certain this point, Professor AVay took one of the largest of a medium quality, and divided it into sections, which, on being analyzed, gave the fol- lowing results : — Exterior ^2.27 phosphate of hme. (61.71 carbonate of lime. Intermediate.. \ JJ.87 phosphate of lime. ( 67.14 carbonate of hme. Interior s 10. 2G phosphate of lime. 1^69.17 carbonate of lime. The theoretical considerations connected with the above analyses are important in a scientific pohit of view as regards the origin of the phospho- ric acid in these fossils, the consideration of which it is, however, by no means necessary to enlarge on at present. No internal organization of struc- ture is discernible in these bodies. They are in- tensely hard, and the most difficult of all the fossils to reduce to a fine powder. Another abundant supply of phosphate of lime is derived from lumps of various sizes, utterly shapeless. These are al- ways of a light reddish-brown colour ; when first dug they are very soft, and never attain a greater hardness than that of soft white chalk. Their speci- fic gravity is small compared with the nodules previ- ously noticed. In a few instances specimens have been found which unite the characteristics of both classes. These lumps are invariably rich on ana- lysis, yielding — Insoluble silicious matter, with a little clay 7.18 Soluble silica 3.28 Organic matter 2.49 Phosphoric acid (equal to 55.96 of bone earth phosphate) 27.13 Carbonic acid 8.77 Lime 39.85 Magnesia 96 Oxide of iron and alumina , 10.60 100.26 Another description of organic remains exists in greater quantity than any of the preceding, con- sisting of very dark brown lumps of every form and size — some are microscopically small, others attain a weight equal to 3 or 4 pounds each; they are both heavy and hard. From their appearance it has been supposed that these substances must at one period have existed in a soft plastic state, as many of them are agglutinized to the surfaces of the syphonia, corals, shells, teeth, and wood. Some very perfect specimens are covered over, both internally and externally, with these amor- phous bodies, which cannot be detached without breaking the shell. By M. Berthier's analysis they are composed as foUows : — Phosphate of lime 57 Carbonate of ditto 7 Carbonate of magnesia 2 Silicate of iron and alumina 25 Water and bituminous matter 7 Loss 2 100 The bitumen is supposed to be the carbonized remains of the soft parts of ancient mollusca, in consequence of which Dr, Mantell, in his models of creation, has proposed the application of the term moUuskite, We have already alluded to the value of the marl enclosing the phosphoric no- dules. The following analysis, conducted by Pro- fessor Way, on a sample taken out of from 30 to 40 tons dug up at Farnham, will show its value. It yielded as follows : — Insoluble silicious matter 32.81 Soluble silica »,.. . 29.14 Organic matter 3.02 Phosphoric acid, equal to 13.63 bone earth phosphate 6.6I Carbonic acid 2.30 Lime 9.53 Magnesia 1.97 Oxide of iron and alumina 11 .46 Potash 3.10 Loss 06 100.00 ,,^ Two tons and a half of marl such as the above, with two hundred weight of an ammoniacal salt, would be an adequate dressing for the heaviest crop known to British husbandry — a sufficient proof of the immense importance of the subject to all occupiers of land in the vicinity of the upper green sand. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. aoc MM M (1 IJ> THE EXHAUSTING POWER OF OATS ON THE SOIL, The oat crop is one which has never stood very high, either with the cultivator, the land agent, or the consumer. With the first-named, it is looked upon as either a medium of bringing fresh land into the state of that which has been longer cultivated, or as a very fair crop to grow when a field would not produce a wheat crop. The land- agent, seeing it often follow a wheat crop, and seeing it a grain always resorted to where there is difficulty of obtaining a corn crop at all, looks upon it as an engine of exhaustion in the hands of the vicious cultivator ; while ever since the days of the Doctor Johnson, who sarcastically spoke of them as the food of men in Scotland and that of horses in England, they have been looked upon as a very inferior food, until more scientific research and more accurate observations have shown that they are by no means unsuited for human food, but, on the contrary, are very nutritious ; nay, we had almost forgot the jocose fact Professor John- ston mentioned, that the reason why the Scottish soldiers were so hard v/as because of the flints they consumed in the oatmeal of their crowdy. In a paper of great ability, read before the New- castle Farmers' Club by Mr. Hugh Taylor, of Cramlington, the two objections to the oats being an exhausting crop on the one hand, and a shghtly nourishing food on the other, are met and answered — so far, at least, as the scope and compass of the paper will admit — in a very satisfactory manner. Without entering at all upon the question of fact — the fact that oats are usually the last scourge of a corn-cropping farmer; without doubting the impos- sibility in such cases of attempting to give any other crop after they have done their work ; without questioning that the most fertile land may be ex- hausted and brought into the condition of old til- lage land by a few years of successive oat cropping — facts which in themselves seem to be somewhat significant — science does not determine them to be a very exhausting corn crop ; and practice, properly understood, dovetails with that conclusion. We may premise our observations, however, by saying that Mr. Taylor is a supporter of the mineral theory. He declares it as a fact that " the exhaustion of the soil by the respective crops depends upon the amount of mineral matter ab- stracted from it ;" and further declares, that " the much-debated point, whether the organic matter is derived from the atmosphere, is of more interest to the vegetable physiologist than to the farmer ; for the failure of the crop has never been satisfactorily traced to a deficiency of vegetable matter in the soil." Now these are, first of all, two strong state- ments— somewhat too unqualified to convey the impression we would wish to convey to the readers of the Journal, yet they contain the elements of truth. He then goes on to show that the great difference between the oat and other grain crops, is, that it abstracts from the soil a lar^^e amount of silica ; so that this being a fact, it must of necessity take less of other and more highly important ele- ments of the food of other crops. He thus gives the result of the absorption of mineral constituents by the different crops — Silica. Other Jtlatter. Wheat 03 29.65 Barley . 14.36 38.64 Oats 23.89 33.11 Rye 01 29.99 Hence he argues that, setting aside silica — the re- moval of which is of little consequence— the oats and the barley remove an equal quantity of mineral matter from the soil, and the v/hcat and rye 22 per cent, less. Now, after all the importance which Mr. Taylor attaches to the mineral matter of the soil, we should expect him to declare this crop to be exhausting. He does no such thing ; he thus gets over the difficulty — " But it must be remem- bered that a very considerable proportion of the oats produced is consumed by farm horses, and that consequently a great deal of the ash even of the grain is returned to the soil. Phosphoric acid is generally in less quantity in the soil than any other substance necessary to the nutrition of plants. Of this the oats do not require so much as any of the others ; thus the quantity of phosphoric acid taken from the land is, by a crop of barley 25.76lbs. per acre, by rye 21.15, by wheat 20.56, andby oats 19.861bs. Under these circumstances the oat may be regarded as the least exhausting of the cereal grains." But let it be remembered, that though the oat takes less phosphoric acid, it takes much more mineral matter of all kinds ; and as its consumption on the farm is a m.ere accident, apart and distinct from the cro]) itself, and as it takes a large proportion of another often scarce mineral — wc mean potash — of which it takes nearly twenty per cent., we should X yu4 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hardly think the oat a slight exhauster from this circumstance alone. But if we once admit ammonia to be an element of great value to the soil — and we do not see how this can T.'ell be gainsaid, after the experiments on the subject for so many continuous years — we shall have to admit that at least the oat takes off a very con- siderable portion, and so must be said to exhaust the soil of this element as far as it is carried ofi". But the question is not, is the oat crop an ex- hauster at all ? but, is it more or less exhausting than the other cereal crops ? The oat has a powerful constitutional organiza- tion; it has great powers of appropriation and selection; it can live, in fact, where other ciops would starve; it can grasp and hold what other crops cannot; it can go a stage further than they in the work of ruining a soil, and has been called an exhauster. But this by no means follows. The plant is indigenous to our soil and climate, and hence it has greater adaptation and greater fitness for it, and as such can leave the soil in a more impoverished state than any other crop. But because of this, it is by no means necessarily more exhausting than other crops, in itself ; it only gives further means of impoverishment than any other corn crop, and no more, and hence the pre- judice against oats as a corn crop. Again, the oat abstracts, some two per cent, of nitrogen from the soil, while the wheat takes little more ; but then the wheat will constitutionally die in a soil where an oat crop will live and even thrive ; showing the same fact as the above, but by no means proving that on well stored soils a crop of oats, weight for weight, will abstract more than any other cereal from the soil; the difference being in an increased weight of produce, arising from greater assimila- tive powers rather than from any excessiye ex- haustive power. The practical recommendations of Mr. Taylor are some of them of great value. Speaking of the liability of certain varieties of oats to deteriorate, and the danger of sowing partially degenerate seed, he advises great care in selecting the seed-corn, and even hand-picking of the oats, if necessary, to keep the selection pure. AH v/ill fail, however, in some species. It is almost im- possible to keep the Tartarian to its native tendency to have all its grains growing on one side for many years in succession. A poor field will in one year accomplish the change, and even in rich soils there will be a per-centage greater or less found to fail in keeping the desired tendency ; and the only real means of keeping the oat free from such defection is to have an annual, or at least a biennial, impor- tation of seed from Tartary. Mr. Taylor gives his exnerience, too, on the relative merits of ribbing and drilling. He judged of the crop, he said, by the eye, " but the drilled corn was inferior to both the ribbing or plough-seam sowing." This result was attributed to the roots being too much crov^ded to- gether in the narrow rows of the drill. In the experiment the ribbed land carried decidedly the best crop. It would have been interesting to know wliether he sowed the same amount of seed per acre in all the experiments ; and if this should meet his eye^ it would be a favour to our readers to know ; for we think a smaller quantity of seed should be sown by the drill than by the hand, in whatever way the soil may have been prepared. If less seed were sown by the drill than where the land was ribbed, it would have had, we think, a result in fa- vour of drilling. — ^Gardenes' and Farmers' Journal. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. Russian Agriculture. The Chevalier de Masslow, Secretary of the Imperial Agricultural Society of Moscow, on his visit to England for the purpose of attending the Windsor meeting, was the bearer of the following interesting presents on the part of that body to the Royal Agricultural Society of England : namely — I. A series of 15 statistical maps of European Russia, in folio size, prepared expressly for the occasion from authentic data furnished by the Government, exhibiting to the eye, by means of outline, figures, diagram, and colour, the following important details in amount as well as circumstance : — 1. The different geoloj!;ical characters of the country, 2. The variatioas of dimatc iu different districts. The average production of corn in the several localities during the last 10 years. Classification of the different provinces according to the average price of com during the same period. Lines of transport for corn from different districts of the empire to the metropolis. Distribution of woods and forests. Locahties in which Flax and Hemp are grown. Localities in which Tobacco is grown. Localities iu which Beet-root Sugar is mauufacturedysid' Number of Sheep iu each locality. .no it Number of Horses in each locality. ijioii Number of Cattle iu each locality. ^ aiJj Lines of transport for cattle from the Southern to i^fafl^f. Northern division of llussia. , , Places where agricultural exhibitions have taken place. Distribution of the agricultural schools of the empi|:e. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 305 II. Sectlonul iliMwiiiss on a large scale, of the original and simple, hat (for the rich soil of Russia) effective llcld-implemcnts <,f Russia, namely — aii^ij J.' Four drawings of Siberian plouglis and hoe. Ylfr.igi. Ten drawin;.^s of cultivating implements in Lesser Russin, with view of the mode of yoking the draught-oxen. III. Printed reports, namely: — 1. Report of tlie Proceedings (in the Russian lan- guage), of the Imperial Agricultural Society of Moscow, for 25 years, from the date of its foun- dation to 18-JG. 2. Report of Proceedings (in German), from 1846 to 1850, under tlie following heads : — • 1. ResiiUa of the Society's Operations. 2. Manufacture of Sugar from Beet-root. 3. Silk Cultivation. 4. Management of Bees. 5. Cultivation of Madder. 6. Etiucation of the Labouring Popuialiou. 7. Personal Missions and Travels. 8. Foreign Associations, Journal, and Correspondence. 9. Improvement of Siieep-breeding. 10. Agricultural Schools, Model Farms, and Heading Clubs. 11. Manufactory for Iraplemcuts. 12. Seed IK'pots. 13. Rewards, Presents, Comrauuications. 3. Report of Proceedings (in French), of the Jubi- lee Fete of the Imperial Agricultural Society of Moscow, on the occasion of its 25th x'Vnniversary, in 1846. IV. Six specimens of Silk, grown with success in Russia, under a higher latitude than that of the north of England; with a supply of Cocoons. The Chevalier de Masslow, in laying these interesting presents before the Council, on the part of the Imperial : . , , , , , ,i o • ,. o • .. cT> 1 -c ^ -Mr .- 4 1 ,1 .: 1 ..J, presents he had mentioned should reach the Society, Society of Rural Economy at Moscow, stated that both 1-"'"='^ ,. r- i ht » •' along with 300 plants collected by his friend, M. Annen- koff, in the neighbourhood of Moscow, be trusted the stirred surface-soil calling into acilvc operation the latent energies of this invaluable gift of Nature. It was on this account that their agricultural implements in Russia were so few and unvarying, but at the same time so per- fectly efficient. That map also showed the occurrence throughout Russia of other geological circumstances, namely, of clay, sand, loam, peat, and salt ; of morasses beyond the limits of grain-cultivation ; and of rocky disti-icts still further removed from agricultural localities. He also remarked on the second map, in illustration of the objects for which the atias had been drawn up for the information of the Society, that it defined the limits of the cultivation of particular plants; showing, ia the south, to what extent, northward. Maize might be grown ; nest, to what limit Vine cultivation extended ; then the region for the growth of the Cucurbitrc or Gourd-family ; higher up, the range of Rye cultivation; after that, the growth of Spring-wheat; and, most northward, the Barley districts. On each of the maps in succession, similar details of great agricultural interest were given; but as they were written in the Russian language, so little studied in England, the Chev. dc Masslow kindly expressed his intention of forwarding to the Society an English translation of these annotations ; and also, should it be the wish of the Council, it would give him great pleasure to publish the Moscow Transac- tions in the English language, as well as in the Russian, German, and French. He then referred to the speci- mens of silk grown at Moscow, and laid before the Council, which he thought not unworthy of the attention of the Society ; as the cultivation of the Mulberry-tree in [)6'^ north latitude resolved the question of its capa- bility of being cultivated for the growth of silk, in all the southern districts of Russia, where .its production admitted of the greatest extension. When the further institutions having the same object in view, namely, the prosperity of practical agriculture, and the progress of agricultural science, it was his great wish that they should enter into a continual relation with each other. As a proof of the sincere wish of the Moscow Society to I form this communication, they had deputed their Secretary, Chev. de Masslow, to oifer these presents for the acceptance of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. He remarked that the first map of the Atlas of Russia, then laid before the Council, represented tlie different qualities of earth in the agricultural districts of that empire, among which th.; black soil, which formed ; the foundation of the agricultural wealth of Russia, ' comprised about 17,000 square miles. The Moscow Society were preparing, as a further present to the Society, a series of samples of this celebrated soil (to ; which reference has been made by Sir Roderick Mur- ■ chison. Journal III., 125), taken in different localities, from the three different beds in which it occurred (of from one to four feet thick, each), with an analysis of the soil from each of these divisions, a memorandum of depth, and a statement of produce resulting in the several crops. These beds of earth constituted a natural stock of the most fertile soil, replete with nutritive element, and requiring no manure— the action of the air on the Council would receive them also in the same kind spirit as they did those he then laid before them , and " as a proof of the desire of the Imperial Society of Rural Economy at Moscow to enter into friendly relations with the Royal Agricultural Society of England, both having the same noble scope of promoting the knowledge and nractice of agriculture, for the mutual well-being of both nations and humanity." The Council having unanimously agreed to accept these valuable presents, with their warmest thanks, Mr. Raymond Barker, the Vice-President in the chair, com- municated this resolution to the Chevalier de Masslow personally, at the sitting of the Council, at which he had favoured them with his attendance. Americ.\?i PiiosrHATE 0? Lime. The Secretary having been directed by the Council to make special inquiries on the subject of the occurrence of mineral Phosphate of Lime in the United States, and in reference to the specimen of that substance which Dr. Daubeny had forwarded to the Duke of Richmond, re- plies were received from His Excellency the American Minister, Dr. Daubeny, Sir R. I. Murchison, Sir Chas. X 2 506 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lycll, Capt. W. H. Smyth, Dr. Shawe, Prof. Johnston, of Durham, Mr. Johnson, Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, and Dr. Cooke, Professor of Mineralogy in Harwood University, and laid before the Council on the 25th of June last. The following results may be deduced fi-om this correspondence :— 1. The Mineral Phosphate of Lime has been found in the American States of New Jersey and New York ; and there is a great probability that it will be discovered in other States of that Union, as well as in Canada ; it is also not improbable, from analogical considerations, that this crystalline substance may be found to exist among the metamorphic masses of the Highlands of Scotland and elsewhere. 2. Tlie specimen from New Jersey, forwarded by Dr. Daubeny to the Duke of Richmond, had the appearance of a remarkable variety of crystalline rock ; but the formation in which it occurred was not stated. It was found by Professor Maskelyne to contain 95 per cent, of the phosphates of lime, iron, and alumina. Its im- portation was made by Messrs. Jevons, of Stamford- place, Liverpool. One vein alone, discovered in New Jersey, would supply the English market for many years. 3. In the state of New York a great mass of this mineral had been discovered, and a shaft had already been sunk to the depth of nearly thirty feet. This vein occurred at Crown Point, near Lake Champlain, in Esses county, and the abundance of the mineral was so great as to lead to the conclusion that this mine contained an inexhaustible supply ; the locality was also favourable for facility of transport and ready shipment. This vein consisted of grains and crystals ; and on analysis, in America, has been found to contain a much larger pro- portion than the Jersey mineral, of which some specimens yielded only about forty per cent, of the phosphate of lime, while the Crown Point mineral gives eighty per cent, of that substance, free from chalk, containing only a small amount of quartz in grains, and of the fluoride and chloride of lime. It is very soft, and pulverizes easily, and is more readily dissolved than the Jersey variety. It can be delivered in London, in the rough state, or powdered ready for use, as may be thought most de- sirable. By single-horse power two tons a day may easily be ground. 4. The price at which the Jersey phosphate was first offered was five guineas per ton ; but its interest imme- diately ceased, in a commercial point of view, when the importers, on fallacious grounds of supply and demand, injudiciously raised the price to £1, forgetting that there were already other forms of phosphate of lime in this country available to the English farmer. It is now iuUy believed by moderate and intelligent Americans that the United States phosphate can be afforded in the English market at such a price as will render it a cheap fertilizer ; and, as it can easily be reduced to powder, its value cannot be doubted, provided it be treated with sulphuric acid, and thus rendered suitable as a manure for those crops for which phosphate of lime has been found by experience to be advantageous. 5. Professor Johnston, of Durham, to whose personal visit to the United States we probably o?,'e the attention thus paid to this mineral, occurring so abundantly in that part of the world, remarks : — " American farmers in general have not the knowledge to appreciate the value of such a manuring substance as this, nor the ability to purchase it when manufactured into super- phosphate of lime ; the discovery, therefore, will be a boon, for the present, to both countries. It will make more abundant and cheap the means of fertility which our soils require ; while, by supplying a new article of traffic only saleable in Great Britain, it will form a new bond of connexion between our kindred nations." 6. Dr. Cooke and Dr. Daubeny having called the attention of the Council to the information relating to this mineral contained in " Dana's System of Mine- ralogy," the following abstracts have accordingly been made : — (1) Localities and Association of Occurrence. At Rumford, Maine — in tlie same district with yellow garnet, idocrase, pyroxene, scapolite, graphite. At Piermont, New Hampshire — with micaceous iron, heavy spar; green, white, and brown mica. At Bolton, Massachusetts — with scapolite, petalite, sphene, pyroxena, nuttalite, dlopside, boltonite, magnesite, rhomb spar, allaaite, yttrocerite, cerium ochre, spinel. At Boxborough, Mass. — with scapoUte, spinel, garnet, angite, actinolite. At Chester, Mass. — with hornblende, scapolite, zoisite, spodumene, iudicolite, magnetic iron. At Chesterfield, Mass. — with blue, red, and green tourma- line; cleavelandite, lithia, mica, smoky quartz, micro- spolite, dumene, kyanite, rose beryl, [garnet, quartz crystals, staurotide, tin ore, columbite, variegated cop- per ore, zoisite, uranite. At Hinsdale, Mass. — with brown-iron ore, zoisite. At Lancaster, Mass. — with kyanite, chiastolite, staurotide, pinite, audalusite. At Littleton, Mass. — with spinel, scapolite. At Middlefield, Mass — with glassy actinolite, rhomb spar, steatite, serpentine, feldspar, drusy quartz, zoisite, nacrite, chalcedony, talc. At Norwich, Mass. — (very fine specimen) with black tour- maline, beryl, blende, quartz crystals. At Sturbridge, Mass. — with graphite, pyrope, bog ore. At Williamsburg, Mass. — with zoisite, pseudomorphous quartz, rose and smoky quartz, galena, pyrolusite, copper pyrites. At Litchfield, Connecticut — with kyanite and corundum, andalusite, ilmenite, copper pyrites. At Middletown, Connecticut — with mica, lepidolite, green and red tourmaline, albite, feldspar, columbite, prehnite, garnet, beryl, topaz, uranite. At Crown Point, New York — with garnet, massive feld- spar, epidote, Epsom salt, magnetic iron. At Long Pond, New Yorlc — with garnet, pyroxena, ido- erase, coccolite, scapolite, magnetic iron ore, blue calc spar. At Moriah, New York — with zircon, calc spar, actinolite, labradorite, mica, specular iron. At Diana, New York — with scapolite, tubular spar, green coccolite, feldspar, sphene, mica, quartz crystals, driisy quartz, cryst. pyrites, magnetic pyrites, blue calc spar, serpentine, reusselaerite, zircon, specular iron ore, iron sand. At Corker's Hook, New York—nnassociatfea'^witfi'^oftter remarkable minerals. '^ - i -> -i ■ •> THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 307 9di At Two Ponds, in Munroe, New York — with pyroxene, chondrodite, hornblende, scapolite, zircon, sphene. ' '^''At'Edenville, New York — (good specimens) with chondro- dite, hsir-brown hornblende, tremolite, spinel, tourma- "''' line, warwickite, pyroxene, sphene, mica, feldspar, mis- pickel, orpiment, rutile, ilmenitc, scorodite, copper c 'I'l M pyrites. bAiAA Gouvemeur, New York — with calc spar,' serpentine, ! i horublcude, scapolite, feldspar, loxoclase, tourmaline, pyroxene, reusselaerite, serpentine sphene, iluor, heavy spar, rutile, black and copper-coloured mica, tremolite, asbestus, specular iron, graphite, idocrase, mica, quartz, spinel, pyrites. At Rossie, New York (good specimens) — with calc spar, heavy spar, quartz crystals, chondrodite, feldspar, par- gasite, pyroxena, mica, floor, serpentine, automolite, pearl spar, graphite, serpentine, zircon. At Greenfield, New York — with chrysoberyl, garnet, tour- maline, mica, feldspar, graphite, arragonite (in iron mines). At Anthony's Nose, New York — (good specimens) with pyrites, calcite. At West Farms, New York —with tremolite, garnet, stil- bite, heulandite, chabazite, epidote, sphene. At East Bradford, Pensylv. — with green, blue, and grey kyanite. At Leiperville Pennsyl. (good specimens) — with beryl, tourmaline, garnet, cryst. feldspar, mica, kyanite, da- mourite, sillimanite, red garnet, mica ; (ordinary speci- mens) with andalusite, tourmaline, mica, grey kyanite. At Springfield, Pennsyl. — with staurotide. At Chesnut Hill, Pennsyl. — with mica, serpentine, dolo- mite, asbestus, nephrite, talc, tourmaline, sphene, tre- molite. At Germantown, Pennsyl, — with mica, feldspar, beryl, garnet. At Dixon's Feldspar Quarries, Delaware — (good specimens) with adalaria, albite, beryl, mica, leelite, cinnamon- stone, maguesite, serpentine, asbestus, black toiumaline, indicolite, sphene, kyanite. At Magnet Cove, Arkansas — with brookite, sckorlomite, eloeohte, magnetic iron, quartz, green coccolite, garnet. At Bay St. Paul, Canada East — with ilmeuite. At Goetineau River, Canada West — with calcite, tour- maline, hornblende, pyroxene. At Grand Calumet Island, Canada West — with phlogo- pite, pyroxene, sphene, idocrase, serpentine, tremolite, scapolite, biown and black tourmaline, pyrites. The Apatile, or Mineral Phosphate of Lime, occurs in crys- talline rocks. It is often found in veins in gneiss or mica- slate, and particularly those containing tin and iron ore ; also iu granular limestone. It is sometimes met with in serpen- tine, and occasionally, as in Spain, in ancient volcanic rocks. Among foreign localities are Ehrenfriederdorf iu Saxony; Schlackeuv/ald in Bohemia; Caldbeck Fell in Cumberland; Devonshire ; St. Gothard in Switzerland. The greenish-blue variety called moroa'ife occurs at Arendal inNorway,and Pargas, ..Finland. The aspararjits-stone, or s^yai-f/ehlein variety, which is obtained in Zillerthal iii the Tyrol, and Villa Rica, Spain, is • translucent, and has a wine-yellow colour; it is imbedded ill talc. The phosphorite, or massive radiated varieties, are mostly obtained from Estremadura in Spain, and Schlacken- wald iu Bohemia. The eupyrchroite variety of Emmons is similar. Jlagnificent crystals of apatite, or mineral phosphate of lime, are found in St. Lawrence Co., State of New York, in white limestone, along with scapolite, sphene, &c. One crystal from Robinson's Farm, in Hammond, was nearly a foot in length, and weighed 18 pounds. Smaller crystals are abundant, and the prisms are frequently well terminated. Besides the locality in Hammond, fine crystals are obtained about a mile south-east of Gouvcnieur in a similar gangue, and also in Rossie, with sphene and pyroxene, two miles north of the village of Oxbow. Alsoonthebankof Vroomanlake, JelTerson Co., iu white limestone, fine green prisms from half aninch to live inches long; Sanford Mine, East Moriah, Essex Co., ia magnetic iron ore, which is often thickly studded with six-sided prisms ; also at Long Pond, Essex Co.; near EdenvilJe, Orange Co., in prisms from half an inch to twelve inches long, of a bright asparagus- green colour, imbedded iu white limestone ; and in the same region, blue, greyish-green, and greyish-white crystals ; two miles south of Amity, emerald and blui.sh-greeu crystals ; at Long Pond, Essex Co., with garnet and idocrase ; at Greenfield, Saratoga Co., St. Anthony's Nose, and Corlaer's Hook, less interesting; fibrous mammUlated (eupyrchroite) at Crown Point, Essex Co., about a mile south of Hammondsville. In New Hampshire, crystals, often large, are abundant iu the south part of Westmoreland, four miles south of the north village meeting-house, occupying a vein of feldspar and quartz in mica-slate, along with molybdenite ; some fine crys- tals at Piermont, N.H., in white limestone, on the land of Mr. Thomas Cross. In JMaine, on Long Island, Blue-hill Bay, in veins ten inches wide, intersecting granite. In IMassachusetts, crystals occasionally six inches long are obtained at Norwich (north-west part) in grey quartz ; at Bolton, abundant, the forms seldom interesting; also sparingly at Chesterfield, Chester, Sturbridge, Hinsdale, and Williamsburg. In Penn- sylvania, at Leiperville, Delaware Co. ; in Bucks Co., three miles West of Attleboro. Apatite, or mineral phosphate of lime, has also been found near Baltimore, Maryland; at Dixon's Quarry, Wilmington, Delaware, of a rich blue colour; on the Morris Canal near Suckasung, N.J., of a brown colour; in massive magnetic pyrites; also at Perth, Canada. (2) External Characters. Hexagonally crystalline ; also globular or kidney-shaped, with a fibrous or imperfectly columnar structure, and massive, with a granular structure. Lustre vitreous, inclining to sabresinous. Streak, white. Colour usually sea green, bluish green, or violet blue ; sometimes white ; also oc- casionally yellow, grey, red, and brown ; none bright. Transparent — opaque. A bluish opalescence, sometimes in the direction of the vertical axis, especially in white varieties. Cross fracture coiichoidal and uneven. Brittle. It is about 3:r times heavier than water. (3) Chemical Composition. According to Professor Rose, apatite is composed of — Phosphate of lime (or bone-earth) 92-3 Fluoride of calcium (or Derbyshire spar) 'i-'i 100- The following analyses represent the composition of 100 parts of specimens from Norway, Spain, and tlie Tyrol, respectively: — From Suarum in Norway. From Cabo di Gata, in Spain. From Arendal in Norway. From Greiner iu the Tyrol. From St. Gotliard, iu the Tyrol. Phosphate of Lime. . Chloride of Calcium . Fluoride of Calcium 91.13 4.2S 4.59 92.066 0.883 7.049 92.189 0.801 7.010 92.1G 0.13 7.69 92.31 a trace. 7.69 100.00 100.000 lOO.OCO 100.00 100.00 308 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ramraeliberg makes the coiapositiou of 100 parts of an apatite from Scliwdrzeaateia in Zilierthal : Lime 4966, Phos- phoric acid 42 58, with Calcium 406, Chlorine 0 07, Fhiorine 363. In a phosphorite from Estremadura, Dr. Daubeny found 14 per cent, of Fluoride of Calcium, Mineral Phosphate of Lime is infusible when heated alone by means of the blow pipe, but melts without didicalty into a brittle glass when mixed with bi- phosphate of soda or with common boras : it also fuses when mixed with carbonate of iron. In nitric acid it dissolves slowly, without effervesceuce. Some varieties are phospho- rescent. (4) Varieties. Mineral phosphate of lime was termed ApalUe by Werner, from a Greek word signifying " deceptive," in allusion to the mistakes made by the older mineralogists with regard to the nature of its many varieties. It is also known by the terms: spargelstein, asparagus-stone., phosphorite, morosite, chrysolite, eupyrchroite, augustite, and pseudo- apatite. The variety known as talc-apatite, from chlorite slate in Schischimskian Mountains, near Slatoust, contains in 100 parts— Eime 3750, Magnesia 7.74, Phosphoric acid 39.02, Sulphuric acid 2.10, Chlorine 0.91, Oxide of Iron 1.00, insoluble matter and loss 11.73. FmncoUte is an apatite from near Tavistock, in Devonshire. It occurs in small masses of irregular aggregated crystals, having a somewhat mammillated surface. According to the ana- lysis of T. H. Henry, 100 parts are composed of — Lime 53.38, Irou and Manganese 2.96, Phosphoric acid 41.34, Fluorine and loss 2.32. Professor Jameson gives in the article Mineralogy, in Brewster's Encyclopaedia (pages 48S-5), an interesting statement of the varieties of Apatite, and of their locali- ties of occurrence, and respective chemical composition. We have only space on this occasion to glance at a few points selected from that article. 1. Foliated Apatite (common variety) occurs in tin-stone veins, and also embedded in talc. It is found in Europe, in yellow foliated talc, and along with fluor-spar, iu the mine called Stena-Gwyu, in St. Stephcn'3,in Cornwall; and .at St. Michael's Mount, Godolphin bal, in Breage, iu the same county ; also iu various districts on the coutiuent. In America it occurs in grains or hexahedral prisms in granite, near Baltimore, in Maryland ; iu granite and gneiss, along with beryl, garnet, and schorl, at German- town, iu Pennsylvania ; iu irou pyrites at St. Anthony's Nose, iu the Ilndso:), in New York ; ia granite at Milford Mills, near Newhavcn, in Connecticut ; and at Topsham, in Maine, in granite. Klaproth found it to consist of Lime 55, and Phosphoric Acid 45j with a trace of Man- ganese. 2. Concltoidal apatite (asparagus variety) occurs imbedded in gneiss, near Kincardine, in Ross-shire ; also iu beds of magnetic ironstone, along with sphene, calcacerous spar, hornblende, quartz, and augite, at Arendal, in Norway, In America it is found imbedded in granite at Baltim&re ; iu gneiss at Germantown, and in mica- slate in West Greenland. Klaproth ascertained the composition of two specimens of this variety : one from Zilierthal being almost pure phosphate cf lime ; while another, from Uto contained only 92 per cent, of that substance, with 6 per cent, of chalk, 1 of silica, and a trace of manganese. 3. Common Phosphorite. — Occurs iu crusts, and crystallised, along withapatite andquartz, at Schlackenwald in Bohemia, but most abundantly near Leigrosan in the province of Estre- madura in Spain, where it is sometimes associated with apatite, and forms whole beds, that alternate with lime- stone and quartz. — Pelletier found 100 parts to consist of Lime 59.0, Phosphoric Acid 31.0, Silica 2.0, Fluoric Acid 2.5, Muriatic Acid 0.5, Carbonic Acid 1.0, Oxide of Iron 1.0. 4. Earthy Phosphorite. — Occurs in a vein, in the district of Marmarosch iu Hungary. Klaproth gives its composition as— Lime 47.00, Phosphoric acid 32.25, Fluoric acid 2.50, Silica 0.50, Oxide of iron 0.75, Water 1.00, Quarts and Loam 11.50. The Council expressed their best thanks to tliose gen- tlemen who had favoured them -with the letters then laid before them at that meeting, in reply to the inquiries the Council had directed to be made on thiis important subject. THE GENERAL LAND DRAINAGE AND IMPROVEMENT COMPANY. The general ordinary meeting of this company, v.lnch was incorporated in 1S49, vfbs held on Wednesday, August 20, at the offices, 52, Parliament- street, Mr. H. Ker Seymer, M.P., the Chairman of the company, pre- sided. Mr. Clifford, the Secretary, read the report. It referred with satisfaction to the steady progress of the company since the last meeting. The amount of capital, prescribed by act of Parliament before executing any work, had been subscribed for and paid up, and a num- ber of eligible contracts were under consideration, or in course of completion, which would afford a profitable employment to the greater portion, if not the whole, of the subscribed capital of the company. The applications which had been made to the directors for the assistance of tlic company bad been very numerous, and though it had been deemed inexpedient to entertain a great num- ber of them, yet those that the directors had selected to enter upon involved the drainage of upwards of 3,000 acres of land, and the erection of farm buildings to a very considerable extent. The terms and arrangements which the company had adopted had met with very general approval, and Ihey were such as not only fully to remu- nerate the shareholders, but amply to repay landowners for the expenditure upon their estates. Tiie Chairman, in moving the adoption of the re- port, observed that the powers which the company pos- sessed were very great — so great indeed that considerable responsibility attached to all who were entrusted with the execution of them, and he should be sorry that a body of English gentlemen should obtain such extensive powers as they possessed, and not be able to carry them THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 out for the public good, more particularly for the good lof the agricultural interest, understanding thereby, land- lord, tenant, and agricultural labourer. That great in- "terest was still, he believed, the most important interest 'ih this country, and one with which the prosperity of all other interests was very closely connected. He did not of course speak of the general public, because if the agri- culturist did not produce the beef and bread in sufficient quantities and at a sufficiently low price, the beef and bread-eating public had shown that they knew where to go for them ; and, in fact, it was the competition to which the agriculturists were subjected which made the operations of this company so important. It could not be denied that the Jaw of entail had been, to a certain extent, injurious to the agricultural interest, in offering obstructions to expenditure of money in per- manent improvements. In travelling about the country, they saw many estates which were being cultivated under great disadvantages ; they saw landundrained,no roads, and farm buildings either existing where they ought not to exist, or so inconveniently constructed as to do more harm than good, especially in reference to the waste of manure. When they saw all this, they must feel that the agriculturists occupying such farms had not a fair chance in competition with foreign rivalry. V/hen he saw under what circumstances some land was cultivated, he was puzzled to think how the rents were paid, and he was quite sure that without some extraneous assistance they could not continue to be paid much longer. The im- provements, then, of such lands by a sound system of draining, and the erection of farm buildings adapted to the improved mode of cultivation in this country, espe- cially of estates under settlement, was a subject of vast national importance. He thought it was incumbent upon those who, like himself, were not prepared to recommend any violent change in the laws of property, to do all in their power to prevent those laws being in- jurious to the public warfare. For that reason many of the gentlemen then present (for few of them were particularly fond of taking shares in Companies as a pecuniary investment) had joined that Company from a desire to benefit the great landed interest of this country, and from a feeling, owing to the laws regu- lating the importation of foreign food, that, unless great exertions were made, we should not continue to hold the place which we now hold as the foremost agri- cultural nation in the world (Hear, hear). During the late session of Parliament a bill had been brought in for extending the powers of the Private Advances Drainage Act to the erection of farm buildings ; but, that bill having been rejected in the House of Lords, this com- pany now possessed exclusive power to erect farm build- ings on entailed estates, and to charge the expenditure upon the inheritance. If, however, the bill had passed, lie did not think they would, as a company, have been injured by it. Experience had shown that the opera- tions which they wished to promote with regard to entailed estates could not be secured in the ordinary way (Hear, hear). It was necessary that a company should be formed on whom landowners miglit depend for the skilful and economical execution of the works. the advances required for the purpose, and a relief from all the risk, contingency, and trouble in carrying out the operations with the Inclosure Commissioners, and exe- cuting a charge upon the estate. The correspondence in the hands of the secretary showed that landowners, as a class, were not good men of business, that they re- quired assistance in making new arrangements and in communicating with the Inclosure Commissioners. In point of fact, the Act which had been obtained for private drainage had only been carried out to a small extent. It might be objected, and indeed it had been, that, as another company had powers for improving the drainage of lands, there was no necessity for such a company as this. It must, however, be obvious to any one con- nected with farming, that drainage was only the first step in agricultural improvement. If by improved drainage were indirectly introduced a better description of cattle, those cattle would require shelter ; and therefore powers for the erection of buildings, as well as for draining pur- poses, were necessary for the complete improvement of agricultural estates (Hear, hear). The construction of a road, or the operations of enclosing, embankment, or irrigation, were sometimes of scarcely less value than drainage itself; and the company possessed an equal power to carry out all these improvements. They could also obtain an outfall for drainage through adjoining lands — (Hear, hear) — which was sometimes necessary to make drainage of any use at all. The amount of capital paid up might strike many persons as a small sum for a company engaged in operations such as theirs : in many cases, however, it would not be necessary that they should advance any money at all. There were many landowners who were tenants for life, who were not in- disposed to lay out their ovrn money on their estates ; but they wished that any benefit that should arise from it should go to their personal representative, and not to the heir in tail ; and then they would come to this com- pany for the exercise of their powers, which enabled them to charge the amount of the outlay, and all the expenses incurred in executing the charge upon the property, on the inheritance. Again, when they had advanced money, and the works were completed and obtained the sanction of the Inclosure Commissioners, the amount expended became, by an absolute order, and without the expense of any conveyance, a first charge upon the estate, which, being a security of the highest class, would very soon restore the amount ex- pended to the coffers of the Company, and by a frequent employment of the capital enlarge the operations of the Company to any extent. A large capital, therefore, was not required ; but, should it be required, and should they be in a position to pay, as he trusted they would, a fair dividend, there would be no difficulty in increasing their capital (Hear.) One great objection of landowners to the making of new arrangements was, that it involved the necessity of employing lawyers. In the present case there would seldom be any occasion to resort to such assistance, as no investigation of title was required. la the communications with the Inclosure Commissioners, and in all the arrangements, the Secretary and Surveyors of tlie Company would do nearly all that was requisite. 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The Directors spoke in the Report of having " selected" land for their operations. Having many proposals be- fore them, they had, in fact, selected the cases which they thought most likely in the result to bo beneficial to the great cause of agriculture, to be remunerative to the parties themselves, and to bring the Company into a good position on its first introduction to the notice of the country. These were the objects of the Company, and everybody must admit, in this crisis of the country, that they were objects of very great importance. Whe- ther landowners would avail themselves of the powers which the Company possessed remained to be seen. lie trusted that, before they met again, they should have many contracts approved by the Commissioners, and, that they should be speedily at work in many parts of the kingdom (Hear). Mr. J. ViLLiERs Shelley (Deputy-Chairman) se- conded the adoption of the report. Having been a drainer for eighteen years, and having nearly drained the 2,000 acres of land which he occupied, he was enabled to say that hundreds of pounds were annually wasted in a bad system of drainage. Any man who laid down a system of drainage, to be adopted in all cases, without reference to soil, circumstances, or climate, must frequently fail (Hear). The company did not bind themselves to be either deep drainers or shallow drainers; but their surveyor, Mr. Bailey Denton (in whose ability and careful attention the directors felt the highest confi- dence), would in every case take care to adopt that system which was most likely to be successful, and which would bring the quickest return. No doubt, until the present competition arose, landowners had not been brought to see the necessity of learning their own business ; but now, wherever they went, they would be found seeking for information, and endeavouring to learn new modes for improving their land. ■ 'o Mr. J. BuLLAR suggested that the company shouli* take the initiative in some public work of drainage. There was the Valley of the Test, for esam^sle, iinP Hampshire, which belonged to several proprietors, w1i8' might, under the powers and through the agency of tW company, be induced to co-operate in carrying out an| effective system of drainage, which the efforts of any single proprietor, however powerful, might never attain. They might not come individually to the company ; but if the company made a proposal they might all fall into it. He knew an instance there in which a farmer told him that he paid lis. per acre for some of this land, and that if it were drained he would gladly give 25s. an acre. This, it was to be observed, was not the extent of the improved value ; but what the farmer said he would give. The Chairman said that they had had the case of the Valley of the Test under their consideration that very day ; and that they had determined to open a communi- cation with the landowners at once. Mr. BuLLAR said it would be well if the company would make known their terms. He had tried a little draining himself, and had been unable to get it done under £"12 an acre, and in some cases ^£'20 aa acre (a laugh;. After some further discussion the report was unani- mously agreed to. The retiring directors, Mr. J, V. Shelley ; Mr. (Job- bold, M.P.; Mr. H. Currie, M.?. ; and Mr. S. M. Peto, M.P., were re-elected; and, after a vote of thanks to the chairman, the meeting separated. THE LAW OF SETTLEMENT The following are the practical results to which the Committee on the Law of Settlement have come at the conclusion of their report : — " We have examined the origin, progress, and bearing of tliis law, paradoxically called a Law of Settlement, which denies to every man a settlement in 15,534 parishes, where it makes him aa alien, aud affects to settle him, whether he will or not, iu a single one ; making it the interest of himself to escape, and of the whole parish to expel him, even from that. " We have seen that this law, originated unexpectedly, was recommended on false pretences, was carried by a local inte- rest, and without discussion. " That it has never operated to the satisfaction of the so- called parish interests, by which it has been alone supported, and has always operated adversely to that of the general popnlation. " That it is has always impeded the labourer, and never afforded him an advantage, still less an equivalent, for the restraint ou his liberty and prosperity. "That it has always encumbered the agriculture, the pro- duction, and the trade of the less progressive parishes by the idleness it enforced and encouraged, the pauperism 'it created and made stagnant. "That it has always prevented the supply of a respectable population to the places where fresh hands were v.'anted, aud has allowed them to increase chiefly or only by the addition of the outcast people from other places. It has deteriorated the towns, and made them the less fit to receive a decent population. " That it has made the parish of settlement a prison, and every other parish a hostile fortress. It has encouraged the refusal, the restriction, or the destruction of habitations where it pretended to give the legal home, and it has denied a home everywhere else, and has often left no alternative but sordid, compulsory, and unprosperous settlement or a vagrant life, for which last it has provided the most specious justitications. " That it has, by destroying the field of the Englishman's employment, allured the Irish, and even afforded them boun- ties, to supply his place where he was wanted. " That it has accumulated the unsettled population in unde- fended places, which have become filthy nests of wretchedness, pestilence, and crime. " That it has isolated the interests of every parish — made interparochial war their normal state. " That it has never benefitted one parish but by the move than equal injury of another, with the addition of injury to the settler. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 " That it has, contrary to the maiu ohject of law, to remove occasions of dispute, created the occasion for the greatest mass of dispute and litigation ever witnessed ia any nation for any equal period of time. " We have seen incessant attempts made at amendment. Tlie law Las traversed from the one extreme of universal re- movability of the poor man only likely to be chargeable— per- severed in till it was as unendurable to other classes as the poor — to the nearly opposite result, the prohibition of all removal except of unsettled poor, chargeable, who have not been resident for a defined time or under defined circumstances; a provision which, under the controlling influence of the con- tinuing settlement law, is rapidly producing mischiefs both to parishes and the poor as virulent as the worst of the effects of that fatal system. We have seen notliing but failure in attempts at partial amendments ; or, more frequentl)', the introduction of new and unexpected mischiefs. " On the other hand, we have seen instances of pure aboli- tion or extensive excision of the larger members of this body of law, such as the abolition of the power of removal of all nuchargeable people, and the entire abolition of heads of settlement ; and we have seen in all such cases that the destruction has been free from mischief, even when frustrated of some of its good effects by the remaining portions of the law of removal. " The apprehended dangers of the entire abolition of the law of removal have been examined ia detail, and none will stand the investigation. " Some amendments, proposed with the view to lessen the admitted mischiefs of the law, are shown to involve prepon- derating mischiefs of their own, and to be less effective for their proposed end than simple and absolute abolition. " We come, then, to the conclusion, that the only course consistent with the public welfare is to repeal the power of removal by warrant. " This, for reasons shown, should extend to Scotch, Irish, the islanders, and vagrants. "It is unnecessary to provide expressly for ' settlement ;' the provisions as to this and as to legal and other proceedings all become inoperative for present purposes by the abolition of 'removal;' and, as they are mixed up with other matters, they should he left in operation as to them until they have been more carefully examined, or can be appropriately provided for in detail. " As the right of free settlement may operate to the disad- vantage of some of the more accessible places, and as moreover it would of itself be beneficial tliat every union should become to all intents and purposes one parish — but as this, if effected at once, would involve a sudden and violent increase of burden in many of the smaller parishes without equivalent advantages to any — it is desirable so to introduce equality of rating as to render the approximation, if possible, more rapid than the re- ceipt of benefits from the change of the law ; and, so as not to interfere unnecessarily with the value of property or the just expectations of its present owners or existing expectants, it seems desirable that — " Every union be on and after the day of an union for rating, according to the provisions of the Poor Law Amendment Act, dispensing with the consent of the guardians. " That all the expenditure be provided for by a common fund. "That this common fund be raised for the first (say twenty- seven) years by rates made in each parish, approximating to an equal union rate by (say one-tenth) of their dif- ferences every three years. "That in the year (say 1878) and henceforth the common fund shall be raised by an equal union rate. " It may be expected that a perfect freedom of settlement will sooner or later produce a greater approach to equality in the supply and remuneration of labour throughout the country : that it v;ill enable every locality and every land of property to enjoy the full benefit of its natural advantages for the employ- ment of labour ; and that, while it proportions the supply of labour to the demand, it will increase its aggregate rewards l)y allowing it readily to avail itself of every occasion for its more profitable employment. " Circumstances are at present the most favourable that have been enjoyed for many years for effecting the change. Large alterations have been recently made in the prospects of the profitable cultivation of different soils and different districts, requiring, for the benefit both of districts in which human la- bour should be diminished, and of those in which it should be increased, and in a view to the general advantage of the com- munity, that the transfer of labourers should be effected with the least possible dlfl^culty. The same or similar changes in the law have made it almost a certainty that manufacturing and trading towns and districts will require a large accession of fresh hands for the purpose of increasing production and com- merce. Add to these inducements the rapidly increased and increasing meciianlcal facilities of locomotion, and it becomes apparent that to retain the impediment of settlement at this time is to forego one of the most favourable opportunities ever presented to a community lor abandoning, without danger or inconvenience, au absurd and mischievous error. " One consequence would be certain : the relief of our sta- tute books and the law library, and the administration of jus- tice, of the great incumbrance of the settlement law, and the local and the central administration of the poor laws, of a worse than useless but most engrossing portion of their duties, and that a great saving would not only be made of the trouble and cost of removal and litigation, but in tliose, often left out of calculation but not less serious, of the inquiries and troubles incurred in cases where neither removal nor dispute eventually take place. " Be these advantages great or small, whether new or unfore- seen evils spring from the repeal or not, one other advantage is certain, that if new legislation in the main, and for the pur- poses of settlement, should ever be again judged necessary, the present repeal would clear it from its main difficulty by disen- cumbering it of the existing mass of incongruous, conflicting, and mostly obsolete and effete provisions." GULLE. A peculiar liquid manure, in use in some parts of Holland, in several districts of Switzerland, and in the south-west of Germany. It is a dilution of the solid and fluid excrements of cattle in winter, sometimes chemicaHy affected by a foreign admixture, and always subjected, for a considerable time, to the putrefactive fermentation. Giille has been longest in use in Switzerland, particu- larly around the lake of Zurich ; and is there prepared in 312 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. trenches and tanks immediately connected with the cattle- nouses. The floor on which the cattle stand is covered with jiJanks, bricks or tiles, and has a slight inclination toward their heels. A horizontal trench, for receiving their excrements, extends from end to end of the floor, and is formed of boards, or walling, 18 inches wide and 21 inches deep ; and is connected at its lower end with a covered tink of G or 8 feet in depth. The trench is half filled with water ; the urine runs naturally into it ; part of the solid excrement falls naturally into it, and the rest is raked and washed into it several times a day ; the straw litter, which has become foul with excrement, is collected twice a week, and well rinsed in the trench, with the dung-rake, and then left sufficiently long at the sid^ of it to drip out the saturating liquid ; and when the trench becomes quite, or nearly full, its contents are first thoroughly stirred up, and then let out by the sluice at the end of it into the tank. The trench is again and again, or many times over, filled and emptied in the same way, till the tank becomes full ; and in large establish- ments, the contents of the full tank, now in a state of considerable fermentation, are run oft" or pumped into a larger reservoir, and there kept, from four to six weeks, till they have become thoroughly fermented. The washed litter, after having been allowed completely to drip at the edge of the trench, is carried out of the house, and built up in regular quadrangular heaps ; and it soon decomposes into a dark-brown, fatty manure ; but, in consequence of having been cleansed from nearly all the saline and nitrogenous principles of the dung and urine, this manure possesses, comparatively, little fertilizing power. Ill the south-west of Germany, the tanks for thegiille are constructed in the fields, and supplied with water from adjacent springs ; and both the urine and the dung are carried to them from the cattle-houses. The ad- vantages of this method over the Swiss one, are the lessening of labour in carting the giille to the fields, and, in some instances, the lessening of labour in conveying water to the farmery; and the disad- vantages of it, are the increase of labour in collecting the excrements, and the dissipation of some portion of the amraoniacal principle before the excrements can be con- veyed to the tank. A practice throughout the south- west of Germany, too, is to dissolve some copperas in the contents of the tank ; and, though this must damage terruginoas soils, by adding to tlieir proportion of iron, it delivers up its sulphuric acid into combination with the ammonia of the urine, and, in consequence, very generally gives a perceptible increase to the fertilizing power of the manure. Giille is generally applied as a top-dressing, and is found to be peculiarly suiiable for grass lands; but, on account of the labour of carriage, it can seldom be economically applied to fields or meadows at any con- siderable distance from the tank. A grand requisite for it is an adequate supply of water ; and this requisite be- comes a source of material enrichment, when the water holds a considerable quantity of matters in saline solu- tion; or, in popular phrase, is " very soft." Giille is conveyed from the tank to the field in liquid-m.anure carts ; but it falls most equably and beneficially upon the soil, when made to flow from an aperture in the centre of the lower side of the barrel, and to splash upon a dis- persing-board, suspended below the aperture. In pump- iny,' it out of the tank into the barrel, c^re ought to be used to leave behind all the un-decomposed vegetable fibre lying as sediment at the bottom of the tank ; for, when this is mixed with giille used as top-dressing, it lies on the leaves of the young plants, and produces an injurious incrustation. And it ought always to be ap- plied either in a state of comparatively great dilution, or when the soil is much moistened with rain ; for, if used upon dry grass land in the concentrated form in which it is prepared, it will act in a somewhat caustic manner, and probably do more harm than good. Dr. Sprengel, to whose treatise on manures we are in- debted for the facts we have now stated, speaks very highly of giille, and strongly recommends it to the atten- tion of farmers. " Although," says he, "the arrangements of the cattle-stalls as well as the numerous tanks, required in the preparation of the giille, in order to preserve it for the proper period, occasion much expense, and likewise its distribution over the field much labour, these outlays are richly repaid in the advantages derived from this manure, as will be more clearly shown under the follow- ing heads : — 1. The v.'ater, which is constantly kept in the trench, absorbs much of the carbonic acid given out by the cow in the act of breathing, and consequently, the ammouii arising from the urine is not only neutralized and thus rendered less volatile, but the car- bonic acid is also iu itself a strong manuring substance. 2. Tiie water in the trench serves to keep the cow-house cool during the heat of summer, and the vapour occasions a dampness in the atmosphere, which is much better for the health of the cow than a hot and dry air. Little, of perhaps none, of the ammonia, developed by the urine, is lost; its escape being prevented, as my own experi- ments on the putrefaction of urine and v/ater have proved, by the large quantity of water present. The absolute gain of manuring elements from this circumstance is, in- deed, very considerable, and fully confirms the statement of the Swiss, that, since the time of the introduction of giille, agriculture has been considerably improved. 4. By means of the giille, a sickly plant derives almost im- mediate relief, in consequence of all the nutriment being already dissolved by the water, and in a fit state to enter at once into the plant. 5. It is a point of particular im- portance that, in adopting the use of giille, a quicker re- turn on outlay of capital is obtained than in the case of common yard manure. G. From the giille little or none of the manuring matter is carried off by the rain, while from yard-manure it frequently happens that much is so lost ; the practice of spreading it on the field, in heavy dressings, causing its action to continue during three or four years, or even longer. 7. By means of the giille, plants may be brought with most certainty to the exact degree of luxuriancy which will yield the most abundant" produce. S. The growth of forage plants, particularly of clover and the meadow grasses, is greatly secured /by the application of giille, particularly when (as they dOjia the Black Forest) we add green copperas to the putrefy- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. .313 iag giille, aud the stall feeding of cattle in summer is made more practicable. 8. In adopting tlie preparation of giille, less litter will be required. Wlien cattle are not properly bedded, much of tlie manure escapes in the form of gas, while, by mixing the excrement with a large quantity of water, little or none of it is lost : it is, con- sequently, evident, that, in the preparation of giille, a greater quantity of manure is gained than in that of common yard dung; and what is the most important point is, that Ihe giille has retained a larger proportion of that very substance which has the most important in- fluence in the nourishment of plants — namely, ammouin. In fact, all the advantages derived from the preparation of giille are so important, that wc cannot but wish com- parative experiments may be made, in order to ascertain with more certainty what is the real amount of gain in its adoption. It might, pei-haps, be useful also to prepare giille from horse and sheep dung ; as, under the present management of these manures, far more ammonia is lost by evaporation than in the case of cattle dung. — Rural Cyclopedia. LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS, Till': NOKTinSRN COUNTIKS — UUliHAM, NORTHUMBERLAND, CUMBERLAND, AND WESTMOUE- LA.ND. Letter XXIII. (From ihe Morning Chronicle.) To ascertain the state and prosjjccts of tlie working-classes and the poor, especially of those who dejjend for their bread on agriculture, through- out the north of England, is the department which lias been assigned to me in tlie ])rosecution of the important investigation that you have imdertaken ; and I now proceed to furnish 3'our readers witli such evidence on the s\d)ject as I have been able to collect, in the hope ofthereby laying a solid founda- tion for a just judgment. I have spared no pains to collect information of every sort bearing upon the question, and I shall detail it fully and freely — with no jjias, I trust, to one-sided views of any kind, and with an anxious desire to treat fairly every point of this very complex topic. Before coming to the marrow of the matter, how- ever, it is necessary to define the limits of our field of action, and to give a passing glance at its physical characteristics, and at certain internal relations sub- sisting unaltered tlirough the revolutions of centu- ries, which must in every case materially modify the conditions of a social problem. The four northern counties — Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland — (together with the town or dominion of Beru-ick-on-Tweed) — cover an ra-ea of 5,253 square statute miles — about one-eleventh of the area of England and Wales, which is 57,S12 square miles. Their population, by the census of 1S41, was 809,064, or less than one-eighteenth part of the total ]iopulation of Eng- land and Wales, which was 15,906,741. It thus appears that, whereas the population of England and Wales gives nearly 275 souls to a square mile, that of the four northern counties gives 154 — showing a density of little more than one-half. To assign the proportion of inhabitants to statute acres is a more difficult matter, for it appears that though we have fixed, or consider ourselves to have fixed, with accuracy, the numl)er of square statute miles in England and Wales, we have not yet been able to determine with the same precision the number of square statute acres. Two different sets of numbers are given by the standard authority— which is, or should be, that of greatest mai-k and likelihood on the subject — the I'opulation Returns. In the sum- mary of the county of Durham (Enumeration Abstract, p. 88), the area in English statute acres is stated at 679,530; but the following note is sub- joined:— "The area of the county of Durham is 1,097 square statute miles, and consequently 702,080 acres; while the area assigned to the several parishes amiOunts to no more than 679,530 acres; but no attempt to reconcile this apparent discrepancy has been deemed allowable." And so with all the other counties. I think most people will be disposed to agree with me that this is not merely an " apparent discrepancy," but a real difference, of no small magnitude and consequence; and that in ofiiciai statements put forth by the au- thority of Government, and professing to convey to the world the latest, most accurate, and most trust- worthy results of scientific investigation and statis- tical research, the public have a right to look for less loose and unsatisfactory data. It is to be sup- posed that the two varying com])utations were made on diverse principles and methods ; but as to the why and the how, we have no further ex])lana- tion than is given in the following paragrajjh of the preface to the volume : — " The area, as assigned to the several parishes in England in the Abstract of 1831, has been adopted in the present Abstract. Attempts have been made, without success, to ob- tain authentic information whereby the apparent in- accuracies which exist in this computation of the area might have been remedied; but nothing short of an actual survey would be calculated to give a more accurate result than has been here obtained by the labour of the late Mr. Rickman." I draw attention to this point, partly on account of its in- trinsic imi)ortance (for in some cases the diversity is still wider than in that which I have particu- larised), but chiefiy as an illustration of the difficul- 314 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ties which one encounters in the search after truth, on the very threshold of the inquiry. If, in a docu- ment such as I have quoted, men cannot find exact information, where are they to look for it ? Taking, however, the statement embodied in the census as our basis, and leaving its framers to ac- count for this glaring anomaly as best they may, it would appear that, whilst upon the whole area of England and Wales there are nearly 2j acres for every individual of the population, there are in the northern counties (containing a jiopulation of 809,000, and a superficies of from 3,300,000 to 3,400,000 acres) about 4 l-]2th acres for every in- dividual. In Durham the number of inhabitants to 100 statute acres may be taken at 46 ; in North- umberland, at 20; in Cumberland, at 18; and in Westmoreland, at 11 only. This is, of course, to be accounted for by the wide extent of unim- provable moorland (from which, indeed, one of them derives its name) included within their boundaries. Whilst, therefore, their population might at first sight seem placed in happier circumstances, with reference to the amount of land available for their support, than that of any other district in England, it should not be forgotten that this amplitude is rather apparent than real. Much of the soil pos- sesses little or no capability foi- the sustentation of man, and the population derive scarcely any further advantage from this territorial ktitude than that of having near their own doors large tracts in which the sportsman may take his pleasure, ranging un- controlled over the dun heath, or in which the ad- mirer of nature may court her in her sylvan solitudes. The geogi'aphical conformation and ethnological peculiarities of the northern parts of England closely resemble those of the southern districts of Scotland, with which, indeed, they were long con- joined under the same dominion. The region is alike a land of mountain and fell, with fertile dales that stretch by rushing streams, and that aftbrd many a broad strath, or sloping inch, or well-shel- tered nook at the break of the holm, the value of which, for pasture or tillage, the -farmer well knows how to estimate. On the east it stretches to the sea in the wooded dells and open downs of Durham, broken up by the untiring activity of the miner, and launching on the sea, through a score of crowded havens, its stores of wealth snatched from the bowels of the earth. The Cheviots bound it to the north, with the wide tract of moorland which, in the later times of the middle ages, formed the boundary be- tween the dominions of the English and Scottish crowns; but from the Tweed to the Tees the plough, the axe, and the mattock rest not, and the land is vocal with the sounds of industry. In the west, from merry Carlisle to royal Lancaster, there is less of busy movem.ent and enterprise, except along the course of the Solway ; but here the lakes and streams and mountains combine, in shapes and groups of unsurpassed variety and beauty, to form the most picturesque portion of England. The territory that stretches from the slowly rolling Humber to the winding Forth is peopled by men for the most part of Scandinavian extraction — the children of indomitable northmen, in whom the blood of their ancestors yet runs strong; a hardy, enduring, stubborn race, accustomed beyond any other natives of the British territory to struggle with the elements, and to extort a subsistence more or less abundant from the niggard bounty of nature. The popular tongue still bespeaks its origin more strongly than all the testimonies of ancient chroni- clers ; numberless words are still in use which have long perished from the southern speech of England — or which, perhaps, never had existence in it — but which a kindred race who dwell in the great Northern Peninsula, and amongst the islands of the Baltic, would be at no loss to interpret. Of the ro- mance with which mediseval reminiscences invest the country and its inhabitants, I need say little. It is the true heroic ground of England : many are its battle-fields, and m:my the tales and songs of old times with which the peasantry cheer their win- ter firesides. Northallerton, Neville's Cross, and Otterburn, with twenty other fields less renowned, are still peopled by the imagination with the shapes of skilled captains of the host, bold champions, and fiteel-clad warriors. The names of Douglas and Percy here at least retain their charm. " In the merry old times of our ancestors, when the Saxons and the Danes ruled here," Danish princes of Northumbria, at the bidding of Alfred, endowed St. Cuthbert with his ample patrimony ; and the terri- tory formed a principality, independent in all but name, down to, nay lieyond, the coming of the Normans. For years its inhabitants opposed a stern and pertinacious, though fruitless resistance to the shock of the robber chivalry of William the Conqueror, and much of the best blood of the in- vaders was shed at the terrible sieges of York and Durham. In more than one family of the northern gentry, some of its earliest ancestors are thus honourably commemorated in the genealogical table, " Ccesus in prcelio contra GuUelmum Ducem, ex 2}(irte Regis Haroldi." The Conqueror's host encountered the army of the Scots, and defeated the Saxons under King Malcolm and Prince Edgar, on the Northumbrian border, at Stanemoor, in West- moreland— where a pillar was raised by way of solemn demarcation of the territories of the two crowns, the limits remaining the same for a century or more afterwards. The four northern counties, and the larger por- tion of Yorkshire (despite the assertion of Mr. Rick- man, which induced the Census Commissioners to believe that the boundaries of English counties have remained unchanged since the time of the Conquest), are not included in the survey of Doomsday. On the western coast the Celtic ele- ment enters largely into the composition of the blood of the race, and is even probably predominant. There is no evidence to show that the counties of Lancaster, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, were ever incorporated in the kingdoms of Northumbria or Mercia, though they occasionally acknowledged a vassalage which they were ever ready to throw off at the dictate of convenience or caprice. At Car- lisle, the princes of the ancient Britons kept their court in such regal state as the rudeness and im- perfect civilization of the age permitted ; yet those times were not altogether barbarous, since they furnished apostles and martyrs of the Christian faith to the benighted Pagans of the east and south — of the west, too, I might add, since St. Patrick^, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 315 apostle of Ireland, was a Briton of Strath-Clyde, and the name of Kilpatrick remains to indicate the seat of his ministrations and his prohable birthplace. The sway of those Britisir potentates stretched to Al-Clyde on the one hand, and (through Cheshire) extended to Wales on the other. Celtic bards chanted their power and heroism; Merlin and Thaliessin, twin peers of Cymric song, adorned their palaces, and flourished under royal patronage. Such was the state of this tract of country during the Heptarchy, and in the later times of the Saxon monarchy ; whilst, down to a far more recent period of the middle ages, we know that Galloway, and perhaps Cumberland {lit. the land of the Kymri), for some time continued separate principalities, and in some parts of the south-west of Scotland a Celtic dialect continued to be spoken until the time of the Reformation. I have offered this brief retrospect of some of the least known portions of British history, because we cannot reason with confidence as to the character and condition of a people, unless we have ascertained something of their origin, and are acquainted with their historical antecedents. I do not mean to pre- tend that original characteristics which have so often passed through the crucible of time and change in the mutations and revolutions of ages, subsist in their ])ristine vigour at the present day ; in many cases their influence may be faint, and hardly, or not at all, appreciable ; but still we must search in the annals of former times to obtain a true explanation of many social or moral phenomena now observable amongst a population made up of so many heterogeneous elements. I am even dis- posed to think that a perfect system of educational culture should vary with the generic or national peculiarities of those who are to be its subjects ; and certainly I cannot sympathise with those who would crush all provincial character and every local peculiarity under the iron or leaden sceptre of cen- tralization. Amongst the agricultural labouring population of this part of England, I believe, from all I have observed and heard, that the standard of comfort is considerably higher, and the means of enjoyment less stinted, than in most parts of the south and west. I know not to what cause this circumstance can be ascribed with any degree of plausibility, if the energetic, pertinacious, and de- termined character which they have inherited from their origin, and by which they have been distin- guished almost since the first settlement of the country, is to count for nothing. They are a reso- lute, hard-headed, and above all, an independent set of men, who will not be trodden upon, and whom it is not easy to trick out of their rights. A thrifty, frugal, and industrious people, too; not given to squandering or junketing, and who can 'inake little go far at need. The great secret of knowing how to make both ends meet, however, is not more easy (ncr perhaps so easy) of discovery in this than in other districts of England. A climate, raw, moist, and cold, be- yond that of the south — and a soil poor and wet, though light and friable in its better aspect — oppose obstacles to the agriculturist which can be sur- mounted only (and as yet they are but very par- tially surmounted) by increased care and skill, by the attentive ajiplication of science, and by the liberal but judicious employment of capital. The state of agriculture, and of those labourers who depend upon it for subsistence, varies considerably — governed as it must be by the nature of the soil and the condition of the vicinity, the extent of farms, the greater or less opulence of the proprietors and tenantry, and the more or less perfect modes of culture pursued in diflferent locaUties. These variations are generally observable between diflferent counties, though sometimes subsisting in equal breadth and distinctness within the limits of the same county. Nowhere, indeed, can it be said that agriculture has approached perfection. In some localities it is in a backward and unprosperous state ; in all much remains to be done to make it not only what it should be, but what it easily might be. The general character of northern, as distinguished from southern agriculture, may, however, be pro- nounced good. The fields are invariably cleaner, freer from weeds and stones, and better drained ; no space is lost, no sun and air are excluded by a thicket or hedge-row. The fences, in the pastoral districts, are often of rough stone or paUng ; but though more generally the ordinary thorn fence is seen, it is always confined to the smallest possible proportions. There are some parts of our southern and western counties from which I do not hesitate, from my own observation, to pronounce the state of agriculture behind that of Italy, or even that of France — not to mention Belgium. No such re- proach, however, can in any instance be cast upon that of the north. It is true that the march of im- provement often lingers, from the limited means with- in the command of the cultivator. But resistance to improvement, as innovation, or on the ground of mere aversion to change, is unknown in the north; and everywhere a disposition is evinced to make the most of existing facilities, and, where practica- ble, to go ahead. Some parts of Northumberland, and especially the more northerly districts of Ber- wick, Glendale, Belford, and others, have been long renowned, and with justice, for high farming and advanced science. In this county farms are gene- rally large, and the farming business is in the hands of men of considerable capital; in Durham, large farms are comparatively rare — they never, I believe, exceed 300 acres. It is in the way of drainage, I should say, that most still remains to be done in Durham — though I have observed that much is doing, and I would not be thought to imply that this point is neglected. There are few grazing farms, except in the western or upper district of the county, of which I shall speak by-and-by. On the whole, though Durham can hardly boast that it equals its northern neighbours in the introduction and prompt employment of scientific methods, its farmers have no reason to be ashamed of the assiduity and practical skill with which they follow out their methods, nor of the disposition which I believe generally prevails amongst them to live and let live, and to deal hberally with those in their employment. This disposition, however, I am bound to add, appears lately to have undergone some diminution. Under cover of the outcry raised as to the low prices of agricultural produce, advan- tage has been taken in some cases, in the southern 31fi THE FARMER'S M;VGAZ!NE. and soutli-eastern districts, to effect — and still move frequently to attempt— a reduction of the wages of labour. I shall speak more fully of this hereafter; at present I wish to indicate the existence of sys- tems of tenure peculiar to this county, and which interpose serious obstacles to the amelioration and perfection of agriculture. I allude to the leasehold tenure of lands held under the Dean and Chapter of Durham, which constitute no inconsiderable l^ortion of the soil of the county. I am informed that these leases are for very short terms, generally only for seven years, renewable upon one year's fine. No security can be felt by the tenant under such a system, and instances have even been mentioned to me in which parties who had laid out money in im- provements have found their situation very mate- rially changed for the worse, in consequence of a greatly increased rent being exacted from them. On the large properties of Lord Londonderry, the Duke of Cleveland, the Earl of Durham, Lord Ravensworth, and others, the tenant-at-will system for the most part prevails. On the Seaham estates, about Stockton, some of the farmers have been en- couraged to make considerable outlay under the able management to which they are entrusted ; in other cases the farms are generally too small (no doubt partly in consequence of the land being so much broken up by collieries and mines) to enable agriculture to be pursued on such a scale as we often see it when the liberality of the outlay of capital is commensurate with the extent of the holding. Generally, it is to be remarked that agriculture in the north is supported bj^, and leans upon, a vigorous and flourishing manufacturing industry. Large towns — for such may Sunderland, Shields, Newcastle, and Carlisle be called, though inferior in size to the growths of the factory system — are by no means rare; smaller towns, of from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, such as Durham, Darlington, Berwick, Whitehaven, and Stockton, are still more common; whilst of places under 10,000, though still of some size and consequence, such as Hartle- pool, Bishop's Auckland, Barnard Castle, Morpeth, and Alnwick, the number is considerable. In the sea-ports all the branches of trade connected with navigation — such as ship-building and carpentry, rope-making, sail-making, iron-works for the manu- facture of chain cables, anchors, and other ship's furniture — are pursued on an extensive scale, and generally with adequate success. Besides these, some branch of manufactures is to be found estab- lished in almost every town. Thus, at Durham there are carpet- weaving and paper-making; at Barnard Castle, carpet-weaving, shoe-thread spin- ning, and flax-dressing; at Darlington, wool- combing and flax-spinning. Machine-making is followed in more towns than one— especially the construction of railway engines ; for it is one of the peculiarities of Durham, that it contains more rail- ways than any other county in England — though by this time Lancashire must be rvmning it hard. Another branch of industry pursued more largely in Durham than anywhere else, is the manufacture of coke for railways, for v/hich the abundant supply of coal, and the ready means of transport, present iinequalled facilities. At Newcastle and Gateshead there are glass-houses and ])otteries, chemical) 'at»ji alkali works, manufactories of fire-bricks and grind- stones, &c. At Shields, there are various cstab- blishraents of the same class; the alkali works here employ SOO lal)ourers, furnace-men, and mechanics, whose wages are 12s. 6d., ISs., and 22s. 6d. a-week. At Tynemouth there are iron, glass, cojiperas, alkali, brick and tile, linseed-oil, and salt works. All these branches of industry were, a few months back, in a state of great depression ; and numbers of men were unemployed, or only partially em- ployed. They are now recovered ; the men being almost all at full work and in receipt of good wages. The business of retail traders, however, and some branches of manufacture, continue to suffer par- tially from the depression which still affects the coal trade. In the western part of the northern district, the movement of industry is less varied and active, though far from languid or lifeless. Whitehaven, at the extreme north, and Ulverston in the south, are the two chief centres of manufactures. At the former place there are sail-cloth weaving and flax- spinning, besides other employments connected with the shipping, coal, and iron trades; at the latter there are cotton, flax, and saw mills, iron mines, slate quarries, copper mines, and s;nelting furnaces. I have been thus particular in enumera- ting these, because it is necessary to look at the condition of the whole industry of a district in order to arrive at a just opinion as to the state of any of its great divisions. It is vain to suppose that the con- dition of agriculture and agriculturists will not be materially influenced by that of manufacturing en- terprise. It is the money amassed in trade, and the foreign and domestic commerce which manufactures call into action, that give agriculture the sharpest stimulus for exertion. Again, it is evidently a fortunate circumstance for the farm-labourer — should hard times, slack employment, or insufficient wages overtake him in his original occupation — to be able to betake himself to a large town, to carry his labour into its busy marts, and to obtain some employment where practised skill is not required. To what but to the absence of such facilities are we to attribute that hopeless prostration and despair which palsies the unfortunate labourer in less ad- vantageously situated districts ? Agriculture, again, is often pursued, though on a small scale, in com- bination with other employir.ents, in counties noted for the vigour of their industrial operations, by the manufacturer, the professional man, the trades- man, the innkeeper. This affords a larger number of openings for the labourer, and must evidently have an essential influence on his general condition. With the views above stated, it may be well, before proceeding further, to consider more minutely the proportion of persons engaged in agriculture to those engaged in trade, commerce, and manufac- tures, within the limits of the northern counties — and also to glance briefly at some very interesting general considerations which connect themselvea- Avith this topic. ■ I. By the last census the total number of persons, ■ young and old, of both sexes, throughout England and Wales, engaged in trade, commerce, and manu- factures, was 2,619,206— engaged in agriculture, 1,261,448. Excluding commerce and trade, and THE FAUMER'S MAGAZINE. 'm: loolcin^- separately at the numbers engaged in ma- nufactures, we find that they were 1,140,906. Tlie proportion of persons engaged in trade, commerce, and manufactures, to persons engaged in all other occupations, was 40 per cent. — that of persons en- gaged in agriculture was 19 per ccut. The persons engaged in trade, commerce, and manufactures, throughout the four northern counties, were 116,301 — the agriculturists, 53,878 ; the jjroportions to all other occupations therein being, for trade, commerce, and manufactures, 36 percent. — for agriculture, 18 jier cent. The mass of the remaining population was composed of those coming under the somewhat vague head of " laljourers," which includes all those working in mines of coal or metal. In Durham the jn-oportion of these latter to the whole occupations is not less than 22 per cent. ; in Northumberland, it is 15 per cent. The comparative numbers and l)roportions of difForent occupations vary considera- bly in the several counties, as will appear on ana- lysis. Durham, by far the most thickly peopled of them all, contains a population of 324,284, on an area of 679,530 acres j 45,179 persons are engaged in trade, commerce, and manufactures; 14,362 in agriculture. In this county the disproportion be- tween those two great divisions is greatest, the rela- tive per centage on the total occupations being 37 and 1 1 ; whilst throughout England and Wales, as will be recollected, they are as 40 and 19. Of ]iersons engaged in trade, &c., in this county, 33,691 were males of tv/enty years and ujjwards ; 7,815 n:ales under 20 ; 3,053 females of tv/enty years and upvv-ards, 615 under twenty. Of persons engaged in agriculture, 11,850 were males of tv/enty years and upwards, 1,284 under twenty; 954 females of twenty years and upwards, 274 under twenty. I may observe in passing, however, that the numbers of females engaged in agriculture are to be under- stood only of those permanently employed as farm- servants and labourers; there being necessarily regular employment for but few women in this branch of industry, and the number of those who obtain temjjorary employment in the course of the year being notoriously much larger, though pro- bably nowhere exactly ascertained. To proceed, Northumberland contains a population of 250,278, on an area of 1,165,430 acres— 37,293 persons being engaged in trade, commerce, and manufactures — 17,339 in agriculture; the relative per-centages of the total occupations are 37 and 17. Of persons engaged in trade. Sec, there were 27,451 males of twenty years of age and upwards, 5,769 under twenty. Of ])ersons engaged in agriculture, there were 14,036 males of tv/enty years and upwards, 1,900 under twenty; 1,113 females of twenty and iipwards, 290 under tv/enty, Cumberland contains a population of 178,038 on an area of 969,490 acres; of these 26,053 were persons engaged in trade, commerce and manufactures, 15,611 in agri- culture— the relative per-centages on the total occu- pations being 36 and 21, showing a greater ap]r/oximation to equality of proportion than either of the two former cases. Of the persons engaged in trade, &c., 16,969 were males of twenty and up- wards, 3,659 under twenty; 4,111 were females of twenty and upwards, 1,314 under twenty. Of those engaged in agriculture, 12,613 were males of twenty and upwards, 1,121 under twenty; 1,519 were fe- males of twenty and upwards, 358 under tv/enty. Westmoreland, the last on our list, and the most thinly peopled of all, is also one of the smallest of the English counties; there being only three — Rutland, Huntingdon, and Middlesex — of which the superrtcies is less. It contains a population of only 56,454 souls, on an area of 485,990 acres; of these 7,771 persons were engaged in trade, com- merce, and manufactures, 6,566 in agriculture ; the relative per-centages to the total occui)ations being 32 and 27, showing the nearest approximation to equality of all the cases passed under review. The North Riding of Yorkshire, it may be added, shows a similar approximation, the per-centages being 29 and 34 ; whilst the East Riding of Yorkshire, and the counties of Dorset and Bucks, exhibit still closer approaches to equality of proportion in this respect. Of persons engaged in trade, &c., in Westmoreland, 5,259 were males of twenty and upwards, 1,152 un- der twenty ; 1,067 females of twenty and upwards, 293 under twenty. Of those engaged in agricul- ture, 5,481 were males of twenty and upwards, 728 under twenty; 297 were females of twenty and up- wards, 60 under twenty. For the sake^of showing in a move general point of view the relative distribution of employment to various ages and sexes, furnished by the two great divisions of occupation, it may be advisable to ad- vert to another topic appearing on the face of the returns. Of the 924,096 persons engaged through- out England and Wales in manufactures alone (excluding trade and commerce), 479,774 were males of twenty and upwards, 130,443 males under twenty; 191,968 v/ere females of twenty and up- wards, 121,911 females under twenty. Of the 1,269,941 persons engaged in agriculture, 1,049,255 were males of twenty and upwards, 162,378 males under twenty ; 48,949 were females of twenty and upwards, 9,359 under twenty. With reference to the latter numbers, the remark introduced above relative to the employment of females in agricul- ture should be borne in mind. The disproportion at present existing betv/een the sexes in the population of this country is well known; but it seems worthy of remark that this is not caused by a corresponding disproportion in the births, as will appear by a short statement of figures. Of the 15,906,741 persons making up the popula- tion of England and Wales at the last census, 7,771,094 were male, and 8,135,647 female — the latter thus exceeding the former by nearly 400,000. But male births are more numerous than those of females. In the seven years, 1839-45, there were 1,863,892 males, and 1,772,491 females, born alive — the proportion in the whole country being nearly 20 boys to 19 girls. The proportion of boys born is greatest (1.0617 to 1.000) in the northern divi- sion, least (1.0455 to 1.000) in the south-midland division. It becomes, then, an interesting subject of inquiry, to what this existing disproportion in the number of the sexes is to be ascribed. In some degree, no doubt, to the larger nuraljer of males who emigrate, but in a much greater degree. I am inclined to think, to the larger mortality amongst male children. The extent of this will be evident from looking at the comparative number of male 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and female deaths, in the years 1838-44. In that period the male deaths under one year ranged from 41,081 to 45,183; the female deaths under one year, only from 32,535 to 34,903 ; the male deaths under five years, from 70,990 to 77,988 ; the female deaths under five years, from 61,947 to 67,332; the male deaths at five years, from 8,306 from 10,199 ; the female deaths at five years, from 7,832 to 10,008; the male deaths at ten, from 4,278 to 4,722 ; the female deaths at ten, from 4,382 to 5,044, when the balance of mortality inclines against the female side. This is a curious branch of in- quiry, which, however, rather falls within the pro- vince of the medical statist and the actuary. In regard to the general mortality of its inhabi- tants, I find that the northern division is as favour- ably situated as most other districts of England. The general mortality of England (exclusively of Wales) taking the mean of the j^ears 1838-45, is 2.176 per cent. — or in every year, tliere are 46 per- sons living to one who dies. The greatest mor- tality is in the northern district, including Cheshire and Lancashire, where it is at the rate of 2.591 per cent. — or there are 39 persons living for one who dies every year. In the metropohs it is 2.527— or there are 40 living for one dying ; in Yorkshire the rate is 2.177 — or there are 46 living for one dying. In the northern district, again, the rate of mortality is 2.087 — or there are 48 persons living for one dying. The healthiest districts of all are the Welsh, south-western, and south-eastern. In the latter the rate of mortality is 1.901 — or there are 53 persons living for one dying ; a considerable superiority as compared with the general rate of England. This seems the proper place to call attention to another point established by the returns issued from the office of the Registrar-general of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, and which throws a curious and significant light on the distribution of educa- tion through the different districts of England, and amongst the various classes of its population. In the years 1839-45, the number of marriages ranged from 118,825 to 143,743. In each of these j'ears a formidable proportion of persons, varying from 40 to 42 per cent., signed the marriage register with marks — thus clearly evincing (in the vast majority of cases, it may at least be assumed) their inabihty to write. Thus, in 1839, out of 242,000 persons married, 40,767 men, and 59,949 women— in all fuUy 100,000 persons — signed with marks ; in 1845 out of 247,000 persons married 47,665 men, and 71,229 women — in all 119,000 persons— signed with marks. It is well \\ orth while to advert to the proportions of persons signing with marks in some of the different districts into which England, for the purposes of eleemosynarj^ educational, and registrational inspection and regulation, is divided. In the metropolis, for the years 1839-45, the pro- portion of men signing with marks ranges from 1 1 to 12 per cent. ; that of women signing with marks from 28 to 24 — the mean proportion for all Eng- land during these seven years being, of men 32.9, or nearly 33 per cent., and of women 49.2, or more than 49 per cent. In the south-eastern division (Surrey, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Berks) the mean proportion for the same seven years was, of men 32.1 per cent., of women 39.4 per cent. In the south-midland division (including Middlesex, Hert- fordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, North- amptonshire, Huntingdonshire, Bedfordshire, and Cambrigeshire) the mean proportion of those sign- ing with marks is, of men 42.4, or nearly 42 J- per cent. — of women 52 per cent. In the eastern divi- sion (embracing Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk), the mean proportion is, of men 45.9, or nearly 46 per cent. — of women 51.6, or more than 51i- percent. In the three latter districts, the agricultural popu- lation greatly preponderates. In the western dis- trict, where the population is agricultural and manu- facturing, mixed in pretty nearly equal proportions (it embraces Gloucester, Hereford, Shropshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire), the mean proportion is, of men 37.9, or nearly 38 percent.; of women 51.9, or nearly 52 per cent. In the north-western district, com.preheuding Lan- cashire and Cheshire, the great seats of our manu- factures, the mean proportion of men signing with marks is 38.7 — of women 65.9, or nearly 66 per cent. The ignorance of Wales is yet more marked. But by far the most respectable figure of all is made by the northern division (compi'ising the four coun- ties that form the immediate subject of our con- sideration), in which the mean proportion of men signing with marks is only 21.1 per cent., and of women only 41.6 per cent. These statistics of ig- norance, fearful in one light, are very instructive in another. They teach us to estimate at its true value the pretensions to exclusive or special enlightenment occasionally put forward by those who assume to speak on behalf of a particular section of our popu- lation. Profound darkness is not always the lot of those who inhabit rural districts — nor is all illumi- nation confined to great towns, or rather to large agglomerations of houses. I leave to others the duty of drawing the inferences which obviously present themselves to the mind on considering these tell-tale figures. I must hasten onwards with my appointed task. The mean proportion per cent, of persons mar- ried under 21 years of age is less in the northern districts than in any other division, the metropolitan and Welsh excepted. In the northern it is 1 .1 , in the north-western 8.7, in the eastern 11.2, in York- shire 12.2, in the south-eastern 8.6, in the western the same, in the south-midland 13.5 — the mean for all England being 8.7. The proportion of illegiti- mate children is also less in the northern than in some divisions, though greater than in others. Over England and Wales the proportion is ^."J, in the northern 7.4, north-midland 1.1, north-western 8.8 — whilst the Welsh and western districts are 6.8, and the south-western 5.7. This latter figure, by- the-bye, shows, thatin spite of the inadequate house accommodation of the south-western peasantry, the restraints of morality have not lost their force amongst that portion of our population. Illegitimate births, among the peasantry, are in almost all cases followed by the marriage of the parents. I now proceed to give a succinct sketch of the agricultural relations of the four counties with which we are dealing — shunning, however, minute details for the present, in order that your readers may have it in their power to institute some comparison be- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 819 tween the relative condition of each. First, with regard to the relative amount of land in each — cul- tivated— uncultivated, but improvable — and un- improvable. It is calculated that Durham, upon a superfices of nearly CSO,000 acres (I take the esti- rnate of Mr. Couling, civil engineer and surveyor, given some years back in evidence before a select committee of the House of Commons, appointed to inquire into the subject of emigration), contains about 500,000 cultivated, 100,000 uncultivated, but improvable, and upwards of 79,000 unimprovable, lying chiefly in the western portion of the county. The proportion of cultivated (or enclosed) to waste or unenclosed land is thus seen to be as 5 to 1— to land which may be pronounced wholly unimprovable in the present state of our agricultural knowledge, as 5 to 0.8 — and to both together, as 5 to 1.8. The only large enclosures now proceeding in this county are those of Cornsay Common, a tract of 611 acres, situated eight miles westward of the city, for which powers were obtained three years ago ; and of Cock- field Fell, a tract of 573 acres, near Staindrop, in the southern and least thickly populated part of the county. Northumberland again, upon a superfices of 1,197,400 acres (that is, as estimated by Mr. Couling), contains 900,000 acres of cultivated or enclosed land — 160,000 entirely uncultivated, but capable of cultivation, and 137,000 which maybe deemed wholly unprofitable. The proportion of cultivated to uncultivated soil in Northumberland is thus shown to be as 9 to 1.6, or 1 3-5 (rather less than in the former case) — to unprofitable land as 9 to 1 .4, or 1 2-5 nearly — and to both together as about 3 to 1, or considerably less than in the case of Durham. There appears to be but one large enclosure in progress in Northumberland, that of East Coamwood, containing 1,580 acres, which I have not yet had an opportunity of seeing. The act authorizing its enclosure is the 10 Vict., c. 25, passed two years ago. Cumberland, upon a super- fices of 946,000 acres (as estimated by Mr. Coul- ing), contains 670,000 cultivated acres, 150,000 un- cultivated, and 126,000 unimprovable. The pro- portion of cultivated to uncultivated or unenclosed land in this case is thus seen to be (nearly) as 7 to Ij— to unprofitable land as 7 to 1$ — and to both together as about 7 to 2 — something less than in the case of Northumberland, and very considerably less than in the case of Durham. In Cumberland there are several enclosures proceeding, some of them of considerable magnitude ; by far the largest is that of Greyfell-common, containing 4,000 acres, powers for which were obtained two years ago. Those of smaller extent are Langwathby-moor, a tract of 507 acres, waste of a manor, in favour of which the Enclosure Commissioners reported in their fifth report, presented last session ; AVhitrigg- marsh, containing 272 acres, authorized by the act 10th Victoria, c. 25 ; Gamblesby-fell and Viol-moor, containing 1,268 acres, waste of a manor; Gam- blesby and Biglands-common, 179 acres, waste of a manor; Talkin-fell, 1,700 acres, also described as waste of a manor (this does not appear to have been yet reported on) ; Ellenborough, 104 acres ; Crosby and Birkby, 131 acres; Ponsonby and Calder, 200 acres, &c. The progress of enclosure appears more active in Cuml)erland than in any other part of the northern division. Tlie last county on our list is Westmoreland, which, on a superfices of 488,000 acres, contains 180,000 cultivated, 110,000 uncul- tivated, but supposed to be improvable, and 198,000 unprofitable. The proportion of enclosed and cul- tivated to waste but improvable land, is thus shown to be rather less than 2 to 1 — to land believed al- together unprofitable nearly 1 to 1 — and to both together nearly as 2 is to 3 — showing by far the greatest proportion of waste and unimprovable land in any of the four counties. The enclosures pro- ceeding, or recently effected here, are those of Sled- dale Forest, containing 993 acres, authorized by the commissioners three years back ; Asby Mask, con- taining 1,248 acres, wasteof amanor; SmardaleFell, containing 643 acres, waste of amanor (in this town- ship there are but 35 inhabitants, the farms being cultivated by the farmers and their families, with servants residing in their houses), authorized, as well as the preceding case, by the Act 11 and 12 Victoria, cap. 27 ; Newbiggin-moor, containing 500 acres, authorized by the Act 11 and 12 Victoria, cap. 109 ; the Low and High Intake, together 280 acres, authorized by the commissioners in 1847; Crosby Garrett, containing 434 acres, authorized by the commissioners in the course of last year ; and Firbank Fells, containing 1,200 acres, autho- rized last session. The spirit of improvement appears thus to be active in Westmoreland, though the large proportion of land naturally valueless must restrict its sphere of operation within com- paratively narrow limits. With reference to the rate of increase of popula- tion in the four northern counties, as compared with each other and with that of England and Scotland respectively, some interesting particulars are to be noted, and may as well be mentioned at this stage of our progress. In the ten years inclu- ded between the census of 1831 and that of 1841, the actual increase per cent, of the whole popu- lation of England and Wales was 14.4 ; that of the population of Scotland was 10.7 ; that of the whole of Great Britain, 13.1 ; that of Westmoreland (the smallest county on our hst) was only 2.5, being the smallest rate of increase of all the English counties, with the exception of Hereford, where the rate was 2.4; that of Cumberland was 4.9; that of Northumberland was 12.2, or not quite equal to the rate of general increase ; that of Dur- ham was 27.7, showing the largest increase within those ten years of any county in England, Mon- mouth alone excepted, where the increase was 36.9 per cent. ; the increase of Lancashire, I may men- tion for the sake of comparison, being 24.7 ; of Cheshire 18.3; and of Stafford 24.3. The very large increase of 27.7 in the case of Durham is, of course, to be set down to the account of persons immigrating to work at the mines, the natural in- crease for the same period being only 13.2— about the same rate as those of Bedford and Cornwall. The general observations which suggest them- selves under this head, as necessary to complete the sketch which I have attempted to draw, may be brought into a short compass. Beginning with Durham, the appearance which the soil and its cultivation present to the eye corresponds with the mpression which the reader of the al)ove statistical 320 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. details would be likely to form from tlieir consider- ation. There are fewer tracts of land of any con- siderable extent entirely uncultivated than in any of the other counties, and a smaller proportion (according to the size of the county, and the area of unreclaimable land that it comprises) very well cultivated. The strictly rural part of the popida- tion of Durham is comparatively small, since the inhabitants of the " pit villages,'-" as they are com- monly called, which are scattered over the greater portion of the county (many of them more hke tov.'ns than villages) can scarcely be said to belong to it. Many of the farm labourers occasionally work at the coal-pits, and the fluctuation of trade in the collieries has a tendency to cause an irregular demand for labour in agriculture. A considerable proportion of the men employed in agriculture are hired into the farm-houses by the year and half- year; in the former case generally as hinds (I shall consider this subject more fully hereafter). When the coal trade is depressed, and the pitmen have not employment for more than six, seven, or eight days in a fortnight, they often seek work upon the land, and glut the agricultural labour market ; but as the regular pitmen are very inexpert, except in a few branches of farm labour, the countrymen have the advantage over them. In summer time the pitmen's wives are also employed a good deal in field labour. In Duiham tlie accommodation for the labouring poor may be pronounced deci- dedly good— far superior to what appears to exist in some of the southern districts. A clay soil, but cold and wet, prevails in this country. Though some outlay of capital has already taken place, much more would be required in order to draw the greatest possible amount of advantage from a soil which is often of indifferent quality. I have already alluded to the obstacles to improvement which arise, whether from the fact of the tenants being very generally persons of scanty means, with small holdings, or from the peculiar tenure under which a considerable portion of the ground is held. In Northumberland the soil is generally a light friable loam, the farms large, with w^ealthy occu- piers, who are in many cases disposed to a liberal outlay of capital ; the crops are frequently luxuriant, the live stock abundant, and its quahty excellent. This is particularly the case along the east coast, by Morpeth and Alnwick. To the south and west, in the neighbourhood of Rothbury, Bellingham, Hexham, and Haltwhistle, the land is chiefly in pasture, with extensive tracts of moorland ; but the soil is capable of being much improved by thorough drainage and the use of artificial manure. Gene- rally over the four counties the proportion of waste land in meadow and pasture, to land under the plough, considerably exceeds the average, which is three-fifths. The condition of the Northumbrian peasantry— or " bondagers," as they are otherwise termed—is one of great general comfort, though the cottage accommodation is inferior to that found in Durham. In Cumberland the farms, though their size and destination vary with the nature of the district, generally consist of moderate holdings, the proportion of pasture to tillage being large. In many localities, as Carlisle, Bootle, and Penrith, agriculture is conducted on a liberal and advanced [system. ^ ^ d O o c -! 3 3 o 3 ?3 3 CD fa a O o S a> g. 3 Pu c5' p. Pi a ^ : &. « *n . to CO 3 "--t (T) n) ?^S.3 ' ai "to 1^ o o\ 00 CD c~f- 3 ^ CD CD 3 CD < CD CD 1-1 CD cd' < as CD 3 O "^ c 3 to to to »^ ^ 'V o 3 P- 1-1 M >-« Increase. Decrease. o 0( ^I 03 CO 3 Cil CO C/3 Paupers relieved week ended on the o 3 o c 3 J-i — o CD J__, ►—J r^ CO 3 H HO O 3 O o ■-i 'yi to ox CO o to o o cn §3- CD ro ^ "3 § Dj CO c 3 3- CO ^ ^ , ox to w CO CT) • Increase. Ol «o o • : • ox Decrease. 1-1 1-^ H-> o ~^ ►t' n^ ^ CD HhO g- o ?r J-. <;^ 3 -J- CD "3 Cj O (4^ o CO o to Ol o ■ ' o o o o m cn O *~^ o o o jn, >• c- ^ l_ H-* H.. 1— . rfi th CC S! ^ CC w to en J^ CD ►^O g- *o pr c 7- to o to , , ( } O Oi to ^ ti^ M CO 3 5" -l «3 to t+) w o *" B i-j H~ H-" • cn •-t U\ to >-' • CD o '- o p- CO I*; ^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 321 system, the farmers being in easy or affluent cir- cumstances. Neither in this county nor in West- moreland can the labouring population be said to be redundant ; and employment, with fair wages, is to be had. But this is not the place to enter minutely on these topics, which must be postponed to another letter. I have left myself but little space for treating of a very important subject, which cannot be left out of sight in any general description of the social condition of the northern counties— that of pauper- ism. On a future occasion I may go at greater length into it; but the working of the present poor-law, and the amount of poor receiving paro- chial relief at the most recent period for which any official returns have been received, will be best shown by the table on the preceding page, which is entitled to the utmost reliance. It shows the population of Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, according to the census of 1841, the number of paupers in the workhouses of each county, the number and cost of out-door paupers (exclusive of lunatics in asylums) for the week ' ending the 9th of September last, and also for the corresponding week in 1847, and the comparative increase or decrease. No statement of the amount of in-door maintenance, I am informed, has been returned since the introduction of the new order of union accounts in March, 1848. The table has been framed with the view of showing the state of things in the last (juarter, and the calculations are made from the tenth week, because in the last week of the quarter ; the cost of lunatics in asylums is added by many unions to the usual out-door relief returns — in some instances more than doubling the week's expenditure, and thus leading, if adopted, to erroneous conclusions. From the table it appears that during the last quarter the proportion of persons in the receipt of parochial relief, out-door or in-door, to the entire population, was— in the county of Cumberland 1 in 22, in Durham 1 in 19, in Northumberland 1 in 16 nearly, and in Westmoreland 1 in 19 nearly. The inferences to which these data lead, as com- pared with the circumstances of other parts of Eng- land, will be considered in a future letter. IS IT POSSIBLE TO MAKE FARMING PAY AT THE PRESENT CRISIS? Is it possible by any exercise of economy, judg- ment, or skill, to make farming pay at the present ■ crisis ? is a question anxiously asked by many thousand cultivators ; and we fear that on the ma- jority of soils and circumstances, the painful nega- tive will have to be the answer. If we take two great classes of farming — we mean corn-producing on the bulk of the soils of the country, and the winter or stall-feeding of cattle — we shall find that there are few persons so circumstanced as to soil, labour, and outgoings, as to meet successfully the present depreciated prices of the one and the other. There is hardly any kind of soil in the country, of such a quality and on such terms as will enable the farmer to grow wheat at 35s. to 40s. per quarter; nor has, we venture to say, any plan of winter feeding of stock been yet devised or adopted to enable the grazier to produce beef at five shilUngs per stone. Now, as we believe it is not possible nor wise nor politic to produce any one kind of material which does not directly or indirectly pay the cost of its production, we cannot help advising farmers, as far as possible, to confine their attention to the production of those materials which will pay the best. On very strong soils this is not a very easy task. But on all the class of light soils— sand, gravel, limestone, or chalk— we think we see some hope, at least, for those which have of late been liberally manured with fertiUzers containing phos- phoric acid. We would say to these, cease growing corn as much as possible : you have the elements of producing what will pay — avoid as much as possible what will not. And what would be the consequence if, instead of a corn crop every alter- nate year, one was grown only every third — two green crops to one grey ? That the land would be relieved of corn-growing, the market less glutted, and more scope therefore afforded for others who would still persevere in the ruinous business, and possibly render it somewhat less unremunerative. We mean grow more turnips and seeds, rape and mangold, and even beans, and less wheat and oats and barley as a consequence. And if this course is persevered in for any considerable period, your land will become in a state so much more favourable to the growth of wheat, that when a turn comes, as we hope and trust it some day will, it will aflford the means of their making money by growing corn, which at present seems to us at least to be impossible. There is nothing, for in- stance, which for the last two years has paid so well as sheep. They have paid for laying on the mutton, whether in winter or summer; and the grateful animals have further enriched the soil on which they fed. Their fleece has sold also on terms to pay almost for their summer feeding ; so that whether the farmer has had them and fed them off the first year, whether he has purchased and grazed them in summer, or whether he has bought them half-fed in spring, clipped them, and sold them out in summer to the butcher ; he has equally, we had almost said— he has certainly we may safely say— Y 2 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. made it answer his purpose. We will sketch a ro- tation adapted for such soils. 1. Turnips manured and dressed with dissolved bones, and eaten on with sheep. 2. Barley, sown with grass seeds at sowing time. 3. Sheep pasture eaten on. 4. Sheep pasture ditto ditto. 5. Wheat. 7. Turnips treated exactly as those in the first year. 8. Barley as above. 9. Sheep pasture. 10. Sheep pasture broken up on the 15th June, and worked during the season. 11. Beans ridged and manured. 12. Rape, sown with dissolved bones. Here, in twelve years, we have only three white crops and one bean crop, while the cultivated plants are kept sufficiently from their like, to prevent any injury being done by their too near proximity. If there is a tendency to grub in the turnips, it would be well to lime the broken up seeds in the tenth year of the rotation with some magnesian or caustic lime. If a few calves were run with the sheep — say, one for ten or twelve — it would improve the latter, and keep the pasture more healthy. The horses should also be equally spread over the pasture, and not have some particular field reserved to them, as is too often the case — impoverishing one field, p.nd even injuring the feeding tendencies of the sheep, by reserving them for one and the same stock of animals. We are aware practical men will ask. But what will be the consequence of too heavy sheep stocking? Will they not poison the land, and thus defeat the object, and lessen your profits ? In the ordinary way of sheep feeding, we admit they will. A farmer calculates that a field of seeds of twenty acres will carry through the summer, say, one hundred sheep. He puts these in on the sixth of April or the first of May, and there they remaiii all the year till he takes them out for fog, rape, or turnips. This is a ruinous mode. One- half of the plants they feed upon grow up woody fibre and seed; and the other half become so soiled before a month, that the animal cannot feed. Rather — say a farmer has 60 acres of seeds and 300 sheep. Let him turn in the whole 300 to one seed field until they have eaten it up. Then the next may be eaten in the same manner, and the first, of course, entirely freed; and so on in the third. By this time the first field is grown up ; tlie sheep soil has disappeared ; and the herbage is all tender and nourishing and young. The second follows, and the third in rotation, and, so accompanied by the horses and calves, there need be no fear of loss. This practice is thus described by Mr. Milburn, in his Prize Essay on the Farming of the North Riding of Yorkshire. Speaking of the seed pastures, he says in the " spring they are broken by the sheep, about the middle or end of April, or sometimes al- lowed to be free till the month of May. On these they are allowed to roam at liberty ; but within the last few years, instead of exactly putting into each field as many sheep as will be calculated to con- sume it, they place in one field nearly the entire stock of the farm, and eat the whole bare. In a few weeks they remove them into another vmbroken field, and consume it in the same way, going in this manner over every field, and commencing when finished with the first field, which has sprung up sweet ; and thus, instead of soiled and rejected and overgrown grasses, the whole are kept sweet, vi- gorous, and young, throughout the season." — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. A NEW MODE OF VENTILATING PUBLIC BUILDINGS, STABLES, &c. Sir, — About six years ago I was appointed to a large ill-ventilated school-room, and as my health was inju- riously affected I devised a mode of ventilation that has proved effective — withdrawing the vitiated and supply- ing any quantity of pure air without perceptible sensa- tion to persons in the room, and they are not exposed to currents of air. Every crevice in the room that admits air may be closed without affecting the operation of the ventilator. The apparatus is made of zinc and iron, is simple, self-acting, and durable, and regulates the supply of air according to the season of the year and the number of persons in a room. It has been also successfully ap- plied to other schools and to public buildings, private dwellings, stables, large weaving sheds, an infirmary, an editor's study, and a chapel that seats above one thou- sand persons. In one of the stables were nightly lodged nine horses, and generally four of them suffered from disease : now they enjoy good health. On opening the door in the m-orning the stench was intolerable, and the horses, harness, walls, and doors were very wet, at all times the floor was black with damp — now, the smell is scarcely perceptible and all are quite dry. In another stable that had holes in the roof and walls, the horse next the window was so inconvenienced for THE FARMER'S MAG/iZINE. 323 want of fresh air, that he pushed his head through the glass that some might be admitted : since one of my ventilatorswas put in, the lioles have been closed, every- thing is dry, and the smell is pleasant. I feel induced thus to give publicity to my experience, because there is a great outcry throughout the United Kingdom about the injurious effects of ill or no ventila- tion, and a knowledge of eflScient means for remedying the evil is so limited. I am not the discoverer of the principle, but I believe the first who has applied it. The invention is not patented. I have allowed it to become public property. It is the opinion of those who have used the ventilator that it has only to be known to be extensively applied. If those who suffer from bad ventilation and want a remedy, or if workers of zinc feel disposed to introduce and push the ventilator in their localities, I will feel it a source of gratification to be called upon to furnish them by letter with full explanations as to its construction, with advice as to its applicability to special buildings, and to inform them of the necessary apparatus to test the ventilator and convince the most sceptical. The larger the building the more suitable the venti- lator. Yet rooms about fourteen feet square have derived equal advantages. If you could afford space for a few facts bearing upon the quantity of air necessary for healthy respiration, and the diseases occasioned by breathing the same air over and over again, they would attract attention to the subject. The extracts are from Dr. Andrew Combe's Principles of Physiology. " There flow to the human lungs every minute nearly eighteen pints of air, and nearly eight pints of blood ; and in twenty-four hours upwards of fifty-seven hogs- heads of air are inhaled to oxygenate twenty-four hogs- heads of blood." " Where 100 people are shut up for an hour in one room, in attending a lecture for example, they breathe in that time upwards of 228 hogsheads of air, consume 45 hogsheads of its oxygen, and vitiate it by the addi- tion of a proportionate bulk of carbonic acid, besides the watery vapour which is also thrown out. But as air is capable of supporting healthy respiration only when it contains its full proportion of oxygen, it is obvious that if the audience continue to breathe the same air for another hour, they must suffer from the imperfect oxy- genation of the blood. Hence, where on such occasions adequate means are not used to renew the air within the room, at least as fast as it is vitiated, the oxygen dimi- nishes, and the carbonic acid accumulates in undue pro- portion, till the air becomes altogether unfit for the complete aeration of the blood, and for the support of life. Hence the languor, exhaustion, and headaches which ensue in churches, theatres, and ball-rooms, are just so many warnings that the lungs are insufficiently supplied with oxygen to decarbonize the blood passing through them, and that the system is suff. ring the pe- nalty." " God has decreed that a certain proportion of oxygen shall suffice for the aeration of only a fixed and determi- nate quantity of venous blood. If we adapt our circum- stances to this law, we reap our reward in comfort and hetilth. Whereas, if we '.transgress it, and persevere in breathing an atmosphere containing less than the requi- site quantity of oxygen, and more than the usual quan- tity of carbonic acid, we have no more right to expect to enjoy health, energy, activity of mind and body, than to expect a fire to burn without air, or a fish to live out of water." " There is scarcely a day passes in which a well- employed medical man does not meet with some instance in which health has suffered, or recovery been retarded, by the thoughtless or ignorant disregard of the value of pure air to the well-being of the animal economy." " In Edinburgh, and almost every large town, we have instances of large public rooms, capable of holding from 800 to 1,000 persons, built within these few years, without any means of adequate ventilation being pro- vided ; and apparently without the subject having ever cost the architect a thought ! When these rooms are crowded and the meeting lasts for some hours, especially if it be in winter, the consequences are sufficiently marked. Either such a multitude must be subjected to all the evils of a contaminated and unwholesome atmo- sphere, or they must be partially relieved by opening the windows, and allowing a continued stream of cold air to pour down upon the heated bodies of those who are near them, till the latter are thoroughly chilled, and perhaps fatal illness is induced ; and unfortunately, even at such a price, the relief is only partial : for the windows being all on one side of the room, and not extending much above half-way to the ceiling, complete ventilation is impracti- cable. This neglect is glaringly the result of ignorance ; and could never have happened had either the architects or their employers known the laws of the human consti- tution." " I was in a crowded country church on a warm Sun- day in July, the windows were all shut ; and in con- sequence the open door was of little use in purifying the atmosphere, which was unusually contaminated, not only by the respiration and animal effluvia proceeding from so many people, but by their very abundant perspi- ration, excited by the heat and confinement. Few of the lower classes, either in town or country, extend their cleanliness beyond the washing of their hands and face ; hence the cutaneous exudation, in such persons, is chi- racterized by a strong and nauseous smell, which, when concentrated, as it was on this occasion, becomes abso- lutely overpowering. Accordingly, at the conclusion of the service, there was heard one general buzz of com- plaint of headache, sickness, and oppression ; and the reality of the suffering was amply testified by the pale and wearied appearance even of the most robust." " Even in rest, and without any perceptible evidence of it, there is, on the average, rather more than two pints of watery fluid thrown off from the body in twenty-four hours. But under labour this quantity is increased to no less than about five pints thrown off twice a day, or in all about lOlbs. of watery fluid ; or, as it might be called, poisonous matter." " Many of our churches and schools are extremely 3-24- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ill- ventilated, and accordingly it is observed that fainting hysterics occur in churches much more frequently in the afternoon than in the forenoon, because the air is then at its maximum of vitiation, being the best attended ser- vice. Indeed, it is impossible to look around us in a crowded church, tovrards the close of the service, with- out perceiving the effects of deficient air in the expres- sion of every one present. Either a relaxed sallow pale- ness of the surface or the hectic flush of fever is observable; and, as the necessary accompaniment, a sensation of mental and bodily lassitude is felt, which is immediately relieved in getting into the open air." " I have seen churches frequented by upwards of one thousand people, in which, during winter, not only no means of ventilation are employed during service, but even during the interval between the forenoon and after- noon services the windows are kept as carefully closed as if deadly contagion lay outside, watching for an oppor- tunity to enter by the first open chink : and where, consequently, the congregation must inhale, for two or three hours in the afternoon or evening, an exceedingly corrupted air, and suffer the penalty in headaches, colds, and bilious and nervous attacks." " Most of our schools are also extremely defective in this respect." " Typhus and putrid fevers, consumption, scrofula, delicate health, headaches, and cutaneous, bilious, and nervous attacks are caused by inspiring vitiated air. About one-fourth of the annual deaths in Great Britain are caused by consumption, and nothing so soon diseases the lungs as vitiated air." I am, sir, yours respectfully, Charles Watsox. 32, Rhodes-street, Halifax. — Halifax Guardian. ON POUCHED HEART. (Continued.) " It shall be a perpetual statute for your genera- tions throughout all your dwelhngs, that ye eat neither /at nor blood." — Leviticus, c. iii., v. 17. Tliere is wisdom in this statute, for an animal laden with fat can no more be said to be healthy than another suffering from typhus, pleuro pneumo- nia, or any other acute or epidemic disease. It would be almost as reasonable to attempt to keep it healthy by giving it potass, phosphorus, or lime, as by feeding it with food incongruous to its nature. To take Mulder's formula, the per centage com- position of the three flesh-forming compounds are — Albumen. Fibrine. Caseine. Carbon 55-46 54-45 54-66 Hydrogen 7'20 7-07 7'15 Nitrogen ....16-08 17-21 15-72 Oxygen 18-27 19-35 21-55 Sulphur 2-16 r59 —-92 Phosphorus .. — "43 — '33 — 100-00 100-00 100-00 " Si vel minimum sanguinis vel nimis parum in corpore fuerit vel aliena ejus partium proportio facta fuerit vitium demum erit non leve et saepe multorum et gravium morborum causa." — Gregory, p. 512. To suppose this strictly correct, therefore, any deviation in the proportions of the constituents of these compounds, however small, is to be viewed as produced from a morbific condition of the vital fluid, and so far is incompatible with a healthy state of the solids derived from the blood. Much more so is the blood to be considered when any abnormal matter is present, or whether either such deviations may produce an excess or a deficiency of albumen, or of fibrine, or of caseine, and as a consequence, whether the volume of blood contains an excess or a deficiency of corpuscles, their weight, figure, &c. A series of useful and interesting experiments might be instituted to ascertain the quantity of fibrine present \ in the healthy and diseased con- ditions of the blood. The salts of lead (super- acetate) and potass (nitrate) would be suitable agents for the purpose. By some such means, the proportionate amount of fibrine held in solution, as well as the amount of coagulation, rapidity of the process, &c., would be arrived at. The arterial blood would be afforded in the process of slaughter- ing. The venous blood by the ordinary operation of bleeding. It may be objected that pigs (unless the heart in them shall be found in the same state) are animals that fatten very rapidly, and perhaps to a greater extent than almost any other, may be taken as examples of the incorrectness of this view. But they are peculiar, and possess the property of in- creasing almost indefinitely in bulk, and certainly of great increase in the capacity of the belly. The pig, moreover, never has so great a quantity of what the butchers term " loose fat " in the belly as the cow, in proportion to its weight. Another reason why the heart may not be diseased THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 325 in the pig, is, the animal is generally killed very young, when the elasticitity of the ribs is greater. And further, it is believed that the ribs of the pig have less density ; yet it is no uncommon thing for fatted hogs to die of disease when just about to be killed for the market. Post mortem examinations made by veterinarians have shown that sudden death in fat horses, cows, and stall-fed oxen is fre- quently caused by rupture of that great reservoir of venous blood, the spleen, commonly called the melt. In the fat sheep, the heart does not become so frequently pouched, and what has been said of the pig may be argued with respect to the sheep, the age at which it is slaughtered, &c. It is to be noticed that the pericardium (heart bag) in them quickly degenerates into a fat state. This is calcu- lated to impede the heart's movements, and so in in them the disease of the lungs is more common. Here too, although the mischievous effects of fattening are evident enough, yet as stated, there is but an approximation to pouched heart, in the more frequent disease of another organ vitally important, as well as local dropsy of the heart-bag, and other serous cavities. The disease called " red water," or acute dropsy, is an inflammatory state of the serous membranes, in which the colouring matter of the blood is mixed with the effused fluid. Tlie susceptibility to this disease in the fat Leicestershire sheep is con- fessedly common. Indeed, the origin of tubercle, of glandular disease, nay, of cancer too, is of an inflammatory nature, and arises from a morbid condition of the blood. The complaint so common in thriving cattle, called "the black leg," arises from a diseased state of the blood rapidly induced, the liquid portion of the blood being thrown out of the blood vessels beneath the cutaneous surfaces, where it acts as an extraneous and as a poisonous substance, quickly inducing sphacelus or mortifica- tion, which often ends in death in a few hours. It is to be borne in mind that in the feeding of sheep to fatness artificial food is not so often had recourse to. Yet is there something of an approach to this in the rank luxuriance of the herbage which produces such a condition. Their wild heaths, hills, and mountains should be preferred, where their locomotive habits suffer no restraint, where is their proper pasturage, where, too, sheep, when kept, their flesh retains superior flavour, not the oily taste of Bakewell's fat and feeble loiterers. The real gusto of the original South Downs, is almost annihilated by making them fat, Ovibus " fuge pabulae Iseta." Virgil. Cows accumulate fat much faster than oxen, and oxen faster than bulls. As respects the complete animal, it may be understood, (owing to the senso- rial function), why it should be so. These animals are of a greater age, geneally, when killed, and of course there will be a greater diminution of the cavity of the chest tlian in pigs and sheep. It may be argued too, in contravention, that hard driving, want of cleanliness, or skin diseases may have much to do in the production of ])ouched heart. As to the first, it is extremely probable that it may occasionally produce it. But the disease exists in so great proportion that hard driving would not afford an explanation of the fact. In the majority of animals fatted their history suffi- ciently contradicts the assertion. In the hide- bound animal is a prominent symi)tom of the com- mencement of the disease. The various forms of skin disease are occasionally symptoms of secondary significance. These, with want of cleanliness and poverty of diet may have their due imi)ortance as contributory or exciting causes, and as regards the last named there is an opposite condition of the blood, a want of healthy adhesiveness of its par- ticles. " Scabiemque ferat." When artificial food is given, the process of rumination is either performed imperfectly or not at all. The full grown animal has to perform digestion as the calf, while the artificial injested food is with more difficulty assimilated than the green herbage — the animal's proper requirement. The quahty of the animal must of necessity be proportionate to the quality of the natural food which supports it. That the young or sucking anim.al should be apparently free from pouched heart is to be understood in its having its natural food only, and in the greater simplicity of the pro- cess of digestion than when full grown. Tliis in the young consists in the anatomical peculiarity of the tul^e leading to the stomachs. While the animal is fed on milk, the fluid escapes the two first, viz., the paunch and the honey-comb, which are nearly closed, and arrives at the maw, which is attached to the third {raariyplies), as yet a narrow tube, where only can it be acted upon by the gastric juice to be fitted for digestion. If gin-balls, rum and milk, and other fantastical compounds be administered (as is often done with calves), the rapid deposition of fat may be seen, as well as unusual whiteness— the unhealthy appear- ance of the meat. If the parent be fed on artificial food the milk is vitiated, and so the tendency to the disease in question is augmented at the earliest period in the succeeding race. Liberty may here be taken to insert a quotation from an able teacher on the subject of " Hypertrophy," as it appeared in a provincial periodical some months ago and as 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it amalgamates so closely with the theory here pro- posed. " In many animals an excess of the carbonaceous elements of the food is attended with an accumula- tion of fatty matter in the body, but the quantity of muscular fibre, and of the other important structures possessing active qualities cannot be thus forced much beyond their natural standard. In the greater number of cases an increase of diet beyond the required amount induces a disordered or enfeebled state of the nutritive functions rather than hypertrophy. It may be that a large quantity of the nitrogenous products are admitted into the blood, causing a plethora of it. When that is the case, the muscular and other organs are very liable to suffer in their nutrition from being pampered in so rich a soil, and actually evince the effect in becoming atrophied, and undergoing fatty degene- ration ; or by a predisposition to inflammation. It may seem strange that a condition resembling that produced by a deficient supply of food should follow the indulgence in a too liberal dietary." — Humphrey's Lecture. These, then, are the circumstances which deter- mine the production of fat, and whilst they are present the accumulation of flesh does not go on, but diminishes ; and this is conformable to what is at present known of animal physiology. Most assuredly it is at variance with the economy of animal health to maintain the general frame in a growing state whilst an abnormal quantity of fat is produced, THE STATE OF THE LUNGS WHERE POUCHED HEART EXISTS. The lungs are often found congested, that is, the blood which should pass through the minute endings of the pulmonary artery is stagnant. There is too much reserve or residual impure air: in other words, the blood particles in the small vessels of the congested lungs have a tendency to adhere to each other, and also to the walls of the vessels, which the propelling action of the heart is unable to overcome. The heart's sensibility has been interrupted, its action at first tardy and enervated. To this succeeds irregular contraction and laboured efforts to overcome the difficulty imposed. The congested state of the lungs is seen in dark purple spots in various parts of each lung. The right lung is generally most affected. The noxious blood so retained in the lungs is a source of disease to these organs. In cases of long continuance the lungs resemble the natural appearance of the melt, and this organ, too, is congested. Animals with congested lungs are very prone to receive endemic or epidemic diseases, which prevail from atmos- pheric influences and other causes (influenza, &c.) ; in which case, the last-named complaint becomes more formidable, and runs through its different stages with rapidity equal to its violence. The animal so affected has to encounter a two-fold difficulty : — the peculiar disease induced by the process of fattening and the epidemic disease aggra- vated from that circumstance. This secondary disease is altered from that circumstance, and why ? Because there is present morbid irritability of the stomachs and lungs with permanent disease of the heart. Such cases are mostly fatal. The appearances that have been named are precisely the same when animals have been said to die from typhus. No attempt will here be made to argue the differ- ence between congestion and inflammation ; but it may be sufficient to state, that congestion of the lungs, where the heart is pouched, is followed by active inflammation, and this is succeeded by pus corpuscles, where the purple spots existed (they having first coalesced) ; ulceration follows, and a cavity is formed : the progress resembling the tubercle of the consumptive in man and beast. It is a well known physiological fact, when the diseases that have been named, pouched heart and congested lungs are present, that fibrine is not formed in the blood, that is, the flesh forming pro- cess does not go on, because the growth and de- velopment of the blood is not maintained in a con- stant ratio. " Boussingault, in an extensive series of experi- ments has proved the truth of this." — Liebig's Report. The quantity of blood, too, must be in relation to the quantity of carbon which the lungs can throw off, while oxygen must be freely supplied. An animal unaccustomed to healthy, open air, and suitable exercise, than which two greater depriva- tions could not be invented under the pretext of improving its condition.* A kind of food is given which requires more exercise of the lungs, a greater proportion in the consumption of oxygen, and greater necessity for continued locomotion, in order to maintain a state approaching to health — the conditions absolutely requisite to effect develop- ment of carcass. These pre-requisites not kept in view, the result is a morbid deposition of fat ; for the liver cannot dispose of this excess of carbon without interruption to its healthy function, or without mischief to its intricate structure. The * " If young and healthy cows be brought from the country into the city, and confined in stalls at- tached to dairies, they at first become fat and sleek, but after some time several of them are observed to grow thin, become unhealthy, and if not speedily removed, fall into a state of marasmus. After death, tubercles are found in several textures of the carcass."— Andrah THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 327 amount of carbonic acid yielded at each respiration is limited by the capacity of the lungs for oxygen ; nor can more than a given amount of urea, or rather hippuric acid, be thrown oft' from the kid- neys, which ingredient is in fact, the vehicle of the sur])lus nitrogen necessary to be separated from the circulating blood. To each organ its wonted econo- my, its limited healthy operation. There is a stop in the healthy chemistry of digestion, and when the products vary from their accustomed nature in some of the important organs of secretion, they are arrested as either unfit to be eliminated, or are sometimes thrown off" in the excretions. J. A. (To be continued.) TREATISE ON THE CHOICE OF MILCH COWS. FROM THE IRISH FARMERS' GAZETTE. {Continued from page 534 of the 23 Vol.) EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. FLANDRINES COWS. FIFTH ORDER — NO. V. The cows of the fifth order give twelve quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk until five months gone in calf. The gravure of this order is a little more closed together at the points a a and b b than in the preceding order. Below the bearing is a line of hair growing downwards, about six inches long, by H inch wide, and marked by the letter c. This gravure is known, also, in the hair growing upwards, replaced by some hair growing downwards on the right side, and which sinks into the bottoms of the thighs, about six inches, marked by the letter g. SIXTH ORDER — NO. VI. The cows of this order give nine quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk till four months gone in calf. The gravure of this order has the same form as that of the 5th order, but it is closer together at the points, a a. There is a bareness of hair, which, instead of growing upwards, sinks itself be- tween the thighs, and is nearly four inches long, and about two inches wide. This bareness is marked, as above, by the letter G ; and below the bearing the mark is the same as that of the fifth order, marked c. SEVENTH ORDER — NO. VII. These cows give six quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk till three months gone in calf. The gravure of this order diflfers from those preceding, in that it is well characterized on the left side, at the points a and b. On the right side you will find some hairs bristling across, and from the point A, on the right, the gravure declines and sinks exactly between or in the middle of the thighs, in extending itself towards the bearing. These cows have generally the udder covered with hair coarse and hard. EIGHTH ORDER — NO. VIII. These cows give four quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk for two months after being again in calf. The gravure of this order has the same form asthat of the seventh order j^but it is 328 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. more low, and closes more together at the bottom of the thighs ; some hairs, at a distance from one another, extend to the right and the left, bristling or standing on end. What I have said of the distinctive marks of the orders applies equally to all the corresponding orders of sizes — largest, middle, and smalleat — of the same class ; but in following the degree of proportion of cows thus, it will be understood that what I have said of the characteristic signs of each class, and of each order in particular, will ap- ply to all the orders and all the degrees of each of these classes. I pass, then, to the other sizes of the first class, of which I shall only point out the produce of milk for each day. MIDDLE SIZE. — FIRST CLASS. First order give IS quarts per day, and hold their milk until 8 months gone in calf, undergoing, as in the largest size, a gradual diminution. Second order give 1 5 quarts a day, and hold it until 7 months gone in calf. Third order give 13 quarts a day, and hold it until 6 months gone. Fourth order give 10 quarts a day, and hold it until 5 mouths gone. Fifth order give 8 quarts a day, and hold it until 4 months gone. Sixth order give 5 quarts a day, and hold it imtil 3 months gone. Seventh order give 3 quarts a day, and hold it until 2 months gone. Eighth order give 2 quarts a day, and do not hold it after being again in calf. SMALLEST SIZE. — FIRST CLASS. First order give 12 quarts a day, and hold it until 8 months gone in calf, but always with a gradual diminution. Second order give 10 quarts a day, and hold it until 7 months gone in calf. Third order give 8 quarts a day, and hold it until 6 months gone. Fourth order give 6 quarts a day, and hold it vintil 5 months gone. I Fifth order give 4 quarts a day, and hold it until 4 months gone. Sixth order gives 3 quarts a day, and hold it until 2 months gone. Seventh order give 2 quarts a day, and hold it until one month gone. Eighth order give one quart a day, and do not hold it after being again in calf. To follow the thread of my ideas, and of my observations, it is necessary at once to attach to each class the particular description of the batardes or mongrels which belong to it. I am, therefore, going to describe here the batardes Flandrines. I only describe the batardes of the largest size. In the other sizes, it is neces- sary to diminish the proportion of the marks ac- cording to the individual order; the characteristic signs being the same for every class, apply to all the orders of the same class. The Flandrines cows have two kinds of batardes — The first has an oval of hair growing down- wards, in centre of the one which goes up, marked by the letter j, in the middle, and between the two hips, below and opposite to the bearing at a distance of about 8 inches. This oval is about 4 inches long, and 2^ inches wide. The colour of the hair growing downwards is always more white than that which grows upwards. The greater the size of the oval, the sooner there will be a falling off of milk ; the smaller the oval, the loss of milk will be less sensible, but it will take place nevertheless. The gravure is the same as that of the first order of the class, and marked by the same letters. The batarde No. 2 possesses the same charac- teristic of gravure as the cows of the first order of the original class, but the hair which forms the gravure or ecusson, instead of rising vertically towards the bearing, bristles like the beard of an ear of corn, and overflows or turns over on each side upon the thighs, upon the points a a. The ecussons of the greatest size and the finest hair denote the most abundant milk. When the hair is coarse, long, and thin, it denotes a poor milk. The interior of the thighs up the bearing is of a reddish colour, and the skin fine to the touch. COWS A LISIERE. SECOND CLASS. The form of gravure or ecusson of this second class is very different from that of the first. This gravure is marked by hair growing upwards, in the form of a selvage or list of cloth, which rises verti- cally, and terminates at the bearing, without any interruption of hair growing downwards in this part. That is what has determined the name which I have given to cows of this class. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 LARGEST SIZE. FIRST ORDER — NO. I. The cows of the first order of this size give, in their full milking, 19 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk until eight months gone in calf; like the cows of the first order of the first class, they never go dry, if you wish always to draw them. Those which belong to the largest size, and to this first order, have a fine udder or dug, covered with small down, which grows upwards. The gravure springs from the middle of the four teats, extends itself within the thighs, and rises, in overflowing, upon the points a a. From these points a transversal right line plunges itself, or runs deep into the thighs at the points d d, distant from one another about four inches. Thence a right line rises vertically to the bearing, where it terminates itself by a breadth of 1 ^ inches. Above, and opposite to the hinder teats, you will find two ovals of hair growing down, which are nearly as large as those of the first order of the first class : they ai-e also distinguished by the brightness of the hair growing downwards, and marked by the letters E E. In the first order of the cows a lisiere, as in the first order of the Flandrines, the bottom of the thighs in the ecusson is of a yellowish Indian colour. SECOND ORDER.— NO. II, These cows give 16 quarts of milk per day, and hold the milk till 7h months gone in calf. Their gravure has the same form as that of the first order. The points a a are lower, and all the mark is nar- rower or more contracted. There is a small ecusson of hair growing upwards to the left of the bearing, marked by the letter E, and which is about 2| inches long, by not quite half an inch wide. All the gravure is distinguished by the brightness of the hair {contrefoil) growing the contrary way or against the grain. There is only one oval above the teats on the left side, behind, marked also by the letter e. THIRD ORDER — NO. III. These cows give 14 quarts a day, and hold their milk until 6 months gone in calf. The marks are the same as those of the first order, but the points A A are nearer to D d, and from the points d d, in growing upwards, the gravure forms an acute angle, which terminates at the bearing, to the right and left of which you will find two httle ecussons, marked f f, same size as those of the preceding order ; however, the ecusson on the right is shorter than that on the left by about an inch or an inch and a-half. There is only one oval on the above, behind the teats marked e. FOURTH ORDER — NO. IV. These cows give 12 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk until 4^ months gone in calf. They have the same mark as the preceding order, except that the line from the points a A is lower than the points D D. The two ecussons to the right and left of the bearing are larger and wider by three-fourths of an inch than the preceding order, and there is no oval above the teats. 330 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SECOND CLASS— COWS A LISIERE. MIDDLE SIZE. FIRST CLASS. — FIFTH ORDER — NO. V. These cows give 10 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk imtil 3 months gone in calf. The mark is more contracted than in the fourth order. The points D d are much more close, being sepa- rated only three-fourths of an inch. The lisiere or selvage grows upwards, terminating in a point very narrow at the bearing, to the left of which it turns to the point F. There is only one ecusson on the right, marked also f, 6 inches long, by U inches wide. SIXTH ORDER— NO. VI. These cows give 8 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk until 2 months gone in calf. They have the same mark as the preceding order, but still more close or contracted. The line going up is of very little width, and disappears (in the mid- dle) at about 4 inches in length. There are two ecutsons, marked f f, of the same length and size, very nearly, as those in the preceding order. SEVENTH ORDER — NO. VII. These cows give 6 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk until one month gone in calf. The mark is still lower down, and more narrow than in the preceding order. The line going up- wards contracts itself or closes together, so that it disappears. There are two ecussons, marked f f ; that on the left is 7 inches long by 1 J inches wide, formed by coarse hair, which turns across outside the thigh : that on the right is 4 inches long, by 1 i inches wide ; the hair has the same turn as that on the left. EIGHTH ORDER — NO. VIII. These cows give 4 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk only until again in calf. The mark is more and more contracted. There is only one ecusson on the left, marked f, formed by some hair, which turns across. What has been said of the orders of the large size applies exactly to each of the eight orders of the two other sizes, with re- gard to the properties of each of them. This ob- servation, which I repeat here, extends to all the other classes. MIDDLE SIZE. — SECOND CLASS. First order. — The cows of this order give 16 quarts of milk per day, and hold it till 8 months gone in calf. Second order give 13 quarts, and hold it till 6j months gone. Third order give 11 quarts, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fourth order give 10 quarts, and hold it till 4 months gone. Fifth order give 8 quarts, and hold it till 3 months gone. Sixth order give 6 quarts, and hold it till 2 months gone. Seventh order give 4 quarts, and hold it till again in calf. Eighth order give 3 quarts, and hold it till again in calf only. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 881 SMALLEST SIZE. — SECOND CLASS. First order — The cows of this order give 11 quarts of milk per day, and hold it till 8 months gone in calf. Second order give 8 quarts, and hold it till Ci months gone. Third order give 6 quarts, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fourth order give 4 quarts, and hold it till 4 months gone. Fifth order give 3 quarts, and hold it till 3 months gone. Sixth order give 2 quarts, and hold it till 2 months gone. Seventh order give 2 quarts, and hold it till again in calf only. Eighth order give 1 quart, and hold it till again in calf only. The batardes or mongrels of this class, to what- ever size or whatever order they may belong, are known when they have two ecussons of hair grow- ing upwards upon the right and left of the bearing, marked f f. These ecussons are altogether separate from the bearing ; distant from it about 1 or 1 ^ inches on each side; they are 4 or 41 inches long, and from 1 to I J inches wide. The smallest and those that have the hair roost fine, show that the loss of milk will be more gradual. When the ecussons are pointed or sharp at both ends, and of a coarse hair, they indicate a watery, thin milk. COURBE LIGNES— CROOKED LINES. THIRD CLASS. This name has been given to the cows of the third class, because their gravure, which resembles a lozenge, is formed by a crooked line, which goes from the right and left, and joins on going up- wards, near the bearing, about three-fourths of an inch below it. This gravure or ecusson, formed by the hair growing up against the grain, resem- bles a heart. LARGEST SIZE. FIRST ORDER— NO. I. same yellowish (Indienne) colour in their gravure or ecusson as those of the first orders of the pre- ceding classes. The mark is wider in the upper part than in the second class. It commences in the centre of the four teats and grows up, within and above the houghs, flowing over the right and left to the middle of the thigh, on the points a a ; and departing from these points there rises on each side a crooked line, which terminates at b, about three-fourths of an inch from the bearing. Above and opposite the hind teats there are two ovals of hair, growing down, marked e e. SECOND ORDER — NO. II. The cows of this size and of this order give, in full milk, 18 quarts a day, and hold it till 8 months gone in calf, They have the same fineness and the These cows give 16 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk till 7 months gone in calf. The form of the gravure is the same as the first order, but slightly more narrow or contracted in every part. To the left of the bearing there is an ecusson of hair growing against the grain, marked f, 1 ^ inches long, but not quite half an inch wide. This gravure is marked by the same letters as that above, but there is only one oval, on the left, above the teats. THIRD ORDER — NO. III. These give 14 quarts of milk a day, and hold their milk till six months gone in calf. The mark is the same as in the second order, and marked by the same letters, and is slightly more contracted. There are, to the right and left of the bearing, two beards of hair or ecussons, growing upwards, marked f f, about 4 inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide. Above the teats, on the left side, there is an oval, marked e. The point B is lower than in the second order, 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FOURTH ORDER — NO. IV. <^^^ 6v chcaiisLry, I beg you to understand, is only one of many sciences vdiicli can thus be applied witli advantage to agricullure. We liave, for instance, the science of mechanics, wluch is pei-rectly indispensable to agriculture. We have also the science of physics, which is perhaps as important as chemistry. We hare also natural history, which, as you are all aware, has a most intimate connexion with the subject before xis. Now I would commence by a very broad assertion — namely, that without tliis combination of practice with science, all farming operations are empirical and lead to no trust- worthy results. This will not perhaps be admitted by many of the agriculturists present ; for we usually find that farmers, and especially tenant farmers, are exceed- ingly averse to adopting principles which can be deduced from the laws of science in their agricultural operations. You will, however, readily see that such a combination must take phice, if we wish to have universal laws in the science of agriculture. A thousand farmers may try a thousand experiments upon a thousand dliTerent fields ; and one farmer may produce an amazing crop of corn by the application of a certain manure. Another farmer may try the experiment with a different result, or with the same result ; if with the same, it is looked upon as a confirmation of the original eji'perim.ent, and very pro- perly so ; and there is additional reason for a third farmer to try the experiment in confidence of producing the same successful result. But if this third farmer has a field in which the chemical constituents of the soil are widely different from those of the first two, he will be mortified to find that in his case the manure completely fails. This we find an every-day occurrence in agri- culture. We find manures that are introduced with eulo- gium into certain districts, entirely fail when applied in other districts. If we would ascertain the cause of these failures, we must go to the very bottom of the subject. We must ascertain the composition of the soils upon which the manure may have been tried, and we must also have plainly before us the composition and modus operandi of the manure which is used upon those soils. It is evident that this portion of the inquiry can only be set at rest by an application to chemistry. It is che- mistry alone which can furnish us with a clear idea of the composition either of the soil or of the manure v/ith which we seek to operate upon that soil. I might men- tion many instances in support of this position, but I will content myself with one — that of a farmer in whose soil there is a large quantity of phosphoric acid present in a form of combination in which we meet with it in bone earth, or as earthy or alkaline phosphates. When he tries the effect of ammonia or its salts, and applies a top-dressing of sulphate of ammonia, he finds a greatly- increased crop — a greater quantity of grass than would otherwise have been produced. Another farmer, whose soil is entirely destitute of phosphoric acid, tries the same experiment, and finds perhaps no benefit at all from the application of ammoniacal salt — for instance, sulphate of ammonia, derived from gas liquor. What is the explanation of this ? The art of agriculture itself can give us no explanation whatever. Both may be clayey, or gravelly, or sandy soils, and yet this diflFerence of re- sult obtain. A dillereuce in point of mechanical struc- ture has no influence whatever in this matter ; it docs not in the least explain the difference in result obtained by the application of this sulphate of ammonia. We find, however, on reference to the chemical constituents of grass, that those constituents which afford nutriment to the cattle feeding upon it must contain, as one of their essential ingredients, phosphorus. This phos- phorus cannot be manufactured by the plant itself; it cannot be manufactured by any process 'i the soil ; it must be present in the soil, or it cannot be conveyed into the pores of the plant and converted into the nutri- tive constituents which it is our object to form in the cultivation of plants. The consequence is, that the nitrogen contained in these nutritive constituents — this nitrogen which we wish to supply in the sulphate of am- monia, although an essential constituent of the nutritive matters referred to, is of no use whatever as supplied in the sulphate of ammonia, unless phosphoric acid be present in the soil. This is one of the many instances which we might adduce as showing the advantage of combining science with practice in ordinary farming operations (Hear, hear). Another advantage is, that by the aid of £«ience we are enabled to economi.-ie our manures and apply to our fields just the kind of ingre- dients which they require. Take, for example, the case of a farmer who has land, perhaps, rich in nitrogenous constituents, and with a deficiency of phosphoric acid in the soil. Now if, by the advice of a neighbour or other person, he uses sulphato of ammonia or other ammonia- cal salts which may be in the market, he throws away just as much money as he pays for the salts in question. If, however, he knew that his land did not require these ammoniacal salts, but was in want of other constituents, such as phosphoric acid, then he would use bone dust or guano, both of which contain these phosphates in large quantities, and would therefore supply the deficiency (Hear, hear). Another advantage flowing from the con- nection of science v^ith agriculture is, that we are enabled to ascertain by these means what kind of crops will pro- duce the greatest amount of nutritive and fat-forming matter from a given surface of land. It is evident this question can only be set at rest by an application to chemistry. We must ascertain, in the first place, what ingredients it is necessary that we should give to our stock in order to fatten and bring them to their full growth. We find two distinct classes of substances requisite for effecting this object — namely, substances rich in nitrogen for the formation of muscles, and another class of compounds for laying on a superstratum of fat, which is now such a great desideratum in the feeding of cattle. The first class of substances which it is requisite to produce in the food we give to animals con- sists of those containing a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid ; the second class, for the production of fat, consists of substances which may be entirely void of those two elements, nitrogen and phosphorus. If we wish simply to fatten cattle upon our land, we know, by reference to chemical science, that we must endeavour to produce as much combination of carbon and hy- drogen, in the form of sugar, starch, &c., as we can ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 553 IIAI)/-. Ib'j.ilJ an^ we nefic( noi partlculavly trouble ourselves about prod uci iig lilrge quyuti tics of flesb-fonninj; principles, siace tlic aniuials we seek to ialteii arc usually in a full- grown state. J3ut in rearing young animals, we must look to muscle-fonniug principles, and give a sufficient quantity of phosphates to enable them to form a due pro- l)ortion of bone. Another advantage which agriculture has already derived from the science of chemistry is this, that clu'raistry has shown us from what sources plants derive their constituent elements. Formerly, farmers imngiaed that the richer the land was in humus, or humic acids, the larger the crops it produced. They imagined that these carbonaceous substances were dissolved in the rain water wli'ch descended, or were in some other way conveyed to the roots of the plants, and administered to the nourishment of those plants just in the manner that soup operates in fVeding man. This w:is the mistake: the comparison of the life of plants with tlie life of ani- mals— two slates of existence which are precisely opposite to each other. The function of plants is nothing more than the restoration 01 the equilibrium which has been disturbed by the function of animals. Animals restore to the atmosphere end to the soil those constituents which it is uecessaiy for plants to obtain to form their tissues. This was shovia by Liebig, who proved that in the ex- tensive ])ine forests grown in Germany, the carbon and hydrogen contained in the wood of those trees must be derivad from otlier sources than the soil upon v/hich they grow ; such soil containing scarcely a trace of carbo- naceous matter. Upon a single acre of this land, there was reared in the course of a few years trees which con- tained several thousand pounds of carbon. Hnw could this find its w.iy '"ito the tissues of those trees if it were not derived from the atmosphere ? A knowledge of the atmosphere gives the solution. The atmosphere con- tains the T.'holeof the carbon requisite for the formation of the carbonaceous tissues cf plants. When we take into consideration the enormous extent of the atmosphere, the quantity of carbon contained ' i it in the form of carbonic acid, and the manner in which the atmosphere is brought into contact with the leaves of plants, v.e can find sufficient to account for the whole of the carbon discovered in the tissues of plants. It is now well known that the leaves of plants exposed to sunsnine or diffused daylight absorb this carbonic acid very rapidly fiom the atmosphere, and eliminate from their surface jjure oxygen gas. Now the carbonic acid is composed of carbon and oxygen : hence, it is mathematically certain that the carbon must rema'i in the leaves, it does not remain as charcoal, but is assimilated with the elements of water, and is converted into sugar, starch, woody fibre, or other substances which contain carbon along with the elements of water. In the same way, nitrogen has also been proved to be derived from the ammonia in the atmosphere. This is a most important point for agriculturists, especially for those on poor soils ; because a large quantity of the manure applied to soils are manures rich in nitrogen— a material which is capable of being abstracted from the atmosphere by plants, provid- ing they have the other mineral requisites to build up the organic substances which they form from carbon, nitro- gen, p'ld water. If we supply these mineral substances, we can rely upon plants deriving sufficient nitrogen from the atmosphere to form the compounds before spoken of — namely, those nutritive properties which are the chief objects contemplated hi agiiculture. We then see clearly that plants derive their nutriment from two sources : from one source ■which is perfectly independent of all man's operations — namely, the atmosphere ; and from a second source — namely, the earth. We also find that it is necessary to provide certain ingredients if they are not already present in the soil. The principal of these ingredients are phosphoric acid and the alkalies ; sulphuric acid is also requisite ; these materials being essential to tlie formation of the nutritive properties al- ready alluded to. We therefore need only look, in agricultural operations, to the supply of these inorganic constituents— namely, phosphoric acid in the form of bone dust, and potash in some cheap form, as from decom- posing minerals ; the nitrogen (such an essential consti- tuent in these nutritive principles) and the carbon being entirely derived Trom the atmosphere. There is, however, one condition in which we can apply nitrogenous manures with advantage, and that is, where a soil is exceedingly rich in mineral ingredients, and on which we want to raise large crops of plants which are rich in nitrogen. In order to effect this, we must supply manure artificially, and in the form of ammonia ; this being the only condi- tion in which nitrogen can be assimilated by plants. (Appliiuse.j We are also enabled to see, from the ap- p'ication of chem'stry to agriculture, the causes of the advantage derived from the rotation of crops, fallow, and quick lime. The advantages of the rotation of crops is now appreciated by most agriculturists in almost all dis- tricts. Eut the way in which this advantage is derived is not by any means so clearly understood. It is well known to chemists and scientific agriculturists that different kinds of plants absorb different kinds of consti- tuents from the soil. Wheat, for instance, requires a large quantity of silica and phosphorus for its perfection. Another class of plants scarcely requires silica at all ; while a third class probably needs only salts of potash or soda. In this way we divide plants into three classes : plants which require silica ; plants which principally re- quire potash or soda. Now when we plant wheat upon a soil, we withdraw from it a large quantity of siliceous materials, silica or flint 'i a soluble state, and a consi- derabl'j amount of phosphoric r.cid. Consequently, if you continue to crop the land with wheat, you will find your crops diminish in quantity, and finally you cannot grow any more wheat on the land. But if in the same soil you plant potatoes, you may have an abundant crop, even without the application of any manure. And again, upon soil where potatoes almost cease to exist, you may grow a considerable crop of clover. These cir- cumstances are readily explained when we take into con- sideration the ingredients withdrawn from the soil by each of these classes of plants. Now if we wish con- tinually to crop land with the same description of plant ; if, for ■ istance, we wish to plant wheat every year upon the same surface of land, we have nothing more to do than to supply the requisite amount of siliceous mate- 2 A 2 33^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rials, phosphoric acid, &c., iu order to efiect this object. Probably, however, up to the present time these ingre- dients cannot be obtained sufficiently cheap to carry out this system ; but if agriculturists were upon the watch for these compounds, there is little doubt that eventually a cheap supply of them may be rendered available, and the same land be cropped with grain crops every year in succession, without impoverishing the soil (applause). Phosphoric acid can be supplied by bone dust ; but this is too expensive for common use. It is, however, for- tunate for agriculturists that fossil supplies of this phos- phate of lime occur in immense quantities in various parts, embedded in the soil to the depth of several inches, and occasionally to the depth of one or two feet. This " coprolite," as it is termed (or excrement of animals that have long ceased to exist) contains from 80 to 90 per cent, of pure phosphate of lime. Now comes the question of supplying siliceous materials to the soil — a matter which is engaging the attention both of agricul- turists and of chemists at the present time. If we supply the requisite quantity of manure to a given space of land to crop it yearly with wheat, after two or three years the straw fails in strength, and the least wind beats it down, the straw not being sufficiently strong to bear the ears upon it. How are we to get rid of this difficulty ? Sim- ply by the application of these siliceous materials, which are not requisite for the formation of nutritive matter, but are required to give strength to the stalk by which to elevate the grain to the atmosphere that it may ripen. It is important that we should be able to supply these siliceous materials in the cheapest form. Bunson has discovered that in volcanic regions there are extensive layers of lava, known under the name of pelagonite, which contains silica in large quantities, and in such a state that it readily becomes soluble by the action of the atmosphere, and capable of being conveyed to the plants by rain water. All our soils contain a sufficiency of siliceous matter, but being in an insoluble form it can only be reduced to a soluble condition by the action of air and moisture through a long series of years. This pelagonite yields silica in a comparatively short space of time, and might be imported for that purpose. There is also another plan I would propose for adoption in places where it could be carried out to advantage — that is, the heating of siliceous substances with quick lime. The chemist knows that when siliceous substances are to be brought into solution they must be heated with alkalies or alkaline earth. Now this is precisely the operation we have to apply to the siliceous materials which consti- tute 40 to 50, and in some cases 60 to 80 per cent, of our soils, to bring them into solution, and into a con- dition in which they are capable of being assimilated by plants. If we take these siliceous materials — namely, gravel on the coasts, and flints in the south of England and mis them in alternate layers with coal and chalk or limestone, and ignite the whole mixture, we convert the chalk into quick lime, and heat the flints to redness. If we then turn upon the mass a stream of cold water, so as to cool it very rapidly, w-e slake the lime, convert it into hydrate of lime, and reduce the flints or siliceous stones into an almost impalpable powder ; at any rate we disintegrate them to a very great extent, and bring,, -a large surface of them into contact with the lime ; and the consequence is, we obtain a large quantity of silicate of lime^ which furnishes silica in a soluble form to the plants upon the soil to which it is applied. A few months ago one of my students tried this experiment on a small scale in my laboratory with successful results- There can be no doubt that where corn or other grain crops are liable to heavy rains or rough winds the appli- cation of such manures would be of the very greatest ad- vantage (applause). There are many other points which we might mention illustrative of the advantages which agriculture may derive from the application of chemistry ; but as the time is already so far advanced, and as I am sure that many of the agricidturists before me will have questions to ask in reference to the application of manures to particular soils, or on other matters, I will content myself with the few observations I have already made, and conclude by assuring you that I shall be very glad, so far as I am able, to answer any inquiries that may be put to me on these subjects, or on other subjects relating to the application of chemistry to agriculture (loud applause). After a pause the President said : If any questions occur to the mind of any gentleman preseut, I hope he will not scruple to put them to Dr. Franklaiid. It is by inquiries ad- dressed by practical men to men of science that rautu: ' infor- mation and instruction may be elicited. Mr. Patten, M.P.: I observe that you divide the nutri- ment of plants into three heads. Now I think it will afford considerable information to the farmers present if you tell us the particular plants that consume the greatest quantity of each of these materials. Wheat, yon say, consumes the greatest quantity of silica. What plants consume most of the other two materials? Dr. Frankland : The plants which we usually denominate siliceous plants, from their abstracting from the soil large quan- titles of silica, are oats, wheat, barley, and rye ; to which we might add grass, when it is allowed to become hay, since the stalks are then in a similar condition to the stalks of grain crops ; and these being taken away from the soil with tlie hay, remove a certain amount of silica. The lime plants are peas (the straw of peas, the seed does not contain a large portion of lime), potatoes (the herb, not the tuber), and clover, which re- moves a very considerable amornt of lime. The potash plants are — maize, turnips, beet-root, and potato tubers ; a"' these plants require a large amoimt of potash, in order to be culti- vated with success. Mr. W. J. Gaenett : Do you include mangold-wurtzel in the class last mentioned ? Dr. Frankland : The tubers of mangold-wurtsel may be classed with those plants requiring potash. Mr. Smyth lES : I understood you to say that few soils re- quire the application of nitrogenous manures. Now I find that, generally speaking, rapecake used as raw material upon the laud is good upon almost any soils ; and I never knew any farmer who objected to the use of oilcake, given to his cattle. We value it at one- third as a feeding instrument ; and the manure which it gives is principally nitrogenous, I think. Dr. Frankland : In my opinion, the value of that manure is not owing to the nitrogenous ingredients it contains, but to its phosphates and alkalies. Mr. Smythies : From some papers in the " Agricultural Journal," I have been led to imagine that the principal value of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 355 rapecake and oilcake arises from the nitrogen they contain This is the statement of Mr. Lawes. Dr. Ftt.\NKLAND : I cannot refer to Mr. Lawes' experiments \vith coniideuce, Mr. Smytiues : Tiiis is the way we farmers are somewhat led astray. Wlien doctors disagree we are rather nonplussed. (Hear, hear.) Dr. Fkankland : Ammonia can be of no use where phos- phorus is absent, because the materials of those plants which require ammonia equally require a supply of phosphorus. Therefore, unless phosphorus be supplied simultaneously with ammonia, no good can be the result. It is rather a question whether, under ordinary circumstances, plants supplied with the requisite amount of pliosphoric acid could not abstract a sutlicient quantity of ammonia from the atmosphere, without any being given by rapecake. I think that for ordinary crops suflieient could be obtained from the atmosphere ; for the production of extraordinary crops more ammonia may be sup- plied. Mr. Sjiytiiies : Does not an analysis show that rapecake and oilcake are identical with regard to their feeding pro. pertics ? Dr. Fkankland : Eapecake, I think, contains a consider- able amount of sulphur, more than oilcake ; and for fattening purposes the oilcake might be preferable to the rapecake ; but, however, I have not myself made an analysis of the two. I have analyzed oilcake frequently, but not rapecake. Mr. Smytiues : As farmers, we think oilcake superior to rapecake. Chemists, however, tell us that rape is as good as oil, and is only half the price. It may be as good, but we cannot get cattle to eat rapecake as they will oilcake. Dr. Frankland : There is some nauseous matter in the rapecake. The sulphurous oils it contains are likely to be refused by cattle. Mr. Smytiues : With respect to silica, if Dr. Frankland can render it soluble for application to grain, so as to prevent crops from going down, he will do more good to agriculture than any man has yet accomplished. There is a certain limit to which we agriculturists can go. We are not like manufac- turers, who can go forward to any extent by laying out a cer- tain sum of money (a laugh). We are limited in our opera- tions. If Dr. Frankland can produce such substances as will enable crops to stand upright, he will do more for agriculture than any man who ever existed (Hear, hear). Mr. IliNDE ; I wish to make one or two remarks upon what fell from Mr. Smythies respecting the relative value of rapecake and oilcake. For my own part, I find little or no difficulty in rearing calves with rapecake. After dissolving the cake in water for twenty-four hours, I skim the oil from it, and put the remainder to blue milk. This I find to answer almost as well as new milk. I also use it for pigs and sheep. The price of rapecake is only about £5 per ton, whilst oilcake costs from £8 to £9. Some few animals have refused it, but very few. Last winter, I fed a few beasts with rapecake mixed with chopped straw. Mr. Smytiues : I have seen beasts eat it when it has been disguised in that way ; and in a few instances I have seen sheep eat rapecake by itself. But, generally speaking, cattle refuse it if given as we give oilcake. Mr. W. J. Gauxett: Is not that pelagonite a newly- discovered substance ? Where is it found ? and has it ever been practically made available for agricultural purposes in this country ? Dr. Fkankland : It is quite a new substance in agricul- ture. It has lately been discovered in very large quantities in Iceland. A large portion of the lava flowing from the crater of Mount Hecla is found to be pelagonite. The same sub. stance has also been met with in Italy. Hitherto, it has not been at p'' applied to afjriculture. It has only recently been proposed for such appUcation by Liebig. Mr. W, J. Garnett: Then it is merely science which suggests the use of it, and not practice ? Dr. Frankland : Science shows that it is the very best thing to make use of forobtaining silica in a soluble condition. Mr. W. Garnett : I have been engaged in draining a con- siderable quantity of very poor land of a peaty nature, and I am in anticipation that the money laid out will in time bring that land into a very diff jrent stats, and render it much more valuable. I have found in the neighbourhood I refer to a bed of marl ; and I should be glad to hear Dr. Fraukland's opinion whether, after moss land is drained, marl could not be advan- tageously applied ? Dr. Frankland : I should think the application of marl could not, under the circumstances mentioned, be disadvan- tageous. It would perhaps be attended with greater advantage if you would apply at the same time quick-lime with the marl, which would have the effect of hastening the decomposition of the peaty substance of the soil. Mr. Dawson : I should like Mr. Garnett to follow np his inquiry with another — namely, whether the result would not depend upon the species of marl applied ? We have two kinds of marl here — one, clay mingled with lime ; and the other a sort of shale found under sand. I apprehend the shale would be advantageous ; but I think the other kind of marl would be too heavy. In its application to moss land, it would never amalgamate, but would lie in a heavy, cold state for a number of years. Dr. Frankland : I think Mr. Dawson is right in the re- mark that a great deal would depend on the physical condition of the marl. If it were applied in its heavy state, it would be very ditlkult to bring it into intermixture with the peat ; therefore, I think slialey marl would be more advantageous than clayey marl. Possibly, if the peat and marl could be burnt together, a maximum eifect would be produced, and a large quantity of valuable materials be found in the ashes of the peat ; but the process would be an expensive one, and I am not aware how far it could be carried out in practice. Mr. W. J. Garnett : The usual test was applied to this mar], namely, aquafortis ; and immediately on its application an extraordinary effervescence took place, which I think would not occur if there were much clay in it. Dr. Frankland : The effervescence alluded to is simply owing to the carbonate of lime in the marl ; and this, of itself, I conceive to be of little value. I don't think tiie test of aqua- fortis can be relied upon. The great value of marl I conceive to lie in the phosphoric acid it contains. This, along with some salts of potass, I conceive to comprehend the principal advantages which will be derived from marl. Mr. Smythies : I have tried common Lancashire marl burnt, and found it not so good as when put on in its natural state. Dr. Frankland : Do you not think that marl was rich in carbonic acid ? Mr. Smythies : Yes, it was. Dr. Frankland: Was it burnt considerably, or only slightly ? Mr. Smythies: Only slightly. We were anxious not to burn it to a red heat. None of it, however, seemed to be of much use, whether much burnt or little burnt. It burnt into bricks instead of into ashes. Dr. Frankland : If it was burnt into bricks, there would be a great waste of time in disintegrating those large masses. 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Smythies : I have seen some Worcestcvsliire marl burnt, which fell immediately to powflcr on 'exposve fo the air. Mr. W. J. Gaenett : You have spoken of the value of bone dust and phosphoilc acid. I have r.sed crushed bones with immense advantage. This mpnure converts poor " benty" grass, brown and sood for notlr-ig-, into bf ^ntifu! clover. But it is expensive. Can you assist me in f \dia<^ a cheaper way of crusliing raw bones and laying the materipi on the grass ? It costs on an average £5 per statute acre. If you could en- able us to diminish the expense by hr'f that sum, it would be a great advantage to us. Do you imagine that when bones nre laid on as a top-dressing to grass, any part of that manure is lost, and passes off without producing t!ie benefit we s\ !sh to the ground ? Dr. Frankland : With regard to the first part of the question, I am afraid I cannot answer it satisfactorily. We have another source of phosphate of lime m the coprolite, or excrements of animals, before alluded to ; but I am not aware of the price at which this fossil inannre is sold. Mr. W. J. Garnett : I don't know that we have any within reach of this county. Dr. Frankland • If it were to be brought from the south of England, the expense would be a serious matter. With respect to the latter part of the question, there can be no loss of material from applying bones in sraall pieces. The only loss that can accrue, if it be a loss, will be in the way of time : it will require a greater length of time for the manure to come into action. The coarser the bones are applied the better, if their effects aie to extend over a series of years ; the finer the better, if it be desired that their opera/on should be imme- diately felt. Mr. Smythies : I have tried the coprolite or excrements of animals, which I purchased at £3 per ton in London, and the carriage of it to Liverpool cost 6s. per ton. I have also used bones. The cost of the former I think is rather more than that of the latter. Both have been applied to turnips, and at present I see no diflference between the effect of tise phosphate of lime yielded from bones and that from the coprolite. In reply to Dr. Johnson, Dr. Frankland said : I am of opinion that the application of guano to land of a peaty nature would be attended with ad- vantage; because in peaty soil, we want the immediate action of the manure, which we obtain with guano. With respect to bones, I conceive they would be f mnd to answer almost equally well when boiled as when unboiled, since the substance re- moved by boiling is gelatine, which is only calculated to afford nitrogen to plants, and this can be derived from the atmos- phere. The phosphate of lime remnina in the hones when boiled; and I believe they can be obtained considerably cheaper boiled than unboiled. President : The objection to boiled bones is that they are not so durable as when unboiled. They can be laid on at half the expense if boiled, but the impression is that th.ey do not last so long. Mr. Smythies: Has that been ascertained by actual ex- perience, or is it only an impression ? President : I am unable to say positively. Dr. Frankland : I believe there ;s very little difference in their value as a manure; but I can readily conceive that boiled bones should be less durable in their effect, because after boiling they are left in a porous condition, which renders them easily accessible to the atmosphere. (Hear, hear). Mr. Smythies : I suppose the action upon (he soil is quicker with boiled bones ? Dr. Frankland : I should say so. Mr. Smythies : If we obtain the same amount of c;ood, and get it in ten years instead of twenty, we must sa^e ictfii^ siderable amount in interest of capital. (A laugh). '' " '' ' Mr. C. Whalley : I can bear out Dr. Frankland in sayiiig that boiled bones arc sooner exhausted than half-inch bones that have undergone any process. Dr. Frankland, replying to Dr. Johnson, said : The com- parative value of solid and liqu'd manure depends tipon the nature of the land to which it is applied, and also upon the distance of the land from the source of manure. Where land is of a very light and porous nature, and the rains rapidly wash out everything soluble that is applied to that land, I think the application of manure in the liquid state and at very frequent intervals would prob.ably be more advantageous than the ap- plication of more solid manure. On clay land, where, perhaps, there is veiy imperfect drainage, the iise of a further quantity of water in the form of liquid manure would be to a certain extent objectionable, by rendering such clay land still more impervious to the atmosphere. Therefore, on clay lands, I should say, apply your manure in a solid rather than in a liquid state ; whilst on light soils, the application of liq\nd manure would be of advantage. As to cartage, no doubt solid is more concentrated than liquid manure ; consequently, the former may be conveyed at the least cost. No other gentleman essaying to speak. The President said : I think it is our duty to convey to Dr. Frankland our best thanks for his most interesting and in- structive lecture, and for the lucid and obliging manner in which he has answered ail the inquiries nut to him. (Cenernl acclamation). The meeting then separated. PRIZES. GENERAL STOCK AND FARM MANAGEMENT. CLASS L Beans on Umjc Farms. There were five competitors for these premiums, and we award the first to Mr. Robert Winder, of Laithwaite, near Cockerhara, who has IG acres of this kin \ of crop, on a farm of 1/0 statute acres, ail of which is very clean. Part of the beans are manured with 17 tons of night-soil per acre, and the remainder with 14 tons of farm-yard manure, and a small quan- tity of guano, in drills 28 inches apart. The proportion of tl.e crop grown to night-soil is superior to that grown with farm- yard manure. The whole has been sown after oats on a black soil resting upon a clay subsoil. For the second premium, Mr. Robert Lambert, of Ribby, has been successful. His crop of beans consists of nine acres, three acres of which are manured with three cwt. of guano, and the rem' ning six acres with 15 tons of farm-yard ma- nure per acre, in drills 29 inches apart. The land is a loamy soil. Beans on small Farms. For these premiums there were only two competitors, but we consider them deserving of the premiums, a:)d have awarded the first to Mr. James Fair, of Cabus, near Garstaug, whose crop consists of six acres and three roods, on a farm of 148 statute acres. The field is a strong loam, on a subsoil of gra- velly clay, and was manured with 15 tons of farm-yaid manure per acre, in drills 32 inches apart. | To Mr, John Cartmcl, of Lytliam, we have awarded the I second premium for five acres on a farm of 120 acres. This " crop was maniu'cd with farmyard manure at the rate of 15 tons per acre in drills 30 inches apart. Tiie soil is a peaty THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 357 earlh, oa a gravelly marl subsoil. The beans are not loug in the straw, but well po«lilcd, and the i^round clean. Tlic wliole of the crops of brans compctuig for the above preiuiuuis are very satisfactory, and wo particularly commend Mr. Edward Bridge's, of Faringdon. Swcdinh Turnipafor Innje Farms. jTnere were two couipetilors, and we have given the first pre- mium to Mr. Henry uluckreth, of Eicken Hall, near Kirkby Lonsdale, for twelve acres grown on a field which consists of a variety of soils, namely, gravelly on a clay subsoil, pHuvial, on clay, and tlie hifjhcr part is a very light nnprodnclive soil, resting upon a sandy subsoil. This field six years ago was a bed of gorse, and cost the tenant £8 per acre before obtaining a crop. Ti\e turnips were manin-ed with 15 tons of farm-yard niaiinrc, and 2 cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre, on drills 30 inches apart. This crop is very promising and well managed, and was sown after oats. Tlie second premium was awarded to Mr. George Banks, of High Gale, near Kirkby Lonsdale, for a crop of 122 acres ma- nured with 15 tons of farm-yard manure, and 2^ cwt. of guano per acre, in drills 30 inches apart. The soil is of inferior quality on a strong subsoil. For com!uon turnips on largo farms we li;^ve made no awards. Swedish Turnips for small IWms. For these premiums there are eigbt competitors, and the first \v.is av.iirdeJ to Mr. John Addington, of Broughtou, near I'restiin, for 5 acres grown with 15 tons of farm-yard manure, ' 'd I5 cwt. of fi,iiano per acre, in drills 2S inches apart. Ine soil is a dark mould, on a subsoil of gravelly clay. The crop is of good qualitj', and will be very heavy. Tlie second premium we awarded to Mr. John Hall, of Ald- clilfe, for 5 acres, part of which is manured with night-soil, at the rate of 15 tons per acre, and the remainder with guano, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre, iu drills 23 inches apart. The sod is of a brown loamy nature, and the subsoil marl and clay. These turnips would have been a much better crop if they had not been left so thick in the drill. We wish to call the particular attention of turnip growers to the importance of selecting their seed from known seedsmen. In our inspection we have seen many crops that were little better than half-bred rape. For common turnips we made no award. Manyold-Wurtrel. There were three competitors for this prize, Mr. James Kobinson, of Lane House, near Ulvcrstoue, having the best crop. In consequence of the unfavourable weather at the time of sowing, niangold-wurtzels are generally inferior this year. Cubh(i[/es. We have avrarded this premium, for which there were only two competitors, to Mr. John Eccles, Barton, near Preston, for three-quarters of an acre, grown upon a brown soil, with a strong clay subsod, and manured with 15 tons of farm-yard manure and 2 ewt. of guano. CLASS 2.— GRASSES. For lartjn Farms. There are four competitors for these premiums, Mr. Henry Fisher, of Fox-lane Ends, Kirkham, having the first awarded to him, for 19 acres on a farm of 158 acres. The land is drained, and consists principally of a strong loam soil, on a clay and marl subsoil. The seeds sov/n per acre were 4ib. of red clover, 2lb. of white clover, 21b. of cow jp-ass, and 21b. of timothy grass, and half a Winchester bushel of Pacey's perennial rye grass. After green crop with oats and barley. The second premium we award to Mr. George Banks, of High Gale, near Kirkby Lonsdale, for 15 acres on a farm of 158 acres. The seeds were sown with wheat and oats, at the rate of 121b. of heavy seeds, one bushel of rye grasses per acre. The soil is a strong clay, on a cold yet low clay subsoil. Grasses for small Farms. Only two competitors for these premiums, and Mr. James Fair, of Cabus, has been successful for the first. He has sown down 10 acres on a farm of 148 acres, with IGlb. of heavy seeds, and half a bushel of Pacey's rye grass and half a bushel of Italian rye grass per acre. Tlie second premium we award to Mr. John Cartrael, of Westby Lytham, for 17 acres on a faun of 120 acres. These grasses are a peaty soil, and have been sown with a good mix- ture of grasses. CLASS III. General slack on large farms. For the premium there are two competitors, and we award it to Mr. John Nutter, of Church Field, near Kirkby Lonsdale, whose live stock consists of 7(1 head of cattle, 14 horses, 200 sheep, and 7 pigs, on a farm of 280 acres. Mr. Nutter has been three years on his farm, and has expended a considerable sum of money iu draining, ditching, and levelling old farm, having drained 57 acres of meadow and pasture land, which was formerly very rushy. One large field, the first year he came into possession of the farm, only yielded 50 cart loads of hay, which now produces 150 carts. One large main drain liad'to be cut, 1,180 yards in length, at an average depth of 4 feet, which was laid with stones, the landlord finding the stones and laying them, aU the remainder of the drains being done at the tenant's expense. The whole has been done in a very judicious manner, and has a wonderful effect upon the land. He has purchased manure to the extent of £126 Ss., consi-sting of guano, bones, night soils, and Ume. The arable land is worked on both the four and five course systems, according to the nature of the soil and subsoils. Two- thirds of this farm is alluvial soil in gravelly subsoil ; the re- mainder is inferior to clay soil, with a stvoug yellow clay sub- stratum. This farm is rapidly progressing in improvements, and will ultimately become a fine property. General slock and farm-management on small farms. For this premium there were six competitors, and we have awarded the prize to Mr. James Ptobinson, of Lane House, Ulverston. This farm consists of 111 acres, divided as fol- lows :— In white crop, 3Ga. Ir. 14p. ; beans, 2a. Ir. 5p.; a very clean and good crop. Green crop consists of turnips, carrots, mangold, and potatoes, 18a. Or. 15p.; clover mown, 9a. Ir. 15p.; and the remainder pasture. The whole farm is in a very high state of cultivation, and it will be observed there is no meadow land on this farm. Tlie stock, which is of very superior quality, consists of 23 head of cattle, 4 work horses, and a standing stock, of 105 in number, of pure bred Leicester and Southdown breeds ; also about 75 sheep, brought on for feed- in" on turnips, &c. The whole of the farm is a light and "•ravelly soil, on a subsoil of gravel, which is very porous sand, except six acres in one field, which is a deep alluvial soil. HAIRY FARM. For this premium there were 3 competitors, and we have awarded the prize to .Mr. Benjamin Baxter, of Marsden 1 fall, for his farm of 55 acres of meadov/ and pasture land. His stock consists of 26 head of cattle, including 10 milch cows 358 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and one horse. His stock is mostly young, and in our opinion far above an average stock. Tlie soil is a loam, on a stiff clay subsoil. MR. JACSON'S PREMIUM. For this premium there were 13 competitors, aud after much consideration and difficulty we have awarded the premium to Mr. George Banks, of High Gale, near Kirkby Lonsdale, for Lis farm of 158 acres, divided into 78a. Or. 39p. of tillage, 29a. 3r. Op. meadow, and 50a. 2r. 16p. of pasture. The soil is a f^ravelly clay loam, and strong clay resting on the subsoil of gravel and clay. The arable part of this farm is on the five course system ; viz., oats, turnips, barley, or oats with grass seeds, pasture for two years. The principal improvements made by Mr. Banks during the last five years consist of draining 15,596 yards of stone and tile draining ; removing 2,140 yards ofold fences, planting 390 yards of new fences, the landlord paying a small proportion of this expense. This farm has a large quantity of new oak gates and very good stone posts, which have been made, put up, and painted at the tenants' ex- pense, the landlord finding the materials. Mr. Banks's stock consists of 48 head of cattle, 3 work horses, 2 three years old colts, 60 sheep, and 4 pigs. Two-thirds of this farm being on a very strong cold clay soil, we consider the tenant is deserving of great praise for the high state of cultivation he is now attaining. FOR THE SWEEPSTAKES. Open to gentlemen and farmers for mixed arable farms. We are sorry to say there are only two entries, and both by tenant farmers. We consider Mr. Drewery, of Holker, very deserving of the society's medal for the excellent management exhibited upon his farm. /o- „„jxE. George Melling. t.i„nea.j ^jlli^m Kay. PRIZES. Class 1. — Beans. Premium 1. — To the tenant farmer occupying 150 acres or upwards, for the greatest quantity in proportion to the size of his farm, and best managed aud cleanest crop of drilled beans, not less than five acres, £5. — Robert Winder, Cockerham. 2. — To the second-best do. £3. — R. Lambert, Ribby. 3. — To tlie tenant farmer occupying 60 acres and not exceed- ing 150, for the greatest quantity, in proportion to the size of his farm, and the best managed aud cleanest crop of drilled beans, not less than three acres, £3. — J. Fair, Cabus. 4. — To the second-best do., £2. — John Cartmel, Westby. TURNIPS. 5. — To the tenant farmer occupying as in No. 1, for the greatest quautity and best managed and cleanest crop of Swedish turnips, iu proportion to the size of his farm, not less than ten acres, £5. — H. Mackreth, Docker Hall, Capernwray. C. — To the second-best do., £3. — George Banks, Highgale, Kirkby Lonsdale. 8. — To the tenant farmer occupying as in No. 3, for the greatest quantity, in proportion to the size of his farm, and the best managed and cleanest crop of Swedish turnips, not less than three acres, £3. — John Waddiugton, Broughton. 9.— To the second-best do., £2.— John Halll. Aldcliffe. Mangold-Wurtzel. 11. — To the tenant farmer for having the best managed and cleanest crop of mangold-wurtzel, not less than one acre, £2. — James Robinson, Lane House, Ulverston. Cabbages. 12. — TotlietenantfHrmerasinNo.il, for cabbages, not less than half an acre, £1, — John Eccles, Barton. Cla.ss 2. — Grasses. , la .ob j asiiq ieiit 13. — To the tenant farmer occupying as in No.'l;'frfr having laid down in 1850 the greatest number of acres, in proportion to the size of his farm, and in the best order, and with the most approved mixture of grasses, at his own expense, not less than ten acres, £5. — H. Fisher, Fox-lane Ends, Kirkham. 14. — To the second»best ditto, £3. — G. Banks, Highgale. 15. — To the tenant farmer occupying as in No. 3, for having laid down in 1850 the greatest number of acres, in proportion to the size of his farm, in the best order and with the most approved grasses, at his own expense, not less than five acres, £3. — James Fair, Cabus. 16.— To the second-best ditto, £2.— J. Cartmel, Westby. Class 3. — General Stock and Farm Management. 17. — To the tenant farmer of a dairy farm occupying 150 acres or upwards, for the best general stock of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs, in proportion to the general size and condition of his farm, £10. — J. Nutter, Churchfields, Kirkby Jjonsdale. 18. — To the tenant farmer of a mixed arable farm, occupying not less than 80 acres and not exceeding 150 acres, for the best managed farm and best general stock of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs, in proportion to the size and general condition of his farm, £8. — J. Robinson, Lane House. 19. — To the tenant farmer of a dairy farm, occupying not less than 40 acres and not exceeding 80 acres, for the best general stock of cattle, horses, sheep, and pig», in proportion to the size and general condition of his farm, £5. — E. Baxter, Marsden Hall, Burnley. 20. — Given by C. R. Jacson, Esq., of Barton Lodge, a vice- president of the society, to the tenant farmer of a mixed arable farm, for the most meritorious farm managem ent, with the rota- tion of crops best adapted to the description of soil, together with the best general stock of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs, on the said farm, £10. — G. Banks, Highgale. Class 4. — Roots and Seeds. '• ^'^^'^ ■'"'■' 21. — To the owner of the best thirty buslicls of wtiltB Seed wheat, of the harvest of 1851, £3 ; and red, ditto ; A. Bcgbie, Westby. — Cabbages, potatoes, seeds, &c. : T. Bennett, Ilutton, 25s.; Mrs. Smalley, Ilutton, 26s.; D. Sutherland, Preston, 153.; J. Newton, Cleveley, 21s. Gd.; J.. Hall, Aldcliffe, 5s. j Edward Bridge, Farington, 10s, g^jj ^^ ,3^^^ ^^^ .,■>■ Implements. ' ' ''' ■ The sum of £50 apportioned amongst the following :—!)'. Fallow, Whittington, chain plough, second prize. — Young and Co., Liverpool, rick stand, first prize ; do, anti-metallic churn, first prize, W. J. Garnett, Bleasdale Tower. — Oilcake crusher, first prize, Richmond and Chandler, Manchester. — Chaffcutter, first prize; do. another chaffcutter, second prize, do. — Patent chaffcutter, first prize, do. — Corn crusher, first prize, do. — Linseed mill, first prize, do. — Another corn crusher, first do. ; compound lever cheese press, first prize ; do. patent wheel sack holder, first prize ; do. horse rake, first prize ; do. pipe draining tools, first prize. — Henry Bennett, Liverpool, kibbling mill, first prize ; do. bread flour mill, first prize ; do. mill for crushing oilcake, second prize ; do. turnip cutter, first prize ; do. another turnip cutter, first prize ; do. Sillar's clod- crushing roller, first prize ; do. steaming apparatus, first prize; do. broadcast clover and oat sower, first prize. — James Kirkwood, Tranent, East Jjothian, East Lothian plough, fir«t prize. — R. Middleton and Co., Lancaster, two-horse thrashing machine, first prize. — T. T. Parker, Sutton Grange, Garrett's corn drill, second prize. — Stratton and Hughes, Norwegian harrow, first prize; do. Smith and Co.'s haymaker, first prize. — "Vyilliam Waithma«, Holme Mills, Burton, subsoil plough. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 first prize ; Jo. stitcli harrow, first prize ; do. carrot drill, first prize.' — Edward Weir, Loudon, liquid raauuve pump, first prize; do. draining level, first prize. — Robert Wilson, Warton, Lancaster, two-horse harrow, first prize. — C L. Whalley, Iduicaster, Heusmau's corn and seed drill, first prize. — John Whitehead, Preston, swing plough, third prize. — T. H. Lewis, Preston, Coleman's patent lever drag and scarifier, first prize. — James Corains, South Molton, Devon, subsoil pulverizer, first prize. — Burgess and Key, London, M'Cormick'a Ameri- can reaper, £5. Cl.\S3 6. — Cattle : Short Horns. To the owner of the best bull, calved previous to the Ist January, 1849, £15; T. Birchall, Ribbleton Hall. Second best ditto, £10; J. P. Lord, Standish Hall. To the owner of the best bull, calved since the first January, 1849, and more than twelve months old, £10; C. Towneley, Townely Park. Second best ditto, £5 ; R. Garnctt, Wyreside. — To the owner of the best bull calf, not less than five months old, £3 ; B. Baxter, Marsden Hall. — To the owner of the best cow, in calf or ro-lk, £5; C. Towneley, Towneley Park. — To the owner of the best heifer, not exceeding four years old, £5 ; ditto. — To the owner of the best heifer, not exceeding three years old, £5 ; ditto. — To the ow Jer of the best ye" "ling heifer, £3 ; ditto.— Best heifer calf, £1 IDs. ; T. Birchall, Ribbleton Hall. Class 7. — Cattle ov any Breed. To the owner of the best bull, above one and under four years old, £10 ; B.Baxter, Marsden Ha". Second best ditto, £5 ; W. Mason, Nateby Hall. To the owner of the best bull- calf, not less than five months old, £3; B. Baxter. To the owner of the best dairy cow of any breed, £5; B. Baxter. Second best ditto, £3 ; G. Howarth, Darwen. To the ow ner of the best heifer, not exceeding four years old, £4 ; B.Baxter. Second best ditto, £2 ; T. Binns, Marsden. To the owner of the best heifer, not exceeding three years old, £4 ; J. Hall, AldclilTe. Second best ditto, £2; J. Binns, Marsden. To the ow.ier of the best yearliuj; heifer, £3 ; T. Hobson, Burrow. To the owner of the best heifer calf, £1 lOs. ; Thomas Pedder, Scale Hall, Lancaster. Class 8. — Horses. To the owner of the best stallion for agricultural purposes, £10 ; T. Waite, Preston (Young Clyde). To the owner of the best thorough-bred stallion, £10.; T. Ca'r, Goatgap, near Claphani (Doctor Sangrado). To the owner of the best stallion for road or field, not thorough-bred, £10 ; Paul Cattcral, jun.. Grange, Broughton. To the owner of the best brood mare for agricnUural purposes, £5 ; R. Lambeit, Ribby. To the owner of the best brood mare for road or field, £5 ; B. P. Gregson, Caton. To the owner of the best three-year-old geld'ng or filly for agricultural purposes, £3 ; R.Dickson, Bulk. Ditto fur road or field, £3 ; J. Woodhouse, jun., Lancaster. To the owner of the best two-year-old gelding or filly for agricultural purposes, £2 ; J. Thirlwell, Scotforth. Ditto for road or field, £2 ; J. Butler, Ulverston. To the owner of the best yearling colt or filly for agricultu-al purposes, £1 10s.; Elizabeth Dalton, Thuruham Hall. Ditto for road or field, £1 10s. ; T. Pedder, Scale Hall. To the owner of the best colt or filly for agricultur.'"! purposes, £1 ; R. Lambert, Ribby. Ditto for road or field, £1 ; Thomas Atkinson, Little Eccleston HaU. Class 9.— Sheep. To the owner of the best shearling ram of the I^eicester breed, £3 ; W. Ellison, jun., Sizergh. Ditto of any other age, £2 lOs. ; ditto. Tq the owner of the best shearling ram of the Southdown breed, £3 ; and ditto of any other age, £2 10s. ; Earl of Burlington. To the owner of the best ram of any breed, adapted to a mountain district, £2 10s. ; R. and J. Jackson, Oakerclough. To the owner of the best pen of five Leicester ewes, £2 ; J. Robinson, Lane House. To tlie owner of the best pen of five shearling ewes, of the same breed, £2 ; J. Bromley, Lancaster. To the owner of the best pen of five Southdown ewes, £2 ; and d'tto shearling ewes, £2; Earl of Burlington. To the owner of the best pen of live ewes of any other breed, and best adapted for a mouutriu district, £1 lOs. ; J. Raven, Hawkeshead, Milnthorpe. Class 10. — Pigs. To the owner of the best boar of the large breed, not more than two years old, £3, II. Apsden, Preston; second best ditto, £1 10s., J. Sidgreaves, Preston. To the owner of the best boar of the small breed, £3, W. Ellizon, jun., Sizergh ; second-best ditto, £1 lOs., T. Statter, Stand Hall, Ddkington. To the owner of the best breeding sow of the large breed, £2, J. Sidgreaves, Preston. To the owner of the best breeding sow of the small breed, £2, J. Hodgson, Suddenham-foot, near Halifax ; second best ditto, £1, J. Pritt, Lancaster. Class 11. — Cheese. To the owner of the best dairy of cheese, consisting of not less than ten cwt., £5, Daniel Swan, Leylaud ; second best ditto, £3, John Hall, Aldcliffe. Extra Stock. Premiums offered by Mr. Thomas Carr,for Fouls by Jus Horse Dr. Sawjrado. To the owner of the best colt foal, £1, S. Hartley, Hornby ; second-best ditto, 10s., T. Jackson. To the owner of the best filly foal, £1 ; second best ditto, lOs., T. Jackson. Premium offered by W. T. Rothvell, Esq., for the best Colt or Filly Foal by his Horse Tory Boy, £2. This price was gained by a colt belonging to John Clegg, of Barnacre. Extra Prize. — Thomas Townley Parker, of Sutton Grange, for a sample of flax, 10s. SWEEPSTAKES, Farms. The best mixed arable farm of not less than fifty acres, -a the occupation of owner or tenant, £1 Is., G. Drury, Holker. Cattle. — Shorthorns. Shorthorn bull, above twelve mouths old, £1 Is., T. Birchall. Shorthorn cow, in calf or milk, £1 Is., C. Towuele)'. Shorthorn heifer, under two years old, £1 Is., ditto. Short- horn heifer calf, under one year old, lOs. Cd., C. Connely. Heifer calf, A. Dugdale, Burnley. Horses. Brood mare for agricidtural purposes, 10s. 6d., J. Squire, Greenfield Hall, near Lancaster. Colt or filly for ditto, 10s. Gd., T. Shaw, Ellel. Colt or filly foal for ditto, 5s., J. Squire. Brood mare for road or field, 10s. Cd., T. Atkinson, Little Eccleston Hall. Colt or filly, three years old, for ditto, lOs. 6d., T. Alty, Pilling. Colt or filly, two years old, for ditto, 10s. 6d., J. Butler, Ulverston. Colt or filly, one year old, for ditto, 10s. Cd., T. R. Fleet, Kirkby Lonsdale. Colt or filly foal for ditto, 5s., T. Atkinson. Sheep. — Leicester Breed. Ram of any age above two shear, lOs. Cd., W. Ellison, jun Shearling ram, lOs. Cd., ditto. Lamb ram, 5s., J. Hodgson Yealaud Conyers. Pen of five ewes, 10^. 6d., J. Kobinaon, 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ulverstoii. Feu of five shearlina; ewes, 10s. Gd., W. Ellison, jmi. Ton of five ewe lambs, lOs. 6(1., ditto. SOUTHDOWN BREED. Ram of any age above two shear, 10s. 6d,; and pen of five shearUiig ewes, 10s. 6d.; Earl of Burlington. riGS. Boar of any age or brceJ, above twelve niounis old, 5s. ; T. Statter. Ditto, under twelve months old, 5s. ; II, Apsden. Sow of any age or breed, above twelve months old, 5s. ; R. Winder, Cockerham. Ditto under twelve months old, 5s, ; C. L. Clare, Hindley House, near Liverpool. POULTRY. Ten of speckled Dorking fowls, 5s. ; pen of Rouen diieks^ 5s. ; and pen of pigeons, T. Towuloy Parker. EXTRA SWEEPSTAKES. Three cairy cows, CI Is,; John Pritt, I,nncaster. THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. FROM THE TIMES COMMISSIONER. Driffield, East Riding, Dec, 1S50. Befoi'e quitting the allui-ial districts v/hich lie along the tidal rivers flowing into the Humber, it may be interesting to give a brief sketch of the system of management adopted on one of the best warp-land potato farms. Previous to the potato failure of 1846, the country round Goole (the greater portion of which is embanked land, situated 4 feet under high-water level of spring tides) sent annually to the London market about 30,000 tons of potatoes. Since 1846 the crops have greatly diminished, not in extent, but in yield; yet the price with a short crop is sufficiently tempting, and the farmer is further encouraged to persevere by the opening of the Goole and Pontefract Railwav , which gives him access to the markets of the manu- facturing districts of the Vv'est Riding and Lanca- shire, while he also possesses his former outlet to tlie east by sea to London. Fully one-half the potatoes of the district now find their way to the west. The farms of the Messrs. Wells, of Booth Ferry and Airmyn Pastures, are situated in the township of Airmyn, near the confluence of the rivers Aire and Ouse, and about two miles west- ward of Goole. Togetlier they extend to 800 acres, and are managed alike ; but not being contiguous, we shall confine our description to the Pastures Farm. Fifty years ago this farm was m.uch of it under v/ater, an excellent breeding-place for wild ducks, in pursuit of which several men in the vil- lage earned their principal livelihood ; the rest of it yielded cranberries, and ling, and abundant crops of rushes. It now extends to 400 acres, a'l under crop, with the exception of from 40 to 70 acres, which are still in process of reclamation by warp- ing. The details of that process were described at i some length in a former letter, and it is only neces- , sary here to say that the soil of this farm consists ! of an alluvial deposit, several feet in thickness, gained by admitting the muddy tidal v/aters of the river, and tliat the art is now so well understood that the expert warp farmer, by careful attention to i the ciu'rents, can temper his soil as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted, the heavier par- ticles, which are ])ure sand, arc first deposited ; after that, the second deposit is a mixture of sand and fine mud, which from its friable texture forms the most valuable soil ; while, lastly, the ])urc mud, containing the finest particles of all, falls to the I bottom, and forms a rich, but very tenacious and expensive soil to manage. The great eflbrt of the I warp-farmer, therefore, is to get the second or I mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as ; he can, and to jirevent the last from elfecting a i lodgment at all. This he does by keejjing the i water in constant m.otion, as the last deposit only takes place when the water is suffered to be still, On that portion of this farm which is at present of a stiff tenacious texture, it is Mr. Wells's intention to apply the warp, until he gets the whole surface converted into what is here appropriately termed " gentle '^ land. Warping costs £10 an acre, the outlay ])eing made by the landlord, who receives 5 ])sr cent, from the tenant ; and as three years are spent in the i)roces3 (one year warping, one year drying and consolidating, and one year growing the first crop), the landlord foregoes one and a-half year's rent, and tlie tenant pays the same. The first crop is generally seeds, hoed in by hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse labour. These are pastured one or two years, and the land is then drained with tiles, net less than 3 feet in depth, if ]>racticable ; alter which it is in a proper state for the course of husbandry pursued on the rest of the farm. As soon as all the farm has been made "gentle," or suitable for green crops, one half of it will bear crops for sale, and the other half crops for consumption on the farm. There will then be annually 100 acres of potatoes and 100 acres of wheat for sale, and 200 acres of seeds, turnips, rape, tares, swedes, and beans or peas, to be eaten on the farm by live stock. 1 no system adojited at present is as foUov/s : — 1 . Potatoes, manured with 20 tons of manure. 2. Wheat, sown out with m.ixed seeds. 3. Seeds, part mown for green food and part made into hay. 4. Seeds, toji-dressed with 3 cwt. of guano per acre, part mown and part depastured. 5. Potatoes, manured in the ridge with 7 cwt. of Peruvian guano. 6. Wheat. The variations from this rule are these : — On the strong land, where potatoes cannot be profitably grown, the seeds are })loughed up after being mown the second year, and then, after being ploughed five times, the land is drilled with wheat. When the land gets foul, instead of a bare fallow. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 turnips or tares are so\\ i, which are followed by ])otatoes, two cleanRiniT crojis thus following in suc- ccs.^ion. 15arp fallows are vcr/ seldom resorted to, even on the stronffest land, the jiracticc ])eing to sow winter tr-'es on the wheat stubble, and to clean the land we^' alter they are mown in May and Jime ; or to winter fallow the land, and after rcjieatcdly ploughini>- and cleaning it in spring and the early part of summer, to sow rape upon it, wliich is either eaten on with sheep and ])loughed for wheat, or, after being eaten down, left for a crop next summer, and the land then prepared for wheat. The corn crops arc also sown with the drill, and the i)otato and turnip crops grown on ridges 2S to 30 inches ajiart. Where the land is sufficiently clean, a crop of turnips, the same season, follows the winter tares, and both are succeeded by pota- toes. Conunodious and well-arranged farm buildings have been erected on this farm, in v/hich the whole stock are housed imdcr cover, while there are two large yards, hollowed in the centre for storing the manure, and into which all the stock are turned for a few hours daily to exercise. Besides the work horses, 10 well-bred young horses, 4 of which arc sold annually at the great horse fair at How den, are accommodated with sheds and yards. Between 50 and Co cows and bidlocks are fed on the farm, and a large stock of pigs, which receive barleymealand refuse potatoes steamed together. The barn is fitted with ahorse thrashing miU, and grinding and cutting machines for bruising corn and linseed and chopping straw and hay. At Booth Ferry, Mr. Wells has introduced a 7-hor3e jiower steam engine for these purposes at an additional ccst of £300, which, from its superior efiiciency and economy, he finds on accurate comjjutation to yield him a profit, besides interest, of 20 per cent, on this original difTerence of cost, besides the advantage of being able to thrash any quantity to meet a favourable turn in the market, without at the same time stopping necessary field operations. The cost of thrashing and dressing corn by steam power at Booth Ferry averages 7 id. per quarter ; by horse- power on the other farm, Is. 7^d. per quarter. About 1,000 tons of manure are made on this farm, besides which £200 is expended in guano and other manure, and £200 in linseed-cake for feeding. The introduction of guano has greatly lessened the cost of the potato-crop, the large a]i- plication of 7 cwt. an acre costing only £3 lUs. against at least double that sum formerly paid for town manure, besides the manifest saving of labour in carrying on and spreading over the land 7 cwt. of guano in comparison with 20 to 25 tons of manure. The crops of potatoes formerly grown on these rich warp-lands were very remunerative. Since 184(3 they have been extremely precarious, and it has been necessary to substitute an inferior white potato for the York red (so long a favourite in the London market), on account of the greater liability to disease ; while only six tons an acre of whites are now got where ten tons of reds used formerly to be reckoned an average crop. Tiie township of Airmyn, containing .3,G00 acres, princij^ally of war))lan(l, is the projierly of the Earl of Beverley, whose liberality to his tenants, and considerate treatment of the labouring classes, merit remark. The conditions on which the land is re- warded have been already mentioned, but Lord Beverley liki'wise makes a large expenditure in the erection of improved farm buildings for his tenants, in many cases without remuneration, and supplies tiles for drainage, and posts, and rails, and quicks for fences. The farmers arc allowed to kill the game, and the timber on the estate is confined to plantations, none being kept in the hedgerows at their expense. The labourers who live in the vil- lage have each a house and garden, and a " cow- gate," which comprise one; acre and a-half of the best pasture land in the district, and adjoining the village, and one acre and a-half of mowing-ground for winter food, at the very moderate payment for house and " cowgate" of £7 a-year. The ov .ler, with the clergj man and farmers of the township, have united with the labourers in establishing a " cow club," the funds of which are employed in replacing any of the labourers' cows which may die by accident or disease. The farmers live at mode- rate rents, they f;u-m well, and give employment to all the labourers ; the rate.'j are kept low, and, by the wise and judicious management .sanctioned by the proprietor, a bond of union and good feeling, such as is too seldom met v/ith, extends through all classes in this townshij). The rent of land ranges from 30s, to 35s. an acre, the raiesand taxes 4s. Gd. an acre, and the ca])ital required for its proper cul- tivation is estimated at £11 an acre. A canal and railway, and a navigable river, traverse the town- ship, which afford ready access both, to the manu- facturing districts in the interior and to the London market. Crossing the Ouse at Booth Ferry we enter the East Riding, the least of the three divisions of the county. With a population of about 200,000, it does not number quite a sixth of the population of the West Riding. It is usually descrijjed as divided into three districts: — 1, ilolderness, stretching from the sea-coast to the eastern foot of the Wolds ; 2, the Wolds, occujiying the elevated chalk district in the centre ; and 3, IJowdenshire, and the Vale of York, extending from the west side of the Wolds to the rivers Ouse and Derwent, on the southern and western boundaries of the riding. It is altogether an agricultural district, there being no manufactures of great importance carried on in it. Beginning our narrative v 1th Holderncss, this is a low-lying country, seldom rising higher than 50 feet above sea-level, and many thousand acres of it formed by a deposit from the water of the Humber, and lying some feet below its level at spring tides, from which it is protected by embank- ment. The greater j)ortion of ik\e district, how- ever, is gently undulating land, very favourably situated for drainage, i)art light enough to grow turnips as a regular crop, ])ut the most of it in its undrained state too strong for turnips and still managed with bare fallows. On the liglit kmd the usual four or five course system is jiractiseil. On a well-managed strong land farm of 400 acres we found the course of cropping as follows : — I, fal- low; 2, wheat; 3, seeds; 4, wheat; 5, oats; 6, b( .'s. To prevent the total loss occasioned by a 362 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. dead fallow, winter tares are sown in succession on a portion of the land, which, after these are mown off in June, is then repeatedly ploughed, dragged, and cleaned, and prepared for being sown with wheat in October. Another portion is winter fal- lowed, well wrought and cleansed in spring and summer, and in the middle of August sown with mustard, which is eaten olf by the ewes in the end of October, and then ploughed in for wheat. This is found an admirable preparation for wheat, besides affording useful feed at that season for the ewes. Previous to ploughing up the clover root, 3 cwt. an acre of salt is sown to kill the slug, and, after it is ploughed and v/ell harrowed, the land is completely pulverised and prepared for the drill by the use of a " skim," which cuts the tough edges of the furrow and greatly facilitates the regular action of the drill. The wheat after seeds is followed by oats, which are always a good crop, and these are succeeded by beans, which are more precarious, but form an ex- cellent preparative for the following fallow or fallow crops. A portion of the fallow division is cropped with swedes and white turnips, and these are fol- lowed by April wheat. The fallow division is either manured with farmyard dung or limed at the rate of four tons an acre, at a cost of 32s. to 36s. Lime is foimd an essenti?i requisite in the clay soils of Holderness, and is repeated every 12 or 16 years. Tile-draining, where tried, has been attended with the greatest benefit; yet not above one-third of this farm is drained. The whole stock on the farm at present is eight cows, 20 to 30 wintering-beasts kept in the yard to tread down the straw, 108 ewes, 13 work-horses, and about 12 young horses. On Sunk Island, now containing within its banks 4,700 acres, and connected with the main land by a bridge, the management is usually — fallow, wheat, oats, beans. The wheat-crop is said to yield 5 to 6 quarters ; oats, 8 to 12; and beans, which are un- certain, 2 to 5 quarters an acre. The rent may be 32s., and taxes 2s. to 4s. an acre more. The stock is limited to a few cows for the use of the family and servants, and a lot of wintering cattle to tread down the straw. Labourers' wages are from 10s. 6d. to 12s. a-week. Onthewarpsoil, between Hull and Patrington, rape for seed is sometimes grown on the fallow division, in preparation for which the land is wall manured, and when the crop is removed in the beginning of July the land is ploughed and prepared for wheat. The wheat is followed by drilled beans well horse and hand hoed, after which succeeds a second wheat crop. This district, as at present cultivated, is altogether dependent on the price of corn, the quantity of stock kept on each farm ; forming quite an inconsiderable object com- paratively. It is natural that the farmers should complain of present prices ; yet farms, when they are offered to be let, are still eagerly applied for. Some landlords have made temporary abatements, and some assist their tenants with drainage'; but this necessary improvement, the foundation of all others, is still very far behind, as two-thirds of Holderness are believed to be undrained or very imperfectly drained. Drainage and increased ac- commodation for live stock appear to be the chief defects in the farming of the district; drainage, which will render an additional expenditure of manure a profitable outlay ; and better housing for stock, in which the increasing breadths of green crops may be consumed with economy both of the substance of the animal by shelter and warmth, of labour by convenient arrangements to facilitate the operations of the feeder, and by preventing waste of the roots and other expensive substances employed in feeding. An extension of this system will of course lead to larger home supi)lies of manure, and consequently to heavier crops of all kinds, and there can be little doubt that the farmers of Holderness will be compelled, by a lower range of prices of corn, to direct their attention more than they have hitherto done to increasing their returns from live stock, whether in beef, mutton, and wool, or in cheese and butter. At Patrington the influence of capital and the energy of the manufacturers have converted the quiet of a retired rural town into a scene of bus- tling industry. Some three years ago about 1,000 acres of land here were purchased by Mr. W. Marshall, of Leeds. He instantly began the work of improvement, and nearly the whole estate has already been tile-drained under the superintendence of Mr. Parkes. About 18 months ago the founda- tion of a new and extensive suite of farm-buildings was laid. The whole is now completed, and occu- pied by stock, while the barn is flanked by a goodly row of large wheat-stacks, the produce of the farm. Straight lines of well-made roads lead to the difl^er- ent fields, and give easy access for getting home the crops and taking out the manure. A steam- engine of 8 -horse power occupies the centre of the barn within whose capacious roof are fitted (by Crosskill, of Beverley), in different compartments, every imaginable machine for converting the corn and vegetable produce of the farm into food for the sustenance of man and beast. The threshing- machine threshes and dresses the com, and then delivers it in the granary, where it is either stored or passed to the grinding loft, whence it descends to the lower story, after being ground and dressed, and is there received in sacks and packed aside as flour ready for the baker. From the end of the threshing-machine the straw is carried by an end- less web to another loft, where it is passed through the chaff-cutter, and re-appears below as chaff. Other machines, conveniently arranged, break beans and oats for the horses, oilcake for the cattle, and linseed for mixing with the cut chaff. The root-house is situated at one end of the under story, opening by large doors to the farm road, through which the roots are stored. Elevators, moved by the steam-engine, lift these rapidly up to a turnip-cutter, placed at such a height that the cut turnips fall into a truck, whence they are conveyed on a railroad throughout the whole of the feeding houses. A different compartment contains the cooking apparatus, where, by steam from the boiler, cooked food of various kinds is prepared for the pigs and other farm stock. Underground is a great arched tank, into which all the rain water that falls on the buildings is conveyed by spouts and pipes. From this the engine feeds itself with water, nnd likewise pumps up water to a tank on the high- , f^tpart of the barn, whence it supphes by pipes I all the different divisions of the farm buildings; i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 363 and, in case of fire, could be readily turned to good account. To another tank, in rather too close contiguity to this, the engine iiumps the liquid manure of the farm, which can then, by applying a gutta-percha hose, be disjiersed over the manure- heap. The cattle-houses are situated in parallel lines, at right angles to the barn. Each animal has its comfortable box, 12 feet by 10, with a sup- ply of fresh water in one corner, and a manger for its food in the other. Between every double row of cattle a railway is placed, on which the trucks with their food are easily pushed along. A covered manure-pit receives the dung, when it is carried from the cattle, and protects it from the influence of rain and weather. The mode of cultivation to be hereafter adopted on the farm we did not learn, as, in the absence of the manager, there was no one to communicate such information ; but, as the same spirit and energy w'Al no doubt be manifested in the field, it will soon be necessary to pack the animals more closely together in the cattle-houses, as the green crops of a farm of this extent, if prin- cipally consumed at home, will suffice for three times the number of animals for which accommo- dation is now provided. By converting the boxes into stcdls the room at present occupied by one will suffice for three ; and, as all other arrangements may remain unchanged, the charge for interest will ihen fall lighter on each. At the entrance to the farm Mr. Arthur Marshall, of Leeds, has erected extensive works for the rot- ting and scutching of flax. In these he at present manufactures the crop of 300 acres, but the works are sufficient for 500. The farmers of Holderness, however, do not seem to go very readily into flax culture, and Mr. Marshall is therefore obliged to hire the land, sow the seed, provide people to weed and pull the crop, and the farmer then carts it to the works, where it is stacked till required. For the use of the land, Mr. Marshall pays £8 an acre, the farmer undergoing no risk of failure of crop, and no outlay for seed or labour. The average yield of dressed flax per acre is five hundredweight, at present worth 70s. a hundredweight, besides two quarters of seed, worth 50s. a quarter. The em- ployment given in these works and in the extensive improvements at the farm has raised the rate of wages for men, women, and children, in the parish of Patrington, from 12 to 15 per cent, above that of the surrounding district. York, Dec, 1850. Before quitting the subject of flax culture at Patrington, it may be well to advert to one or two points which are sometimes overlooked by the ad- vocates for its extension in England. An article, of which the wages of labour in the first stage of its manufacture form fully CO per cent, of the whole value, must be mainly de])endent for profit on the scale of wages. The difl'erence of that scale be- tween most parts of Ireland and the East Riding of Yorkshire is not less than 150 percent., and with such a difl'erence the manufacturer in this dis- trict cannot aff'ord to pay the farmer for the raw material so remunerative a price as in Ireland. Other articles of agricultural produce here are of considerably more v;'Hie per acre than in Ireland, and that likewise limits the extension of flax cul- ture, as the price oifered by the manufacturer is not, when compared with the value of other croi)s, sufficiently tempting. Flax is acknowledged by all who have tried it to be an exhausting crop ; yet that of itself is not a good objection to its culture, though it is an excellent reason for a farmer de- clining to grow it unless he can obtain such a price as will not only compensate him for the usual ex- penses of cultivation, but will also enable him to restore to the soil that fertility which the flax crop has removed. So long as the difference of wages gives the Irish manufacturer so great an advantage over the manufacturer in the East Riding, the ex- tension of flax culture here is not likely to l)e very rapid. But there are other counties in England whose soil is equally well ada]ited for the growth of flax, and where the establishment of flax works would be a great boon to the unemployed labour- ers. In many parts of Essex and Suffolk, for instance, where labourers' wages do not exceed Is. 2d. a day, and where the rates are at certain seasons heavily burdened for the support of the unemployed labourer, the soil is well adapted to the culture of flax. And it is very obvious that a lower range of prices for corn will make this crop and others of a similar character more worthy of the farmer's at- tention. The farmer was much better paid with wheat at 60s. a quarter than with flax at £8 an acre ; but if the future price of wheat shall range between 40s. and 50s., he may find it his interest to grow flax. There is another article of culture which has been frequently brought to our notice. The manufacture of beet-root for sugar is so guarded by the Excise laws as to amount to a posi- tive prohibition. The thing has been tried both in England and in Ireland, and with such a degree of success as, if this prohibition were removed, would undoubtedly lead to the establishment of an important agricultural manufacture. On the heavier class of soils in the Eastern counties rents are extremely low ; farmers are discouraged by the low price of corn, and are making nothing by their business ; labourers are irregularly employed and at inadequate wages, and for that reason poor rates are unusually heavy ; and yet on such soils 14 tons of beet to the acre are often grown without the application of a particle of manure. In such circumstances it would be well worth the while of all parties interested to convince themselves of the trustworthiness of the statements which have been put forth on this subject, as they could establish a strong claim on the legislature for permission to manufacture freely the produce of their own fields now that they possess no exclusive privilege against the produce of the foreigner. Leaving Holderness, we entered the Yorkshire Wolds from Driffield, crossing them by North Dal- ton to Pocklington. The general aspect of the count- try is much more picturesque than the Downs of the southern counties or the Wolds of Lincolnshire. It presents a very uniform and gradually inclined plane, joining the low ground on the south east, and rising to its greatest elevation on the north, about 800 feet above sea level, whence it gradually fa^ls southward to an altitude of about 500 feet. 864 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The country is all enclosed, generally by thorn hedges; and jilantations everywhere grouped over its surface add beauty to tlie outline, while they shelter the fields from the cutting blasts of winter and spring. Green jjasture fields are occasionally intermixeil with corn, or more frequently surrouna the spacious and comfortable homestead. Large and numerous corn ricks give an air of warmth and plenty, whilst the turnip fields, crowded v/ith sheep, make up a cheerful and animated picture. The large corn fields, 30 to 70 acres in extent, attest by the evenness of the stubble the correct manner in which the drill man does his part, and the neatly trimmed hedges and well built ricks show that the labourer is exjiert and that the farmer likes to have his work well done. Two horses abreast in the field are yoked to a light wheel plough, with v/hich an acre and a half can be as easily turned over as one acre where the plough without wheels is used. The horses walk at a sv/ift, active step ; and in the ])olo-waggon, in which tv/o are yoked abreast as in a carriage, ai\d the diiver is on his saddle as postilion, the horses trot briskly along. The farms are from 300 to 1,300 acres "^in extent, and the farmers are proljably the most v/ealthy men of their class in the county. For this there are several reasons. In the first place, the extent of their farms required that they should be cultivated by men of capital, and these from their social position were men of education and liberal mind, ahve to the im- provements v/hich recent times have produced, and with a command of capital which enabled them to take advantage of those improvements. Next, though their farms are situated at a considerable altitude, there is something in the calcareous nature of chalk soils in all parts of the country which ren- ders them very " true" in their yield of wheat and barley, and very sound for sheep and cattle. Then, besides corn, the Wold farmer depends mainly on mutton and wool, and these two com- modities command at ])resent a higher relative price than any other article the farmer has to sell. Combined with these advantages, his land is light and easy to work ; it is laid out in large square fields still more to facihtate operation, it requires little or no underdraining or ditching ; and its bulkiest crops are consumed on the ground where they grow, without any expense in hauling home the turnips or carrying back the manure. The size of the farms has also limited the competition for them, though it is somewhat peculiar to Wold farms that among men of capital there is a greater competition for a farm of 800 or 1 ,000 acres than for one of 300. This arises from the fact that there are ])lenty of men of adequate capital to com- pete for such farms, and as the same super- intendence is requisite for a small as a large farm the large one under equal circumstances will be the more profitable. This competition, however, does not lead to exorbitant rents ; for there is an obvious difference between the results of a competition between men, all of whom have capital and look for a fair return from it, and that where a man of capital is pitted against a man of straw, who has everything to gain and nothing to lose by getting possession of a farm. The system of farming pursued on the Yorksh'"e Wolds is of two kinds— one practised Oii thfe'loivk' range of wolds, and the other on the higher leVeV. On the lower wolds the soil is chiefly a light cal- careous loam from 5 to ]0 inches in dei)lh. A farm of 500 acres which we visited, rented at 20s. to 25s. an acre, is managed in the following man- ner :—l, seeds ; 2, wheat ; 3, white turnips or rape ; 4, wheat ; 5, swedes or hybrid turnips ; 0, oats, sown out with seeds. Beginning with seeds, these are eaten with sheep, which from Midsummer till they are sold in Se])tember get i lb. of cake daily. Eight double horse-loads of well-made yard-dcng are then sj)read over the grovmd, which in October is ploughed about four inches deep, and towards the end of the month drilled with red creejiing v/heat. It is of much consequence that the land at this stage should be thoroughly consolidated, and that is efl'ected by using the presser before sowing the wheat, or by rolling the land completely after it is done, by either Cambridge's wheel roller or Crosskill's clodcrusher. If thought requisite, the ground is again rolled in spring, but the cro]) re- ceives no further cultivation till harvested. The stubble is then ploughed six inches in depth in preparation for the next crop. In spring the land is ploughed, harrov/ed, and cleaned, and towards the end of June drilled with, white turnips and rape, along with which the turnips receive 12 bushels of dissolved bones and the rape 8 bushels per acie. The rape between JMichaelmas and Martinmas is eaten on the ground by sheep, which also receive 4 lb. of cake daily. As the crop is consumed the ground is ploughed and sown with red wheat. After that the wliits turnijis form the food of the sheep till February, and on this division white wheat is sown in February. The wheat stubble in preparation for swedes receives a dressing of dung over the greater ])art of it, and 12 bushels of bones in addition when the seed is sown in May. When the white turnips are finished, the sheep last of all are put on the hybrids and swedes, and at this stage they receive I lb. of cake from Candlemas to the end of April. The land as it is ready is ploughed, and sown most frequently with oats, though barley is occasionally taken on a por- tion. One half of this division is sown with the following mixture of seeds: — lOlb. red clover, lOlb. v/hite, 71b. trefoil, and 3lb. rib-grass; the other half receives 14lb. white clover, 14ib. trefoil, and 7lb. rib-grass per acre. Red clover is thus re- peated only once in twelve years. Ryegrass is never sown in either mixture, as it is believed to p'-oduce or encourage twitch. Besides the manure already mentioned, 80 to 100 acres of the wheat on the poorer land are dressed in spring with six quarters of soot or two cwts. of guano per acre. The yield under this management is 28 to 32 bushels of wheat, 48 to G4 bushels of oats, and 32 to 40 bushels of barley per acre. The produce of 200 Leicester ewes ke])t on the farm is annually sold at 16 to 18 months old, averaging 220 in number, and this year fetched from 40s. to 45s. each. Four cov/s are kept for the use of the farm, and 15 beasts are bought in autumn, and fed fat during the winter in the farmyard. They consume on an average half an acre of turnips and 15 cwt. of oilcake each. Some wold farmers sell their sheep THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 36o at 12, to 13 mouths oltl, canyinj^ them on with cuke (luring the whole period. This seusoii 2Sy. each was tlie price of such stock, hesidcs the yield of wool — 71h. each, at present worth is. per Ih. ,, Ou the higher wolda the furuis are on the aver- age larger; the rents range from r2s. to 20s. an acre, and the farming on the whole is neither so good nor so jirofitable to the farmer. The quality of tlic produce is inferior, oats being from 3lb. to 411). a bushel lighter, the sample of barley low- priced, and the extent of wheat in proportion to other ci'0})s more limited, while in quality it is also inferior. The best farmers, from the difficulty of growing red clover, now alternate the four course with the si.x, which begins with 1, oats after seeds ; 2, turnips or rape; 3, wheat; 4, sv/edes and hy- l;rids ; 5, barley ; G, seeds. Manure is applied to the diircrent green crojjs, as has been already de- tailed on the lower wolds, but not in such liberal quantity nor so often rejjeated. Wheat is seldom taken oftcner than once in the course. The yield may be 24 bushels of red wheat, 36 bushels of barley, and 48 bushels of oats per acre. The soil is often from IS inches to 2 feet in depth, and frc- (juently with an admixture of clay. It is thus more expensive to 'work than the light friable loams of the lower wolds. Sixty or seventy years ago, when the wolds began to be cultivated, the system adopted by the farmer was a l)are fallow, followed by two corn crops ; and wlien that had been repeated as long as anything would grow, the land v/as permitted to clothe itseh'' with such natural herbage as it produced, and left for a few years to regain, by "rest," the j)ower of re-producing corn. When turnips and seeds were introduced, this system was in some degree de- ])arted from; and when, in addition to these, bone manure became known, a regular course of hus- bandry developed itself. The four-course then was considered the rule of good farming ; but further experience has shown the impropriety of binding a farmer to any continued course of cropping, how- ever excellent that course may for a certain period have proved. In the wold or Yorkshire, as in the best farmed districts of Norfolk, v.-here indeed the four-course had its origin, all the best farmers have been compelled to change. Red clover refused to grow every fourth year; it was found precarious even every eighth year, and can now be calculated on as a certain crop only once in 12 years. Tur- nips were, therefore, sul)3tituted for a jjortion of the seeds, and these, in their turn, are ibund too frequently repeated on these liglit lands. To ob- viate this new difficulty peas have been introduced, and the turnip-crop is thus repeated at greater intervals. At the same time it has been found that the higher system of farming, now within the reach of the man of capital, has enabled him to grow wheat much more frequently than he for- merly could do with success, while on many of the wold farms he finds that he can not only grow as many bushels per acre of wheat as of barley, but he can repeat the wheat croj) in alternate years with less exhaustion to the land than if he followed his green crops with wheat and barley alternately. In truth, each year's experience is adding to our knowledge and extending the means at our disposal for improving the culture of the soil ; and the landlord who continues to bind his tenant down to a i)rescribcd routine, from which he must not under a iienalty deviate, mtlicts upon him u very serious hijury without any corresponding advan- tage. The third district into which the I?ast Ridmg is divided comprises Ilowdenshire and the vale ol York, extending from the western side of the wolds to the rivers Derwent and Ouse. Tins country embraces a great variety of soil, from the lich warp lands along the Ouse to stiff cold clays and thin moorish sand. In some ])laccs there is much difficulty experienced in obtaining the con- sent of adjoining jjroprietors for the deepening of outfalls; and at no great distance from liowden the drainage of a consideriible tract has to be carried several miles, which could v/ith a better outfall be got rid of by a much shorter course if any means existed by which owners could be com- pelled to agree. The management of v/arp land has been already described. The cold infeitile clays of this district are exceedingly unprofitable. They are let at r2s. to 15s. and 20s. an acre; but being generally undrained, no good can be done in them at any rent. The old system of two crops and a fallov/ continues to be the common course ; but the scanty produce and the low price compel the farmer to restrict his labour, and thus each year adds to the utter hopelessness of his condi- tion. Many farmers who have still something to lose are giving up their farms ; several have already emigrated, and the number who remain on these undrained clays will soon be limited to those who have no means to take a farm elsewhere. To meet the difficulty some landlords are making abate- ments of rent, while a few are beginning in earnest to drain the land. The owners of this description of land have no chance of safety except in the vigorous adoption of this course. Where they have capital of their own, they cannot make a better investment of it than in laying these lands dry, and so giving their tenants some chance of a living for themselves after they have paid then- rents ; and where they have not capital, they should not for a moment delay avaihng themselves of the Government drainage loan, as without drainage in one way or the otlier their estates will soon be valueless. When the land is drained wo should advise that it be gradually laid to grass; under which, by judicious top-dressings of bones and other sul)stances, it may probably yield a better rent and less precarious return to the tenant from dairy produce and stock than it is hereafter likely to do under corn crops. The sand land is of various quality — some of it very fertile and highly remunerative, and much of it barren and waste. It is generally situated at a low level, well sheltered, and capable of great im- provement. Near the rivers and lines of railway, where manure can be readily procured, potatoes are grown on this soil extensively, and more free from disease than on the richer warp lantls, A very great proportion is still undrained, although Vi'here drainage has been judiciously executed it has been particularly beneficial. Enjoying many advantages of position, and being light and inex- 366 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pensive of management, the sand lands of the East Riding exhibit in their cultm-e a less degree of spirit on the part of both owners and occupiers than any other district of the county. To this there are many eminent exceptions, but they still more clearly by contrast prove the rule. Small inconvenient enclosures with much hedgerow timber are serious obstacles to good farming. There is no want of competition for farms in the East Riding, except on cold clay farms and springy undrained moor. Many, however, on these two kinds of soil are being vacated. A desirable farm in any other part of the riding is at once applied for, if from any chance it becomes vacant. Farms are never let by tender, nor are the landlords at all prone to take advantage of competition by raising their rents unduly. The best man is chosen, and the rent named to him. Indeed, so great is the confidence placed by the tenants in some landlords that they trust entirely to the latter to fix the rent. It must not, however, be concluded that farming, as at present conducted, and with present prices, is a remunerative business, merely because good farms still find tenants and old tennnts continue to hold their land. The low prices of stock, seed, and other articles which an entering tenant must buy enable him to invest his ca])ital with advan- tage ; and the very same reasons influence a tenant who at present holds land to continue with it, as he must otherwise part with his stock and crop at a disadvantage. Corn rents are unknown in the district, and leases equally so. Tlie farms are all held from year to year, and there is no wish on the part of the tenants for any other arrangement. In practice this scarcely ever leads to inconvenience, and in many cases farming of the most spirited character may be met with, where the tenant has uo other security than his confidence in his land- lord. A rather notable instance occurred quite recently, which shows that this security cannot always be depended on. By the death of the proprietor of one of the most extensive and valu- able farms in the East Riding the estate changed owners. The tenant, a wealthy man, who had oc- cupied the farm for upwards of half a century, and to whose good management it owed much of its increased value, did not find himself comfortable under the new arrangement, and resigned his farm. It was i:nmediately relet to another farm of capital and experience, at an advanced rent of £350 per annum. The condition of the labourers throughout the East Riding is very satisfactory. They are well employed, fairly ])aid, and comfortably lodged. The following table shows the rate of wages and prices in this district at three different periods : the first being taken from Mr. Leatham's Report in I79i, the second from Mr. Strickland's in ISll, and the third from personal inquiry : — Rate of Wages and Prices in the East Riding for the Years Farm servant w 1th board Day labourer without board, average of year Threshing wheat per quarter Reaping wheat per acre Wheat, per bushel ,...•..- Barley, ditto Oats, ditto Beans, ditto Wool, per lb Beef, ditto Mutton, ditto ■ Butter, ditto Milk, per quart » • 1794. ISU, £10 to £13 £20 to £26 2s. 3s. 3d. 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. 5s. 6d. to 7s. 6s. to Ss. 10s. to lis. 6d. 5s. 9d. 9s. 6d. 4s. l^d. 3s. 9d. 2s. 6d. 2s. 9d. 4s. 6d. 4s. 9d. — lOd. 3jd. 7^d. 4d. 8d. Is. Is. 3d. 2d. 1850. £14 to £l6 2s. , J horse . hand steam power 3s.6d. ls.74d.74d. 7s. 6d. 5s. to 5s. 6d. 3s. 3d. 2s. 3s. 9d. to 4s. Is. 4|d. 4id. to 5d. Is. 2d. It does not appear that the high prices of 1811 compensated the farmer for the increased cost of production. Mr. Strickland says in 1811 — " If means are not adopted to relieve the far- mers, either by lowering their taxes and the prices of labour, or by increasing the value of their pro- duce, by destroying monopolies and giving them an open market, they must shortly be found unabl« to answer the demands made upon them. The advance in the profits of agriculture has by no means kept pace with the advance in its expenses, and farmers had a better prospect of realizing a competence 17 years ago than they have at present." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. :J67 TUXFORD'S STRAW SHAKER FOR THRASHING MACHINES. Within the last fortnight an improved straw- shaker, made and i)atented by Messrs. Tuxford AND Sons, of Boston, Lincolnshire, has been added to the agricultural implements in the Great Exhibition. The novelty of this shaker lies in its great simplicity, and tlie smallness of power requi- site for its efficient working. Such of our readers as are acquainted with the ordinary straw shakers will recollect that they consist either of sets of rails or sets of perforated or webbed wired sur- faces, forming when at rest a sort of irregular surfaced table, and having, when in motion, a sepa- rate action of the parts, every other rail or surface acting at one time in one direction, and the inter- mediate rails or surfaces acting at the same time in a contrary direction, thus producing in the shaker a kind of alternating kick or toss up of the straw as it progresses onwards. Practically, these kinds of straw shakers have many moving parts and crank motions in them, and they also cut and break, or tear the straw to pieces between the rails or separated surfaces very much. The patented straw shaker of the Messrs. Tuxford consists of a j)lat- form or table of wire web acting within a frame, and being of the same width as the exit end of a thrashing machine. The platform or table being in one piece requires but one crank motion for work- ing it, and a rocking bar with counter- weights upon it for returning the throw of the crank. Thus it will be perceived that the 4 centres or bearings. viz., the 2 which carry the crank shaft, and the 2 which carry the rocking bar, take the whole strain of the shaker ; and as these have only to carry a light platform of wire web, with its load of straw upon it, the weight to be driven is comparatively nothing, and the wear and tear of the machine must be very trifling. The power of dri\^ing it is so small, that the attendant, and others, with one hand put the machine into full motion, and demon- strated its shaking qualities. We think it a great pity that one of these e)i- ceedingly simple and efficient straw shakers was not exhibited at the (rial of agricultural implements on the opening of the Exhibition, and the merits of the invention made more generally known than can now be the case, through its late introduction into the Crystal Palace. Such of our agricultural readers as yet intend to visit the Great Exhiliition will find the straw shaker alluded to in Class 0, Stand No. 2/1, and close to the Patent Housed Steam Engines exhibited by the same firm. AGRICULTURAL STEAM ENGINES. The selection by the Commissioners of the French Government at the Great Exhibition of the most approved portable steam engine for agri- cultural purposes has fallen upon the Prize Engine of Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, of Boston, Lin- colnshire. One of their engines is ordered for the Museum in Paris, CALENDAR OF HOUTICULTURE— OCTOBER. Retrospect. — The meteorological table will convey a tolerably correct idea of the weather since our last report. The extraordinary altitude of the barometer to this 10th day of September will com- mand attention, and I mention that date in order to introduce the subject of Potatoes. Disease and partial discoloration of the foliage have been on the increase, but we have observed no decomposi- tion of the tubers, the quality of which is altogether superior, and the quantity enormous. A few re- marks may not be irrelevant. The malady (and it was complete as it was sudden) first manifested it- self late in July of 1845. Its progress was unin- terrupted till all the haulm of nearly every plot was destroyed, about the middle of October. As it advanced, the odour of the infected herbage be- came pecuharly offensive. Not a hint of that has lately been present. Then the potatoes putrefied in the ground, and so they did in 1846. In 1847 I watched and reported the amelioration, which progressed in 1848, notwithstanding the wetness of that summer. It advanced with still greater miti- gation of all the bad symptoms in 1849 and 1850, the stock increasing and improving. Of the pre- sent year's winter crop I will not now say more, but shall feel myself under covenant to notice and report faithfully every fact. Operations in the Vegetable Garden. First, the earliest attention is required to bring every part of these grounds into that condition of trim neatness which constitutes the sober beauty of a winter garden ; and this object ought not to be 2 B 3(jS THE FAKiMER'S MAGAZIxNE, lost sight of. The first operation bhoiild be the destruction of the September weeds of every kind, and their removal to manure pits or compost heaps. Then follow the timely preparation of vacant plots by trenching, with manure at bottom ; double dig- ging, ridging of stiffer land, and common sijit-deep digging, with the incorporation of decayed manure as indicated by projected croppings. Thorough draining below the subsoil, so as to obviate the possible calamity (mentioned more than once in former articles) of land springs rising, and utterly swamping the roots of trees, and filling sunken pits, is the ground-work of safe and healthy gar- dening. It has been weU stated that " if a sub- soil be clay, burning may be resorted to with ex- cellent effect." Simple combustion reduces the texture to the condition of burnt brick, rendering it friable and sandy ; it also adds oxygen to the iron of the clay, thus forming the red peroxide. But other great advantages are obtained ; for the wood employed — some of which ought to be charred, or partially consumed — imparts a quantity of carbon to the earth. The destruction of insect larvae is also an inevitable result. Hoeing in dry v.eather, when tlie earth will move without clodding, among and round late planted broccoli, cabbage, and all the varieties of the Brassica family, will advance their growth, disturb and kill weeds, and add to the neatness of the plots, &c. "Winter or broad-leaved Spinach should be kept very clean, and so thinned out as to bring the plants to regular distances. In doing this it fre- quently happens that a number of supernumerary plants, and, in some instances, the large leaves of strong ones, will be sufficient to furnish a dish for the table. [I gathered an ample supply, several days since, from the first sowing of August ; the often-urged i)reparation of the plot, by watering before sowing the seed, having been observed.) Endive. — Tie up some strong plants, and cover each with a sea-kale pot, or a box, to blanch it. Repeat this towards the close, for succession. Transplant hardy Lettuces about the end of the second week, either into beds of light earth, or on raised ridges to carry oft' excessive moisture. Dry soil is of great consequence, and obviates the eflect of cold more efFectually than a warmer situation if the soil become soaked with rain. A good frame, however, is to be preferred for lettuces and all winter salads. The lettuce seed-bed should be hoedj the weeds will thereby be destroyed, and the ground rendered more dry by surface evaporation. Cabbage and colworts ("coUards" vulgo).— About the middle of the month some of the strong ones go into their places, where they finally remain. Let the spot be open, and fully exposed to the sun. Plant in rows, twelve or more inches apart, and the cabbages, &c., six inches asunder, to be cut alter- nately as they came into proper condition. Near the end of the month Caulifiowers, which went into a frame last month, should remain un- covered at all times, unless the weather be wet, and the nights frosty : in the former case let the glasses be only tilted pretty well at the back to admit air, but frost must be excluded by closed sashes, andeven by straw hurdles over them, if it be very keen. Trans- plant some of the strongest into a warm and rich quarter of the garden, under hand-glasses, four feet apart. Aromatic herbs. — Sage, marjoram, savory, lemon- thyme, baum mint, &c., are to have their final dressing after cutting down all the decaying stems, either to the head of the plant or to the ground, according to the habit of each. After clearing away the litter and all the weeds, a dressing of rotten dung forked-in would invigorate the future growth of these valuable plants. Slips of each may still be planted, or rather rooted plants, to raise a fresh supply. The same may be done with tarragon, burnet, chamomile, pennyroyal, sorrel, and any other herb that thus extends itself. Hardy Fruit Department. To Preserve Apples and Pears.— A good fruit room is a prime essential. This should be so constructed as entirely to prevent the ingress of frost ; first, by thick walls, either of brick or stone, or, if of wood, by a casing to admit of an ample lining of some non-conducting material, such as dry sawdust or fern perfectly dried, and the like; secondly, by a thick straw thatch at the top. Pro- vision for a supply of dry air must also be made, and thus : if there be shelves within so prepared as to keep the several varieties apart, security will be obtained, and confusion obviated. Pears, however, of the best keeping varieties, will require more at- mospheric warmth than apples. Having thus generalised, I borrow the following particulars from George Lindley's Orchard and Kitchen Garden : — " The valuable autumnal varieties of apples may be continued in season much longer than the usual time by gathering one-third of the crop a fortnight or three weeks before it be ripe ; one-third a week or ten days afterwards ; and the remaining third when it is ripe ; the last gathering in this case to be the first brought to table. " In order to keep some of the more valuable apples in a perfect state to a late period of the season, they should hang on the trees till they can be readily detached by just raising the stalk. " Fine dry fern is by far the best thing on which to lay apples, and to cover them also ; it is perfectly sweet, and not liable to contract any unpleasant smell. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 067 TUXFORD'S STRAW SHAKER FOR THRASHING MACHINES. Within the last fortnight an improved straw- shaker, made and patented by Messrs. Tuxford AND Sons, of Boston, Lincolnshire, has been added to the agricultural implements in the Great Exhibition. The novelty of this shaker lies in its great simplicity, and the smallness of power requi- site for its efficient working. Such of our readers as are acquainted with the ordinary straw shakers will recollect that they consist either of sets of rails or sets of perforated or webbed wred sur- faces, forming when at rest a sort of irregular surfaced table, and having, when in motion, a sepa- rate action of the parts, every other rail or surface acting at one time in one direction, and the inter- mediate rails or surfaces acting at the same time in a contrary direction, thus producing in the shaker a kind of alternating kick or toss up of the straw as it progresses onwards. Practically, these kinds of straw shakers have many moving parts and crank motions in them, and they also cut and break, or tear the straw to pieces between the rails or separated surfaces very much. The patented straw shaker of the Messrs. Tuxford consists of a plat- form or table of wire web acting within a frame, and being of the same width as the exit end of a thrashing machine. The platform or table being in one piece requires but one crank motion for work- ing it, and a rocking bar with counter-weights upon it for returning the throw of the crank. Thus it will be perceived that the 4 centres or bearings, viz., the 2 which carry the crank shaft, and the 2 which carry the rocking bar, take the whole strain of the shaker ; and as these have only to carry a light platform of wire web, with its load of straw upon it, the weight to be driven is comparatively nothing, and the wear and tear of the machine must be very trifling. The power of driving it is so small, that the attendant, and others, with one hand put the machine into full motion, and demon- strated its shaking qualities. We think it a great pity that one of these ex- ceedingly simple and efficient straw shakers was not exhibited at the trial of agricultural implements on the opening of the Exhibition, and the merits of the invention made more generally known than can now be the case, through its late introduction into the Crystal Palace. Such of our agricultural readers as yet intend to visit the Great Exhibition will find the straw shaker alluded to in Class 9, Stand No. 271, and close to the Patent Housed Steam Engines exhibited by the same firm. AGRICULTURAL STEAM ENGINES. The selection by the Commissioners of the French Government at the Great Exhibition of the most approved portable steam engine for agri- cultural purposes has fallen upon the Prize Engine of Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, of Boston, Lin- colnshire. One of their engines is ordered for the Museum in Paris. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE— OCTOBER. Retrospect. — The meteorological table will convey a tolerably correct idea of the weather since our last report. The extraordinary altitude of the barometer to this 10th day of September will com- mand attention, and I mention that date in order to introduce the subject of Potatoes, Disease and partial discoloration of the foliage have been on the increase, but we have observed no decomposi- tion of the tubers, the quality of which is altogether superior, and the quantity enormous. A few re- marks may not be irrelevant. The malady (and it was complete as it was sudden) first manifested it- self late in July of 1845. Its progress was unin- terrupted till all the haulm of nearly every plot was destroyed, about the middle of October. As it advanced, the odour of the infected herbage be- came peculiarly oftensive. Not a hint of that has lately been present. Then the potatoes putrefied in the ground, and so they did in 1846. In 1847 I watched and reported the amelioration, which progressed in 1848, notwithstanding the wetness of that summer. It advanced with still greater miti- gation of all the bad symptoms in 1849 and 1850, the stock increasing and improving. Of the pre- sent year's winter crop I will not now say more, but shall feel myself under covenant to notice and report faithfully every fact. Operations in the Vegetable Garden. First, the earliest attention is required to bring every part of these grounds into that condition of trim neatness which constitutes the sober beauty of a winter garden ] and this object ought not to be 2 B 368 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. lost sight of. The liist operation should be the destruction of the September weeds of every kind, and their removal to manure pits or compost heaps. Then follow the timely preparation of vacant plots by trenching, with manure at bottom ; double dig- ging, ridging of stifter land, and common spit-deep digging, ^vith the incorporation of decayed manure as indicated by projected croppings. Thorough draining below the subsoil, so as to obviate the possible calamity (mentioned more than once in former articles) of land springs rising, and utterly swamping the roots of trees, and filling sunken pits, is the ground-work of safe and healthy gar- dening. It has been well stated that " if a sub- soil be clay, burning may be resorted to with ex- cellent effect." Simple combustion reduces the texture to the condition of burnt brick, rendering it friable and sandy ; it also adds oxygen to the iron of the clay, thus forming the red peroxide. But other great advantages are obtained ; for the wood employed — some of which ought to he charred, or partially consumed — imparts a quantity of carbon to the earth. The destruction of insect larvee is also an inevitable result. Hoeing in dry weather, when the earth will move without clodding, among and round late planted broccoli, caljbage, and all the varieties of the Brasslca family, will advance their growth, disturb and kill weeds, and add to the neatness of the plots, &c. Winter or broad-leaved Spinach should be kept very clean, and so thinned out as to bring the plants to regular distances. In doing this it fre- quently happens that a number of supernumerary plants, and, in some instances, the large leaves of strong ones, will be suflicient to furnish a dish for the table. (I gathered an ample supplj', several days since, from the first sowing of August ; the often-urged preparation of the plot, by watering before sowing the seed, having been observed.) Endive. — Tie up some strong plants, and cover each with a sea-kale pot, or a box, to blanch it. Repeat this towards the close, for succession. Transplant hardy Lettuces about the end of the second week, either into beds of light earth, or on raised ridges to carry oft' excessive moisture. Dry soil is of great consequence, and obviates the eftect of cold more eftectually than a warmer situation if the soil become soaked with rain. A good frame, however, is to be preferred for lettuces and aU winter salads. The lettuce seed-bed should be hoed ; the weeds will thereby be destroyed, and the ground rendered more dry by surface evaporation. Cabbage and colworts ("coUards" vulgo).— About the middle of the month some of the strong ones go into their places, where they finally remain. Let the spot be open, and fully exposed to the sun. Plant in rows, twelve or more inches apart, and the cabbages, &c,, six inches asunder, to he cut alter- nately as they came into proper condition. Near the end of the month Cauliflowera, which went into a frame last month, should remain un- covered at all times, unless the weather be wet, and the nights frosty : in the former case let the glasses be only tilted pretty well at the back to admit air, but frost must be excluded by closed sashes, and even by straw hurdles over them, if it be very keen. Trans- plant some of the strongest into a warm and rich quarter of the garden, under hand-glasses, four feet apart. Aromatic herbs. — Sage, marjoram, savory, lemon- thyme, baum mint, &c., are to have their final dressing after cutting down all the decaying stems, either to the head of the plant or to the ground, according to the habit of each. After clearing away the litter and all the weeds, a dressing of rotten dung forked-in would invigorate the future growth of these valuable plants. Slips of each may still be planted, or rather rooted plants, to raise a fresh supply. The same may he done with tarragon, burnet, chamomile, pennyroyal, sorrel, and any other herb that thus extends itself. Hardy Fruit Department. To Preserve Apples and Pears. — A good fruit room is a prime essential. This should be so constructed as entirely to prevent the ingress of frost ; first, by thick walls, either of brick or stone, or, if of wood, by a casing to admit of an ample lining of some non-conducting material, such aa dry sawdust or fern perfectly dried, and the like; secondly, by a thick straw thatch at the top. Pro- vision for a supply of dry air must also be made, and thus : if there be shelves within so prepared as to keep the several varieties apart, security will be obtained, and confusion obviated. Pears, however, of the best keeping varieties, will require more at- mospheric warmth than apples. Having thus generalised, I borrow the following particulars from George Lindley's Orchard and Kitchen Garden : — ■ " The valuable autumnal varieties of apples may be continued in season much longer than the usual time by gathering one-third of the crop a fortnight or three weeks before it be ripe ; one-third a week or ten days afterwards ; and the remaining third when it is ripe ; the last gathering in this case to be the first brought to table. " In order to keep some of the more valuable apples in a perfect state to a late period of the season, they should hang on the trees till they can be readily detached by just raising the stalk. " Fine dry fern is by far the best thing on which to lay apples, and to cover them also ; it is perfectly sweet, and not liable to contract any unpleasant smell. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. mo "Imperatrice, CiitheriiR', and Coe's Goldeii-ilrop plmns may be auspendcd by their stalka from twine stretched near and within tlic glass of a south win- dow for a few weeks, when they will continue to improve in Havour." Lindley adds — " If Coe's plums so treated be wrapped in soft white (tissuej paper, and put in boxes, in a dry room, they may be kept perfectly well for twelve months, when they become an ex- cellent sweetmeat." I have not [)roved this by exjierience, but have been much disajjpointed in any endeavour to keep the (iiolden-drop when borne on a \ery fine plant which had a north-west aspect. A south or south-east wall should therefore be preferred, on which the fruit, being early matured by sun, might then be guarded from v/asps and flies by bunting or other screens of open transparent fabric, till the autumn becomes damp and cold, I think that full maturity, on the trees, is a prime condition. Planting. — If due preparation of the spot has been made, any tree and shrub may be planted during the last ten days, and as many more in November. If not — (as is wisely observed by a writer, name unknown) — " Do not plant because the present time is recommended, as upon the pro- per preparation of the soil, more })articularly as regards draining, the well-doing of the trees chiefly depends. In planting, keep the collar of the stem at the surface of the soil as nearly as possible. Spread the roots carefully, put fine soil over them, and neither lift them up and down, nor tread heavily upon them. The rains of autumn will settle the soil about the roots better than could be done by any other means." Here we perceive that dry weather and a fine pulverizable condition of earth are required. While admitting the justness of the remarks, we must insist upon the earliest possible planting of every tree or shrub, and of evergreens above all, after removal. Vines. — Directly after the final gathering of the fruit, prune the trees, and make a ])roper regula- tion for the winter, and thus obviate the risk of bleeding, which is almost certain to occur if pruning be deferred till the early months of the year. It is also probable that the late Mr. Salisbury was right when he taught us that autumnal pruning induced an earlier growth in the following spring. Ornamental Departments. Pay attention to the lawns, gravel-walks, and shrubbery; bearing in mind (as has been justly remarked) that the polished turf of the lawn con- stitutes one of the principal charms of the English garden. Therefore, if the grass be defective — abounding with daisies, dandelions, &c.— or its turf is uneven, take it up ; make the ground perfectly level before the turf (if good ) be re-laid, or fresh introduced. Box-edgings may be made good if there be a patch here and there, and new box jjlanted early in the month ; but the season is late for a proper regulation. Gravel-walks ought, if in any degree foul with weeds (a great fault, indicative of neglect), to be pecked up, turned, and rolled before wet weather is established : it would be a pity to introduce much fresh gravel at this season. Bulbs for early flowering should soon be planted, when some fine clean sand (not loamy) may be placed in every one of the spaces occupied by a bulb. Remove at once to the pit, or greenhouse, all the plants intended to be preserved during the winter. Chrysanthemums constitute the choicest orna- ments o/ the autumn ; and now promise, if the weather be propitious, to bloom beautifully. In the open beds they ought to be carefully supported, or judiciously trained if near a wall or fence. Pot- ted plants should be shifted directly, if they re- quire more room : those standing with a single stem, branching to moderately open head, seem to be most suitable to the hall or sitting-room. Heaps of compost, manure, leaves, and heath- soil may be turned over, to prepare them for future operations : grass-turves judiciously charred pro- duce excellent soils, free from the larvce of insects by the action of the fire. Final Retrospect. The potatoes have rapidly deteriorated within the last ten days — why, no one can determine. Even the tubers of those now under diggings evince a rapid tendency to decay. One fact only is proved beyond doubt — that dry, sunny weather, and un- wonted high regular temperature, have in no de- gree prevented the disease. Some persons aflfect to think that (what they call) a " muggy" air on or about the 13th, did bring on or establish it on the tuber. But such conjectures lead to nothing. One of our largest dealers, while conversing with me, and moving the skin on a diseased spot, in order to exhibit its inward progress, said — " Nothing could be better or finer than all the earlier diggings. People want to obtain two crops, and therefore plant in May and June. If they would be content to plant in February, the very best sorts — even Regents — would be more safe." A word to the wise ! Experience has borne out these facts : and all I would theoretically suggest is this— If any fungus be the enemy, it, like other plants, has its peculiar season. If that be active about mid July to October, an early planted potato may arrive at maturity before the enemy is in a condition to assail it, and poison its vital principle. Sept. 20. J. Towers. 2 B 2 370 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OPERATIONS FOR OCTOBER. Flower Garden. — Our readers will hardly need re- mindiiisf that the cares and anxieties of the winter sea- son will soon be upon ns ; every exertion should there- fore be made to get all bedding and stove plants which are required to pass through their chilly ordeal into that state of rest which seems so necessary to their well-doing. Further propagation had, therefore, better be left until early in spring ; and int)rder that there may be a good supply of cuttings at that season, take up some of the best plants from the beds, and pot them immediately ; they should be nursed a little, and not much cut back, and put into heat early. Take up and pot as many of your Scarlet Geraniums as you can find room to store, and cut them tolerably close in ; they are infinitely preferable to cutting-plants, as they flower eai'lier and much more abundantly, and fill up the beds sooner. Plants from cuttings generally grow very vigorous the first year, and consequently flower less ; for border purposes a great number may be lifted and plunged in soil or sand, under the stage of a greenhouse or pit, They come out unsightly at first, but soon recover and make a fine show. Excel- lent Heliotropes for bedding purposes may be secured by lifting and close cutting the plants in the beds ; put them in light soil, and give them a gentle bottom-heat for a short time, gradually hardening off as soon as the rooting process begins. There is no comparison between the flowering of such plants when bedded out and that of young cuttings ; and they are worth a little extra trouble to those who value a compact habit of growth and abund- ance of flower. The pits and frames are of course in a good condition for the reception of bedding and stove plants of all sorts ; and prudence will suggest the ex- pediency of placing all such plants out of danger from early frosts ; yet, in the case of well-rooted plants, con- tinue to give a free exposure on every favourable oppor- tunity. Take care to secure the roots of Cannas and the Marvel of Peru in good time. The roots of Dahlias should be left in the ground as long as possible ; and where it is not compulsory, the first week in next month is early enough to lift them. Bulbous Pla-nts.— When the beds are cleared of sum- mer plants a portion of them should be put into im- mediate preparation for the reception of the spring, flowering bulbs, such as Turban Ranunculus, Hyacinths, Narcissus, Scilla, Crocus, Anemone, Aconite, &c., as they should be put in towards the latter end of the month or very early in the next. Other beds may be filled at once with plants fromjhe reserve garden, such as Viola arborea, Iberis arabis, Alyssum, Polyanthus, Hepatica. Fill some of the larger beds with small evergreens in pots, and intersperse a few of the early flowering things amongst them. Croci of various colours are best used as edgings. The present is a good time to get in a good stock of Cape bulbs on a well-drained warm border ; plant them from four to six inches deep. Beds or patches of Lilium lancifolium should have about four inches of half-decayed leaves laid on them. Rose Garden. — Cuttings of Chinese, Noisette, and Bourbon Roses, put in thickly in store pots, and kept in a cold pit through the winter, will come in very useful next season. Those already well-rooted should be potted, and placed in a situation where they can be rea- dily protected. Where new plantations are to be made, the preparation of the beds or borders should be com- menced immediately, as they may be planted as soon as the leaves begin to fall, and the rooting process will commence at once, thus giving increased vigour for next season's bloom. On the same principle, old worn-out feeds should be lifted, the ground very much enriched, aud trenched and re-planted, rejecting very old scrubby plants. Where manure is plentiful, established beds may have a good dressing with great advantage. Florists' Flowers. — Beds of Pinks and Pansies should be surface stirred occasionally, and the latter dressed with soot and ashes. The span layers of Carnations and Picotees may be planted in a bed in a sheltered place ; but the main stock will of course be kept in pots, and should now be snugly laid up in their winter quarters ; give plenty of air, but endeavour to exclude rain and dampness. Herlaceous Garden. — Choice and desirable sorts, which have done flowering, may be divided now with great advantage. If the Double Rockets are not yet divided and replanted, let no time be lost. I very sel- dom see the Silene compacta : it is really a very de- sirable plant, and grows readily from seed, as well as from slips, in the manner of the Sweet William. This has been a fine season for seed in this department, and I have no doubt will be taken advantage of by all lovers of hardy herbaceous plants. Shrubberies. — Lose no time in getting forward with planting, lifting, and re-arranging shrubs and trees. Take care also to secure such as are likely to suffer from winds. Indeed, in many places where trees are much exposed to prevailing winds, this securing is_ quite half the battle, and should be thoroughly performed ; for no tree which is swayed from side to side can ever fix its roots in the earth securely ; besides which, a hole is formed all round the stem, and water lodges therein, frequently causing the roots to decay. Such cases I have seen, and heard many expressions of surprise that, after so much trouble in planting, there should be so many gaps in spring. J. W. C. Stove. Fires must now be kept up here, not so much to in- crease the temperature as to dry up the atmosphere at least once in every twenty-four hours, as very few plants do well in an atmosphere always saturated ; and also to admit of a little ventilation once a day, if the weather be at all favourable. The winter-flowering plants that have been growing in cool houses during the summer will work into the places of Gesneraceous plants now going to rest for the winter. Plants that have been plunged in bottom heat for the summer and autumn, for the purpose of getting a fine growth, should now be taken up and placed on inverted pots, and allowed gra- dually to go to rest for the winter, as growth made after this time of the year is never well matured, and spoils the plant for growing the next spring. Shading should now be discontinued over the general collection ; if a few individuals still require it, get them together and have a canvas sash or two, just to slide over them in case of very hot sunshine. Greenhouse. The last of the plants belonging to this department should be placed in their winter quarters, but see that they have plenty of room. Select from the pot ground all such as will best suit the species for which you intend them, and, when the house is full, reject all others, and break them up at once, rather than crowd those that are really useful. This is advice that every gardener knows is difiicult, but it is the regular practice of all good plant growers. Young plants that have filled their pots with roots, may still have a small shift rather than that they should be cramped all the winter. Early Geraniums that were shaken out, and put in small pots a month ago, will now take a shift. Now they will just be filled with roots again, and ready for the forcing-house by Christmas. Cinerarias may now also have a shift, if the state of their roots warrant such proceedings. The bulk then will do best in a cold pit for the winter ; but a few of the earlier and stronger plants placed iu a light part of the green- house will flower earlier. THE FAEiMER'S MAGAZINE. aop " Imperatncc, Catherine, and Clue's (joldcn-drop l)lumy may be Kuspendcd by their stalks from twine stretched near and within the glass of a south win- dow for a few weeks, when they will continue to improve in liavour." Lindley adds — '' If (Joe's plums so treated be wrnpped in soft white (tisiue) paper, and put in boxes, in a dry room, they may be kept perfectly well for twelve months, when they become an ex- cellent sweetmeat." I have not proved this by experience, but have been much disappointed in any endeavour to keep the (jolden-drop when borne on a very fine plant which had a north-west aspect. A south or south-east wall should therefore be pi'eferred, on which the fruit, being early matured by sun, might then be guarded from wasps and flies by bunting or other screens of open transparent fabric, till the autumn becomes damp and cold. I think that full maturity, on the trees, is a prime condition. Planting. — If due preparation of the spot has been made, any tree and shrub may be planted during the last ten days, and as many more in November. If not — (as is wisely observed by a writer, name unknown) — " Do not plant because the present time is recommended, as upon the pro- per preparation of the soil, more particularly as regards draining, the well-doing of the trees chiefly depends. In j)lanting, keep the collar of the stem at the surface of the soil as nearly as possible. Spread the roots carefully, \wX fine soil over them, and neither lift them up and down, nor tread heavily upon them. The rains of autumn will settle the soil about the roots better than could be done by any other means." Here we perceive that dry v/eather and a fine pulverizable condition of earth are required. While admitting the justness of the remarks, we must insist upon the earliest possible planting of every tree or shrub, and of evergreens above all, after removal. Vines. — Directly after the final gathering of the fruit, prune the trees, and make a proper regula- tion for the winter, and thus obviate the risk of bleeding, which is almost certain to occur if pruning be deferred till the early months of the year. It is also probable that the late Mr. Salisbury was right when he taught us that autumnal pruning induced an earlier growth in the following spring. Ornamental Departments. Pay attention to the lawns, gravel-walks, and shrubbery ; bearing in mind ^^as has been justly remarked) that the polished turf of the lawn con- stitutes one of the principal charms of the English garden. Therefore, if the grass be defective — abounding with daisies, dandelions, &c.— orits turf is uneven, take it up ; make the ground perfectly level before the turf (if good) be re-laid, or fresh introduced. Box-edgings may be made good if there be a patch here and there, and new box planted early in the month ; but the season is late for a j)roper regulation. Gravel-walks ought, if in any degree foul with weeds (a great fault, indicative of neglect), to be pecked up, turned, and rolled before wet weather is established : it would be a pity to introduce much fresh gravel at this season. Bulbs for early flowering should soon be planted, when some fine clean sand (not loamy) may be placed in every one of the spaces occupied by u bulb. Remove at once to the pit, or greenhouse, all the plants intended to be preserved during the winter. Clirysanthemums constitute the choicest orna- ments o/ the autumn ; and now promise, if the weather be propitious, to bloom beautifully. In the open beds they ought to be carefully supported, or judiciously trained if near a wall or fence. Pot- ted plants should be shifted directly, if they re- quire more room : those standing with a single stem, branching to moderately open head, seem to be most suitable to the hall or sitting-room. Heaps of compost, manure, leaves, and heath- soil may be turned over, to prepare them for future operations : grass-turves judiciously charred pro- duce excellent soils, free from the larvas of insects by the action of the fire. Final Retrospect. The potatoes have rapidly deteriorated within the last ten days — why, no one can determine. Even the tubers of those now under diggings evince a rapid tendency to decay. One fact only is proved beyond doubt—that dry, sunny weather, and un- wonted high regular temperature, have in no de- gree prevented the disease. Some persons aflfect to think that (what they call) a " muggy" air on or about the 13th, did bring on or establish it on the tuber. But such conjectures lead to nothing. One of our largest dealers, while conversing with me, and moving the skin on a diseased spot, in order to exhibit its inwr.rd progress, said— " Nothing could be better or finer than all the earlier diggings. People want to obtain two crops, and therefore plant in May and June. If they would be content to plant in February, the very best sorts— even Regents — would be more safe." A word to the wise ! Experience has borne out these facts : and all I would theoretically suggest is this — If any fungus be the enemy, it, like other plants, has its peculiar season. If that be active about mid July to October, an early planted potato may arrive at maturity before the enemy is in a condition to assail it, and poison its vital principle. Sept. 20. J. Towers. •2 B 2 370 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OPERATIONS FOR OCTOBER. Flower Garden. — Our readers will hardly need re- mindini? that the cares and anxieties of the winter sea- son will soon be upon us ; every exertion should there- fore be made to get all bedding and stove plants which are required to pass through their chilly ordeal into that state of rest which seems so necessary to their well-doing. Further propagation had, therefoi'e, better be left until early in spring ; and in order that there may be a good supply of cuttings at that season, take up some of the best plants from the beds, and pot them immediately ; they should be nursed a little, and not much cut back, and put into heat early. Take up and pot as many of your Scarlet Geraniums as you can find room to store, and cut them tolerably close in ; they are infinitely preferable to cutting-plants, as they flower earlier and much more abundantly, and fill up the beds sooner. Plants from cuttings generally grow very vigorous the first year, and consequently flower less ; for border purposes a great number may be lifted and plunged in soil or sand, under the stage of a greenhouse or pit. They come out unsightly at first, but soon recover and make a fine show. Excel- lent Heliotropes for bedding purposes may be secured by lifting and close cutting the plants in the beds ; put them in light soil, and give them a gentle bottom-heat for a short time, gradually hardening off as soon as the rooting process begins. There is no comparison between the flowering of such plants when bedded out and that of young cuttings ; and they are worth a little extra trouble to those who value a compact habit of growth and abund- ance of flower. The pits and frames are of course in a good condition for the reception of bedding and stove plants of all sorts ; and prudence will suggest the ex- pediency of placing all such plants out of danger from early frosts ; yet, in the case of well-rooted plants, con- tinue to give a free exposure on every favourable oppor- tunity. Take cai-e to secure the roots of Cannas and the Marvel of Peru in good time. The roots of Dahlias should be left in the ground as long as possible ; and where it is not compulsory, the first week in next month is early enough to lift them. Bulbous Planls. — When the beds are cleared of sum- mer plants a portion of them should be put into im- mediate preparation for the reception of the spring- flowering bulbs, such as Turban Ranunculus, Hyacinths, Narcissus, Scilla, Crocus, Anemone, Aconite, &c.,as they should be put in towards the latter end of the month or very early in the next. Other beds may be tilled at once with plants from the reserve garden, such as Viola arborea, Iberis arabis, Alyssum, Polyanthus, Hepatica. Fill some of the larger beds with small evergreens in pots, and intersperse a few of the early flowering things amongst them. Croci of various colours are best used as edgings. The present is a good time to get in a good stock of Cape bulbs on a well-drained warm border ; plant them from four to six inches deep. Beds or patches of Lilium lancifolium should have about four inches of half-decayed leaves laid on them. Rose Garden. — Cuttings of Chinese, Noisette, and Bourbon Roses, put in thickly in store pots, and kept in a cold pit through the winter, will come in very useful next season. Those already well-rooted should be potted, and placed in a situation where they can be rea- dily protected. "Where new plantations are to be made, the preparation of the beds or borders should be com- menced immediately, as they may be planted as soon as the leaves begin to fall, and the rooting process will commence at once, thus giving increased vigour for next season's bloom. On the same principle, old worn-out beds should be lifted, the ground very much enriched, aad trenched and re-planted, rejecting very old scrubby plants. Where manure is plentiful, established beds may have a good dressing with great advantage. Florists' ^Flowers. — Beds of Pinks and Pansies should be surface stirred occasionally, and the latter dressed with soot and ashes. The span layers of Carnations and Picotees may be planted in a bed in a sheltered place ; but the main stock will of course be kept in pots, and should now be snugly laid up in their winter quarters ; give plenty of air, but endeavour to exclude rain and dampness. Herbaceous Garden. — Choice and desirable sorts, which have done flowering, may be divided now with great advantage. If the Double Rockets are not yet divided and replanted, let no time be lost. T very sel- dom see the Silene compacta : . it is really a very de- sirable plant, and grows readily from seed, as well as from slips, in the manner of the Sweet William. This has been a fine season for seed in this department, and I have no doubt will be taken advantage of by all lovers of hardy herbaceous plants. Shrubberies. — Lose no time in getting forward with planting, lifting, and re-arranging shrubs and trees. Take care also to secure such as are likely to suffer from winds. Indeed, in many places where trees are much exposed to prevailing winds, this securing is quite half the battle, and should be thoroughly performed ; for no tree which is swayed from side to side can ever fix its roots in the earth securely ; besides which, a hole is formed all round the stem, and water lodges therein, frequently causing the roots to decay. Such cases I have seen, and heard many expressions of surprise that, after so much trouble in planting, there should be so many gaps in spring. J. W. C. Stove. Fires must now be kept up here, not so much to in- crease the temperature as to dry up the atmosphere at least once in every twenty-four hours, as very few plants do well in an atmosphere always saturated ; and also to admit of a little ventilation once a day, if the weather be at all favourable. The winter-flowering plants that have been growing in cool bouses during the summer will work into the places of Gesneraceous plants now going to rest for the winter. Plants that have been plunged in bottom heat for the summer and autumn, for the purpose of getting a fine growth, should now be taken up and placed on inverted pots, and allowed gra- dually to go to rest for the winter, as growth made after this time of the year is never well matured, and spoils the plant for growing the next spring. Shading should now be discontinued over the general collection ; if a few individuals still require it, get them together and have a canvas sash or two, just to slide over them in case of very hot sunshine. Greenhouse. The last of the plants belonging to this department should be placed in their winter quarters, but see that they have plenty of room. Select from the pot ground all such as will best suit the species for which you intend them, and, when the house is full, reject all others, and break them up at once, rather than crowd those that are really useful. This is advice that every gardener knows is difficult, but it is the regular practice of all good plant growers. Young plants that have filled their pots with J roots, may still have a small shift rather than that they \ should be cramped all the winter. Early Geraniums that were shaken out, and put in small pots a month ago, will now take a shift. Now they will just be filled with roots again, and ready for the forcing-house by Christmas. Cinerarias may now also have a shift, if the state of their roots warrant such proceedings. The bulk then will do best in a cold pit for the winter ; but a few of the earlier and stronger plants placed in a light part of the green- house will flower earlier. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 871 Heath-house. Here also the final arrangement for winter must be made. The first thing to be attended to ought to be a thorough cleaning of the house if not painted. The glass and sash bars, both roof and sides, ought to be well washed, and all broken glass repaired ; the walls lime- washed, the heating apparatus put in proper order, and the floor in every part thoroughly cleaned out. The health of the plants depends much on the house being perfectly " sweet" and clean during winter, the weather often not admitting of much ventilation. If any of the plants appear to be water-logged and not drying, fre- quently have them turned out of the pots at once, and, if necessary, put in a smaller pot, using very sandy soil. However dangerous those proceedings may appear at this season, it is tlie only alternative. If a plant is allowed to stand over winter iu a large pot of sodden Eoil, it may appear to live, but deterioration ia certain When the sua and drying winds of March and April commence, ventilation is of the very utmost importance. --R. R. KITCHEN GARDEN. Peas. — With some people it is customary to sow for the earliest crop of next year during the present month ; but not onetime in ten, with all our care, are v.'e able to carry them successfully through the winter, their career terminating generally at, or shortly after Christmas, by the agency of frost or slugs. The same variety I have sown on the first of November and December, and the last podded quite as early as the first, and produced a better crop : my usual practice is, therefore, to sow from the middle to the end of November. There are several competitors as the best early, but among four reputed kinds none with me equals Cormack's Prince Albert. The preparation of ground for their reception should occupy attention as soon as possible, in a sheltered situa- tion : and if the subsoil is adhesive it should be trenched to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches, and thrown up in ridges, that every possible part may be exposed to the disintegrating action of the atmosphere. An open subsoil not only gives vertical extension to the roots, but provides a channel for the discharge of surplus water ; that is, if the ground is under proper drainage. Unless to very hungry soils, no manure should be given, as its exciting properties render the vegetable tissue soft and watery, which prevents the plant enduring with more impunity depressions of temperature. Asparagus. — When the stalk or haulm shows signs of decay cut it off close to the surface of the ground, remove the weeds to the rubbish-heap, or dig them into any vacant piece of ground ; as vegetable refuse is more nutritious when used green than when under a state of decay. Line off" the beds to their proper breadth, and slightly loosen the surface, but be careful not to injure the crowns, and cover them three or four inch?s deep — not with exhausted manure, as protection from frost is not so much the object as nutriment. Carrots. — Some kinds of soil are so full of worms that they require to be removed whenever growth has ceased, as they will render the crop useless. Pack them among dry sand, and reject any that are broken or diseased, for immediate use. Broad Beam, being hardier than peas, may be planted any time during the month, and will come into use about the be- ginning of June ; and choose either the Early Mazagan or Marshall's Dwarf Prolific : neither is so productive as the long-pod, but both give a quicker return. The seeds may be sown thickly, and when the plants are a few inches high they may be transplanted, which will cause them to bear a week or two earlier. Cauliflowers. — We have entered upon that period of the year which subjects VIS to sudden, although not continued frost ; vigilance must therefore be used to preserve tender vegetables as long as possible, The autumn crop may for a consider- able time be kept in good condition by lifting the plants, and placing the roots in soil, in an open shed, or cut the heads off", and bury them in dry earth. The plants sown early iu August, and pricked into nursery beds, should be planted under hand-glasses, in a sunny situation, raised a few inches above the natural level of the ground. No manure should be given unless the soil is very poor, as all the growth required just now, is merely to keep vegetation on the move. Tlic weaker plants may be potted and wintered in a cool pit or vinery. Kidncij JBeaiis. — A night's neglect at this season will destroy a week or two's supply ; and they are now the more valuable, being the only substitute we have for peas. In case of sudden frost, protective steps should at once be taken by covering them with mats or any other convenient ma- terial. Parsnips. — It is a matter of little importance whether they are lifted, or allowed to remain in the ground all winter : being a native of many parts of this country, they are therefore not easily injured by frost. Qabbage. — Vide last calendar. Parsley. — Remove de- cayed and useless leaves, that new foliage may be pro- duced before winter. Love Apples. — Whatever is not required for immediate use should be hung in a dry room, and those just beginning to colour will ripen if placed in heat. Lettuce. — Prick out thinly in frames or pits for early summer use those sown for this purpose last month, and admit at all times an abundance of air to give them a sturdy habit. Brussels-sprouts should be topped, which will encourage the growth of the small heads along the stem. Radishes. — Sow the turnip, rooted, Wood's early frame, or the white Spanish, on a south border. Chives. — This being a good substitute during winter for young onions, a large supply should be made, as no frost, however severe, will injure them. Herbs for forcing are to be potted, such as mint and tarragon. flARDY FRUIT. No exact time can be fixed for gathering apples and pears, as much depends on the earliness or lateness of the season. This may, however, be pretty accurately de- termined by raising the foot-stalk, and if the fruit is ripe it will part freely ; or cut open a fruit, and if on an average the seeds are black, the same result follows. Let no consideration prevent dessert fruit from being hand-picked, as the slightest bruise will cause premature decay. On the contrary, immatured fruit does not keep well, nor is it ever so highly flavoured. Vines. — If the summer management has been properly attended to, there is no reason why good grapes may not be produced thia season, as it is scarcely possible in this country to have better weather for maturing the wood and fruit. The shoots intended for next year's bearing should have their points taken off", and all late growths, as they only weaken the vine and produce confusion. Remove a few of the leaves where they shade the fruit closely. Fruit trees will not long continue healthy unless the subsoil is dry ; and if not naturally so, it must be cleared of surplus water by properly constructed drains. Root-pruninsr sh(mld at once be proceeded with, if a too vigorous grow h renders the tree unproductive. In the selection of youiig trees, two points must be kept under continual view, namely, that the kinds be suitable to the soil and situa- tion for which they are intended, and that their constitu- tion be perfectly sound, as the last is a defect which no other quality can remedy. Straivberries.— Remove the runners, but do not injure the principal leaves. After slightly stirring the soil, lay between the rows a few inches deep of nutritious manure. Rafpberriis. — Remove all the canes except five of the strongest, which will admit air and heat to mature them for the duties of the coming year.— A. C. 873 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. Wind and State. Atmosphere. 1 Weath. Day. 8 a.m. 10 p.m. 1 Min. Max. lOp.m Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10p.m. in. els. in J;cts. 1 i Aug.22 30.08 29.98 57 76 i 62 iW. by South lively fine sun fine dry 23 29.90 29.88 58 69 1 58 S. Westerly iifentle fine cloudy cloudy rain 24 29.92 29.82 53 69 i 54 S. West very st. fine cloudv fine rain 25 30.— 30.16 49 66 57 N. N. West fresh fine |sun ' fine dry 26 30.J5 29.90 48 64 60 S. West brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 27 30.— 29.90 56 65 57 W. by South jj-entle fine fine cloudy dry 28 29.63 29.80 51 61 50 N. West ofentle cloudy sun fine dry 29 29.74 29.90 45 58 48 N. W., North brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 30 30.08 30.19 46 56 49 N. by West gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 31 30.19 30.20 41 64 58 W.N.W. gentle fine sun fine dry Sep. 1 30.24 30.19 54 71 62 W. by North gentle cloudy sun fine dry 2 30.16 ,30.12 57 70 65 W.N.W. gentle fine sun cloudy dry 3 30.14 30.14 62 74 59 Nly., N.E. gentle cloudy sun fine dry 4 30.09 30.08 56 65 55 N. East lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 5 30.14 30.26 48 64 58 E.N.E. lively fine sun fine dry 6 30.28 30.34 53 60 52 E.N.E. lively fine sun fine dry / 30.39 30.42 1 48 64 58 East lively fine sun clondy dry 8 30.44 30.45 53 60 52 E. by North gentle fine fine fine dry 9 30.45 30.45 47 70 49 East lively fine sun fine dry 10 30.40 30.46 j 41 72 56 E., E. by South fresh fine sun fine dry 11 30.46 30.40 43 70 53 N.E., S.E. gentle cloudy sun fine dry 12 30.40 30.30 ' 44 69 54 S., E.N.E. yen tie fine sun fine dry 13 30.33 30.33 47 72 50 N. East gentle ' fog sun fine dry 14 30.38 ' 30.40 43 61 51 E. by North yentle fine sun fine dry ^ 15 .30.49 ! .30.56 30.4 9 '■ 47 46 67 60 55 58 E. by North E. by North calm gentle fine cloudy cloudy fine sun cloudy dry dry 16 30.55 17 30.46 30.35 ; 55 70 57 East very b. cloudy sun fine rain 18, 30.38 30.16 51 68 55 E.N.E. brisk cloudy sun fine rain 19 30.09 30.05 , 51 61 56 N. by East gentle cloudy fine cloudy dry 20 30.06 1 30.08 52 70 52 N. by East ively i cloudy cloudy fine dry E.STIMATED AVERAGES OF SEPTEMBER. Barometer. Thermometer. High. I Low. High, j Low., | Mean. 30''.41 29.41 76 36 57.8 REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest. j Mean. 67.76 50. I 58.88 Weather and Phenomena. August 22 — Fine. 23 — Same; overcast. 24 — A shower. 25 — Beautiful and hot; another shower; cirro-stratus. 26 — Blustering afternoon ; some raiii. 27 — A little rain at night-temperature, till the 30th, strong driving wind and rain. 29, 30 — Overcast. 31 — Fine, and much warmer. New Moon on the 26th, at 10 h. 20 m. night. September 1 — Very fine, evening overcast. 2 — Mostly dull, after early rain. 3— Rain in night, then quite fine. 4 — Changeable. 5 — Lively, air beavtiful. 6 — Cloudy evening. 7 — Fresh ; beau- tiful, 8 — Overcast; clear evening. 9,10 — Bril- liant. 11 — Cirrus; cloudy. 12 — Hazy morning; cloudy. 13 — Fog clears to a brilliant day. 14 — Smoky air. 15 — Somewhat overcast. 16 — Fine; cloudy evening. 17 — Cloudy; clear, strong wind. 18 — Forenoon overcast. 19 — Often overcast. 20 — Variable ; warm sunny afternoon. A few drops of rain for a minute or two on I7th, ISth, and 20th. Lunations. — First quarter, 2nd day 1 h. 53 ra. afternoon. Full moon, 10th day 1 h. 44 m. after- noon. Last quarter, 18th day 1 h. 29 m. afternoon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The harvest, with us at least, is a fact accomplished. It has been well got in, and thus, embracing the fine hay season, the crops have been abundant, and fine in condition. The turnips, however, want rain, and many breadths have failed under the fly — not now renewable, as the remarkably dry weather has prevented every attempt. The northern har- vest was retarded by rain in August. Potatoes are now the failing crop, and we therefore again im- press the duty at aiming for early crops — sovni early — abandoning the later sowings altogether. Croydon. J. Towers. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 371 Heath-house, Here also the final arrangement for winter must be made. The first thing to be attended to ought to be a thorough cleaning of the house if not painted. The glass and sash bars, both roof and sides, ought to be well washed, and all broken glass repaired ; the walls lime- washed, the heating apparatus put in proper order, and the floor in every part thoroughly cleaned out. The health of the plants depends much on the house being perfectly " sweet" and clean during winter, the weather often not admitting of much ventilation. If any of the plants appear to be water-logged and not drying, fre- quently have them turned out of the pots at once, and, if necessary, put in a smaller pot, using very sandy soil. However dangerous those proceedings may appear at this season, it is the only alternative. If a plant is allowed to stand over winter iu a large pot of sodden soil, it may appear to live, but deterioration is certain. When the sun and drying winds of March and April commence, ventilation is of the very utmost importance. — R. R. KITCHEN GARDEN. Peas. — With some people it is customary to sow for the earliest crop of next year during the present month ; but not onetime in ten, with all our care, are we able to carry them successfully through the winter, their career terminating generally at, or shortly after Christmas, by the agency of frost or slugs. The same variety I have sown on the first of November and December, and the last podded quite as early as the first, and produced a better crop : my usual practice is, therefore, to sow from the middle to the end of November. There are several competitors as the best early, but among four reputed kinds none with me equals Cormack's Prince Albert. The preparation of ground for their reception should occupy attention as soon as possible, in a sheltered situa- tion : and if the subsoil is adhesive it should be trenched to the depth of eighteen or tvijenty inches, and thrown up in ridges, that every possible part may be exposed to the disintegrating action of the atmosphere. An open subsoil not only gives vertical extension to the roots, but provides a channel for the discharge of surplus water ; that is, if the ground is under proper drainage. Unless to very hungry soils, no manure should be given, as its exciting properties render the vegetable tissue soft and watery, which prevents the plant enduring with more impunity depressions of temperature. Asparogns. — When the stalk or haulm shows signs of decay cut it oif close to the surface of the ground, remove the weeds to the rubbish-heap, or dig them into any vacant piece of ground ; as vegetable refuse is more nutritious when used green than when under a state of decay. Line off the beds to their proper breadth, and slightly loosen the surface, but be careful not to injure the crowns, and cover them three or four inches deep — not with exhausted manure, as protection from frost is not so much the object as nutriment. Carrots. — Some kinds of soil are so full of worms that they require to be removed whenever growth has ceased, as tliey will render the crop useless. l?ack them among dry sand, and reject any that are broken or diseased, for immediate use. Broad Beans, being hardier than peas, may be planted any time during the month, and will come into use about the be- ginning of June ; and choose either the Early Mazagan or Marshall's Dwarf Prolific : neither is so productive as the long-pod, but both give a quicker return. The seeds may be sown thickly, and when the plants are a few inches high they may be transplanted, which will cause them to bear a week or two earlier. Cauliflowers. — We have entered upon that period of the year which subjects us to sudden, although not continued frost ; vigilance must therefore be used to preserve tender vegetables as long as possible. The autumn crop may for a consider- able time be kept in good condition by lifting the plants, and placing the roots in soil, in an open shed, or cut the heads off, and bury them in dry earth. The plants sown early in August, and pricked into nursery beds, should be planted under hand-glasses, in a sunny situation, raised a few inches above the natural level of the ground. No manure should be given unless the soil is very poor, as all the growth required just now, is merely to keep vegetation on the move. The weaker plants may be potted and wintered in a cool pit or vinery. Kidney Beans. — A night's neglect at this season will destroy a week or two's supply ; and they are now the more valuable, being the only substitute we have for peas. In case of sudden frost, protective steps should at once be taken by covering them with mats or any other convenient ma- terial. Parsnips. — It is a matter of little importance whether they are lifted, or allowed to remain in the ground all winter : being a native of many parts of this country, they are therefore not easily injured by frost. Cabbage. — Vide last calendar. Parsley. — Remove de- cayed and useless leaves, that new foliage may be pro- duced before winter. Love Apples. — Whatever is not required for immediate use should be hung in a dry room, and those just beginning to colour will ripen if placed in heat. Lettuce. — Prick out thinly in frames or pits for early summer use those sown for this purpose last month, and admit at all times an abundance of air to give them a sturdy habit, Brussels-sprouts should be topped, which will encourage the growth of the small heads along the stem. Radishes. — Sow the turnip- rooted, Wood's early frame, or the white Spanish, on a south border. 'Chives. — This being a good substitute during winter for young onions, a large supply should be made, as no frost, however severe, will injure them. Herbs for forcing are to be potted, such as mint and tarragon. HARDY FRUIT. No exact time can be fixed for gathering apples and pear.>, as much depends on the earliness or lateness of the season. This may, however, be pretty accurately de- termined by raising the foot-stalk, and if the fruit is ripe it will part freely ; or cut open a fruit, and if on an average the seeds are black, the same result follows. Let no consideration prevent dessert fruit from being hand-picked, as the slightest bruise will cause premature decay. On the contrary, immatured fruit does not keep well, nor is it ever so highly flavoured. Vines — If the summer management has been properly attended to, there is no reason why good grapes may not be produced thia season, as it is scarcely possible in this country to have better weather for maturing the wood and fruit. The shoots intended for next year's bearing should have their points taken off, and all late growths, as they only weaken the vine and produce confusion. Remove a few of the leaves where they shade the fruit closely. Fruit trees will not long continue healthy unless the subsoil is dry; and if not naturally so, it must be cleared of surplus water by properly constructed drains. Root-pruninsr should at once be proceeded with, if a too vigorous grow h renders the tree unproductive. In the selection of young trees, two points must be kept under continual view, namely, that the kinds be suitable to the soil and situa- tion for which they are intended, and that their constitu- tion be perfectly sound, as the last is a defect which no other quality can remedy. Straivberries.—VLtmove the runners, but do not injure the principal leaves. After slightly stirring the soil, lay between the rov/s a few inches deep of nutritious manure. Raspberrits. — Remove all the canes except five of the strongest, which will admit air and heat to mature them for the duties of the coming year.— A. C. 872 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. i Thermometer. Wind and State. Atmosphere. Weath. Day. 8 a.m. 10 p.m. Min. Max. lOp.m Direction, Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10p.m. in. e(s. in fjets. j Aug. 2 2 30.08 29.98 1 57 7Q 1 62 jW. by South lively 'fine sun fine dry 23 29.90 29.88 ' 53 69 58 S. Westerly gentle fine cloudy cloudy rain 24 29.92 29.82 53 69 54 S, We.«t very st. fine cloudy fine rain 25 30.— 30.16 49 66 57 N. N. West fresh fine sun fine dry 26 30.J5 29.90 48 64 60 S. West brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 27 30.— 29.90 56 65 57 W. l)v Soutli o;entle fine fine cloudy dry 28 29.63 29.80 51 61 50 N. West ofentle cloudy sun fine dry 29 29.74 29.90 45 58 48 N. W., North brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 30 30.08 30.19 46 56 49 N. by West gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 31 30.19 30.20 41 64 ' 58 W.N.W. gentle fine sun fine dry Sep. 1 30.24 30.19 54 71 i 62 iW. by North gentle cloudy sun fine dry 2 30.16 30.12 57 70 65 W.N.W. gentle fine sun cloudy dry 3 30.14 30.14 62 74 59 Nly., N.E. gentle cloudy sun fine dry 4 30.09 30.08 56 65 55 N. East lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 5 30.14 30.26 48 64 58 E.N.E. lively fine sun fine dry 6 30.28 30.34 53 60 52 E.N.E. lively fine sun fine dry 30.39 30.42 48 64 58 East lively fine sun cloudy dry 8 30.44 30.45 53 60 " 52 E. by North gentle fine fine fine dry 9 30.45 30.45 47 70 49 East lively fine sun fine dry 10 30.46 30.46 41 72 56 E., E. by South fresh fine {sun fine dry 11 30.46 30.40 43 70 53 N.E., S.E. gentle , cloudy sun fine dry 12 30.40 30.30 44 69 54 S., E.N.E. gentle fine .sun fine dry 13 30.33 30.33 47 72 50 N. East gentle fog sun fine dry 14 30.38 ' 30.40 43 61 51 E. by North gentle fine sun fine dry 15 30.49 30.56 47 67 55 E. by North calm fine cloudy fine dry ^ 16 30.55 30.4 9 46 60 58 E. by North gentle cloudy sun cloudy dry 17 30.46 1 30.35 55 70 57 East very b. cloudy sun fine rain 18, 30.38 30.16 51 68 55 E.N.E. brisk cloudy sun fine rain 19 30.09 30.05 51 61 56 N. by East gentle cloudy fine cloudy dry 20 30.06 30.08 52 70 52 N. by East lively \ cloudy cloudy fine dry estimated averages of SEPTEMBER. Barometei-. Thermometer. High. j Low. High. | Low | Mean. 30.41 29.41 76 36 57.8 REAL AA'ERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest. I Mean. m.7& 50. 58.88 Weather and Phenomena. August 22 — Fine. 23 — Same; overcast, 24 — A shoM'er. 25 — Beautiful and hot; another shower; cirro-stratus. 26 — Blustering afternoon ; some raiii. 27 — A little rain at night-temperature, till the 30th, strong driving wind and rain. 29, 30 — Overcast. 31 — Fine, and much warmer. New Moon on the 26th, at 10 h. 20 m. night. September 1 — Very fine, evening overcast. 2 — Mostly dull, after early rain. 3 — Rain in night, then quite fine. 4 — Changeable. 5 — Lively, air beai^tiful. 6— Cloudy evening. 7 — Fresh; beau- tiful. 8 — Overcast; clear evening. 9. 10 — Bril- liant. 11 — Cirrus; cloudy. 12 — Hazy morning; cloudy. 13 — Fog clears to a brilliant day. 14 — Smoky air. 15 — Somewhat overcast. 16 — Fine; cloudy evening. 17 — Cloudy; clear, strong wind. 18 — Forenoon overcast. 19 — Often overcast. 20 — Variable ; warm sunny afternoon. A few drops of rain for a minute or two on I7th, 18th, and 20th. Lunations. — First quarter, 2nd day 1 h. 53 m. afternoon. Full moon, 10th day 1 h. 44 m. after- noon. Last quarter, 18th day 1 h. 29 m. afternoon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The harvest, with us at least, is a fact accomplished. It has been well got in, and thus, embracing the fine hay season, the crops have been abundant, and fine in condition. The turnips, however, want rain, and many breadths have failed under the fly — not now renewable, as the remarkably dry weather has prevented every attempt. The northern har- vest was retarded by rain in August. Potatoes are now the failing crop, and we therefore again im- press the duty at aiming for early crops — soicn early — abandoning the later sowings altogether. Croydon. J. Towers. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINli:. 373 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR SEPTEMBER. It lias hoen a subject of general remark that tlie weather of the i)ast month has been unusually fine for tlie time of year. Very little rain lias fallen in ail)' part of the United Kingdom, and harvest work, even in the most backward districts, has been brought to a pretty general close under the most favourable auspices ; indeed, a finer season for the in-gathering of the crops has seldom or never been experienced. As very large quantities of wheat have already been thrashed out, especially in Essex, Kent, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, many of the leading growers are now in a position to speak in positive terms respecting its produce. Not a few of them contend that the yield is consi- derably in excess of that of 1S50; and there is every reason to believe that we have gathered the finest crop on record: Last year we had a supply barely equal to 3^ quarters per acre, taking the heavy and light lands into consideration, including of course the winter and spring seeding. That now under consideration is certainly four quarters to the acre, estimated from the same data. Then, again, we may observe that last year the weight of the new wheat was only about from 58 to Golbs. per bushel. This season we have seen but few, if any, samples weighing less than 60lbs., and in many instances they have come up to 64 and even 67lb8. per bushel. There is another point worthy of remark, viz., the exceedingly fine condition in which the whole of the crojis have been secured, even in the most humid and damp counties. So good, indeed, is the harvest, that scarcely a complaint has reached us from any quarter. As regards the produce of the barley crop, we may ob- serve that, in many instances, it has disappointed the expectations of the farmers, many of the samples having turned out steely and thin. That of oats is about an average , but that of both beans and peas has proved large. The reports at hand from different parts of the United Kingdom relative to the potato crop are various. In some counties the disease appears to have extended itself, about one-fourth of the crop having been found unfit for consumption. Still, however, the aggregate produce, allowing for actual loss, is unquestionably large. Whether it will keep dui'ing the winter months is a matter for conside- ration ; but our impression is that, looking to the quantity of potatoes disposed of for some time past in the metropolitan and other markets, there is every reasonable pi-ospect of the root keeping well if properly pitted, and if we have a dry season for i-aising. Much wet would, unquestionabl)', prove highly injurious to the crop. The supplies brought forward in the Borough and Spitalfields markets have been in excellent condition, and considerably in excess of the demand. Some few picked samples from Essex and Kent have sold at from 70s. to 75s., but the more general quotations have not exceeded 60s. and 65s. per ton. On the land in Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Middlesex, fair qualities have been disposed of at from 50s, to 55s. per ton. These are the lowest prices ever remembered. From abroad only 10 tons have come to hand, and we learn that very few arrirals are anticipated during the winter, unless our currencies should materially improve. In the large fruit districts, the crop of apples is a most abundant one ; but that of most other kinds of fruit is by no means large. The make of cider in Devonshire will be very extensive. Rain is now wanted for the turnip and carrot crops in most quarters. Up to the present time, from want of adequate supplies of moisture, they have made but little progress. Grass is very short, par- ticularly in the north ; in fact, there is not suffi- cient food for depastured stock. Hop picking has progressed without interrup- tion. In Sussex and Kent, as well as in Hamp- shire and Herefordshire, it has been partially con- cluded, but the growth is much smaller than in 1850; hence the duty has been backed at from only £110,000 to £115,000. Large supplies, in fair average condition, have been shown in the Bo- rough, but the demand has ruled inactive at from £6 10s, to £7 7s. for Wealds, and £5 15s. to £G 6s, per cwt. for Sussex pockets. The increasing arrivals from abroad, and the large suj^plies derived from our large gi'azing dis- tricts, have had a most depressing influence upon the demand for fat stock. In Smithfield the highest quotation for the best Scots has declined to 3s. 4d. per 8lbs. Very little grain now remains out in Ireland and Scotland. Most of our letters state that the yield of wheat and the supply of potatoes, up to the pre- sent time, has been extremely good. Most of the markets have exhibited only moderate supplies. 374 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nevertheless the general demand has ruled exceed- ingly inactive, and prices have had a downward tendency. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The principal point to which we have to direct our readers' attention, this month, is the immense increase which has taken place in the imports of foreign stock into the metropohs. During the month, they have exceeded forty thousand head ! As might be anticipated, this immense addition to our supplies has had a depressing influence upon the trade in Smithfield, where the best Scots have, in some instances, sold as low as 3s. 4d. per 8 lbs. at the outports, the arrivals have not been large. A cargo of Portuguese oxen— 140 in number— was landed in the early part of the month, and we may observe that this is the first instance in which any profit has been derived by the importers from the westward. To show the amount of gain, it may be as well to state that the stock in question was pur- chased at Oporto at £9 15s. each. The total charges to London, including steam boat, railway, and com- mission, were £2 15s. The oxen were sold at an average of £13 13s., thereby giving a profit of rather over £1 per head. It maybe further intimated that the charges given above are nearly J 00 percent, less than those paid last year. The general quality of the importations from Holland and Denmark — though the sheep from the former country are cer- tainly improving in weight— is still inferior; yet they are readily disposed of to contractors and others, at unusually low figures. For instance, the best foreign beasts are worth only about 2s. 6d. ; sheep, 3s.; calves, 2s. 8d.; and pigs. Is. lOd. to 2s. per 8 lbs. Some of the Dutch calves have realized only Is. lOd. per 8 lbs. The arrivals into London have been as under : — Head. Beasts 6, 177 Sheep 28,'566 Lambs 2,075 Calves 2,518 Pigs 1,994 COMPARISON OF IMPORTS. Sept. Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1850.. 5,556 19,802 1,939 1,819 752 1849.. 4,214 17,649 734 734 528 1848.. 4,301 18,000 3,681 1,625 55 1847 . . 4,000 14,000 683 1,362 270 A large portion of the bullock supphes received from the north, during the first fortnight, came to hand in very middling condition; but they ma- terially improved as the month advanced; whilst we understand that they have turned out "ripe." The sheep have proved very useful animals, although they have wanted age. The total supjjlies- including those from abroad — have been as follows : — _, Head. Beasts 23,007 Cows , goo Sheep and lambs 169,390 C^l^es 2,'220 P'gs 3,44/ COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Sept., Sept., Sept., Sept., 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. Beasts.... 22,492 21,714 19,868 22,212 Cows 456 421 447 475 Sheep 161,340 161,230 168,350 173,450 Calves 3,324 2,707 2,080 2,491 Pigs 2,137 3,153 1,957 2,639 From the northern and midland grazing districts, about 10,000 shorthorns, &c., have come to hand ; from other parts of England, 3,500 of various breeds ; and, from Scotland, 224 Scots. It must be understood that large transactions are almost daily taking place in foreign stock in the lairs in the neighbourhood of London, so that, in point of fact, only about two-thirds of the total importations find their way to Smithfield. Beef has been selling at from 2s. 2d. to 3s. 6d. ; mutton, 2s. 8d. to 4s. ; veal, 2s. 8d. to 3s. 8d. ; and pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per 8 lbs., to sink the offals. COMPARISON OF PRICES. Per 8lbs., to sink the offals. Sept., 1847. Sept., 1848. „ - . s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 3 oto4 8 2 6 to 4 0 Glutton 3 8 5 4 34 5 0 ^'eal 4 0 5 2 3 2 4 2 Pork 4 0 5 2 3 10 5 0 Sept., 1849. Sept., 1850. „ , . s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from ,..„,. 2 10 to 3 10 2 4 to 3 8 Mutton 2 10 4 0 3 2 4 0 Veal 3 0 3 6 2 10 3 8 Pork 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 0 For the time of year, full average supplies of country-killed meat have been received up to New- gate and Leadenhall markets ; whilst those on offer killed in London have been tolerably good. The general demand has been far from active, at but little alteration in the quotations. Beef has sold at from 2s. to 3s. 2d.; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd. ; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. ; pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 8d. per 8 lbs., by the carcass. Very few complaints have reached us respecting the epidemic. The losses sustained by the graziers, for some time past, have been unusually unim- portant. The large provincial fairs are passing off heavily. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 373 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR SEPTEMBER. It has ])cen a subject of general remark that the weather of the j)ast month has Ijeen unusually fine for the time of year. Very little rain has fallen in any part of the United Kingdom, and harvest work, even in the most backward districts, has been brought to a pretty general close under the most favourable auspices ; indeed, a finer season for the in-gathering of the crops has seldom or never been experienced. As very large quantities of wheat have already been thrashed out, especially in Essex, Kent, Suftblk, and Cambridgeshire, many of the leading grov/ers are now in a position to speak in positive terms respecting its produce. Not a few of them contend that the yield is consi- derably in excess of that of ISTjOj and there is every reason to believe that we have gathered the finest crop on record. Last year we had a supply barely equal to 3 J quarters ])er acre, taking the heavy and light lands into consideiation, including of course the winter and spring seeding. That now under consideration is certainly four quarters to the acre, estimated from the same data. Then, again, we may observe that last year the weight of the new wheat was only about from 58 to 60lbs. per bushel. This season we have seen but few, if any, samples weighing less than 60lbs., and in many instances they have come up lo 64 and even 671bs. per bushel. There is another point worthy of remark, viz., the exceedingly fine condition in which the whole of the crops have been secured, even in the most humid and damp counties. So good, indeed, is the harvest, that scarcely a complaint has reached us from any quarter. As regards the produce of the barley croj), we may ob- serve that, in many instances, it has disappointed the expectations of the farmers, many of the samples having turned out steely and thin. That of oats is about an average , but that of both beans and peas has proved large. The reports at hand from different parts of the United Kingdom relative to the potato crop are various. In some counties the disease appears to have extended itself, about one-fourth of the crop having been found unfit for consumption. Still, however, the aggregate produce, allowing for actual loss, is unquestionably large. Whether it will keep during the winter months is a matter for conside- ration J but our impression is that, looking to the c^uantity of potatoes disposed of for some time past in the metropolitan and other markets, there is every reasonable ])rospect of the root keeping well if properly pitted, and if we have a dry season for raising. Much wet would, unquestionably, prove highly injurious to the crop. The supplies brought forward in the Borough and Spitalfields markets have been in excellent condition, and considerably in excess of the demand. Some few picked samples from Essex and Kent have sold at from 70s. to 75s., but the more general quotations have not exceeded 60s. and 65s. per ton. On the land in Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Middlesex, fair qualities have been disposed of at from 50s. to 55s. per ton. These are the lowest prices ever remembered. From abroad only 10 tons have come to hand, and we learn that very few arrirals are anticipated during the winter, unless our currencies should materially improve. In the large fruit districts, the crop of apples is a most abundant one ; but that of most other kinds of fruit is by no means large. The make of cider in Devonshire will be very extensive. Rain is now wanted for the turnip and carrot crops in most quarters. Up to the present time, from want of adequate supplies of moisture, they have made but little progress. Grass is very short, par- ticularly in the north ; in fact, there is not suffi- cient food for depastured stock. Hop picking has progressed without interrup- tion. In Sussex and Kent, as well as in Hamp- shire and Herefordshire, it has been partially con- cluded, but the growth is much smaller than in 1850; hence the duty has been backed at from only £110,000 to £115,000. Large supplies, in fair average condition, have been shown in the Bo- rough, but the demand has ruled inactive at from £6 10s. to £7 7s. for Wealds, and £5 15s. to £6 6s, per cwt. for Sussex pockets. The increasing arrivals from abroad, and the large sujiplies derived from our large grazing dis- tricts, have had a most depressing influence upon the demand for fat stock. In Smithfield the highe^.t quotation for the best Scots has declined to 3s. 4d. per 8lbs. Very little grain now remains out in Ireland and Scotland. Most of our letters state that the yield of wheat and the supply of potatoes, up to the pre- sent time, has been extremely good. Most of the markets have exhibited only moderate supplies. 374 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nevertheless the general demand has ruled exceed- ingly inactive, and prices have had a downward tendency. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The principal point to which we have to direct our readers' attention, this month, is the immense increase which has taken place in the imports of foreign stock into the metropolis. During the month, they have exceeded forty thousand head ! As might be anticipated, this immense addition to our supplies has had a depressing influence upon the trade in Smithfield, where the best Scots have, in some instances, sold as low as 3s. 4d. per 8 lbs! at the outports, the arrivals have not been large. A cargo of Portuguese oxen— 140 in number— was landed in the early part of the month, and we may' observe that this is the first instance in which any profit has been derived by the importers from the westward. To show the amount of gain, it may be as well to state that the stock in question was pur- chased at Oporto at £9 15s. each. The total charges to London, including steam boat, railway, and com- mission, were £2 15s. The oxen were sold at an average of £1 3 1 3s., thereby giving a profit of rather over £1 per head. It maybe further intimated that the charges given above are nearly 100 percent, less than those paid last year. The general quality of the importations from Holland and Denmark— though the sheep from the former country are cer- tainly improving in weight-is still inferior; yet they are readily disposed of to contractors and others, at unusually low figures. For instance, the best foreign beasts are worth only about 2s. 6d. ; sheep, 3s.; calves, 2s. 8d.; and pigs, is. lod. to 2s. per 8 lbs. Some of the Dutch calves liavo reahzed only Is. lOd. per 8 lbs. The arrivals into London have been as under :— Head. Jeasts 6^177 ^"eep 28,566 Lambs 2,075 S.al^'es 2,518 P'SS 1^994 COMPARISON OF IMPORTS. Sept. Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs 1850.. 5,556 19,802 1,939 1,819 752" 1849.. 4,214 17,649 734 734 5^8 1848.. 4,301 18,000 3,681 1,625 55 1847 . . 4,000 14,000 683 1,362 270 A large portion of the bullock supijlies received from the north, during the first fortnight, came to hand in very middling condition; but they ma- terially improved as the month advanced; whilst we understand that they have turned out ''ripe." The sheep have proved very useful animals, although they have wanted age. The total supplies-including those from al)roaa — have been as follows : — Beasts ^^^^• r,^^^^^ 23,007 Cows 'f.' Sheep and lambs .*.'.'.* i fio qon cai-s :.: '^'iii P'g« 3,447 COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Sept., Sept., Sept., Sept., p^, , ^S47. 1848, 1849. 1850. Beasts.... 22,492 21,714 19,868 22,212 Cows .... 456 421 447 475 Sheep.... 161,340 161,230 168,350 173,450 Calves.... 3,324 2,707 2,080 2 491 ^'^^ 2,137 3,153 1,957 2,639 From the northern and midland grazing districts about 10,000 shorthorns, &c., have come to hand- from other parts of England, 3,500 of various breeds; and, from Scotland, 224 Scots. It must be understood that large transactions are almost daily taking place in foreign stock in the lairs in the neighbourhood of London, so that, in point of fact, only about two-thirds of the total importations find their way to Smithfield. Beef has been selling at from 2s. 2d, to 3s. 6d. • mutton, 2s. 8d. to 4s. ; veal, 2s. 8d. to 3s. 8d. ; and pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per 8 lbs., to sink the offals. COMPARISON OF PRICES. Per 8lbs,, to sink the offals. Sept., 1847. Sept., 1848. err s. d. s. d, s, d, s. d. ^'f'^^'^*" 3 0to4 8 2 6to4 0 ,^""«" 3 8 5 4 3 4 5 0 l^^] 4 0 5 2 3 2 4 2 P<^''k 4 0 5 2 3 10 5 0 Sept., 1849. Sept., 1850. P . . s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef from ..... 2 10 to 3 10 2 4 to 3 8 Mutton 2 10 4 0 32 4 0 l^^} 3 0 3 6 2 10 3 8 Poi"k 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 0 For the time of year, full average supplies of country-killed meat have been received up to New- gate and Leadenhall markets ; whilst those on offer killed in London have been tolerably good. The general demand has been far from active, at but little alteration in the quotations. Beef has sold at from 2s. to 3s. 2d.; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd. ; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. ; pork, 2s. 6d, to 3s. 8d. per 8 lbs., by the carcass. Very few complaints have reached us respecting the epidemic. The losses sustained by the graziers, for some time past, have been unusually unim- portant. The large provincial fairs are passing off heavily, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 375 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER. The harvest is now fast drawing to a close, even in the most backward parts of the kingdom, and what still remains abroad is too insignificant to have much influence on the general result. We are therefore able to speak with tolerable certainty as to the produce. We shall give our readers the substance of the information we have, with much care, succeeded in collecting. The almost uninterruptedly fine weather which has been experienced since the close of July has enabled farmers in all parts of the country to carry the corn in excellent condition, which circumstance has proved of immense advantage, and has greatly assisted to produce a generally favourable result. The laid corn (and there were large breadths badly laid, particularly in the eastern counties) has ripened, and been harvested nearly as well as if it had maintained an upright position ; and the mis- chief which it was feared would have been caused by the storms we had in July, has consequently proved comparatively trifling. There can be no better guarantee of quality than weight ; and by this test the wheat crop must be pronounced the finest secured for years. In most of the principal wheat-growing counties the samples of the new produce range from 63 to 64lbs. per bushel, and Golbs. is by no means an uncommon weight. It may as a general rule be taken for granted, that when the quaUty is fine the quantity cannot be very defi- cient; and we are disposed to think that this rule v/ill, on the whole, hold good this season. In some locahties we hear of farmers being disap- pointed with the yield to the acre; but this we regard as an indefinite kind of estimate. The ex- pectations formed may have been too sanguine, and what would otherwise have been deemed a good yield would in such cases be considered short. We do not mean to affirm that instances may not be found of a deficient yield ; but in dealing with the general result of the entire crop of the United Kingdom, we have no hesitation in stating that after a careful consideration of the subject, we feel satisfied that both in quantity and quality the re- turn exceeds that of good average seasons. The su])eriority will, we think, prove to be greater in both respects in the south, the midland, and west- ern counties of England, than in the north and east; and it is very probable that some of the fine Essex, Kent, and Suffolk wheat will find its way to Yorkshire this year. It was at one time thought that the wheat crop on the fen lands of Lincoln- shire and Cambridgeshire had been irreparably injured, and that the produce in these fertile dis- tricts would prove little better than last year; since harvest it has, however, been discovered that though the quality of the wheat grown on the fen lands is somewhat coarse, and the sample is mixed with blighted grains, the weight to the bushel ranges from 61 to 64lbs., which is certainly 3lbs. per bushel more than the produce of last year. This extra weight would give a considerable in- crease in meal, even if the number of (quarters to the acre were the same ; but in the latter respect the improvement is as great as in the former. We do not compare the present year's crop in Lincoln- shire, and the counties immediately adjoining, with that of some previous seasons, such as 1842; but we think it may be fairly estimated as equal to that of good average years. It seems to us, therefore, that there is no material deficiency in any of the most important wheat-producing counties ; but, on the contrary, an excess quite sufficient to compen- sate for any small falling oflf which there may be in the north. We cannot speak quite so favourably respecting the barley, the latter part of the summer having proved somewhat too dry for that grain. Farmers have hitherto threshed so little barley that what has been brought forward at the diflferent markets has scarcely sufficed to afford data to judge accu- rately of either the quantity or quality. Some of the samples have proved very satisfactory, but a considerable proportion of the supply has consisted of thin and otherwise coarse quality : we are, there- fore, inclined to think that superior malting sorts will be less plentiful than in moderately favourable barley seasons, and that the best sorts will conse- quently command relatively good prices as com- pared with other sorts of agricultural produce. Oats are, we believe, about an average crop in England ; short of an average in Scotland ; but in Ireland the yield and quality are described as highly satisfactory. The pulse crops of all kinds have given a good return, and all articles used for feeding pm-poses will unquestionably prove abundant. As a whole there is, consequently, ample reason for satisfaction in respect to the general result of 37fi THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the harvest ; and were it not for the certainty of undue foreign competition, our farmers might have a chance of recovering, in some measure, from the effects of the losses they sustained from the in- different crops and low prices of last season. We fear, however, that the henefits they might have derived from a bountiful harvest will be lost, as prices are likely to be kept down by large foreign imports below the point which would remunerate. Indeed, the knowledge that our ports are open to receive the surplus growth of foreign countries is in itself a cause of depression, as it prevents holders feeling confidence in the future, even though imports may not at the moment be large. This is illustrated by the state of the wheat trade at present : all appear anxious to sell, however ruinous it may be to do so ; while, on the other hand, merchants, millers, and dealers seem determined to buy only from hand to mouth, that having been found to be the only plan to insure themselves against losses since the first introduction of free trade. Wheat has since the close of last month receded 4s. to 5s. per q\\, notwithstanding a decided falling- off in the supphes from abroad. Immediately after harvest the growers l)egan to thresh freely, and though prices have since receded week after week, the deliveries have rather increased than di- minished. Within the last week or two, good qua- lities of new red wheat, weighing G2 to 63lbs. per bushel, have been offered at some of the shijiping ports on the east coast at 33s. per qr. The article has not, we believe, been sold so low (taking qua- j lity into consideration) since 1835, and we are dis- posed to think that farmers will not, unless driven by severe pecuniary pressure, be inchned to sell freely at these ruinously low prices. Quotations are now considerably lower in Lincolnshire, Cam- bridgeshire, and even in Yorkshire, than at some of the continental ports ; and it is affirmed by a Hull correspondent, that English wheat has actually been bought in that market for shipment to Ham- burgh. This circumstance will no doubt be turned to account by the free-trade journals, who will at once conclude that prices in Great Britain Vv'ill be righted by exports to foreign countries. If such a belief really is entertained, it will, we tliink, be speedily dispelled. For the moment, wheat is cer- tainly dearer at Hamburgh than at Hull, which may be easily accounted for by the fact of old stocks having been exhausted there, and supplies of the new having hardly commenced to appear; but to calculate on any continued demand from that quarter strikes us as too absurd to be seriously entertained. The consumi)tion of such a town as Hamburgh is a mere trifle; and the ap- pearance of a cargo or two from England would suffice to depress prices to our level. If any im- provement is to take place in the value of agricul- tural produce in this country, it will not, we feel satisfied, be brought about by an export demand. In considering the probable future range of prices of wheat, we must not omit to take into account the state of the potato crop. When we last ad- dressed our readers we intimated that symptoms of the disease had exhibited themselves, both on this side of the channel and in Ireland. For a time^ the disorder seemed to make little progress, and we were beginning to hope that the loss would prove comparatively small. Latterly, however, the ac- counts on this subject have become of a more serious character, and there is reason to fear that the blight will prove more destructive than last year. What proportion may be saved sound cannot at present be ascertained, as the process of decay is still going on. Meanwhile, the article is being forced into consumption at lovv' prices, which, for the present, tends to decrease the use of bread and assists to keep dov/n the value of wheat and Indian corn. What may be the effect of this state of things later in the year no one can foresee; but it is not unreasonable to suppose that the manner in which the article is being hurried to market may cause supplies to run short before Christmas, which would certainly tend to improve the value of wheat. We must, however, state that we do not give full credence to all that is said about the ex- tent of the potato disease; and as we feel confident that considerable sup))lies of foreign bread-stuffs will still reach us before winter sets in, we dare not encourage our agricultural friends to reckon on prices much above those now current. The quan- tity of corn at present on passage from the Black Sea alone is large ; and we believe that we shall receive regular supplies of flour from America up to the close of the year. Supposing, therefore, that little or nothing should be shipped from France, and that the Baltic supplies should prove insig- nificant, the stocks of old wheat here, and that which is likely to be received from the east and west, would, we think, prevent any material rise. The following report of the proceedings at Mark Lane will afford an idea of the general course of the trade during the month now about to termi- nate. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of London have been rather liberal this month, and we have in addition received good supplies per railwav. Nearly the whole has been of the nev.' crop, and it is the prevailing opinion that little old wheat of home growth remains. The new has, however, come to hand in such dry condition as to be capable of being ground with a comparative!^' small mixture of old; and our millers have, conse- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 376 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER. The haryest is now fast drawing to a close, even in the most backward parts of the kingdom, and what still remains abroad is too insignificant to liave much influence on the general result. We are therefore able to speak with tolerable certainty as to the produce. We shall give our readers the substance of the information we have, with much care, succeeded in collecting. The almost uninterruptedly fine weather which has been experienced since the close of July has enabled farmers in all parts of the country to carry the corn in excellent condition, which circumstance has proved of immense advantage, and has greatly assisted to produce a generally favourable result. The laid corn (and there were large breadths badly laid, particularly in the eastern counties) has ripened, and been harvested nearly as well as if it had maintained an upright position; and the mis- chief which it was feared would have been caused by the storms we had in July, has consequently proved comparatively trifling. There can be no better guarantee of quality than weight ; and by this test the wheat crop must be pronounced the finest secured for years. In most of the principal wheat-growing counties the samples of the new produce range from 63 to 64lbs. per bushel, and GSlbs. is by no means an uncommon weight. It may as a general rule be taken for granted, that when tlie quality is fine the quantity cannot be very defi- cient; and we are disposed to think that this rule will, on the whole, hold good this season. In some locahties we hear of farmers being disap- pointed with the yield to the acre; but this we regard as an indefinite kind of estimate. The ex- pectations formed may have been too sanguine, and what would otherwise have been deemed a good yield would in such cases be considered short. We do not mean to affirm that instances may not be found of a deficient yield ; but in dealing with the general result of the entire crop of the United Kingdom, we have no hesitation in stating that after a careful consideration of the subject, we feel satisfied that both in quantity and quality the re- turn exceeds that of good average seasons. The superiority will, we think, prove to be greater in both respects in the south, the midland, and west- ern counties of England, than in the north and east ; and it is very probable that some of the fine Essex, Kent, and Suflx)lk wheat will find its way to Yorkshire this year. It was at one time thought that the wheat crop on the fen lands of Lincoln- shire and Cambridgeshire had been irreparably injured, and that the produce in these fertile dis- tricts would prove little better than last year; since harvest it has, however, been discovered that though the quality of the wheat grown on the fen lands is somewhat coarse, and the sample is mixed with blighted grains, the weight t© the bushel ranges from 61 to 64lbs., which is certainly 3lbs. per bushel more than the produce of last year. This extra weight would give a considerable in- crease in meal, even if the number of quarters to the acre were the same ; but in the latter respect the improvement is as great as in the former. We do not compare the present year's crop in Lincoln- shire, and the counties immediately adjoining, with that of some previous seasons, such as 1842; but we think it may be fairly estimated as equal to that of good average years. It seems to us, therefore, that there is no material deficiency in any of the most important wheat-producing counties ; but, on the contrary, an excess quite sufficient to compen- sate for any small falling oflf which there may be in the north. We cannot speak quite so favourably respecting the barley, the latter part of the summer having proved somewhat too dry for that grain. Farmers have hitherto threshed so little barley that what has been brought forward at the different markets has scarcely sufficed to afford data to judge accu- rately of either the quantity or quality. Some of the samples have proved very satisfactory, but a considerable proportion of the supply has consisted of thin and otherwise coarse quality: we are, there- fore, inclined to think that superior malting sorts will be less plentiful than in moderately favourable barley seasons, and that the best sorts will conse- quently command relatively good prices as com- pared with other sorts of agricultural produce. Oats are, we believe, about an average crop in England; short of an average in Scotland; but in Ireland the yield and quality are described as highly satisfactory. The pulse crops of all kinds have given a good return, and all articles used for feeding purposes will unquestionably prove abundant. As a whole there is, consequently, ample reason for satisfaction in respect to the general result of 37r, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the harvest; and were it not for the certainty of | suflfice to depress prices to our level. If any ira- undue foreign competition, our farmers might have provement is to take place in the value of agrlcul- a chance of recovering, in some measure, from the j tural produce in this country, it will not, we feel effects of the losses they sustained from the in- 1 satisfied, be brought about by an export demand, different crops and low prices of last season. We In considering the probable future range of prices fear, however, that the benefits they might have of wheat, we must not omit to take into account derived from a bountiful harvest will be lost, as the state of the potato crop. When we last ad- prices are likely to be kept down by large foreign dressed our readers we intimated that symptoms of imports lielow the ])oint which would remunerate, the disease had exhibited themselves, both on this Indeed, the knov/ledge that our ports are open to receive the surplus growth of foreign countries is in itself a cause of depression, as it prevents holders feeling confidence in the future, even though imports may not at the moment be large. This is illustrated by the state of the wheat trade at side of the channel and in Ireland. For a time^ the disorder seemed to make little progress, and we were beginning to hope that the loss would prove comparatively small. Latterly, however, the ac- counts on this subject have become of a more serious character, and there is reason to fear that present : all apj)ear anxious to sell, however ruinous the blight will prove more destructive than last it may be to do so ; while, on the other hand, merchants, millers, and dealers seem determined to buy only from hand to mouth, that having been found to be the only plan to insure themselves against losses since the first introduction of free trade. Wheat has since the close of last month receded 4s. to 5s. per qr., notwithstanding a decided falling- ofF in the suppUes from abroad. Immediately after harvest the growers })egan to thresh freely year. What proportion may be saved sound cannot at present be ascertained, as the process of decay is still going on. Meanwhile, the article is being forced into consumiJtion at low prices, which, for the present, tends to decrease the use of bread and assists to keep down the value of wheat and Indian corn. What may be the effect of this state of things later in the year no one can foresee; but it is not unreasonable to suppose that the manner in which the article is being hurried to market may and though prices have since receded week after | cause supplies to run short l)efore Christmas, week, the deliveries have rather increased than di- 1 which would certainly tend to improve the value of minished. Within the last week or two, good qua- \ wheat. We m.ust, however, state that we do not lities of new red wheat, weighing 62 to 63lbs. per I give full credence to all that is said about the ex- bushel, have been offered at some of the shipping j tent of the potato disease ; and as we feel confident ports on the east coast at 33s. per qr. The article has not, we believe, been sold so low (taking qua- lity into consideration) since 1835, and we are dis- posed to think that farmers will not, unless driven by severe pecuniary pressure, be inclined to sell freely at these ruinously low prices. Quotations are now considerably lower in Lincolnshire, Cam- bridgeshire, and even in Yorkshire, than at some of the continental ports ; and it is affirmed by a Hull correspondent, that English wheat has actually been bought in that market for shipment to Ham- burgh. This circumstance will no doubt be turned to account by the free-trade journals, who will at once conclude that prices in Great Britain vv'ill be righted by exports to foreign countries. If such a belief really is entertained, it will, we think, be speedily dispelled. For the moment, wheat is cer- tainly dearer at Hamburgh than at Hull, which may be easily accounted for by the fact of old stocks having been exhausted there, and supplies of the new having hardly commenced to appear; but to calculate on any continued demand from that quarter strikes vis as too absui'd to be seriously entertained. The consumption of such a town as Hamburgh is a mere trifle; and the ap- that considerable sup))]ies of foreign bread-stuffs will still reach us before winter sets in, we dare not encourage our agricultural friends to reckon on prices much above those now current. The quan- tity of corn at present on passage from the Black Sea alone is large ; and we believe that we shall receive regular supplies of flour from America up to the close of the year. Supposing, therefore, that little or nothing should be shipped from France, and that the Baltic supplies should prove insig- nificant, the stocks of old wheat here, and that which is likely to be received from the east and west, would, we think, prevent any material rise. The following report of the proceedings at Mark Lane will afford an idea of the geneial course of the trade during the month now about to termi- nate. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of London have been rather liberal this month, and we have in addition received good supplies per railway. Nearly the whole has been of the new crop, and it is the prevailing opinion that little old wheat of home growth remains. The new has, however, come to hand in such dry condition as to be capable of being ground with a comparatively pearance of a cargo or two from England would ' small mixture of old ; and our millers have, conse- THE FARMRirS MAGAZINE. m quently, used the former more freely than thoy could otherwise have done. Tlic supplies have, therefore, heen cleared off"; Ijut to succeed in this it has been necessary to accept lower terms, and the tendency of prices has been decidedly downwards. No material chanjre took place in quotations at Mark Lane the first fortnight in September, but on the 15th a reduction of Is. to '2s. per qr. had to he submitted to, and even at that decline the statuls were not cleared. On the following Monday the show from Essex and Kent was not quite so liberal as it had been previously, and by submitting to a further abatement of Is. to 2s. per qr., that fresh up, as well as what had remained over from previous receipts, was placed. Excellent red wheat, the growth of Kent, weigh- ing 63!bs. to 64lbs. per bushel, was on that occa- sion sold at 36s. per qr., and other descriptions at corresjionding rates. Since then business has remained quiet, but sellers have refused to give way further. The offers from Lincolnshire and Cam- bridgeshire have been rather numerous, and about the middle of the month sellers were very pressing ; this compelled the Essex and Kent factors to give way, or the fall would probably not have been so great as it has. We are, however, inclined to think that the receipts from the east coast will now rather drop off, and we hardly expect to see prices at Mark Lane lower than at present. The importations of foreign wheat have not been large during the month, but more than sufficient has been received to satisfy the demand. The tov/n millers (many of whom sent out orders during the tenqjorary period of excitement in July), appear still to have old foreign wheat on hand, and the local demand has consequently been of quite a retail character. Meanwhile, very few country purchasers have visited our market, and the opc'ra- tions have been on quite a retail scale. In this position of affairs it is not very easy to give accurate quotation ; but the decline since the close of August may, we think, be fairly estimated at '2s. per qr. at least. Moderate qualities of Danzig wheat might at present be bought at 40s. to 42s., and fine at 44s. to 45s. per qr. Red wheat, more especially Rostock, Rhine, and Wahren quah- ties, have not declined to the same extent as Danzig ; the stocks of the last being larger than those of fine old red. For choice Rostock 42s. 6d. per qr. has been realized in retail within the last week ; which though a comparatively high price, will cer- tainly not ])ay the importers. The arrivals of Black Sea wheat oil' the coast have been liberal of late; but most of the cargoes which have come forward having been disposed of while on passage, there has not been a great deal doing in floating cargoes. Latterly, the disposition to speculate has entirely subsided, and Polish Odessa has been offered at 3()s. ])er qr. cost, freight, and insurance, being an important dechne on 'the rates current when we last addressed our readers. In consequence of a falling off in the arrivals of flour from abroad, more especially from France, a better demand has been experienced for the article. The top price of town-manufactr.red flour was re- duced to .37s. per sack, on Monday, the I5th inst. ; and since then there has been a ;^ood steady demand for all fresh qualities. The quantity of French flour remaining in warehouse is quite trifling, and a.«i there appears little prospect of any immediate sup- plies being received from thence, holders of what is here have manifested great firmness. Really fine qualities of French are not cheaper than they were a month ago ; the fall in the wheat market, and the recent reduction in prices of town-made flour, having failed to have any influence. American has also come sparingly to hand, the greater part of the shipments from the United States having been directed to Liverpool. Low qualities have been little inquired after, and have rather receded in value ; but approved brands have been placed without difficulty at 21s. and 22s. per barrel, being equal to 30s. to 31s. 6d. per sack of 2S0lbs. The Essex and Kentish farmers have hitherto thrashed very little barley, and the supplies from Suffolk, &c., have thus far been cjuite moderate. The paucity of the arrivals has prevented any de- cline taking place in prices, but we question whe- ther present rates would be maintained if supplies were to increase, a circumstance by no means im- probable, this grain being relatively higher at pre- sent than wheat. Moderately good malting quali- ties have not been sold l>elow 2C)s. to 30s., and superior sm'ts have realized 31s. to 32s. per qr. At these rates a ready sale was experienced up to the 22nd inst. ; since then, however, the inquiry has rather slackened, while thesnpplies have slightly increased. The receipts of barley from abroad, M-ithout be- ing large, have been about sufficient to satisfy the demand. None of the foreign lately received hag been suitable for malting, nor are we likely to ob- tain any material supplies of a quality fine enough for that jiurjiose. The foreign growers are, how- ever, giving their attention to the growth of barley for malting, and we have seen samples, the pro- duce of last harvest, of fine colour, and in every respect such as our maltsters would not object to buy, jirice suiting ; ])ut at present the value of the article is higher on the continent than here. The business in foreign barley has been confined prin- cipally to grinding parcels, and such have scarcely vn: d in price since the close of last month j the 378 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lighter kinds may at present be quoted 21s, to 22s,, and good heavy samples 23s. to 24s. per qr. The transactions in malt have been on a strictly retail scale; sellers have, nevertheless, remained firm, and no quotable change has occurred in prices. The article was more saleable in the beginning than towards the close of the month, the somewhat heavy state of the barley trade on the 22nd having had more or less influence on the inquiry for malt. Though a few parcels of new Lincolnshire and a lot or two of Irish oats have appeared at market from time to time, the supplies coastwise and from Ireland have been decidedly short. Old oats of home growth have almost ceased to come forward, and it is tolerably certain that the foreign still in granary here will be all wanted. The arrivals from Russia have fallen off materially within the last week or two, and from the nearer continental ports the supplies have been moderate. Very little varia- tion has taken place in prices of home-grown corn ; the receipts have been too insignificant to allow of purchases being made on easier terms ; but on the other hand, the demand has not been sufficiently active to allow of former rates being exceeded. Foreign oats, more particularly Riga and Arch- angel, have been in fair request ; the new of home growth, though dry, being as yet unfit for feeding without a mixture of old. Stocks at this port have been a good deal diminished of late, and as the greater part of the spring and summer shipments from Russia must now have reached us, lower prices can scarcely be expected for sweet old corn. New English and Irish would probably with increased supplies give way more or less. Beans of home-growth have come forward suffi- ciently fast to satisfy the demand ; in the early part of the month prices showed a tendency to creep up, but since then the turn has been the other way. The samples of new which have appeared at market have given general satisfaction, being sound and hard. Large ticks have realized 27s. to 28s., har- rows 29s. to 31s., and pigeon 32s. to 34s. per qr. New peas were at one time somewhat pressingly offered, and good boilers were sold as low as 26s. per qr. ; since then prices have crept up Is. to 2s. per qr., and grey and maple have risen in propor- tion. Old feeding peas have, in anticipation of an increased demand in consequence of the potato blight, been in fair request, and prices are at present about Is. per qr. higher than they were at the end of August. There was not much doing in floating cargoes of Indian coi'n in the early part of the month, but subsequently a lively inquiry sprung up, and in one week 30,000 to 40,000 qrs. changed hands, Galatz bringing 26s. 6d. per qr., cost, freight, and insu- rance, and other kinds corresponding prices. This demand has since been followed by a calm, and the receipts from the Black Sea at Queenstown having been large within the last eight or ten days, the Irish markets are for the moment overdone with supplies. The reaction in prices has, however, not been more than 6d. to Is. per qr. from the highest point. From what we have stated in the foregoing part of this article, it will have been observed that the position of prices of wheat in this country and on the continent of Europe is at present such as to render any immediate shijiments from the Baltic to Great Britain improbable. It may, however, be remarked that quotations abroad are more nominal than real, and we are in- clined to think that purchases might be made be- low the rates noted ; but in the existing state of affairs there is certainly no encouragement to con- sign to the English markets. Though the general character of the weather has been similar over the greater part of the north of Europe during the summer, England has been more favoured than some of the continental corn- growing countries. Wheat will, we are inclined to think, ]5rove a good crop; but rye, which is a most important article in Germany, Russia, &c., is stated to have given a very vmsatisfactory return. The potato blight is also said to prevail extensively on the continent, and a short yield of these two pri- mary articles of consumption will of course have the effect of increasing the use of wheaten bread, bar- ley, and oatmeal, &c. It is, therefore, possible that the exports of wheat from the Baltic may not be quite so extensive as last year; but that there will be a surplus, which will sooner or later find its way to our shores, may, we think, be regarded as certain. The latest advices from Dantzic state that though the English demand for wheat had quite subsided, local buyers had made purchases from time to time, which had assisted to keep up prices ; and high mixed qualities, weighing 62lbs. per bushel, had not been sold below 38s. 6d. to 39s. per qr., free on board. Only a few samples of new had appeared, mostly of inferior quality, and weighing only o9lbs. to 60lbs. per bushel, for which, however, equal to 37s. per qr., free on board, had been asked. There was little being shipped, and freights to England were very low. The potato crop there and in the neighbourhood of Konigsburg is said to be extensively diseased. At the Lower Baltic ports the value of wheat has remained nearly stationary throughout the month, but quotations must be regarded as more nominal than real ; the business actually done for export having been very trifling. At Rostock, the best qualities of old wheat had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 quently, used the former more freely than thoy could otherwise have done. Tlie supplies have, therefore, been cleared oft"; ]>ut to succeed in this it has been necessary to accept lower terms, and the tendency of prices has l)een decidedly downwards. No material change took place in quotations at MaVk Lane the first fortnight in September, but on the loth a reduction of Is. to 2s. ])er qr. had to he s\d)mitted to, and even at that decline the stands were not cleared. On the following Monday the show from Essex and Kent was not quite so liberal as it had been previously, and by submitting to a further abatement ol Is. to 2s. per qr., that fresh up, as well as what had remained over from previous receipts, was placed. Excellent red wheat, the growth of Kent, weigh- ing 63lbs. to 64lbs. per bushel, was on that occa- sion sold at 36s. per qr., and other descriptions at corresponding rates. Since then business has remained quiet, but sellers have refused to give way further. The offers from Lincolnsjhire and Cam- bridgeshire have been rather numerous, and about the middle of the month sellers were very pressing ; this compelled the Essex and Kent factors to give way, or the fall would probably not have been so great as it has. We are, however, inclined to think that the receipts from the east coast will now rather drop ott', and we hardly expect to see prices at Mark Lane lower than at present. The importations of foreign wheat have not been large during the month, but more than sufficient has been received to satisfy the demand. The town millers (many of whom sent out orders during the temporary period of excitement in July), appeal still to have old foreign wheat on hand, and the local demand has consequently been of quite a retail character. Meanwhile, very few country purchasers have A'isited our market, and the opera- tions have been on quite a retail scale. In this position of affairs it is not very easy to give accurate quotation ; but the decline since the close of August may, we think, be fairly estimated at '2s. per qr. at least. Moderate quahties of Danzig wheat might at present be bought at 40s. to 42s., and fine at 44s. to 45s. per qr. Red wheat, more especially Rostock, Rhine, and Wahren quah- ties, have not declined to the same extent as Danzig ; the stocks of the last being larger than those of fine old red. For choice Rostock 42s. 6d. per qr. has been realized in retail within the last week ; which though a comparatively high price, will cer- tainly not pay the importers. The arrivals of Black Sea wheat oil' the coast have Ijeen liberal of late ; but most of the cargoes which have come forward having been disposed of while on passage, tliere lias not been a great deal doing in iloating cargoes. Latterly, the disposition to speculate has entirely subsided, and Pohsh Odessa has l^een offered at ?i()s. ])er qr. cost, freight, and insurance, being an important decline on 'the rates current when we last addressed our readers. In consequence of a falling off" in the arrivals of flour from abroad, more especially from France, a better demand has been ex[)crienced for the article. The top price of town-manufactured flour was re- duced to 37s. per sack, on Monday, the 15th inst. ; and since tlien there has been a good steady demand for all fresh qualities. The quantity of French flour remaining in warehouse is quite trifling, and as there appears little prospect of any immediate sup- plies being received from thence, holders of what is here have manifested great firmness. Really fine qualities of French are not cheaper than they were a month ago ; the fall in the wheat market, and the recent reduction in prices of town-made flour, having failed to have any influence. American has also come sparingly to hand, the greater part of the shipments from the United States having been directed to Liverpool. Low qualities have been little inquired after, and have rather receded in value ; but approved brands have been placed without difficulty at 21s. and 22s. per barrel, being equal to 30s. to 31s. 6d. per sack of 2S0lbs. The Essex and Kentish farmers have hitherto thrashed very little barlej', and the supplies from Suff'olk, &c., have thus far been quite moderate. The paucity of the arrivals has prevented any de- cline taking place in prices, but we question whe- ther present rates would be maintained if supplies were to increase, a circumstance by no means im- probable, this grain being relatively higher at pre- sent than wheat. Moderately good malting quali- ties have not been sold below 29s. to 30s., and superior sorts have realized 31s. to 32s. per qr. At these rates a ready sale was experienced up to the 22nd inst. ; since then, however, the inquiry has rather slackened, while thesupplies have slightly increased. The receipts of barley from abroad, without be- ing large, have been about sufficient to satisfy the demand. None of the foreign lately received hag been suitable for malting, nor are we likely to ob- tain any material supplies of a quality fine enough for that ])ur])ose. The foreign growers are, how- ever, giving their attention to the growth of barley for malting, and we have seen samples, the pro- duce of last harvest, of fine colour, and in every respect such as our maltsters would not object to buy, ])rice suiting ; but at present the value of the article is higher on the continent than here. The business in foreign barley has been confined prin- cipally to grinding parcels, and such have scarcely va: "d in price since the close of last month; the 378 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lighter kinds may at present be quoted 21s. to 22s,, and good heavy samples 23s. to 24s. per qr. The transactions in malt have been on a strictly retail scale; sellers have, nevertheless, remained firm, and no quotable change has occm-red in prices. The article was more saleable in the beginning than towards the close of the month, the somewhat heavy state of the barley trade on the 22nd having had more or less influence on the inquiry for malt. Though a few parcels of new Lincolnshire and a lot or two of Irish oats have appeared at market from time to time, the supplies coastwise and from Ireland have been decidedly short. Old oats of home growth have almost ceased to come forward, and it is tolerably certain that the foreign still in granary here will be all wanted. The arrivals from Russia have fallen off materially within the last week or two, and from the nearer continental ports the supplies have been moderate. Very little varia- tion has taken place in prices of home-grown corn ; the receipts have been too insignificant to allow of purchases being made on easier terms ; but on the other hand, the demand has not been sufliciently active to allow of former rates being exceeded. Foreign oats, more particularly Riga and Arch- angel, have been in fair request ; the new of home growth, though dry, being as yet unfit for feeding without a mixture of old. Stocks at this port have been a good deal diminished of late, and as the greater part of the spring and summer shipments from Russia must now have I'eached us, lower prices can scarcely be expected for sweet old corn. New English and Irish would probably with increased supplies give way more or less. Beans of home-growth have come forward suffi- ciently fast to satisfy the demand ; in the early part of the month prices showed a tendency to creep up, but since then the turn has been the other way. The samples of new which have appeared at market have given general satisfaction, being sound and hard. Large ticks have realized 27s. to 28s., har- rows 29s. to 31s., and pigeon 32s. to 34s. per qr. New peas were at one time somewhat pressingly offered, and good boilers were sold as low as 26s. per qr. ; since then prices have crept up Is. to 2s. per qr., and grey and maple have risen in propor- tion. Old feeding peas have, in anticipation of an increased demand in consequence of the potato blight, been in fair request, and prices are at present about Is. per qr. higher than they were at the end of August. There was not much doing in floating cargoes of Indian corn in the early part of the month, but subsequently a lively inquiry sprung up, and in one week 30,000 to 40,000 qrs. changed hands, Galatz bringing 26s. 6d, per qr., cost, freight, and insu- rance, and other kinds corresponding prices, This demand has since been followed by a calm, and the receipts from the Black Sea at Queenstown having been large within the last eight or ten days, the Irish markets are for the moment overdone with supplies. The reaction in prices has, however, not been more than 6d, to Is. per qr. from the highest point. From what we have stated in the foregoing part of this article, it will have been observed that the position of prices of wheat in this country and on the continent of Europe is at present such as to render any immediate shipments from the Baltic to Great Britain improbable. It may, however, be remarked that quotations abroad are more nominal than real, and we are in- clined to think that purchases might be made be- low the rates noted ; but in the existing state of aflfairs there is certainly no encouragement to con- sign to the English markets. Though the general character of the weather has been similar over the greater part of the north of Europe during the summer, England has been more favoured than some of the continental corn- growing countries. Wheat will, we are inclined to think, ])rove a good crop; but rye, which is a most important article in Germany, Russia, &c,, is stated to have given a very unsatisfactory return. The potato blight is also said to prevail extensively on the continent, and a short yield of these two pri- mary articles of consumption will of course have the pfFect of increasing the use of wheaten bread, bar- ley, and oatmeal, &c. It is, therefore, possible that the exports of wheat from the Baltic may not be quite so extensive as last year; but that there will be a surj)lus, which will sooner or later find its way to our shores, may, v,'e think, be regarded as certain. The latest advices from Dantzic state that though the English demand for wheat had quite subsided, local buyers had made purchases from time to time, which had assisted to keep up prices ; and high mixed quahties, weighing 62lbs. per bushel, had not been sold below 38s. 6d. to 39s. per qr., free on board. Only a few samples of new had appeared, mostly of inferior quality, and weighing only 59lbs. to 60lbs. per bushel, for which, however, equal to 378. per qr., free on board, had been asked. There was little being shipped, and freights to England were very low. The potato crop there and in the neighbourhood of Konigsburg is said to be extensively diseased. At the Lower Baltic ports the value of wheat has remained nearly stationary throughout the month, but quotations must be regarded as more nominal than real ; the business actually done for export having been very trifling. At Rostock, the best quahties of old wheat had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 379 not, it seems, been offered below 37s. per qv. The harvest had been mostly secured, but too little pro- gress bad been made with thrashing to allow of an accurate judgment being arrived at, as to either quantity or quality. At Stettin, rye had risen 4s. to 5s. per qr., owing to the reported sj)read of the potato blight, and the generally deficient yield of rye in that neighbour- hood. Some contracts for wheat, deliverable in spring, had been closed at 35s. per qr. for red Stettin, weighing 6llbs. per bushel. For imme- diate shipment little or nothing had been done in the article. At Hamburgb only very small supplies of new wheat had come forward, hardly sufficient to satisfy the consumptive demand, and stocks of old having been quite exhausted, the dull advices from here had failed to cause any decline of consequence in prices. Red Wahren wheat of 61 to 6lilbs. weight had not been offered below 39s. 6d. per qr, free on board. There had been ofters from the Lower Baltic ports at 36s. 3d. per qr. for 61 lbs. quality, without leading to business. Barley is relatively dear all over the north of Europe. At Stettin and Rostock 19s. to 20s. per qr. was asked ; and at Hamburgh 27s. 6d. per qr. free on board had been paid for new Saale of only 5 libs, weight per bushel. In the Dutch markets prices are quite as high as in this country. About the middle of the month a purchase of moderately good Rhine wheat was made r.t Rotterdam, for account of an Amsterdam house, for shipment to England, at 35s. per qr. Subsequently, however, the inquiry quite subsided. From France the reports relative to the yield of the harvest are scarcely so good as they were earlier in the season, and prices of wheat are gra- dually creeping up there. From the Mediterranean we have nothing of interest to communicate. At Marseilles prices of Polish Odessa wheat were nearly as high on the 17th inst. as they now are here, viz., 28s. 9d. per qr. Letters from Galatz inform us that considerable purchases of wheat had been made there, the last fortnight in August, for British account. For the first quality equal to 23s. 7d. to 25s. 2d.j second, 21s. 2d. to 22s. 'lOd.; and third quality, 19s. 7d. to 20s. 2d. per qr. free on board, had been paid. The Indian Corn crop in Lower Moldavia had proved almost a failure; and this would, it was feared, be productive of great misery among the poorer classes during the winter; the price had risen to 15s. to 15s. 5d. per qr. free on board. Freight per British vessels ranged from lis. to lis. 6d. per qr. for wheat to England. The losses on the purchases made in that quarter must be very heavy ; and the Greek houses in London, who carry on the greater part of the business with the East, will be severe suflferers this year. By the most recent advices from America we learn that the wheat harvest had been finished very auspiciously in Canada, as well as in the United States, and the produce was generally considered materially over an average. The principal markets had, it appears, been plentifully supplied with new wheat, and prices of that article and flour had con- tinued to tend downwards. Letters from New York, dated 13th instant, in- form us that rather large purchases of flour had been made in the early part of the month for ship- ment to Great Britain ; but that this had failed to raise quotations, the demand having been readily met by sellers. Good brands of Western Canal flour were procurable at New York on the 13th September, at 3| dollars per barrel, and other sorts at corresponding rates. CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. ShiUinifs per Quarter Ditto ditto old .. 38 41 V,UJ 45 Ditto ditto red, new. . . . 36 38 J^ 39 Ditto ditto old .... 34 38 ^J 40 Norfolk, Liucoln, & Yorksh., red. . 34 36 ,^ 38 Ditto ditto old, none ^J Ditto ditto white new 35 37 ^^ 42 Ditto ditto old, none J^ Barley, malting, new 26 28 Chevalier 30 24 31 Distilling 26 Grinding .. 21 22 24 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new "44" 46 extra 50 Ditto ditto old 45 48 jj 51 Kingston,Ware,and town made,new 50 53 jj 55 Ditto ditto old 48 54 56 Oats, English feed 17 18 fine 20 Potato 19 19 17 22 22 18 extra fine fine 25 Scotch feed . Irish feed, wh 24 te '.'.".'.*.*.*.'.','.'.'.*.'. 21 Ditto, black . Rye 16 24 27 18 fine 26 old 23 29 „ 22 19 25 Beans, Mazagau 29 Ticks 28 28 29 30 , 31 , 33 , 28 30 31 31 Harrow 32 Pigeon 34 Peas, white boiler Maple s 25 25 27 , 26 , 26 26 28 27 Grey 25 26 , 26 27 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lb . — — , 32 37 Country mark s — ~ , 28 32 IMPERIAL AVERAGES , For the last Six WEEKa . Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rj e. Beans Peas. Week Ending: 8. d. a. d. s. d. s. d-s. d. 8. d. Aug. 16.1851.. 41 4 26 4 21 9 27 0,30 8 27 2 Aug. 23, 1851.. 39 10 26 8 20 11 27 131 2 25 11 Aug. 30, 1851.. 39 1 25 10 20 8 26 9|30 7 26 6 Sept. 6,1851.. 38 9 26 1 20 1 26 230 4 25 11 Sept. 13, 1851.. 38 5 26 1 19 5 25 0 28 9 27 8 Sept. 20, 1851.. 37 8 25 7 18 4 26 2 28 6 28 2 Aggregate average of last six weeks 39 2 26 1 20 4 26 4 30 0 26 11 Comparative avge. ! same time last year 43 2 23 3 17 8 24 3'28 10 27 7 Duties., 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Oi 1 0 1 0 380 I'HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. |3QiVJfARATlVK PRICES AND UUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from hist Friday's ! Averages from the correspoud- Wheat Barley Oats . Eye ., Beans . , Peas . , Gazelft Qrs. 106,232 . 8,070 : 12,593 417 . 2,23G , 1,027 Av. 37 25 18 26 28 28 Wheat Barley Oats . Rye . Beans Peas Gazette iu 1850. Qrs. 103,850 6,208 15,675 795 4,048 1,099 Av 8. d. 42 7 24 10 17 1 26 4 29 5 29 5 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six AVEBKS ENDING SEPTEMBER 20, 1851 PaicB. 4Is. 39s. 393. Sis. ."Ss. 37s. 4cl. lOd. Id. 9d. .?d. 8d. Aug. IG, Aug. 23. Aug. 30, Sept. 6. Sept. 13, Sept. 20 SEED MARKET. Friday, Septennber 2.5. We have to report a steady demand for Linseed and Kapeseed, at full rates of currency. Winter Tares and Canary are very dull, but not cheaper. All other seeds, as well as Cakes, command scarcely any attention. Duty v?as paid on the following quantities of foreign Cloverseed, up to the 20th inst : — 1851. 1850. London 89,161 55,929 Liverpool 8,186 7,691 Hull 39,582 24,92? Stock in bond 9,569 ' BORbUGH HOP MARKET. Friday, Sept. 26. The arrival of new Hops still continues large. .Se- lected samples move off steadily, at full prices ; but most other kinds are easier to purchase. Duty, £'115,000. New Hops are selling as under : — Weald of Kent pockets 130s. to 147s. Sussex 115s. to 126s. POTATOES. Borough and Spitalfields, Friday, Sept. 26. Very extensive supplies of Potatoes have reached us this week from Essex, Kent, &c. The bulk of them is in good condition ; but numerous blighted qualities are oft'ering. From Antwerp 147, and from Ghent 10 bags have come to hand. Although a good business is doing, late rates are with difficulty supported. On the land Regents are selling as low as 50s. per ton. Essex and Kent Regents 60s. to 70s. per ton. Do. Shaws 50s. to 65s. Do. inferior qualities 25s. to 4()s. PROVISION MARKET. Friday, Sept 26. A very limited business is doing in Irish butter, at a decline in the quotations of fi'om Is. to 2s. per cwt. Carlow, Clonmei, and Kilkenny, 76s. to 78s. ; Cork, 75s. to 76s. ; Limerick, 68s. to 73s. ; Tralee, 66s. to 68s. ; and Sligo, 70s. to 74s. per cwt. English Butter has given way 2s. per cwt., with a heavy demand. Fine weekly Dorset, 86s. to 88s. ; middling do., 70s. to 76s. per cwt.; fresh, 8s. to 10s. per dozen pounds. In Foreign Butter, which is freely offered at 2s. per cwt. less money, next to nothing doing. The Bacon market is in a very inactive state, at 2s. to 3s. per cwt. decline. Waterford, sizeable, 54s. to 57s., heavy 54s. ; Hambro', 46s. to 52s.' Lard in moderate request, at 56s. to 58s. for fine Irish bladdered ; 50s. to 55s. for middling ; and 54s. to 58s. for Hambro' bladdered. ENGLISH BUTTiili MARKET. Monday, Sept. 22. Tr^de with us is become sick, and prices are not sup" ported ; indeed, fresh Butter is Is. per dozen lower. Dorset, fine weekly 86s. to 88s. per ci^t. Do. middling 70s. to 76s. Fresh 8s. to 10s. per doz. lbs. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 733. to 803. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 8|d. per lb. Bacon, 45s. to 473.; Hams, prime, 6O3. to 623. per cwt. ; second quality, 54s. to 55s.; Mess Pork, 623. to 643. per brl.; refined American Lard, in blailders, 52s. to 54a, ; kegs and firkin.s, 523. ; Irish Lard, in bladders, 52s. to 563. ; kegs or (irklns, 5<;s. per cwt. I Butter, Baron, 1 Dried Harns,,Mess I'ork, Sept. per ewt. percwt per cwt , P.T !.rl. 18. 8. fl. g. .1. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. s. .i. s. d. 1817 92 0 93 0 64 0 72 0! 75 0 82 0 77 0 60 0 ,843 72 0 80 0 60 0 64 0 66 0 82 0 80 0 82 0 ;s49 60 0 06 0 48 0 50 0; 68 0 75 0 76 0 78 0 •850 St 0 70 0 37 0 42 0: 65 (1 70 0 60 0 62 0 ■;851 ' Co 0 73 0 45 0 47 0 02 0 60 0 64 0 66 0 HAY MARKETS. Thursday, September 25. The best Meadow Hay commauded a steady sale, at very lull prices. In Clover Hay and Straw only a limited business was doing. At per load of 36 trusses. Smithfield. Cumberland. Whitechapel. MeadowHay 55s.to78s. Sos.toSOs. 55s. to 78s. Clover Hay 703. 903. 70s. 883. 70s. 90s. Straw 2O3. 28s. 21s. 29s. 20s. 28s. TALLOW MARKET. Friday, Sept. 26, Accounts from St. Petersburg to the 18th inst. state that the shipments of Tallow were 61,232 casks, against 71,635 ditto in 1850; 80,954 in 1849; 90,887 in 1848 ; and 87,441 in 1847. The transactions were in- creasing, on somewhat lower terms. Our market is in a very inactive state at barely the decline ;.oticed in the beginning of the week. To-day, new P.Y.C. on the spot, is selling at 39s. to 39s. 3d. ; and old, 38s. 6d. to 38s. 9d. per cwt. For delivery during the last three months, we have sellers at 39s. 9d. to 10s. per cwt. Town Tallow, 38s. to 38s. 6d., net cash ; rough fat, 23. 2d. per 8lbs. The imports amount to 250 casks from Monte Video, 792 from St. Petersburg, 160 from Mel- bourne, 105 from Sydney, and 16 from Havre. HIDI : A re 04 72 80 88 96 t.... ND SKIN 0 €41bs MARK 8. d. 0 1^ to 0 1| 0 2 0 2J 0 3 0 3J 1 0 4 0 5 0 2 6 2 4 2 0 1 1 ETS. 8. d. 0 1| per lb. ■= H : 0 3 Do. Do. 721bs.. SOlbs.. 8Slbs.. 96ibs., ]041bs. .... Do. Do. Do. Calf Skins, Ijgh Do. full.... 0 .3| ,, 2 6 each. 0 0 „ 0 0 „ Polled Sheep . . 3 4 Half-breds . . 2 10 , 2 4 „ 2 4 „ English, Tree BA Per load RK. of 45 .£12 . 14 cwl. 0 0 to 0 0 £14 0 0 16 0 0 WOOL MARKET. Friday, Sept. 26. Fine English Wools command a steady sale, at full prices. In other kinds— owing, in a great measure, to the near approach of public sales — very little is doing. Importers generally are firm. This week's imports are 100 bales from Hambro'; 993 from Sydney, and 944 from Melbourne. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 246, Strand, London, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, /. n 379 not, it seems, been oft'ered below 37s. per qr. The harvest had been mostly secured, but too little pro- gress had been made with thrashing- to allow of an accurate judgment being arrived at, as to either quantity or quality. At Stettin, rye had risen -is. to 5s. per qr., owing to the reported spread of the potato blight, and the generally deficient yield of rye in that neighbour- hood. Some contracts for wheat, deliverable in spring, had been closed at 35s. per qr. for red Stettin, weighing Gllbs. per bushel. For imme- diate shipment little or nothing had been done in the article. At Hamburgh only very small supplies of new wheat had come forward, hardly sufficient to satisfy the consumptive demand, and stocks of old having been quite exhausted, the dull advices from here had failed to cause any decline of consequence in prices. Red Wahren v/heat of 61 to 6lilbs. weight had not been oftered below 39s. 6d. per qr. free on board. There had been ofters from the Lower Baltic ports at 36s. 3d. per qr. for 61 lbs. quahty, without leading to business. Barley is relatively dear all over the north of Europe. At Stettin and Rostock JQs. to '20s. per qr. was asked ; and at Hamburgh 27s. 6d. per qr. free on board had been paid for new Saale of only 5 libs, weight per bushel. In the Dutch markets prices are quite as high as in this country. About the middle of the month a purchase of moderately good Rhine wheat was made at Rotterdam, for account of an Amsterdam house, for shipment to England, at 35s. per qr. Subsequently, however, the inquiry quite subsided. From France the reports relative to the yield of the harvest are scarcely so good as they were earlier in the season, and prices of wheat are gra- dually creeping up there. From the Mediterranean we have nothing of interest to communicate. At Marseilles prices of Polish Odessa wheat were nearly as high on the 17th inst. as they now are here, viz., 28s. 9d, per qr. Letters from Galatz inform us that considerable purchases of wheat had been made there, the last fortnight in August, for British account. For the first quality equal to 23s. 7d. to 25s. 2d.; second, 21s. 2d. to 22s. lOd.; and third quality, 19s. 7d. to 20s. 2d. per qr. free on board, had been paid. The Indian Corn crop in Lower Moldavia had proved almost a failure; and this would, it was feared, be productive of great misery among the poorer classes during the winter; the price had risen to 15s. to 15s. 5d. per qr. free on board. Freight per British vessels ranged from lis. to lis. 6d. per qr. for wheat to England. The losses on the purchases made in that quarter must be very heavy ; and the Greek houses in London, who carry on the greater part of the business with the East, will be severe sufferers this year. liy the most recent advices from America we learn that the wheat harvest had been finished very auspiciously in Canada, as well as in the United States, and the produce was generally considered materially over an average. The principal markets had, it appears, been plentifully supplied with new wheat, and prices of that article and flour had con- tinued to tend downwards. Letters from New York, dated 13th instant, in- form us that rather large purchases of flour had been made in the early part of the month for ship- ment to Great Britain ; but that this had failed to raise quotations, the demand having been readily met by sellers. Good brands of Western Canal flour were procurable at New York on the 13th September, at 3| dollars per barrel, and other sorts at corresponding rates. CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. ShiUingB per Quarter Whbat, Essex and Kent, white 36 to 40 fine up to 44 Ditto ditto old ..38 41 Ditto ditto red, new 36 38 Ditto ditto old 34 38 Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 34 36 old, none white new 35 37 old, none 48 53 54 18 22 22 18 18 26 Ditto ditto Ditto ditto Ditto ditto Baklby, malting, new , . Chevalier 30 Distilling 24 Grinding 21 22 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 44 46 extra Ditto ditto old 45 Kingston, Ware, and town made,new 50 Ditto ditto old 48 Oats, English feed 17 Potato 19 Scotch feed 19 Irish feed, white 17 Ditto, black 16 Rye 24 Beans, Mazagan 27 Ticks 28 Harrow 28 Pigeon 29 Peas, white boilers 25 Maple 25 Grey 25 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — Country marks — fine extra fine fine fine 26 old 23 29 30 31 S3 27 26 26 22 28 30 31 26 26 26 32 28 45 39 40 38 42 28 31 26 24 50 51 55 56 20 25 24 21 19 25 29 31 32 34 23 27 27 37 32 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the Wheat, g. d. 41 4 39 10 Week Ending Aug. 16,1851., Aug. 23, 1851.. Aug. 30. 1851.. 39 Sept. 6,1851.. 38 Sept. 13, 1851.. 38 Sept. 20, 1851.. 37 Aggregate average of last six weeks 39 Comparative avge. same time last year ; 43 Duties.. i 1 last Six Weeks Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans a. d. s. d. 26 4 21 9 26 8 20 11 25 10 20 8 26 1 20 1 26 1 19 5 25 7^18 4 26 1 23 3 1 0 20 4 17 8 1 0 d.,s. d. 27 0|30 8 27 1131 2 26 9,30 7 26 230 4 25 0i28 9 26 2128 6 26 4:30 0 24 3!28 10 1 01 1 0 Peas, s. d. 27 2 25 11 26 6 25 11 27 8 28 2 2Q 11 27 7 1 0 380 THE I'ARMKIVy MAGAZINE. COMl'AilA'IIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES Of CORN. Averages from last Friday's i Averages from the correspond- Wheat Barley Oats . Rye . Beans . Peas . Gazette. Qrs. 106,232 , 8,070 12,593 417 2,236 1,027 Av. d. 8 : Wheat 7 i Barley 4 i Oats , 2 : Rye , 6 Beans . 2 I Peas . iug Gazette in 1850. Qrs. 103,850 6,208 15,675 795 4,048 1,099 Av 3. d. 42 7 24 10 17 1 26 4 29 5 29 5 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six WEEKS ENDING SEPTEMBER 20, 1851. Sept. 20 -iug. 16. Aug. 23. Aug . 30. Sept. 6. Sept. 13. ~1 "" 1 1 [■i.ii .. .. .. L, SEED iMARKET. Friday, September 25. We have to report a steady demand for Linseed and Rapeseed, at full rates of currency. Winter Tares and Canary are very dull, but not cheaper. All other seeds, as well as Cakes, command scarcely any attention. Duty was paid on the following quantities of foreign Cloverseed, up to the 20th inst : — 1851. 1850. London 89,161 55,929 Liverpool .... 8,186 7,691 Hull 39,582 24,92? Stock in bond 9,569 " ^BdROljGllll~OP"MARKE'I\ Friday, Sept. 26. The arrival of new Hops still continues large. Se- lected samples move off steadily, at full prices ; but most other kinds are easier to purchase. Duty, £115,000. New Hops are selling as under : — Weald of Kent pockets ., 130s. to 147s. Sussex • . . . 115s. to 126s. POTATOES. Borough and Spitalfields, Friday, Sept. 26. Very extensive supplies of Potatoes have reached us this week from Essex, Kent, &c. The bulk of them i-i m good condition ; but numerous blighted qualities are offering. From Antwerp 147, and from Ghent 10 bags have come to hand. Although a good business is doing, late rates are with difficulty supported. On the land Regents are selling as low as 50s. per ton. Essex and Kent Regents 60s. to 70s. per ton. Do. Shaws 50s. to 65s. Do. inferior qualities 25s. to 4()s. PROVISION MARKET. Friday, Sept 26. A very limited business is doing in Irish butter, at a decline in the quotations of from Is. to 2s. per cwt. Carlow, Clonmel, and Kilkenny, 76s. to 78s. ; Cork, 75s. to 76s. ; Limerick, 68s. to 73s. ; Tralee, 66s. to 68s. ; and Sligo, 70s. to 74s. per cwt. English Butter has given way 2s. per cwt., with a heavy demand. Fine weekly Dorset, 86s. to 88s. ; middling do., 70s. to 76s. per cwt.; fresh, 8s. to 10s. per dozen pounds. In Foreign Butter, which is freely offered at 2s. per cwt. less money, next to nothing doing. The Bacon market is in a very inactive state, at 2s. to 3s. per cwt. decline. Waterford, sizeable, 54s. to 57s., heavy 54s.; Hambro', 46s. to 52s.; Lard in moderate request, at 56s. to 58s. for tine Irish bladdered ; 50s. to 55s. for middling ; and 54s. to 58s. for Hambro' bladdered. ENGLISH BUTTEIl MARKET. Monday, Sept. 22. Trsde with us is become sick, and prices are not sup- ported ; indeed, fresh Butter is Is. per dozen lower. Dorset, fine weekly 80s. to 883. per cwt. Do. middling 70s, to 76s, Fresh 8s. to 10s. per doz. lbs. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 733 . to 8O3. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 8^d. per lb. Bacon, 453. to 473.; Hams, priuie, 6O3. to 623. per cwt. ; second quality, 54s. to 56s.; Mess Pork, G2s. to 643. per brl. ; refuied Ameriean Lard, in bladders, 52s. to 543. ; ke^'s and firkins, 523. ; Irish Lard, in bladders, 523. to 563. ; kegs or tirkins, 52s. per cwt. Bacon, Dried HamSjjMess fork. percwt. per cwt. 1 perhr!. Sept. 18. iS-17 1348 1849 •850 ■;851 Butter, percwt. 8. (1. 8. d. 92 0 93 0 72 0 80 0 60 0 66 n at 0 70 0 65 0 73 0 d. 64 0 60 0 48 0 50 Oj 68 0 75 0| 76 0 87 0 42 0, 65 0 70 0 CO 0 45 0 47 0 62 0 66 o! 64 a a. s. d. 72 0 75 0 82 0| 77 0 64 0 66 0 82 0 80 0 d. 80 0 82 0 7A 0 62 n (iO 0 HAY MARKETS. Thursday, Septem'oer 25. The best Meadow Hay commanded a steady sale, at very full prices. In Clover Hay and Straw only a limited business was doing. At per load of 36 trusses. Smithfield. Cumberland. Whitechapel. Meadow Hay 55s.to78s. 55s.to803. 55s. to 78s. Clover Hay 7O3. 908. 70s. 883. 70s. 90b. Straw 2O3. 28s. 21s. 29s. 2O3. 28s. TALLOW MARKET. ' Friday, Sept. 26. Accounts from St. Petersburg to the 18th inst. state that the shipments of Tallow were 61,232 casks, against 71,635 ditto in 1850; 80,954 in 1849; 90,887 in 1848 ; and 87,441 in 1847. The transactions were in- creasing, on somewhat lower terms. Our market is in a very inactive state at barely the decline t.oticed in the beginning of the week. To-day, new P.Y.C. on the spot, is selling at 39s. to 39s. 3d. ; and old, 38s. 6d. to 38s. 9d. per cwt. For delivery during the last three months, we have sellers at 39s. 9d. to 40s. per cwt. Town Tallow, 38s. to 38s. 6d., net cash ; rough fat, 2s. 2d. per 81bs. The imports amount to 250 casks from Monte Video, 792 from St. Petersburg, 160 from Mel- bourne, 105 from Sydney, and 16 from Havre. HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. 8, '1. s. (1. 0 IJ to 0 If 64 721bs. ..... 0 IJ ; 2 72 8(Hbs 0 2 0 2J 80 8Slh9 0 2J 0 3 as 9fllbs 0 3 0 3i 1041bs 0 'sr !b. Market Ili.ios, i6 to fi-llbs.. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 96 1041bs 0 3J 0 3} :, Calfskins, light 10 2 6 vmtti. Do. full 4 6 0 0 „ HorscIIides 5 0 0 0 „ Polled Sheep 2 6 3 4 Half-breds , a 4 2 10 „ Downs .,., 3 0 3 4 ,, Lambs 1 I 2 4 „ BARK. ~ Per load of 45 cwt. English, Tree ..».^12 0 0 to .£14 0 0 Coppice 14 0 0 16 0 0 ^wooi7market\ " Friday, Sept. 26. Fine English Wools command a steady sale, at full prices. In other kinds— owing, in a great measure, to the near approach of public sales — very little is doing. Importers generally are firm. This week's imports are 100 bales from Hambro'; 993 from Sydney, and 944 from Melbourne. Printed by Joseph Eogerson, 246, Strand, London. .^ # V 5^ ^ ^ 1 ,^ f ,^ v^' '^ I *«s*'5 i<^. IftVv'Yf d ^ .■>- '^ •^1 I THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. NOVEMBER, 1851. No. 5.— Vol. XXIV.] [Second Skries. PLATE 1. A S H O R T - H O R N E D BULL. The subject of our lirst plate, "The Earl of Scarborough," is a short-horned bull, the property of Mr. Thomas Wetherall, of Kirkbridge, near Darlington, to which the first prize of £40 was awarded at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society held at Windsor in July last. " The Earl of Scarborough" is a roan, and was calved in August, 184(5 ; he was got by Roan Duke (S4SG), dam Isabel, by Sax Coburgh (5091), g. d. Bell, by Belvidere 2nd (3127), gr. g. d. by Bellerophon(3119), gr. gr.g. d. by Kitt (2179), or Waterloo (2816). The following are the prizes obtained by this bull, in addition to the above : In 1847, at the Don- caster Agricultural Society's Meeting, the first prize as the best yearling bull. In 1848, at the Northum- berland Agricultural Society, held at Hexham, the first prize as the best two-year-old bull. At the York- shire Agricultural Society, held at Burlington, the first prize. At the Durham County's Society, held at Stockton, the first prize. At the Cleveland Agricultural Society, held at Middlcsbro', the first prize. PLATE II. TEDDINGTON; Winner of the Derby, 1851. Teddington, bred by Mr. J. Tomlinson, of Huntingdon, in 1848, was got by Orlando, out of Miss Twickenham, by Rockingham, her dam Electress, by Election, grandam by Stamford, out of Miss Judy. Orlando, bred by Colonel Peel in 1841, and got by Touchstone, out of Vulture, by Langar, went to the stud with the recommendation of being a Derby winner, as well as altogether a very superior race- horse. Last season saw the first of his stock out, and Ariosto and The Lioness share the honours of his "opening day." Orlando now stands at Hampton Court. Miss Twickenham, also bred by Colonel Peel, and foaled in 1838, was put to the stud at three years old, after a very short, but not very brilliant, career on the Turf. Teddington, the third foal she has reared, is the only one of her produce yet made famous. We believe the mare at two years old was given by Colonel Peel to Mr. Tomlinson, of whom she was bought in the summer of 1848, with the Orlando colt at her foot, by Sir Joseph Hawley ; the price £250 for the two, with certain further gra- tuities in the event of the young one turning out a trump. Teddington is a light yellow-chesnut horse, standing fifteen hands an inch and a-half high : he has an expressive, blood-like head, rather tapering towards the nose, and large ears, the head being well set on to the neck. His shoulders, however, are bad, short and upright, as well as thick and coarse near the withers. He is favoured, too, wiUi no great depth of girth ; has a slack, light, middle piece, but good fair-sized quarters, muscular towards the second thigh, and really good arms and hocks. He is not over large in bone, stands upright on his pasterns, and has small feet. Teddington is, in fact, alto- gether a short, light horse, with nothing in his appearance when " in repose " to warrant a judge putting a very high estimate on his capabilities. In action, though, he improves wonderfully on the spectator, being one of the finest, slashing goers ever seen; and striking out with the white leg in a style that acts (v.'hen too late) as " a caution " to those " on " against him. He has white on the oft' leg, before and behind, as well as a blaze in the face. OLD SERIES.] 2 c iNo. 5. —VOL. XXXV. 383 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Summary of Teddixgton's Performances. In 1850 he started five times, and won twice :— The Chesterfield Stakes, at Newmarket July Meet- inf^, value clear £920; the Molecomb Stakes, at Goodwood, £350. In 1851 he has started four times and won four times :— A Sweepstakes of 200 sovs. each, at Newmarket Craven Meeting, £700 ; the Derb}' Stakes, at Epsom, £5,325; the Don Stakes, at Doncaster, £50; a Match, at Newmarket Second October Meeting. £500. Total, £7,845. Sir Joseph Havvley, the owner of Teddington, has now for some time figured as a leading man on the modern turf; for altliough he has not comparatively been on it long, he v/ent at once to the fore. Sir Joseph gives good prices for his horses when he fancies them, backs them as spiritedly under similar circumstances, and has for some time had the reputation of being a dangerous customer to the ring. This character he has well borne out with Teddington J for never was the secret better kept, or more money made out of the winner. CLAY BURNING, BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. The good effect produced on many clay soils by burning has long been known, and is a practice which might be materially extended. At a period like this, when the heavy soil farms of England are perhaps more materially reduced in value than those better adapted for stock, such considerations are of more than ordinary interest. The recently published examinations of Dr. An- derson, upon the chemical results produced on the soil by clay-burning, will therefore be read by the o\^ners and occupiers of such farms with more than usual attention. Our knowledge with regard even to the chemical composition of clay soils is not so extensive as is desirable. Dr. Anderson evidently felt this, when commencing his re- searches : he gives, therefore, the analyses of three agricultural clays from Dumbelton, in Gloucester- Ehire. He found in 100 parts of these — I I. Water of combination and organic matter ! 7'69 Oxides of iron i 8"24 Alumina soluble in acids ! S"04 Alumina in a state of silicate .... ]0'04 Carbonate of lime ri2 Lime in a state of insoluble sili- cate ; 0-44 Magnesia soluble in acids j 0"62 Magnesia in an insoluble state . . I 0*34 Potash and soda soluble in acids' 0"73 Potash and soda in a state of in-[ soluble silicate, ' 0"94 Silica soluble in acids i 0"09 Silica insoluble in acids 61*71 II. 6-62 7-33 10-62 7-06 070 0-54 0-12 0-39 1-04 2-70 0-06 62-82 in. 6-68 8-63 9-25 9-66 0-19 0-24 0-56 0-34 ri3 rs2 0-08 61-42 Clays, as Dr. Anderson remarks {Quarterly Journal of Ayriculture, 1851, p. 106), generally result from the disintegration and degradation of granitic and felspar rocks. Felspar, a mineral composed of silicate of potash or soda and silicate of alumina, exposed for a long time to the united action of the atmosphere and water, suffers a gradual decomposition, and falls altogether to powder, SiUcate of potash, a soluble talt, is washed out by the rain falling on the decomposed rock, and converted in its turn, by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, into carbonate of potash and silica. Part of the silica remains behind with the insoluble silicate of alumina — the chief con- stituent of clays. Agricultural clays, however, are never pure silicate of alumina, but mixtures of pure clay (silicate of alumina), with more or less of sand, undecomposed fragments of felspar, and other minerals, lime, magnesia, free alumina, oxide of iron, soluble silicate of potash and soda, and traces of phosphoric acid, chlorine, and sulphuric acid. It is needless to follow the professor through all his valuable researches : they will be found in the two last numbers of the " Quarterly Journal of Agriculture." The conclusions to which he arrives are these — in some of Vv-hich even the practical farmer will concur — viz., 1. That the mechanical changes produced on clay upon burning, which by no means are unimportant, nevertheless do not sufliciently explain the fertilizing effects of burnt clay. 2. That clay, after burning, becomes more soluble in dilute acids. 3. That the temperature used in burning clay regulates the solubility of clay : too intense a heat renders clay, again, less soluble. 4. A temperature whereby the organic matter in clay soils is merely changed, but not destroyed altogether, should be employed in burn- ing clay in the field. 5, That in over-burning clay becomes less soluble than it is in its natural state. 6. That burnt clay contains more soluble potash and soda than unburnt. 7. Properly burnt clay furnishes a larger proportion of soluble potash and soda than clay burnt at too high a tempera- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 ture. 8. That in buinin}^ clay the tiame results are producer! aa iu a bare fallow. 9. That the fer- tilizing eftectd of burnt clay are mainly dependent on the larger amount of potash and soda, particu- larly of potash, which is liberated from the in- soluble silicates in the process of burnmg. 10. That clays containing much undecomposed sili- cates of potash and soda are best suited for burn- ing. 11. On the contrary, those resembiin^i-- in composition pure pipe-clay and porcelain clays, and all those which contain mere traces of unde- composed alkaline silicates, are unfit for burning. J 2. It is desirable that the clay which is intended to be burned should contain hme. 13. The api)li- calion of quicklime to newly burnt clay-land, or the mixing of clay with lime before burning, is likely to be attended with benefit. 14. That burnt clay absorbs ammonia from the atmosphere. 15. That clay in its natural state furnishes more ammonia than properly burnt clay. IG. That over-burnt clay does not absorb so much ammonia as properly burnt clay. 17. That the causes of the failures attending over burning are due to the mechanical changes which clay experiences in over burning, whereby it is rendered hard, like stone ; to the chemical changes, whereby the constituents of clay are rendered less soluble ; to the diminished porosity, and consequently reduced absorptive pov/er, of such clays. 18. That burnt clay especially improves turnips, carrots, potatoes, and other green crops, because it furnishes potash, v/hich these crops largely require, more readily, and more abundantly, than unburnt clay. The chemical result obtained by Dr. Anderson of burning clay in three different ways is given in the following table, in which column I. gives the analysis of 100 parts of the clay in its natural state; II., of another portion cf the same clay exposed in a closed crucible to a dull red heat for half an hour ; III., of another portion of the same clay exposed to a red heat in an open crucible ; IV., of a fourth portion of the san4e clay soil exposed for three hours lo a full red heat in an open crucible : — 1— t 1 II. III. IV. "Water driven off at 212 5-539 - Organic matter and water of >■ 9-160 9-200 9-300 combination . . 3-621 . Iiisoluble matter. Undilute hydro- chloric acid. . . . 84-100 80-260 Sl-845 85-309 Soluble matters. Soluble silica .... 1-450 1-380 1-580 1-150 Carbonate of lime 0-740 0-420 0-550 0-188 Potash 0-269 0-220 0-383 0-941 0-336 0-165 0-512 0-314 0-128 0-544 Soda 0-104 Phosphoric acid . . There arc various expedients by which clay may be only moderately burnt, and prevented from running into bricks. The plan described some time since by Mr. Walter Long, of Preshaw, in Hampshire, is one which, with a little variation, is available with most of those clay soils which cake in burning. The soil of Preshaw, as described by Mr. Long [Jour. Roy. Ayr. Soc, vol. vii., p. 245), is a thin, dry, flinty loam, resting upon chalk. "We suffer," he adds, "unless we have an abundance of rain in spring and summer; every- thing, therefore, is beneficial to our land that has the property of attracting atmospheric moiyture, &c. With this object the first point is to obtam ashes ; those that are burnt in the fields from weeds and grass around the headlands, or from the grubbing of hedge-rows, being full of vegetable matter, are the best. These, however, can only be burnt in summer ; and sooner or later, in farms that are kept clean, the materials are no longer to be found. Yet an inexhaustible supjily may be obtained, and employment afforded throughout the winter, by burning clay and strong earth in kilns protected from rain; the only difficulty having been that many persons, and myself at first, ])ro- duced a hard substance more resembling brickbats than powder. This difficulty," continues Mr. Long, " I obviated by (previous to burning) well saturating the soil with water, working it and treading it to the consistence of mortar (would it not be still better to add to the clay, if readily ob- lainable, a portion of ])eat, tanners' refuse bark, or sawdust ?), for water will separate any particles how- ever adhesive ; and then the fire expelling the water and the carbonic acid gas, leaves the particles in the state of very fine powder ; and if any should not at first be quite separated it slacks immediately on the application of liquid. Having saturated the soil thus with water, as much as a spade will hold is rolled up to the size of a large cannon ball, and is handed to a man in the kiln, who places it on the bars or the coping of the brick arches over the fur- nace. He places each ball as he receives it, for two or three tiers^ one above the other, and then lights the bavins in the furnace. In a short time the balls, wet as they are, become set or firm, and will not run into each other from the accumulated weight. These tiers of balls are then covered with a layer of small roots or wood (which become char- coal), and then over this wood the moist eai th is laid on in spits, as loosely as possible, till the kiln is nearly full, and finally topped up with turf, or rape-roots, or any vegetable rubbish. If the first tears of balls be laid on over-night, and the fire be kindled about seven next morning, all v/ork of continuous burning may be so forwarded as to enable the men to block up the mouth of the fur- 2 c 2 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nace with roots or stools by five o'clock p.m. ; leave it to burn and go home, and the next morn- ing the whole will be found burnt out. In this \vay, there being three kilns, and one lighted every morning, one will be cooling, one will be unloaded, and charged again with balls, and one will be burning out, and so in rotation. And by burning off two kilns any one day at the close of the week, and leaving them to cool, seven kilns may be burnt in each week, each containing about 1 60 bushels, and thus 1,090 net bushels may be obtained weekly. "When the ashes are taken out of the kiln they are sifted very fine, and made free from stones, chalk, &c., and wheeled to a covered shed 50 feet long, and there laid out in beds or pools, embanked by themselves all round, about two feet deep; a portable cask and pump attached then continually brings from various tanks the over- flowing of the farm-yards, the liquor from the stables, cow-sheds, jiiggeries, the house, the laundry, and discharges it into these beds of fine ashes, which, when they have absorbed the liquor, are covered with a coat of gypsum. They are then repeatedly turned, and repeatedly flooded, until they have thoroughly imbibed the moisture, and remain fully charged with valuable matter. It is then packed away in another close shed or store, and then trodden down by men as hard and as close as you may fancy guano to lie in its rocky bed, and so it remains piled up to the upper tie- beams of the shed, and covered over with boards and hurdles, until dug out with a pickaxe for use. We thus have always a large store of manure ready- to drill for turnips, &c., and a most excellent top- dressing for grasses and meadows ; and in the kitchen and flower-gardens it has been found a perfect substitute for farm-yard manure, and less productive of weeds. In its process it heats a good deal, and sends out crusts of saltpetre." The plan thus successfully followed at Preshaw possesses many and important advantages. The manure so produced is home made; there is no travelling away from the farm in search of foreign and expensive fertiUzers; the process followed produces, as Dr. Anderson has explained to us, immediate results, such as nature more slowly accomplishes (and the farmer accelerates in his fallows) : we are here, in truth, merely treading in nature's footsteps. Moreover, these profitable operations in co\ered kilns may be followed, as in Hampshire, during the winter months, when out- door labour is deficient, and the weather unsuitable for other work, and when the kind-hearted farmer is at a loss to find in-door employment for his farm labourers. POTATO DISEASE— ITS PREVENTION BY J. TOWERS, M.R.A.S., H.S., ETC, Till within a short period, I had no idea that I should be again impelled by a sense of duty to allude to the subject of the potato disease. That, however, has again appeared, and in some places with a degree of virulence which could not fail to startle those who had observed its progressive, though gradual, dechne since the close of 1846; and not only so, but had watched the extreme health of the plants during the entire growing sea- son of the present year, and until very extensive breadths of the earlier sorts had been brought to market, and found to be of a fine and superior quality. It is true that here and there the alarm note had been sounded ; but, so long as it became impossible to discover a spot upon the foliage, or to obtain information of its occurrence, it was natural to suspect that the printed reports originated in misrepresentation. With us — in the vicinity of Croydon — the early potatoes brought for sale remained without taint till the early part of September. The foliagi became somewhat marked before that time ; still, however, retaining that yellow tint of maturity which in bygone years was wholly unaccompanied with those foul blots on the leaves, and dirty- purple blotches upon portions of the stems, which, during seven years, have preceded decay. An account reached me from the neighbourhood of Castle Cary, Somersetshire, that the first spot was detected early in July. A friend confirmed what at that time had appeared a baseless suspicion, by stating that in the last week of September not less than a quarter part of all the potatoes had decayed in the ground, or " had gone off" since the digging. Conflicting opinions concerning the extent and progress of disease tend much to perplex. In Irelaiid the printed reports have long been contra- dictory. The Agricultural Gazette of October 4 contains an article signed J, M. Goodifl^, Sept. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 385 iCtli, from ivhich I extract the follo\vin}if lines: — " Whatever the case may be in other places, here, certainly, the disease in the tuber has progressed with a rapidity and to an extent much exceeding that of the last three or four years. There can be no dispute that in some soils, and some localities, the crop is far safer than in others, so far as the tuber is concerned ; yet, neither the same soils nor the same sorts of potatoes that have escaped in one year are to be trusted to in another ; for in the se- cond year of the disease the bog or peat soils were comjiaratively safe, yet in the third year these soils did not so generally escape." The statement given in the "General Agricultural Report" (Mark Lane Express, p. 2, Oct. 16) appears to be at once candid and fair : it allows for disease, but tells of the ])resent excellent condition of " the supplies brought forward in the Borough and Spitalfields markets — considerably in excess of the demand." This entirely tallies with the results of our own local investigations and inquiries. From Hertford, also, I learned that the haulm afforded no just criterion of the tubers. A letter from Northamptonshire, recently come to hand, informs me that disease does not there exist to any great extent. Having thus endeavoured to ascertain the status, or rather the opinion entertained of it in different localities, and thus arrived at the conclusion that great discrepancy exists upon every point connected with the disease, I come to the consideration of the mode of planting and treatment which, judging from all past experience, presents the only rational hope of the final extinction of the malady. Whether we should refer the primary attack, or its first symptoms, to atmospheric influence, or to some undiscoverable agency in the ground, it appears that the phenomena occur periodically, and are restricted within certain limits. If of fungoid origin, the position assumed is the same, for every vegetable has its peculiar times and seasons, and runs its destined course. Tubers more or less tainted at the time of starting may extend the mis- chief, and somewhat disturb the period of its occurrence, but they caimot have been its primary cause ; still, however, they ought to be rejected as seed. Every theory of causes having entirely failed, nothing remains to be said in the way of conjec- ture; experience, however, has instructed us that early— very early planting (that is, from the 21st of January to the end of February, according to the soaked or dryer condition of the earth) furnishes the best and most simple means of prevention, and that upon the principle of periodicity in an ex- tended sense of the word. A preparation of the ground late in the autumn, by deep trenching and ridging, will certainly cleanse the land and facihtate the operations of planting. If the quality be stony and clayey, burning a quantity of the clods would meliorate the texture and destroy vermin. Danger from frost could be obviated by furrow planting and covering the sets with the ridged earth to tl;e full depth of eight or nine inches. The ash-leaved and early kidneys should not be cut, but the sets of shaws, regents, &c., ought to comprise two or three eyes, every set being narrowly inspected to insure its perfect freedom from disease. I shall not dwell upon the production of what are styled early potatoes, as a dainty— Mr. Cuthill's pamphlet may be safely referred to on that subject — but I must advert to a circumstance which came under my own inspection. A neighbour received a sample of the lemon kidney from a friend in Lancashire, with directions how to treat the tubers in order to supply the table by the third week of May. The experiment did not prove satisfactory, but numbers were left in the ground, and were not dug up till the middle of September, when the tubers were found so beautifully fine and large that the party was tempted to exhibit them, and he won the prize of the Maidenhead show of the 1 7th ! Thus proof conclusive was given that the earliest varieties — ripe by the middle of Julj' — were in the highest condition after remaining in the ground during three months. The ash-leaved kidneys have long been proved to keep well ; but in every case dry, cool storing, and the abandon- ment of wet pits, must be considered paramount essentials. In conclusion, I observe that complaints of qua- Hty become less frequent, and dealers are in no degree anxious. W^e have little doubt that the winter and spring supply will be ample ; but, as it is our duty to prevent recurrence, and, if possible, convert the evil, which has now existed during seven entire seasons, into a prospective good, I trust that planters in general will act upon the principle suggested in the foregoing remarks, and in every instance substitute early spring planting, taking the probable duration of the growing season of each variety as their safest guide. If a late variety, planted in May, will require five months to bring its tubers to maturity, it must be evident that the herbage will be exposed during July and August to the influence of those malign agents which hitherto have been most active ; whereas, a very early variety, planted in February, will have perfected the herbage by the middle of Jul_v, and with it the full development of the potatoes. In that case the result will be promising. 38<5 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE FORMATION, CONSTITUTION, AND AMELIORATION OF SOILS. BY M. M. M. To grovv' crops it is necessary that there shoulrl he a substance in which the roots may find their support. A soil to be productive requires depth; and if not naturally deep, it must be made so by arti- ficial means. It not only serves the purpose of forming a bsd sufficiently firm for the roots of the plants, but is a medium for containing and convey- ing the food and water, and therefore is the most important consideration in cultivation. These soils, however, have not existed but from a comparatively recent period. If we dig down belov/ the soil, there is a mass considerably resembling it, and called the subsoil ; and if we dig deeper still we shall find a compact strong mass, called a rock. These rocks are not always the same, either in colour, consistency, or composition ; and different kinds lie upon each other, but with this general rule, that how many different kinds of rock soever there may be observed, some kinds are always the highest or uppermost, and some kinds are alv/ays lowest or undermost. Whatever, however, may be their character, they are liable to fall or crumble to pieces. We may observe this in our buildings, and in all situations where the rock is exposed. The action of the weather, as it is termed, and as we shall afterwards describe that of the gases of which the air is composed, continually tends to break down these rocks, and the w;'ter washes these particles into any cranny or low situation where it subsides. Nov/ no soonei is there the presence of this crumbled powder moistened with water, than small lichens and mosses begin to grow on its surface. These soon die, and a new kind of moss begins to grow, to share a similar fate. The crumbled rock thus becomes mixed with the dead vegetable matter ; and if the original rock still crumbles and washes dov/n, the stratum or layer becomes gradually thicker and thicker until it is deep enough to sustain larger plants, and the seeds of these being carried by the various modes which nature adopts to disseminate them over the earth's surface, finding a situation favourable to their growth, begin to sprout ; and thus in a state of nature either the rank luxuriant grass, called a prairie, is fon.ied, or the presence of an acorn or other seed of a tree is the origin of a forest. These trees or grasses fade and decay, or the leaves fall off, and year after year deepen and increase the vegetable matter of the soil ; and this is the secret of the natural richness of these virgin lands. It may appear natural at the outset that soil will always partake of the character of the rock on which it rests ; and as a general rule this may be said to be correct. Hence on limestone rocks we often find soils called limestone; on sandstone rocks sandy soils ; and on slaty soils we find clay : and this is the way in which the science called geology, treating on the character and formation of the rock composing the earth's crust, has an important connexion with farming. But we find that both sand and clay are found resting on the sandstones, and frequently clay on the limestones, and a full explanation is found in the fact that ex- tensive floods, v/hich may have prevailed for cen- turies, have carried them miles and spread them over the soils which had previously covered the rocks. These are called diluvial. The rocks do not always at first crumble to powder. Vast masses fall down by the wearing of the water, and drop to pieces, of various shapes and sizes. If these fall into agitated or running water, they will rub against each other, and ultimately fall to the bottom, where the water becomes still, and this will form a gravelly soil — porous and dry if the deposit is high— full of water : if bound in by clay or other substances holding water it will be full of springs. If, however, the water is bound up in any stagnant valley, another process commences. The aquatic or water grasses form instead of the mosses. Some adhere to the bottom ; some swim at the top ; some are partly exposed and partly covered, and as layer after layer of these decay, drop into the water, and settling to the bottom, they elevate the earth, and so hold up the water like a sponge. These accumu- late year after year ; they have little soil ; they are maintained by the air and by the water, as we shall afterwards show good plants naturally are ; and thus the soil, when the valley becomes full, is a deep mass of vegetable matter, called peat, and when dried the soil is called a peaty soil. The rivers in some continents, and even in some islands, are fed by tributary streams, which bubble over hundreds of miles of country, and in their course pass over many kinds of rocks, and carry down with them the most minute portions of every kir^d of dissolved mineral or vegetable or animal THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. matter it may meet with in its course ; and these carried down and mixed with each other in very fine and easily soluble particles, and then falling down or subsiding by the sides of the stream, form Boils of all others the most rich and fertile, and are called alluvial. There are some rivers where a constant exchange of suspended matter takes place by the tides ; and the salt constituents of the ocean mixing with the refuse from the land, and a constant destruction of salt water animals by the fresh, and of fresh water animals by the salt, there is a considerable amount of animal matter. If there is any side outlet, the waters rush over it at each tide, and as soon as they become still the materials fall down and make a salty deposit, and such soils are called marsh land. Calculations have been made as to the force re- quired in streams to carry away the different sub- stances over which they pass. A stream which flows at the rate of three inches in a second, tears up fine clay ; six inches, line sand ; and twelve inches, fine gravel. It is only necessary to watch the character of the water flowing down a river after a shower of rain to see how much matter is suspended in it. The waters of some of tlie great rivers have been examined by different authorities, and the result was that the river Wear had iGlbs. of mud suspended in every thousand gallons ; the Rhine at Bohn, lOoz. j the Ganges, 22 lbs. ; the Yellow Sea, 50 lbs. ; Oxus, 250 lbs. It will be seen how slow, but powerful, is the action of thf v/ater; how it wears away rocks and soils ; carries away stones and sand and mud ; how it reduces mountains and fills vaileys — and thus our soils are continually formmg arid washing away. The knou'ledge of the rock on which the soil rests has an important influence on cultivation— on manuring — on drainage. These we shall examine when we come to discuss the composition of soils, which will form the substance of a future paper; and in the m.ean time the following will be the broad principles evidently suggested : — The sands require claying and sheep-treading to bind them. The gravels and limestones require oil- cake and vegetable manures, from the rapid decay of vege- table matter which always goes on in them. The clays require drying and keeping open and friable, and the peats require mineral manures and pres- sing ; while the alluvial soils, if free from stagnant water, are naturally the richest and best land, both for grazing and cultivation. Generally speaking, these soils are the most pro- fitable in grass. It is much easier to turn in a bullock in May, and with no other trouble than a daily, or semi daily visit, to turn him out in Oc- tober fat, or even in July and August, and worth some five pounds more than he was when turned m in — than to j)lough and sow, and reap and thresh. The one sum is nearly all profit ; while from the other so much will have to be abstracted in the shape of expenses, that we think the landowner who, for any but special reasons, will be so absurd as to allow his tenant to grow two grey crops in succession, a practice which must show itself in its unreasonableness to everybody's understanding. It will be quite clear that a soil does not always depend for its constituents to the rock upon which it rests. This may arise from a variety of causes : either the soil may be brought to the surface by some foreign influence, as the action of water, or the soluble constituents may be washed out, owing to great porosity ; or mechanical and chemical changes may take place in the soil, which cannot in the substratum ; any one or all these may ope- rate to alter the character of the super-soil, and render it of a different composition from the sub- soil or rock on which it rests. Mr. Anderson, the chemist of the Highland Societ}', analyzed a soil belonging to the Marquis of Tweeddale, at Yester, which exhibited some re- markable deficiency. It is thus given — Soil. Insoluble sihcates . . . .87.023 Soluble silica 0.393 Alumina and peroxide of iron 4.129 Lime 0.341 Magnesia 0.290 Sulphuric acid 0.027 Phosphoric acid 0.240 Potash 0.052 Soda 0.050 Water 1.956 Organic matter ...«.<■ 5.221 Subsoil, ..82.72 . . 0.12 100.322 100.23 Now here the subsoil is more abundant in alu- mina and peroxide of iron, and potash, and there- fore may be supposed capable, so far, of ameliora- ting the surface soil by being brought up; while its deficiency of phosphoric acid will show that in all probability that substance is due from the sup- plies given to the soil, and will also indicate that to make the soil equally fertile, it will be necessary, in case it is brought to the surface, to give it an extra supply of that acid in a state easily assimilable by the plants. Great care, however, is necessary in mixing a subsoil containing much iron with the surface. M. Voelcker had a very barren soil sub- mitted to him, belonging to Mr. Tonge, who resi- ded ne;ir Lancaster; and he found the extraordi- nary peculiarity of the soil to consist in its abun- dance of iron. Of the j)art of the soil soluble in water, he found sulphate of peroxide of iron 6.41 per cent, j and in the soluble part of the isoil he 388 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. detected oxide of iron 5.45 per cent. There was not a trace of potash, and only .03 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and only 0.24 per cent, of carbo- nate of lime. Had there been a lar;?er percentage of lime, the soil would have been less barren. Dr. Anderson made a series of very minute and careful experiments on the wheat-growing soils of Scotland, furnished, for the most part, after a wheat crop had been taken oft'. His very best wheat itoil is that from the Carse of Gowrie, and its constituents are thus given — Soil Subsoil, per cent. ..61.63 . 6.23 . 14.24 . 1.27 . 1.39 . 2.17 . 1.04 . 0.03 . 0.26 Silica 63.19 Peroxide of iron 4.87 Alumina 1 4.04 Lime 0.83 Magnesia 1.02 Potash 2.80 Soda 1.43 Sulphuric acid 0.09 Phosphoric acid 0.24 Carbonic acid 0.05 Chlorine 0.09 .... 0.02 Organic matter 8.55 .... 6.82 Water 2.7o . . . . 4.57 Now here is not only a productive soil, but here is also a subsoil equal to some soils. This is a soil almost alluvial— the washings of the detritus of the trap rocks. The organic matter in the sub- soil— its containing more chlorine than the upper soil ; its having absolutely more phosphoric acid, more lime, and v/ithin a trifle the same potash — shows that the subsoil is in itself an excellent j upper soil ; or in other words, that it possesses an I excellent soil for a very great depth. Now if we | contrast this with an unfertile or deaf soil, analyzed for the same authority, we shall at once have a key to fertility. This specimen was from Pumpherston. It con- tained of soluble matter in acids — • Organic matter . . . . » 5.71 Phosphoric acid trace. Silica 0.17 Peroxide of iron 6.77 Alumina 1 .50 Manganese trace. Carbonate of lime 0.S5 Magnesia 0.09 Potash 0.13 Soda 0.1 2 Chloride of sodium , trace. Insoluble in acids — SiUcic acid 73.09 Peroxide of iron 1.37 Alumina 4.oq Lime 0.85 Magnesia 0.52 Insoluble organic matter 2.29 Water , 2.39 99.81 The great deficiency of this yoil is very manifest. Taking away the silica in both its forms, we have it deficient of every other article— more so, indeed, than the Carse of Gowrie subsoil. Another impor- tant fact is the absence of the sulphates, and the character of the soil given by Mr. McLagan, its owner— that it grew oats up to a certain point, and then they fell off— is by no means surprising. But there are some soils which contain so many of the elements of animal food as to be ])roductive of grass absolutely fattening. It is well known that on the mountain limestone districts of the great backbone of England, cattle may be fattened — and successfully and profitably fattened on the hay of this grass land alone. Mr. Bates, the well-known breeder, said — " Forty-two years ago my attention was drawn to the superior hay in the Craven district of Yorkshire, near Skii)ton, where cattle, fed on the hay only, were made fatter than upon turnips, hay, and linseed-cake, in Northumberland." The following is an analysis of the hay off this land^ In 1000 parts. Potash 9.90 Soda 6.35 Lime 7.90 Magnesia • . . , , 2.53 Alumina 50 Oxide of iron 01 Oxide of manganese 21 Chlorine trace. Sulphuric acid 3.08 Phosphoric acid 2.36 Carbonic acid 3.18 Sihcic acid 15,73 j-^ Now the analysis of the soil on which this gv§^'\ij is as follows— ,,n,i; onoric: Per eent^ ysm Silica and silicious sand 54,86 Ln,; Alumina ' 9.62 Oxide of iron with phosphoric acid 6.30 Oxide of manganese 02 Lime separated from carbonic, silicic, ' '" and organic acids 74 ' - ' Magnesia from ditto 17 Potash from sihcata 25 Soda from ditto 09 Sulphate of lime 30 Chloride of sodium trace. Carbonic acid 37 Organic matter with a little n-ater . 19.55 Water separated by drying at 212'' 7-70 Now if, instead of the soil like the above — rich in all the elements of nutrition — we take the hay grown from a poor soil, we shall find a most strikt^"'"^ ing difference. In 1000 parts — ' •'^^^^ Potash 2.87 '■'""' Soda. Lime Magnesia . . . Alumina , . . 37 6.91 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S89 Oxide of iron . . . ;U.Vvy;H 17 Oxide of manganese 0. Chlorine trace. Sulphuric acid 36 Phosphoric acid trace. Carbonic acid trace. Silicic acid 6G.78 Here not only are there deficiencies of all the in- o.ganic materials of flesh and of bone, but the small I>roportion of the most necessary constituents shows that the plant has not been al)le to appropriate any large quantity from so barren a field ; and hence the animal will have the same difficulty of appro- priation from a race of plants so deficient. The same may be said of the fat-forming as of the inorganic materials of plants. Professor John- ston found that while the oil contained in the flour of samples of wheat from undressed land was 1.4 per cent., on the same laud dressed with guano it was 1.9; with artificial guano'^ and v.ood ash, 2.2 ; with sulphated urine and ditto, 2.2 ; with sulphate of soda, 2.0; with common salt, 2.7; with nitrate of soda, 2.3. Now if this be true of the fat-forming, the same holds equally good of the flesh-forming materials. Thus Mr. Lawes found that the per-centage of nitrogen varied according to the manure as much as one per cent. "J'hus — Per cent. 1 . Dressed with sii])er-phosphate of lime, contained ... 3.03 2. Ammoniacal salts 2.65 3. Licbig's patent manure — a pecu- liar form of carbonate of soda 1 .8 1 Hence it is evident that a soil rich in the elements of pure fat and muscle, viz., organic matter, phos- phoric and sulphuric acids, silica, lime, and potash, may be expected to grow better crops, and to fatten and grow cattle easier, than another of a less- favoured constitution ; or whatever the soil may have, if it be open, and there is a subsoil abundant in these materials — like that of the Carse of Gowrie above detailed — we may expect a result the same as if the soil itself had the valuable materials. For it is quite immaterial where the plant has its food, provided it Ije within its reach. But it is not only the chemical composition of soils alone which afl^ects their fertility. A soil may contain in itself the elements of plants in sufficient quantity ; but it may be so tenacious as to be al- most impervious to air and moisture, and also to the plants themselves : it m.ay be so loose, and its sandy particles may be so refined and imadhesive, that it may lose moisture too rapidly, or admit too much of the exciting oxygen to the roots of the j)lants, or it may so contain its elements as to be •'' A bad mixture, by-the-bye : the alkali of the ashes would carbonize the ammonia, locked up with great chemical tenacity, so as to re-^ (piire an exercise of vast vital power in the plants to overcome it. Naj', more — may it not contain its materials in a state of comminution opposed to friability ? This is a question hitherto little pursued in farming : but a soil was submitted to Mr. Spence, of York, the chemist to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society — a soil a cold clay, not worth more than fifteen shillings per acre, contained only 5 percent, of alumina, and the subsoil only II per cent.; whereas the soil of the Carse of Gowrie, as we have seen, contained some 14 per cent. Mr. Spence suggests that it may depend upon the fineness of the silica. Amelioration of Soils, — And here it will be understood, we dispose both of draining and crop- ping in a very summary way. The former is a process by far too obvious to need any more re- commendation or mention ; the latter has been dis- cussed most amply in the papers in previous num- bers of the magazine, especially that on improving land without manure. There are a range of opera- tions proceeding from admixture, from mechanical operation, and from a kind of treatment of a con- stitutional rather than a detail character — a class belonging in the range of improvements rather to the landlord than the tenant, to which we here wish to allude. Now these are of a double cha- racter : first, changes in the soil itself, as clay burning, subsoiling, trenching, &c. ; and secondly, changes from bringing foreign matter to the soil, as chalk, marl, clay, &c. In all thesa different operations clay land is the great diflficulty. Lime is so known to have the jiower of ameliorating it, of rendering it friable and manageable, that most clay land has been limed until it is almost denuded of vegetable mat- ter; and hence, from this reason alone, is as un- friable almost as if it had never had any lime what- ever- Now a tenacious worn-out clay field may be greatly ameliorated by burning. Mr. Pusey, in his celebrated article on The Progress of Agricul- ture, makes a witness say, " A neighbouring far- mer tells me that a field he dressed in this way seven years ago, has ploughed easier by a horse draught, and has been like different land ever since ; whereas lime, especially if very caustic, makes the land closer and colder than ever." The cost of clay burning is from 40s. to 42s. jier acre, and the diilerence is striking beyond all concej)- tion. The effects are both chemical and mechanical. The fire makes changes in a close soil by creating new affinities, which the air has never the chance of doing; whilst the friability and porosity acquired is avast acquisition on soils so stubborn. Another advantage is the absorptive power of the burn THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. clay as regards moisture, while the inequalities of drying are so great as to give the soil at every stage of weather an advantage. Twenty- five per cent in quantity of crop is spoken of as a result of clay burning, and ten shillings per quarter in the sam- ple; while other instances are given of the most worthless land being made to grow a crop equal to the entire fee simple of the land. Forty- five bushels of vv'heat are mentioned as the product after burning of land previously worth only seven shillings and sixpence per acre rent. Another mode of improving a strong tenacious clay is the carting on of broken stones, limestone, sandstone, granite — anything, in fact, to alter the mechanical constitution of the stubborn clay. The absorptive power of stones differs very materially from clay. Thus a dry soil may absorb 40 per cent, of v.^ater : in other words, a cubic foot of clay may weigh 75lbs., and absorb 511bs. of water; a cubic foot of chalk will not absorb more than 4lbs. or 5lbs. ; a freestone soil 5"5lbs. to filbs. : a granite from lib. to 4lbs. ; so that it is impossible almost to mix any kind of stone with clay and not ameliorate its texture by placing in it two materials of differently absorbing properties and consequently different drying qualities. But another object may be served. These rocks all contain manurial matter. If it be mountain limestone it will silently and gradually convey to the soil the carbonic acid and the phosphoric acid which is so well known to supply a nidus to the clover so as to make them spring where they had never been sown. Professor Johnston found {Johnston on Lime, p. 246) that the Carluke lime- stone, on the carboniferous series, to which we have referred, contained from 1*93 to 2'33 per cent. of phosphate of lime ; and the Brampton lime, a member of the same series, contained 0"33 per cent, of the same material. But if it be potash or soda — for they seem to replace each other in the vegetable economy— it will be furnished by the granite if it be available. Small as are the quanti- ties of lime and magnesia in this prim.itive stone, it contains 9"33 per cent, of potash and soda, and hence is a most valuable auxiliary to clay soils in the shape of broken stones. Marl, though a fitter application to sands or gravels, may sometimes be advantageously applied to clay, if good cultivation follows. Marling, however, often enriches the father to the impoverishment of the son. It con- tains the phosphates and lime ; and so long as these last, the roots of plants are pushed vigorously through the soil, and the foliage forms a slselter from the baking sun ; but if corn crop after corn crop is abstracted — if the same poaching and rob- bing system goes on — the lime and phosphoric acid are exhausted, and the mere clay matter left behind, so that a marhng may do harm if not fol- lowed up by frequent and judicious green cropping. In hght lands, however, a different process is necessary. They must first of all be rendered ad- hesive. Until they contain clay enough to make thein hold the roots of plants steadily and firmly, to enable them to retain the phosphorus, potash, and ammonia supplied in the shape of manure, the cultivator is labouring under great disadvantages, and he should expend his best efforts in decreasing the difficulties. The vv'hole red sandstone district — the range of sand land — contains in its valleys as strong clay as it contains blowing sand on its uplands, and loam on the sides of these undulations. But more, be- neath the sand, at a greater or less depth, there is invariably clay, sometimes at the same level as the clay in the valleys, and sometimes below it. Now it may often be a question whether it is desirable to cart the clay over the surface to a distance, or dig down to it. It can seldom be removed either way for less than sixpence per cubic yard ; but it will generally be found that the extra carting for any considerable distance will be more than the cost of deep digging; and hence the clay pit on the spot is better than the clay valley at a distance. On the very weakest land, 150 to 200 tons per acre are necessary; but inordinary cases 80 to 100 tons may do; and even twenty tons per acre put on the surface early in the winter, so as to have the benefit of winter frost, and then strewed by the harrows, cross-ploughed, and worked in for turnips, will pro- duce a wonderful revolution both in the bulk and yield of crops, and in the facility the land will obtain of holding the manure which may be applied. Though sand may be so much improved by clay of almost any kind — for if it be irony or ocherous the porous sand will soon admit of the washing out of any excessive quantitv, which will be bene- ficial to sand, and gravel, and limestone light soils — it is seldom that any great encourageinent can be held out to jilace sand on clay. Gravel will always do good if put on in large quantities ; but we heard a novel remark on the treatment of clay land, which we must here mention as one of the suggestive facts rather for experiment than remuneration. Clay land, it is well known, heats into fissures in the summer months by the drought, A friend pro- poses to cart and spread on sand, to fill up these fissures at this season, so as to admit of air and water being admitted and transmitted through these sealed- up interstices. We will not pronounce upon the plan, even in its embryo state ; but the idea is worth an experimental trial. It surely need not be said that to deepen a soil is to improve it, It is to bring it into the state of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 391 the Carse of Gowrie soil ; to make the subsoil par- , important operation. Bubsoiling is too often aban- take of the character- and that a good one— of the] cloned. The large Deanston subsoil ploughs are surface soil. Now there are three sorts of subsoil lying aside, covered with dirt and canker— a proof which have to be ameliorated, though there are j tliat either they are not successful, or they are too sub-classes as numerous as letters of the alphabet : ' expensive to use. the tenacious brick clay, containing little more The fact is, they are used most improperlj', than water, sand, and alumina ; the grey and yel low sands, containing sand and ochre, without one ])r.rticle of clay ; and that most unmanageable and The farmer thinks subsoiling can be best performed while he can do no other work. He commences too early in spring, or too late in autumn, to do impervious of all substances -the " raoorband j anything else, and hence he kneads the subsoil clay pan," which is a complete stopper to all roots of j into a puddle. He ruins his land ! it never casts plants penetrating downwards. I it. But in dry weather he has other things to do : Clay subsoils hold water like a pot : nothing can [ he wants his horses to plough, and scarify, and improve them while so tenacious, for nothing jroes \ harrow; whereas then is the only time for success- through them. Draining does a little : it does ' ful operation. The clay when dry will break into much : it places them accessible to air, to frost, and pieces : it will fracture in all directions ; but if the to the action of filtered water. The rain, contain- ' least wet, the subsoil plough is another wedge — ing ammonia and phosphuretted and sulphuretted the best possible adapted for puddling the subsoil, hydrogen, passes through it, and leaves a little of It will make a road where it passes, but v/ill leave its qualities in the soil as it does so. But this is the rest of the land in the most perfectly imper- only to a certain depth. Pulverization is never at- tempted beyond a certain maximum. The surface j is kept pulverized; but the very action of the vious state. We have attempted to show this by a couple of fiTvu-es. Figuie 1 represents a section of the wedge— the plough— is constantly to knead and land subsoiled in v.-et weather. The upper soil a. e consolidate the subsoil, and hence though tlie top is pulverized, but the track of the subsoil plough soil may be in a state favourable for retaining any is distinctly marked d u, and there the earth is external process of fertilization, the subsoil is often proper as far as it has gone ; but the rest of the the very reverse. Now subsoiling well-drained subsoil b c B is thoroughly unbroken, and even land, when it is in a condition favourable, is a very more consolidated than before. Fig. 1. Stctiou of land siibsoilcd in wet weather. In Figure 2 a sectio n is given of a'soi! and sub- the whole mass of subsoil is broken, at least as far soil pulverized thoroughly, by bein:;- executed in ! as the plough has penetrated, and even beyond, dry weather. The soil a e is still in the same state j and nearly to the drains c c c, while the compres- of pulverization as the above ; but instead of the sion of the soil in Fig. 1 has an effect just the op- mere pressed indentations of the subsoil plough, ' posite. Fio. 2. Section of land subsoiled in dry weather. i\N:\Vfk"3 A 5XS -U ,f -^_ \- 392 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. No'v it must be obvious that whatever descrip- tion of soil you may have to contend with, the thus aer.iting the soil, and bringing it within the range of air, of frost, and of water, must have a most ameliorating tendency. If the air, the frost, and the water could break down and decompose the orioinal rock, surely it will do the same to the sub- soil; and hence, if properly done, clay will be vastly benefited by the operation of subsoiling : if not it v/ili be absolutely injured. But may not sand be also benefited ? This is a wide and imjiortant question. But there are strong cases where it may be safely answered in the affir- mative. On some sands there are impervious beds of iron and flint— so solid, so compact, that they can hardly be broken. It is called " moorband pan" : wherever this is formed the crops will not yield ; a little frost, or a little wet, or a little drought, or even an ordinary season kills them ; they go oft' in June, and even in May, and nothing will remedy it. Neither manure, nor hoeing, nor top-dressings can cure them. Now here subsoiling is invaluable : it breaks the pan, aerates the soil and subsoil, and admits of the ochery masses, so inimical to plants, Ijeing washed down \vith the genial rains. Nor will the soils be more susceptible of drought: they will be less so. The pan will hold the water only in a wet time, when it ought to drain away ; it vv'ill prevent its rising by capillary attraction in a dry one, when it is wanted, and a subsoiling here will be of immense advantage. Nor on sands alone, but even on the chalk, the magnesian and oolite brash, and the other lime- stones of the country, will subsoiling be valuable in deepening the soil, and so improving its con- dition. Soiverhi/, Third-, Sept.\9, 1851. ON POUCHED HEART. (Concluded from fUfje 327.J "Sine experientia nihil sufficienter sciri potest. 1 empiricism j the one is pr«c/icp, that v.hich follows Argumentum concludit, sed non certificat, neque ] it is theory. Perhaps life could not be sustained reinovet dubhationem ; et quiescat animus in | f^^^. ^ .^^^ ]eno-th of time upon substances alone intuita veritati., nisi earn mveniat via ex- ; ^^^^^^-^^ ^^^^ ^^ 1^, necessary to use innutritive penentu-c." Opus Majls. ; ' . ■; ' ' I substances in combination witli them. There are four essential elements in animal sub- \ To repeat, the plastic elements of nutrition, or stances; viz., oxj'gen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and those which contribute to the building of the frame caibon. The nutritive qualities of animal sub- ■ of the animal, are such as contain nitrogen in some stances depend upon the presence of nitrogen, ' projiortion— perhaps a small proportion only is which is found in fibrine (flesh), in the blood, and ! needed. The non-nitrogenous substances are the caseine (milk). Hence these are called azotised substances, which means that they contain nitro- gen. Other substances are called non-azotised ; this, of course, implies that nitrogen is not pressnt. Now/rt^ is one of these ; it does not contain nitro- gen. Whereas animal ilesh holds it in great pro- portion. So that the constituents oifat are :— Plydrogen, the element of water. Oxygen, the element of vital air. Carbon, the element of coal. To these there is in flesh, as before stated (what may be here called), the fllesh-forming element— i. e., nitrogen. So that it may be comprehended why muscle, lean meat, or flesh, is nutritive, whilst fat is comparatively innutritive. This is no hypothesis or crude conjecture. Philosophical ex- periment has demonstrated that animals cannot live for any length of time, if the food they take elements of respiration. Either of these given in an undue proportion or quantity are, therefore, of unhealthy quality ; the elements must either remain unconsumed in the blood, or must be deposited as fat, if the lungs, the skin, together with the other organs of waste, are unable to dispose of them. The result is the same, the efiects are co-equal, whether fat be formed de novo, or whether it exists in the food. There must be also a correct balance between the organs of supply and the organs of waste to maintain a healthy condition — to increase growth to its fullest extent. i ,(.i A frequent accompaniment of pouched heart isy that the heart bag holds a great quantity of water. This, by surrounding the heart, interferes with its healthy action. Often, by distention of the bag, the heart is removed from its natural situation from the left to the right side of the chest, where its does not contain nitrogen. So far, experience | beating may be distinguished. The breathing is proves that non-nitrogenous substances are un- ! opjiressed, and similar to what has been stated. In suitalde to the life of these animals. Thus science ' the lungs, too, of these animals water bags, fluke constructs its rules or axioms upon the dogmas of' cysts, or hydatids, are found. The fluid at times THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. 393 will be evacualed or alisorbetl, anil so leave a cavity, which is encrusled witli a curdy matter. The liver also is infested with tliesc animalcules. Arc they not generated by ttic abnormal condition of the blood, from mismanagement and improper food while the animal is young r From a perver- sion of nutrition, in which the degenerated fluid escapes from the small blood vessels, it has lost its plastic qualities, and is chemically allied to fat. Cases sometimes occur in which the heart is en- larged, and its walls are increased in thickness; the organ has a firmer or harder feel than is natural. la these cases, the partition (septum) which divides the right from the left side of the heart is frequently found ossified, or in a state re- sembling bone. This bone-like formation takes place at the broad end of the heart, and continues downwards for an inch or more towards the apex, or narrow end. From the frequency of this ossification, a vulgar notion prevails that the hearl is endowed with bone, and that the ossified septum is "the bone of the heart." Here the heart gene- rally preserves its healthy outline. These deposits of bone may be traced upon the coats of the larger arteries, so that the proper elasticity of the vessels is lessened, and the circulation in the smaller vessels becomes weak and irregular. This complaint is referrible to an unhealthy condition of the blood, and attacks the carcass in the form of rheumatism. This rheumatism (if the name is to be preferred) is a disease in cattle but little understood, and is too often treated improperly by large bleedings, evacuants, and other debilitating means, rather than by judicious abstraction of solid food, equal temperature, &c. ~ " Glacies ne frigida leedat Molle pecus, scabiemque ferat, turpesque poda- oras." Georg. iii., 298. The diflterent diseases which have been named, although varying in their seat, apparent connection, and similarity, very often arise from a common cause; and the direction given to the locality of disease may depend upon circumstances altogether incidental, as season, age of the animal, condition of the atmosphere, location, animal electricity, &c. "Animals should have plenty, but should never be cloyed ; they, on the contrary, should eat all up greedily, and too much should not be given at once. If forced too fast on highly stimulating food, more time is lost, by the system becoming dis- arranged, than by steadily progressing. Through immoderate feeding they become feverish and out of health. With a constant moderate supply, you keep the blood in a healthy, regular state." These are the recent expressions of an intelligent grazier, in which it cannot fail to be noticed how closely it accords with ih\>i essay; how clearly what he states points out the jnimary symptoms of the disease in question, and declares its initiation. During tlic progress of fattening, the animal is sometimes (as is said) *' taken ott' its legs," and refuses its food. What do these indicate? That the blood is vitiated, that the nervous function is impaired ; the morbid sympathies are aroused, and nature significantly points out, in the absence of appetite, that supply must be diminished — that no more stimulating food is to be given till at least the secretions have rectified themselves. This precau- tion neglected, or misunderstood, feverish symp- toms supervene, and then the " stand still." Nature refuses to accommodate herself to these perverse dictations. The animal cannot be fatted. Nay, the common food containing but a small pro- portion of nitrogen, is not only innutritive at this time, but the organs of nutrition i)rcfer that food which is devoid of nitrogen, in order that the quan- tum of blood may circulate ; so the fat which had accumulated is absorbed, a certain degree of emaciation takes place, the veins are relieved of distention, the animal is said to " go back." Again, the feverish symptoms may continue, and they often run high (for fat is a bad conductor of heat, and the inspired oxygen is more rapidly ab- sorbed when fat abounds), when the system of absorbents, as subordinate to the vital organs, is called' upon for increased activity. There is a dis- charge of the fluid part of the blood, or "running out ;" in v/hich case the lacteals convey the nu- tritive chyle with less velocity, and rapid emacia- tion follows. Then the absorbents become paralysed for a time from undue action, and there is consequent exhaustion. It is true that the natural food of herbivorous animals does not contain much nitrogen, and much of that force is perhaps for the production of ani- mal heat ; but this is no argument in favour of the artificial state to which animals are brought, much less an argument for the diseased condition which almost inevitably follows it. So, when general causes produce epidemic dis- ease in animals, as influenza or typhus, it may be understood why, with pouched heart, they should be more prone to inflammation of the lungs, and why such epidemic should be with them more commonly fatal ; why the skin should have more difticulty in performing its functions, and why the mucous membrane which lines the intestines should become aflfected in the form of dysentery, or running out, when much of the nutritive chyle passes oflF without entering the circulation. That in an animal unduly fatted, the blood holding an excess of carbon should make it more prone to fever, and subject to fatty degeneration ; 394 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that an increase of nitrogen being present in the blood should increase the susceptil)ility to inflam- mation; whether nitrogen is absorbed at each inspiration, and again expelled as watery vapour, whether it is afforded to the saliva during mastica- tion of the food, and so conveyed to the ingesta, or whether imbibed by the skin ; still the argument is intact if there be an excess of it in the blood, and this excess produced by artificial means. Can a doubt remain, if what has been stated has truth about it, that mismanagement and error pre- vail throughout the process of fattening?* Cui bono ? — to fatten and produce animals weak and un- wieldly ? It neither savours of art, nor smacks of science; it neither tends to utility, nor is it produc- tive of profit. As to the disease of the heart here insisted on, there is no reason to qualify a fact so obvious to any one who will give attention to it, although it has not been heretofore noticed. The fact ad- mitted, it will be allowed that the conclusions drawn from it are not altogether gratuitous. Indeed, it will in the end be productive of incalculable good, by pointing out a common and positive error; yet, if this should be marked with the condemnatory thetas of the many, still there remains for the one " mens conscia recti." If the arguments are un- plausible and im palatable, still, if correct, their use is expedient to hinder what is not founded upon truth, and therefore wanting in common good. Q. E. D. John Ashford. Hincklv, Leicestershire. GUANO AS A MANURE. BY A FARMER. A correspondent asks, " Will guano as a manure be sufficient in itself, if continuously applied year after year, to improve ordinary meadow land ? or can it only be applied beneficially occasionally ?" To this inquiry we reply, v/ithout much hesita- tion, that (juano is not of itself sufficient to keep any land in heart, much less to improve it. This assertion is at variance with the opinion of some few men of high standing ; but whilst the " doctors" have been discussing the matter in their studies, the "patients" have decided it for them- selves in the fields. We quote for the present one series of experimentsf alone, as they are the results of the unaided labour of an agricultural associa- tion, and bear the stamp of being the work of men who seek information that may be useful in the management of their farms. It is true that these expewments are for the purpose of answering precisely a similar inquiry respecting the turnip crop as your correspondent asks respecting his meadow ; but satisfactory reasons can be assigned for the same answer being true in each case. Turnips were the best crop on which to attempt * Her Majesty's butcher, unquestionably a man of much experience, is reported to have lately made the following pithy observations : — " This fattening is absurd; it is altogether a mistake. I think nothing of it. What is wanted (if possible) is five-sixths muscle and one-sixth fat, not the re- verse." So that truth must come altogether by tardy and seemingly unwilling steps. She some- times appears by circuitous and unexpected paths, as in this instance, where the supposed vested in- terests^ of (Hibernice) the fifth quarter are altogether put aside. t Trans. High. Soc, 1850, p. 235. comparison. They are the basis of every good routine of farming, and to secure them is the first aim of the farmer. Inquiries over 34 farms made by the Annandalc Farmers' Club, prove farmyard manure to be the surest foundation of the farmer's practice. When the crojjs v/ere to be only half pulled off, the quantity should never be less than 20 cubic yards per Scotch acre, unless with a larger addition of ground bones, as well as guano. When crops were sown with farmyard manure alone, in small quantities, the want of guano was seen in the irregularity of size and deficiency of weight of the crop. Two or 2.2 cv.'ts, of guano, in cases of indiflereut dunging, always increased the crop by one-third or one-fourth. In the case then of turnips, whilst guano cannot be depended upon alone, though it is a useful ad- dition to other manures, farmyard manure, if suffi- cient of it can be procured, may be used without hesitation. Your correspondent asks us to give the reasons for the ansv/ers to his inquiry. Perhaps none better can be given than in the words of the "farmers' Almanac" (page 93, 1851). If the productive powers of the soil are to be maintained, "' the chemical substances withdrawn by the crop must be restored to the soil in some fertilizer or other." The same fact is re- iterated by Liebig, and every writer on the subject; and the reason why farmyard manure was so much better for the turnip crop than guano is, that it contains every ingredient v/hich the crop requires, as might indeed have been expected, when we con- sider that it is derived from animals which have been led on the very plant the farmer wishes again to raise. On the other hand, guano only contains THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 396 a few of the chemical substances removed by the crop. But as it contains phosphoric acid and am- monia—the two most important ingredients — it acts as a stimulant on the plant, and, by some mys- terious operation not at present imderstood, com- pels the plant to seek the other ingredients it requires from the soil. Should these ingredients be present in the soil, the guano will for the time produce a crop. But it must never be forgotten that the removal of the crop so grown impoverishes the soil to the extent of the ingredients not sup- plied by the guano, and renders it by so much the less capable of producing another crop by the use of guano alone. If your correspondent compares an analysis of guano with one of farmyard manure, and these again with the analysis of any of our cultivated crops, he will at once see the force of these remarks. Nor are they less true of guano as a manure for hay than turnips. Guano does not contain all the turnip removes, therefore it cannot be depended on as a m.anure for this crop. In like manner, guano does not contain all the chemical ingredients of the hay crop; it cannot, therefore, be depended on for hay either, and certainly v/ill never improve the meadov/ land by its continuous application; though it may as a stimulant, and for the above reasons, act beneficially for a single application. This, however, we rather doubt. As far as e^'cr the writer has been able to ascertain, the use of guano has not been satisfactory on grass land. ^ One partj' the v/riter is well acquainted with at first used guano very extensively, but has now entirely discontinued it. In fact, the use of guano is nearly confined to turnips. For some strange reason not at present understood, the broad- leaved plants, such as turnips and perhaps clover, seem to be best adapted to it ; whilst it appears to be of com- paratively little service to the narrow-leaved plants, as the cereals or pasture and meadow land. The writer has tried for several years to discover some available top-dressing for the corn fields and the meadow land, but hitherto v/ithout any success. Farmyard manure, especially cow-dung, either alone or as a compost with soil, is the only application which he has found to be of any service on meadow land, described by your correspondent " as high and cold, with a bed of soil lying on a bed of clay 12 to IS inches deep, under which is a kind of clay and gravel mixed." Your correspondent also asks — " Would it be a judicious expenditure of money, preparatory to covering with quicklime, to drain 4 feet deep a pasture which was drained on the old system with 30 inch sod drains, and covered with lime some 50 years ago, but has now run back considerably ? The old drainage is not very effectual, yet the land is not what would be called very v/et. Its present value is about 13s. per acre. The cost of lime on the farm is about 6s. 6d. per ton." This question is difficult to answer without seeing the field, and we can only say what we would ourselves do under such circumstances. It certainly would not be a judicious application of capital for the tenant to be at the expense of draining such land, nor would we be willing to pay a per-centage on the outlay, un- less the land could be made worth at least 25s. by the draining. Our plan would rather be, to examine the main drain of the old sod drains ; if this were thoroughly re-cut, laid with large tiles, and, where needful, a rood, or even less, of the old drains re-cut, where they join the main drain — this trifling outlay v.'Ould be found to improve the old sod drains very much, as they are often spoiled by neglect in the main drain. The deterioration of the drains may, however, be judged of by the extent to which rushes and such like plants have spread over the field. If they are spread pretty evenly over all the field the drains must have failed all over ; but if these water plants have appeared more in one place than another, as, for instance, near the junc- tion of the cross and main drains, this will be the best guide to the extent of the evil, and the means to be employed for its removal. If your correspondent be correct in his statement that lime was beneficial on this pasture land when applied 50 years ago, and if none has been applied since, we would have little hesitation in using it again. The continued use of lime, for the same reasono as we have pointed out with respect to guano, namely, because it contains so few of the ingredients removed by the crop, invariably tends to the impoverishment of the soil. Your correspondent says that the meadow and pasture land are both of precisely the same quality and description of soil ; we would, therefore, re- commend an experimental trial of lime upon the former, as being more likely to be useful than guano. We give this advice only because he states that lime was useful in the pasture, and, as both are of similar quality, there is no reason why it should not be useful in the meadow. 3H6 THE FARME1V& MAGAZINE. T U X F O R U ' S P A T E N T S 1' R A W - 9 H A K E R . (from a CORRLSrOKDEM'.) 'i'he sulijoined is an engraving of the straw- yhaker, patented by Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, of Boston, Lincolnshire, whicli was alluded to in our last month's publication at page 367 ; the lateness of the period when the shaker was introduced into the Great Exhibition prevented us from accom- panying our former remarks with an engraving. Practical men, we believe, consider it as a princi- ])le that mechananical improvements are evidenced by the simplifying of parts. Thus, supposing there are two machines, each of which will })roduce tlie same result, that machine wliich is of the simplest construction, and has the smallest number of moving parts, being thereby less liable to derange- ment, and consequently more durable, is \)yo- nounced a more perfect machine. It is upon this ground that we notice Tuxford'a Patent Straw Shaker, and give the accompanying engraving, by which our readers, having a know- ledge of the ordinary rail shaker, will be aide to draw their own conclusions as to the simplicity of the jiatent shaker. The thorough tossing up and shaking of the straw is dependent upon the velocity at which the drum, that is staked on the crank shaft, is driven, and the throw of the crank. By referring to the engraving, it will be seen that the " patent straw-shaker " consists of a strong framework of wood, standing upon four feet, strengthened liy iron angle brackets, and having sideboards standing edgeways upon the upper part of the framework. Within the frame is a move- able i^latform or table, covered with wire web, being the full length of the frame, and of a width sufficient to fill up the space between side and side of the fraiile : the front sideboard appears broken, for showing distinctly the platform or table within. The drum on the side is staked on the crank-shaft, which runs in carriages attached to the framework, and passes from one side of the frame to the other below the platform ; l)y means of two carriages attached to the under part of the platform, the crank-shaft is connected with the platform, and thus the throw of the crank is given to it. Across the end of the frame, below the platform, and furthest from the crank-shaft just alluded to, passes another shaft, which does not revob'e, but merely rocks backwards and forwards, and v.'orks in carriages attached to the framev/ork ; two bracket-levers project from this shaft, and con- nect with the platform through the medium of two carriages attached to the ])latform : two other bracket levers, carrying counter balance weights, are also attached to this shaft. "We have described now the \arions jiarts of the patent shaker. Suppose the shaker at work ; the crank-shaft will have a revolving motion, from the driving drum staked upon it ; this motion by itself would only produce in the platform an up and down motion if the end of the platform worked on fixed centres; such is not the case; the end of the platform rides on the centres of the bracket levers already described. It will thus be per- ceived that from the revolving motion of the crank- shaft, and the alternating motion at the end, assisted by the counter balance weights, a com- I)ound action is given to the platform or ta1)le, viz., an up and down motion and a backward and forward motion; the up and down motion pro- duces the kick or shake-up of the straw; and the backward and forward motion the jirogression of the straw from the thrashing-machine to where it has to be delivered. The progression of the straw is accounted for thus : — The straw, when it is kicked upwards, leaves the platform at one spot, l)ut when it reaches the platform again it is at another spot ; the next kick varies it again, and after a certain number of ups and downs it at length reaches the exit end. We have been thus particular in our description of the principle of this shaker, as there is that sim- plicity about it which, we think, will tend to bring it into gener.d use. The travelling wheels and shafts for horse we have not shown, as they are disconnected when the shaker is at work ; neither do we more than allude to a " Com])ound Thrash- ing Machine," containing a thrashing part, patent shaker, and chaffing ajiparatus, made by the Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, whicli ihey explained to us, but which we have not seen. THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE. 397 STOCKTON DISTRICT FARMERS' CLUB This club held a meeting for discussion on Wed- neaday, Septeinl)er 3rd; Mr. Chrisp was called to the chair, and he called upon Mr. Hayson to introduce the subject of discussion. Mr. Rayson then said, he regretted that from various causes he had been unaljle to get any gentleman more exi)crienced than himself to introduce the subject; but as he had not succeeded, he had endeavoured to supply the defi- ciency by a paper of his own, THE MANURES BEST ADAPTED FOR THE TUR- NIP CROP, AND THE BEST METHOD OF STORING TURNIPS. On a former occasion when the cultivation and management of the turnip crop was considered in this club, the preparation of the land for turnips was fully discussed, and the manures best adapted for that crop were passed over with merely a re- mark, that in the opinion of the introducer of the subject, farm-yard manure produced ihebes tur- nips. As this is a point on which a great variety of opinion has been exjjressed, the continuation of the subject in its present form may be considered as important and opportune, and I will endeavour to lay before you some of the reasons why various opinions have been formed, and leave the meeting to discuss, and to pass a resolution upon them. It is certain that, in order to raise any crop from any given soil, that soil should contain the sub- stances necessary for the nourishment and full de- velopment of the plant required to be raised. The analysis of the turnip (the swede) gives us — SWEDISH TURNIP. Potash . . . . 26-88 Sulphuric acid . 15-33 Lime « . , 14-33 Soda . 13-31 Carbonic acid . . . 11-96 Phosphoric acid .. 10-17 Magnesia 3-27 Chloride of sodium (com. salt) 2-19 Peroxide of iron , 0-61 LIQUID MANURE. Carbonate of potash . . 46-09 Sulphate of sttda . 13-0 1 Carbonate of lime . . 12-50 Carbonate of soda . . 10-33 Silica . . 0-55 Oxide of iron . . 109 Chloride of sodium 6-94 Carbonate magnesia . 9-46 GUANO.- LIEBIG, 181. Sul|)hate of potash . 4-227 Phosi)hate of lime . 9-940 Oxalate of lime. . . 16-360 Sulphate of soda . 1-119 Phosjihate of soda . 5-291 Phosphate magnetia and ammonia . 4-196 Chloride of sodium . 0-100 Muriate ammonia . 6-500 Oxalate do. . 13-351 Urate of do . 3-244 Phosphate do . . . 6-250 BONES. Organic or combustible matter 43-3 Phosphate lime 50-6 Carbonate hme. . 4-5 Magnesia 0-9 Soda .. 0-3 Potash 0-2 ] Bone-dust Farmyard Soluble matter 10-20 10-750 Easily rendered soluble . . 41-50 11-250 Nitrogen . . 1-77 0-45() Totpl organic matter 3S-50 33-565 Saline matter 55-00 10-900 SPECIAL MANURE. Bone-dust Suljjhuric acid . . 30 1 ,, ) lbs. Carbonate of potash (dry) G2 Carbonate of soda (dry) 9 Carbonate of magnesia 12 WITH TOP 123 P. Bone-dust 3-2 Sulphuric acid . . 16 Carbonate of potash (dry) 52 Carbonate of soda (dry) 9 Carbonate of magnesia 19 128 According to the above ana'ys':s 1 quid manure supplies to the plant potash, soda, sulphuric acid, and ammonia. The solid (xcrements of animals may be supposed to be represented by the food supplied to them, which, wl.ether given in the form of hay, straw, or green food, will supply the phos- phoric acid — the most important part not afforded by the liquid manure. The deduction from this is that farm-yard manure (inasmuch as it contains all the constituents of the turnip) is a very valuable and important manure for the turnip crop. In ad- 2 D 098 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. dition ut he also found it necessary to use arti- ficial nianuire. He had found guano so mucli adul- terated, that he adopted the plan of making superphosphate on the farm, and he strongly re- commended every farmer to do the same. Thirty shillings worth of dissolved bones he found as good as the guano he had applied. If farmers dissolved their own bones, they were beyond the reach of im- position. The discussion then assumed a conversational form, and after a vote of thanks to Mr. Rayson for his paper, and to Mr. Chrisp for taking the chair, the meeting broke up.— Newcastle Journal. P H O S P H A T E OF LI M E . Phosphate of lime, oi', as Liebig reminded Mr. Pusey, " more ]iroperly, ])hosphoric acid," being proved to be the sheet-anchor of green-crop culti- vation, it becomes an important question vjJiere it can be obtained, and how it can be purchased at the cheapest rate. The source of this then un- known fertilizer used to be bones, chalk, marl, and the limestone of the carboniferous strata ; but now a vast field of additional sources of the manure is discovered, consisting of the coprolites, the green sand, the gault, the native phosphorite, and the guano deposits in different parts of the world. But it has also been found that if this acid — held by the lime with a powerful afiinity — could be rendered less difficult for the i)lants to dissolve out, a vast saving of quantity and a great increase in the 2 D 2 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cneroy of the acid are obtained ; and hence the various substances containing the acid have been crushed, or treated with different acids, to facihtate the decomposition of the mass, by the vital agency of the plants. It has been discovered, in the prac- tical application of the phosphates, that the more minutely the substances eontainingthese phosphates are divided the more powerful will be the effect. Thus, bones reduced to powder are more potent than those denominated " half-inch," from the size of the sieve through which they have to pass after crushing. The coprolite is almost impervious to either air, frost, or water, and will resist all efforts at decomposition for a very long period, and hence has to be powdered before it produces any very striking effect; and the limestone has to be burnt, and its particles disintegrated, before it will yield up its constituents to the plants which need it. The effect of these operations is purely mechanical. It increases the points of attack, it enables the plant and the water and the oxygen to have free play at a much greater surface, and hence places thelocked- up acid much more within the range of their power. According to our present views of vegetative physiology and chemistry, the more soluble the component parts of a manure may be, the more po- tent will they be found in their agency. Now phosphoric acid, as it exists in bones, is either in- soluble in water, or so slightly so as to be almost inappreciable to chemical tests. It is locked-up by the lime, which holds it with a very powerful affinity ; but if an acid, such as sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, &c., is added, it displaces a portion of the phosphoric acid, and takes its place ; the displaced acid unites with a smaller portion of lime, and be- comes a bi-phosphate ; and in this combination it is soluble in v/ater. Now this operation may either be performed by the farmer himself, or it may be done by the manufacture!"" on a large scale, and pur- chased ready made. The reason against the farmer performing it at home is mainly the danger of persons unacquainted with the nature of chemi- cals exposing themselves to the influence of so powerful an acid, and the chances of such persons, by some bungling in the process, endangering the success of the operation. And not only the danger of mixing, &c., but the difficulty of drying and ren- dering fit for the drill are nice operations to which all farm tenants are not easily made adepts. Hence many persons buy super])hosi)hate of lime ready- made, pulverized, dried, and ready for work. And the cpiestion arises, is this economical ? Now Dr. Anderson, the chemist of the Highland Society ; has taken a great deal of pains with the subject ; he has had and analyzed specimens of the manu- factured superphosphate, and has found that, while it is dreadfully limed and in a very favourable state for drilling, it is not a bijjhosphate at all. First we will give his analysis of the composition of dissolved bones— we mean of bones properly treated with sulphuric acid, and which are in the state best suited for plants — as a specimen of what the superphosphate ought to be : Water •. 39 19 Organic matter II'IS Phosphates 33'53 Sulphuric acid 12"81 Sand 2-69 Alkaline salts 0-65 100- Now it is evident that here there was much free acid. Now he afterwards gives, in the " Transac- tions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland," page 39, vol. v., the composition of purchased suiJerphosphate : — Water 16-141 Organic matter 20949 Phosphate of lime 30209 Lime 10-972! Sulphuric acid 10-233 Sand 8-402 Loss?. 99-906 0-94 100-000 Here it is presumed the lime has been used to dry up, i. e., to saturate the excess of acid and moisture, and thus, beyond reducing to powder, the acid has done little : it first freed the bone partly from a portion of its phosphoric acid, and created a biphosphate ; the lime added takes up the acid again, and it returns to the condition of a phosphate again, and yet this is called superphosphate of lime. We shall content ourselves in the present num- ber to giving the money value of the two sub- stances, and return to the whole subject in some of the interesting details the professor opens up. He shows that properly prepared superphosphate of lime, i. e., dissolved bones, costs £7 per ton and a quarter; and these contain, phosphates l,120lbs., ammonia BQlbs. A ton and a quarter of the pur- chased superphosphate, costing £8 15s., will give 938lbs. of phosphate and 28lbs. of ammonia — or a loss of some one pound fifteen shillings on the ton and a quarter. This alone is a strong reason for the home manufacture of dissolved bones. Whatever practical objections there may be to the purchase of manufactured superphosphate of lime, it is not to be supposed that the making of it by the farmer is free from objection and difficulty. If persons who know too much chemistry some- times send a spurious or inferior article to their customers, there are often injuries as great purely THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 self-inflicted by those who are ignorant of the science. For instance, a very respectable farmer, one who farms high, and who has on all practical points of routine farming a very sound and correct judgment, would dissolve his own bones. He first spread a layer of ashes on a lime and sand floor, then poured out his bones on this, and poured out his acid upon the mass. Never could a more pasty substance be created. The ashes took up the acid to their different alkalies, the carbonic acid bubbled up ; and the eflfect was that the decomposed and disturbed ashes so mixed with the bones that the whole looked like a pulpy creamy substance emin- ently fit for a manure for the turnips ; but it really was not. Beyond converting the lime, soda, and potash of the ashes into sulphates, it did very little to the mass, and kept the bones in a very great measure utterly untouched. But though it is perhaps only seldom that so gross an instance of mismanagement as this takes place, yet how often does the farmer perpetrate chemical blunders ! They will mix ashes, and even lime, to dry the dissolved bones for the drill, and think that in counteracting the free acid they are saving the iron of their drill implements ; while they are in reality counteracting the acid and undoing their work. We gave last week a table from Professor An- derson, of what might be generally taken as a sample of the dissolved bones of the farmer ; but as commercial superphosphate requires to be dry — for the farmer always obviously objects buying moisture — it must be dried up by something, which is not always superphosphate ; and gypsum or even lime is used for that purpose. The Professor has given a calculated table, showing the consti- tuents of the commercial superphosphate he an- alyzed, in the exact combinations they would be in the mass, and it is thus given — Water 7.777 Organic matter . 22.429 Phosphate of lime 28.012 Chloride of sodium 0.395 Sulphate of soda t 2.574 Sulphate of potash 2.617 Sulphate of lime 15.797 Carbonate of lime ! 6.588 Carbonate of magnesia 4.024 Sand 10.053 100.206 Now, here was absolutely no superphosphate whatever. The sulphuric acid has attached itself to part of the lime, to the soda, and the potash, while the magnesia is left carbonate, and so is some of the lime, or \0\ per cent, of the whole mass is car- bonate, so that all the sulphuric acid is taken up by the alkalies, and there can be no super or bi- pliosphate whatever. The Professor at this stage of tlic enquiry ojiens up a very interesting enquiry, viz., will the phos- phoric acid when chemically rendered in combina- tion with lime into a bi-phosphatc, and then re- stored to the simple pliosphate again by admixture of alkalies, be at all altered in its character from what it was before the sulj)huric acid was applied ? He says " It is quite an open question whether a given quantity of phosphates, when dissolved and again brought back by saturation of the acid into the insoluble state, may not produce an effect as great or nearly as great as when actually in a state of solution." This is a very clear statement of the position, and he founds upon the subsequent his- tory of the application some plausible arguments to show that it is soon doomed at least to undergo the change, " It is certain," he goes on to say, " that the soil contains enough of these substances capable of uniting with the excess of acid to bring the phosphates back into the insoluble state." And then he goes on to say that a great deal may be effected by the higher state of division in which the phosphates are obtained by treatment with acid than by merely mechanical means. We are disposed to think, however, that the change in the soil is by no means so rapid as to be very material. The alkalies in the soil are seldom in such great proportion as to effect any rapid or extensive change in the bi-phosphate until the vital influence of the plants has begun to act upon the soluble phosphate ; and this accomplished, all is done that can be. The practical part of the Professor's paper is, on the whole, interesting and useful ; but we cannot agree with him in recommending so small a quantity of sulphuric acid as only one-fourth the weight of the bones. It must be remembered that Che sul- phuric acid of commerce is far from pure. To drive off" the last portion of water is so costly that it is cheaper to pay for the water at one penny or one penny farthing per pound than to pay the manufacturer for the expensive process of driving it off". It often contains 25 per cent, of water, and even more ; and we are not convinced that some soils are not benefited by the sulphuric acid as well as by the phosphoric. The sulphur sold off", burnt away, and wasted by decomposition of all the refuse of the farm as sulphuretted hydrogen, is very considerable ; and it is an element existing in such abundance in some crops, that it is not unlikely that it is absolutely necessary to apply it artificially to make the land do its utmost, and therefore we advise at least double the quantity of acid the Pro- fessor statates. The mass must be dried by something. If soil is used it will at least take up some of the acid ; nay, even sawdust or decayed wood will do the same; so. 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. if it 1)6 applied in any state excepting ])y tlie liqiiid- raanure drill, we sliall find some sort of vehicle necessary to enable the farmer to lay it on, and it is difficult to obtain any whatever which will not take np more or less of the acid. For ordinary purposes we have never met with anything equal to the refuse of decayed stick heaps. It is usual for all farmers to take the hedge clip- ings, &c., and cart them to an out of tlie way corner somewhere. These decay, and leave a friable ab- por])crjt cnrboniscd mass behind. Nov,', nothing is better tlmn this to mix with the dissoh'ed bones to render them friable, and if it be carefully collected, sifted, and dried, it is an excellent mode of con- veying them to the soil. Another hint is the use of hot water in preference to cold in the dissolving of the bones ; but the whole bulk of water used should be as small as possible, and not exceed in weight the quantity of acid. Altogether we think the farmer should dissolve the bones he uses in ]irefcrence to purchasing he knowsnot what.— Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS. THE FOUR NORTHKRN COUNTIES — DUIiUAM, Letter XXIV. (From the Mommy CJironkle.) In my last letter I (ifferod j'ou a sketch of the social economy, internal relations, and industrial state of the four northern counties, witli some re- marks upon their historical conditions, and the foundations of their jiolity in the middle ages. In this letter I shall proceed, after brief preface, to consider at greater length the condition of the v/orking classes in the county of Durham, and with especial reference to the question of wages : — "The bishoprickof Durham, or Duresme" (says Camden — still the liest authority on British topo- graphy)— for so old writers denominate the County Palatine —"bordering upon the north side of York- shire, is shaped in fashion of a triangle, the utmost angle whereof is made up, toward the west, where the northern limit and the spring-head of Tees do meet. One of t'ae sides, whicli lieth southward, is bounded in with the continued course of the river Tees running down along by it ; the other, that looketh nortinvard, is limited fust with a short line from the utm.ost point to tlie river Derwcnt, then with Derwfnt itiielf, until it hath taken into it Chopwell, a little river, and afterward v/ith the river Tyne. The sea-coast fashioneth out the base of l.lie triangle v.diich lieth eastward, and the German Ocean with a mighty roaring and forci'jle violence beateth thereupon. " On that j).^rt where it gathereth narrow to the western angle, the fields are naked and barrain, the woods very thin, the hills bare without grass, but not without mines of yron. As for the valleys, they are reasonably grassy, and that high ridge, v/hich I termed the Apennine of England, cutteth in twain this angle. But on the east part, or base of the triangle, as also on both sides, t'le ground being well manured, is very fruitful, and the in- crease yeeldeth good recompcnce for the husband- man's toilc; it is also well garnished with med- dowes, pastures arid corn-fields, beset everywhere with townes, ond yeelding j)lcnty of sea-eoale, which in many ])laccs \\q use for fewell." And herewith our great antiqiiary and topographer de- clares it to be his opinion that coal is nothing else but bitumen, or " a clammy kind of clay hardened with heat under tlie earth, and so th.roughly con- cocted; for it yeeldeth the smell of bitumen, and if water be sprinkled upon it, it burneth more vehemently, and the cleerer; but whether it may be quenched with oil, I have not yet tried." " All this countrie (he ])roceeds), with other tenitories also thereto adjoining, the monasticall writers term the Land or Patrimonie of Saint Cuth- l)ert. For so they called whatsoever Ijelonged to the church of Durham, whereof St. Cuthbert was the jiatron ; who, in the primitive state of the English Church, being Bishop of Lindisfarne, led all his life in such holinesse and so sincerely, that he was inrolled among the English saints. Our kinges also, and peeres of the realrae, because they verily persuaded themselves that he was their tutelar saint and ]-,rotcctour against the Scottes, went not only in j)ilgrimage witii devotion to visite his Ijodie (wliich they beleeved to liavc continued still sor.nd incorrupt), but also gave very large ]H)sscssions to this church, and endowed the san-ie with inany immunities. King I'^gfride bestowed upon Cuthbert hiuiaclf, while he lived, great revv';- newes in the very citie of Yorke. King Alfred and Guthrun tlie Dane, whom he made Lieutenant of Northumbedand, gave afterwards all the lands be- tv.'eene the rivers Weare and Tyne unto Cuthbert, and to those who ministred in his church, to have and to hold for ever, as their rightful! possession (these be the very v/ordcs in effect of an ancient booke), whence they might have sufficient main- tenance to live upon, and not be pinched with poverty ; over and besides, th.ey ordained his church to be a safe sancluarie for all fugitives, that whosoever for any cause fied unto his corps, should have ])caceablc being for thirty-seven dales, and the same liberty never for any occasion to be enfringed or denied." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4(^3 The city of Durham, planted on a commanding eminence on the finely-wooded banks of ihe Wear, overlooks the country for miles around with the towers of its noble Minster, which affords, I may observe in j/assing, the single specimen of tlie jnire early Norman, or, more properly speaking, l'>yzan- tine style, which wc possess amongst our Isnglish cathedrals. Durham (a corruj)tion of the Sa.von name Dunholm, signifying " a dark wooded height, which ])errectly describes the sj)nt), v/as founded in the 3'ear of grace OH.'), and in the reign of Elhelred, by Aldime, l5i^dl()J) of Ijiudisfarnc and a colony of monks, driven from their insular seat l)y an incursion of the northern Pagans, at the close of those wanderings which have been com- memorated l)y the muse of the great minstrel, who sings — '*' How, v/hen the rude Dane burned their pile, The monks fled forth from Holy Isle ; O'er northern mountain, marsh, and moor, From sea to sea, from shore to shore, Seven years St. Cuthbert's corpse they bore." It now contains a population of 15,000 souls, with some manufacturing establishments of mode- rate extent. It is the centre of the nortlicrn and midland agricultural districts of the county, as Darlington is of the southern, and Stockton of the eastern. The towns of the county, I may observe, being in almost every case situated on the banks of rivers or on tlie sea, are very favour- ably situated for purposes of drainage, and, except in the sea-ports, the filth natural to v/hicli is allowed to accumulate through mere negligence and slothfulness, no complaint is to be made of the arrangements in this respect. In spite of the jilenty of streams, however, they are very inade- onately supplied with that greatest necessary of life, h.alth, and cleanliness— vi'aler. That of the rivers IS not available to any great extent for domestic purposes; for the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees are generally turbid currents, discoloured by the particles worn from the red clay soils through udiich they ])nss; whilst the vrater of the springs and draw-wells, at this season of the year at least, lias a A'illanous earthj'^ smack of the soil, muddy as it is, and saturated with rain. So true is it that, in respect of the commodities and appurtenances of civilization, our urban economy is still in its infancy, despite our experiences of a thousand years. And this reminds m.e of another ])articular, which ought not to be passed over — I mean the miry state of the streets, even in our small towns, and the world of petty misery and discomfort thereby occasioned to all whose necessities or un- fortunate pursuits of business oblige them to be foot-passengers. A few showers cover causeway and pavement alike with a coating of dirt six inches thick, and leave them in apligh.t little better than the high roads, v.diich, neglected as they have been since the establishment of the railway system, are now reduced !)y two or three days' rain to the consistency of a puddle. Scavengers yon never see at work by any chance, nor can it be pretended that the streets are cleaned dm-Ing the night, for the state in which you find them by morning too surely demonstrates the vanity of this supposition. Considering the number of poor, with little or no regular employment, who are ever to be found hanging about, one woidd think that a better pur- ])ose than that of street-cleaning, for whidi to ap- ])ly their labour, could not be found or devised. Yetifyoua^k in the streets of a busy town, why there are any able-bodied poor idle ami hungry, you will l)c told that it is because there is no work for them. Making sweet the thoroughfares would find many an outcast in useful em])loymcnt for more than half the year round, with such a climate as ours. A few years ago. Englishmen used to pique themselves on a character for cleanliness; but if no measures are taken to remedy the too ap])arent evils which affront us at every step, v,e shall establish our unquestioned pre-eminence for dirt over every other Eurojiean nation. If parsi- mony is the true objection, might it not be sug- gested to boards of guardians and commissioners for paving, lighting, and cleansing, that the outlay of a few "pounds, for health and cleanliness' sake, would be true economy ? In the county of Durham there were by the last census rather more than 10,000 agricultural la- bourers, male and female, of all a<^es ; 7,886 of these were males of twenty and upwards; 1,203 were males under twenty. Tiie former, supposing nine-tenths of them to be married, would of course represent a population of about 23,000. There are three classes of agricultural labourers in this county, the case of each of which I shall now pro- ceed to lay Ijefore you : the hind, the farm-servant, and the ordinary labourer by the day or theweek, or, as he is expressively called here, the drnjiillman. I put asidewomen — who, when regularly eraploj'ed, are almost always inmates of the farmhouse, their occupation partaking equally of the nature of the domestic attendant and the farm-servant— and boys, as the instances of their working independently apart from the families of husbands or fathers are extremely rare. Confining myself, then, for the present, to male labourers, I begin with the hind. He is the farmer's right-hand man of all-work, acting al.?o as a man ofauthority among the labour- ers. He is almost always married, with a family generally of moderate numbers, for Scottish house- hold m.axims are as rife here as north of the Tweed. His cottage, which he liolds rent free, is either near the grange, or forms a portion of the garth or larm- inclosure (ijard is a Norse word, still existing among us in the forms of r/arth and i/crcf, and con- nected also with gird). There is no precipe limit- I ation of his hours of labour, for he is understood ! to be ever ready at the farmer's behest, and works occasionally both late and early, tending the cattle at even and night, and rejiairing to the threshing- floor or the mill with lanthorn alight in the early winter's morning. Hence he is occasionally termed a hond.'tf/er, being as it were the farmer's bondman; though, if wc go back to Saxon times, we shall find that bond or bondager truly signifies a free peasant or yeoman ; but the word speedily lost its proper sense, and changed its meaning, when the Saxons were themselves reduced into bondage, and even Esau became a stranger in the tents of Isaac. The hind, however, bears no serf's heart in his breast ; intelligent and simply educated, I have 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. spoken willi many of this class, and have learned to estimate their admirable quahties aright, and to know that " the might which slumbers in a peasant's arm" may often be equalled by his natural nobility of soul. No little tyrant of his fields would have a chance with him ; with a hay-bill in his hand (a weapon of formidable aspect, used for cutting hay from the stack), you might take him for the master himself. The hind's wagi s, as I have learned from ihemsclves, are from lOs. to I'is. a-weck; he is entitled, besides a cottage rent-free, to other " pri- vileges," as they are styled, which generally consist of twenty bushels of potatoes in a year, and his fuel carted ; if he gets the milk and butter of one cow for himself and family, this is reckoned at 4s. weekly. This at first struck me as being an exor- ])itant estimate of its money value, and 1 remarked tlie circumstance to one of them employed on a farm near Miduleton-one row. He answered that he had tried both ways, the full money wages, or the reduced standard and the cow's miik, and seemed to think there was no appreciable difl^ercnce. His own wages, he said, were 12s. a week; he had a wife and five children. Tiio hind's wife and chiklren arc, of course, employed in preference to any others ; mdeed some farmers (and mostly all in Northumberland) will not hire a hind except on the express stipulation that his wife shall be ready to do farm work in summer and harvest time. This, of course, enables him to look Viith certainty to a sometimes not inconsiderable addition to his earnings. The hind may be paid by the week, but the agreem.ent is generally by the year, though sometimes by the half-year. The hind's cottage, from its locality, is sometimes without a garden, for which he has less occasion than other labourers. On a farm of two hundred acres there are generally two hinds; but, of course, other labour is required. This class of labourers, except when they forfeit position and character by misconduct, are rarely in distressed circumstances ; yet the last few years have somewhat modified their status, and the new law of settlement, introduced by the passing of the Poor Removal Act, which confers inemovability after five years' residence, has seriously affected their interests in some instances. To evade the operation of the law, and obviate the j)ossibility of the hind ever acciuiring a chance of settlement by residence, some farmers will not keep them longer than four years, at the utmost, and have new hinds every year or two. This course sho^vs but a mean spirit, and 1 should hoj)e is not often taken by respectable farmers. The denomination of farm servant is applied to unmarried men, oftenest youths, who are lodged and boarded at the farm, and hired by the year. The wages of adults in this situation vary from ten to eighteen, or even twenty jjounds, according to the work of the workman, and tlie duties required of him ; this year, however, has left few at the latter standards, and a common rate even for smait hands is £14. Boys and very young lads obtain only their clothes, or a sum of £3 or £4, in addition to their board. The condition of this class of labourers, of course, dejiends in a great measure on the character and disposition of their emidoyer; in a well-regidated family, and under a well-principled master, they are placed in the situation most desir- able for their own interests, and a farmer has it in his power to be a real benefactor to them. Farmers of deficient means and capital, however, are shirk- ing the employment of this class of men, and en- gaging mere boys and girls in their stead. The wages of a good woman-servant in a farm-house are from £S to £12. They are, 1 believe, always the daughters of labourers or small farmers. I now come to the daytillman, oi ordinary day- labourer, the most numerous class of all, and, it must be added, the most precariously situated. It is here where the shoe really pinches ; not but that a large proportion, I may say the largest proportion, are comfortably enough situated ; but it is a class which includes all, from the man in receipt of regular wages at 12s. Gd. a-week, to him whose employment is the most temporary or uncertain, 'i'he wages of inde])endent labourers, as this class is styled, are 2s. Gd. per day; nominally they are 1 2s. or 1 2s. Gd. a-week, and this rate has often been, and at this moment no doubt is paid ; but the ten- dency of the times is to reduction, and in most districts the farmers have succeeded within the last year or two in estahlisliing rates of 1 Is., l(3s., nay, 9s. or 8s. a-week, according to circumstances, when the understanding is that the party hired is to remain a long period. Still at such rates, as I shall i)restntly sliow, a man may maintain himself and a wife and moderate family in decency or com- fort— though with the lowest I have named it is a close shave indeed in some cases. The question of wages, instead of being a simple one, as is often supposed, and as some foolish doctors of ])oliLical economy have endeavoured to inculcate, is really one of the most complex imaginable, and is modi- fied by a hundred different conditions. Perhaps I shall best illustrate the subject by taking particular instances which have presented themselves in the course of my investigations, and which may be set down as the types of so many different classes, there being nothing extraordinary or anomalous in the circumstances. I shall give you the details, and leave you to draw your ovvn inferences. Cass 1, which I shall mention, was that of a day-labourer, past the middle age of life, married, hut with his children provided for in various v.ays. On inquiry I found tliat he was originally from Essex, but had been resident in the county of Dur- ham for sixteen years. Here I may mention a fact with which any one visiting the north of England must be struck, but which, in fact, corresponds ex- actly with the conclusions to be drawn from the statistics of the country in reference to population, as fully explained in my last letter. Fully the half, I should say, of the laboui'ing people with Mhom you converse are merely denizens, not natives, of the locality, having immigrated into it in search of employment; very frecjuently they will tell you that they are strangers in the neighbourhood, having only been there a few weeks or months. This is the case more or less all over England, for the habits of our labouiing population are no longer stationary, but migratory — nowhere, however, so much so as in the north. 1 found this individual at work not far from the bank of the Tees, rather more than a mile from the little town of Yarm, on THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 405 the borders of Yorkshire ; he had worked as a day labourer in all the usual capacities, en and oir farms, and was then employed in excavatinjif the foundations of a house. The wages he received were 15s. a week (or at the rate of 2s. Gd. a day), and in his then position he had, of course, no other aids or appliances to look to. He was an intelli- gent man, more so than the generality of his class ; he was well acquainted with the provisions of the new law of settlement, with the ojjerations of the railways (perhaps he had been a " navvy," but I forgot to ask him), and their influence on the labour market. He was a reader also of news- l)apers, and referred to an account he had seen of the condition of labourers in the southern districts, which had no doubt originally appeared in the MovniiKj Chroidclc. He seemed to think the lot of men who hardly tasted meat from one year's end to the other a very pitiable one, and assured nie that he had it every day. In this neighbourhood there has been ample employment for some time back, on tlie Leeds, Thirsk, and Hartlepool Rail- way, which passes by the town ; the viaducts at this spot are of beautiful construction, and models of brickwork. At Yarm there is also a paper-mill, and some minor establishments of manufactures of flax and wool. Case 2 was that of a dayliUman employed on a farm in the same neighbourhood.. He was at the time at work on " r/rippinr/," as surface-drainage is here commonly termed, and worked by piece-work. Fie was paid l^Jd. a rood, and made from r2s. to 13s. a week. Thorough drainage he considered less profitable and too heavy work; he also was an elderly man, married, but his children were "off his hands." Fie made the same amount at hedg- ing or ditching. The jjiece system, I should say, is fully as general in Durham as the ordinary plan of paying fixed wages. It has the advantage of effectually j)reventing anything like unfair play on either side. The labourer cannot idle away his time or shirk work ; the farmer cannot show undue preference to one man over another. I should mention here, that the practice prevailing in th.e south, of systematically giving higher wages to men who have families, and the manifold discon- tents and heartburnings thus occasioned are utterly rmknown in any part of the north with which I am acquainted. So, also, as regards the truck sys- tem, which has no existence so far as agricultural labourers are concerned. With pitme;i I have nothing to do. This man was also enabled to have meat regularly. Case 3 was that of a young farm-servant, un- married, one of the class described above. His wages were sixteen guineas, but he thought him- self worth eighteen, and wished me much to engage him at that rate. Case 4 was that of a farm-labourer in regular employment at lis. a week. A wife and three children ; one child earning 2s. a week nearly all the year round ; the wife and another child em- ployed in summer and harvest-time, the former oc- casionally making 3s. or 4s. a week. Case 5 is that of an aged couple, whose working days were now past ; tin; man, who is so weak- sighted as to be nearly blind, had been employed regularly as a hind, or daylillman, at r2s. and i3s. a week, assisted, of course, by his wife's earnings. They had, he told me, an allowance of Gs. a week from the ))arish; this seemed unusually large, but I could discover no particular reason for it. They occujjied a cottage, of which the rent was £2. It was in all respects adapted for the abode of laI)our. Case G is that of a man who should in strictness l)e included in the class of small farmers; but his condition was perhaps not superior to that of the better class of labourers. He farms seven acres, the property of Lord Eldon, for which he pays a rent of £3 j)er acre. This struck me as an exor- bitant rate; but, on inquiry, I was told that, being situated at no great distance from tuo or three rural villages, it was considered as in the nature of "accommodation land." Accommodation land is so called from lying near towns or villages ; it is either garden or pasture land, and often let to butchers for the convenience of grazing tlieir beasts, or to publicans to keep horses on. This man kept four cows on his ground, selling the milk and butter. lie had two calves, which he was going to sell, as the stock was as much as the land could maintain without them. He was a widower, with only one daughter, for whom suflicient occupation was found at home. His cottnge was an exceed- ingly comfortable one : on a plot of ground kitchen vegetables were grown. Case 7 is that of a peasant inhabiting the village of Stainton, in the south-western part of the county. He had been a farm servant, in the receipt of £15 per yeai, three years boarded with the same master, whom he had left, simj)ly, he said, because he would like to change. He had not been able to get a hiring at the Martinmas term, and had been six weeks out of employment. Knowing the declining tendency of the market, I remaiked to him that I thought he had not acted v>'isely, and he seemed to be much of the same opinion. He could not, or would not, give any other distinct reason than I have stated. Fie was unable either to read or write (a comparatively rare instance in this quaiter of England), but told me he went regularly to church. Case 8 is that of two brothers in the same village; one occupying a small farm of 1 5 acres, on which four cows are kept, turnips and vegetables grown; the other acting as his hind, or labourer. In this and similar cases I found it impossible to obtain clear details of household economy, as no regular accounts are kept. But the amount of necessaries and comforts within the command of men of this class, after jiaying their rent and providing for the trifling repairs of farm-buildings, or implements which may be required, does not exceed that within the reach of an ordinary well-employed labourer. Case 9 was that of a labourer at weekly wages, employed on a farm near Barnard Castle. At one time he had worked at a tan-yard in the town, where he had earned 13s. a week, but was tempted, as he told me, to desert his occupation by the offer of employment for three days, at 5s. a day, as a placard-bearer at the county election. On return- ing to work he was refused employment, and had taken to farm 1:.! our. I asked him what the rate of wages in this quarter was. He said, " Nae one 406 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that ca'd liimsel' a man wad gang out to work at less than 12s. a week;'' but by-and-by he con- fessed that if there were a prospect of long service, some deduction might be enforced. He was mar- ried, and had five children — none of the latter able to work ; the age of the eldest was seven, the youngest was an infant of three months old. He had been seven years in service at his present place, employed on a grazing farm of 130 acres, and acting as the factotum of the farmer during the absence of the latter at a larger farm, also in his occupation, in another part of the county. His money wages were but 8s. a week ; he had, in ad- dition, the privilege of growing as many potatoes as he recjuired on his employer's land, providing the seed at his own expense, and being of course not at liberty to make any other use of them than in his ov>-n family. 'J'his year he had planted thirty liushels, of which only ten were good, the others ])eing unfortunateh/ diseased ; one year he had been able to save but a bole, or two bushels. He had also his fuel carted to him gratis ; coals are 5s. a ton, or 3d. a cwt., at the mouth of the pit, and are sold at 6d. a cwt. in Barnard Castle — tlie carriage for ten miles and the retailer's profit causing a rise in price of 100 percent. He estimated his wages, v.'ith these additions, at about 9s. Gd. a v.-eek ; his wife had earned only 18s. for three weeks' harvest- ing this last time, having been jirevented from earning more by her confinement, but had gene- rally made 2s. a day for some weeks. He pa'xl 50s. a year rent for his cottage, a snug little tenement in good repair, consisting of one well-sized room below, used as a kitchen, and also serving tlie pur- pose oF a sleeping-room ; above v.'as the garret- lloor, of corresponding dimensions. 'Jliere was also a hutch adjoining, in which he kept his fuel, and sometimes a jiig. In one corner of the lower apartment stood a large bed, which had probably i-erved more than one generation of his ancestors, with curtains cf many colours — dingy, but not ragged, and gcod flock mattresses (feather-beds, however, are not unknown in the dwellings cf the j/easantry, for it apjiears they do not always despise the effeminacy) ; a bright fire blazed in the grate, and the place seemed neither diity nor " dowie." What a blessing to the ])oor man to live in a county where coals are cheaj) ; and in a climate like ours, how much does not this one item add to the com- forts of labour in the coal districts ! This rnan, who stated tliat he had maintained himself from the age of seven, was far from being a first-class labourer, as v.ill aj^pear clearly from his ov.-n ac- counts, here literally given. He avowed that, in these hard times, he v/as not above accepting "broken meat" from those who would assist him in this way. No signs of want, 'however, were})er- ceptible about his household economy ; his eldest boy, a fine-loolles which made good his proposition, and rememl)cring the ways of the world in old times, when men managed to get through life very creditably even in high places, though ignorant of either, I was not inclined to controvert him. He was determined, however, that his sons should be scholars in some sort, though himself was none, and stated that he had missed more than one com- fortable birth from his want of learning. The next man whom I may mention was a canny Scot, from Duddingstone, near Edinburgh. The number of Scotchmen in the northern dis- tricts is considerable. He had resided fourteen years in the count}', performing various sorts of unskilled labour, and was now employed at the brick-works and cinder-kilns (as coke ovens are here called), near Brancepeth, a village a few miles west of Durham. His wages (so much was paid him for every oven he "drew") ran from iGs. in winter to 24s. in summer; but the work, he said, was very hard, and the labourer is exposed to ex- tremes of heat and cold. He walked, besides, every day five miles to his work and five miles back, occupying a cottage (larger-sized than those of the strictly rural districts) not far from the city of Durham, for which he pays a rent of £5 a year. His wife, who v/as a native of this district, some- times earned a trifle at in-door or out-door work ; he bad four children, one of them an infant. He had two chiMren at the day-school; for the school- ing he i)aid 3d. if by the week, or 3s. (2s. if for one child only) when by the quarter. He could not say he had reason to complain, as they never v/anted at meals. He regretted his own war;!. o( ''lear," being able to read, but v/riting v/ith great diih'c'ulty, which had sprung from idleness in boyhood. lie said he had made about as ir.uch at home, ascribing his i-emoval to a disposition to roam a little. Case 1 1 V. as that of a man whom I hardly know how to ..escribe. 1 suspect he was some loose hanger-i a a!/Out the skirts of society — a stray waif floating 'on the billov.-s of life. He was at work on the road, about two miles from Durham. He told me he had been living near since last Maj'-day, and had bad but two days' v.'ork during the whole time. I asked him bow he had maintained himself then ? To which he answered t!\at he had a little, though not just enough; whether from puldic or private alms he did not state, and as I thought he might feel a delicacy upon the point, I forbore to press it. I then inrpiircd how it was he had found no work ? "Well, I hardly know," was his reply; "there's so many Irish now. I think they generally get all the work, except it be just soine kind of stacking, thatching, or mowing, which they cannot do." I might multiply cases of a similar kind ten or twenty fold ; but as you may be of opinion that I have already instanced enough, and as no essential difference between thera was perceptible, it will be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 Ijetler that I should compress the result of my indi- vidualized inquiries into a general portraiture of the labourer's condition, taking the average, and noting the variations of feature in ?pecies, or de- fining the margins on citlier side, of penury or plenty, as well as possible. I3efore doing so, how- ever, I must specify two cases which could not be ))roperly introduced uiuier the foregoing head, ns the parties in each v/ere strangerc — vagrants, in fact; but v/hich are of importance, inasmuch as the number and frequent ocouTencc of jjersonages of the same sort materially aflect the condition of the home-bred labourer in many cases for good or evil. The first was that of a young labouring Irish- man, with his wife and child, who had left Dublin some three weeks before, and come into this coun- try by way of Leeds, in search of v/ork. I found them cowering by the road-side, under the shelter of the hedge, on a sleety December's day. It was Ijitterly cold, the child had the hooping-cough, and in spite of the snow flakes, they had contrived to kindle a little fire of thorns, wdiich was giving out smoke, but little heat. They had a little tin can, wiih some broth or gruel in it, which they were trying to make their infant sv/allow, but I thought it doubtful if the poor thing v/ould live through many days of such weather. The mr-u was ]-oally handsome, with the vivacious, sensitive, arch ex- pression of face peculiar to the better specimens of t!ic Irish j)casaiitry ; the woman also v/as formed in the luxuriant mould of Iris!) feminine beauty. I regretted my ina'iility to give them any effectual aid. They asked me eagerly how I'ar it was to the town, where they were going to apjily at the va- grant-house for some relief. The next case, met on the same day, was that of two male Irish vagrants travelling in company — one a shoemaker from Dublin, the other a ropemaker from Cork. Their clothes were squalid tatters, and their whole a])pearance as loathsome and repulsive as tliat of the other man had been engaging. The shoemaker had been in England for some months, and liad had Fome work, but seemed not to have settled at it. Generally, I iiave remarked that the Irish peasanli'y and jinor are either decidedly hand- some or decidedly ugiy : their organization seems more flexible and impressionable tl;an that of the English or Scotch, and the types of feature are much more strongly contrasted. The condition of t!:e labourer, it will l>e gathered from the details given above, so far from being eitlier uniform or sim])le, as we :;re usually apt to conceive it, in reality includes a hundred different classifications and shades. It is modified through so many channels, and by so many diverse in-- fiucnces, that its varieties are almost mfinite. There is a not inconsiderable i)roporticin, tlie first class hands, who are little affected by extrinsic causes of lluctnation, inasmuch as they will always command their ])ricc from em])ioyers who kncvv* their own interest. But it cannot be doubted that, in so far as the mass is concerned, causes extraneous to the sphere of rural life, such as the abundance or scarcity of other kinds of employment, do most materially atiect their interests, and heighten or lower the rate of wages. Eoxu' years back, for ex- ample, when the construction of railroads was slill proceeding with unabated vigour, and the field of future railU'ay operations seemed interminable, em- ])loyment was to be had by all who would work ; wages were universally high, and a man must be a ninny indeed if he could not earn his 1 5s. or per- haps 20s. a v/eek. The labour of " navvies," how- ever, is much more severe and continuous than that of the ordinary run of farm-work, and all but the youngest and ;:trongest preferred their quiet rural life and more i-egular employment, even though their earnings might be a shilling or two less in amount. Still wages v/ere kejit up, and rarely fell below r2s. or 13s. Now the complexion of things is altered; the railways are pretty well finished or abandoned, and the ])rop,ortions of supply and demand in the labour-market are inverted. The farmers, who, for the most ])art, never possessed capital or means to prosecute agriculture as it should be prosecuted (for the estimate of required capital at £1 per acre is certainly not exorbitant), now profess to be hard pushed by tlie present prices of agricultural jiro- duce, and are anxiously contracting their outlay by every possible method. The consequence has been, in the northern districts, a reduction of wages to the extent of Is., 2s., or, in the case of inferior labourers, 3s. a week. The industrial capabilities of a man of course make his value to the farmer, and they vary just as much in agricultural as in other descriptions of labour. The labourers of the north, however, still possess advaritages which arc denied to those of some other divisions of Eng- land. The fervid and busy movement of industry which animates both town and country, is very different from the languid depression of the south and west; commercial, mining, and shipping enter- prises are prosecuted with activity, and agriculture is itself conducted with more of the spirit of im- provemciit. The relative demand for labour, there- fore, must evidently be more brisk, and the chances much m.ore in the labourer's favour. The lovv'er jn'ice of fuel, again, is a great benefit and blessing, It rarely exceeds 10s. a ton, and is generally con- siderably less ; in the towns 7s. is a common price. In spite, however, ot all the \'ariations to which I have adverted, there must still be an average rate of wages lortlie agricultural labourer, and it should now be our endeavour to fix it as nearly as possible. From all the observations and inquiries I have been able to make, I am inclined to conclude that the ]5rcsent average for the earnings of a male agricul- tural labourer cannot be less than 10s,; nor does this include those of his wife and child, or children, which may often amount to 5s. a week for the whole year. If unmarried, of course he has no burden, and no extra assistance to look to ; if married, \\ithout family, lie is jierhaps more favour- ably situated in all ros])octs than if single. The v/ife, unless hindered by sickness, is employed during the hay and corn harvests, "and occasionally at other times ; her earnings during the former ])eriod are at least lOd. a day, or 5s. a week, and yometimcs double. The eldest boy, if he has children, is sent to work at th.e age of eight, or sometimes seven, and soon pays for liis own board and lodging. This may in some degree interfere v.'ith his education; but that subject, as well as the 'pnilicular emphiyment of v/omen and 408 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. children in agriculture, will be considered by-and- bye. Sometimes, if unable to do out-door work, the labourer's wife may earn a trifle by washing and sewing, but this is not a very common case. 1 mention it, however, in order fairly to estimate the amount of his available resources. All things considered, the man of ordinary health, strength, and common sense, has a comfortable home in the north, where his children may grow up in habits of regular industry, and his own days wear away in peace to the grave. With respect to the character of the cottage ac- commodation, so far as I have observed, it may be pronounced good on the whole, or, at least, not bad. I doubt whether such a thing as an occupied cottage in ruins is to be found from the H umber to the smoke of Auld Reekie. In the northern dis- trict, the cottages are sul)stantially built of brick. Or as often of rough stone, containing two, or sometimes three rooms, which furnish sufficient accommodation for all, excepting large families, and large families are not common here. It would, of course, be impossible to accommodate in such a cottage half-a-dozen lads and lasses with due re- gard to the restraints imposed by delicacy; but the labourer's children are not all of the same age, and they do not remain about him long after they can shift for themselves. We have seen the shame- ful consequences which result in the southern districts from a different state of things and style of living, induced by the neglect of those who should liave obviated it. I may remark, from my own observation, that the old rural manners of England permit a degree of liberty or laxity in this respect which strangely contrasts with the fastidious delicacy of urban habits and modern tastes, but which still subsists to this day in some parts, un- censured, because no decent person thinks of abusing it. It even now sometimes happens that several grown up persons of different sexes (proba- bly only when the parties are connected by blood, or affinity, and perhaps all in the married state), will occupy the same large room at a country inn. I have myself seen instances of this within the last month. Exactly the same thing prevails in the country parts of Italy, though I cannot say that I have observed it anywhere in France. How else, indeed, are we to account for the use of those enor- mous beds, capable of holding three people with ease, and of which you often find two in the same room ? Enough of this. I mention it to preserve some record of a feature in our domestic manners which is gradually becoming obsolete, and which will probably in time entirely disappear. It falls now to consider the effect of the reduc- tion in the prices of the necessaries of life on the condition of the labourer and his family. The farmers contend that this reduction is sufficient to compensate for an abatement of wages in the cases where it has taken place, and where the measure was forced upon them, they aver, by that corresponding reduction. Butcher meat is now at 5d. a pound instead of Gd. or 7d. ; the bushel of wheat is at 4s. 6d. instead of 9s. or more, where it stood two years ago. Upon these grounds a reduc- tion of wages has been successfully attempted in some of the southern districts of Durham ; near Darlington and Stockton they have been in many instances lessened from 10s. or lis. to 9s. Where no reduction has taken place, the labourer's condi- tion has been of course improved, and distress, where it existed, materially alleviated. Labouring people in this county consider that if they can earn a boll of wheat (two bushels) in a week, their con- dition is tolerable, and this has passed into a kind of proverbial saying. The aliment of the northern labourer includes substances unknown to the daintier palates of the middle classes, but which are, nevertheless, fully as nutritious as any of the staples in use amongst other classes. Oatmeal and peameal are both used to some extent, in the form of crowdy, brose, and cakes. The latest results of scientific experiment and research have amply con- firmed the opinion, long current in the simple lore of the northern workmen, as to the excellence of these vegetal products. They are now supposed to furnish a more abundant recruit of muscular strength than any other vegetal substances. It will have been seen from the foregoing state- ments and reasonings, that the employment of wife and children, and the earnings which they are con- stantly enabled to bring into the common store, is often a main resource looked to by the agricul- tural labourer. The in-door work of a farm is generally done by female servants, who are the daughters of agricultural labourers, in conjunction with the wife and daughters of the farmer; but women thus employed speedily marry, and their savings go rather to find clothing and furnitare for themselves than to eke out tho necessities of the paternal household. In out-door work, the wife and children of the labourer are employed in hoe- ing turnips, weeding, or " couching," as it is some- times called, clearing the ground from stones, manuring it, tending cattle, &c. But their great sources of em])loyment are the hay and corn har- vests, when the earnings of a woman rise from 8d. and lOd. a day to Is., or even ^s., according to the quantity of work performed, and the rate of ])rice at the moment. There were days when in harvest- time the reapers of the field poured out in numbers from the small towns of the rural districts ; and at Darlington there are persons who recollect when from 200 to 300 lasses and lads would leave the town of a morning to gather in the harvest, trans- ported to the scene of their labour in wains, and marshalled by the rustic music of tabor, pipe, and fiddle. In the town I have just named, as well as in others, all this has disappeared, the'young people of the place being generally employed in manu- facturing establishments ; but something of the kind still exists in places of smaller size. Women are generally employed for a fortnight at the hay- harvest, and for a month at the corn-harvest, and the produce of their labour during that time may add a sum of £2 or more to the labourer's yearly earnings. Boys are employed in most of the above lines ; but the great branch of occupation for the youngest is in scaring birds from the corn, at which they will earn Is. 6d. a week, or for other things 2s. Upon a farm of 200 acres, two men and three boys will be employed, rather a less average, perhaps, than in some districts in England, but less work is required on pasture farms, and in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 409 Diiiliain the i)io])Ortiuii of land in i)asture is about one-tliinl, which is rather more than usual. The ill-door work of the dairy is often felt to be severe by women ; churning, in order to j)roduc8 butter, and also the making of cheese, are most laborious occupations, perhaps as much so as any descrip- tion of out-door labour, and they sometimes occa- sion complaints arising from over fatigue and ex- haustion. But of this more fully in future occupa- tions. I advert to it here in order to complete the estimate of resources available for the maintenance of the labourer and his family. Tlie field of agriculture in such a county as that of Durham, the theatre of a vast mining industry, is, after all, comparatively limited. But there is some satisfaction in reflecting that the same county which contains so many memorials of ancient grandeur, and episcopal and aristocratic power, from the princely magnificence of Raby to the chivalrous splendours of Hilton, Lambton, and Brancepeth Castles (the latter one of the most per- fect, if not the most perfect modern restoration of a feudal castle in the world), should also present examples of comfort in the humble abode of the labourer. The farm-houses have an air of sub- stantial plenty in most cases, though never ]",erhaps of opulence. They have, however, a trim, well- kept air about them, which evidences care and attention to domestic economy. I I'Jnow not a more pleasing spectacle than one of them, with its well-stocked yard, containing some dozen or twenty ricks. Stone is a common material in building here, there being excellent quarries at Brusselton and Dunhouse, in the county. I had an oppor- tunity of admiring the stone drawn from them in a new church just completed at Darlington, in the purest style of early English architecture, from the designs of Mr. Middleton, an architect of that place. At the Roman Catholic College of Ushaw also, near Durham, the same stone may be observed; it has there been used in the construction of a chapel, which forms another monument of the genius of Pugin, and is at present being used for the completion of a common hall and library. These and other buildings in progress through the county keep quarriers and masons in activity. With reference to Ushaw, which I visited, I may mention in passing, that it is a flourishing educa- tional seminary, containing about 130 students, many of them belonging to old families of Roman Catholic gentry in the north of England. The methods of education followed have something ol a foreign character, bearing a closer resemblance to those pursued in the universities of Italy than to those which are for the moment in vogue in Eng- land. As an evidence of the progress which agricultural science has made, even in the outlying districts of the county, I enclose a list of lately invented im- plements, which I found on sale in one of the second-rate towns. It is as follows : — ■ " The Twoivheeled Plough.— This plough had the society's prize of £10 at York, 1848 ; and a prize of £5 at the meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, held at Leeds, in 1849. Price, £4 15s.; with skim, 5s. extra. Extract from the Royal Agricultural Society's Report : — ' The land was of excellent character for tesiting the merits of these ploughs ; there were twenty-two in number, some with two wheels, some with one ; while others worked as swings. We directed these ploughs not to work less than eight inches deep, and what width of furrow the makers chose to take. Those with one wheel, and also the swings, gave us very little trouble in deciding where to place them. The land was strong, and whilst most of those with two wheels were doing their work pretty well, the for- mer were! working very indifierently, not one of them turning the furrows in the style we approved. We considered Mr. Busb}'^, of Newton-le- Willows, to deserve the first prize. His plough worked 9 inches deep, with a i;5-inch furrow slice, four horses drawing it in very good style, whilst others, which were not ploughing either so deep or so wide a furrow by 1 to 2 inches, could scarcely be drawn at all by the same number of 'horses. 'J'his plough cut the land side clean, made a level sole, kept the furrow more together, and turned it in better style than any other in the field.' " " Liight Two-wheeled Plough, adapted for all de- scriptions of soils, with a moveable nose-piece upon which the shares are jjlaced, and which can be set more or less to land ; and also at more or less pitch. This has been found to be of great advantage where cast iron shares are worked, for as they wear down, the plough may still retain the same hold upon or inclination towards the soil. Price, £4 15s. This im]ilement obtained a prize of £7 at the meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, held at Scar- borough, in 1847 ; and the silver medal at Bever- le)', in 1845 ; and a prize of £3 at Wakefield in 1846; and also a prize of £10 at Leeds, in 1849, for light and general purpose plough." " Drilling Machines — M3.de on the most approved principle, avoiding all unnecessary complication, of well-seasoned materials, and warranted to perform the work in a satisfactory manner. The corn and manure drills are adapted to drill corn or seeds, with or without manure, in any required quanti- ties. For greater convenience of using as a corn and seed drill alone, the manure box and apparatus may be entirely removed, if required, by a farm labourer. They are all fitted with iron levers and two barrels complete. Corn and seed drills : Seven-row, £20; eight-row, £21 10s.; nine-row, £23; ten -row, £24 10s.; eleven-row, £26 ; twelve- row, £27 10s. ; larger sizes, if required, at 30s. per row extra. Corn, seed, and manure drills : £30, £32, £34, £36, £38, and £40 ; extra for every ad- ditional coulter to convey corn or turnip seed be- hind the manure coulter, 7s. 6d." '• Machine for Breaking Rape and Linseed Cake, for beasts and sheep, and small for the purpose of tillage. — This machine has two pair of rollers, the bottom pair finer than the other. It will be found a most complete and easily managed machine, as it may be set to break cakes of every thickness, to any required size, for feeding stock or manure. The labour in working this machine is economized by allowing alterations in the speed according to the power applied and the hardness of the cake. Price, £10 10s." " Large Chaff-cutting Machine, — This machine is similar in most respects to Corne's well-known 410 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chaff engine, wliicli took the |)iize ;',t the Shrews- bury, Newcastle, York, and Norwich shows of the Royal Agricultural Society. It is arranged on an entirely new principle, to vary the length of cut, and will cut four diii'crent lengths. It is Utted so as to be worked by one man, or at douljle the speed by two men, and may be had for horse cr steam power if required. It is strongly recommended as a most useful plain machine, and will cut a larger quantity with less labour than those on any other principle. Price for one or two men, £11 ; with extra spindle, fur the feeder to assist v/henone man is cutting, £11 lis.; extra strong for horse or hand power, £12." " hnproved Horse-Hoe. — Price, £2 10s. This horse-hoe obtained the silver medal, 1S4S, and a prize of £5, 1849, at the meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society. Extract from the Royal Agricultural Society's report:— 'A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Busby for his horse-hoe ex- hibited in tills class, which worked very well. Its construction was simide, having a triangular sock in the centre, and two bent knives behind, followed by two sets of rowels on the jirincijile of tlie Nor- wegian liarrov.'. These had a good eifect in clearing the soil from the roots of the weeds, and leaving them on the surface to wither. They also made the hoe run more steady.' " " Grass Land Cultivator, or Hay or Stubble Ruke. — (Obtained j)rize, the silver medal.) — This implement has a leverage attached to it, which allows the person working it the advantage of pressing the tines into the ground to any reason- able depth that may be required. It has been used by many extensive farmers in Yorkshire, for pre- jiaring old pasture land for the reception of any (lescrij)tion of land tillage that may be applied. Extract from the Royal Agricultural Society's re- port: — 'The only one tried was exhibited by Mr. Busby, of Newton-le-Willows. It ajij;eared to answer the purpose for which it was designed, and to clear ofi' the moss and old grass roots in good style. It also, by the same operation, collects it into rows ready for carting oti*. All other grass land cultivators that we have seen leave the moss, (fee, that they tear up, spread over the surface. Where an implement of this kind is required, we think this will prove very efficient. We gave it a medal.' " The western district of the county of Durham, comprehending the upper course of the rivers Wear and 'lees, or Weardale and Teesdale, as they are called by terms of indefinite application, is an up- land grazing country, with extensive lead mines, which support a poindation of several thousand miners. In this district the farms are generally small, from 20 to 100 or 150 acres, and often the l)roperty of the farmer himself, who in some cases does the v/ork v/ith his own fam.ily, with little ov no extra assistance. The country rises gradually to the westv/ard, from Barnard's Castle to the south, and Stanhope to the north The former is one of the finest feudal ruins in England, so called from Bernard de Baliol, of the family which played so disastrous a part in Scottish annals, whose seat was at this place. It rises gradually over the rushing Tees, which here tumbles in a cascade over a ledge of rocks, and overshadows the bwift stream v/ith its gloomy ruins, like the shadow of death brooding over life. As you ascend, you come upon treeless green hills and large tracts of moorland, which stretch onwards into the cx])anse of Stanemoor. The course of the Tees offers many points of interest, of which the chief is the High Force, where the river, rolling through a portal of pre- cij)itous black rocks, forms a grand waterfall of full forty feet in actual height, but which inclines back in such a manner at top, when viewed from below, as to appear still higlier. Forss is a Norse word, signifying cataract ; it is nov/ commonly used in the Norse countries, and we here recognize it as surviving amongst us in its true sense, in the dia- lect of the peo])le. All this district, indeed, abounds in Scandinavian memorials. Tiiorsgill, that is, Thor's Vale, or valley ; Thorsgillbeck, the brook flowing through it ; Thorsby, or Thoresby, the dwelling of Thor; Balder's beck, or brook, arc found witliin it, recalling times when Odin ruled the ])0]ndar faith, and testifying to the worshiji of ancient deities. Ascending yet higher, the relics of Celtic theism have been found here, and altars traced which once smoked with oH'erings to Belatu- cader, the British Mars, to Vitircs, and to Magon. But without dwelling too long upon ancient recol- lections, this district offers sufficient v/herewith to whet interest and reward curiosity at the present day. The two princijial points are Middleton in Teesdale, and St. John's Chapel in Weardale, round which the scanty i)opulation congregate. Numerous lead mines are scattered round, which are worked by Colonel Beaumont and by the Lon- don Company of Lead Miners. I inspected the Cowshill mine, the largest in the district of Wear- dale, and sounded its depths, which extend down- v/ards for nearly one hundred fatlioms. The descent of a lead mine is a process infinitely more laborious and dangerous than that of a coal-pit, where you are let down and drawn up in a basket, and may consider yourself safe if the rope is not rotten. In the other case, tliere are n.o such facilities, and you descend into and mount from the bowels of the earth by a series of crazy ladders, in some places half worn away, and from v/hich a single false step would precipitate you to destruction. You first quit the realms of upper air by a lateral horizontal shaft, which is driven through the hill-side for a distance of nearly two miles, and has a second opening in some distant region. Along this shaft is laid a line of rails, on which waggons, drawn by horses, run with great velocity. Into one of these you must stej), and traverse the narrow shaft in imminent peril of your head, which, if you moved it a few inches to the right or left, would infallibly suffer by a collision. On each side of you, you catch a dim glimmering of rugged black rocks. Y'ou ar- rive, at length, at the toj) of the vertical shaft, and proceed to descend the ladders through galleries and landing-places dripping with wet and foul with mire. "Whilst descending, your attention is dis- tracted, and fears for your personal safety suggested, by a tremendous sound of rushing waters, v/hich, on enquirv, you find proceeds from a water-wheel and engine employed to raise the ore from the depths of the mine, the water moving which is sup- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411 jjlied by springs in the mine itself. The upper drift.s have long been closed, and are blocked up with rubbish. At length you come upon the lower drifts, galleries that is, about seven feet in height and breadtli, run through the rock, where the sounds of mattock and crow fall on your oars, and the miners, their swarthy-looking funris naked from the waist upwards, arc busy gruljbing out the ore. The ore found in some mines al)out this spot con- tains a consideralilc [iroportion of silver, and is im- bedded in beautiful though rather fragile spars. I do not know, by-the-bye, if these spars are turned to much purjiose at present, but they struck me as much resembling the stones of which the Italians make so much use in the coni[)osition of some kinds of their su})erb mosaics. The ore glitters and sparkles in its native state, before it is smelted, with a lustre not very inferior to silver. The ascent of the shaft is a most toilsome business, and there are many who faint on trying it for the first time. There arc long lateral galleries below as well as above, in which lines of rails arc laid, and the rattle of the waggons, as they ai'e driven by reckless lads along the narrow ]iassages, is ten times more appalling than an o])en railroad. As my guide, one of the o\'erlookers, remarked to me, " it is far to seek for a bit of bread " in these intestinal depths of the earth, but were it not for wet and dirt it would be less uncomfortable. I observed that most of the miners have hagj^'ard and somewhat corrugated features, from the high temj)erature at which they work below, and the sudden changes of atmosphere to which they are e.\])osed. The shafts and drifts are ventilated by fanners driven by the water engine. Accidents have been known to occur in the mine, but not from fire-damj). At the surface of tlie ground the u'ork of washing, sorting, and crushing the ore is carried on, through a variety of stages. When the waggons emerge from the surface drift, spoken of at first, they are drawn along a line of rails raised on posts, like the " staiths " for loading coal ships at the river wharfs, through one of the many openings of which they discharge their con- tents upon an ore-heap below. A number of stands arejjlaced in rows, at each of which stands a washer, engaged in washing the small ore and dross as actively as if he were following his voca- tion in the diggings in California. The ore is washed and rewashed, some of it a dozen times over. There is a large crushing-mill, the iron rollers of which crush with irresistible force blocks of various sizes, separating the crystalline particles of metallic ore from the s[)ar to wliich they adhere. A lead mine, like others, is known afar by the heap of rubbish and •' plate," as the spar is called wlien the ore has been aljstracted from it, tlu'own uj) near the mouth. There are three hundred persons, in- cluding a few boys, employed upon the single mine of Cowshill. The miners are divided into co- partnerships of six each, to every one of which a separate portion of the drift is allotted. To every miner a sum of ten shillings a week (called by them lent, or lentern money) is advanced by the company ; their further wages are dependent on the success they meet with in their search fur ore, which is, of course, various. Many of them make 403. a week; others barely cover their 10s. The average wages of the sorters and wash.ers of the oie, who work at the surlace, are 25s. There arc schools in the dales for the education of their chil- dren, and a miner's reading-room has lately been established by Colonel Beamnont at Newhonse, a spot about a mile and a liulf distant from the Cowshill mine. Some of those emjiloyed at the mines have bits of land which they cultivate ; their cottages have much the same a])pearance and aspect as those of the agricultural labourers, though generally rather larger. None of them \\ork longer than eight hours a day, that term being called a shift, and no more than fi\'e days a week, for no work in ordinary cases is done uj)on Saturdays. It woidd be improper to dismiss the subject of the wages of agricultural labourers vv'ithout advert- ing to the fact (which I had forgotten to mention in its projicr place), that in winter their hours of labour are considerably shorter than those of me- chanics and artisans working in towns. Excejiting the hinds and farm servants, whose case I have de- scribed al)ove, they work only from the dawn to the close of daylight — or at this moment from half- ]vast seven to half-i)ast four. In summer, if they work longer than ten hours (or twelve hours, with two for meals), they are paid e.\traj 2d. or 3d. per hour. THE GARDEN. (From the Gardcncni Chronicle.) [The following remarks are equally ai)plicab]e to the farm as to the garden.] Tiiere are few gardens in which, at this time of j-ear, you may not find snug jdaces in which Sow- thistle, Dandelion, Groundsel, and the annual S]uu-ges are enjoying themselves, and providing rapidly for the establishment of a nice young family. If you look among the flower borders you will pro- bably find none of them ; among the kitchen gar- den crops they may possibly be wanting ; and hence it may be imagined that in such places at least they are missing. We not long since met with an innocent gentleman who pointed with much complacency to his borders and kept grou rl, intending doubtless that his garden should be looked upon as a sort of model ; and he was quite 412 THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE. surprised at being told that it was slovenly because his old Strawberry beds had been forgotten, and were rejoicing in a flourishing crop of weeds, " Oh !" said he, "as to them, there is only a few Groundsels and Dandelions and Sow-thistles : I'll pull them up in a minute j" and sure enough, in less than a minute, a handful or two of these plants had been torn up, and we were in a cloud of their downy seeds. Only a few Groundsels, and Dandelions, and Sowthistles ! What a speech for a gardener ! What a lesson for the young men he was training up ! And nevertheless, v.hat an every-day occur- rence ! It probably did not strike our innocent friend that these plants grow from seed ; perhaps he thought thai weeds ccme of themselves. And yet we can assure him that they grow like his Mig- nonette and China Asters that he takes such pains to save the seed of. Nay, more, we will recom- mend to his notice the following calculation, made on a very low average of cases. The common Groundsel ripens about 52 seeds in each head of llowers, and produces about 40 heads, or 2080 seeds. The Dandelion ripens about 135 seeds in each head, of which it produces about 20, or 2700 seeds. The Sow-thistle ripens about 230 seeds in each head, and produces about 48, thus yielding 11,040 seeds per plant. The annual Spurges form about 180 seed-vessels, each contain- ing three seeds, and therefore produce about 540 seeds per plant. These are, as we have said, very low averages. Now, according to this calculation — Seeds 1 Groundsel producing 2,080 1 Dandelion . . . . 2,700 1 Sow-thistle .. .. 11,040 1 Spurge 540 which will cover just about three acres and a-half of land, at 3 feet apart. To hoe land costs, we will say, 6s. per acre; so that the allowing four such weeds to produce their seed may involve an expense of a guinea. In other words, a man throws away 5s. 3d. a time, as often as he neglects to bend his back to pull up a young weed before it begins to fulfil the first law of nature. We know that some well-fed folks object to all inflection or deflection of the vertebral column — they are gene*- rally fond of hard words — but then they also object to its being considered in their wages, wliich is not exactly fair. Let us look at the foregoing data in another point of view. Every Dandelion left to flourish unchecked may plant an acre of ground 4 feet apart; every Sow-thistle may do the same 2 feit } 16,360 plants. apart ; every Groundsel 5 feet apart, allowing for waste. Supposing a garden to consist of 2 acres, 16 Dandelions or 4 Sow-thistles or 21 Groundsels or 80 Sj)urges will cover it with a crop a foot apart. Taking this calculation in their hand we recom- mend every body aflHicted with weeds, or with a gardener whose vertebral column will not bend as aforesaid, just at this time of year to count the Dandelions, Groundsels, Sow-thistles, and Spurges uj)on the first square rod of ground they can mea- sure off. Seriously, this forgetfulness of the consequences of allowing weeds to seed is a fault of the first mag- nitude ; the more inexcusable, becaus3 no skill is required to remedy it ; nothing whatever, except industry and foresight, is demanded. It is quite certain that any garden may be thoroughly and permanently cleaned, if the gardener will bestir himself, and if his employer will support him. It is quite certain that the cost of once ettectually eradi- cating these things is as nothing, when compared with the endless charge of hoeing and raking them up. As practised in some places, the gardener re- minds us of the gentleman who spent his time in twisting ropjs of sand, or of those unlucky daughters of Danaiis, who were condemned to the interesting occupition of pouring water into a sieve. We would even suggest that a weed-neglecting gardener should receive the name and title of a Danaid. If the true histoiy of the growth of weeds were inqiiii'ed into, we suspect that our old enemy, pro- crastination, would be found at the bottom of it. They are so easy to kill, that any time will do. They are so little at first that they are not worth pulhng up. They are so common, tha^ nobody minds them, " It's only a bit of Grun el, sir," is the common reply to a remonstrance against slo- venliness. A man will pass one of these weeds day after day for weeks ; he will watch it from its smooth leaves to its rough leaves, then to its flowers; and, at last, to the lovely down which it so plentifully disperses. And when at last he pulls it up, it is just too late, the plant having already dis- tributed its favours over all the neighbourhood. If he would but have stooped once more than usual, he would have destroyed the mother of an acre of nuisances. One day, after walking very carefully through a nursery in the west of England, we could not help expressing our satisfaction at not having seen one single weed over many acres of highly kept ground. The answer of the proprietor was, " Weeds, sir, are too expensive for us; we can't afford them." What a bitter sarcasm upon the mass of cultivators ! THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 418 S T A I N D R O P FARMERS' CLUB. The perioJical meeting of this Society was held at the Chib Room, Staindrop, on the 8th of August last; the President, T. F. Scartli, Esq., in the chair. The subject was "The General Cullure and Storing of the Potato," which v/as introduced by Mr. Havelock, who read the following paper: — Mr. Chairman and Gentlkmen — In cora- j)liance with your request, I shall introduce to you for discussion the sulyect of this evening. The Solanum tuberosum, or common potato, is a native of Souih America. On the west coast ever3'where i' varies much in the leaves, colour of the flowers, shape and colour of the roots, &c. It is supposed to have been brought to England from Virginia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 15S4, and who returned in 1586, and "probably," according to Sir Joseph Banks, "brought with them the potato." Gerarde, in his herbal, pub- lished in 1 5Q7, gives a figure of the potato, under the name of the Potato of Virginia, whence, he snys, he received the roots ; and this appellation it appears to have retained, in order to distinguish it from the Batatas, or sweet potato, till the year 1640, if not longer. It appears from Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia, that the potato was first ]iianted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate at Youghal, near Cork, and that it was cherished and cultivated for food in that country long before its value was known in England ; for though it was soon carried over from Ireland into Lancashire, Gerarde, who b.ad this plant in his garden in 1597, under the name of Batata Virginiana, recommends the roots to be eaten as a delicate dish, not as com- mon food. Paikinson mentions that the tubers were sometimes roasted and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked with marrow and spices, and even preserved and candied by the comfit makers. In 1663, the Royal Society took some measures for encouraging the cultivation of the potato, with the view of preventing famine. Still, however, although their utility as a food was better known, no high character was bestowed on them in books of gardening published towards the end of the iTth century. A hundred years after the introduction of the potato, they are spoken of rather slightingly : " They are much used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with advantage to poor people." " I do not hear that it hath yet essayed," says another author, " whether they may not be propagated in great quantities as food for swine or other cattle." Even Evelyn seems to have entertained a prejudice against them : " Plant potatoes," he say?, writing in 1699, "in your worst ground, take them up in November for winter spending ; there will enough remain for a stock, though ever so exactly gathered." The famous nurserymen, Loudon and Wise, did not consider the potato as worthy of notice in their Comjjlete Gardener, published in 1749 ; and Bradley, Mho about the same time wrote so extensively on horticultural subjects, speaks of them as inferior to skirretts and radishes. But the use of potatoes gradually spread as their excel- lent qualities became better understood. It was near the middle of the 18th centurj', however, be- fore they were generally known over the country; since that time they have been most extensively cultivated, so that they are now to be seen in almost every cottage garden, and fields of them on every farm. The potato is now considered the most use- ful esculent that is cultivated, and from having no peculiarity of taste, and consisting chefly of starch approaches nearer to the nature of flour, or farina of grain, than any other vegetable root ; and for this reason, it is the most universally liked, and can be used longer in constant succession by the same individual without becoming unpalatable, than any other vegetable — the seeds of grasses ex- cepted. It is commonly eaten plainly boiled ; and in this way it is excellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in the spring months, the best parts of each tuber are selected and mashed before going (o table. The diseases of the potato are chiefly the scab, the Avorm, the curl, and the epidemic. The scab, or ulcerated surface of the tubers, has never been satisfactorily accounted for, some attributing it to the ammonia of manure, and sone to the use of coal ashes, &c. ; change of seed and of ground are the only resources known at pre- sent for this malady. Tlie worm and grub both attack the tuber; and the same preventive is re- commended. The curl is a serious disease, and this is now ascertained to be produced by the con- centration of the sap in the tubers. This accumu- lating or thickening is prevented by early taking up ; for it is now almost generally known that seed potatoes taken up before fully ripe, never suffer from the disease. It is, therefore, advisable to procure seed from the moorish or elevated grounds, where tiie potato seldom gets fully ripe. The most 2 E 414 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. serious malady is the disease which became so general in 1846, and has more or less affected the potato crop ever since. It has given rise to much discussion, and many opinions have been quoted (as to the cause of the disease) in different journals, but all the schemes hitherto tried have proved fruitless in preventing it ; but it is now pretty well understood that to preserve diseased tubers they must be kept dry, which will make very good seeds, as it is very seldom that diseased seed pro- duces diseased tubers, although they may not pro- duce so abundant a crop as healthy seed. The varieties of potatoes are numerous not only from the facility of procuring new sorts by raising from seed, but because any variety, cultivated for a few years in the same soil and situation — in the same garden or farm, for instance — acquires a peculiarity of character or habit, which distinguishes it from a similar variety in a different soil and situation. In general every town and district has its peculiar and favourite varieties, so that, excepting as to the best early kinds, and the best for a general crop in all soils, any list, however extended, could be of little use. The best method, therefore, to order potatoes for seed is to give a general description of the size, colour, form, and quality wanted, and whether for an early or a late crop. The following sorts for the first crop in the open garden are recommended : — Fox's Seedling, Early iManly, Early Mule, and Broughton Dwarf. For general cultivation in the open garden or field : Early Kidney— good flavour and very early, keeps well ; Nonsuch, Early Pro- lific, Early Straw— good early sorts for general use; Small American, Small White— also much esteemed; the Early Champion, the Red-nosed Kidney; Bread Fruit — an excellent white, mealy, good-tasted sort, raised from seed in the year 1810; the Lancashire Pink-eye — good ; the Black-skin, white interior — good; the Red Apple — mealy, and keeps the longest of any; the Tartan, or purple and white skinned — an esteemed Scotch potato, very prolific, mealy, exceedingly well-tasted, and keeps well; the Yam, or Surinam potato — large, red and white skinned, and the interior veined with red, flavour disagreeable, and not such as to admit of its being used as human food. This succeeds best on heavy lands, and is a valuable sort for the farmer, as with this variety he has an excellent as- sistant to his turnip crop in feeding live stock. The potato may be propagated from seed, cuttings or layers of the green shoots, sprouts from the eye of the tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. The object of the first method is new or improved varieties, of the second little more than curiosity, or to multiply as quick as possible a rare and excellent sort, and of the third to save the tubers for food. The method by a portion, or the whole tuber, is the best, and that almost universally practised for the general purpose both of field and garden culture ; one good eye to each set is suffi- cient. In prej^aring the soil for potatoes, if not dry, it ought to be effectually drained (previous to the autumn ploughing), for in a wet soil they grow sickly and produce watery tubers infected with worms and other vermin. The first ploughing should be given soon after harvest, so that the soil may get the benefit of the winter frosts; as early as the weather will permit in the spring the land should have a second and third ploughing, and should be reduced to a fine state as speedily as possible, taking care to remove all weeds, roots, &c., off the land. I shall now describe to you two methods for planting the potato. The first method is on the flat, and is very much recommended by some farmers in Northumberland, viz., the land is divided into convenient breadths and the manure laid down the centre of the divisions, the plongh is then set to work to plough a furrow on each side, which is manured and planted ; the plough then covers up the furrows and so proceeds till the pro- per distance is arrived at for the succeeding furrows to be planted, and so on till the whole is finished. The other method is by ploughing the land ridglets, say from 32 to 36 inches broad, which is best done by a double mould board plough, the manure being applied as for turnips immediately under the sets, and covered over with mould re- versed by the plough, after which a light drill roller may be run over the rows to break any clods that may be on the top of the ridges, which will add much to the neatness of the work and be a benefit in hoeing. The after-culture of potatoes consists in harrowing, hoeing, weeding, and earthing up ; all potatoes require to be earthed up, extending six or seven inches round their stem. The reason of this is that the tubers do not, pro- perly speaking, grow under the soil, but rather on, or partially bedded in its surface. Pinching off the whole of the potato blossoms is a part of after cul- ture not unworthy the attention of farmers. The manure and its preparation for potatoes deserves particular attention; it is my opinion that many failures are caused in the potato crop by using poor coarse unprepared manure, and by this means the land is impoverished to the greatest extent, and causes an obstacle in the more extensive cultivation of the potato owing to the succeeding crops being deficient; but v>'here the land is properly tilled and well manured and limed, abundant crops often suc- ceed, particularly of wheat. I have seen deficient crops of clover after potatoes, but perhaps it may be attributable to some other cause than to the potato crop. The season for planting depends much on the soil ; where the soil is very dry the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 415 potato sets may be planted in March, but for a full crop April is the best time. Potatoes, indeed, are often planted in the end of May, or even in June ; but the crops, although often as abundant, are neither so mellow nor mature as when the sets are planted in April. I have tried autumn ])lanting, but with bad success. This year I planted early kidney potatoes in February; they were a poor crop, there being many failures. I planted the same kind of potato a month later, and every plant grew and was ready for the table equally as soon as the first planted and a much better crop ; but sets of the same kind planted in the beginning of April grew surprisingly fast and are an abundant crop. In regard to the sets there are dift'erent opinions, some recommending them to be cut several days before planting, and some several weeks, so that the wounds may dry up. In my opinion sets should never be cut small, as small sets generally grow weak and produce a deficient crop ; but I am an advocate for planting whole tubers of a medium size ; cut sets I would plant immediately they are cut. Potatoes are stored and preserved in houses, cellars, pies, and camps. Whatever mode is adopted, it is essential that the tubers be perfectly dr)', otherwise they are certain of rotting, and a few rotten potatoes will contaminate a whole mass. Patting them into close houses and covering thein well up with straw is the most effectual mode, and tliat which is generally adopted. An acquaintance of mine who has been always fortunate in pre- serving sound tubers till late in summer, has a house built for the purpose. The building is five feet v.'ide and about the same height, with a door- way at the south end of it. The whole of the building on the outside is covered thick with turf; the inside of the house is lined with dry straw pre- vious to the potatoes being put in, but no straw is laid on the top of the potatoes till severe weather sets in, thus allowing any evaporation to escape that may ensue. The advantages of a building of this kind is that it can be easily secured from the ravages of rats and other vermin, whereas potatoes stored in ordinary farm buildings often suffer severely. In some parts it is a common practice to dig pits in the potato field when the soil is dry and light, and putting in potatoes to the depth of three or four feet, to lay a little dry straw over them, and then cover them up ■with earth so deep that no frost can aflfect them. Another method which is practised is to put them together in heaps and cover them up with straw, and afterwards cover with earth, and so closely packed together as to ex- clude frost. Pieing, as it is called in some places, is a good method of preserving potatoes in winter. They are piled on the surface of the ground, in a ridged form, of the width and length at pleasure. according to the quantity, but commonly about five feet wide ; this is done by digging a pit of earth, and laying it around the edge a foot wide, filhng the space up with straw, and then laying on a course of potatoes ; dig earth on the outside, and lay it upon the first earth, put straw a few inches alorg the inside edge, then put in more potatoes, and so on, keeping a good coat of straw all the way up between the potatoes and the moidd, which should be about six inches thick all over ; beat it close together, and the form it lies in, with the trench all round, will preserve the potatoes dry, and the sharpest frosts will hardly affect them ; in a severe time of frost, the whole may be covered thickly with straw. In the spring, look over the stock, and break off" the shoots of those designed for the table, and repeat this business for the longer preservation of the potatoes. The produce of the potato varies from 100 to upwards of 400 bushels per acre ; the greatest produce is from the Yam, which has been known to produce 480 bushels per acre. The haulm is of no use but as manure. Mr. Havelock concluded by thanking the gentlemen present for their patient attention. Mr. Raw agreed as to the propriety of planting the potato whole. It was of importance to keep the hoe going. He would plant in April. He grew few, as he considered them a scourging crop. He had tried autumn planted, but the crop failed. When pitted, they would not keep if below the surface. Mr. Hardy would plough the land well pre- vious to planting, but would not use the roller over the drills. Would rather apply the harrow just before the plant came up. As to preservation, he thought putting them into small heaps, covered with ling, without much soil, the best mode. He would throw stable htter over the heaps during frost. Mr. Hawdon said he would have them thoroughly ripe for seed. Before the disease appeared, he had known them cut for a month, but now that could not be done. He preferred a cut of a good sized potato to planting smaller whole ones, which were more apt to take the curl. He objected to over rotten manure, and would use lime as a top dressing, to be incorporated with the soil by the hand hoe. In preserving them, he would put them into small heaps in the field, without much soil or straw, but would throw haulm over them in frost. The Rev. H, C. Lipscomb said he was familiar with the mode of preserving potatoes in Cheshire, which consisted in placing them in long rows of moderate width, and covering in the usual manner. In this way they kept very well, and it was con- venient for sending them in portions to market. 2 E 2 416 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Bell said they were much indebted to Mr. Havelock for his vakuible paper. The growth of the potato has been attended with much difficulty for a few years back, compared with what it was in former times ; and many had been the causes of failure, and remedies pointed out by individuals. He considered the best time for planting the potato to be as early in April as possible — of course, guided by the state of the land at the time. After well working the ground, he would raise it into drills, not less than thirty-three inches apart, use well-rotted manure— the quantity regulated by the state of the land, also the kind of potatoes planted ; and care should be taken to have them covered in the drill as soon as planted. The sets used for planting should be cut from large sound potatoes, being better than setting the smaller potato whole, the shoot being much stronger and vigorous ; the smaller potato, while putting away a greater quantity of shoots from the number of eyes, is generally weak, and when appearing is too bushy and not imfrequently curly in its leaves. Well working the ground is highly necessary until the potato is fit for furrowing up, which should not take place too early. The time for taking up potatoes generally, under field culture, ought not to be later than the beginning of October, some varieties requiring a little more time than others ; and when carted home they ought to be laid in such a place as would secure them a proper drying, turning them carefully over with the hand. When in a fit condition for putting away for the winter, he would certainly recommend them to be kept under cover, and spread out if possible on a boarded floor — say from a foot to eighteen inches thick, and covered with straw — but by no means would he recommend storing them for the winter in pits, as has been generally practised. It has been no uncommon occurrence to see the pits standing in the spring before planting, with the shoots of the potatoes protruding through the covering j such a mode of treatment must have been highly injurious to the health of the set used for planting. The less the potato is sprouted in the spring before planting the better, which must depend altogether on the state and manner in which it is kept during winter. He had no doubt that they were paying the penalty of the base treatment the potato had received from them in bygone days. Professor Johnston says, in his remarks on American farming, where the wheat crop has been in succession for many years, that, "nature cannot be outraged with impunity." He would apply that remark to the former treatment of the potato. The Secretarj', Mr. Dean, said he feared the vitality of the potato was in a course of exhaustion, or the land was tired of growing it. The old Pink Eye, once and so generally a favourite in this neigh- bourhood, had now almost disappeared — in this respect, resembling the old Ribstone apple, and other old kinds. Much was at one time said as to the efficiency of going back to the seed ; he had procured some sets from seed obtained from Ger- many, and raised under glass four years ago, but most of them were found diseased on taking up. Mr. Havelock, in his interesting paper, had adverted to the eflfect of coal ashes in inducing scab. A similar eflfect is attributed to pig manure. He had tried each in the same field, at the same time, with a portion planted with stable litter, and they were all equally free from scab. As to the history of the root, an amusing anecdote is related. The gardener to whose care they were first confided, in Ireland, informed his master that he had boiled the fruit, and that he thought them to be a very poor vegetable ! Sir Walter, of course, set him right by advising him to try the root. Mr. Havelock replied, notwithstanding Mr. Hardy's objection, he still preferred applying the roller over the drills — it was especially usefulin dry weather, by keeping the moisture in the land. He would lime with the second ploughing. Thanks were voted to the Chairman, and the meeting separated. THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. [from the times' commissioner.] Northallerton, Yorkshire, Nov., 1850. The different items which make up the costs of cultivation are found to vary considerably, in- fluenced partly by the nature of soil and climate, partly by the system of husbandry pursued, and chiefly by the greater or less command of capital and energy possessed by the cultivator. It is diffi- cult to ascertain with precision the amount of these costs, and any reliable facts on this point are, there- fore, the more valuable. We have been favoured with such information as has enabled us to compile the following table, showing the sums which make up the cost of cultivation, with the yield of corn per acre, in the undermentioned districts ; — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 417 to CO C 1 o o O CO 1 1 1 03 o s (U (D 1 ^ CQ 1!: 00 3 C <* 1 1 CO CO r» to ■* CO CO m c«2 o O . (« CO ft. *J 00 on vrt 00 X) ■* to ■* o ^ a; o CJ >n O !M to to CO ja ,-< 'iH ^ 00 rf CO o ades en's iUs. na CO . >n 1) -i i-H eg •* o I Tt< to " Z . CJ CO ctl c K W Kkh >h o.S The column of "total cost" does not include in- terest of capital, depreciation, insurance, or tenant's profit ; and under the head " yield" is only included the corn, as we had no sufficient data by which to estimate accurately the annual produce of stock. The table will, however, we trust, supply to practi- cal farmers and landowners many interesting^ data for comparison and future reference, by which they may test their own expenses and produce, and as- certain in what respects they excel or fall short of the examples here given. It is proper to explain that the three first columns are averaged on the whole extent of each farm, arable and giass ; while the rest are charged on the extent of arable land only. This is not strictly correct, but it appeared the fairest criterion we could adopt, as the compa- rative extent of grass land on each farm was so exceedingly variable. The figures may be relied on as a statement of facts as they exist — not estimates of what might be, but what they at this moment are. The North Riding is bounded on the south by the East and West Ridings, on the north by the river Tees, which separates it from Durham, and is traversed by the York and Newcastle Railway from York to the bordirs of the county near Dar- lington. The central and northern portions of the riding, situated along the valleys of the rivers, con- tain the greatest extent of valuable land. To the eastward lie the Yorkshire moors, comprehending an extent of 400,000 acres, and rising from 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea level. On the west the country rises to the highlands on the borders of Westmoreland, with rich valleys of pasture land skirting the streams which drain that limestone country and flow through the picturesque dales of the North Riding. Much of the best land in the lower portion of the district is kept in permanent pasture, and in the neighbourhood of Northaller- ton, Catterick, and along tlie southern bank of the Tees, are found the most celebrated herds of short- horn cattle which now exist in England. The op- posite bank of the Tees, which gave the name to the breed of Durham cattle, has lost its principal men, the Collings, and the best herds may now be said to be confined to the south side of Teesdale. There are still to be found men who have been bred from their childhood to study the peculiarities of form and symmetry which, combined with early maturity and great weight, have given the improved short-horn its great celebrity. Seldom leaving home, often the first to see their stock in the morning, and the last to visit them at night, making the health of each individual of the herd a study, and with con- stant attention enabled by particular management to encourage the development of such points as they think requisite, while everything else on the farm is made subordinate to the stock — these men have ac- quired a fame which is the result of such earnest application and cannot long be maintained without it. They succeed ; and to all parts of the United Kingdom is diffused from the hands of not half a dozen men in the North Riding the blood which has improved, and continues to improve, the native breeds of every district into which it is introduced. Two, three, or four hundred pounds for ahull is no uncommon price, and a cow of rare form and breed- 418 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ing has been bought by a farmer for 300 guineas. Ireland and Lincolnshire borrow for a season the best animals which leave the district, and the Messrs. Booth have at this moment bulls which bring them in £100 a-year each, and are let to the same parties at that rate for a succession of years. But these prizes are only to the most successful, for many, tempted by these and similar rates, try the system without counting the cost of patient study, constant application, and liberal outlay, by which such success has been achieved. It is not merely the first outlay, however lavish, that will jilace the beginner in the rank of a first class breeder of short-horns. He must be prepared to sacrifice every other consideration on his farm to their wel- fare, and after he has collected his herd, and fed and watched them with the utmost care, he must stand the risk and uncertainty attending their ma- nagement. If too fat, they cease to breed, or they produce dead calves; if too lean, they lose caste, and their produce sells at second-rate prices. One of the most exjjerienced men in the district — him- self an eminent breeder and first-rate judge — in- formed us that one season 34 o£ his high priced and high bred cows missed having calves, and so great are the risks attending tliis business that it is every year narrowing itself into fewer hands. Men of station and wealth embark in it frequently as a hobby, and some, like the late Lord Spencer and the present Lord Ducie, are successful; but such cases are exceptional. The farm of Messrs. Outhwaite, of Bainesse, near Catterick, may be taken as a very favourable speci- men of agricultural management in the North Riding. It is bounded on one side by the river Swale, and its soil on the lower division is a good friable turnip loam on a thirsty gravel, and on the higher side a deeper and stronger soil, now found, after being thoroughly drained, the most valuable land on the farm. It comprises 461 acres, SO of which are jjcrmanent grass. The four-course, extended into a six by introducing beans instead of a portion of the seeds, is the system of farming adopted, with this peculiarity— that oats or barley are taken on the clover leys, wheat and barley after turnips. Wheat is also sown after beans and potatoes, Spalding's red being sown from October till the 20th of November, beginning with seven pecks of seed and increasing to nine. Early in spring, as the swedes are consumed, the land is ploughed and drilled with Hunter's white wheat; the sowing of which continues till the middle of March, after which barley is taken on such land as has not at that time been cleared of the turnip ciop. The oats and barley are also drilled in by Garrett's drill at nine inches apart, and the whole of the corn crops on this farm are repeatedly horse-hoed in spring. Beans are sown upon manured land with the drill, and are likewise well liorse-hoed. The great aim in the culture of the farm is the early preparation of the land intended for the turnip crop ; to this all other work on the farm, after the corn crops have been secured in autumn, is postponed. The stub- bles are then stirred in one direction by Biddle's " scarifier," the sharp pointed tines being used in this operation, and the ground torn up to the depth of five or six inches. After the field has been gone over once, the " scarifier" is fitted with the broad share tines, and made to cross the former stirring at right angles, thus tearing the ground to pieces, and disengaging the stubble and roots of weeds and twitch, which are drawn together on the surface by the harrows, then gathered by the horse-rake, and laid in a heap to be carried home for bedding the cattle yards. The land, now thoi-oughly pulverised, is ploughed with a clean deep furrov/, and in that state is left exposed to the influence of the weather till spring, when it receives one furrow more, and is found in fine condition for receiving the seed of the turnip crop. The theory on which this early culture is recommended is, that twitch, immediately after harvest, is comparatively weak and has not extended its roots far beneath the surface; but as soon as the corn crop is removed and the twitch so permitted to grow without obstruction, it spreads rapidly along the surface, and penetrates deeply be- neath it, and every week that it is left undisturbed renders its extirpation more difificult and expensive. Tear it up early, and the seedlings are at once shaken out entire from the tender soil ; leave it to strike deeper root, and every broken fibre that remains strikes afresh, and gaining strength throughout the winter and early spring gives the farmer at that busy season the expense of a second fallowing. The advantage of this early preparation is attended with this further benefit, that only one furrow is requisite in Ma}"^, and the ground not being deprived of its moisture at that season the turnip seed is al- most sure to vegetate at once. So successful have the Messrs. Outhwaite found this management, that they are now enabled to sow their entire extent of turnip land with swedes; and the preparation of the soil, besides being so much more early and effectual, is not nearly so expensive as under the common system. The swedes are sown on the ridge, 28 to 30 inches apart, 8 loads of well rotted farmyard dung, and l\ cwt, of guano per acre being previously applied and covered in on the weakest land, on which the crop is eaten with sheep. On the better land 14 tons of dung and I5 cwt. of guano per acre are applied, the crop in this case being all drawn for consumption by cattle. The sheep are penned upon the turnips, and receive ^\h. of oilcake each daily. In the beginning of May, after being dipt, the most forward hoggets — being those bred on the farm — are sent to market, and weigh 24 lb. per quarter. The rest follow as they get ready after being a month to six weeks on clover. About one sheep per acre is wintered on the farm, and 70 beasts, one lot after another, are fattened in the yards and stalls. The oxen are fed in sheds and yards loose, six or eight together ; the heifers are tied up in stalls. They all receive cut swedes daily, and for the last 10 weeks 7 lb. to 8lb, each of oilcake and bean meal mixed together, 1,400 to 1,500 bushels of beans and barley, the ])roduce of the farm, are annually consumed on it, the whole of the beans being so applied, and all the barley which will not sell for malting; 12 work horses are kept, and they consume all the oats pro- duced. The wheat crop scarcely averages 32 bushels, the oats 64, and the barley 48 bushels an acre. The tenants have no lease nor tenant-right, and their rent and tithe together amount to £ 1,200, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 419 Such is a specimen of the best arable farming in the most fertile district of the North Ridinjj, the Messrs. Oiithwaite havin,Q^ taken a prize offered for the best managed farm within a circle of 25 miles round Kiclunond. There are man)'- other farms in that district which may equal them in annual jield ; but none that we saw come near to them in their extensive culture of the swede — confessedly by far the most valuable and nutritious of our turnip crops. 'I he general proportion of swedes to white and other soft turnips is quite inconsiderable, and the scanty crops even of soft turnips, which are everywhere to be seen in this district, do not be- speak very liberal management. The quantity of manure applied is too limited, but the land is con- sidered high rented, and the landlords do not in many cases afford their tenants such symjvathy and aid as they think themselves justly entitled to with present prices. In the neighbourhood of Catterick and Richmond several farms have in consequence been given up, the landlords refusing to submit to any abatement, and one nobleman is said to have as many as eight or nine farms at present on his hands. On other estates in the same neighbour- hood there are no farms vacated, the land having been moderately let, and the landlord, as in the cases of the Duke of Northumberland at Stanwick, where the rent of good land runs from ISs. to 3Gs. an acre, tithe free, also draining the farms for his tenants at a charge of 5s. an acre, and building them suitable accommodation for their stock with- out making any charge for that outlay. The vale of Cleveland, comprehending the low lying district which extends from the York moors to the river Tees, forms the next prominent feature in the agriculture of the North i^iding. It is gene- rally a cold strong clay, resting on the blue lias, by far the greater portion of it undrained and l)adly farmed. Formerly this district was celebrated for its cheese and horses, but the latter are now scarcely to be met with as a distinctive breed, tlie farmers having been tempted to part with their brood mares at high prices, and the best stock having thus in process of time been taken out of the country. Much of the old grass land has been broken up to support the otherwise failing rents of needy landlords, and as it was then " called on" as long as it would carry anything, and neither drained nor manured, it is rapidly passing into the same sterility as the other parts of the farm for whose rescue it was broken up. The scanty stock thus yearly becomes diminished, there being little or no green crops cultivated, the hay and straw consumed by half-fed cattle are converted into wretched manure, the crops annually fall ofFin pro- duce as well as price, and the only kind of ])roduce — milk and butter — that keeps its price is got in less quantity from an abridged extent of grass land. The system of management generally fol- lowed is what is here denominated " two crop and fallow," a bare summer fallov/ being given every third year, followed by wheat ; and that, after re- ceiving a dressing of such manure as the farmyard produces, is succeeded by oats. To vary the crops, beans are sometimes taken on part of the land in- stead of oats ; and occasionally a portion of the oat crop is sown out with clover. On some farms one half remains in permanent grass, and on these the farmers are enabled to keep more stock and to work their land at less cost comparatively. But generally the quantity of stock is inconsiderable, and the quality as well as the quantity of manure Ijeing inferior, from the deficiency of winter food, the arable land is year after year becoming less pro- ductive, and the tenants, as a matter of course, less able to meet their engagements. Many farms are being given up, and even with liberal abatements of rent it is impossible for the tenants under such cir- cumstances to go on. Like all cold wet clays, there can be no chance here for either tenant or landlord without eflectual drainage. "With that and som.e timely support there is much to encourage an enterprising farmer. Milk sells at 2d. a quart in the populous towns along the river and on the coast, and the demand for dairy produce at remu- nerating prices is constantly increasing. The farms are small, and the tenants generally not an enterprising class, nor possessed of adequate capital for the extent of land they occupy. Many landlords in Cleveland are avaihng them- selves of the drainage loan, and within the next two years a very great extent of drainage will be ac- complished; indeed, so much alive are the jiroprie- tors of land in Yorkshire to the necessity of this operation as the foundation of all other agricultural improvements, that they have already applied for a greater aggregate sum than has been allotted to this country, and each individual is therefore restricted to a certain proportion only of the sum for which he has applied. The present time is most favourable, in every view, for proceeding with the work. The general employment which it diffuses over an agri- cultural district comes at a peculiarly appropriate time, when the farmer's necessities in many cases lead him to dismiss part of his labourers. There is likewise a great reduction in the cost of pipes for drainage, arising from the introduction of better machines and greater skill in the workmanship. Two-inch pipes, which very recently in this riding cost 25s. pet 1,000, can now be supplied for 15s. Drains are made from 3 to 4 feet in depth and from 18 to 36 feet apart, according to the nature of the soil, and at an average expense altogether of from £3 to £4 per acre. A very few years ago the same operation would have cost double these sums. The government loan is repayable in 22 annual in- stalments of 6\ per cent., which repays both prin- cipal and interest. A few landlords charge their tenants 5 per cent, of this annual sum, and them- selves pay li. Most frequentlythetenant is bound to pay the whole, and, in addition, to cart the tiles free of charge. And we are .sorry to say that more than one instance exists in Yorkshire where the landlord charges his tenant 7^ per cent., thus put- ting into his pocket 1 per cent, besides securing a permanently higher value for his land by an outlay to which he does not contribute a single farthing. This disgraceful conduct, so utterly at variance with the intention of the legislature, deserves expo- sure ; but we at present forbear to name the parties to whom we allude. In our letter from the West Riding we referred to a custom, existing in the southern part of it, of compensation to the outgoing tenant for certain 420 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. acts of husbandry and unexhausted improvements, or, as they are more briefly termed, "tenant right." In no other part of Yorkshire have we met with this custom, and we have not the slightest hesitation in saying that any dispassionate observer who will compare the state of farming in that part where it exists with the general average farming of the East and North Ridings, where it never has existed, will at once affirm that it has not produced a Ijetter style of farming. On tlie contrary, the farming of the southern division of the West Riding is not to be compared in any single point with that of the wolds of the East Riding, or the better farmed lands along the Ouse and Humber, or in Holderncss, or the North Riding. And we v.-ere assured by an exten- sive farmer of much experience in the West Riding, who has himself had to pay this tenant-right, and is therefore familiar with its operation, that it leads to frauds of every kind, which in truth cease to be counted frauds, inasmuch as the party who suffered at his entry feels himself justified in retaliating on his successor. Instar.ces'have been knov.n of toll men being bribed to sign for false qu ntities of ma- nure as having passed through their bar. and it is quite common to secure the services of a valuator not according to his character for skill and justice, but mainly in reference to his skill in getting up and carrying through a "good" valuation. One absurdity of the system is, that five " dressings," or preparatory jilougliings and harrowings, are as a matter of rule charged against the last turnip crop, though very possibly two or three such dressings at the utmost are all that a skilful fanner would himself bestow. So sensible are the valuators of the haphazard nature of their awards, that they, in rendering their account, specify each item for which a charge is made; but to prevent unneces.-ary ques- tions they put down no sum opposite to that item, contenting themselves with a single and lump sum for the v.hole at the last. In what other branch of business would such a blundering system be tole- rated ? We cannot at greater length here enter into the details of the practice, but the best farmers are now desirous of having certain points restricted, and believe that it would be a benefit to their class if the landlords would purchase up and put an end to many of its vexatious exactions. An entering tenant who has to pay down in cash a considerable portion of his wh.ole capital for a doubtful benefit, the return from wliich he cannot reap till he himself quits the farm, is greatly crippled in his means at the very outset; and it is notorious that some far- mers are become so exjjert in the trade that they make a business of taking a farm for a few years, and then quitting it with a high valuation. We repeat that to whate\er other consequences this custom may lead, whether to landlord or tenant, it has not in the southern division of the West Riding which we had an opportunity of visiting conduced to superior farming. Durham, Dec. 1850. The county of Durham is not much more than half the area of the North Riding of Yorkshire, while its j^opulalion is a thiid more numerous. In 1841 it exceeded 324,000, and from the rr,-eat ex- j tension of the collieries since that time there has no doubt been a rapid increase of population, the : increase during the preceding 10 years having been 27 per cent.— with one exception the greatest in England. Its surface is of an irregular and very ^ hilly character, except along the north bank of the , river Tees, from which, widening towards the sea, : a considerable tract of rather level country exiends. ] Its peculiar conformation is favourable to pic- turesque beauty, and though to the railway traveller j its chief features may seem a succession of engine chimneys, lines cf coal waggons, great fires of coal I waste, and numerous shabby tile-roofed villages, I the roads through the different valleys of the county skirt along streams, not always limpid, but often ! shaded by venerable woods, encircling the ancient feudal castles of the nobiHty, from the highest tower of wliich they slill display their banner. Raby, Wynyard, Lambton, Luraley, Ravensworth Castles, and others, occupy sites of great beauty, generally placed half-way up the hill, backed by wooded heights, and commanding a prospect of the cultivated valleys beneath them. The geological features of tl;e county comprise the red sandstone on the north bank of the Tees, next the magnesian limestone extending from Darlington in an easterly direction to Hartlepool, and thence north along the coast to iynemouLh. With.in this com|)aratively narrow strip lie the valuable coal measures, which commence near Staindrop in Durham, and extend northwards to the mouth of the river Coquet in Northumberland. The whole ucstern boundary of the coal measures is formed by a tract of mill- stone grit, and beyond this lies the mountain lime- stone, the green hills of which yield excellent pas- ture for sheep. The larger pro])ortion of the arable land of the county is of a strong character, some- times a thin infertile clay, and nearer the banks of the rivers a deep strong loam. Along t!ie coast the soil is of a more friable nature, yielding sound crops of excellent potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables, which find a ready market in the neighbouring seaport to^ns. Unlike Lancashire and the West Riding the coal fields of Durham have not led to the establishment of a large manufacturing pojiula- tion, the coal being wrought principally for export to London, and to the east coast and continental ports. In this business large capitals are em- ployed, partly by speculators, but principally by the great landowners themselves, whose incomes, like those of Lords of Londonderry and Durham, are chiefly deiived from coal. To give an idea of the capital employed in this business, we may mention that Lord Londonderry, for the convenience of his own trade, constructed the harbour of Seaham at a cost little, if at all, short of £300,000, and to this harbour he has about 40 miles of railroad leading from his different collieries. The return from capi- tal invested in working coal lias been so much more remunerative than land, that improvements on the latter have been comparatively neglected, and the skill and enterprise so abundantly lavished below ground form a very marked contrast with the ab- sence of those qualities and the evident defect of capital everywhere too conspicuous on its surface. To show the different progress made in the two departments within the last 80 years, we may men- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 421 tion that the system of fanning then practised, viz., " two crop and fallow," as tlescril)e(l by Arthur Young in 1770, with a yield of 1(5 bushels of wheat, and 30 each of o-ats and barley per acre, is exactly the common practice of the present day, with a yield rather diminished than increased. Fur the coal- waggon roads then " the track of the wheels was marked with ])ieces of timber let into the road, for the wheels of the waggons to run on, by which one horse is enabled to draw 50 or (30 bushels of cor.ls." These roads led to the shipping ports. As in pro- cess of years the trade increased "Keels" were employed, with light draught of water, enabling them to penetrate many miles up the tidal rivers to wharfs at no great distance from the collieries, to which the wooden tracks (gradully superseded by iron rails) conducted. The jirogress of business and discovery of steam power have in their turn nearly done away with the keels and the consequent expense of transhipment, and thousands of tons of coal are now more cheaply and expeditiously taken from the mouth of the coal ])its and laid in the holds of sea-going vessels than hundreds, or jn'obably even tens of tons, of coals were slowly and labori- ously dragged by horses along tlie wooden tracks described by Arthur Young. The four-course system of husbandry is common on the friable soils on the norlhern side of Teesdale, though on many farms of this description, owing to the indolence of the farmer, a large projjortion of the green crop division is managed with bare fallow. The stiff land of the county, which, as already mentioned, forms its greatest i)roportion,is managed on the " two crop and fallow " system. The coast lands, and the farms within the influence of such towns as Sunderland, Shields, and New- castle, are probably the best managed in the county. We shall describe the practice on a farm in each of these various localities, in oriler to pre- sent to the reader as concisely as possible a view of the present state of farming in Durham. The first and last examples are confessedly much in ad- vance of the average in their respective neighbour- hoods. The farm of Denton, some six miles west of Dar- lington, was purchased by the Duke of Cleveland two years ago from the late Mr, Culley. It has been occupied by the present tenants, Messrs. Hes- lop, for the last 15 years, and contains 490 acres of land — 380 of which are under cultivation, and about 110 in grass, SO acres of which are prime feeding land. The four-course, lengthened to a six by introducing a jieas crop on account of the uncertainty of red clover, is the system adopted over the farm, a portion, which is strong land im- perfectly drained, being annually in bare fallow. The Northumberland five-course has been aban doned, as the second year's grass was found greatly to encourage the growth of '' tv.-itch." Two-thirds of the turnip land are nov*' sown with swedes, which receive, in the ridge, 10 tons of dung and 2 cwt.of guano per acre. These are all drawn for consump- tion in the yards and boxes. On the weakest land white turnips are sown, which are eaten off the ground with sheep. "Wheat follows the peas stub- ble, the land receiving 10 loads of dung per acre; it is also sown after bare fallow, and after white turnips, and such ])art of the swede land as is cleared early enough in the season. Barley and oats are sown in spring after swedes and clover ley. Wheat yields from 32 to 40 bushels, barley 40, and oats about GO bushels an acre. A flying st jck of cattle and sheep are kept on this farm, part of the cattle being bought in A])ril and sold fat at Christmas, and a second lot, kept on till June and July, are sold into the West Riding, where a good demand at that time exists for the " Feasts " which are then held in the manufacturing districts. 400 half-bred Leicester and Cheviot hoggets are bought at Stagshaw in Ajjril, fed on " seeds " during the summer, and finished on white turnips in autumn, whence they are sold in lots as they become ready. Between wool and increase of carcase these sheep leave for eight months' keej) 20s. each on an ave- rage. They receive no cake or extra feeding. The cattle are grazed in summer on the old grass lands, and part fed in open sheds and courts, and ],'art in loose boxes in winter. In the hitter the cattle are found to make decidedly more juogress, with less waste of food than in the open yards and sheds. But the boxes, though very commodious, are costly, £300 having been spent in the construction of boxes, with turnip and straw houses, for 20 cattle. Water is provided by jiipes for each animal, and in future it is intended to occupy the boxes in sum- mer as well as winter with huuse-fed cattle. This farm was taken in 1835 by the present tenants at £900 a yerr, wheat then selling at -Is. Gd. per bush. In 1S39 prices had risen, and the rent was then in- creased to £1,100. The farm is tithe free. On this rental it was bought by the Duke of Cleveland two years ago, and there are many farms on his Grace's old estate in the neighbourhood, of equally good quality, let for a third less rent to hereditary tenants, who have hitherto raised their easy rent with little exertion, but who, content with that and secure in their holdings, have made no endea- vour to improve their farms ; and, while they have neither enriched themselves nor their landlord, have done nothing to enlarge the field of employ- ment for an increasing population of labourers, nor contributed any greater produce to the extended requirements of the country. The " two crop and fallovv' " system is that which l)revails over all the strong undrained land of the count)', and draining, we regret to say, is still greatly neglected. The system is of two kinds^ either simply (1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) oats, or of that and tlie following hnprovement combined, (1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) clover. This combination gives (1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) oats, (4) fallow, (5) wheat, (6) clover; or one-third of the farm bare fallow, one-third wheat, one-sixth oats, and one- sixth clover. The land intended for fallov/ is sel- dom ploughed before February, by which time the ameliorating effects of severe frost on this heavy soil must be lost, or nearly so. After receiving the usual repeated ploughings and harrowings during summer, the land is commonly limed, and then ridged up in 10 feet mounds, well gathered and rounded, to carry oft' the water. On this the wheat seed is sown broadcast in autumn, and receives no further attention till harvest. During next autumn and winter the manure from tlie farm-yard, such as 422 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it is, is spread o\*er and ploughed in. In spring the land so prepared is sown with oats. The oat stubble lies till February, when it is ploughed, and the same routine of bare fallowing is pursued daring the summer. The wheat crop this time receives no manure, and in spring clover seeds are sown M'ilh it, which next year are mown for hay. The clover root is broken up in February, again to undergo a bare fallow. No roots are cultivated, and no pur- chased manure or food made use of. The farms are small in extent, the farmers hard working and industrious, but without means, and strongly pre- judiced in favour of their old ways, though these have yielded them nothing but ill-requited toil. They keep very little stock, which being ill-fed the manure made on the farm is merely rotted straw. The yield of their wheat crop may be from 12 to 20 bushels an acre — 15 being a full average for the vindrained lands ; and their oats from 20 to 30 bushels. But it is quite obvious that even these meagre crops are likely, under a continuation of the same management, to become gradually lessened ; for there is a constant abstraction from the soil without any corresponding return of manure. The rent of such land varies from 10s. to l6s. an acre, and the tythe and rates may be 3s. Gd. an acre more. A simple calculation v/ould show that such crops cannot pay, even at considerably higher prices than the present, and that here the difficulty is not one of rent, but of produce. A shilling a bushel added to the price of wheat would only increase the farmers' returns ISs., whereas an increase of pro- duce from the present crops of 1.5 bushels to 25 bushels an acre would make a gain to him of four times that sum. It must, therefore, be a wise course for a judicious landlord to promote as much as he can the improved culture of his estate, for he can have no hope of any balance being left for rent until such an increaee he attained. The first stej) to this is thorough drainage, and, fortunately, clay can be got in all places where it is most needed, and the cost of coal for burning ic for drainage pipes in Durham is a mere trifle. We have seen instances in the county where cold clay, laid uj) in high crooked ridges, has been completely drained by the use of 2-inch pipes, jilaced from 3^ to 4 feet deep, and the distance between each drain eight yards, the drains being carried in parallel lines, quite irrespective of the ups and downs of the old crooked ridges. The cost of this operation over an extent of 2, GOO acres, on one estate drained during the last tv.-o years, has averaged £4 10s. an acre. Our next example is one of the coast farms, where the management and results present a very remarkable contrast with the " two crop and fal- low" system just described. Seaham-hall farm, near the harbour of Seaham, is occupied by Mr. Atkinson, and extends, with the adjoining glebe land, to 480 acres, aljout 60 of which are in per- manent grass. Part of it is still undrained, a stiff strong soil, which in that state is managed with bare fallow; but as soon as the drainage is effected fallows are dispensed with, and the regular system of the farm carried out there as on the more friable soils. On one field of this heavy land, which vvas only drained last spring, there is I now growing an excellent crop of swedes, esti- I mated by the tenant at 28 tons an acre. The rest of the farm, which is naturally well adapted i to green crops, or has been rendered so by drain- j age, is managed in the follov/ing manner : — (1) Clover, (2) potatoes, (3) wheat, (4) turnips, (5) potatoes, (6) wheat, sown out with seeds. The clover root is jjloughed up in autumn, cross ])loughed in spring, and after being harrowed the land is drawn out into ridges 28 to 30 inches apart, into which from 16 to 22 loads of dung per acre are placed and the potato-seed planted. The land is wrought in the usual manner during summer, and the crop is raised and stored in long narrow heaps covered M'itli straw, and a hght coating of earth, to exclude frost. The potato croj) is followed by wheat, the ground being first ploughed, and the seed either drilled in or sown broadcast in little ridges formed by the single plough, in which it grows up very much in the same manner as when drilled. The action of the single or ribbing plough, with which orie man and horse can go over an acre and a half of ground per day, is believed to pulverise the soil better and secure for the seed a more genial bed than any other preparation. The seed— red and vWiitewlieat, mixed in equal propor- tions— is sown, at the rate of six pecks an acre, between the 20th of November and Christmas, the latter period being the favourite time for wheat sowing along the coast. 1 ^ to 2 cwt. of guano is sown and harrowed in with the seed. The wheat crop is succeeded by turnips, for which the land is [irepared in the usual manner. Two-thirds of this division are sown with swedes, one-third with white turnips for early consumption ; 12 to 15 loads of dung, 62 cwt. of guano, and 10 bushels of dissolved bones (mixed with sav/dust), are all applied together to each acre of the turnip land. The crow is drawn for consumption in the yards and stalls. The next crop is potatoes, for which the land is very easily and cheaply prepared after the turnip crop. But as a good crop of turi ips is su])posed to exhaust the land more than clover, the potato crop receives a somewhat heavier dose of dung after them than after clover. In other respects the management is the same. Wheat again follows the potato crop, re- ceiving the same dressing of guano as before, but the Downy Essex seed is now used, as it is found not to lodge, and is therefore more favourable for the clover seeds which succeed it. The mixture of seeds sown is Bibs, red clover, 2lbs. white, and 2 quarts of ryegrass ];er acre. These are sown among the growing wheat crop in spring, and mown the following year for hay. The average produce of wheat is from 32 to 40 bushe's an acre; of pota- toes, 5 to 6 tons since the disease; and of swedes, 28 to 35 tons an acre. The potatoes and wheat are sold off the farm, the swedes and clover consumed on it. Seventy head of cattle, 50 of which are fed fat, are kept on the farm, and 300 sheep, princi- pall}- half-bred hoggets. The farm is managed with seven pairs of horses. The rent and tithe amount to £650, and the rates are Is. per pound. The leading features of this management are that four-sixths, or two-thirds, of the land are in well manured green crops, and two-sixths, or one-third, in white corn crop. The successive green crops THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 423 keep the land clean and friable, and render the farm comparatively cheap, both in manual labour and horse work ; seven pairs of horses could not under other circumstances accomplish satisfactorily tlie work of a farm of this size. Then, not only are the green crops heavily manured, but the in- tervening wheat crops also. In five out of six years the soil receives an annual application of manure. The fi;rmer is thus enabled to grow the most valuable crops— potatoes and wheat— for sale, and Swedes and clover for consumption. He can sell, without hurting his farm, two-thirds of the annual produce of his arable land, because he restores to it a full equivalent in manure. Com- paring the annual value of this six-course with that of the " two crop and fallow" system there is a difference more than adequate to meet the in- creased charges of higher rent, labour, and manure, and when all tliese are deducted a handsome balance remains for interest and tenant's profit; whereas the whole produce under the latter system cannot, at present prices, pay the expenses of cul- tivation, without leaving a farthing for rent or tenant's profit. NEW MODE OF VENTILATION FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS, STABLES, &c. 32, llhodes-street, Halifax, Sept. 19, 185L Sir, — I am favoured with the following note, viz. : — " Mr. Watson is earnestly requested to add to his favour in the Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal of 13th September (p. 587) some further particulars of his ventilator ; whether it can be seen and procured in Lon- don or its neighbourhood, or where ? By giving this in- formation in the same channel much good will probably be effected. "Sept. 14, 1851. A Constant Reader." It will afford me pleasure to comply with your reader's desire. When in London last July, I was recommended to an eminent ironmongery firm, who would probably make and introduce the article. I saw one of the partners, who referred me to one of his workmen ; but as the principal did not think proper to treat with me, I declined to have an interview with his servant, as my time was limited and the pecuniary profit would be theirs. There are hundreds of my ventilators in successful operation in Halifax and neiglibourhood, but nowhere else, I do not make them ; but I believe I could get them made in Halifax and delivered in London at about G(I. per lb. It is impossible to give a description to enable one to be made without showing sections and giving a drawing. Certain proportions of the several parts must be attended to, or it docs not act well ; but to those who may de- cide to adopt this ventilator, or who may wish to make it, I would prepare drawings and give the necessary in- structions. I have hitherto given my time and experience gratui- tously to those friends who solicited them ; my reward has been the consciousness that I have done a little to lighten the evils of life ; and in the publicity you gave to my letter, and any further notice you may give of ihe in- vention, you will also confer a public benefit. I will endeavour to illustrate the principle and con- struction of my ventilator. It must be kept in mind that there are two kinds of gases in an ill-ventilated room, viz., the nitrogen that ascends and the carbon that descends, because most people believe that all vitiated air ascends, and that an opening in the roof has only to be made to tiUow of its escape, and that further to facilitate its escape a hole may be made at the basement to allow the external air to drive it out. It docs not follow in practice that the hole above lets out the bad air ; the carbon will not go up, and the cold air entering from below will not send it up, but gives colds, Sec, and cold feet, as was in- stanced in the Courts of Justice in London, where the Judges ordered them to be closed, and in many other public buildings. Neither the nitrogen nor carbon will sustain life ; the carbon is also a deadly poison. Sup- pose a person has several packs of wool that must be weighed ; he has iron weights, but no scale-beam ; he may have a bar of iron that would serve as a scale-beam, but no centie. Supply him with a centre or fulcrum, and he can make a scale-beam. He can then put the j weights into one scale, and as many packs of wool into I the other as will draw the weights from the ground. I This principle is applied to my ventilator ; it is a simple j weighing-machine. The carbon represents the iron : weights, and the external air, or the heavens above, the packs of wool. A cubic foot of iron is heavier than the same quantity of wool, but the de.lciency of gravity is made up with quantity. So with the carbon and the external air. A cubic foot of carbon is heavier than the like quantity of external air, but tlie weight of the whole heavens is greater than the carbon contained in an apart- ment. The process of ventilation goes on until the air in the room is the same as the external air. The peculiar feature of my ventilator is, that it acts also as a pump, discharging the vitiated and supplying any quantity of pure air, without any perceptible sen- sation to persons in the apartment, and that it is self- acting. It is a simple piece of mechanism, aiding the powers of nature, and not embarrassing her movements. When fitted into the building, it need not require any additional expense for twenty years, as it is durable, and not liable to get out of order. It is formed of a zinc pipe peculiarly made and furnished with a valve to re- gulate the supply of air, according to the season of the year or the number of persons in the apartment. It 424 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. must be placed perpendicularly, as it does not act ob- liquely. The mouth, when fixed to the ceiling, has the appearance of an ornament, such as was fixed in places of worship where chandeliers were suspended, or can be made more plain. Any quantity of air may pass through it, according to its diameter, or more than one put into the apartment. My school was ventilated for 200 children, but it is used in the spring and autumn for an occasional oratorio. On these occasions I have seen about 1,000 persons present, and not a handkerchief raised either to wipe or fan the face, although all the doors and windows were kept shut, and there is no chimney in the room. The ventilator is peculiarly suitable for large public buildings and stables, although in small rooms where it can be ap- plied it is equally successful. The ventilator has never yet failed, although hundreds have been made, and are in successful use ; it cannot fail if properly made and applied. The following statement from a gentleman at Gos- poi't, in a letter to me of the llih inst., is, I have reason to believe, applicable to many houses and stables — " Both door and window are constantly kept open, also an open space over the door to the ceiling. I can get no current of air through the stable. I have had two openings made in the ceiling (see red ink marks on ground plan), with a long trunk shoot communicating with each opening, which trunk passes through the loft over, and projects two feet through the roof to carry off the hot impure air. All I have done has produced no good effect ; the air in the stable of a morning is nearly suffocating, and as a natural consequence my horses are constantly subject to coughs and inflamma- tion." My ventilator has been applied to stables in the like condition, and cured them, the smell being in one im- perceptible, and the horses in all restored to good health, I trust I have met the views of your " Constant Reader," Any farther information, either privately or through your journal, will be cheerfully communicated, I am, sir, yours very respectfully, Chas. Watson, Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal. WAGES OF PLOUGHMEN IN EAST LOTHIAN, At the present time, when the operation of free-trade in farm produce and the prospect of another year of very low prices for all kinds of agricultural returns are shaking the nerves of the occupiers of land from one end of the United Kingdom to the other, the subjoined method of remunerating the ploughmen in confessedly the best cultivated district in Scotland may not be uninteresting to many of your readers, and modified according to the habits of the English ploughman, perhnps worthy of adoption by the farmers of the south. The paying in kind has many advantages, inasmuch that a man has seldom any money to spend in a beer-shop, and has always the certainty of a good meal at home if his wife is pos- sessed of ordinary prudence, and thus habits of intoxica- tion are almost unknown in the district to which I am now directing your attention ; and, indeed, excepting in the villages, which are generally many miles distant from the farms, there are no public houses or beer shops, so that the ploughmen have no opportunity of spending either their evenings or their money in beer and tobacco, and thus intemperance loses its principal incentive — so- ciety, in the first instance at least — to becoming a ruinous and lamentable vice. The duties of their humble home or quiet rest after nine or ten hours' labour, or a gossip in the blacksmith's shop, are generally sufficient to bring on bed time without the requirement of other di- version in winter; and in summer, as each cottage is provided with a small kitchen-garden, it provides suffi- cient amusement, icilh the exhilarating sense of its utility, for the evening of a long day. Every man on the farm being directly interested in the quality at least, and in some measure in the quantity, of the crops, he is induced to do his utmogt to insure the careful and efficient ivorking of the land, knowing that his own share must be benefitted by the general result; for as it is a general understanding between master and servant that the latter shall have his gains — as they are pro- vincially termed — from the best sample which the farm produces, he has always an incentive to bestow his labour in an equally efficient manner on every field ; hence self- interest is brought into operation to save the farmer, or his steward, much tedious overlooking ; for as the farms generally run large — from three to seven or eight hundred acres arable — the farmer has many other avocations ; for factors and salesmen are scarcely known, each farmer acting generally in both capacities himself in the disposal of his grain and stock. Wages in Kind. £ a. d. 72bush. oats, at 21s. perqr 9 9 0 6 do. barley, at 283. per qr 110 4 do. beans or peas, at 30s. per qr.... 0 15 0 1000 running yards of drill, of 27 inches wide, for potatoes, the farmer furuish- iug manure and all horse labour, the servant finding his own seed and hand labour; or, in lieu thereof, 16 cwt. potatoes, of good saleable quality, say at 23 1 12 0 Corapeusation for flax, now seldom grown 10 0 Keep of a cow (the servant's property) for one year, grazed in summer, and housing and straw found in winter ; or, in lieu thereof 5 0 0 House rent and garden //-ee, say worth... 2 16 0 Compensated for by 28 days' labour of an efficient reaper in harvest, at 2s 2 16 0 3 cart loads of coals, driven yralis by the farmer's teams, average lOs 1 10 0 6 weeks' fooJ in harvest, 42 days, at Is. . 2 2 0 £22 9 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 425 From the foregoing statement it will be observed that the farmer pays his ploughmen scarcely any money, wliile on the other hand the latter receives an almost equal remuneration, whatever the market price of pro- duce may be. As 7'2 bushels of oats are generally too much to be made into oatmeal (which is the customary food of the Scottish peasantry), for most families, what they do not require is sold in the public market, generally at a period of the year when good prices are obtainable ; and the money received by one of themselves, who acts as salesman, and divided according to their respective quantities ; or a price is made, and the farmer pays each man his proportion at the same rate. Oatmeal, made into porridge and eaten with milk, constitutes the breakfast and supper of the ploughman, who consumes about a quart at each meal ; and oatmeal, with barley and bean or pea meal, together or sepa- rately, made into thick cakes, constitutes the bread of the family at other meals. Each cottage being pro- vided with a pig-stye, the offals of the family and refuse garden-stuff generally fatten two or three pigs in the course of the year : and fish, especially fresh herrings, being plentiful, with the potatoes, a good dinner is gene- rally at command. On this diet the men arc very healtliy ; perhaps they have not so much 7jeriv!v of this evidence, iu presenting it to you than should be felt by the exhibitor of a museum of monstrosities and abortions as examples of huuip.n anatomy ; and it would be as difficult to deduce the general working of the law from the one, as the normal form or functions of a man from the other. Being so sensible of the uusatisfactory result of an inquiry confined to a locality aud a point of time, I have thought that I might make up in some measure for my failure in this re- spect, by putting together the result of a more continuous es- perience, and an examination of the purposes, progress, and operatirn of the law from an early period, deduced from evi. dence contemporaneous with the various changes, and there- fore exhibiting to some extent the successive conditions of our population, and of the parishes as affected by this law. Such an examination must at least bring into view many reasons for its origin and continuance which are now, by its own operation, kept out of sight in its daily working ; and 1 cannot but think that any large change iu its policy ought not to be made without it. I have the honour to be, my lords and gentlemen. Your most obedient servant, (Signed) George Coode. Inner Temple, Feb. 20, 1851. The recommendations and conclusions made by Mr, Coode, as the result of his investigations, are as fol- lows:— We have examined the origin, progress, and bearing of this law, paradoxically called a law of settlement, which denies to every man a settlement iu 15,534 parishes, where it makes iiim an ahcn, and affects to settle him, whether he v/ill or not, in a single one, making it the interest of himself to escape, and of the whole parish to expel him, even from that. We have seen that this law, originated unexpecterily, was recommended on false pretences, was carried by a local inte- rest, and without discussion. That it lias never operated to the satisfaction of the so-called parish interests, by which it has been aloue supported, and has always operated adversely to that of the general popula- tion. That it has always impeded the labourer, aud never afforded him an advantage, still less an equivalent, for the restraiiit on his liberty and pvosperily. That it has always encumbered the agriculture, the produc- tion, aud tiie trade of the less progressive parishes, by the idle- ness it enforced and encouraged, the pauperism it created aud made stagnant. That it has always prevented the supply of a respectable population to the places where fresh hands were wanted, and has allowed them to increase chiefly or only by the addition of outcast people from other places. It has deteriorated the towns, and made them the less fit to receive a decent popu- lation. That it has made the parish of the settlement a prison, and i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 431 every other parish a hostile fortress. It has encouraged the refusal, the restriction, or tlic destruction of habitations where it pretended to give the legal home, and it has denied a home everywhere else, and has often left no alternative but sordid, compulsory, and unprospcrous settlement or a vagrant life, for which last it lias provided the most specious justifications. That it has, by destroying the field of the Englishman's employment, allured the Irish, and even afforded them bounties to supply his place where he was wanted. That it has accumulated the UHSettled populatiaa in unde- fended places, which have become filthy nests of wretchedness, pauperism, and crime. That it has isolated the interests of every parish — made iu- ter-parochial war their normal state. That it has never benefited one parish, but by the more than equal injury of another, with the addition of injury to the settler. That it has, contrary to the main object of law, to remove occasions of dispute, created the occasion for the greatest mass of dispute and litigation ever witnessed iu any nation for any equal period of time. We hive seen incessant attempts made at amendment. Tiie law has traversed from the one extreme of universal remova- bility of the poor man only likely to be charge ble, persevered in till it was as unendurable to other classes as to the poor, to the nearly opposite result, the prohibition of all removal ex- cept of unsettled poor, chargeable, who have not been resident for a defined time or under defined circumstances ; a provision which, under the controlling influence of the continuing settle- ment law, is rapidly producing mischiefs both to parishes and the poor as rinileut as the worst of the effects of that fatal system. Wc have seen nothing but failure in attempts at par- tial amendments, or, more frequently, the introduction of new and unexpected mischiefs. On the other hand, we have seen instances of pure abolition or extensive excision of the larger members of this body of law, such as the abolition of the power of removal of all uucharge- able people, and the entire abolition of heads of settk- nicnt ; and we have seen in all such cases that tic destruction has been free from mischief, even when frustrated of some of its good effects by the remaining portions of the law of removal. Tiic apprehended dangers of the entire abolition of the law of removal have been examined in detail, and none will stand the investigation. I Some amendments, proposed with a view to lessen the ad- | raitted mischiefs of the law, are shown to involve prepouderat- I iug mischiefs of their own, and to be less effective for their ' proposed end than simple and absolute abolition. 1 We come then to the conclusion that the only course con- I sistent with the public welfare is to repeal the power of removal j by warrant. This, for reasons shown, should extend to Scotch, Irish, the i islanders, and vagrants. ' It is unnecessary to provide expressly for " settlement." 1 The provisions as to this and as to legal and other proceedings i all become inoperative for present purposes by the abolition of " removal;" and as they are mixed up with other matters they ' should be left in operation as to them until they have been more carefully examined, or can be appropriately provided for in detail. ' As the right of free settlement may operate to the disadvan- I tage of some of the more accessible places, and as moreover it would of itself be beneficial that every union should become to all intents and purposes one parish ; but as this, if effected at once, would involve a sudden and violent increase of burden iu manner of the smaller parishes without equivalent advantage to any, it is desirable so to introduce equality of rating as to render the approximation, if possible, not more rapid than the receipt of benefits from the change of the law ; and, so as not to interfere unnecessarily with the value of property or the just expectations of its present owners or existing expectants (132.— 142.), it seems desirable that— Every union be on and after the day of an union for rating, according to the provisions of the Poor- liw Amendment Act, dispensing with the consent of the guardians. That all its expenditure be provided for by a compiou fund. That this common fund be raised for the first (say 27) years by rates made iu each parish, approximating to au equal union rate by (say one-tenth) of their differences every three years. That iu the year (say 1878), and thenceforth, the common fund shall be raised by an equal union rate. It may be expected that a perfect freedom of settlement will sooner or later produce a greater approach to equality iu the supply and remuneration of labour throughout the country; that it will enable every locality and every kind of property to enjoy the full benefit of its natural advantages for the employ- ment of labour; and that while it i-roportions the supply of labour to the demand, it will increase its aggregate rewards by allowing it readily to avail itself of every occasion for its more profitable eraploymrnt. Circumstances are at present the most favourable that have been enjoyed for many years for effecting the change. Large alterations have been recently made iu the prospects of the profitable cultivation of different soils and different districts requiring for the benefit both of districts in which human labour should be diminished and those iu which it should be ir.crcascd, and in a view to the general advantage of the com- munity, that the transfer of labourers should be effected with the least possible difficulty. The same or similar changes iu the law have made it almost a certainty that manufacturing and trading towns and districts will require a large accession of fresh hands for the purposes of increasing production and commerce. Add to these inducemcuts the rapidly increased and increasing mechanical facilities of locomotion, and it be- comes apparent, that to retain the impediment of settlement at this time is to forego one of the most favourable opportunities ever presented to a community for abandoning without danger or inconvenience an absurd and mischievous error. One consequence would be certain, the relief of our statute books and the law library, and the administration of justice, of the great ii:cumbrance of the settlement law, and the local and the central administration of the poor laws of a worse than use- less, but a most engrossing portion of their duties, and that a great saving would not only be made of the trouble and cost of removal and litigation, but in those, often left out of calculation but not less serious, of the inquiries and trouble incurred in cases where neither removal nor dispute eventually take place. Be these advantages great or small, whether new and unfore- seen evils spring from the repeal or not, one other advantage is certain, that if new legislation in the domain and for the purposes of settlement should ever be again judged necessary, the present repeal would clear it from its main difficulty by dis- encumbering it of the existing mass of incongruous, conflicting^ and mostly obsolete and effete provisions. 2 F 2 432 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REAPING MACHINES. Will corn-reaping by more powerful machinery than the sickle or the scythe ever become general ? is a still unsettled question. The tendency of the age is to dispense as much as possible with manual labour. It is generally found desirable to a pro- ducer of capital to have as much work as possible done by the steady, regular machine which never tires, and as little as possible by the human hand. To talk against machinery being emplo3^ed is purely abstract nonsense. The spade is simply a ma- chine for better effecting tillage than the scratch- ing by the hand — the flail for easier separating the grain than rubbing it out — the axe for cutting the thorn instead of breaking it with the hand ; and yet they are, to all intents and purposes, machinery for dispensing with more or less of manual labour. It is idle to say that it is against the excessive em- ployment of machinery that the objection is made ; the question will necessarily arise. Where does the limit end, and where does the excess commence ? To this we are not aware what other answer can be given than this, that excessive machinery commences where it ceases to pay, and that no sort of ma- chinery is in excess when an improvement will cheapen the production of the article it manufac- tures. Cheap as human labour is in nearly all parts of the United Kingdom, at least, and on the continent of Europe, it is seldom that improve- ments in machinery will not reduce the cost of production either by supplj'ing the process or ex- 2)editing its progress. Now it is impossible to cheapen the production of any one of the great necessaries of life without benefiting the whole mass to a greater or less ex- tent 5 and hence, so far from any injury being in- flicted on our population by improved thrashing machines, haymakers, drills, &c., it has been exactly the reverse. The man who cheapens pro- duction increases it. Finding a profit, he produces more to make that profit greater ; and hence it is a truth which we have always seen hold good, that the farmer who has in his possession the greatest number of implements calculated to dispense with human labour is, acre for acre, employing the most hands. We see several efforts made to attain for agricul- ture some of the advantages which their neigh- bours the manufacturers have gained by improved machinery. The steam-ploughing of Lord Wil- loughby de Eresby seems to be the greatest effort. He proposes now, we understand, to lay down two railways, and have a steam-engine at each end of the field to be ploughed. To this we may after- wards allude. Mr. Fowler, of Bristol, is following in the improvement of drainage, and attempting the depositing of pipe-tiles along with making a drain, without opening out the soil more than was done with the mole-plough. And last, the Ame- rican reaping machines have reminded us of another direction in which possibly progress may be made. It is an error to suppose that the Ame- ricans were the original inventors of these imple- ments. Scotland owes to her hard-headed perse- verance the origination, aud almost the perfection, of these machines, and produced at least half a dozen embracing nearly every peculiarity of M'Cormick's machine. The abundance of corn and the dear- ness of labour, doubtless, induced the farmers of the illimitable prairies of America to adopt and to use them, and because implements essen- tially the same as those laid by thirty years ago have been brought before us at the Exhibition, we are looking at them as we should look at the guillo- tine as one of the world's wonders. The two machines were those of M'Cormick and Hussey. They were tried before a jury; we believe at Mr. Mechi's farm, but under very unfavourable circumstances, at least as regards the latter. A porter from the Exhibition — we are told, possibly a cockney — was sent down, and he did not know how to set it, and it left a high stubble; M'Cor- mick's had a better fate, and won the Great Medal. Hence he challenges the world at the Middles- boro' show of the Cleveland Agricultural Society; and Hussey, or his agents, accepted the challenge. A vast concourse of people attended, and a jury of twelve good men were impanelled to see the work. The day was, however, most unpropitious : it rained " cats and dogs ;" the wind blew, and the rain poured down in torrents. Such a day Cleve- land seldom saw — a storm which wrecked or stranded sixteen ships on that dangerous coast was raging ; but still the small, snug, simple Hussey's machine cut down its breadth of corn closely, evenly, and well. It was a triumph ! Two horses walked gallantly away with the machine — nor did it seem to distress them— while little effort seemed to be necessary to receive the corn from the well-arranged platform on which the lancets, for such they are, left it after cutting. There were THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 433 no ugly and ponderous flappers — no array of use- less work, but a condensed, simple arrangement of parts necessary to effect its purpose. M'Cormick's machine came next to the trial, but it would not work at all. It operated more like a roller; it refused to cut the corn, and the trial was abandoned. Now we do not pretend to say the day was such a one as we should ever select to reap corn, and so far, the trial might be unsatisfactory ; but it fairly established a fact, we think, of great importance, and that was, that Hussey's machine could accom- plish what M'Cormick's could not ; and an imple- ment which could overcome difficulties which another could not, ought, in our opinion, to be con- sidered the best, in the absence at least of more satisfactory evidence. It is upon this principle that all trials of implements are decided. The land is often so hard at the meetings of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England that nobody would think of attempting to plough land in that condi- tion, and hence eleven out of twelve ordinary ploughs refuse to work ; but if a twelfth will do it, they award it the prize. The jury, we believe, separated svithout an award, and another was impanelled on a subse- quent day. Nor do we much care to what deci- sion they may have come. We are seldom in the habit of giving a very decided opinion on agricul- tural implements, especially rival ones, brought before the public ; but we have no hesitation in saying that, while either of them will, under ordi- nary circumstances, cut standing corn without difficulty, we believe Hussey's will beat M'Cor- mick's in lodged corn. Whether either of them will succeed in cleanly cutting that, or not, we will not venture to predict ; but, whether we take simplicity of construction, efficiency of cutting and delivery, or ease of working, we must say, at present we prefer Hussey's. The decision of the merits of the two American reaping machines, brought into competition at the Middlesborough meeting of the Cleveland Agricul- tural Society, terminated exactly as we expected. We stated that, at the first day's trial, the only deci- sion which could be made was, that the one showed it could do work which the other would not. A more favourable day was selected for a second trial, especially on ridge and furrow, and in lodged corn ; and we stated we were much mistaken if the de- cision did not turn out to be in favour of Hussey's machine, and not to the one which obtained the medal at the Great Exhibition. Our opinions are shown by the event to be correct. The jury ap- pointed consisted of good country names of practi- cal men : Rev. William Filzwilliam Wharton, rector of Barningham, Richmond, foreman ; John Thomas Wharton, Esq., Skelton Caatle, Gisborongh ; Mr. Jolia Parrington, Braiiceptth, Dur- ham ; Mr. William Morley, Dishfortb, Tliirsk ; Mr. John Mason Hopper, Newham Grange, Middlesljorough ; Mr. Joseph rarrington, Crossbeck House, Middlebborough ; Mr. George Reade, Hutton Low Cross, Guisborough ; Mr. Robert Fawcitt, Ormesby, Middlesborough ; Mr. William Hill, Stain- ton, Middlesborough ; Mr. Joseph Coulson, Sexhow, Stokes- ley ; Mr. Thomas Parrington, Marton, Middlesborough ; Mr. Joseph Harrison, Ormesby, Middlesborough. The following were the instructions of the jury, and the points to which their attention was to be directed : " The machines to be tried on wheat and barley, in such order and for such lengths of time as the said jury may direct. " The jury to have full power to use any means they may deem advisable, in order to put the machines to the severest trials. " The jury, in deciding on the merits of the two machines, to take into their consideration— " 1. Which of the two cuts the corn in the best manner ? " 2. Which of the two causes the least waste? " 3. Which of the two does the most work in a given time? " 4. Which of the two leaves the cut corn in the best order for gathering and binding ? " 5. Which of the two is the best adapted for ridge and furrow ? " 6. Which of the two is the least liable to get out of re- pair ? " 7. Which of the two, at first cost, is less price ? " 8. Which of the two requires the least amount of horse labour? " 9. Which of the two requires the least amount of manual labour ? " And whichever of the two machines so tried and tested has in it combined the greater number of the above qualifica- tions, according to the opinions of a majority of the jury, is to be pronounced the best instrument ? " Middleshorough, Sept. 25, 1851." The trial came off as we before described, and the following was the award of the jury : " The jury regret exceedmgly the most unfavourable state of the weather on the dajs of trial (a perfect hurricane raging the whole of the first day), and their conseqiient inability to make so full and satisfactory a trial as they could have wished. " The machines were tested on a crop of wheat, computed at 25 bushels per acre, very much laid ; and on barley at 25 bushels per acre, very short in the straw, and if possible more laid than the wheat. " The jury, taking the differeut points submitted to their consideration in the order in which they occur above, express — " 1. Their unanimous opinion that Mr. Hussey's machine, as exhibited by Messrs. William Dray and Company, cut the corn in the best manner, especially across ridge and furrow, and when the machine was working in the direction the corn lay. "2. By a majority of eleven to one, that Mr. Hussey's ma- chine caused the least waste. "3. Taking the breadth of the two machines into considera- tion, that Mr. Hussey's did most work. " 4. That Mr. Hussey's machine leaves the cut corn in the 434 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. best order for gathering and binding. This question was sub- mitted to the labourers employed on the occasion, and decided by them as above, by a majority of 6 to 4. " 5. Their unanimous opinion that Mr. Hussey's machine is best adapted for ridge and furrow. " C. This question was referred by the jury to Mr. Robiu- Eon, foreman to Messrs. Bellerby, of York, a practical mechanic of acknowledged ability, whose report is appended. " 7. That Mr. Husaey's machine at first cost is less price. " 8, 9. The jury decline to express a decided opinion on these points, in consequence of the state of the weather. " The trials tork place on the farm of Robert Fawcitt, of Ormesby, near Middlesborough-on-Tees, who in the most liberal and disinterested spirit allowed his crops to be trodden down and damaged to a very great extent, especially on the 2oth, when in spite of the storm an immense crowd assembled to witness the trials. " The jury cannot conclude their report without expressing the great pleasure they have derived from seeing two machines brought into competition that are able to do such very good work, and also at witnessing the friendly, straightforward, and honourable way in which the exhibitors of the respective ma- chines met on this occasion. " Mr. Robinson, on question 6, says, ' Having carefully ex- amined both machines, and given the subject due considera- tion, I am of opinion that M'Cormick's reaping machine, as at pre-iisnt made, is most liable to get out of order.' " W. F. Wharton." Connected with this subject, we have the follow- ing on " Future Agriculture," by an old corre- spondent : " TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' JOURNAL. " Sir, — What agriculture was, we have seen ; what it now is, we can hardly say ; for it is continually mak- ing advances, such as have not been made for ages past ; and what it is destined to become, it is impossible to foresee. But, without the gift of prophecy, we may venture to assert that it will soon be very different from what it was, or even what it now is. And why so .' Because all other arts and sciences are so busy, hurrying onward in the march of improvement, that they will not suffer agriculture to remain dormant any longer. Pre- sent difficulties must convince practical farmers of the utter impossibility of proceeding in the old way ; and such lectures as that of Dr. Frankland, at the meeting of the North Lancashire Agricultural Society, clearly prove that they have much to learn from science before their practice can be anything like perfect. There is much to be discovered in the way of further improve- ment, and much of that which is already known to be put into practice, before we say that it is impossible to cultivate land profitably with present prices. When practice and science go together, agriculture will make wonderful advances : they must be united, and the sooner the better ; for the union is absolutely necessary to enable the farmer to contend with his present diffi- culties. " Improvement in machinery has recently aided agriculture much, and it probably will do much more. In your leading article on the 4th you make some weighty remarks on the use of machinery, which ought to be well considered by all parties con- cerned, especially farmers and their labourers ; the latter of whom have a sad prejudice against what is calculated to promote their own benefit, as well as that of the public in general. I hope for their sake you will still further elucidate the subject, showing them that cheapening production is the most effectual way of in- creasing consumption ; and that increased consumption of the produce of labour must tend to increase the de- mand for labour, though it may be in a different way of action. Abundance and cheapness of the necessaries of life are blessings tending to promote increase of popula- tion, and of course increased trade and demand ; and it must be for the labourer's advantage, if, by means of improved machinery, he is enabled to procure an in- creased amount of the comforts of life with a smaller ex- penditure of physical power. " There can hardly be a doubt but that such further improvements will be made in the reaping machine, and the steam-cultivator, as to cause them to be generally used on large farms ; though the scythe and the more primitive implements, the sickle and the spade, will still continue to render occasional valuable services in par- ticular cases. The reaping machine and the hay- gig will both expedite and cheapen harvest work, and prevent much of the waste which is caused by the slow progress of manual labour ; and they will cause a more equal diffusion of labour throughout the year. With improve- ment in machinery, let not the improvement of the labourer's condition be neglected. "A. R, F." The question is asked on all sides, will the one or the other ever become an implement of general use amongst farmers ? That scores will be tried another harvest we cannot have the slightest doubt ; and that they will be to a very great extent useful we cannot for one moment hesitate to believe. We believe that in thinly-populated districts of arable land, when the labour of harvest very far exceeds that of other periods of the year, they will be in- valuable, as on the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lin- colnshire ; but we think they wiil require to be very much improved before they will become as common as a scythe. We donot see, for instance,how afarmer can always provide hands to follow one or other of these, espe- cially if his occupation be small ; and as the corn must be taken up as rapidly as the machine cuts and divides it, there must be a great loss of labour in the tying of the crop. If the machine was pushed before the horses instead of dragged by their sides, so that the corn might be allowed to lay in sheaf, we think it would be a great advantage. For in- stance, if it rec[uire say four men to follow one of the machines to bind, &c., and this it will, they will have to run past each other from sheaf to sheaf in a way which must very materially increase the labour. Whereas if an acre, say, could be cut before the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4S5 binding commenced, tliey might each take one row of corn, and lose much less time than would be the case if tlie horses' were walking by the side of the implement, and so necessitate the removal of the sheaves before it next came round. Ingenuity is, hosvever, set to work. A stone- mason of Ripon, of the name of Hammond, is constructing one on quite a new principle, which is well spoken of by parties who ought to know its probability of success. Altogether, this ten- dency in men's minds will doubtless do good. — (hardeners' and Farmers' Journal. TOE SAN DC RACK. [We extract from an article in the Veterinarian for October, by the Editor, Mr. Percivall, the following observations on "Toe Sandcrack."] " The subject of it is not the light horse, but the heavy one. The cart and waggon horse, the dray horse (the latter espe- cially), and in particular, I believe, in pived towns (such as London), are the sufferers from this disease. I say ' sufferers,' because it is only those veterinary surgeons whose practice lies among horses of this description that have any conception of the amount of pain and irritation to which sandcrack, simple as it may seem to those who are ia the habit of meeting with quavtersandcrack only, on occasions is found to give rise. " The cause of toe sandcrack is violence : shoeing, also, may have something to do in its production. The horses who are the subjects of it are those employed in laborious and straining draft. The toe of the hind foot is the grand fulcrum through which the hind limbs, the propellers of the body, esert tlieir power ; and it is in some violent and forcible effort that the hind hoof, strained as it is to its uttermost, and in particular at the toe, splits; commonly first at the coronet, the same as in the lore foot; where the horn, but newly formed, is thin and unresisting, the crack subsequently extending gradually down tbe wall, even as far as the point of the toe. Digging the tip of the toe into the ground, or stamping it hard down upon the pavement, and especially when this stress upon the fore part of tbe wall is at all times promoted by high caulkings to the shoe, must certainly, one would think, be the main producer of toe sandcrack ; an opinion still farther favoured by the obser- vation which has been made of shaft horses in drays being more subject to the accident than trace horses. Still, however, for all this, it behoves me to say, that with the best judges of Buch matters, the point is one not yet set free from doubt and difference of thinking. Short and upright pasterns, with clubby prominent hoofs, indicate a predisposition to toe sand- crack, the disease being in no instances seen in flat, shelvy, oblique hoofs. It is said, sandcrack may originate iu ' tread.' Undoubtedly, any leison of the coronary body sufficient to injure or destroy its secretory apparatus may occasion imper- fect or morbid formation of horn, or loss of horn altogether ; but I do not believe this to be a very common c.iuse of sand- crack." in giving the treatment for the cwre, which is neces- sarily a work of months, although the removal of tbe lameness may be effected in as many hours or days, he says : " Paring out the crack, the shoe being takea off the foot, is the first thing to be done. The cutting cautiously away of its rugged edges, and the scooping out with a light hand — pro- bably with the back of the drawing knife — of its cavity, will enable us to examine into the condition of it. Should there be no leison or exposure of the laminos detectible, nothing further will be needed from the drawing knife than the cleaning out of the crack. " Firing the crack is the next operation. Cross-firing will be advisable below or above, or in b ith situations, according to circumstances. So long as the crack has not reached to the boitoni of the wall, it will be requisite, with an ordinary firing iron at a red heat, to burn a deep but short fissure or ' mark' across its lower extremity ; and whether a similar operation be required across the superior termination of the crack must de- pend upon its extension or not through the horn at the coronet. If there be any interval of sound born between the hair aud the crack, of sufficient breadth aud substance to bear firing, a very slight burn may do good. In all cases it is the practice to finish the firing with running the sharp edge of the iron down the crack ; and this certainly proves beneficial in destroy- ing any tendency there may be — supposing the laminje to have become denuded — to a normal action, as well to stimulate any vascular parts exposed to issue horny matter to cover the bot- tom of tbft crack. "Binding up the crack is a good practice after firing. With a wax-end of sufficient length — such as shoemakers use — bind round the wall of the hoof, so that any tar or pitch plaster it may be deemed advisable to place in or upon the crack maybe maintained there ; at the same time that the hoof itself is, by the tight binding, restricted in any tendency it may have to expand, aud thereby open wider the crack. " A bar-shoe is the preferable one for a sand-cracked foot. By it, the bearing being taken off that part of the wall which is opposite to the crack, the pressure and jar — so continually splitting afresh the new-formed horn over the crack at the coronet — are put a stop to : the formation of an undivided coro- nary horny band being the commencement of the radical cure of the sandcrack. As I said before, horn being an inorganic substance, no union whatever can take place in the crack itself : permanent cure can be effected only through oblitera- tion by the growing out or down of the crack. This, I repeat, is the reason why a sandcrack occupies so long a time in its removal; though, by way of compensation, a horse is not kept out of work while cure is being effected ; for, after the crack has been bound up, and the hoof shod with a bar-shoe, it is quite surprising to find how soundly and firmly the animal sometimes steps upon the foot of which he had but now been so lame " 436 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE GREAT EXHIBITION. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, No. 3. Among the agricultural macliinery to which the em- ployment of steam is applicable, we rnay mention Fowler's draining plough, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby's steam plough, Mr. Barcham's tillage machine, and Mr. Blackhall's steaming apparatus for bones. Messrs. Hornsbyand Son alsoexhibit a steam plough drawing four shares in separate furrows, which has a very effective appearance, and is a beautifully finished piece of work- manship. iMr. Stanley exhibits his well-known food- steaming apparatus, and Messrs. Smith of Paisley a plain, though useful, set of steamers, larger, though somewhat similar to that which gained the Highland Society's premium. I would also notice a model of a locomotive steam plough, shown by Usher, of Edia- burgh, consisting of a revolving drum placed behind the engine, on to which five series of ploughs, each consisting of three, are fixed. The patentee considers that the steam engine would cause these to revolve, and the re- volution of these ploughs would in their turn act as pro- pellers to the engine. More probably the result would be that the revolving ploughs would merely scrape a hole in the ground. Fowler's draining plough, the invention of a practical farmer, is, from the size (not the construction), calcu- lated to remind one of the ingenious, though unfortu- nate, invention of Mr. Paul, of Thorpe Abbots, near Scole, Norfolk. It is intended to be worked in a simi- lar manner by a capstan, power to be applied either by liorses or steam. It consists of an immense iron frame, 18 feet long, supported on four small wheels, or rather rollers ; at the centre of this frame is fixed a powerful mining tool, like the share of a mole-plough, which can be raised or lowered as requiied by the vary- ing level of the soil. To this miner is attached a rope strung with pipes, made either of wood or tile : the latter are now used almost exclusively. Trenches or a series of holes intersect the proposed course of drainage at regular intervals, and the plough being placed in one of these, and set to work, not only makes a circular drain like the common mole plough, but draws the pipet after it, which, when the rope is loosened, are left under ground, to form a permanent drainage. These holes are only made at both ends of the field, the one being used to put the plough in, and the other to put it out, as 1000 feet of pipe can be laid in a length. Although this implement is new, yet the idea is old, as Mr. Saul, of Garstang, Lancashire, propounded the same several years back in the AcjricuJturcil Gazette ,- and Arthur Young mentions a similar plan, only using straw rope instead of a string of tiles, as practised in Essex more than half a century back. Query, did Arthur Young drain in straw ropes, or only use them in work by hand. This implement is described by the inventor, Mr. John Fowler, jun., of the Temple Gate Implement Fac- tory, Bristol, as " capable of effectually executing any drainage that may be required above the depth of four feet, at less than half the cost of the present system, and without disturbing the surface soil. " The following engraving shows the machine just as it is tini>hing the drain. When commencing work, the plough is taken to one end of the field, and the capstan is moored at the other ; the wire rope being run off the drum of the capstan and attached to the plough (either singly in shallow draining or soft soils, ox returned round a single sheave where greater power is required), as shown in the cut. The capstan is now moved at right angles, inste.id of in a line with the plough ; and is only moved once a day, the requisite direction being given to the plough by a snatch block moored to a loose anchor, and is thus more easily moved. The plug and coulter are then dropped into a hole prepared for them , and the pipes threaded on a rope are attached to the back of the plug, the hole being sloped off backwards, to allow them to enter easily ; the horses are attached to the horse levers of the capstan, and by walking in a circular course wind the wire rope on to the drum, and pull the plough for- ward with the pipes attached. When the entire length of drain is completed (which may be any length under 225 yards), the plough is run into another hole, and the rope on which the pipes are strung, being unhooked, is pulled out backwards, and the drain is complete. As it v/ou'.d be inconvenient to have the pipe-rope in one length, it is made in pieces of 50 feet each ; and by a simple contri- vance, as one rope enters, the other is attached to the end. " The accuracy with which the clay-pipes are laid cannot, it is said, be equalled by any hand-work ; and, from the bottom being undisturbed, they are not liable to sink, as is sometimes the case, even in the best executed hand-draining. By this process, not only is the cost of burying the tiles reduced in many cases 50 per cent., but from the quickness and neatness of the operation it can be done at any season of the year, with- out injury to any short crop, or interfering with common farm operations — the surface soil being untouched, ex- cept at the head-lands ; and, where the hedges are low, the capstan can often be fixed in the next field. In un- dulating or fiat lands, the levels are kept, or a fall en- sured, by working the coulter up and down in the body of the plough, by means of the worm and worm-wheel shown in the cut, the ploughman's eye being guided by a try sight balanced on the plough, and a cross-staff erected at the end of the field. Several of these ploughs are now in constant work, and though great lengths of the drains have bjen opened in the presence of large numbers of agriculturists, in no instance have the tiles been found incorrectly laid. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 437 " The quantity of draining that can be done per day will vary with each particular field ; but in common clay land, where the depth does not exceed three leet, two miles will be completed with four horses in the com- mon working day : but when the depth exceeds three feet, or the land is very hard and dry, from two to three horses will not do more than half that quantity. Where it is possible, this draining would be much more cheaply done ill summer, as twice the quantity of work may be done by Laving two teams of horses out, and the other expenses would not be increased in proportion." jNIr. James Blackhall, of 22, Upper Gray-street, Edin- burgh, exhibits a model of a high-pressure boiler for steaming bones for manure, with additional tanks for retting flix ; also for steaming straw, turnips, and other fuod for cattle. He shows also specimens of steamed bone manure, prepared at Blackfaulds, Linlithgowshire, containing for its preservation 5 per cent, of salt and 5 per cent of gypsum. The process of steaming bones, and afferwards dissolving them in sulphuric acid, is in- tended to supersede the usuil method of crushing them by expensive machinery. Mr. Blackhall's apparatus extracts all tiie fat and gelatine from the bones, leaving the latter in a state easily pulverizable. The bones are not injured as a manure, as it is the phosphate of lime, not the fatty or gelatinous matter, that is the principal ingredient required in turnip culture, as is proved by burnt bones, /. e. animalized carbon, being as efficacious as unburnt. The fat, &c., extracted may be used in greasing carts, or mixed in composts (or converted into soap and glue ?). The method in which the Nineveh ivories were re- stored is a curious example of exactly an opposite pro- cess, where bone, friable through age, was hardened by boiling in a strong solution of gelatine. The next machine that I shall mention is one for digging and turning over earth, invented by Thompson, of Great George- street, Westminster, an implement which at present appears more calculated to waste than to save labour. It is an immense iron machine ; the supporting wheels are six feet high, and act as the mo- tive power; the inner circumference of one of them being cogged, turns a pinion, which has a larger cogged wheel fixed on the same spindle, and this larger wheel turns another pinion fixed on a six-cranked spindle, the cranks of which give'motion to six spades ; these spades throw the earth through scoops, which may be placed at different angles ; two small rollers support the machine behind. The increased velocity given to the spades by the gear-work so diminishes the power, that I am doubt- ful whether it would work at all except on light soil, and even in that case probably half-a-dozen labourers would be able to perform as quickly, and make better work. Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, of 142, Piccadilly, ex- liibits a steam-ploughing apparatus, his own invention, in which a portable engine is to travel up the middle of a field, and draw two series of four ploughs each, at the rate of five miles an hour, by means of chains passing over a revolving roller, and pulleys fixed at each end of the field ; the ends of these chains being fixed to the ploughs. Of course the engine and the pul- leys both require to be moved forward as the" land is ploughed. The plan almost entirely resembles_ that in- 438 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. vented by Hancock, about twenty years ago. Mr. Bur- cham, of Lynn, J^orfjlk, exhibits an amusing and very original, though impracticable, model of steam cultiva- tion, which he calls a Universal Tiilage Machine and Irrigator. He imagines a farm, consisting only of cir- cular fields, a pivot in the centre of each, on which a beam, exactly half the diameter of the field, turns. Now, by fixing ploughs, hoes, tines, &c., on this beam, and horse or steam power at the extremity, he imagines the soil to be cultivated by the revolution of the beam. This machine he has christened the " Embryo," and probably it will ever remain in that state. He supposes it would thus be possible to sow or hoe an acre of tur- nips in five minutes, at the cost of 6d. an acre. Two machines, described as irrigators, are also shown by Mr. George Goode, of 473, Oxford-street. He de- scribes one as a " Patent irrigator, for grass land or low crops, applicable also to watering roads. It may be woiked by two boys, and it distributes water or liquid manure with great regularity. From 10 to 20 acres may be done in a day." The other is a machine of a similar description, for high-standing crops, except that it requires more power. This machine was exhibited so far bark as the Norwich show ; but we have never seen it in practical use. It consists of a length of canvas, wound round a kind of drum, supported on wheels. It is intended to distribute liquid manure, or any manure dissolved in water, by means of a hose laid on the ground, through which the manure is forced. In fact, it is just an imitation of the hose of a fire-engine, with wheels to support the ex- tremity from which the liquid issues, and thus enable it to be directed and carried about to different parts with greater facility. A machine apparently calculated to be of great utility in draining marshes, or in irrigation, is Appold's Centri- fugal Pump. The revolving apparatus is stated to con- tain a gallon of water, and to discharge its contents 1,400 times a minute, and performing what is tech- nically called 70 per cent, of duty. It appears to act as a kind of force-pump, and will force water to any height, or from any depth. Centrifugal pumps have the advantage over common ones in constantly keeping up the impulse in the same direction, and not losing power by the reverse stroke. This machine is in Class VI., where it may be constantly seen at work, throwing up an immense quantity of water. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.— No. 4. There is a well-known difference between the Scotch and English systems of thrcshitg corn ; in the former there is always an upper floor to the barn in which the machine is placc(il. As the corn is threshed, re- volving rakes separate the straw and convey it to the St raw- house. The corn and chaff fall into a winnow- ing machine placed on the ground floor, by which the chaff is blown into the chaff-housc, and the corn falls from the winnowing machine into a corn-room, in a state nearly fit for market. The machinery is driven by steam or water power, and the whole of the labour of threshing and winnowing is done by two men and five or six women or boys. And about the same quan- tity of grain is thrcslied i)er day in Scotland as is done by our best machines in England; but the latter require, as every farmer is aware, a much greater number of workmen. In portability and in the con- struction of the maclune itself, the English have the advantage; but the systematical arrangement of the barn-machinery of the northern farmers economises labour ; a point which is of much importance, and which our English implement-makers would do well to give attention to. The English portable machines have at the most only a straw-shaker attached. Mr. Burrell, of Thet- ford, a few years back, attempted to combine the ad. vantages of the Scotch system of threshing with the portability of the English. His machine not only tlireshed but winnowed the corn. Probably its in- creased weight and expense, and the fact that these additions were more useful for in-door than out-door threshing, prevented this machine coming more gene- rally into use. No fewer than three machines are shown at tlie Exhibition on this principle. Mr. Garrett's is a threshing-machine combined with bis straw-shaker and winnowing. maciiine. In this a sieve separates all the broken cars, leaves, and short straws ; and a winnowing-machinc, with the aid of a co:nmon sieve, prepares the grain at once for market. The advantages of this are great, as it is calculated that the saving of expense equals the entire cost of coal required to work a five-horse engine. Tuxford's patent, combining threshing, shaking, and blowing machine, appears tlie most compact of this ckss of implements. The great feature in this machine is effected by the combination of the jiatent perforated shaker-off, with three bottoms, by which the straw is delivered from the top in one place, the broken ears and short straws from the middle frame in another, and from the bottom the chaff and grain, which are further separated by the blower. Tlie machine may be constructed to deliver the chaff eitlicr with the broken ears or sei)arately, as desired. Clayton and Shultleworth's threshing, straw- shaking, riddling, and winnowing machine. The chief novelty in this machine is the reverberating trough, which is suspended by four links, and extends the whole length of the machine and straw-sliaker, a reciprocating motion being imparted by means of a crank. The great quantity of short straws which drop through the bars of the common straw-shaker has long been considered objectionable, increiising the labour wiien threshing and also when dressing the corn. By means of this vibrating troucjh the whole as it drops from the threshing-drum and straw-shaker is retained, and these passed over a riddle, under which the blast is directed, thereby effectually separating the corn, chaff, and short straws, each being discharged in the place assigned for it, thus effecting u considerable saving in labour. Messrs. Hensmann and Sons are awarded a prize medal for their four-horse power patent bolting THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 489 tlircshing machine, which obtained the prize at Exeter. Messrs. Holmes and Sons, of Norwich, are also suc- cessful in obtaining a medal with Ihcir threshing machine, with a straw-shaker attached ; it has a new adjustment for the regulation of the concaves. The drills mauufacturedby Messrs. Garrett, Hornsby, and others, which have been approved of at the meet- ings of the Royal Agricultural Society, arc too well known to require any description here ; but Cliandler's liquid manure drill is less known in some districts, and deserves mention. In the place of cups, scoops like those of a dredging-machiue are used, whicli take the liquid from a metal tank or cistern, and throw it down large drill pipes or spouts. The turnip-seed runs down the same spouts, a slider working to and fro by a zig-zag groove on a drum or wheel, shutting and opening the seed-spouts just above the point where they enter into tlie larger ones, so as to cause the intermitting or dropping action. Plain water, liquid manure, or dissolved artificial manures, may bo em- ployed. Messrs. Ransome and May obtain a prize medal for their patent corn and seed depositor, or drop-drill, manufactured entirely of iron. By changing tlie cups this drill is suitable for sowing all kinds of seed, and for corn appears likely to be quite as effective as New- berry's dibbling-machine, and much liishter and less expensive. Ransome's roller-mill, for crushing all kinds of corn or pulse, is worthy of notice. The crushing part consists of three rollers, placed close together, and varying in their distance apart and in the coarseness or fineness of their cut. A simple alteration in tlie feeding. hopper will cause the corn to fall either between the first and second or the second and third roller, as desired. Ransome's collection of ploughs were well worthy of insijeetion : they were raised upon a stage, and included his free-trade iron plough at £2 lOs. Crosskill's implements were principally noticeable on account of all the wood-woik being left unjiainted, and simply varnished, a plan well worthy imitation, preventing any defect from being concealed by paint Jot less than 150 metrical quintals, each con- taining about 225lbs. of lime, at the price of about 2 f. per quintal, are devoted to each hectare. 'Jlie lime is deposited in small heaps and mixed with earth, then scattered regularly over the surface of the field. After this preparation the soil is ploughed and sown v.ith mingled clover and oats. The yield is two harvest per annum, and is abundant enough to permit the rearing of the following quantity of live stock : — Cows, 32, of which 16 perform the work of the farm ; horses, 3 ; sheep, 400 ; pigs, 10. The animals are pastured in the furze and coppice woods already mentioned. The above paragraphs may suffice to convey some notion of the proportions of land devoted to different crops by the best cultivators in the part of the South of France under question, as well as of the amount of live stock reared upon their farms. Along the courses of the rivers works of irrigation, of more or less importance, are common; but they are all constructed upon a scale much smaller and less complete than the labyrinthine system of canals and sluices of the valley of the Adour, while the mea- dows which they refresh have none of the fresh bright greenness and thick crisp regularity of grass distinguishing the sward of the western valley. A mile or two beneath Carcasonne there is, however, a range of artificial meadov.s, which deserve a pass- ing word of notice. They are entirely constructed from the shingly bed of the Aude. Like the Loire, the Pyrenean stream in question rolls an uncertain and fitful torrent, frequently impregnated with earthy matter, along a channel composed for the most part of dry beds of sand and shingle, glisten- ing in the sun. At the point in quebtion extended a long series of level gravel banks, only covered when the river v/as in flood. A system of dykes and sluices was erected, the effect of which was to permit the access of the water without subjecting the spot to the sweep of the current. The conse- quence was, that every successive inundation brought down and deposited layers of rich mud, and I walked over a velvet carpeting of green sward upon a spot which a few years ago was a waste of clean white stones. The river is kept at a due distance by means of dykes, but various small canals and sluices jjermit the field to be, when necessary, submersid without waiting for the sea- son of floods. The instances of enterprise and enlightened ap- plication of capital which I have quoted must, how- ever, be taken as exceptional in the district in which they occur ; as a general rule, the spirit of routine is all-powerful. Masters are careless of all but reve- nue, and metayers jog on as their fathers did before them. In my rambles round Carcassonne, as I have said, I found horses being universally used in the plough. As a general rule, the instruments ap- peared superior to those I have lately been accus- tomed to see, turning a deeper and a steadier fur- row. They were universally furnished with a single stilt. The olive trees occurred here and there in rows, generally planted at about ten yards distance from each other on either side. The metayer's duty extended to the gathering in of the fruit, and the conveyance of it to the mill. The money amount of his wages, as fixed by half a dozen labourers, whom I successively questioned, ranged in the lo- cality under consideration from fifty to sixty francs. His allowance of wheat, oats, and sometimes of potatoes, depended in a great degree upon the size of his family. Day labourers, I was informed, could not always obtain even thirty sous per day in v/inter. They often worked during the short days for from eighty-five to ninety centimes. The women obtained from fifty to sixty centimes. Here and there, in small patches of good loamy soil, their humble proprietors were engaged in turning up the earth with a species of instrument, half hoe, half pitchfork. As in the case of most similar im- plements in France, the handle was uniformly very short, and the necessary stooping painful to look at. One rather intelligent peasant calculated the ex- pense of this species of manual husbandry at three times that requisite for ploughing the land. The produce, however, he estimated would be four times greater. Both this man and several ethers, with whom I had some conversation both at Carcassonne and Beziers, sjioke with an emphatic degree of bit- terness and discontent of their condition, and an evident grudge against the larger employers, not by any means generally characteristic of the French peasant. They all joined in representing that there was not enough of work for the hands ready and eager to undertake it. One man had been out of work a fortnight before he got the job I found him at. Another had " chome " three weeks, and both of them attributed their consequent hardships to the misconduct and supineness of the Government, which, they maintained, ought to find work and wages for all. In the vicinity neither of Carcas- sonne nor of Beziers could I see a single head of horned cattle. Sheep abounded, always placed under the care of a shepherd. The creatures were very docile, in some cases obeying the whistle of their conductor. They were of all sizes and value, from 8 f. to 30 f., but from 12 f. to 16 f. might be the averi5«> There was no particular age for send- 2 G 2 4^^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ing them to the butcher. They were fattened be- fore killing, and the period of fattening depended more or less upon the convenience and independent arrangements of the owner. The value of the average yield of wool was calculated at from 2 francs 10 sous to 3 francs 10 sous. A flock of the finest ewes I have seen in France were being pas- tured by the owner in a field adjoining the Canal du Midi, near Beziers. They were close, short- woolled animals, many of them worth (the proprie- tor told me) from 30 f. to 40 f. He made a quan- tity of ewe-milk cheese for sale in the town. The irrigating machines I saw in the vicinity of Carcas- sonne consisted of endless chains of buckets work- ing round a cylinder up and down a well, and tilt- ing their contents over into a central pipe, from whence they were led by small canals through the adjacent fields. The motive power employed was that of a horse attached to a capstan. SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMATION OF HILL-SIDE CATCH-MEADOWS >„ ON EXMOOR. FROM ROBERT SMITH, LATE OK BURLEY. To Mr. Pusey, Dear Sir, — .Agreeable with your wish I forward you an outline of the past and future plans laid down for the management of my recently-formed "Catch-Meadows" upon our Exmoor hill sides, alluded to by Mr. Acland, in his report on the farming of Somerset. Catch-Meadows form an exceedingly interesting branch of general irrigation, and from their easy and cheap formation, their extension is now creating a lively interest ; still our attachment to early habits and local practices is very great, and can alone be removed by actual experience or repeated statements of better results. In changing my residence from the east to the west of England, my attention was naturally di- rected to the agricultural practices of the neighbour- hood, which I found so directly opposed to those of my native county (Lincolnshire), that it became a serious question which were the better ; but on mature reflection I found that it was climate alone which dictated these opposite methods. Thus, while our dry districts had their foundation in the growth of corn, the humid districts of the west had their merit in the production of roots and grass, and consequently of stock. Nothing could exceed my admiration of the " water-meadows " in early spring, a period (in the east) when I had been wont to value a blade of green grass as a rare pro- duction. To see the Exmoor ewes with their early lambs (in January) feeding upon the verdant mea- dow, to me was a miracle : first, the early period of lambing, and secondly, the green meadow at such an inclement season. But if we turn to nature as our guide, we find the green grasses ever springing at the water's edge, and yet doubly verdant at the springs, even to the very summit of our forest hills, at an elevation of 1000 feet ; thus these practices of agricultural art are dictated to us, and are alone I waiting the skill and enterprise of man to cultivate and extend them. In my early inquiries as to the profitable forma- tion of " catch-meadows " on Exmoor, I found much importance attach to the quality of water for irrigation, but accompanied with a doubt as to its varied properties (mineral or otherwise), the general remark being that " warm springs " were found best for irrigation. The undertaking was therefore deferred by me for a time, with a view to some expeiiments being tried, as it appeared cer- tain that it was next to useless my making even an attempt with the then existing waters, in their im- pure and boggy state. In the interim, all drains, fences, &c., were laid out with a view to subsequent irrigation, and notes taken of passing results. These experiments went to show that the watera flowing from the wet, peaty hill tops, and joined (or not; in their course by the waters from the uncul- tivated valleys, were dangerous agents, and from the extent of their course appeared formidable enemies ; while in every case where proper drain- age had been practised, the water flowed in a pure and healthy state, and at the stream's side were to be seen green and improving grasses. This determined me to take steps for the collection and distribution of these waters upon the forest hill- side grasses by means of catch-gutters, with a view to eradicate the moss and improve them without going through the usual process of cultivation, viz., paring, burning, ploughing, liming, &c., which operations, too, in some cases, would be difficult to perform from the declivity of the hill-side. Again, upon a large uncultivated hill farm, that had never been broken vip from its original or native state, and waiting for cultivation, it appeared doubly important that the best " table land " should be ploughed first, and an endeavour made to im- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 449 prove the hill sides by water and the washings of manure and soil, that would ])ass off during the rainy seasons from these upper arable lands. Before proceeding to the formation of the mea- dows, a general survey of the whole scheme was effected, the levels taken, and all local difficulties considered. In fact, the whole subject occupied my mind for some few months previously : thus many intricate points were overcome, and new designs suggested themselves. The laying-out of a water-meadow is but a secondary consideration when compared with some general points, such as the certain supply of water, its quality, the facilities of improving it by artificial agents, its uses in an onward course, the arrangement of sites for cattle- sheds, sheep-yards, water-carriage, fences, &c. If it be desirable that the work should be extensive, and the outlay gradual, the work may be extended over a breadth of time, by the general plan being agreed upon, and each succeeding operation steadily and progressively directed to form its part of the intended whole — thus completed as the mea- dows improve. This is precisely my own case and intention, as a tenant. If the work is executed by the landlord, or wished to be finished at a given time, the better plan is to contract with a suitable party for its certain and effectual completion. The first outlay is the main expense, and is fairly classed under the head of a permanent improvement, the annual expenses to maintain their efficiency being small in comparison with the result. Catch-meadows (on our hill sides especially) have certainly the advantage of cheapness in their favour, and the same quantity of water will do much more work. The hill side being already formed by nature to our hands, the " spirit level" beautifully traces the varied slopes, and marks the onward course for the "gutterer, or waterman," who should be a man of some taste in the art of levelhng, as the marking out the intermediate spaces upon irregular ground is found to be a nice point, that the water may flow in an even stream over the sides of the gutters. The arrangement of the " main water-carriages" depends solely upon the formation of the land and supply of water ; for instance, as I have a small brook passing through the farm (which has a good descent), these carriages take their lead from the stream in due succession, whereby the required supply of water is kept up, and are so arranged that, in crossing the valleys or otherwise, they pass below the hill-side springs, that these may be " tapped" and drained into them ; this is a good iand cheap process. If These " main carriages" are formed 3 feet wide land 6 inches deep on the lower side, the upper side 'ranging according to the slope of the hill, and at a distance of 2 chains apart, with a fall of 2 inches upon a chain of 22 yards, or 1 in 396. This is rather a rapid fall for general floating, but it is found desirable to adopt it, to clear out the carri- ages, after and during the time they are used for washing out soil, &c., to the meadows. Between these a smaller carriage is cut, 1 8 inches wide and 5 inches deep, at a distance of three-fifths from the upper carriage and two-fifths from the lower one. These gutters again collect the water into a sheet, that it may be more evenly spread over the whole surface than under hand ; but for this the water gets into little streams, especially where the land has never been ploughed or levelled. This will be further remedied by removing the surplus sods from the carriages to the larger holes, the removal of any banks that may occur, and by the sediment from the watering and soiling as the work proceeds. This is followed by repeated rollings while the meadows are moderately wet. The majority of these water-carriages being laid out upon the forest hill-side, and the land taken in hand as nature formed it, I find the better plan (to eradicate the moss and encourage the grasses) is to let the water flow over it freely for five or six days in succession, a continued rush of water being cer- tain to effect the desired change, while a thin flow of water has but little effect, and the process of im- provement is retarded, 'i'he watering is repeated at intervals of a month (more or less), or according to the supply of water ; but care is taken not to allovv the water to remain too long upon the same place, as by neglect of this kind, coarse and inferior aquatic grasses will spring up, such as are produced near springs that have remained undrained. In the second season, when a certain amount of im- provement has taken place, the water may be more thinly spread, and for shorter periods j but local circumstances can alone dictate the working of these details. Upon steep hill-sides that are stony, it is best to make the carriages rather wider and shallower, as the water wastes in passing the stony ground when removed too deep; in this case the lower side will require strengthening, which may be done by re- moving the surplus soil from the little cuttings that may occur, and which are possibly close at hand. The washing of soil down these carriages is found to stop their porous bottoms. In favourable situa- tions the carriers may be cut with a common plough to the required width and depth, by which means they are more easily and cheaply cleared of the soil, and afterwards trimmed and levelled to the required form. By the circuitous route of a water-carrier ia a hilly country, passing as it does from hill to hill around and across the valleys, a splendid opportu- nity is afforded for reconveying any quantity of the accumulated soil in " the valley" to the poor and 450 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. neglected " hill-side," which has been robbed for ages of this deposit by the continued and ungo- verned washings of the rainy seasons. In valleys, when drained, the soil quickly decomposes and dries, forming a rich " black mould," which is dug from the upper side of the carriage, and when chopped rather small is thrown into it : then if a rapid fall can be given to the water for a short dis- tance, it will reduce itself so small as to mix with the stream. The " waterman" is in attendance at the meadow, that the soil may be properly distri- buted, and to change the rush of soil and water further on, as the work proceeds. The same jjlan may be adoj)ted on the " flat meadows," at the foot of the hill, a heavier soil Ijeing used when it can be had, as these bottoms are chiefly composed of black or other friable soil. The carrying out of this plan v/ill depend much upon local circumstances, choosing at all times the period of high v/aters (after rains) for washing down the soil, especially when placed at a distance ; or in difficult situations for swiUing away. The soil removed by the cutting of open watercourses through the valleys, may be washed away to the dry hill-side meadows by this plan, without ever being thrown out upon the banks, as also the after slopings of their sides to the required batter ; this is both a cheap and useful practice. In every case where the surface-water from the uncultivated hill lands has to form a part of the waters, to keep up an even and general supply it is found absolutely necessary to improve thcra in some way or other. The longer distance peaty water has to run the better it becomes for irrigation, as a sediment is deposited in its onward course ; hence the water gradually purifies and improves. To effect a pro- per change in these waters, arrangements should be made along the main carriages (which take their rise from the brook-course at the foot of the un- cultivated hill, and v/end their way through the respective meadows) to form sheds for young cattle upon them, that the dung and urine may daily mix with the passing stream. These sheds are placed at the higher end of the meadows, a short distance above the water-carriage, just leaving sufficient space between for the passing of the cattle. Upon the main watercourse, and opposite the sheds, a small jjond is formed for the reception of the ma- nure vv'hen thrown from the cattle-shed ; the water on its route thus passes through the pond, and by mixing with the manure and sewerage from the shed, becomes changed for the better, and the effect is certain and cheap. After the season for watering has passed away, and the stream has been turned off to its original or new course formed to convey it to the brook — the cattle removed to other fields— the meadow sown with a few grass-seeds (if necessary)— effec- tually cleaned, brushed, rolled, and laid up for hay, to be again supplied and used at the sheds for re- production, the pond or dung-pit is cleaned out and thrown into a heap to decompose, upon v.'hich a covering of pett earth may be thrown, and the whob heap turned and mixed about twice during the summer months. "When the season for irri- gation again arrives, the compost in its decayed state is thrown into the passing water, and thus conveyed to the meadow without the aid of horse and cart, and the compost thrown down to the water instead of up to the cart. The pond or pit may be used during the summer for collecting soil (sediment) from the passing water (after it has been emptied), and let off to the bottom as opportunities offer. It is further desirable to form compost- heaps during the summer for the same purpose, and to plan conveyance by accumulated surface or flood-water, where spring or brook water cannot be had ; the result of this plan will entirely depend upon the active operations of the "waterman" and his men at such a passing period. The practice of bringing a stream of water to and through the farm-yard is a good one, whereby the " water-wheel" for the purposes of the farm is am- ply supplied — the waste water passed through the yards and under every office, to collect and wash out the sewerage of the whole establishment, and then pass it away to a pond at the outside of the buildings, from which the adjacent meadows are watered. Many parties condemn this process of collecting and using the liquid manure, and con- sider the plan of a tank, &c., for the use of the arable land to be preferable. The tank system is good for arable districts, where the above plan cannot be carried out; but in my case I much prefer the former plan, embracing as it does simplicity and cheapness ; and as the water filters when passing over the meadow, no- thing is lost, but all is deposited v.'here required, and thus produces early and abundant grass for pasturage for soiHng in the sheds or for hay. The water which has passed through my yard upon the above plan, has been used upon a selected portion of hill-side land (as an experiment), which in its natural state was p'lrtially covered with rough grass and heathei', while on some parts not a plant of any kind was ever seen to grow, as may be seen by reserved spots above the present water-carriages, while that below, upon which the water has been used, is now covered with green and daily impro- ving grasses, the chief of Vv'hich is the white or Dutch clover ; and, singular to state, not a single seed has ever been sown upon the land. Again, by means of the stream passing through the yards, any portion of the farm-yard dung may THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 451 he thromi into it, and washed at leisure to the dif ferent meadows below, and at periods when pos- . Bibly horse-lubour might be invaluable for other operations on the farm. Arable farmers may ob- ject to this process; but let them weigh well the advantage in my case, against the laborious move- ments of the tank and liquid manure-cart in their own. Should the extent of land suitable to the formation of meadows exceed the sujiply of water upon a farm, and only one turn of watering be afforded during the season, much may be done by the aid of ponds placed at convenient spots— for instance, where small streams or water-cairiages meet. Even a moderate sup])ly of water upon this plan will water from 8 to 10 acres of land. In fact, " ponds" are invaluable upon any farm, as a con- stant fermentation goes on when water accumulates, by which the water is turned green, and thus ij charged with ingredients forming (as they do) a sediment (mud), which is deposited at the bottom for after use ; in addition to this the water is found much improved for the purposes of irrigation. During certain periods of the summer season these ])onds may be made exceedingly useful by collect- ing during the day a quantity of water, which may be let off at night; for instance, when the hay is removed from a meadow, one turn or night's water- ing may be given it, or tlie land in other situations damped for a time to produce extra feed, during the dry periods of summer. When the pond is put in use, care should be taken to stir up the mud at ihe bottom, until gradually and entirely drav/n off by means of a plug and socket placed at the lower point of the pond and adjoining the carriage for empty- ing. The self-acting pond is let off by means of a plug and bucket : thus, so soon as the water rises in the pond above a certain level, the bucket fills, and by its weight of water lifts the plug at the other end of the lever, hence the water flows out at the plug-hole until the water in the bucket ceases to run, through a small quill-hole; it then becomes closed — but for a time. This is an excellent plan in showery weather, and saves much attention of the " waterman." This pond is also well cleaned by " stirring," at periods when the water is in use upon the more inferior parts of the meadow. It is an excellent plan to include a por- tion of dryland in each meadow (above the water- carriages) ; the cattle and sheep will adjourn to those spots for lair, and ajiparently much to their comfort. Turnips may also be thrown upon these dry lands as occasion may require, and they are thus equally well manured with the rest of the meadow. 'Jhe most convenient size for a water-meadow I ..find to be from 5 to 6 acres; the watering, mowing, or changing of stock being performed with greater facility, and the hill-side better sheltered ; observing to have the longest fences (if possible) running north and south, that the greatest amount of shelter may be afforded against the i)revailing south-west or western gales. We commence watering with the first autumnal rains, as they wash down the ac- cumulated animal and other deposits of the sum- mer, which together afford immense results; if allowed to pass away neglected, the cream of the season is gone for ever. Certain meadows are well eaten up by this period, to receive the early waters, after which they are left for a time, to afford new and healthy pastures for the latter months, and the water laid on to other meadows, which have been prepared to leceivethem in due succession. Hence it is that a number of meadows are found most de- sirable. The most valuable aid of the " watered meadow " is, in the early sprmg months, a period of scarcity for the ewes and lambs. Shelter by plantations is a great help to the meadoiv, warmth being the leading feature for the production of early grass. This advantage is foreign to my farm, the watered lands being laid out upon the naked and uncultivated hill side; but steps are being taken in the direction of the requijed end. This brings me to the importance of having all new fences (where practicable) laid out by the "spirit- level ;" that, while some may be formed to collect the surface water from the upj)er lands to a certain point, most eligible for a pond, others may be ar-* ranged to convey the water from the pond to the nearest meadows. By this plan the " water-car- riages " are made when the " sodlence " is erected, consequently included in its cost— a saving of at least a shilling i)er chain — the carriage formed in an otherwise useless dike, and the land saved on which the carriage would otherv/ise have been cut. In laying out these " water-carriage fences " care should be taken that the little irregularities in the line of levels are properly adjusted, that no extreme cuttings or bends be made in the fence, but that each small cutting may produce sufficient soil for making good the many slopes where they may occur from the straightening of the line of fence. This practice is desirable in a hilly country, as im- mense falls of rain take place at certain seasons of the year, which must be quickly carried off by natu- ral or artificial means. Nothing can exceed the loss of a hill farmer if the fine particles of soil, manure, lime, or ash, be washed to the bottom of the hill by collecting currents, never, alas, to be regained ; while no pleasure is so great as to witness a collec- tion of these agents (on their way) in a pond or reservoir, with every faciUty to remove them at will when and where we like. Water-carriage fences are now (where prac- ticable) universally adopted upon this property. 45-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. especially in the divi&iuns of the table and hill-side lands, the upper tuble-lands bcinj^ set out for the and)le farm, and the hill-side for "catch-meadows." These levels are laid out under the joint direction of myself (on the part of the landlord) and the tenant; the tenant erecting the fences and repaid at the succeeding rent-day. An experienced per- son, veried in the art of levelling, is kept to take all the necessary levels for the tenants, in the forma- tion of these fences and subsequent water-carriages, free of charge; and a liberal "tenant right" allowed at the end of the lease for all unexhausted improvements that have been made in carrying them out. The facility and encouragement thus afforded by the landlord is duly appreciated, and it is interesting to notice the consequent effect. New meadows are being laid out upon nearly every farm — the desire being to unite the uses of the water- wheel with that of the meadov/ below the yards, which is universally arranged to receive the sewer- age and water after it has passed the wheel. The valleys upon my farm are narrow, and con- tain many springs at the side and foot of the seve- ral hills, which from their long and unmolested course had formed dangerous bogs. These springs have been drained by a cheap process, and the water put into immediate use for irrigating the lands below. The plan adopted is by taking the levels for the water-carriages from a point at which a level may be driven up to the spring at a proper depth to effectually carry off its water into the v/ater-carriage below, and it thus mixes with the passing water, and at once takes its part in redeem- ing the grasses of its late and nearest neighbouring bog below, which had been tapped upon the same plan, and is passing its water in an onward direc- tion for similar improvement. Care should be taken to tap these springs deep enough, as they are much increased by irrigating the upper hill-side, espe- cially upon porous soils. In draining a valley near my house which bad formed itself into a regular swamp, it was found necessary to cut an open water-course up the mid- dle (from end to end), observing to cut through the accumulated peat-earth, and at least from six to eight inches into the rock or rubble below. By this means the emptying of the old underground drains is ensured, which had washed their way to a considerable depth, but by occasional stoppages, quaking bogs appeared, dangerous to pass. The open course completed, and the springs cut into it, the work was left for a time to see the effect ; after a time one or two upright springs were found to remain, which were tapped and carried into the open course. These drains v/ere filled with stones in the usual way. The valley is now dry and cul- tivated. The peaty ."iides of the open water-courses are being sloped and thrown into the stream, and washed to the dry hill-side meadows by its own water. The better plan is to mix lime with these soils during the summer months for using in the autumn. Ponds are being formed at convenient slopes by the same process ; and as the soil is re- quired for washing on to the meadows, they will be gradually enlarged from time to time as the work proceeds. These are advantages which cannot be j)ractised in flat work, where the fall is slight, but may be adopted with infinite success in hilly dis- tricts, especially where the land is too steep to breaks and water can be had (even from a distance), im- provements may be made, and at a comparatively moderate outlay. By the use of good spring water alone, the heather and native grasses disappear, and improving grasses are seen to take their place. But little efiect will be seen the first year, or per- haps two; still the ultimate result will be certain if proper attention has been paid to the continuous and even watering through the season. I would here venture a remark, that many thousand acres of hill-side lands are now lying waste, grov/ing alone " heather and weeds," which might be profit- ably brought into good cultivation by the aid of capital, enterprise, and good water. Landlords owning such property would do well to enter into mutual arrangements with their tenants, that the hitherto neglected waste be no longer left to nature's clothing, but covered with green and nutritious grasses. This done, it would serve as a key to the whole occupation, by affording abundance of hay for the winter season, early feed for the ewes and lambs, and, what is best, little manure need be re- turned to the meadow, but most may be supplied to the arable lands ; still a portion of the hay should be used at the meadow to improve the water, as previously named. I have extended the washing out of " black soil " to the cultivated lands (mea- dows) sown with artificial grasses, and with good eflfect. These are formed above the steep hill-sida meadows, commencing at the ])oint of moderate de- clivity. No extra expense has been gone into be- yond the usual plan of cultivation for the arable lands, viz., by paring and burning the native grass, followed by a dressing of lime and sown with roots, root-crops following with spring corn and grass- seeds in the ensuing year. In the autumn (after the corn has been removed) the " gutters " are laid out and cut, but from the more moderate slope or fall upon these lands they are placed rather thicker than upon the hill-side, and vary much in their direction, from the uncertain run of the land, such lands having frequently two falls, one with the fall of the country, the other to the brook below. Owing to the moderate descent, these meadows are watered the firet season, observing to let the water THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 453 pass over them thinly, otherwise the unsettled ; mould would wash away and thus prove injurious i to the roots of the grass rather than be a benefit. By far the better i)lan for laying down a perma- nent meadow is to follow the root crop with a crop of rape and grass seeds to be fed oft' with sheep ; by this ]>lan the land is both enriched and well settled, by the trampling of the sheep, for the pur- | pose of watering in the autumn. The expense ofi laying out these meadows may be summed up un- 1 tier two heads, viz., 10s. per acre for cutting the j^utters or water-carriages, at an average distance '• of 22 yards (large and small), and 5s. per acre for j all other works, such as the necessary culverts ! th.rough the fences, under gateways, &.'c., flood- , gates, hatches, extra water-carriages for fetching distant water to any given point or pond. The cattle-sheda placed upon the main water- carriages cost £5 each (complete), they being formed in sheltered situations, adjoining or in stone-quarries, by which means the carriage of the stone is saved, and the wood for roofing is given by the landlord (at the wood) ; these are separate payments to be met by improved condition of the cattle. The extra cross fences for making small meadows cannot well be charged to the water ac- count, still I confess that the meadow will be worth more by the additional shelter afforded by these fences. The meadows formed, gutters cut, and all other requisites supplied, are as nothing witliout a certain supply of water, and unless accompanied with strict attention to every branch of the under- taking.—Journal of the Royal Agricultural Soriety. ORCHARD HOUSES. Mr. RiVERs's, Sawbridgeworth. This nursery is situated about half a mile from the railway station of Sawbridgeworth, a village of comparatively little external interest, at the eastern limits of Hertfordshire. Leaving London by the first train on the Eastern Counties line, we reached our destination about nine o'clock, and were at once conducted over the entire grounds, which comprise, we believe, about seventy acres. As a nursery, this estabhshment is chiefly noted for its extensive collections of fruit trees and roses ; but everything usually grown by the trade is also kept in great plenty. For the sake of method and convenience, we proposed to in- spect the houses first ; and it will perhaps be as well if we recognise their priority here. The houses, then — if such they may be called — are about fifteen in number, and, with perhaps three exceptions, are constructed on a plan so diflferent from anything else to be seen in similar places, that it may be worth while giving a short description of them, for the benefit of those of our readers who desire to grow fruit, and grapes in particular, with the least possible expense, and without any fire heat. As for the most part they are all similarly constructed, the description of one or two will apply to the whole. The first we entered measured about sixty feet long, and per- haps fifteen wide. It was one of the span-roofed sort. The side " walls" were beech hedges, about eighteen inches through. Stout posts were distri- buted at certain distances in the hedges, and these posts supported the framework of the roof; of which the sash-bars were about fifteen inches apart, and the glass in large squares. This house was occupied with pot-plants of Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots, all well budded and very vigorous. In size they ranged from a foot and a-half to about four feet, and were intended for early bearing next year. The second house was slightly diflerent from this, being a lean-to. The back hedge in this case might be about six feet high, but the path was sunk to perhaps two feet up the middle ; the plants in pots being placed on each side, resting on the banks of soil. Here several of the plants were in a bearing state ; the fruit not having yet been ga- thered though perfectly ripe, with the exception of a few late Pears and Figs. Of these we noted neat young trees of the Golden Drop Plum, bearing about half-a-dozen fruit; the Blue Iraperatrice Plum, with nearly thirty beautiful fruit. These trees were not more than four feet high, in pots about eight inches in diameter. Here were also several smaller-sized trees of Cherries, covered over with bunting to preserve them from the attacks of birds, which have constant access through the hedges which form the back, front, and ends of this, as well as the other struc- tures. This house measured about twenty-six paces, and was occupied with a large collection of healthy trees of various sizes. In the third house, which was about the same size as the preceding, there was an excellent crop of vines over-head, and one or two young peach trees in pots. One of the latter had six fruit on it, at the time of our visit ; but we were informed that it had produced this 454 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. season nearly three dozen, as we understood our guide. In another house, of the same size and construction, the grapes were still better and more plentiful. The sorts were the Chasselas musque, the Black Hamburgh, and the Frontignan. The bunches were of moderate size, and the berries well swelled and coloured. Indeed, except in the size of the bunches and berries, the fruit in this and the other houses showed nothing to remind the visitor that they were grown entirely without fire heat, and that except the shelter afforded by the roof from the rains, they were but very partially protected from the weather. From the openness of the beech-hedges of v/hich the sides are composed, there is a constant circula- tion of air day and night, so much so that the temperature inside varies but little from that out- side, except during sunshine, when the difference ranges from twelve to twenty degrees. Some of these houses ha\'e no doors, and there are many cases of large gaps in the hedges, particularly at the ends, where the angles formed by the roof are not yet co\'ered or filled up by the beech-branches. In looking at the crops in these houses, one is struck with the simplicity and efficiency of the plan. Here are beautiful grapes, for instance, by the be- ginning of October, not a shrivelled berry nor a particle of mildew to be seen. The bloom is per- fect, and the whole fruit large enough for any ordinary table, yet their treatment involves almost no trouble nor expense beyond the cost of a few glass sashes supported on rough poles, with beech hedging all roimd. What is there to prevent amateurs who object to the expense of a vinery se- curing a good supply of autumn grapes with the most trifling cost? Here no mildew need be apprehended, for the constant circulation of the fresh air is found a certain preventive of this de- structive malady, and at the same time insures the foliage from being scorched in strong sunshine. To make a slight digression, we may remark that though the vine mildew has been very severely felt in other parts of the same county, all the outdoor grapes in this quarter are perfectly free from it. We noticed, in passing through the village, beauti- ful crops both of the white and black sorts, and, on enquiry, we were assured that nothing in the form of mildew, or any other disease, had been seen on the grapes there. But to return to the nursery. We found in one of the largest of these houses several vines in pots, trained as standards, without being supported in any way like those usually seen at exhibitions. These were about two years old, and bore several bunches of fine healthy berries. This mode of training is new, or has never yet been tried to any extent ; nor do we see any reason to suppose that at least moderately sized vines may not be made to stand on their own stems without the aid of stakes, producing their fruit freely, and being much more ornamental than when bound to a trellis. We next visited the houses in which the Arnott's stoves are erected, but at this season they present little of interest, and as we pubHshed the particulars at the early part of the year, we need not stop to allude to them further in this place. In a house allotted to the culture of Camellias and Roses on the Manettii stock, we noted that pait of the glass near the bottom of the sashes was of Hartley's rough plate. This, we were told, had been put in with the view of dispensing with the shading which Cam.ellias require during their period of growth ; but on trial it was soon found that the object could not be obtained by this means, for as soon as the sun rose to a mo- derate altitude the thickness of the glass afforded no protection against scorching the leaves of the plants. Shading had therefore been continued as before in the usual manner. In a small stove we entered (not far from the CameUia-house) we found a few plants in flov/er; such as Clerodendron fragrans, Cestrum aurantia- cum, Pitcairnea puniceus, Vmca rosea, and the pretty Siphocampylos manettjeflorus. On leaving the ground occupied by the houses we noted two ranges of frames ; the one containing Peaches and Nectarines, and the other young Pear-trees trained to trellisses, nearly in a horizontal position. Proceeding to the open ground, we were shov/n another contrivance for growing grapes. A smooth sloping bank is formed in the ground ; in this case composed entirely of sand. The surface of this bank is coated with a mixture of gas-tar and lime, which soon becomes quite firm. Over this the young vines are trained ; and where there is a good aspect the plan succeeds well. Several dozens, perhaps, of young plants were thus trained, and all in a bearing state. Proceeding onwards, we passed many large pillar-vines, all well furnished with fruit. These plants were about six feet high, and trained to stout stakes. Here a large quarter of Leyces- teria formosa, and another of the different sorts of Tam.arisk, were particularly conspicuous. The next objects of our immediate attention were the extensive quarters of Roses, which we were in- formed had been particularly fine this season. Even at the time of our visit there was a brilliant display of Hybrid Perpetuals, and especially of the Bourbon section. We noted the following as among the best : — Baronne Hallez, light crimson* Caroline de Sansal, very pale flesh-colour; Colonel Foissy, bright rose, and very beautiful ; Count Odart, a fine glowing red variety; Desgaches, very brilliant carmine, a popular rose ; Duchssse do Montpensier, shaded blush; Geant des Batailles, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 435 birilliant, glowing crimson ; General Brea, deep pnk, very handsome ; General Negrier, light-rose colour, and fine shape ; L'Elegante nouvclle, deep rose, and very jM-etty ; Lucie de Barante, brilliant rose colour, and fine shape ; Madame Lamoriciere, bright pink, quite new ; Aurore de Guide, light crim- son, tinted with violet ; Dupetit Thouars, vivid crim- son, of vigorous habit; Henri Lecoq, hght car- mine ; Madame Angelina, ])ale creamy fawn, habit dwarf and compact; Menoux, glowing carmine; Paul Joseph, crimson purple ; Souvenir de la Mal- maison, pale flesh ; and Vorace, deep brilliant crimson. — (hardeners' and Farmers' Journal. PENRITH FARMERS' CLUB. This flourishing club held a meeting for discus- sion on Tuesday, the 1 2th of August, at its rooms at the Crown Inn. Mr. Heskett of Plumpton pre- sided ; and there was a good attendance. At the commencement of the sitting Thomas Scott, Esq., of Penrith, was admitted a member; and a vote of thanks was passed, and recorded, to Colonfd Maclean, "for his handsome present of 11 volumes of the Royal English Agricultural Society's Journal." Mr. Barker, of Greystoke, then read the follow- ing paper ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS. The opening of this day's discussion, " The Ro- tation of Crops," having been assigned to me, I will at once proceed to do so, and must beg you to indulge me v/ith a patient hearing. I do not expect to throv/ much light upon the subject, but if by agitating the question I can in- duce others better qualified to give their opinions, I hope, eventuallj'', we shall make a steji in advance, and by consolidating those opinions put the rationale of cropping in a clearer point of view and more in accordance with the advancement of science and the improvements of the age. I therefore trust that as we have all one object at heart, everyone present will contribute his mite of information. If I be right in my idea of the usefulness of our club, it is not in making it a debating society where the ar- guments advanced by one member arc to be met with opposition by another party, purely for the sake of contradiction ; but that wc should all make common cause with truthfulness to give our sug- gestions, and to communicate any improvements we may have seen or practised ; any better processes followed, any superior methods of pro- duction or any more economical mode of manage- ment in any of the different branches of husbandry. At the same time failures should be duly noted and mistakes candidly avowed, and particularly in cases where practice fails to carry out theory. The subject for this day's discussion is a very important one. It is important to the landlord to know by what rotation his land is deteriorated, and by what it is progressively improved. And it is still more important to the tenant and practical farmer to know by v/hat system he can draw the largest amount of net produce from his farm com- patible with keeping his land in a clean and healthy condition. We are all aware that the terms of many leases fetter the tenant without benefiting the landlord. Restrictive covenants as to cropping are inserted and upheld partly from custom and j)artly from a fear that there is danger in change. As science expands, new courses and rotations may become necessary, and it is for meetings like the present to take the initiative and show the way. The old and barbarous mode of cropjjing was to sow the land with corn year after year till it was exhausted, and then leave it in grass or rather weeds till time brought it about. This primitive practice is now obsolete, or nearly so ; it gave way to the alternate system introduced from Flanders, and which formed the famed four- course shift of the Norfolk husbandry. That crops of the same kind of grain or roots (with perha])s the exception of potatoes) do not succeed well when they immediately follow one another is a fact now universally admitted. Decandolle, Macaire, and others, supported a theory that the exudation from one class of plants, while poisonous to themselves, afforded food and nourishment to those of a different genus. The ret-earches and discoveries of more modern chemists have however given us a clearer and better percep- tion of the Vt'onderful workings and agencies of na- ture as regards the matters required in the raising and building up of crops. Thus, for instance, they have ascertained that wheat requires more silica than beans, and that beans require more potash than wheat. Hence the advantage of one crop of these following the other. Professor "Way states that the potash of clay soils exists in them as silicate of potash derived from the felspar &c. ' " the disintegrated rocks to which the clay owes its origin, The silicate of potash in 456 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. felspar is composed of silica and potash in tolerably equal quantities ; but a crop of wheat takes off 83 parts of silica for every 14 parts of potash, so that to obtain all the silica it requires it liljerates more potash than it has any need of. A crop of beans just reverses this jnocess. It removes from the soil 70 parts of alkali for every 5 parts of silica. It is then almost indifferent which of the plants comes first. The one which follows in the rotation find potash (if it be beans), or silica (if wheat"), ready prepared for it. The same sort of rule holds with regard to tha elements and mode of assimilation of plants of other crops. All grain crops do not, however, extract from the soil equal quantities of nutritious matter. We are informed ])y M. Thaer that there is absorbed by a bushel of wheat, 46 lbs. of humus; of rye, 38|lbs.; of barley, 30i lbs. ; of oats, 20 lbs. The rotations principally followed in this neigh- bourhood are : — On clays — oats, fallow, wheat, and grass, for two or three years ; on loams — oats, green crop, wheat, oats, or barley, and grass, for two or three years ; on lands and gravels— oats, green crop, barley, and grass, for two or three years. The principle here carried out is that while the land is under the plough two exhausting crops are taken for one cleaning and manuring crop. This practice v/as formerly defended on the ground that the farmer could not afford to dung more than once in a rotation. This might be the case when he was dependent on the resources of his own farm for his manure, and when most, if not all, his grain was sent to the market. Things are quite different now. Extraneous manures are to be had of various kinds, and mostly portable and of easy application, and remarkably well adapted for the cultivation of green crops. In addition to those in use it was stated by Evelyn Denison, M. P., at the Windsor Dinner, that a stra- tum of pure bone earth had been discovered in the State of New York of considerable extent, and which could be delivered here at much less price than any other manure of the same quality. With the facilities we already possess of ob- taining manures, I beg to submit whether a more extended course, with more cleaning crops in the rotation before sowing down to grass, could not profitably be carried ont. AVhether, while under the plough, instead of two exhausting crops and one cleaning and manuring crop, we could not ex- tend to three exhausting crops and two cleaning and manuring years, thus : — On clays — oats, fal- low, wheat, turnips, oats, and seeds ; or in a good climate on clay— oats, beans, wheat, fallow, oats, and seeds; on light dry soils — oats, green crop, wheat, green crop, barley, and seeds. If green crops can be self-supporting or remu- nerative, there is no doubt as to the increased value of the crops of cereals that will subsequently follow; and from repeating the green crop in the course the laud is more easily kept clean, and left rich when sown down to grass. It is a sad mistake to endeavour to get all out of the land while it is under the plough, and hope for its revival, and think the panacea is in its being two or three years in grass — pining in poverty — one year's grass pro« bably also having encountered the scythe. Whatever the course of crops may have been, it ought steadily to be kept in mind that where land is intended to remain for a number of years in grass, it shovdd be in loose, rich, and friable con« dition for the reception of the seeds, otherwise the grasses will soon become stunted and die out. Thus to sow down with wheat is the worst possible practice, by reason that the soil has gene- rally been ploughed over in a wet state, and before the seeds are sown the land is sodden and firm as a brick — ihe soft spongioles of the young plants are limited in their field of nourishment, and be- come sickly and die out. To form good jjasture land, " nature's carpet," grass seeds should never be sown along with a crop of corn. The soil should be properly prepared, and when ready, any time in the months of June, July, or August, the grass se^ds should be sown out, accomi)anied by a portion of rape and rye, which afford excellent feed for sheep, and shelters the grasses in their infancy. Land sown down in this way becomes immediately rich and productive, whereas a considerable number of years must elapse before a sward at all equal can be obtained when the grass seeds are sown with a crop of corn. In the first year of grass the land should be pastured with sheep, whether sown with or without a crop. Should, however, it be found necessary to mow, I would recommend that the mowing take place even before the rye grass gets into bloom. The introduction of chaff cutters have obviated in a great measure the necessity of cutting seed grass hay for horses. ■" In conclusion I beg to propose '--' That it is better to extend the course of crop- ping on heavy loams, from oats, dead fallows, wheat, and grass, to more cleaning and manuring crops before the land is laid down to grass, viz., oats, dead fallow, wheat, turnips, oats, sown down with clover, and kept in grass for three years. That it is better to extend the course of crop- ping on light soils, from oats, turnips, barley, and seeds, to lay down for three years, to more cleaning and manuring crops, before the land h laid down to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 457 grass, viz., oats, green crops, wheat, turnips, bar- ley, and seeds, to lie not more than three years in grass. That lands intended for a lengthened period of grazing out to be sown down with grass seeds and rape, and without taking a crop of corn. A lively discussion followed, in which Mr. Benn, Mr. Heskett, Mr. Smith, Mr. Ballingall, Mr. At- kinson of Winderwath, and Mr. Atkinson of Whinfell took part, and all the resolutions were adopted unanimously. The subject proposed for the next discussion ie, "The comparative merits of the scythe and the sickle in the economy of cutting corn" — to bo in- troduced by IMr. Ballingall. The sitting closed with a vote of thanks to the Chairman for bis able exercise of the duties of the office. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HIGH-LYING LAND Amongst the difficulties which present themselves at this crisis in agricultural matters there is not a greater than the mode in which high-lying land is to be managed to leave a profit for the cultivator and a rent for the landlord. The tenants of this class of soils, where climate is so serious a draw- back as sometimes to prevent a farmer from reap- ing a crop before it is spoiled, have always been the poorest, the most deficient of education, and the most liable to privation of any class of the com- munity. But now they are swamped entirely. They never raised much money — their wheat was often altogether unmarketable — sometimes never got; so they sowed just what might, if well got, supply the wants of their own families. Their oats were the staple of their produce ; and yet it often happened that a severe spring so retarded the seed- time that no inconsiderable part of the crop failed to ripen altogether. True, the rent they paid was small. They had many wants, and privations, and difficulties ; but one good crop in seven, well got, set them all to rights again. But now the soft and inferior samples they pro- duce are unsaleable almost at any piice. The bulk of their produce makes an insufficient amount of money to pay the whole of the outgoings, and there are more arrears of, and distresses for rent, more farms given in, and more tenants discharged from this class of soils, than perhaps any other. Can anything be done for them to increase their produce in quantity and improve it in quality ? is a question imperatively impressed on the land-agent and the landowner, as well as upon the farmer himself. At a recent meeting of the Denbighshire and Flintshire Agricultural Society, amidst much of the complimentary twaddle of toast-drinking meetings, Mr. Tumor, of Pool Park, near Ruthin, gives some valuable hints both on his own practice and on the plans calculated to advance mountainous districts in the agricultural scale, as well as to mitigate their present suft'erings. Speaking of cropping, he caid-^b bifil ex basl eriJ n: " There was nothing he hated, as a farmer, more than overcropping and scourging the land ; but he would instance an example of what might legitimately be done in the way of production. He had sown a piece of land with winter beans in a high situation, which had pro- duced a crop averaging 35 bushels per acre. This was cut in time to prepare the land for wheat. He ventured to say that tlie cultivation of winter beans was very suit- able to the high lands of the principality." And to show that his own instance, just given, was not a single and isolated instance in which a suc- cessful crop was raised of a grain unsuited, in the state in which it is ordinarily cultivated, to the backward and cold exposure of the district, he further says, on winter crops — " He advised his fellow-farmers, as the next point on which he should dwell, to substitute in the higher lands of Wales winter oats, instead of wheat, fol- lowed by a crop of winter beans. In support of the advantage of such a course, he cited an experiment he had instituted which h.id been attended with satisfac- tory results. He also intended to repeat that experi- , ment hereafter, with various sorts of barley. He ap- pealed to them whether all winter crops were not gene- rally plumper and finer in quality than those sown late, and closed his remarks on this subject by urging them to make the trial." We believe there is really great merit in the suggestion. A crop acchmatised to winter expo- sure is, of all others, the likeliest to answer in these cold and bleak situations j and if there are no further advantages gained than the saving of time in seed-time, the early ripen- ing of the crops, and the increased probabilities of securing them before the days get cold and short, and the season termed the rainy one sets in, these are enough to mduce a spirited farmer to give them as far as possiijle a trial. There is, however, vastly more constitutional hardihood in winter beans than in any other kind. They are, beyond all description, far more capable of resisting atmospheric snd insect influences of 453 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. an unfavourable nature; they seldom suffer from the mildew or the dolphin, when hundreds of acres arc destroyed of the spring-sown varieties. Mr. Turnor gives also other valuable practical hints, in reference to high-lying soils. He intro- duces a fact, new to us in a great measure, as the result of his experience, which v/ell deserves to be known. Speaking of irrigation, he says : " He had successfully adopted a system on soil origin- ally most barren and wretched — nothing could be worse. It had often struck him that the ordinary water in brooks and rivers was not equal to that which flowed from the high lands, particularly those lands which were in a high state of cultivation. Having fully tested the truth of that opinion, be (Mr. Turnor) had constructed four or five large reservoirs for the water, on his land ; and he was now prepared from experience to lay it down as a rule that no water coming from the high lands, when those lands were cultivated especially, should be lost." Now, if it be the fact that water washes out from manv soils much of its manure — if it also carries away the most minutely divided and soluble por- tions of the soil itself — nay, if our river-side feeding pastures are but the deposits of this alluvial matter — why should it not be just as Mr. Turnor states ? and that, other things being equal, the water washing from highly- cultivated land is more valu- able for irrigation than the water of rivers merely traversing more level land, where the fall of the materials we have named is less decided and im- portant ? We well remember that Professor John- ston had, some time ago, his attention directed to the water which flowed from the drains, after a dressing of farm-yard manure had been applied ; and they were not only discoloured, but gave to the tests he applied the ammoniacal results which showed that a very considerable portion of the manure applied to some soils very soon escapes away in the vehicle of water. If this waste can be collected and re-filtered through the soil by the process of irrigation, it will give the low lands a chance of absorbing a quantity of the fertilizing matter which might otherwise altogether escape. Mr. Turnor gives the following general hints, arising from his observations, which are worthy of consideration ; " He now called upon those gentlemen or station, who had leisure, knowledge, and influence, vi'hich he did not possess, for further information on the subject. Let them pursue this line of experiment— let them furnish the farmer with a geological code of his district — let them say at what height the cultivation of grain was pro- fitable—at what height wheat might be grown — when it was advisable that barley should go out — when oats should go out — when winter beans should go out. Was Mr. Sandbach present ? He believed not. At a former meeting, he was happy to think, that gentleman carried away a prize from the society, for swedes grown at an elevation of 800 feet above the level of the sea. As a farmer, he felt grateful to Mr. Sandbach for the service he had done to the cause of agriculture, m thus raising the important question as to the cultivation of green crops in the elevated portions of the country. Mr. Sandbach had given the society a fair challenge, and he (Mr. Turnor) called upon them all to follow the example." We shall be glad to receive any facts corrobora- tive of the benefits of upland water in irrigation, or of the cultivation of winter plants at high eleva- tions.—Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal, ON THE CULTURE OF PARSNIPS. The profitable growth of parsnips requires a soil of deep, rich, warm loam, which may be very much fitted for their vise, and for that of all tap-rooted plants, by the operation of subsoil ploughing the land, and deepening the staple. The rotted farm- yard dung is laid on the stubble in the end of autumn, and ploughed under with a deep furrow. In the early spring, the land is moved lengthwise and crosswise, by two operations of a close-tined grubber, which pulverises the soil, and raises the weeds to the surface, which are picked by hand and removed. The seeds of the parsnips are then sown in March, on the flat ground, by a drill machine with lengthened coulters, which make ruts for receiving the seeds at the distance of IS inches, and are covered by a bush-harrow. When the plants are grown three or four inches high, they are singled by the hand-hoe to the distance of one foot from each other, and during summer the intervals of the drills are scarified, and the rows weeded and properly thinned. In this condition the crop grows till the time of storing, which is not early, as the roots are not easily hurt by frost. In the end of October, or in November, the roots are de- prived by hand-sickle of the top and fibres, and laid in store at the homestead. The tops are given to store pigs in the open yards, where partis eaten, and the refuse converted into manure. For horses, the use of parsnips is not applied ; for swine, the roots are highly beneficial, either in a rav/ or steamed condition ; and for feeding cattle, the use is very much recommended. Milch cows fed with parsnips give much milk, and yield a butter that is very well flavoured. The roots are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 459 best in a steamed condition, and mixed '.vith chaff in the vats, by which process the chaff is irnprcfrnated with the juices of the roots that are expelled by the heat, and which would otherwise be lost. This ])reparation forms a very agreeable and juicy food for cows, and is very greedily eaten by the animals, which do well upon the food in all respects. The steamed roots are best prepared for sivine in being mashed and mixed with meals, and given to the animals in troughs in a lukewarm condition. Raw pansnips are very nutritious to store pigs in the open yards. The cultivation of parsnips is mostly confined to the Channel Islands, and some favourable spots in Kent. The plant indispensably requires an early warm climate, and dry soils of the fii'st quality of sandy loam. The average produce of an acre of parsnips is twelve tons, which are compared, as below, with the average acreable weight of potatoes in eight tons : — 12 tons (26,880 lbs.) parsnips contain : lbs. Water 21,543 Organic unazotic 4,642 Protein compounds 561 Ashes 333 8 tons (17,920 lbs.) potatoes contain : lbs. Water 14,228 Organic unazotic 3,054 Protein compounds 414 Ashes 294 This statement may be too favourable to the parsnip, but it i'3 confirmed by the following par- ticulars : — Potatoes. 75'5 19-0 „.„ > fattening. 1*4 fleshening. The fattening quality of sugar is well known, and generally acknowledge;!. Bullocks, fresh in condition from the summer's feeding on clover or good grass, are put in the stalls about the be- ginning of October, v.'here they have three meals daily, of roots, sliced lengthwise, and hay is given between each meal of parsnips. An ordinary ox will eat one cwt. daily of the roots, when first put to In 100 parts of parsnips. Water 79"4 Starch and fibre .... 69 Gum 6-1 Sugar 5"5 Albumen 24 be fattened. Water is given once in a day, and cabbages or potatoes are given occasionally, in orrler to change the food, and prevent cloying on the parsnips. Tliree tons of parsnips and one ton of hay are required to fatten, by Christmas, an ox of about 70 to 80 stones of dead weight. Young cattle thrive very well on raw parsnips given them in the cribs during winter. Pigs are beginning to feed on parsnips, with the tops and roots during the month of September, and soon learn to refuse the tops, and are treated with the roots only, which are best given in a boiled state. No grain is employed as food during the fattening process. It is found that boiling the roots increases the quantity of pork, but the quality is rendered flabby. Pigs of 20 months old reach the large weight of 24 to 32 imperial stones by this treatment. Parsnips increase the quantity of butter, but not the milk, in the case of milch cows — while turnips increase the milk, and not the butter, which shovvs the fat- producing quality of parsnips. The pulpy quality of parsnips renders the food not comfortable to the human taste, but it may be corrected by eating with it some drier articles, as stale bread, or hardened crusts. One part of parsnips to two of flour makes good bread, and grated parsnips with flour in one-third part are boiled in a cloth as dumplings, or baked by the heat of the oven in a pie-dish, constitutes a substantial mess, and may be flavoured to please the palate. Parsnips contain much saccharine juice, are sweeter than carrots, and are brevv'ed instead of malt with hops, and fermented with yeast. The liquor is very agreeable to the taste. Parsnips contain in 1000 parts 99 of soluble matter. Chemical analysis gives more soluble nutritious matter to the carrot and parsnip than to the turnip ; j^et the general utility of the latter plant is quite indisputable. For every use of the root, the turnip is best in the raw state — parsnips are best when boiled, in every case — carrots raw for horses, and steamed for swine — potatoes steamed for horses and pigs, and raw for cattle; and these preparations being attended with some expense, add to the ready superiority of the turnip. — J. D., in Agricultural Gazette. ON CLAY BURNING, We promised our readers, in a previous Journal, to ' doubted, that while some clay soils are doubled in return to the subject of burnt clay, Mr, Pusey value by the process, others are really either injured speaks very liighly of its value in his i*ecent paper; i by the operation, or, if not injui'ed, at least not but still the f-dluresofit in some places are almost, ! benefited in the slightest degree, at first sight, irreconcilable with these opinions. And ! Avery considerable assistance is given to the yejt it is « fact which nefd not be for one moment j whole question by a simple consideration of the 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chemical ov manufacturing' processes nnalogous to this process. And if we first take brick-making, we find that a porous, sohd, but absorbent Kub- btance is formed, from which hardly any portion can be washed out by hot or cold water, or even diluted acid, and which, in almost any circum- stances not very alternating between wet and dry, will last undecoraposed for ages. Take another kind of clay, burnt into pot and almost fused — a higher degree of heat being applied— and you have a substance still more obstinately resistive of solution and disintegration. While, if you take an alum raa- nufactor}', you have just the reverse. A soil or rock contains a large per-centage of aluminous matter. It is desirable to wash out that ingredient. Nobody attempts to steep and wash and filter — it is sub- jected to a slight burning ; a little furze or brush- wood ignites the sulphur generally present in aluminous shale ; and then the alum, in the shape of sulphate of alumina, is soluble, and easily washed out. Now precisely the same, or we would rather say an exactly similar process, goes on in burning clay, containing locked-up potash and soda. These are often scarce materials in soils, and to liberate them and supply them to soils deprived of them by con- stant cropping is often a most important particular. Dr. Vo'elcker, the chemical professor of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, took four spe cimens of clay : No. i he left unburnt. No. 2 shghtly burnt. No. 3 more fully burnt. No. 4 over burnt. He then examined the solubility of the Boda in the two, and it ^^'as as follows : In No. 1 0. 220 per cent. No. 2 0.33G „ No. 3 0.311 ,, No. 4 0.104 „ Nor was it the soda alone ; the whole mineral matter was also more soluble in burnt than in un- burnt clay. Thus ; Per cent, of soluble mineral matter. Clay No. 1 contained 6. 740 „ No. 2 , 10.580 „ No. 3 8.955 „ No. 4 „ 5.391 With lime, however, the case seemed to be some- what diflferent. In the unburnt clay it existed in the state of carbonate, in the ratio of 0.740 per cent., while in the slightly burnt it amounted to only 0.420, and in the over burnt clay it went down to 0.188 ; mainly, it is assumed, by the drawing off of the carbonic acid gas. We see, moreover, how very dangerous it is to overburn clay ; it is the brick or pot-making pro- cess, and not the burning of the shale. Carried over far, it reduces the mineral matters to an in- soluble state, in a very great degree. It hardens the clay, destroying its porosity, and thus so far reduces its absorptive powers ; and, above all, it rendern its chemical constituents less soluble than even those of pure unburnt clay. Thus : Per cent, of insoluble mattiT. No. 1 clav contained 84. 100 No. 2 ' ,, 80.260 No. 3 , 81.845 No. 4 „ 85.309 Now we think Professor Way established con- trary to our expectations — contrary to, we believe, his own— that burnt clay possessed less powers to absorb ammonia than even unburnt, when aramo- niacal solutions and manures were j^assed through it. Professor Yoelcker found that burnt clay pos- sessed less ammonia than the unburnt. A clay from Iluntstile, in its natural state, contained 0.240 per cent, of ammonia ; while the same clay, mode- rately burnt, contained only 0.019 percent., or only a trace in the small quantity usually subjected to analysis. The question of what sort of clay ought to be burnt ? is one of the greatest interest, and one on which at present perhaps it would be scarcely pos- sible to pronounce v.'ith any great degree of accu- racy. The Doctor states it as a i)robable truth (and it has the aspect of being fairly deducible from his experiments), that the soil most abundant in the alkalies is the one most benefited by burning. He gives one practical instance. Mr. Danger, of Huntstile Farm, the one from v/hich the specimens of clay we have before alluded to were taken, said, in reference to clay burning — " Of course I can only speak to the fact, A soil which I have found quite sterile, on which this process has been used, became totally changed." This clay contained 4.726 per cent, of potash (a very unusual quantity) and .83 per cent, of soda. Now it is on the soda, the lime, and, above all, the potash, and possibly on the silicate of alumina, that the operation of fire exercises its decomposing influences ; for on phos- phoric acid it is supposed to have no beneficial effects whatever as regards solubility. The Professor further concludes, also, that all pipe and porcelain clays generally derive no advan- tage from burning, because of the small quantities of undecomposed alkaline silicates which they con- tain. He moreover recommends the desirableness of the clay intended to be burnt containing lime, and also theapplicationof quicklime to newly burnt clay land. And the whole of his paper is of a na- ture so interesting and \'aluable as to reflect credit on the selection the governors of the College have made in their chemical profes<;or. — Gardeners* and Farmers' Jounral, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 461 CALENDAR OF HORTiCULTUKE— NOVEMBEK. Retrospkct. The condition of the potato cluiins the first at- tention. 'When the hist article went to the printer alarm had been sounded through the country, and particularly in reference to the state of disease in Ireland. Now— the 17th day of October — after due observation and inquiry, I find that people's fears begin to subside, and reports assume a dif- ferent feature. I have observed several diggings, and cannot refrain from attesting that errors have been committed by growers and interested parties, which have led to mischievous results. The qua- lity of the Shawd and Regents now brought libe- rally to market is so excellent, so superior to any- thing that could he generally procured of late years, that it ought to pass as a guarantee of the keeping condition of the potato, provided the stores be judiciously manoged. But it is probable that a considerable advance in price must take place, in consequence of the vast breadths which were dug rip prematurely when the panic was excited. I have said so much upon the duty of planters iu the next season, in a previous article, that it will be needless to dwell upon the subject. The weather changed with the equinox. Much rain has since fallen, the atmosphere being gene- rally very warm ; but a good deal of frosty rime was seen this morning on the herbage, followed by a bright warm sun. Rain clouds began to form al;out sunset, and more falhng v.-eather is threat- ened. Operations in the Vegetable Garden. 1st, Sow, only in frame, short-top radish — to come in early; small salad ; and 2nd, herbs ; or sow in bnxes j)laced in vacant sunny places of a vinery. Old writers direct the sowmg of peas and beans " on a warm border under a wall ;'* but modern practice proves that seed and time are both econo- mized by sowing for transplantation at a future period. Lettuces may yet be jnanted in frames, if this work remains to be done. Give free air, in open and dry weather, to all vegetables under glass; but I rotect from frost and rain by closed sashes. In covering over the glass nothing is so durable and safe as broad i-inch or ;j-incli deal boards, carefully secured from the effect of high winds. Mats under the boards do well, because they are thus kept more dry, and therefore do not conduct heat away. Endive. — On soni'! dry day tie up plants for blanching. Earth-up celery when fully grown, and apply boards on edge, ridge-wise, to throw oft" rain, and protect from frost, which always jiroves de- structive to the plants when the soil is soaked with water, and tlie hearts are wet. Cabbage-plants and colewort-greens — finish planting these from the seed-beds at the beginning of the month. Draw dry earth about the stems of those cabbages which were planted in September and October. Cape broccoli and caulijlowers with heads may be protected for a time by bending some of the outer largest leaves over them. If in trenches, so often recomiiiended by me, the heads should be gently ])ressed, to face towards the north, and suj)- ported in that jjosition by piling the earth from the ridges on the southern side. You thus guard the stems, and prevent any injurious effects from a warm sun shining upon the inside of plants covered, it may be, with hoar frost, thin ice, or snow. 3. Potatoes ought to be secured by the end of the second, or beginning of tbe third week. Every bad or doubtful tuber put aside, because we are now fullv instructed that no rational step should be omitted which might avert disease, and hasten its extinction. Keeping these objects in view, we must avoid damp and stimulating stowage. Beet-root, carrots, and some parsnips should be dug up, and stored in dry sand for use. Asparagus. — If the beds and rows have not yet been cut over, and made clean, the work should be completed forthwith. Good sound seed, from fine plants, can now be collected for sowings in March. Artichokes require their winter dressing, by dig- ging between each row— if four feet apart — and throwing the earth against the stems, ridge-wise, as in celery-earthing. The spade-wide trenches so produced can be advantageously filled with long stable-manure. N.B.— Single rows can be thus treated ; and it is now thought that finer globe artichokes are grown by raising fresh sucker plants every spring, instead of preserving old shoots year after year. But every grower should adhere to that practice which he proves to be good in his own locality. Winter spinach continues to be very fine, as the oi)cn warm weather has favoured it : gatherings have been made equal to any taken in the spring; these should now be made in somewhat thinning 2 H 462 THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. order, the earth being kept clear of weeds in the intervals. Finally, as winter sets in let rorgli worsted yarn be strained round and across the rows because sparrows take gieat liberty with this crop, which they much fancy in hard weather. Routine— Dig, trench, and ridge vacant spaces; binding land is particularly benefited by being ex- posed to frost. Roll the walks: remove fallen leaves to compost-beds, and for decaying into leaf- mould : extirpate weeds. Fruit Department, Remove and plant every deciduous tree; or else defer planting till February. A young fruit-tree, if planted early in November, with despatch aftei it is dug up, may establish itself pretty well in ground properly prepared, and even still develop a few delicate fibres before frost sets in. Priming peach, nectarine, and apricot- trees.— Having been adverse to autumnal pruning, I copy the fo.lowing from a new periodical verbatim, as ii comprises a great many suggestions worthy o: thought and experiment :— " Commence imme- diately the leaves are fallen from the trees : it is s very general practice to prune these trees in the spring : the reasons given for so doing are variou^ — some gardeners assert that it is that the blossom buds may be distinguished from the wood-buds : but as they may now be clearly detected by an ob- servant eye, this reason will not hold good. Others- state tbat the young shoots would die back ii pruned before winter. But this will not take j)lace if the trees are in good health. Another objection to autumn-pruning is, that it causes luxuriant trees to grow still more luxuriantly ; that if they are not pruned until late in the spring, when the sap of the trees is in action, it tends to weaken it. This is a poor reason for spring pruning, even if it had a partial efiTect in checking over-luxuriance, as root-pruning would efifectually check that. There appears to be but one vahd reason for spring pruning : it delaj's the expansion of the flowers ; but this may be prevented by covering the trees during the warm sunny days of March." Vines — prune, and regulate so soon as the leaves fall. Staawberry plants. — We would by no means cut off any leaves till spring; nor do we see any rea- son for forking or digging between bearing plants, unless it be so far as to destroy grass and weeds. But we are tempted to experiment on the following suggestion, by a writer in the Gardener's Maga- zine of Botany, &c. (a truly excellent periodical). He tells us that—" he has been made acquainted with a gentleman who takes up his old plants in spits every year, and re-plants them again imme- diately in the same ground. His informant states that he has enormous crops of fine fruit by adopt- ing this treatment." Query — Does he break off some, or all, of the woody old roots ? Strawberries in pots for early forcing ought to be fine single plants, in broad 30 or 24 pots— well drained with crocks and bits of charcoal. The soil should be a rich unctuous loam, with a fourth part of decayed manure. They should be protected from heavy rains, snow, and frost, in frames or cool pits. Vines under glass.- -To preserve the fruit keep a dry atmosphere by well-regulated morning fire, and free air from back and front openings. Mildew -Still prevails : flour of sulphur is the rfmedy at all times, provided it be liberally applied— as dust — and early enough : the spring, elastic pufF, by forcing the flour into every fold, must be most effective. Ornamental Departments. Thin out, by regular and orderly pruning, such shrubs as are over-grown. In heading down, cut back, either entirely or in other instances, so as to renovate the head, which subsequently is to be so " cut- in," to furnish it with youngluxuriantbranches and rich foliage. "Nothing looks worse, or indi- cates negligence more, than a mass of rambhng overgrown shrubs, with immense heads and ir- regular stems."' Arrange afresh the position of such small subjects as permit of removal, and then rough-dig the ground. All the American, or in other words, peat or bog plants may be judiciously introduced : rhododendrons will prosper in a free sandy loam, mixed with sharp grit and leaf mould. Roses. — Standard and worked, or dwarfs, can be introduced ; but they like a rich and firm soil. As " show " June bloomers, one of the very best is Blair's No, 1 ; but the recurrent bloomers — called perpetual— Noisette, and China varieties, are now the favourites. Am.ong these Geant des Ba- tailles, Souvenir de Malmaison, Bourbon Queen, La Reine, Madame Despretz stand high — the last particularly, as being a late and profuse blower. It will be needless to recommend any operations in the open ground beyond those which appertain to neatness and order : thus it is indispenable to sweep lawns and gravel-walks, to remove daisies and dandelions from the former, and small grasses, &c., from the latter. A caution as to salt is re- quired ; for if a small quantity of it come in con- tact with box-edging, it will very speedily destroy it, and render it patchy. The surface soil of beds and border ought to be cleared of weeds, and lightly forked, or spud-hoed in dry weather. ' ^ Glasshouses, &c. The cool pits and frames for the preservation of store plants, as verbenas, &c., should merely be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 463 protected from actual frost and damp. It is an j not very severe, a few spruce twigs stuck among the axiom worthy of attention, tliat " the more a plant plants will do. is exposed, consistent with preservation from posi- | Endive is by no means Lardy, and should at once be tive injury, the more hardy it becomes;" hence the removcl to a place of security ; for, ,f thoroughly •' frozen, there is scarcely any probability of presiTving it from decay. If no accommodation can be found ia necessity of the utmost prudent admission of dry air. Heaths are particularly impatient of a close damp situation. We should remember and act upon the truth, that as the natural stimulus of solar light diminishes, so in proportion should quietude and rest be promoted by the diminution of atmos- pheric heat, and of the supply of water. In green- houses fire-heat will rarely be required for the mere purpose of increasing temperature. Still, as November and December are frequently seasons of damp, fire must be occasionally required, as it is in the late vinery : the dewy damj)ness of the leaves, or any m.ouldiness, will surely indicate such hu- midity. With fire, then, lighted early in the mor- ning, fresh air should be freely admitted, as a stream from front to back, to carry away the steam. The fire ought to die out soon after 12 o'clock, but the house should not be then closed so as to become too v.arm : night requires little v,'armth, and during darkness any degree of cold short of actual frost rarely causes any injury. In stoves and forcing-houses constant artificial heat is, of course, required, because 50° plus must be maintained. Some plants must grow, or other- wise they will perish, and therefore a certain degree of moisture will be necessary. Still it is not ad- visable to encourage or stimulate vegetation during the dark months, and the progressive decline of the sun's altitude. Final Remarks. The weather remains open and very warm. Chrysanthemums promise a fine and abundant bloom ; and this will be speedily fulfilled if cold rains and frost keep off. Some fine autumnal roses, and many dahlias, remain to decorate the garden. The east wind began again in the night of the 20th, and may bring frost, or a decided change of weather. The potatoes are very fine, and the market reports are favourable. John Toavers. Croydon, Oct, 21. OPERATIONS FOR NOVEMBER. KITCHEN GARDEN. „ Cauliflowers. — Those planted under hand-glas8?s and in frames must at all times have an abundance of air, to give them a hardy hubit ; for, if nursed too closely, the nipping winds of spring will give a severe check, and probably cause them to flower prematurely. Those planttd in the open border will occasionally require pro- tection by hoops covered with mals, or, if the weather is melon-pits, temporary structures may be made of turf, and covered with thatched hurdles, or this may be sub- stituted by planting in an open shed, among rather dry soil; but, before removal, let the plants be perfectly dry. Celery, — Although indigenous to Britain, artificial cul- tivation his in a great measure destroyed its hardy habit, owing to the aqueous state of the tissue. The soil, at the final earthing -up, should form at the top a sharp, an- gulated ridge, to throw off the wet, which will in a great measure preserve it from decay. Cardoons do not re- quire a separate notice : the same instructions are ap- plicable. Peas. — This vegetable, though cuUivated in this country from time immemorial, has not been fully accli- mated ; so that, to preserve it through the winter, con- siderable labour and attention aie necessary. From the middle to the 20th of the month is ths best time for sowing the first crop, as there is t!.en a greater pro- bability of carrying them safely through the winter. If the ground hr.s been prepared as previously directed, level the surface, aud line off the drills five feet apart, and make them two inches deep, and cover the seed with an additional two inches from between the rows, which will raise them a little above the surface, thereby pre- venting an excess of water at the roots. Broad Beam. — Vide last month's " Calendar." Cabbage-planting may still be continued. What is not required for summer use will be found ser.iceable to cut as Coleworts when the winter-greens are consumed. 5ea-^a^e. — Remove the foliage whsn completely de- cayed, clear tlie ground from weeds, and slightly loosen the surface. The crowns should be covered from four to five inches deep (if friable) with light earth,. sifted coal-ashes, or sand, to protect them from frost. This precaution may appear unnecessary, as Sea-kale is a native of various parts of the English coast. Notwith- standing, when grown by artificial heat, it should not be exposed to frost, as the produce is never to strong. But instructions must here cease, as I never interfere with other people's business. This part comes within the province of the forcing department. ^r^ic^o^-es. — Clear off the di cayed stalks and a few of the outside leaves, and cover the plants closely from a foot to 15 inches deep with stable- litter. The strong- est and most productive plants I ever saw were yearly covered with sea-weed. Chicory -leaves, in a blauched state, form a most ex- cellent substitute for Lettuce or Endive during winter. The roots may be planted in boxes among light earth ; or, where the consumption is large, a brick pit or garden-frame may be employed, with about as much heat as we require for forcing Asparagus, or a mode- rately warm cellar will do. From strong roots the leaves will bear to be cut twice. 2 H 2 464 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Parsley. — Our winters of late years have been so mild that any contrivance for protecting Parsley has scarcely been required ; nevertheless, precautionary measures should continually be used, as a limited supply inevitably causes altercation and annoyance between the gardener and tho cook. Ingenious and pains-taking people easily discover protective measures, such as planting in frames and pots. The latter is more convenient, as it may be kept in a cool vinery or peach- house, and removed into a few degrees of heat as occasion may require. HARDY FRUIT. We have now reached the confines of the most dreary and solitary season of the year, but can reflect on the past snmmei and autumn as having been the most genial we have had for a considerable time past. To whatever kind of fruit tree ws direct our attention, the wood is found fully ripened, indicating that we may look for an abundance of fruit next year ; and this has been mainly produced by a large amount of sua-heat and a dry atmo- sphere. But, although our prospects are sustained by evidence so unquestionable, the spring months can alor.e determine the result. Gardeners, in the majority of cases, are now fully alive to the importance of planting fruit-trees near the surface, and what is of more value — making the borders shallow and dry. Rich and deep borders were once the priuium mobile in fruit culture; but revelations from science have changed this opinion. This, like many more erroneous ideas, is fast passing into oblivion. The pruning of dwarf Apple and Pear-trees should be begun, when the foliage has fallen, by the removal of worn-out spurs and irregularly-placed shoots. De- bilitated trees should be cut down near to the graft, ia order to restore them ; but if this fail to produce a cure , reject them entirely. Where there is no hothouse. Vines on the wall form no unimportant part of garden produce. One-half are, however, yearly spoiled by the retention of too much wood. Pruning should be performed early, by cutting to a couple of eyes, as ihey are generally better matured than when left two or tliree feet long. The bearing wood should be equally distributed over every part of the tree, but not too closely, which in summer reflects the transforming power of sun-heat. The Fiff, being a native of Asia, will not always re- sist the severity of our winter; and, therefore, the trees require protection. They may be thatched with straw, or the fronds of Pteris aquilina, or common brake. To keep them dry is more important than the depth of co- vering. A. C. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR OCTOBER. The extreme fineness of the weather during the greater portion of this month has been productive of very favourable results to agriculture in general. The supply of pasture food has considerably in- creased, whilst the turnip crop has progressed ra- pidly towards maturity. Ploughing and sowing have become general, with the land in remarkably good working order ; thrashing has been exten- sively carried on ; and at least one-half of the potato crop has been raised and partly pitted. Under these circumstances, we are not surprised to find fat stock somewhat on the advance in most of the leading markets, as additional numbers are now re- quired by the large graziers to consume the turnips ; whilst it is evident that the producers of corn are j)ositively compelled to dispose of their grain at al- most any sacrifice, or they would not have supplied the markets so liberally when there is every rea- sonable prospect of an advance in the quotations. That the yield of v/heat this year, taken as a whole, is large, and of unusually fine quality, does not ad- mit of a doubt; whilst that on the continent is de- cidedly deficient — France, perhaps, excepted. In some parts rye is selling for more money, by weight, than low qualities of wheat ; and we may safely as- I sume that the number of English orders abroad at this time is smaller than has been the case for many years past. Under the old state of things, we should, unquestionably, have had a material rise in the value of home-grown wheats ; but the fact is that millers, as well as bakers in general — owing to the heavy fall in the quotations since the commence- ment of the year — are stilFdetermined to operate with more than usual caution. Again, the receipts of both French and American flour continue to be pressed for sale at almost any figure, notwithstand- ing; the uncertainty which exists in reference to future imports. So long as business is conducted on "hand to mouth" principles, so long shall we have to report inactivity in the trade; but we sincerely regret that so fine a crop as that gathered this year should be sacrificed at prices which can never pay the jjroducers. Potato-raising is now becoming general in York- shire, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire, &c. With some few exceptions, our accounts are confirmatory of those to which we have already alluded, and which were to the eflfect that, even taking the losses into account, the aggregate growth is a very large one. The losses in question will not, in our judgment, have much effect upon the value of the better kinds of food, as it must of necessity be chiefly regulated i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 465 by the extent of the foreign importations and the nature of the demand here for the near continental markets. The quantity of fat stock at this time on most farms is unusually large ; and it is pretty generally supposed that during the next six weeks our markets will be but moderately supplied. Very few losses have been sustained by disease. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding that fair average supplies of fat stock have been on offer in Smithfield during the month just concluded, the general demand has ruled somewhat active, and prices have steadily advanced. The improvement in value may be attributed to two causes, viz., the abundance of keep, particularly turnips, in most of our large grazing districts, and the very moderate arrivals of country-killed meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall. The imports of both beasts and sheep from abroad, though large, have not been quite equal to those at the corre- sponding period last year; nevertheless, they have exhibited a material improvement in quality. It will be recollected that in October, 1850, nearly 6,000 beasts were received from abroad in the port of London ; but the immense excess was chiefly owing to the Danish war having induced the Holstein graziers to forward beyond their usual strength. There is one feature in the trade, at this moment, which appears to have sorely puzzled and perplexed the large tallow merchants in Russia; we mean the large quantity of tallow in this coun- try produced from home supplies of fat, and which has so reduced the value of the article that im- porters here have purchased about 30,000 casks less at St. Petersburg than in the ordinary run of years. The consequence is that the Russians are now endeavouring to rule our tallow trade by forwarding about 40,000 casks on their own account, and which, we are told, will be held for a considerable rise in the quotations. Now, it must be obvious to all connected with the 'trade that such a proceeding will be attended with severe loss. Assuming the Russian supply of 40,000 casks to be held for 12 months, and that no advance take place in its value during that time, the interest upon capital will be £2, to which must be added £l per ton for warehouse and other _ charges exclusive of other losses. Thus the ven- "'iure will in all probabihty result in the sacrifice of ■ at least £30,000 ; whilst, in our judgment, it is by '-ho means improbable that, in the course of years, we shall be almost wholly independent of tallow from Russia, from the fact that the imports from Australia and South America are rapidly increasing, and that both English and foreign stock is produc- ing a much larger quantity of rough fat than has been known for a series of years. Letters from most parts of the country state that very few losses amongst either beasts or sheep have been experienced ; that the available supply of both natural and artificial food is very abundant and cheap; and,further,that most farms are well stocked. The quantity of oil-cake now in use is unusually small. We have long been of opinion that that ar- ticle has proved the most expensive food the graziers could have had recourse to, and whicli fre- quently rendered their profits a matter of consider- able doubt. Surely good whivlesome turnips at £5 per ton are cheaper and more nutritious than foreign hnseed cakes, frequently composed of rub- bish mixed with linseed, at £10, £8, or even £6 per ton. At the outports very few importations of cattle have taken jilace, whilst the arrivals from Ireland into London have almost wholly ceased. Judging, however, from the accounts which have lately come to hand from the sister island, we may venture to state that, ere many years have passed away, the metropDlitan market will be heavily supplied with first-rate stock from that portion of the United Kingdom. Men of intelligence and capital are en- tering upon large tracts of land, and are wisely importing our best breeds, and adopting the most approved systems of agriculture, to see whether it is possible to compete with EngUsh skill and energy. The following are the arrivals of foreign stock into the metropohs : Head. Beasts 5,292 Sheep 18,688 Calves 1,495 Pigs 1,912 Total 27,389 IMPORTS AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS. Oct. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1850 1849 1848 1847 5,939 20,982 5,008 16,190 2,962 10,669 5,433 17,635 1,312 1,702 565 243 803 116 1,225 433 The total numbers of English and foreign stock shown in Smithfield are as under : — Head. Beasts 22,092 Cows 450 Sheep 119,050 Calves 1,999 Pigs , 3,470 456 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Oct., Oct., Oct., Oct., 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. Beasts 19,509 20,1/7 22,477 23,116 Cows 572 487 457 440 Sheep.... 126,480 114,760 146,200 138,110 Calves.,.. 2,000 2,200 1,946 2,120 Pigs 2,713 3,140 2,085 3,615 The English bullock supplies have been com- posed of 12,460 short-horns from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire, and 2,600 Herefords, runts, Devons, &c., from the various oiher counties. The receipts from Scotland have not exceeded 50 Scots, chiefly by steamers. To- wards the close of the month the quotation stood thus : — Per Bibs., to sink the offals. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 2 6 to 3 8 Mutton 2 10 to 4 2 Veal 2 8 to 3 10 Pork 2 10 to 3 10 COMPARISON OF PRICES. Oct., 1847. Oct., 1848. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 4 0 to 4 10 2 4 to 4 0 Mutton 38 52 34 50 Veal 3 8 4 8 3 0 4 2 Pork 4 0 5 2 3 10 4 10 Oct., 1849. Oct., 1850. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from .... 2 4 to 3 10 2 4 to 3 10 Mutton 2 8 4 0 2 10 4 0 Veal 3 0 3 6 2 6 3 8 Pork 3 2 4 2 3 0 4 2 In the early part of the month very extensive su})plies of meat were received up to Newgate and Leadenhall from the midland and eastern districts; but they materially declined during the last fort- night. The general trade has ruled inactive^ as follows :— Beef, from 2s. to 3s. 4d.; mutton, 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d.; veal, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 3d.; pork, 2s, 6d. to 3s. lOd. per 8 lbs., by the carcase. LEICESTERSHIRE. One of the finest mouths on record for gathering in the harvest was September, and the great bulk of while corn was liOHS?d during tliat month in the best condi- tion. Notwithstanding this, we cannot say that the harvest in this county is yet concluded. In the neigh- bourhood of Charnwood Forest, there remain in the field several patches of bnrley, this being on ground at a great altitude is the reason of its bt ing so late before it be- comes ripe, or that there is some neglect in not sowing the seed earlier. In other localities vie observe there are beans yet remaining ia tlie field, but as the weather is now beautiful for the season, they will not be cut much longer. We are novf in a position to speak with more certainty of the result of the last harvest than in our last report. We then iatimaled that the quality of the grain would be excellent, and produce a large quantity of flour for the measure of the corn, and that the yield of wheat would probably exceed an average. The result fully con- firms us in the first surmise ; but as regards the second, from all we hear from those who have thrashed out and tested the yield of wheat, it does not come up ia quantity to our then expectations. Though the corn is bold and quality first-rate, still, on strong soils, the produce is by no means so abundant as to warrant us in saying that the general crop exceeds an average one, and we are rather inclined to the opinion that it will prove some- what beneath it. Our anticipations in regard to bailey have been realized since thrashing has become more general. The quality of this gnnn is not so fine as last year, and the yield will be considerably below that of g od seasons. As but little is yet done iu thrashing either oats or beans, our remarks as to the produce of these crops will be more conjectural. The former we believe will be tolerably good ; but of the latter we con- fidenily expect a larger yield than for the last three or four years, and from tlie fine weather they have been stacked in excellent order. As regards the price of new corn, we wish we could congratulate the growers upon an increase ; but the contrary is proved by the average price returned in last week's Gazette, which only amoun's to 35s. 6d. per quarter ; the lowest we believe recorded for nearly a century past. Other kinds of grain are neatly in the same proportion, and must convince every reasonable man that, with present payments, the farmer cannot grow it for that price, but is a loser by every quarter he sells. In our niarket last week, wheat made from .35s. to 40s. ; barley, 23s. to 2Gs. per qr. From the abundance of grass in our pastures, all kinds of stock have thriven well. The stores, both beast and sheep, are in good condition, and feeding stock hi-ssdone better, and is fatter and riper than they have been for several years. Store sheep have realized the best prices of any kind of stock, beast have sold lower out of the rate, and graziers are buying thcrn at such moderate prices that, if they do not pay for feeding, meat must be sold at very low rates indeed. Beef and mutton are both making from 4d. to 5d. per lb. Another important rticleof farm ers' produce which has hitherto maiiUained something like a remunerating price, has this Michaelrass not realized so much as usual, by from fiiteen to twenty per cent,, and a great, deal of cheese which was sent to our fairs has been taken home for want of ])urchasers. This has caused much consternation amongst our dairy- men, and many will have their cheese on hand instead of the money to meet their rents now becoming due. The exceedingly fine weather in September, and now in Octo- ber, is highly favourable for cleaning the land, and a finer time could not be for getting in the Feed. It is not the custom here to sow wheat early, and it can only be said that seeding has now generally commenced, though many pieces were sown as early as a fortnight since. The grain went in well, and was never known to spring up quicker; in a few days it became visible, and in a week the drills were plainly traced across the lands, and it now looks beautiful : the only danger is, that if the v/eather contiauts so mild, it will become too rank ; evil from this cause may be obviated by eating it down early in spring with sheep. Turnips look well, aid have grown well of late ; the swedes have been much thinned in some situations by grub and disease ; though now growing rapidly, as are mangold and cabbage, tlicy cannot be pro- nounced an average crop. The time has been suitable for getting up potatoes ; and we are glad to say that, on the whole, there is less of the rot among them than for several years. The wool trade has been flat of late, without any change in price, it must be a good farmers' lot which will now make Is. per lb. We rejoice to say that there is no great amount of surplus labourers at present ; nearly all are employed at from 9s. to iOs^ger week, for ordinary work. — Oct. 24. nmooi THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 467 METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. 1 Wind and State. Atmosphere. | Weath. JL>ay. S a.m. 10p.m. Mill. Ma.\. 10 p.m. Direction. Force. 1 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10p.m. Sep. 21 in. els. i in. els. 30.08 ' 30.— 47 63 57 Northerly uentle ' cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 22' 30.— 1 30.ns 47 68 53 W. by North trentle cloudy sun fine dry 23, 30J0 30.15 46 67 57 S., W. by N. calm fine sun cloudy ^dry 24 30.15 \ 30. — 56 67 57 Sy., var., Wy. calm cloudy sun fine ^rain 25 29.89 29.65 53 63 47 Variable brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 26 29.72 29.66 42 56 45 Westerly brisk cloudy sun fine dry 27 29.66 29.82 46 56 51 S. West lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 2S' 29. SO 29.83 44 58 42 [W. by North lively cloudy sun fine 'dry 29 29.83 29.59 46 60 50 S. by East variab. fine sun fine ijdry 30, 29.50 29.44 49 62 55 Southerly Ljentle cloudy cloudy fine rain Oct. 1' 29-33 ■29.05 : 51 60 52 S. bv West strong cloudy cloudy fine rain 2, 29.32 29.40 47 56 51 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy fine ijrain 3' 29.43 29.58 50 64 53 S., S. by E. trentle cloudy sun fine rain 4 29.52 29.53 , 57 63 50 S.S.W. sjentle cloudy sun fine rain 5 29.58 29.76 49 55 47 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy fine rain 6' 29.74 29.83 47 58 50 W.N.W. •rentle cloudy sun cloudy dry 7' 29.83 29.81 47 59 53 S. West brisk cloudy -sun cloudy rain a; 29.85 29.96 ' 4G 56 46 W.N.W. Lfentle fine sun fine tlry 9 29.94 29.84 41 59 59 S. West lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 10' 30.— 30.17 57 68 60 iw.s.w. gentle cloudy sun fine dry 11; 30.24 30.20 j 54 64 57 S. West rentle haze sun cloudy dry 12' 30.30 30.28 57 68 57 S. West brisk cloudy sun fine dry 13| 30.17 30.04 , 55 62 58 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 14 29.98 29.84 ! 53 57 55i S. West lively cloudy fine cloudy dry 15 29.47 29.38 46 52 46 West sjentle cloudy cloudy fine ram 16 29.55 29.60 39 56 42 S. West gentle fine cloudy fine rain 17 29.80 29.94 36 55 42 W. by N. by S. ?entle fine sun fine dry IS 29.94 29.94 40 57 56 South brisk cloudy cloudy fine dry 19 29.97 30.05 55 60 57 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 20 30.10 30.10 56 62 57 S. West orentle cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 21; 30.07 29.93 56 62 55 Easterly variab. cloudy fine dry estimated averages of OCTOBER. Barometer. j Thermometer. High. I Low. I High. | Low. | Mean. 30\6l 1 29.74 1 69 I 27 I 48.9 real average TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest. j Mean. 60.43 I 48.8 I 54.61 Weather and Phenomena. September 21 — Overcast. 22 — Fine and sunny afternoon. 23 — Equinox, 3h. 51m. p.m.; smoky atmosphere; indications of change, 24 — Much rain in the previous night. 25 — Shower; cold wind in evening. 26— Very chilling; fine day. 27— Mostly overcast; a shower. 28 — Bnght cool even ng. 29— Variable ; bank of cloud.s and white aurora borealis in N. by E. 30— Rainy morning ; '-a few gleams ; weather quite unsettled. Lunation.— New Moon, 25th d. 6 h, 12 m. morning. October 1 — Fierce winds ; double range of driving clouds. ' 2 — Showery till evening. 3 — Much rain in the the night. 4 — Night rain ; fine; showers. 5 — One heavy shower. 6— Night rain; fine cheerful day; lunar double halo, 8 p.m. 7 — Some early rain. 8 — Keen dewy morning; calm dry night. 9 — Several showers ; damp heat at 2h. 54m. 10 — Green horizon, and rich golden cirrus at sunset. 11 — Much driving "rack;" fine day. 12 — Undulous clouds; balmy air. 13 — Double ranges of rapid clouds. 14 — Gorgeous horizon; green and golden cirrus at sunset. 15 — Much rain. 16 — One shower. 17 — Early rime; hot sun. 18, 19 — Overcast. 20— Generally fine; threatening clouds ; close heat. 21 — Mild, rather cloudy day; clouds finely tinted. Lunations.— First quarter, 2nd day 2 h. 20 m. morning. Full moon, 10th day, 6 h, 33 m. mom. Last quarter, 18th day, 0 h. 13 m. morning. 9di 10) 468 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Remarks iiEi-KiaiiNG to Agkiculture. — is improved — turnijis and Kwedct;, ainong others', Tiie e.vtraordinary weather, so mild as to have pro- very ranch so. Potatoes are fine and alnindaat ; duced only one hoar frost, and that on the I7th hut disease will return till the earliest sowing f say al)out sunrise, and the moderate supply of rain, in February) be adopted. ..'.,.,;;,.. have brought on much verdure. Every green crop Croydon, „,J^.->Tow,sas. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. AUCHTERARDER FAIR.— The turn outwas more tbau usual, both of exposcrs anJ purchasers ; find the stock for (i;i;intity and quality exceeded anything we can remember on formernerasioi;3. Beef sold trom 5s. 6il. to 6s. 6d. per Dutch stone, siukitig oH'als. Ten- quarter- old stots and queys from 8/. to 9/, ; six quarter ditto, Al. 10s. to 6L ; a few stirks for v.'intcriiig', 3/. to 4L ; milk cows were in demand, and brought fro'ii T)^. to 9/. A few left umold. BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a large show of fat hcnsts and shcej), wiiVi a iiuuicrous attendance of buyers. 14eef sold a', from 4d. to 6d. per stone below the rates of pre- vious markets ; many beasts were driven away unsold. Hold- ing stock and in ca'.viiig cows were well sold when cor.iparcd witli the p;ice of fat catlle, especially calving cows. Beef, 43. to 4s. 9d. I'.er stone ; Tuiittoti, 4d. to 5^d. per lb. BLACKBURN FAIR.— The cattle fair was but iudilTe- rcntly supptic-d with animals of a ])r;uie character. The few good caivers that offered realized fair price^^, with a full in quiry. Inferior beasts were abundant, but with little demand, and sales could only be efTected at diminished rates. BLYTII FAIR.— There wr.s a large sV.ow of sheep of su- perior q\iality, which sold at remunerative prices. That of leasts was also good, and many chacged owners at from 5s. to 5s, Gd. per stone. The number of pigs was net so large as iiiual, and sold at Inj'.lier prices. The show of horses was no improvement on former fairs. BltlDLINGTON FAIR.— The c.Utle were far more nu- merous than coramoD, esiiecially lean beasts, the greater part of which were disposed of at prices ranging from lOs. to 20s. pi>r head higher tiian usual, or of late. Of fat cattle, first class, there were very few, but of such as required a little making up f .r the butchers there was a tolerably good show, which went otr at from 4s. 6d. to 5s. per stone. Tlie cattle fair, upon the whole, may be said to have been a good one. The horse fair, too, was much better stocked, both as regards quantity and quality, than we have ever known it. There were what has sel-!nm or perhaps never been before, horses v/crth from £20 to £25 or £30 each. As a matter of course, there were many of an inferior stamp, and several changed hands. C.\ISTOR FAIR. — There was a rather hmited supply, and the late high prices for lambs and tupping ewes Vicre fully realized. Fat wethers and ewes sold respectively at 5d. and •l^d. per lb. There was au unnsally largo show of beasts, and very low prices were submitted to, the ! est fat oxen and heifers realizing Ss. 3d. to Ss. 6d. per stone, and many lots remained unsold. Of milch cows there was only an inferior show. The horses shown on both days, though numerous, were generally of inferior quality. Draught horses male good prices, but the other classes met with dull sale. COLCHESTER FAIR.— There was a large show of cattle, sheep, and lambs, but the horse departnient, especially in nags, was of an ordinary des-3ription, and scarcely worthy of observa- tion. Mr. George Simpson, of Chelmsford, showed four score Highland Scots, most of which sold at prices ranging from £5 lOs. to 8 guineas — about the same as at Brentwood fair ; 43 polled Scots, from £8 to £9 10s., were also disposed of. Mr. Charles Page, of liangham, brought 2G0 polled Scots, short- horns, Hercfords, ar.d North Welsh, which sold at prices vary- ing from £6 to £12. Mr. Minnering, from Suffolk, had .58 shorthorns; Mr. Belcham, RayV-igh, 140 Welsh runts; Mr. Bodger, Romford, 40 superior Welsh heifers ; Messrs. Francis and Samuel Johnson, of Elmstesd, shewed 10 score of bullocks, runts, Scots, and a few shorthorns. Mr. Thomas Crooks, of Chelmsford, sold about 500 superior Dorset, Down, and cross- bred ewge, to a gentleman from yorkshire. Mr Webb dis- posed of 120 superior Cotswol 1 lambs to ?>[r. John Wright, of Bergholt, at 29?. per head. Breeding ewts ranged from 25s. to 35s. per head, and had a good ready sale. Lambs ranged from 17s. to 293. per head. The quantity of horses was uot near so large 8S last year, and the trade was considered dull ; a fcv; of the best cart colts rauged from £25 to £28. There were a lot of Irish colts which sold at from £12 to £20. On the whole, of the 7,01(0 head of stock, most were sold, on an average, at the same prices as af Brentwood fair ; the trade, however, was uot ccmssidcrcd so brisk, nor the supi)ly so large as at this fair last year. Bullocks were 10 per cent, dearer. COWLINGE FAIR. — There was a full average supply of shee]!, and the demand continued good, at fully late rates. Lambs being in but moderate supply readily found purchasers at from 18s. to 2 is. each. Some very useful half-fat and store beasts were oli'ered, with a fair demand, at from 2s. 6d. to 3s. Gd. per stone, estimated weight vihen fat. Good cart liorses and colts were scarce, and much in demand at full prices, whilst middling and inferior descriptions were dillicult to sell at low rates. CRIEFF. — The day being favourable, there was a greater attendance of country people than has been for many years back. Tho cattle market was well s^upplied with stock, but of prime fat there were but two or three beasts, which sold at 63. per Dutch stone — inferior, Ss. Gd. Upon the whole, it was a dull market, for several lots were turned out unsold. The show of horses was large, but none of the better description in tiie market. Some exchanged owners as low as 9s. Theie were about 200 young pigs, which brought from 4s. to Ss. each. * DALKEITH FAIR, Oct. 21.— The stock exhibited, in point of numbers, was considerably abo\e an average, and was composed of three-year-old Galloways, rnd stirks of the same description of stock ; also an immense numbor of lots of the shorthorued breed. Tiicre were aho a few lots of West High- land and Angus cattle on the ground. The stock was allowed to be, upon tlic whole, in good condition. The buyers weie .•evy nuuierous. Tl'.e principal demand appeared to be for good two and three-year-olds of r.U kinds for wiuteriug, the turnip and other kinds of keep being so abundant. It was observed that the better kinds of stock brought about the same prices as at recent marl.ets ; but the inferior descriptions of p.U kinds were easier to buy. The kind of stock shown here to-day, which was exhibited at Falkirk Ust week, was posi:ively easier to buy, more particularly- the inferior kinds ; but the better qualities supported the prices obtained at that market. Although a good few lots remained until the ciose of the market, it was generally admitted to be a fair selling market. The Irish c.'.ttle were pretty numerous, and there appeared to be a demand for this kind of stock; and tlie prices got for this de- scription were about the sr-.me, for all ages, as they brought at Falkirk last week. At the close a fev/ lots of the Irish half- bred remained unsold. The following are a few of the lots that were disposed of : — Mr. Reid, from Biggar, sold a lot of three-year-old shorthorns to Mr. Tod, Castlemaine, near Dirle- ton, at £12 a-head. A lot of 40 three-year-old shorthorns, at £11, was sold by Mr. Wilkinson, dealer, to Mr. Hunter, Oxeuford Maines ; and another lot of the same kind and age, by the same dealer, to Mr. Hunter, at £9. A lot of 24 three- year-old Irish cattle, belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch, grazed in his parks close by the Palace, £8 a head. Mr. Henderson, Longniddry, bought a lot of three-year-old Gallo- ways at £9 17s. ; also a lot of three-year-old shurthorus at the same price. A lot of yearling English was bought at £5, going to near Lauder. \ lot of three year-old shorthorued queys was bought by Mr. Mill, Bolton, at £9 lOs. Mr. Crighton, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4C9 lladJingtoii, boiijjUt a loi of 20 two-year old shoiUiorus frotti , remaining uiidisposed of Kt the close of the luatkct. Prices : yir. Ilaliybiiitoii, at £7 ICs. A lot of twoycar-old shorthorns 1 — Hogs, from 233. to 303. 3d., according to quality; white- was bonglit by Jlr. I. aiiig, .\ddi!if;stoiic, from Mr. Ballaiityiie, - faced ewc3 from '2C)». to 263. Gd.; black-faced cwcs, 153.; at £7 ; also a lot from Mr. Freucli, of rennvcuik, of the same lamba, from 13s. to Ms. kind and age, of a better quality, at £S lUs. The show o( i LEEDS FORTNIGHT FAIK.— There was a fair supply country cows was very limiicd, also the quality. The highest i of horned cattle, and a large attendance of buyers. The beasts priced cow, so far us could be ascertained, only fetched from | were generally of a very indifferent quality. CJuod things were £10 lOs. to £11 ; the secondary class from £7 to £9 lOs., and sold at Os., inferior at 53. 8d., and as low as 53. 4d. per stone down to £6. The demand did not appear great, for at an of Ifilbs. There were about 100 foreign cattle, which were early hour in the afternoon a number were driven off unsold, i sold at 5s. to 53. 4d. per 1611)3. The number of beasts, both Tiicre appeared to be a demand for hujiters, but nothing of a I foreign and English, was 700, all of which were sold. Sheep, really good class appeared on the ground. A horse or two of i 3,300, a good market, and all rcaddy sold. Prices, 4i^d. to 5(1., this description was disposed of somewhere about £35, and \ and 5:^d. per lb. anything done amongst this class to any extent was below the j LEOMINSTER FAIR. — There was a small attendai'.ce of above figure. The draught-horses were a tolerable show, and, j buyers. The show of cows was small. Steers good, and sold nlthough no great demand, averaged about from £25 to £35, \ well: inferior ones a dull sale. Beef, 4^(1. per lb. No first-rate and even so h.igh in some instances as above £40. j animals there ; great inquiry for them ; and 5d. per lb. would DEVIZES FAIK. — The supply of ahccpwas large and the i have been readily realized for good qualities. Sheep numerous, trade very brisk, an early clearance being made, and higher j and all sold ; wethers, 5r.d. ; ewes, 5d. Very few good horses prices than at late fairs easily obtained. Lambs were most in i on offer, and but little doing. Pigs, 7s. to 7s. Gd. per score, iltmand, and fetched from l"5s. to 2G3. a hei'.d ; wethers from! LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET (Weduesday last) 2Gs. tools.; and ewes from 2o5. to 28s. There was hut little | was well supplied with beasts, but the supply of sheep Vi'as fttt beef, but what there was sold readily at from 83. to Ss. 6d. i very limited. Btef realized 5s. 3d. to 5s. 6d. per stune, and a score. Horses were a dull trade. j superior wether mutton fetched S^d. per lb. Other sorts of E.4RLST0N FAIR. — There was fully an average supply of } sheep did not make so much money, but the supply being {.'razing cattle, but the quality was generally considered infe- 1 short, everything was sold by twelve o'clock. rior to last year. Young beasts forward in condition were \ MAIDSTONE FAIR. — There was a numerous colleetiMi readily disposed of, but for those of an inferior quality the I of horses, many of which changed hands at rather high prices, demand was dull, and at the close a good number were driven i and generally there was, we believe, more business transacted off unsold. Year-olds hrou'.^ht from £4 10s. to £G lOs., and ! in the fair than at any fair for some time, two-year-olds from £7 to £10. Cows were a dull sale, and | MARKET HARliOROUGlI FAIR.— Good useful horses in t!ie horse market little business was done. ] fetched a fair price, and the business done was equal to former GLOUCESTER MONTHLY MARKET was well supplied j years. The show of beast was large, and in the afterncon the with all descrijitions of stock, more particularly sheep, which j price of store beast having given way a little, a good many were a dull sale — wethers fetched S^d., ewes 5d., and lambs | sales were eficcted. There was a largo show of fat stock, but Gd. per pound. Beef, of which there wss a good supply, sold | many of them were not of first-rate quality, and prices avc- at from 4:d. to 5d. per lb. ; pigs 73. 6d. per score. Business 1 raged about 42d. per lb. The sheep pens were well filled, and in genu'al ruled very heavy, and many lots were returned un- ' stores made more money than on former cecRsions ; the price sold. About SO tons of cheese, a smaller supply than has ; of fat sheep was about 5d. per lb. The quantity of cheese been brought forward at late markets, owing, in all probability, ] pitched was veiy large, and the price ranged from 353, to 50s. ; to the dryness of the season, and consequent deficiency of ' a few choice dairies fetching 5 Ss. make. The sale was rather dull, but at prices ranging from i MICHELL FAIR v.as but thinly supplied with cattle of all 5O3. to 54s. per cwt. for double Gloucester, from 40s. to 44s. descriptions. There were about 3000 sheep penned, which for single best, from 333. to 36s. for seconds, and from 208. to - met with a ready sale, at rather improved prices. The de- 28s. for skim. A tolerable clearance was efTectrd. ; maud for other descriptions of cattle was also good, the greatest HEREFORD FAIR. — There waa a good attendance of part of those in the fair haviug changed hands iu the course cf buyers. The show of cows was small and inferior. Steers the day. numtrous. Oxen were lower than at last fair, and many that MID-C\LDER FAIR.— The supply of country-bred cattle the dealers hnd bought up for the fair went back unsold, was below the average, and the sale very dull, compared with Sheep inferior in quality, but plenty penned: wethers, 5d. to the fair held this time last year. The show of draught horses 5}(\.; ewes, 5d. Horses a good show, and much business was not large. Some good ones were sold at from 30/. to So/, dor.e. I each. There wa^ as usual, a large supply of inferior roadsters, KENDAL FORTNIGHT FAT FAIR. — There was a good which exchanged hi.nds at low prices, average supply of sheep of various breeds. Prices varied ac- , NORWICH FAIR.— .V good show of Scots as to cor.dilion cording to size and quality. Leicesters were selling at from i and quality, but the numbers short, not exceeding altogether 299. to 353., cross-bred wedders from 24s. to 2Gs., ewes from 50 scores, whilst that of the slioi thorns was both large and 20s. to 23s., blackfaced wedders from 19s. to 21s., ewes from , good. The weather was remarkably fine, and the turnips in 173. to ISs., lambs of all breeds from 15s. to 19s. Afev.- cross- j N^jrfolk and Suffolk much in. proved" of late, iu many parts ex- breeds for fattening were offering at from IGs. to 17s. Fell , excellent : although keep is so plentiful, there wcretbe fewest sheep for breeding or feeding purposes were ofTering at finm buyers that have been seen for years, scarcely any from distant 143. to 15s. Small lambs cut of condition from lis. to 13s. ! counties, and ou the whole very little business was transaeUd. Cattle were iu very good supply, and generally iu good ccndi- , Up to 11 o'clock little business was done, although every dis- tion, particularly the heifers. Prices for cows were about for | position was shown by owners and salesmen to dispose of their the best from £10 to £11 10s., aged and inferior ones from j cattle at the following prices : — Scots, very prime, 4s. to 4s. £7 to £9, heifers from £11 to £13, small ones from £8 to £9. 6d. ; useful and fresh in condition, 3s. Gd. to 4s.; shorthorns. Calves were of an inferior description, and were selling at j very forward, 3s. to 3s. 6d. ; middling, 23. Gd. to 3s. per stone from Ids. to 25s. A few Scots were selling at from £5 to £7 10s. A few milk cows for breeeding purposes were selling at from £14 to £17. Great part of the stock exhibited -.vere disposed of before the close of the market, and was speedily despatched by rail (or Lancashire. Average [price per lb. : beef 4id., mutton 5d., lambs 45d., veal ihd. KINROSS CUTHIL MUIR TRYST.— The supply of sheep was rather short of last year, which was attributed to several of the farmers in the neighbourhood having sold their stock privately shortly before the tryst. We understand, however, the parties have agreed not to do so again, but to retain them till, and dispose of them at the tryst. A much larger supply may therefore be expected next year. There were about 3,000 14lb3. when fat. At the close more than half the beasts re- mained unsold. OLDHAMSTOCKS FAIR.— The quantity of stock, es ii usually the case at this season, was small ; anything good, iiow ever, changed bauds, and prices on the whole were very fair. Cheviot ewes, IBs. ; Cheviot diumonts, 23s. Mr. Dods, Harehcad, sold his two-year-old steers to Messrs. Darling, Westhall, at £10, and ether sales were iu proportion according to quality. Tl-.e draught ewes were principally from Stoteu- cleush, Cocklaw, Woodhall, &c. There was hardly any f*t stock in the market, if ws except a lot of ewes from Fnlford-i Iccs, and the show of cows was inconsiderable. ST. AUSTELL FAIR was very thinly attended, and but a sheep on the ground. They met with a ready sale, not^ one 1 small number of cattle were brought into the town, 470 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OP THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF OCTOBER. Nothing has occurred since we last addressed our readers to lead us to alter the opinion we then ventured to express in regard to the general result of the harvest in Great Britain. The superiority of the quality of the wheat of this year's growth has now been fully proved, the weight to the hushel being greater than in any preceding season for years past, and the millers speaking highly of the mealing properties of the new produce. The yield to the acre is not so readily ascertained ; but what has since come to our knowledge on this subject, has strengthened our conviction that in jjoint of quantity the wheat crop of 1851 may be safely esti- mated at somewhat over the average of good sea- sons. The dry weather experienced in July and August, to which we in a great measure owe the favourable result of the wheat harvest, proved very trying to barley, and we are inclined to think that a very large proportion of this grain will prove of secondary quality. This was our impression at the close of August, and the opportunity of investigating the matter, which has since been afforded by increased supplies, has tended to confirm our original opinion. Meanwhile the reports in reference to the yield do not improve, and it seems safe to calculate on a re- latively higher range of prices for barley than for other kinds of grain. The oat crop has, we think, turned out rather better in Scotland than was at one time expected v/ould have been the case; and in the English counties where this grain is most extensively grown the produce is allov.'ed to be good ; while most of the accounts from Ireland agree in describing the quantity in the sister isle as large. That the culti- vation of oats has increased, and that of wheat diminished in Ireland, of late years, cannot be ques- tioned ; and the probabihty is that we shall receive considerable supplies of the former article from the sister isle, and that in return she will require to im- port largely of wheat and Indian corn. Though the potato crop is now housed or pitted, we still feel great uncertainty in speaking positively as to what proportion has been lost by disease, the reports from the growers being so exceedingly various as to set anything like a definite conclusion at defiance. This we do not attribute to any desire to mislead on the part of the cultivators of this root, but rather to the impossibility of speaking with certainty on the subject until something more shall have become known as to the keeping qualities. There can, however, be no doubt that the yield of potatoes to the acre has been large, and we believe that a greater breadth of land than usual was planted, more especially in Ireland : a loss of a part would therefore prove less disastrous, in a national point of view, than in former seasons, and hitherto nothing like alarm has been caused by the certainty that the disease to which this esculent has been subject since 1845, has been more genei'ally prevalent than either last season or that immediately preceding. If, however, the decay should go on in the ])its, some influence on prices of other kinds of food would unquestionably be caused by a scarcity of potatoes later in the year, and this we deem by no means unlikely. This matter naturally leads us to touch on the pro- bable future value of wheat. That the prices hitherto obtained have not remunerated the growers few will we think, be disposed to dispute ; and that some ad- vance on present rates v.'ould be beneficial even the free-traders must be ready to allow. Good runs of red wheat are not worth more at present in the markets in the agricultural districts than 34s. to 35s. per qr., which will certainly not pay the pro- ducer. This low rate has not been altogether caused by a superabundance of home produce, but by the fear of large importations from abroad. Last year, with a decidedly short crop of wheat in Great Bri- tain, the imports were so enormous as to keep down the average price for the twelve months end- ing Dec. 31, 1850, at 44s. 4d. per qr. ; so soon, therefore, as it became known that the harvest of 1851 would give a full average vield of wheat, very low prices were regarded as inevitable, and the con- sequence was that farmers were induced to thrash freely. Circumstances have, however, since trans- pired to give a somewhat different aspect to affairs. The wheat harvest on the continent of Europe has not proved so satisfactory as in this countrj', and the produce of rye in the interior of Germany, in Switzerland, &c., is said to be exceedingly short: to this we may add that the potato disease has proved quite as general in Germany, and Holland, and Belgium, as in Great Britain ; and it is there- fore deemed probable that the northern THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 471 countries of Europe will have a smaller surplus of wheat for export than in commonly good years. That the failure of the rye crop, and the extent of the potato disease, have been ex- aggerated we have no doubt ; but the cft'ect has been to cause prices of wheat to rise all over the continent, and the article is at this moment so njuch cheaper in England than in some ot the countries named, as to allow of purchases being made here with a view of resale at Hamburg, Rotterdam, and Antwerp. It is, therefore, tolerably certain that no receipts of importance will, for a time at least, reach us from those quarters from which we generally receive a large proportion of our sujij)lies. Mean- while winter is fast approaching, and unless ship- ments be speedily made it will be impossible to ship from the Baltic until the spring of next year. It seems likely, therefore, that the foreign supplies will not be so overwhelming as was at one time feared would have been the case, and under these circumstances v.-e regard a moderate rise on present prices probable. This opinion seemed to be gaining ground in the early part of the month, and an ad- vance of 2s. to 3s. per qr. was gradually established ; but no sooner had the millers secured what tbey considered sufficient for their immediate require- ments, than they ceased to operate, and as no specu- lative purchasers have come forward, part of the rise has again been lost. ^Ve do not regard this reaction as any proof that quotations will not go somewhat higher during the winter months : the fact is that a very small excess of supply over de- mand suffices to impart a heavy tone to business, when, as at present, the demand is confined entirely to what is required for consumption ; but, on the other hand, it is obvious that as merchants and mil- lers act only from hand to mouth, or nearly so, should the supply at any time fall short of the quantity nesded, a rise would be certain to result. ^Ve have shov/n above that the arrivals of wheat from the Baltic, &c., will in all probabiUty be short until next spring, and though we may calculate on receiving supplies of wheat and Indian corn from ports lying east of Gibraltar, and of wheat and flour from America and France, our markets are not likely to be inundated for some months to come with foreign bread-stuffs to the same extent as they were last year. We are consequently inclined to think that the greatest ])oint of depression has been passed, and should not be surprised to see a rise of a few shillings per qr. during the winter months. r. The weather has been highly ausjiicious since bur last for all kinds of out-door work, sufficient rain has fallen to supply the requisite (juantity of moisture, and ploughing and sowing have pro- gressed favourably ; there is, however, still much to do, and we expect that the deliveries of grain from the growers will be on a moderate scale ail through November, which is another reason for calculating on some improvement in prices. Having said thus much respecting the probable future, we shall proceed to give our usual retrospect of what has taken place at Mark Lane during the month now about to terminate. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of London have been rather liberal, averaging about 5,000 qrs. per week, in addition to which v.-e have received good supplies, per railway, from the eastern counties. The v/eather having lately been mild, and the atmosphere damp, some falling off has within the last fortnight taken place in the condition . but the samples have come to hand in quite as good order as usual at this season of the year. In the early part of the month there were decided symp- toms of improvement in the general tone of the wheat trade, the millers taking nearly all that was offisred. This was the case on Monday the 6th inst., when the Essex, Kent, and Suffolk stands were cleared at an advance of Is. per qr. on the rates cunent on that day se'nnight. Most of the offers from Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire v>'ere on that occasion limited Is. per qr. higher than the week before, not\'sithstanding which considerable pur- chases were made. The following Monday factors endeavoured to establish a further rise, and suc- ceeded in ])artial instances in obtaining Is. per qr. more for choice qualities of Essex and Kent white wheat, but red was not dearer than before. Since then the inquiry has gradually slackened, and on the 20th inst, about Is. per qr. of the improvement above noticed was again lost ; quotations are there- fore not much higher at present than they were at the close of September, say for fine runs of red 37s. to 3Ss., and white 43s. to 45s., extra sorts Is. to 2s. per qr. more. The supplies of wheat from abroad have been quite moderate ; and, from what we have already said in the foregoing part of this article, it will be understood that the receipts of foreign wheat are likely to be comparatively small during the re- mainder of the year. Tlie total quantity reported during the four weeks ending the 25th instant has not exceeded 40,000 quarters, and a large part of this arrival is from distant parts, the near con- tinental ports having furnished a much less pro- portion than usual. The town millers haVe hitherto shown no signs of being in want of old wheat, and we rarely recollect a time when so little country inquiry has been experienced as during the last month or two. The transactions have, con- sequently, been o.i a retail scale; but the prevailing belief that the receipts will — at all events for some mouths to come — be very small has caused im- 472 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. porters to display much firmness, and the finer qualities, such as high mixed Danzig, Rostock, iJ-vC, Jiave rather crept up in value. A similar advance to that established on English was obtained for the best sorts of old foreign wheat on the 6tli October, and holders have since refused to make any con- cession, though the demand has been checked in consequence of this enhancement. Several parcels of Danube and Polish Odessa wheat were taken in the early jiart of the month for exportation to Hol- land and Belgium. One cargo of the last named kind, arrived off" the coast, consisting of 4,000 quarters, was ordered to proceed to Antwerp, the seller receiving 32s. Gd. per quarter, with the un- derstanding that he should pay the difference of freight, which would probably be Is. to Is. 6d. per quarter, leaving the nett price 31s. or 31s. 6d. per quarter— a decided improvement on previous rates, Polish Odessa v/heat afloat having been sold in September at 29s. per quarter, cost, freight, and in- surance, to a British port. Subsequently, some further bargains wei'e closed on much the same terms : but within the last eight or ten days the incjuiiy has become jess active, and we question whether as good prices could now be obtained. Quotations of town-manufactured flour have not varied since our last. During the first fortnight in October the bakers bought rather freely, but since then the sale has been difficult, and we believe that sufficient flour is now held by many of the large metropolitan bakers to enable them to go on for some time v.'ithout buying extensively ; there is, however, little chance of any alteration occurring in prices. The receipts from the country h.ave been only moderate, the supplies from the east coast having reached us principally in the shape of wheat. The arrivals of flour from abroad into this port have also been small, and the stock of fine French and Ameiican in the London warehouses is insignificant. The best sorts of the former have commanded very full terms, and good brands of American have not been sold below 20s. to 21s. per barrel. Though the supplies of English barley have in- creased, the quantity brought forward has not been by any means large. The inquiry for superior malting samples has been sufiiciently active to in- sure a ready sale for all that has appeared without any giving way in price. Good parcels have com- manded 30s., and fine 31s. to 32s. per quarter, l)eing precisely the same rates as those current the preceding month. The commoner kinds of home grown barley have not moved off so readily ; quo- tations, however, did not vary until the 20th inst., when factors found it necessary to submit to a de- cline of Is. per quarter on ordinary malting and distilling sorts. The arrivals of barley from abroad have been quite moderate, and a considerable pro- portion of what has comie to hand kas been from P'gypt — a quality very inferior to that received from the Baltic. Good grinding samples have through- out the month been in steady request, and the value of the article has rather improved, though not so decidedly as to vvarrant alteration in quotations. Prices of this grain are at present higher on the continent than in our markets ; and, as the time of year is approaching when the demand for feeding purposes increases, holders of parcels in granary are very firm, and appear to calculate on higher rates. Malt has met with a fair share of attention, and its value has been well maintained; indeed, fine qualities of both old and new have crept up about Is. per quarter, superior samples of the former being now worth 54s. to 5Gs., and the latter 55s. to 57s. per quarter. The brewers appear to be disposed to add to their stocks, and the firm feeling in the barley market renders any decline in prices of malt imj^robable. Our market has been rather sparingly supplied with oats since the close of last month, notwith- standing which the trade has remained in a decidedly dull state, and prices have rather tended doAvnu'ards than improved. This has been partly caused by the pressing manner in which the new English received per railway have been offered, and further, by the belief that supplies on rather a liberal scale may he calculated on from Ireland. The actual alteration in \mces has been so trifling as hardly to be quotable ; but the turn has, never- theless, been in favour of the purchaser. Old foreign oats have sold more readily than either English or Irish, more especially Russian, of which the quantity in warehouse is drawing into a naiTow compass, and for good Riga and Archangel l7s. 6d. to 18s. per quarter has been ])retty generally reahzed. A few parcels of new Scotch have ap- peared at Mark Lane since our last, mostly of fine colour and good shape, but rather soft in condition ; the prices paid have ranged from 22s. Cd. to 25s. per quaiter, according to quality. Fine old Scotch oats have been held relatively higher; the sale for the latter has, consequently, been very circum- scribed. The future range of prices will depend in a great measure on the extent of the shipments from Ireland ; our own grov/ers are not likely to continue to thrash so freely as they have done of late, and the consignments from Scotland will pro- bably be checked, owing to the unsatisfactory re- turns hitherto made. No further arrivals of moment from Russia can be reckoned on, and at the near con- tinental ports prices are too high to allow of pur- chases being made on British account with a fair chance of profit. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 473 The qualily.of the new Englis^h beauti which have hitherto been brought forward has Ijeen very superior; this has failed, however, to induce speculative purchases, and the supplies having rather exceeded the quantity required for imme- diate consumption, sales have proceeded languidly. In the early part of the month a decUne of about Is. per quarter was, in partial instances, submitted to, which has, however, been since recovered, and l)rices are now much the same as they were at the close of September, both for English and foreign beans. Though nothing has trar;s])ired to lead to the belief that the favourable estimate of the pea crop at harvest time was exaggerated, the supplies hitherto brought forward have been very small, and prices have steadily advanced ; lately, good white Essex and Kent boilers have brought 32s., and line Suffolk 33s. to 3-ls. per quarter. Maple and grey peas have risen in the. same porportion, and old foreign grinding samples have commanded 27s. to 2Ss. per quarter. The arrivals of Indian corn off Falmouth and Queenstown, though not so large as in some of the preceding months, have, nevertheless, been con- siderable ; nearly the whole of the supply has, however, been cleared off, princii)ally by buyers from Ireland, and the quantity at present undis- posed of is quite inconsiderable. The latest sales have been of Galatz and Polish Odessa, at 26s. 3d. to 27s. per quarter, cost, freight, and insurance ; and similar rates are asked for cargoes on passage from the Black Sea. Stocks of this article are rather heavy in Ireland, but the consumption is certainly on the increase there, and should the potatoes not keep in the pits, Indian corn would certainly rise in value later in the year. We have already referred to the state of the grain trade in the Baltic, but the subject requires more particular notice in this place. Within the last month or si.x weeks it has become known that though the wheat crop in the north of Europe had given a tolerably good return, rye had j)roved short; and the advices which reach us week after week speak less and less favourably of the latter crop. Rye being the staj)le article of consumjjtion all over Germany, Holland, and Belgium, it foUovv's that a serious deficiency in the produce is likely to iniluence the value of all other kinds of food, more especially as the potato disease has done great mis- chief on the continent. Letters from Danzig, dated 18th October, state that scarcely any supplies of new grain were being received there, buyers from Berlin and Slettin having visited the Vistula markets and Innight up all the corn brought forward. At Danzig the amount of business done seems to have been quite unimijortant, the rates asked for wheat having been higher than export houses had been allowed by the limits of their orders to jiay. A few shipments of secondary qualities of wheat were in progress for Dutch ports, but the quantity shipping to Great Britain had for some weeks been perfectly msignificant. Vessels were plentiful and freights low : the last charter closed for London had been at 2s. 2d, to 2s. 4d. per qr. for wheat. A letter from Anclam, dated 22nd of October, speaking of the general result of the rye-croj) in German}', Sweden, Holland, and Belgium, esti- mates the deficiency at fully one-third of an average, and the failure of the potatoes is said to be almost total in some districts. It is, however, admitted that the crops of most other articles have given a fair return, and that the extraordinary rise in prices of rye and potatoes had been greatly aided by speculation. At Stettin, rye had actually realized as much money as good qualities of wheat, both articles having sold at 37s. to 3Ss. ])er qr. Pota- toes had been more than doubled in price; as much as Is. 8d. per bushel having been realized for sound samples. The excitement does not appear to have been so great at Rostock as at Stettin, and new wheat of moderately good quahty, weighing 60^1bs. to ollbs per bushel, might at the date of our last advices from Rostock have been bought at about 35s. 6d. per qr., free on board. Stocks of fine old wheat having become reduced into a narrow compass, holders had asked relatively high terms, and a Hamburgh speculator had paid equal to 38s. per qr. for delivery in spring. Barley is relatively quite as dear as wheat in the Baltic, 24s. to 25s. per qr. free on board having been realized for good qualities at Stettin, Rostock, &c. :— prices fully equal to those at present obtainable for similar qualities at Mark Lane. The reports from the near continental ports are of much the same character. From Hamburg we learn that buyers of wheat, &c., had visited that market from the interior of Germany, and that though little or nothing had been done for export, prices had gradually advanced. The latest ac- counts from thence quote red Upland wheat of Golbs. to 6llbs. per bushel 41s. to 42s. per qr., free on board, and contracts had been closed there for Gllbs. wheat, delivered in spring at Pomera- nian, Mecklenburg, or Holstein ports, at 39s. 6d. to 40s. 6d. per qr. free on board. At Rotterdam a good deal of speculation took place in the early part of the month, but subse- quently business became somewhat more subdued, and we much question whether the purchases lately made in England on Dutch account \v\]\ give a very favourable result. .^^rja pnillheib 474 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. From France we learn that owing to farmers having been closely engaged with wheat sowing, the supplies had hardly kept pace with the demand, and at some of the markets in the agricultural dis- tricts prices had crept uj) in the face of rather dull reports from Paris and other large consuming towns. Just now there is little wheat or flour being shipped from France to England, but a small rise here would suffice to induce renewed exports of the latter article. The news from the Mediterranean ports is of little interest, and the value of wheat being high in that quarter, it is not improbable that a portion of that shipped from the Black Sea, and which would otherwise have come to this country, may be ar- rested on the passage, and ordered to Marseilles, &c. The shipments of v/heat and Indian corn from Odessa, Galatz, &c., have been considerable : most of what has been bought in that quarter has been purcha.'ied at relatively higher prices than will be realized here, and many of the Gieek houses who are principally engaged in this trade will be heavy losers. By the most recent advices from America, it appears that veiy little change had occurred in prices of wheat or flour at the principal ports of the United States. The supplies had about kept pace with the demand, and though the purchases for shipment to England had not been very ex- tensive, the exports had gradually increased, and it is tolerably certain that we shall continue to receive regular supplies from the other side of the Atlantic so long as the inland navigation shall remain open, and allow receipts from the westward to reach the seaboard. The arrivals at Tide-water from the opening of the navigation to the 7th October, Canal 1849. 1850. 1851. opened May 1. April 22. April 15. had consisted of — Flour 1,844,320 bis. 1,781,511 2,293,834 bis. Wheat .. 1,274,460 bus. 1,443,540 1,945,906 bus. Ind. Corn 4,284,265 „ 2,967,710 6,439,755 „ At New York very good brands of flour were obtainable at 3| to 4 dollars per barrel. Freight to Liverpool was only 7d. per barrel, but for Lon- don Is. 6d. to Is. 9d. per barrel had been paid. Wheat had come freely to hand, and its value had rather tended downwards. In Indian corn an ex- tensive business had been done, partly for home use, and partly for export. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six AVEEKS ENDING OCTOBER 18, 1851. Peicb. IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the i-asi ' Six Weeks. Wheat. Bar ey. Oats. Rye. Beans Peas. Week Ending: 8. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. Sept. 13, 1851.. 38 5 26 1 19 5 25 0,28 9 37 8 Sept. 20, 1S51.. 37 8 25 7 18 4 26 228 6 28 2 Sept. 27, 1851.. 36 7 25 0 18 0 25 4 28 8 27 0 Oct. 4,1851., 35 7 25 1 17 6 24 2'27 10 27 1 Oct. 11, 1S51.. 35 6 25 2 17 3 25 0 27 8 26 2 Oct. 18, 1851.. 36 0 24 9 17 0 23 6 27 6 27 2 A°:gregate average , of last six weeks 36 7 25 3 17 11 24 10 28 2 27 3 Comparative avge. 1 8. me time last year 41 10 24 4 16 11 26 5 29 6 29 9 DVTIES 1 0 1 0 1 0 10 10 1 0 SSs. 6d. 37s. 8d. 36s. -d, 38s. Od. 35s. 7d. 8.5s. 6d. Sept. 13. Sept^20.t;-ept. £7 Oct. 4. Oct. n. Oct. 18. .. •• r .. ""71 - ! PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Linseed (per qr.;.. sowing 60s. to 65s. ; crushing 483. to 52b. Lir.seed Cakes (per 1,000 of Sibs. each).. £3 10s. to £10 Os. CoA Grass (nominal) £ — to £ — Trefoil (per cwt.) 169. to 21s. Rapeseed, (per last) new £22 to £23 old £— to £— Ditto Cake (per ton) £1 Os. to £4 10s. Mustard (per bushel) white 63. to 73. ; . . brown, 7s. to 83. Coi'iaader (per cwt.) new lOs. to lis., old 93. to 10s. Ca:iary (per qr.) new 37s. tc -iOs. ; old 38s. to 42s. Taies, Winter, per bush., 33. 6 J. to 43. Od,; Spring, nominal, Carraway (per cwt.) new, 31s. to 33s. ; fine 34e, Turnip, white (per bush.) 63. to IOs.; do. Swedish. — s. to — s. Clove) seed red 30s. to 353., fine 383. to 408. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Clover, red (duty 5a. per cwt.) per cwt. 35s. to 423,, super. 45s. Ditto, white (duty os. per cwt.) per cwt 35s. to 45s. Linseed (per qr.) . . Baltic 44s. to 47s. ; Odessa, 463. to 50s, Lmsced Cake (per ton) £6 Os. to £8 5s. Rape Cake (per ton) £4 2s. to £4 4s. Hempseed, small, (perqr.) 32s. to ois.. Do. Dutch, 34s. to G7s. Tares, (per qr.) small 22s. to 25s., large 28s. to SOs. BOROUGH HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, Oct. 27. We bare no change to notice in the general character of our market, which remains inactive at about last week's rates. Sussex pockets 105s. to 126s. Weald of Kent 126s. to 145s. Mid and East Kents. ,. 140s. to 220s. POTATOES. SOUTHWARK, Waterside, Oct. 27. We have had several arrivals from Scotland since our last report, and a few from Yorkshire, whicli, with a liberal supply from Kent and Essex, has stocked our market quite equal to the demand ; trade is exceedingly- heavy, and very low prices are submitted. The York Regents arrived so late in the week tliat none have yet been sold, therefore we cannot quote the price. The following are this day's quotations :— Scotch Regents 40s. to 50s. per ton. Kent and Essex 50s. to COs. Do. Shaws 45s. to 55s. BRITISH WOOL. LEEDS, Oct. 24. — There is not any change to report this week in the English wool market. Sales of combing wool have been small, and quotations of prices are the same as last week. Low clothing wools and noils are scarce, and in good demand, Bt firm prices. LIVERPOOL, Oct. 25. Scotch. — There is not the slightest improvement to notice in the demand for Scotch wool of any kind ; but, as holders are not inclined to give way, the quotations are supported. Laid Highland Wool, pe r ai I k?. . , . 9 White Highland do..., 12 Laid Crossed do... unwashed ,... H Do. do... washed 11 Laid Cheviot do. .,iiutviis;!:u .,.. 12 Do. do., washed...... 13 WhiteCheviot do... do ?2 Printed by Joseph Eogerson, 246, Strand, London. 1. 8, d. 0 olO 0 0 12 6 0 13 0 G 13 0 0 14 0 0 16 6 0 a4 0 # f^Mi Ml ;rsilV ^ a^ i S:^ ^f^ ^5 *c^ ^ 0\ \!j> 1 J^ -^ K^ ^ ^ yiimS THE FARMEE'S MAGAZII^E. DECEMBER, 1851 No. 6.— Vol. XXIV.] [Second Series. PLATE I. A DEVON BULL. The subject of our first plate is a Devon Bull, " The Earl of Exeter," the property of Mr. John Quartley, of Champson MoUantl, near South Molton, Devon, for which the first prize of Forty Sovereigns, in class 1, was awarded to him at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, held at Windsor, in July last ; this animal also obtained the second prize in class 2, at the Society's Meeting at Exeter, in July, 1850. "The Earl of Exeter" was calved in 1848, and was bred by Mr. Quartley; his sire. Baronet ; grandsire, Mr. Quartley's Prince of Wales, dam Cherry, by Mr. Quartley's Prince of Wales, g. dam Pretty Maid, g. g. dam Curly. Curly and her dam were esteemed by Mr. Francis Quartley as two of the best cows he ever had. PLATE II. A COTS WOLD RAM. The subject of our second plate is a Cotswold Ram, the property of Mr. George Hewer, of Ley Gore, near Northleach, Gloucestershire, to which the first prize of Twenty-five Sovereigns was awarded at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Windsor, in July, 1851. SANITARY MEASURES — PEAT CHARCOAL. BY J. TOWERS, M.R.A.S., H.S., ETC. I now recur to a subject which I left at page 295, No. 4 of this series, and propose to bring my com- parative remarks to a close. In the last paragraph of column 2, page 294, the fifth experiment by Dr. Anderson had given evidence of the deodorising power of this charcoal by the immediate removal of putrid urine, thus estabhshing one main point claimed by those who advocate the great value of that disinfector. But, to do the subject justice, we must take a candid and impartial view of it as distributed under three heads. First, as to its quality as a purifier of foul OLD SERIES.] gases exhaled from sewerage, and of decomposing animal and vegetable matters, during putrefactive fermentation ; second, as to its power of attracting, absorbing, and fixing ammonia; and third, as to its cost to the purchaser. In my first article, page 293, the allusion which was made to the truly scientific researches of Dr. Anderson naturally led to the investigation of the absorption of ammonia ; and I must confess that, were peat charcoal dependent chiefly upon that qualification, it must renounce any claim it might have to the support of the agricultural body, so 2 I [No. 6.— FOL. XXXV. 476 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. conclusive against it arc one and ;ill of the luminouy experiments jjublished by Dr. Anderson. I now recur to the report of that chemist, as soverai facts of moment may be derived from the following extracts (See page 558): "The results of sll the analyses concur in showing that the value of the manure to be obtained by mixing peat-char- coal and night-soil is not high, and does not in any degree exceed that which would be obtained by mixing it with any other porous matter. In fact, a ton of night-soil would be much more valuable, and also greatly cheaper, than a ton of the mixture. The absence of absorptive power" (as respects ammonia) "led me to inquire whether or not peat itself possesses this property in any greater degree. Experiments were made with an excellent peat from Dargavel, Renfrewshire, where it occurs of con- siderable depth." I select two of the experiments performed upon this raw peat, taken at different depths. No. 8. — "1,000 grains of the surface peat, dried at 212 degrees ; and a small quantity of the solution of ammonia, containing 2"42 grains of ammonia in the cubic inch, was added. The fluid was instantly absorbed, and the smell of ammonia entirely dis- appeared, as v/ell as all traces of alkaline reaction. The ammoniacal solution was gradually added in small successive quantities so long as odour and alkaline reaction disappeared. When 8 '3 cubic inches had been used, a permanent odour and re- action appeared. Experiment 12. — 500 grains of surface peat were taken, and a highly alkaline and putrid urine added, until the mixture acquired a highly alkaline reaction, for which purpose nine cubic inches were required. The putrid odour was only slightly diminished. After exposure to the air in a thin la3'er it weighed 642 grains, and was found to contain 13i grains of nitrogen, of which 4'03 were originally present, leaving as the quantity absorbed 9'47 grains, which is equal to ir49 grains of ammonia, or more than two per cent, in the peat." The experiments were so varied as to show that raw peat was capable of absorbing a very con- siderable amount of ammonia, and also of retaining it; for, as it is stated, "the peat, after saturation with a large amount of fluid, was exposed to the air until it had nearly regained its original weight; and it was then found that on the average some- where about I2 per cent, of pure ammonia was retained, even when it was added in the free state, in which condition its tendency to volatilize is most apparent. This per-centage of ammonia may appear small, but it is more than three times as much as is contained in farmyard manure of ordi- nary quality." I must refrain from farther trespass ; but this is tlie less to be regretted, inasmuch as Dr. Ander- son has certainly established his leading position. Peat charcoal and its advocates must, indeed, be obliged to quit the field, if the absorption and fixing of ammonia, or its salts, were the great disideratum ; but so far from that being the case, it may correctly be asserted that the most zealous of its friends need not be anxious on that ground, as agriculture, and culture in general, stand in need of no such absorptive power ; for the elaborate experiments of Messrs. Thompson and Way, to say nothing of my own incontrovertible trials with liquid manure and ammoniacal manures, have demonstrated that any good land, fit for the growth of wheat and garden vegetables, will per- fectly absorb and fix ammonia to any amount in which it could with safety be introduced; accom- panied with which absorption the expulsion of some salt of lime (in the form of hard water, which instantly curdles soap) is a remarkable con- comitant. Ammonia is present in rain and snow. Liebig (4th edition of Chemistry, p. 45) says : — " When several hundred pounds of it" (the former) " were distilled in a copper still, and the first two or three pounds evaporated, with the addition of a little muriatic acid, a very distinct crystallization of sal ammoniac was obtained ; the crystal had always a brown colour," " Crystals of some salt were ob- tained by evaporating in a vessel with muriatic acid several pounds of snow, which were gathered from the surface of the ground when the snow had a depth of ten inches." By far simpler means, I proved that ammonia existed in rain-water collected in Maidenhead Thicket. A quantity was slowly evaporated in an open basin, the bulk having been previously treated with a few drops of muriatic acid. Additions of water were made to compen- sate for the loss by steam ; a film of a brown colour remained at the close of the evaporation. On moistening this with a very small quantity of potash liquor, or milk of quicklime, ammoniacal gas was set free, discernible by its smell, which justified the remark of Liebig — "that the ammonia contained in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of perspiration and putrefying matter." If we attempt to obtain from the foregoing data anything like an approximation of the quantity of ammoniacal gas in the atmosphere, we must think it very considerable. Mr. Lawes has the following remarks at page 3 of the Royal Agricultural Jour- nal, No, 27, 1851 : "An acre of soil six inches deep may be computed to weigh 1,344,000 lbs., and, taking the one constituent of ammonia or nitrogen as an illustration, in adding to this quan- tity of soil a quantity of ammoniacal salt, contain- ing 100 lbs. of ammonia— which would be an THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 umisuully heavy and very cHoctivc dressing — ue yliould only increase the per-ccntage of ammonia in the soil by 0"0007 (or, in jjlain EngUsh, by seven ten-thousandth parts of lib.) It is evident that our methods of analyses would be quite incom- jjctent to appreciate, the difference in the soil before and after the application." Now, if an appreciable quantity of ammonia can be obtained from a few pounds of rain or snow, the volume floating in the air must be great, and yet who can detect any ammonia in ordinary soils ? Dr. Anderson having satisfied himself that raw peat would attract and fix ammonia, which peat charcoal failed to do, has furnished sufficient evi- dence that the advocates for sanitary deodorisa- tion, and for the fixation of ammonia and its salts, are completely at issue. It is now admitted, as proved beyond any doubt, that peat charcoal will purify the foulest exercise and sewage matter. We desire to employ sewage, to remove a most oflensive nuisance (though the experience of cen- turies proves that sewers, cesspools, and putrefying offal cannot be deemed the ])rimary causes of epi- demics); and while converting it to a pov/erful manure, to acquire a cheap competitor against other more costly substances which are liable to abominable adulterations. But while we admit the importance of sewage niauurL', and the purifying energy of pcaL charcoal, truth impels us to declare that the parties who prepare the article impose the most effectual bar to its introduction by the extravagant price they claim of its purchasers. Dr. Anderson has compared the cost of the pure peat with that of its prepared charcoal. In a note, he alludes to 40s. per ton for the latter; since then it has been quoted at £3 per ton, and on Saturday last, the Sth of November, the Ayriculturul Gazette contains the following paragraph in its leader : — " The present prices of Irish peat charcoal in the metropolis are — granulated, for agricultural pur- poses, COs. per ton; lumps, for fuel, 80s.; dust, 100s. A correspondent, the other day, on being told that i)rice, answered that he could ' make peat charcoal at half the money.' ' No doubt of it,' was the reply, ' for we,' said the official, ' can afford to sell it at 25s. per ton at the works, and have a good profit ; but so long as we can get 45s. we are not disposed to do so." The town of Croydon might, ere long, have afforded a noble example of the potency of the charcoal; but price must surely prevent a trial on the broad scale. Our comprehensive measures to cleanse the town could have brought the experi- ment to full development; but at present it is not in my power to contemplate the future and its con- tingencies. Nov. 14, 1851. THE STEEP- WATER OB FLAX AND MANURE. COMMON LIQUID BY CUTHBERT \V. JOHNSON, ESQ., P.R.S. The growth of flax In this country has been of late urged upon the attention of the English farmer with considerable zeal. Amid many conflicting statements as to its profitableness, and also to the soil-exhausting nature of the crop, it has been con- fidently stated that, if the seed is consumed upon the farm, and the steep water returned to the soil as a liquid manure, that then flax will be found to be a crop of a very slightly exhausting nature. In support of these assertions, the practice of the Flemish husbandmen is referred to— the profit they derive from its growth, and the large quantities of liquid manure they apply. It may be useful there- fore to examine the liquid manure employed by the skilful and laborious little farmers of Flanders, and contrast it with the flax steep-water liquid of which so much has recently been said; so pro- minently, indeed, have its fertilizing virtues been put forward, that the farmer will perhaps incline to be- lieve it must have been done to uphold one of the aiding sciences of agriculture to the reader's derision. Let us, then, contrast the description of the Flemish manure, as given by M. Boussingault in a valuable paper by Mr. Chadwick, with the chemical ex- amination of steep water by Dr. Anderson. First, then, let us remark that the Flemish hquid manure is compounded of well fermented night-soil — almost the richest of all organic manures. From the interesting inquiries upon urine made by M. Lecann, observes M. Boussingault, "it appears that a man passes nearly half an ounce of azote with his urine in the course of 24 hours. A quantity of urine taken from a public urine-pail of Paris yielded 7 per 1,000 of azote. The dry ex- tract of the same urine yielded nearly 17 per cent. " Human soil as commonly obtained consists of 2 I 2 478 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, a mixture of feculent matters and urine. It may be applied immediately to the ground as it comes from the privy. In some parts of Tuscany it is mixed with three times its bulk of water, and so applied to the surface. I have myself seen night-soil as it was obtained, and without preparation, spread upon a field of wheat without any ill effect, so that the Tuscan preparation may be regarded as a simple means of spreading a hmited quantity of manure over a given extent of ground. " It is in French Flanders, however, that human soil is collected with especial care ; it ought to be so collected everywhere. The reservoir for its preser- vation ought to be one of the essential articles in every farming establishment, as it is in Flanders, where there is always a cistern or cesspool in masonr)', with an arch turned over it, for the pur- pose of collecting this invaluable manure. The bottom is cemented and paved. Two openings are left, one in the middle of the turned arch for the introduction of the material; the other, smaller and made on the north side, is for the admission of the air which is requisite for the fermentation. " The Flemish reservoir may be of the dimen- sions of about 35 cubical yards. Whenever the necessary operations of the farm will permit, the carts are sent off to the neighbouring town to pur- chase nightsoil, which is then discharged into the reservoir, where it usually remains for several months before being carried out upon the land. " The favourite Flemish manure is apphed in the liquid state (mixed in water) before or after the seed is in the ground, or to transplanted crops after they have been dibbled in. Its action is prompt and energetic. The sowing completed, and the land dressed up with all the pains which the Flemish farmer appears to take a pleasure in bestowing upon it, a charge of the manure is carried out at night in tubs or barrels. At the side or corner of the field there is a vat that will hold from 50 to 60 gallons, into which the load is dis- charged, and from which a workman, armed with a scoop at the end of a handle a dozen feet in length or more, proceeds to lade it out all around him. The vat emptied in one place is removed further on, and the same process is repeated until the whole field is watered. " The purchase, the carriage, and the application of this Flemish manure cannot be otherwise than costly ; we therefore see it given particularly to crops which, when luxuriant and successful, are of the highest market value— such as flax, rape, and tobacco. The wheat stubble is ploughed down at the end of the autumn, and about 1,000 or 1,100 gallons of the liquid manure per acre are dis- tributed ; the oats are sown in the spring. For beet;, the dose of Flemish manure is carried the length of from 1,300 to 1,400 gallons per acre. The price of Flemish manure at Lisle is 2^d. for a measure containing 22 gallons. In Flanders it is held that this quantity, which will weigh hard upon 2 cwts., is equal to about 5 cwts. of farm-yard dung." The young farmer will remark that in this appli- cation, even if we take the maximum amount of 1,400 gallons, about five tons only per acre of this rich liquid manure need be applied to the soil. Contrast this with the composition of steep water as described by Dr. Anderson {Trans. Hic/li. Soc. 1851, p. 134). He remarks — "My attention was some time since drawn to the composition of the steep water of Schenck's patent process for the preparation of flax, by Mr. Hodgson, of Carham Hall, who was desirous of ascertaining whether the fluid obtained as the refuse of this pi'ocess was sufl[iciently rich in the valuable constituents of the flax to admit of its being profitably carried back to the farm, and applied as a manure to the land. The patent process in question is very simple, and is in reality nothing more than the application of a moderate heat to the water employed for steeping. A large vat is employed, in the lower part of which a steam pipe is coiled. The fresh flax is filled, and simply covered with water; and a current of steam being admitted through the pipe, the temperature of the whole is gradually raised to a point considerably under boiling, and is kept in this state for some hours. The fluid is then let off, and the process of steeping is complete. An imperial gallon of this steep water was found to contain the following substances : — Grains. Organic matter 114*91 Inorganic matter 176"26 Total in solution 2gvi7 The 176*26 grains of inorganic matter con- tained : — Silica 0-60 Peroxide of iron 2"33 Lime , 18"17 Magnesia 10'51 Potash 18-12 Soda 15-66 Common salt C5-15 Sulphuric acid 24-89 Phosphoric acid 1-88 Carbonic acid 18-95 The organic matter contained 3-19 grains of ni- trogen, corresponding to 3-88 grains of ammonia. The water employed for steeping contained in one gallon — Organic matter 6-80 Inorganic matter 49-60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 479 It is probable that the greater part of this in- organic matter consisted of salts of Hme and com- mon salt, and that this is the source from which a large proportion of those substances obtained in the analysis of the steep water was derived, the re- maming constituents in the latter being extracted from the flax. It is obvious from the analysis, concludes Dr, Anderson, that the value of the steep water is not sufficiently great to permit its being carried back to the farm from which the crop was taken, but it might be advantageously applied to land in the immediate vicinity of the manufactory by means of irrigation, or even through pipes, as is done on some farms with liquid manure. It must be imderstood, however, that the steep water has only about half the value of liquid manure. I am very far from desiring to encourage anything like the carelessness which has been too common on many farms in the preservation of valuable matters, but I am inclined to think that the em- ployment of flax water as a manure is something of an over refinement, and that flax may be grown without it being requisite to save the steep water, provided the linseed is consumed upon the farm. Flax is an exhausting crop simply because in the ordinary method of cultivation the whole plant is removed from the land, and it is scarcely possible that it should produce a greater exhaustion than would be done by a grain crop, if we removed the whole of the grain, the straw, and even the stubble. And if in the case of flax the seed was consumed on the farm, I believe we should have less ex- haustion than from a grain crop in which we leave the straw and remove the grain, which contains by much the largest proportion of those elements which we have the greatest diflftculty in applying to the land. I have collected, in conjunction with my friend William Shaw, at p. 43 of the Farmers^ Almanac for 1852, a variety of recently published facts relating to modern experience in the growth of flax, which in a great measure supports the conclusions to which Mr. Warnes and other friends of flax culture have arrived. Mr. Browne {Farmer's Magazine, vol. xxxiv., i). 345) deems it of the highest importance to employ clean seed. He sows broadcast the first week in April 2\ bushels per acre; must be kept free from weeds. The flax is ready for pulling about the end of August or be- ginning of September. The cost of pulling (of which the great secret is to leave the ends perfectly straight, and the roots in a brush) he found to be about 12s. or 13s. per acre. If the land is laid down with clover, it should be done directly the flax is pulled. Alter standing from fourteen to twenty-one days the flax is carted to a rick or barn. The produce of seed averages, Mr. Browne thinks. 20 bushels and about 14 cwt. of flax straw per acre. Mr. S. Druce, of Ensham, gives us the following result of the growth of flax upon a field of 5 a. 2 r, 3G p., on the Oxford clay formation, the soil a deep red loam. The following were the expenses and the produce : — £ s. d. One ploughing, at 10s. per acre 2 17 3 Sowing and harrowing, at Is. 6d. per acre 0 8 7 Weeding, at 2s. per acre Oil 5 Flax-seed, \2>k bushels, at 9s 6 I G Rent of land, at 48s. per acre 13 14 9 Taxes, at Gs. per acre 114 4 Pulling flax, at 14s. per acre 4 0 1 Carting and stacking, at 4s. per acre . . 1 2 10 Thrashing ,. 5 7 1 Winnowing ,,... 0 12 6 £36 10 4 Sale of flax-seed, llGJ bushels, at Ss... 46 10 0 Sale of flax-straw, 12 tons 2 cwt. 2 qrs., at £3 per ton 36 7 G Sale of chaflf, at 5s. per acre 1 8 7 £84 G 1 Leaving a net profit of £47 15s. 9d. on the 5 a. 2 r, 36 p. (or a trifle more than 5 2-3rds acres) of land employed. If results like this can be reasonably expected in the cultivation of flax, it would certainly be a very desirable crop for heavy soils and situations. Widely different, yet valuable statements, have however, appeared, especially with regard to the composition and growth of flax. Professor Way has recently given the results of his examinations of the mineral substance found in the flax plant {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, vol. xi., p. 518). He found per cent, in (I.) the fine and (II.) the coarse flax straw, grown by Mr. Warnes, of Trimingham — I. 11. Water ir60 2071 Ash 3-27 4-01 100 parts of the ash from these contained I., from the fine flax; II., the coarse; and III., from the linseed : — I. Silica I 7-92 Phosphoric acid i 7"53 Sulphuric acid } 3-39 Carbonic acid |1579 Lime 2r20 Magnesia ! 4*20 5-58 21-53 3-38 Peroxide of iron Potash Soda Chloride of potassium Common salt \ 9'21 II. III. 5-60 1-46 8-48 35-99 4-99 1-43 13-39 — 15-87 9-45 3-68 16-23 4-84 0-38 34-96 32-55 — 2-51 7-65 — 0-53 — Assuming then that an acre of land will produce 2 ISO THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tons of flax-straw, 20 bushels of seed, weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, and 9 cwt. of bulbs or husks, and leaving out of the calculation the leaves, the greater portion of which fall upon the land, then the crop removes from the soil in its ashes about 244 lbs. These are shown in the following table, in which column I. gives the substances; II., the straw; III., the linseed ; IV., the husks; V., the entire crop. Of the profit to be derived from the growth of this crop many very discordant accounts have been given, such as at a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society in February last, when Mr. Beale Browne, of Hampen, in Gloucestershire, gave an account of its growth in Ireland. So that much caution wUl be desirable before entering upon the cultivation of this plant, especially^in times so non-remunerative as those upon which we have now fallen. I. Silica. ... Phosphoric acid .... Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Lime Magnesia Peroxide of iron . . . . Potash Soda Chloride of potassium Common salt Total 11. III. IV. V. 11-1 0-5! 10-0 22-1 11-0 12-9, 1-7 25-6 5-0 0-5, 2-7 8-2 23-1 — 1 6-5 29-6 31-1 2-8' 17"2 51-1 6-1 4'4l 1-6 12-1 8-2 0-2; 1-3 9-7 31-5 1-14| 16-6 59-5 5-4 •06! — 60 — 1 2-2 2-2 13-5 0-2j 4-6 18-3 146-5 33-5' 64-4 244-4 THE APPLICATION OF IMPROVEMENT I. PHYSIOLOGICAL OF THE BREEDS PRINCIPLES TO THE OF ANIMALS. A REMARKABLE Effect OF Cross-Breed- 1 her of varieties of animals can be produced by cli- ING. By Alexander Harvey, M.D., Lecturer! mate, food, crossing, &c., than to suppose creative on the Practice of Medicine in the Uni\'ersity ' energy to be wasted in the original production of a and King's College, Aberdeen, &c. Edin- 1 multitude of diflerent forms, so nearly resembling burgh : Blackwoods. I one common origUi. II. The Cow and Dairy Husbandry ; in- In plants it is much more easy to watch and eluding Cattle-Breeding and Fattening. By study the development of varieties, than in animals. Matthew M. Milburn, Land-Agent. London : The rapidity of the maturity of the former, and the Orr & Co. slow and gradual development of the latter, will Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture; ! readily account for the difterence. This, Mr. Lind- Practical and Scientific Article on Breeding. ' ley Kemp, the author of the last-named v/ork on London and Glasgow: Blackie and Son. | our list, shows. He gives the following amazing The Rural Cyclopaedia. Edited by the | instance of the fertility of nature. He says:— "On III IV Lon- Rev. John Wilson. Article Breeding. don : Fullarton & Co. V. Agricultural Physiology, Animal and Vegetable. By T. Lindley Kemp, M.D. Edinburgh : Blackwoods. The important facts and experiments detailed in this list of works recently published, and the great strides which have recently been made in discover- ing the causes of certain long since known facts in the breeding of animals, are of a nature clear and distinct, and, above all, valuable and inte- resting. Originally all animals must necessaiily have been wild. '1 hey would mix and breed pro- miscuously according to the law of instinct. Ori- ginally all animals must of necessity have bred in and in — that is, they must have allied themselves with their nearest relatives. This conclusion is irresistible, unless we admit the creation at first of several pairs— a probabihty by no means likely, for it is far more rational to suppose that a vast num- the maritime chfts of England there exists a little plant, Avith a fusiform root, smooth glaucous leaves, a flower similar to that of wild mustard, and a saline taste. It is called Brassica ok-racea." By cultivation there has been produced from this in- significant and useless plant : — 1. All borecoles or kails, at least a dozen. 2. All cabbages with heart, growing all the year round. 3. The various kinds of curly savoys. 4. The Brussels sprouts. 5. All the cauliflowers and broccolies whicli <1o not heart. 6. The rape-plant so well known to the farmer. 7. The Swedish turnip, of which there is a vast quantity of sub-varieties. 8. Yellow and white turnips, still more sub- divided. 9. Hybrid turnips of a variety of kinds. 10. The kohl-rabi. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 481 Oil this subject he sententiously eays, " For many years past the necessity of attending? to the breeds and varieties of animals and plants has been recognized by the agriculturist, and much good has been effected by many breeders and cultivators." Now much as cultivation may do to produce varieties, there is no doubt but the changing cir- cumstances of climate have much to do with these additions to our lists of varieties of animals. The changes of climate alone will produce an amazing difference. The Egyptian wheat growing several cars from one stem in that country, becomes single- lieaded in a \'ery few years in this — and this is only a type of what is done in every country and climate under heaven. In the most inteUigent masterpiece of creation — man, vast disputes have long taken place as to the common origin of the different races now known; and the great dissimilarity between some of the now known races, as to colour, f'l-m, and general character, has induced philosophers to raise the question if they have o;.ie common parentage. Such questions are strong proofs of the great scepticism which may arise from mere want of in- formation. It is well known that the European poon obtains the tan of skin of an Egyptian cha- racter, l)y inhabiting the tropics for a few years. Or if we take a sheep. In the tropics it is covered with a thick coat of hair ; in more tempe- rate regions it assumes a downy character; wliile in the cold countries, where protection is necessary, the down thickens and grows into wool. Such is the plasticity of nature, and such her power to transform the outward circumstances under wliich she is placed into a picture painted on the organization she herself has formed. M. Roulin read a paper before the French Academy of Sciences so long ago as 1828, on the changes European animals undergo in the tropics. Without following out his paper in any detail, it contains pretty presumptive proofs that the hog has the tendency in the warm countries of South America to become wild. The cow loses much of her milk, and has also the tendency to wildness ; while on the ass scarcely any effect of this kind is produced. The wool of the lambs, growing as in ordinary cases, at first peels off in patches after the second shearing, and leaves a close, short, slimy hair. Such are the changes a mere alteration of climate effects. The writer of the second work on the list, " The Cow," entertains the same opinions, and classes the 1)ison and the wild cow in the same original cate- gory. Alter reviewing the somewhat difficult and perplexed question as to the original cattle of the island, and the ])robabilities of their introduction as such, or their being, with the island itself, severed from the continent of Europe, he goes on to describe the buffalo and bison, and from them to an account of the wild cattle of Chillingham. He says — " The Chillingham Park cattle appear to retain all the characteristics of wildness incidental to the untamed denizens of the forest. They hide their young, feeding duiing the night, and concealing themselves as much as possible during the day, in a wood, into which they steal away if they appear to be observed. Their usual mode of retreat is to get up slowly, set off at first in a walk, then a trot, and seldom begin to galloj) till they have put the ground between you and them, in the m.anner I have described ;" i. e., taking advantage of placing a hill or rising ground between themselves and the observer. " When they come down into the lower part of the park," continues his headship, "which they do at stated hours, they move like a regiment of cavalry in single file, the bulls leading the van, as in retreat it is the bulls that bring up the rear. Another peculiarity is, that when confronted closely they will atiirstdashoff,remove a few hundred yards, and then all turn their faces, and approach the ob- ject of their fear. On any further indications of ap- proach, they rush off, but to a smaller distance, and return nearer the object of fear; and so on every occasion until the cause of the disturbance departs. They do not seem, however, to have any disposition to pursue. Mr. Bailey, of Chillingham, states a fatt which shows the native wildness of these cattle, which is related by Mr. George Cully. He found a hidden calf two days old, very lean and feeble ; but on stroking its head it nevertheless got up, pawed with its feet several times, bellowed out, and made a butt at that gentleman, which he evaded, and it fell to the ground with the effort, and was so weak that it was unable to rise up of itself. The whole herd became alarmed, and came to the rescue in great fury; and so ferocious are the mothers when they have calves, that they will gore or destroy anyone who comes near them. This strongly reminds us of a somewhat similar indica- tion of wildness in the European bison, related by Gilberts. Four young bisons caught in the forest of Bialoviezenski refused to suck a cow, but were at length induced to suck a goat, raised on a line with them by being placed upon a table. As soon as their hunger was satisfied, they sometimes tossed both the table and mother with their horns for a distance of several feet from them. " It is a peculiarity of the wild cattle also, that when any one of their number seems to be irre- coverably ill, the rest immediately fall upon it and gore it to death. " Now whether all the great difference in con- formation, colour, characteristics, &c. of cattle, be 482 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. due to climate, breeding in and in, pasturage, cross- ing, &c., there is no doubt that, as far as man is concerned, by far the greatest victory he has won i? in the domestication, or education, as it may be called, of the lower animals. To convert a wild, almost worthless animal, except when secured by the efforts of the chase, into a tame, gentle, willing slave, affording a source of diminution of labour, and bringing a supply of convenience, comfort, and luxury, is no ordinary conquest; but to cultivate one variety for the milk, butter, and chegse, and another for its beef, is a victory of skill and judg- ment by far surpassing in wonder the mere taming of an animal to domestic habits." — p. 13. Somewhat similar are the habits of the wild horse. Difficult as it may now be to trace the origin of one or all of our breeds of horses, there is no doubt but a species of the really wild horse is yet found in the wilds ofTartary; and to these un- tamed denizens of the waste and the forest are due probably all the different varieties of horse with which we are now acquainted. Youatt attempts to show that these are not a naturally wild race, but merely feral horses strayed away until they had regained wild habits ; and even gives the date and time of their emancipation, fixing it at the period of the siege of Azof. Now we do not see how it is possible that any such emancipation could possibly take place; nor how one escape of mares and geldings could by anymeans form the nucleus of any breed of animals whatever. Colonel Smith, in his description of these horses, gives a very similar character of them to the one given by the author of " The Cow," to the Chilling- ham cattle. He describes them as feeding in herds, walking in lines or files, and always having their heads to the windward while eating, the stallions leading and sometimes surrounding the whole troop, sometimes — especially the young ones — at some distance from the body of the herd. On an alarm being given, one or more scouts set off, head and tail erect, to reconnoitre the cause of disturbance : if dangerous, or if of a nature to cause him to apprehend it, he gallops off to the herd at all his speed, who set off equally rapidly— the mares and foals first, and the stallions in the rear, selecting the first undulation of ground or ravine in which to disappear. Like the Chilling- ham cattle, a sultan stallion is the husband of the whole herd — the strongest and most courageous and powerful of his year — who, having obtained a victory, is the admitted head of the whole herd, until, enfeebled by age, his sovereignty is questioned the next rutting season, and soon he has to give way to a more youthful and powerful successor, and banished from the herd to perish in exile. Now there is the greatest distinction between the always free horse s, and the mere emancipated feral herds : the latter have much more tameable quali- ties; have less acute instincts — less combination for offence and defence. It is hardly possible to give a more complete in- stance of their difference than in the words of Colonel Smith, who says of the emancipated horse ; " Though in many respects they have similar man- ners, they want the instinct of the wild. Upon being taken young, after severe resistance they submit to slavery. The Tartars always die of ennui in a short time, if they do not break their necks in resisting the will of man." Now the domestication of these wild races, one and all, is not the work of a day any more than the cultivation of the human species. All animals have instincts naturally wild; they are only by degrees— by the work of ages— brought entirely into that state of civilisation which renders them fit for and useful to man ; but once effect it in a race, and the influence of breeding from such a line — the influence of the earliest associations of the young, the example of the mother in tameness and subjec- tion to man, keeps the sense of slavery up to so high a degree, that the lowest of animals will ac- quire an affection for man which is really wonderful. Man wields therefore an amazing power in arresting the course of animated and sentient na- ture, and forming it to his mind with the most im- passive ductiMty. He possesses the power of changing their form, their disposition, and their tendencies. Each of these will require a little ex- amination. And first as to form. Although we do not award to man by any means the merit of studying, and selecting, and crossing breeds of animals, so as to have changed the species in a period however long, yet there need be little doubt that he can materially alter the form of the same species. Let a foreigner go to the best cattle markets, and select the run of ordinary shorthorns — say the fairs of Yarm and Darlington, and then let him go to the herds of the Booths, the Maynards, and others, and he will see that there is almost as much difference as there is between a Devon and a Highland Scot : or let him go to the ordinary markets at Exeter, and pur- chase an ordinary herd of Devons — he would find at the farm of Mr. Turner, at Barton, cattle so different that he would imagine they were a separate breed. Breeders therefore possess the power of altering the form of a given race of animals in a very mate- rial degree : but it is probable that by far the great- est difference of conformation in the several breeds depends far more on the soil, climate, and circum- stances of a breed than supposed pre-arrangement of man. A large and liberal herbage with a genial climate THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 483 will excite growth and fineness in the early ages of the animals. Infancy always influences age; and hence a race may grow out of a deep alluvial pas- ture different in all respects from another with the same origin, having to pick up a suljsistence on an equal elevation amongst gorse and heather. The influence man possesses on form is well illustrated by an outline of the horse as he was, and the horse as he is. The engraving Fig. 1 is an outline of the wild Tartarian horse. His head is large and heavy ; his bones angular j his hair rough and shaggy; his legs powerful, to carry him through morass and over steppes : whereas the modern hunter (Fig. 2) has roundness, the graceful arched neck, the elegant back, the small intelligent head, with a cleanness of carcase, a slanting shoul- der, and a nimbleness of frame which must strike the most casual observer that mind has been at woi'k in moulding the plastic form which nature had given, into one more suited to the requirements of man. Fig. 1. OUTLINE OF THE WILD TARTARIAN HORSE. Fig. 2. other, we shall see the indications of this in the head of the animal. Take, for instance, the Ara- bian, brought up with the Arab's family — a par- taker of his joys and sorrows, his prosperity and adversity ; played with by his children ; eating almost at his table ; talked to and caressed every day and every hour — its instincts of attention and understanding are cultivated and strengthened, the natural energy of the whole animal is cultivated mentally to understand his wants, and hence we have the fine inteUigent head Fig. 4. Fig. 4. OUTLINE OF THE MODERN HUNTER. Nay, more : in the details of two horses possessing the one a greater degree of civilization than an- OUTLINE OF THE HEAD OF THE ARABIAN HORSE. But if we go away from this paternal usage, and take a horse removed from man's sympathy and care — more nearly resembling the untamed Tartar, where more brute force is expected, and where it is formed and supplied, you may expect a heavy, sullen, unpassionable head, in every way the con- trast of the brains indicated in Fig. 4. "We give in Fig. 3 a head of the Hungarian horse — a very striking contrast to that of the Arabian. Fig. 3. OUTLINE OF THE HEAD OF THE HUNGARIAN HORSE. 48 i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Now how is this obtained ? Tlie answer is plain and significant— By careful selection of the best specimens of animals possessing the qualities we desire, is a ready but a superficial answer. It is the language of practice and of fact — but how ? That is the depth of the question we have to ex- amine and to solve. Mr. Kemp thus succinctly hints at a theory. He says : " There is no fact more certain than this — that the oft'spring inherits the properties and pecu- liarities of both parents; and this includes not only those of a physical s^?-«cfjire, but of physical endow- ments, as aptitude to fatten, strength in pulling, ])roduce of vv'ork, and of mental endowments. The scientific application of this principle is the art of breeding. Sometimes the farmer wishes to pro- duce a horse distinguished for speed, at others for strength; sometimes horned cattle for the produc- tion of food, at others for the production of milk — in v/hich case he will also desire all his young animals to be females; and at other times again his object in breeding is different still." — p. 180. He then goes on to give some facts as to the control of man over species and over sex, which is an interesting investigation to which we shall here- after return. Nor will it be amiss here to name that the author of " The Cow" has adopted a new and quite differ- ent mode of classification of the animals ; not ac- cording to the length of their horns — a mode hitherto adopted, but which did not at all discrimi- nate quality — but has divided them into the " milk secreting" and the "fat forming" breeds; and the whole work will be found a very sententious epitome of all that is known up to the present period on breeding, feeding, and treating cattle, and the ma- nagement of the dairy. Returning to Mr. Kemp's glance at the cause of changes of form, he proceeds— p. 181 : "In breed- ing animals which it is intended to fatten, it should be remembered that the disposition to fatten steadily, and at an early age, is much greater in certain animals, and varieties of animals, than in others, and that this disposition is hereditary. As a general rule small herds are better fatteners than large ones. Further, as we said that tranquillity of mind favoured the disposition of fat, quiet, indo- lent animals would seem preferable for breeding from, in opposition to lively and stunted ones. Many animals are distinguished by the possession of peculiarities of structure, called points, which indicate, or are supposed to indicate, good Cjualities, and are much considered (valued ?) by practical men." , The author of the article in the Cyclopcedia of AgricuUiir eis,\\& think, Mr. Spooner; and which is, | in fact, a reprint, or nearly so, from a now defunct j work, called " The Plough," which appeared in 1846 : at pages 395 and 633 of the first volume the whole of the article, or very nearly, will be found. Like all matters coming from so able a pen, it is full of interest ; and though quite theoretical, it cannot be said to be either contrary to fact, nor at variance with reason. Still there may be danger. The principle he lays down is that animal life de- pends for the development of its form and charac- teristic to certain temperaments which may be cul- tivated by the breeder. These he divides into three kinds : the nervous, the thoracic, and tlie abdomi- nal. If, therefore, there is a powerful nervous development, it WiW. belong to the first ; if a large chest, to the second ; while if it has a strongly de- veloped abdomen, it belongs to the last-mentioned temperament. Starting off with this, he brings his facts to bear upon his theory. He proceeds to argue that in sheep and oxen bred for the butcher, the belly must be preserved and perpetuated in that state most favour- able for the digestion of large quantities of food ; while the nervous system must as much as possible be kept down, to favour indolence, quietness, and somnolency : and he cites the Leicester sheep as a very striking instance : so true, indeed, is this a sample, and so preponderously is the abdominal influence, that we have known a pampered ram ab- solutely refuse to look at a ewe in season; and it is usual to much reduce them from the period of letting, lest this abnormal instinct should utterly overcome the procreative one. With this he con- trasts the short- tailed goat-like Orkney sheep, who, to enable him to leap from steep to steep, and to search long and diligently for his scanty herbage, must have a powerful and well-developed lung system ; he must have far more of the thoracic, and less of the abdominal temperament of the Leicester. Or to take cattle, which he instances at consider- able length in diflferent parts of the article — giving the Devon as a specimen of the nervo-thoracic temperament, with all the energy and aptitude for work; and the short-horn and Hereford as in- stances of the abdominal. Indeed, had he known the short -horn better, he would have found it to be what he has called the Leicester sheep — "The most perfect specimen of meat-producing animals we are acquainted with." Mr. Milburn, a native of the short-liorn county, says at p. 38 of "The Cow," " The feeders of short-horns, instead of keeping them to three, four, or five years of age, fatten them, and sell them off" at from two to two-and-a- half years ; they can thus turn off one-half more at least, if not a greater proportion of beef from their farms or their stalls, than could be done with any other breed. Hence they have quick returns and large amounts of beef for the food consumer." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 465 Taking horses aj^ain for illustration, in which it must be confessed Mr. Spooner is well at home, he instances the draught-horse as sluggish, abdo- minal in his temperament, an ox-like animal ; while the thorough-bred hunter or racer is a sample of the nervous and thoracic. Now Mr. Walker, in his work on inter-marriage, takes something of the same view, and conceives that the voluntary and locomotive organs are mainly attributable to the one parent, and the in- voluntary, the nervous, and the vital to the other. The first-named belonging to the character of the race of the original germ ; the other to the nidus in which for so many months it has been nourished. Still all the writers agree that forra is vastly under the control of the person who has the judgment to select, and the skill to carry out, the proper princi- ples of breeding. Now form has much to do with disposition. The fine head and limbs are almost always associated with spirit in a horse. The very form of a fine leg is an indication that the bone is hard and heavy, and tenacious ; the form, more even than the pedi- gree, is often an indication of blood. The shape of a cart-horse seldom fails to indicate the power he possesses to drav/, any more than that of the Irish horse or Welsh pony fails to exhibit his power to endure. But whether it is form or disposition, or it is both, which influences the qualities of an ani- mal, is a question still more difficult, and still more abstruse. It is almost impossible to resist the con- clusion that both have a very material influence. The writer in the Rural Cyclopadiu — the fourth work in our list — on this point is very decided. He seems to adopt the opinions of Mr. Dickson, whose work is amongst the best of the recent works on live stock. He says, " Three of the good pro- perties or ' points,' as they are technically called, which breeders desiderate in all the species of live (feeding?) stock are, rectangularity of shape, ro- bustness of constitution, and tendency to rapid attainment of maturity." Now these are qualities which can only be judged of by appearance. The form is the cube and parallelogram ; the disposi- tion is one of quiet but hardy character; the qua- lity is to lay on fat and fine flesh at an early age. Now the first principles of breeding are to select such animals as will be the most likely to produce what is required. A good animal does not always mean the same thing. A good short horn is a round, straight -topped, ilat -backed, velvetty- touched animal. The good Alderney is a thin small-fleshed, gaunt animal. They are both good in their way, but very difl^erent, because they are wanted for different purposes. As the v/riter on *' The Cow" — before quoted, says, " The tendency to de- posit fat is indicated by a roundness of form, as op- posed to \\\e flatness of the railk-secreting animal." To obtain a race of animals with a point suffi- ciently stamped upon them as to make it the characteristic of the whole race, is to stamp blood upon the animals. In most counties they cross in all possible ways from animals crossed themselves from generation to generation ; and hence you see scarcely two animals alike in a flock or in a herd. They have neither form, nor character, nor quality in common ; and the breeder can have no sort of idea which breed of animal he may be fortunate enough to breed. Whereas, if we take a pure breed, they are all aUke. A novice could not tell the face of one Cheviot sheep from another, in a flock of a thousand. They may be smaller or larger, thicker or thinner ; but they have all the same general character — all the same peculiar ex- pression : nor is there any great diflerence in their habits and feeding qualities. The same may be said of a drove of Highland bullocks. They are all alike. This is simply because a peculiar breed has from time immemorial become inured to the peculiarities of a climate, and a cross from another district may be dangerous. Hence they are pure breeds, unalloyed and untainted by the experimentalising meddling of man. But in other districts, with a wider range of climate — in Eng- land, south and west, there are hardly two animals ahke, except in the herds or the flocks of the most accurate and celebrated breeders. In Cheshire, in Somersetshire, in Leicestershire, they are a strange mixture of animals, almost as unhke each other as the wild Tartar horse is from the English hunter. There is a sad want of care in breeding animals. They neither consider physiological tendencies, nor intrinsic qualities. They breed hap-hazard. If a dairyman has a good cow, he of course values her, and breeds from her as much as he can. He seeks peihaps for a good bull. He finds one well- formed, with good quality and long pedigree. He watches intensely for the calf ; he rears it carefully, and keeps it well : it turns out a bad milker. Great is his disappointment and disgust. But he has made a very improper selection in the male animal, for it was of a breed which did not milk well, and therefore he crossed and defeated the ten- dencies of a cow. But many breeders are less cautious even than this. Some never possess a really good animal ; and more, if they do possess one, will never have another. It comes hap-hazard : he owes it more to good luck than good management ; and hence he expects little, and takes it as it comes. It would be a wonder to see good animals in the hands of the great mass of breeders. A man has a good- looking calf : it is the only one its mother ever had, and she is nothing remarkable : it is of a good THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. colour, and a fair form, and he will keep it for a bull ; hence it has a cow to suck, and is well kept, grows well, and is the nearest male animal to a certain number of breeders. They have cows. They send them to this bull : they neither know nor care what he is, nor how he is bred. He will get them a calf, and that is all they care for. Is it a wonder that the breeds are indifferent ? Or he is a breeder of horses ? Here he is careful. He takes pains to select the best stallion shown at the nearest market-town, and will send his mare some distance to meet him on his rounds. But does he choose the horse which has the qualities in which his mares are deficient ? No — he looks at the general character of the horse : he is the best he sees, and he never for one moment considers his adaptation ; and therefore, instead of a healthy and excellent foal he has only a deformed brute, to injure the character of his parent, and to defeat the object of the breeder. But there are even greater anomalies than these in breeding. The mare is often a very secondary consideration. She is not always the best in the farm. These are busy with turnip-time and fallow, with seed-sowing and harvest. She is usually the very worst — a cast-off mare good for nothing hut breeding — as if, forsooth ! they were the lowest and most useless purposes to which she could be put. She is blind or lame ; or there is some vital fault within her, or she would not have been rejected. Breeders seem to think that the mother, in horses, has nothing to do with the offspring: in cattle the father has a similar impotence — at least, in the estimation of the majority of breeders. And the result is, that horses are blind, and spavined, and broken-winded : because the mother is blind, her offspring have feeble eyes ; she has a spavin, and her foal has a thickness of the hock-joint, which ends in that unhappy complaint ; or she has feeble air-tubes, and her progress shows the evil. It is stated by Stewart, that there are more blind horses than all other animals put together, and the cause may be partly ill-managed stables ; but a circum- stance which has much to do with it, is that brood mares are often blind. The sheep-breeder takes a third course. His i am is his own. He looks round a fair amongst his neighbours' sheep, and for his ewes selects the — ■ cheapest. No study of the defects of his flock ; of the wants of his soil ; of the purposes for which he intends the produce — he buys the cheapest sheep ! Having alluded to some of the errors of breeding the different classes of animals, we shall in a sub- sequent paper point out the principles of judicious selections. {To be continued,) SWING AND WHEEL PLOUGHS. On no pohit, within the widely extended circle of practical agriculture, have English pride and Scotch conceit been more abundantly manifested, or more er- roneously entertained, than on tlie use of wheels at- tached to the point of the beam of the plough, for the purpose of regulating tlie direction of the implement in the ground. The Scotch farmer having found a swiag plough drawn by two horses to be very capable of cultivating the loams and clays of that country, imagines the same power will be sufficient for the clays of England ; and the late Mr. Brown, of Markle, than whom no better practical writer ever existed, boldly asserted that two horses with a swing plough were able to cultivate any lands in Britain. The Enalish farmer having found a swing plough to be wholly useless on clay lands, lays it aside in the case of loams and earthy grounds, and thus deprives himself of the benefits of the drill system, to be done on these lands by the swing plough. The late dynanoinetric trials in England and Scotland ended in tlie pl3asing conviction that each country had got the most useful implement for its own purpose — and there is much truth in the conclusion. The geology of Scotland exhibits no higher rock than the old red sandstone, on which are imposed the lime- stone and the coal. The eruptions arc numerous of trap rocks, around which are laid some of the most fer- tile loams in the world. The clays are all of them fresh-water formations, and overlie the trap and the sandstone, generally with a huge bed intervened of al- luvial or diluvial accumulations. The clays of England are marine formations, with the exception of some patches on the sides of rivers, or on the flats of the sea-shore. The clay lands of the two countries are most essentially different — the swing plough of Scot- land is useless as a stake in the hedge on the clays of the plastic and London formation, as seen covering the chalk hills of Surrey, and in the basin and surrounding the concavity of the situation of the metropolis. The land requires a strong turn-wrest plough, and at least the strength of four horses for the purpose of plough- ing. Even the lias, clunch, and Kimmeridge clays, which are less viscous and obdurate than the above- mentioned formations, are not to be ploughed by two horses and the Scotch swing-plougli — four horses are required, and a strong swing implement, heavy and long in the body, and with a cast-iron share, as are seen in Jeffries construction. In all these cases the Scotch ploughs are wholly useless. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 487 On the other hand the English farmer continues in the jnistalien pride of ploughing loams and earthy lands with an implement having one or two wheels attached to the end of the beam, and frequently the beam is raised to rest on a bolster which is run forward on two wheels, of which one is on the unploughed land, and the other in the furrow. In the majority of cases these wheels on the end of the beam are of no use, as the writer very fully proved in Leicestershire, by sending a Scotch plough held by a native of one year's training, to a trial of ploughing, where the first prize was given him by universal acknowledg- ment. In progressing southwards over England, a great change takes place in the statification of soils, when the chalk occurs in Bedfordshire. Flints occur in the chalk, and form a land of much gritty obduracy ; the iron sands are denuded in Surrey, and the subsoil is very hard, concreted, and impenetrable. In these cases, which are certainly not very numerous, the light plough, with the beam placed on a bolster, is superior to both the Scotcli swing-plough and the Derby or Rutland wheel plough — the hold of the point of the share is more firm and steady, and the implement progresses uniformly. On these subsoils the Scotch swing-jdough proved very inferior by reasou of the point of the malleable iron share wearing only on the under side, and consequently losing the hold of the ground ; whereas the sliare of cast-iron on the wheel ploughs wear evenly on both sides, and penetrate in a straightforward direction. It is also certain that a wheel on the end of a beam of any plough, or of a turnip-drill-scuffler, enables a much better bite of the ground than when the appendage is wanting ; and in soils of any kind whatever. This fact may rest on no mechanical law, but it is still a fact. The height of the horse's shoulder, in pulling the plough, exerts an up- lifting power of some degree, which in the swing plough roaches the share along the beam without any inter- ruption ; whereas in the wheel plough it is intercepted by the vvheels, and may be nearly or wholly exhausted, and consequently the level onward motion of the share is undisturbed. Probably some of your mechanical readers will be so kind as to set the writer right, if he is wrong, and favour him with a mathematical demon- stration of the true cause. The writer always recommends Scotch conceit to cease howling about the absurdity of ploughing clay lands with four horses while he uses only two, and that he employ himself for two years on the London and plastic clays, and then make a report. He advises English pride to adopt swing ploughs on all loams and earthy lands ; and since most certainly in the dry cli- mate of the southern half of England, turnips do better on the flat ground than on drills, that ridglets be raised by one heavy furrow of the common swing plough ^ and the seed immediately sown by a heavy double dril machine, like Hornsby's drop drill with deep coulters to pierce deeply into the ridglets, which will place the seed in a depth of fresh soil, on which the safety of the turnip crop almost wholly depends. A heavy roll fol- lowing the sower will press the drills into a level sur- face, scarcely to be distinguished from the ground be- fore being drilled. The seed will be advantaged with a much larger quantity of moisture in this way, than by making ruts with coulters in the level surface. The dry dust of the surface will receive and cover the seed, which will rarely vegetate till rain arrives. The Scotch swing plough would be much improved by adopting the share of cast-iron. J. D. PLOUGHING BY STEAM. We had on Friday an opportunity of witnessing a very successful application of steam power to the ploughing of land — a locomotive plough, invented by Mr. James Usher, brewer, having been set in motion on a large field on the farm of Bankholm, Inverleith. A model of the invention was shown in the Great Ex- hibition, but this was the first experiment on a scale sufficient to test the merits of the invention. The steam-plougli might, at a little distance, be taken for a railway engine without its tender; but it moves in the reverse direction, and the revolving plough- shares are placed immediately behind the funnel. The adaptation of propulsive power to the machine renders it different from most other steam-ploughs that have hitherto been invented — the system of end- less chains and stationary engines having been the the plan generally adopted heretofore. Tlie machine of Mr. Usher is therefore much more simple and manageable, and more capable of application to irregu- larly marched fields, while the superfiees of ground traversed will be at least as great. "The invention consists," to borrow the descrip- tion given by the patentee, " firstly, in mounting a series of ploughs in the same plane around an axis, so that the ploughs shall successively come into action; and secondly, in applying power to give rotary mo- tion to a series of ploughs, or other instruments for tilling the earth, so that the resistance of the earth to the ploughs or instruments, as they enter and travel through the earth, shall cause the machine to be pro- pelled ; thus making the plough act in the earth in the same way as paddle-wheels do in the water, by which the vessel is moved along, and the resistance of the earth being greater than the water, the power obtained is proportionally more. * * * * Not only the ploughs, which are set in the same plane around the axis, follow each other into action, but the ploughs of the other sets (which are affixed around 488 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the axis i'l paiallLl planer) nrc ar;ang(jfl ami come into action, so that two ploughshares will not strike the earth at the same instant." The loconfioUvc exhibited was of ten horse power, and uithoiiuh only f uir ploiiglis were .nffixed to it, it is adapted for wiirking six, and might be made capable of woiking eight or even ten, without increase of power. Of course the amount of power that might be introduced into the locomotive is indefinite, and the series of ploughs might be made to compass any pro- portionate breadth of land ; but perhaps the most manageable scale was that on which the invr ntion was exhibited, with the addition of two iiioie ploughs, for whic!) it v\as intended but wliicli had not been ])rc- pared in time. Tlie depth to which the ploughshares penetrated the foil was from seven to nine inches, something more than that of the horsc-pIough; while, instead of tlij regular and orderly furrows we are accustomed to sec, the loam was torn up as loosely as garden mould. With a few improvements on the mechanism, the locomotive will be able to turn and move about, so as to turn up every inch of the soil, it being at preacnt defective in various detiiils, which could only be discovered by experiment. The. field on which it was tried was level, but the steam-plough could, it is supposed, accomplish gradients of 15 in 100 ; and, although there arc circumstances in which it could not be brought into action, Mr. Usher has little doubt that the greater part of the arable land of the country might be cultivated by the agency of steam. The ground traversed could not be strictly com- puted, from the experiffiental nature of yesterday's jirocccdings; but ullov.ing t'.c stcaui-plough to go at double the rate of a horse-plough, whicli several prac- tical gentlemen present estimated to be its pace, and to drive six ploughs at once, ami only occupy two skilled men instead of twelve labourers comparatively unskilled, some idea may be formed of the saving which it would effect to agriculturist?. The cost of a locomotive plough would be 400/. or 500^.; but were it brought into general requisition, it would more proba- bly be hired than kept by farmers. What the effects of the general ajiplication of steam to agricultural purposes might be, it would be prema- ture to speculate. That powerful agency has caused a revolution in many handicraft trades, and may he des- tined to innovate on rural as well as on urban occa- paiions. The feasibility of ihc invention was admitted by all wlio saw it, and it was also evident that the princijilo had reached a very considerable extcntXof practicd development, and that, while several pal- pable defects could bo readily removed, nev/ and most important capabilities might still be added. In one of the expciinients, a harrow was attached to the ploughing machine, and it was suggested that were a broadcast sowing machine added, and another harrow perhaps, to bring up the rear, the whole work of spring might be thus accomplished at once. About forty or fifty gentlemen, many of whom were practical agriculturists, were present, and among others were Mr. Hall Maxwell, the secretary, and several members of the Highland and Agricultural Society, who seemed highly hiterested and pleased with the Invention. — Edinburgh Couraut. JERSEY ST. PETER'S FARMERS' CLUB. The annual inspection of roots and exhibition of crops was held on the 29th Oct., beneath the Parish Hall; and, taking into considei'ation the long drought which prevailed in this island when the young plants and roots most needed rain, the result was most satisfactory. One dozen Roots Lbs. ft.in, Long red mangel weighed. . 208; one measured in girth.. 2 6 Globe 175 „ „ 2 8 Swedish turnips 106 „ „ 2 4 White carrots 40 „ „ 11 Parsnips 43 „ „ 16 Yellow bullock turnips 86 „ „ 29 Purple tankard 121 „ „ 2 6 The committee who inspected the different crops gave a gratifying account of their appearance, and compli- mented the exhibitors on the improvement in their ge- neral regularity and cleanliness, solely owing to the in- fluence of this club. Mr. John Duval obtained the prize for the best crop of mangels, and Mr. Robert Pipon for swedes. Mr. P. Bichard, for carrots, Captain Balleine had the heaviest crop of parsnips, and Mr. John Le Brocq had the prize for white tankards, which were excellent. Mr. Hayley had an excellent crop of yellow bullock turnips, particularly considering that they fol- lowed early potatoes this season. A churn was tried with the American, French, and Jersey dashers, the latter proving itself the best, as re- gards both time and ease in working. The annual dinner subsequently took place in the Parish Hall, the chair being occupied by the President of the Society, and the vice- chairs by the Treasurer and Secretary. After the dinner, the President gave the usual loyal toasts; and Mr. Hume, the Honorary Secretary to the Royal Jersey Agricultural Society, gave " Success to the St. Peter's Farmers' Club," which was enthusiastically responded to ; after which, The Secretary rose to propose a toast, but before doing so took a short review of their position, and the satisfactory progress they had made during the last twelve months, solely owing to the influence of this so- ciety, the importance of which he wished to impress upon them. He alluded also to the machinery which had been introduced. " I need not remind you," said he, ' ' of the great strides that have been made in every Tllli FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 489 branch of science ; that man had rei)(Ieii'd subservient to his uses, in a variety of ways, the four primary ele- ments—earth, air, fire, and water— and that the aid of each vras needful to produce our great moving power, steam. Without heat and water, we could have no steam ; without air, no combustion ; and the great tabic, earth, was required, upon which to conduct their opera- tions ; and these appliances were being brought to bear in agricultural science, and man was thus better enabled to develop her hidden resources, and to unfold the trea- sures of her prolific bosom." He then referred to ploughing by steam, introduced in England, and to a plough on an improved principle, which had been exhi- bited that day by P. Le Feuvre, Esq., one of their members — one of his own designing, and made under his directions, eminently adapted to the wants and means of the farmer. The cost of construction would only be SOs , whilst it was more efficient than any plough yet introduced. However beneficial steam and ma- chinery were in other countries, the surface of the land in Jersey was not adapted to their application, the fields being so small, and the land undulating. He then al- luded to the benefit which these societies were efl'ecting in Ireland, as well as the regeneration of that country, by means of the Encumbered Estates Bill, Riving thus new blood, fresh capital, and a direct interest in the land. He then referred to the different value of land in Jersey and in Ireland. The value of ayytcvllaral land in Jersey was from X'lOO to ,£'200 an acre, whereas in Ireland £2 lOs. up to £20 per acre appeared to be the value. The rents in Jersey were from £^ to £10 an acre ; and yet the farmer here was an independent man. lie then read over the names of the successful compe- titors, and concluded by proposing their health, P. Lk Fkuvre, Esq., rose to propose " Success to Agriculture," and explained the merits of his plough which he had that day submitted to their notice, dwell- ing upon its utihty and its cheapness. RoBicRT Pii'ON', Esq., coupled with the name of John Hume, Esq., proposed " The Jersey Agricultural Society." John Hume, Esq., the Honorary Secretary to that Society, in returning thanks, congratulated the St. Peter's Farmers' Club on the progress they had made, snd gave a statement of a small experimental farm he held, which he took six years ago, in bad condition, and paid £1 an acre rent ! He had expended £'1,724, and its receipts, with the value of stuck, were £2,\B-2, leav- ing £458 to credit on thirteen acres in six ye^^rs, paying a rental, remember, of £7 an acre ! He said his inten- tion was to pubHsh the statement, so that the public might be enabled to judge for themselves. After a few more toasts the company broke up, much gratified with the day's proceedings. NITRATE OF SODA AS A TOP-DRESSING FOR WHEAT, Having read that some very good farmers in Norfolk make a practice of top-dressing their wheat in spring with nitrate of soda, J determined once more to try this salt ; which, as the older members of our society will remember, was once a very fashionable manure, but the use of which was discontinued by its advocates iu consequence of its tendency to lay the corn and to produce mildew. These two serious faults, it now ap- pears, may be corrected by mixing with the nitrate a moderate quantity of common sea-salt ; which, when used in heavy doses, destroys the life of grass, and may therefore be readily sup- posed to counteract the dangerous suddenness of vegetation that nitrate produces. Thus, common salt may prevent mildew, and is known certainly, on some soils, to strengthen the straw. The nitrate was sown, as directed, at the rate of one cwt. per acre, mixed with one cwt. of common salt ; but this quantity was not given at once, being divided, as enjoined, into two doses, applied at a fortnight's interval and in showery weather. It was so applied to a ten-acre piece of white wheat, a portion thereof being, however, passed over. The whole produce has been thrashed out already, in order to test the effect ; a portion was top-dressed, not with nitrate, but guano. The result is as follows : — Valne of Bush. Increase Cost of increased pe* acre, in bushels. dressing. produce, s. d. n. d. Undressed 21 — — — Guano, 2 cwt.... 24 3 20 0 15 0 Nitrate 1 cwt., & salt 1 cwt. ... 25i 4^ 17 0 22 6 The other trial was made on an eight-acre piece of red wheat, following barley. The wheat had begun to appear very blue and spindling, notwithstanding a good coat of dung given it in the autumn, to make up for cross cropping. The improvement was immediate, and has stood the test of thrashing, for the ac- count is as follows. Two acres were thrashed, one on each side adjoining the half acre in the middle, on which no nitrate of soda was sown. Value per Bi:sh. Increase Cost of acre of Profit per in dress- jncrpased per acre. bushels. ing. produce, acre. s. d. s. d. s. d. Undressed 19f — > — — — Nitrated.. 27iJ 8S 17 0 42 0 25 0 The profit oii this piece is certainly more than the value of rent of the land, which is a poor blowing sand. The theory to this action is now clearly established by Jlr. Lawes's experi- ments ; for nitrogen, whether as ammonia in guano or whetlier in a nitrate, is proved to be the food generally wanted by wheat. — i)/t. Pusexj, in Royal Jgiimltural Society's Journal. 49 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 5th of November; present, the Earl of DuciE, President, in the chair; Lord Southampton, Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Colonel Austen, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. S. Bennett, Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr. Brandreth, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Walbanke Childers, M.P., Mr. Garrett, Mr. Grantham, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Law Hodges, M.P., Mr. Jonas, Mr. Kinder, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pusey, M.P., Mr. Shaw (London), Mr. Villiers Shelley, Prof. Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Prof. "Way, and Mr. Wingate. The following new Members were elected : Demidoff, the Prince, Florence Field, William (Veterinary Surgeon), 224, Oxford-street Grissell, Thomas, Norbury Park, Micklehara, Surrey Nesfield, R. N. M., Castle Hill, Bakewell, Derbyshire Wright, R. J., Thorpe, Norwich. The names of 31 Candidates for election at the next Monthly Meeting were then read. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the report on the accounts of the Society to the end of the previous month, and submitted to the inspection of the members the various quarterly balance-sheets connected with income, expenditure, funded capital, assets, and liabilities ; the current cash balance in the hands of the bankers being ^659. — This report having been adopted, the Council, agreeably with the special recommendation it contained, unanimously agreed to a vote of their best thanks to Messrs. Nevile Reid and Co., of Windsor, for the kind manner in which they had accepted the ap- pointment of the local bankers of the Society, during the period of its Windsor Meeting, and for the cour- tesy and exactness with which they had discharged the duties of that appointment. Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the Journal Committee, reported the following awards made by judges in the class of Essays : I. To Finlay Dun, jun.. Veterinary Surgeon, Heriot-row, Edinburgh, the prize of Twenty Sovereigns, for the best Essay on the Diseases of Farm Horses arising from mis- management. II. To William Charles Sibbald, Veterinary Surgeon, Biggleswade,Bedfordshire,theprizeof Twenty Sovereigns, for the best Essay on the Diseases after Parturition in Cows and Sheep, with the remedies. III. To Edward J. Hemming, of Lismore, co. Waterford, Ireland, the prize of Twenty Sovereigns, for the best Essay on any subject in Agricultural Chemistry. IV. To Joshua Trimmer, of Foden Bank, Macclesfield, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Agricultural Geology of England and Wales. Fines for Non-Exhibition. — On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Shelley, the report on the result of the application made to parties who had neglected to pay the fines for the non-exhi- bition of animals entered by them for competition at the Windsor meeting, or to assign in due time a just reason for their omission, was referred to a committee, consist- ing of the Earl of Ducie, Col. Challoner, Mr. Milward, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Shaw (London), Mr. Brandreth, Mr. Druce, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, and Mr. Fisher Hobbs. December Meeting. — The Council decided that the ensuing General Meeting should be held on Saturday, the I3th of December, at II o'clock in the forenoon. Miscellaneous Communications.— Sir George Cayley, Bart., presented to the Society a model of his anti-friction plough ; Mr. Lister Maw, an original painting by Davis, of the first-prize short-horn bull at the Windsor Meeting, bred by Mr, Maw, at Tetley by Crowle, near Bawtry ; Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., oftered a collection of agricultural books from his private library ; Mr. Kirtland, a case of Indian corn ; Mr. J. Chalmers Morton transmitted a sample of Van Diemen's Land guano ; Mr. Reeve, fine specimens of Beet-roots, grown without manure ; Mr. White suggested honorary awai'ds to exhibitors ; M. Andreolet offered his services to the Society as a foreign correspondent ; the Board of Health addressed inquiries on " the use of precipitates of any kind from sewer-water, or of earths satu- rated with sewer-water being successfully applied as manure ;" the Georgofili Association at Florence expressed their sense of the value of the Society's Journal; Lieut. Edgar Slade, R.N., transmitted for inspection the model of a digging machine, to be worked by steam-power (the construction and probable value of which was explained to the Council by Mr. Garrett) ; Mr. Matthews, Secretary of the Driffield Farmers' Club, transmitted a favourable report of the trial of M*Cormick's reaping-machine ; Mr. Hill Dickson transmitted papers connected with Flax cultivation and management ; Mr. Thomas Ell- man, of Beddingham, addressed inquiries in reference to the veterinary inspection of cattle, and the condi- tions under which fat cattle would be disqualified at the Society's country meetings; Mr. Lee and Mr. Bate suggested the purchase of Lawson's collection of Gras.ses, &c. ; Mr. Lister Maw favoured the Council with the results of his experience in Potato and Beet cultivation; Mr. Nathaniel Mathew, of Warn, Car- narvonshire, addressed a further communication, on the subject of the model of a moveable bridge for marsh-lands, presented by him to the Council at a for- mer meeting. The Council having ordered their usual acknowledg- ments for the favour of these communications, ad- journed to their next monthly meeting, on Wednesday, the 3rd of December. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 491 THE LONDON FARMERS' CLUB. Tiiu iifat mouUily meeting of the club, after the long autumn vacation, took place on Monday, Nov. 3., at the Club House, Blackfriars ; the chair being taken, at a quarter to six, by Mr. Payne, of Felmersham. The subject for discussion was, " On the Injurious Effects of the present Beer-fhop System in the Agricultural Di^- tricts." The Chairman said : Gentlemen, the time has ar- rived when we usually commence our discussions ; and I have no doubt the subject will be introduced by Mr. Hobbs with his usual clearness. I had not the slightest idea five minutes ago that I should be called upon to occupy this position. I feel that I am not prepared to fill it adequately, but any humble services which it may be in my power to render, are, and always will be, at the disposal of the club (cheers). I beg now to intro- duce to you Mr. Hobbs. Mr. Hobbs said — It must be a great satisfaction to the committee, and those members of this club who are in the habit of supporting the Discussion Meetings, to reflect that the condition of the labourer has never been hastily passed over. Independently of several subjects addressed to his case, some of the most prominent of the matters discussed here have been intimately associated with the labourer's interests. The advantages resulting from a tenant-right— a more extended operation of the Law of Settlem.ent — a total repeal of the Malt-tax — these, amongst others, have been advocated, with the full conviction that the farm labourers must benefit by the several alterations jiroposed. And it is not surprising that such should be the case, for in no occupation is the welfare of master and man so closely connected as in the business of farming. In trade, manufactures, mining, collieries, and other pursuits where men commonly work together, and under the continual watch of the overseer, with the workmen dwelling also iu towns or thickly populated districts, the intimate acquaintance existing between the employer and employed can never be very general. In the pursuits of agriculture it is mostly the reverse : there is scarcely a man engaged on the farm but the occupier knows his real character and circum- stances— the poacher, the drunkard, the bad husband, the thief, are all "marked men," and can be tracked down at any time to the head-quarters of their dissipa- tion, or yet more serious crimes. And these head- quarters will too surely be found at the beer-shops — places provided by the wisdom of our Legislature as a continual and ready temptation to the rural population of this country. (Hear, hear.) In my own experience I know nothing so detrimental to the condition of the labourer himself, to the happiness of his family, or to the interest of his employer, as the present beer- shop system in the agricultural districts. This is my text for this evening, having suggested it to the committee it now becomes my duty to introduce it to your notice. In doing so I should remark that I consider the ill effects arising from the beer-shop as acting on all classes situated near it : the landowner, the occupier, the clergy, the tradesman, and the labourer, all must feel the nuisance, however much some of them may strive to counteract its baneful influence; but to none is it so ruinous in its consequences as to the common working man— (Hear, hear) — the evils in- flicted on the other classes must mainly come through him ; it may, therefore, be better to consider his case first, as with him the mischief begins. I am decidedly of opinion myself, and I believe the majority of practical farmers will agree with me, that the labourer derives unquestionable benefit from a daily allowance of home-brewed beer, and that the man who can do the best day's work is the one accustomed to the use of it. Every one who has been engaged in the business of the hay. field or the harvest must be aware that nothing— neither money nor promises, gin and water, tea, or coffee, expedites our operations, or relieves his fatigue, like a " drop of good beer." I consider that it should be the national beverage of an Englishman, and my great object at this moment is to ensure him the advan- tages of it — good, and in peace and comfort ; neither of which, I fear, could he reasonably expect to find at the beer-shop. I will take the quality of what is tliere offered him to begin with. Is there any one at all ac- quainted with the rural districts who does not shudder at the very mention of beer-shop beer — the thick, muddy, or sour-looking stuff, whose only aim is to create greater thirst, whose sure effect is to stujiify and de- base .' Compare the benefit likely to be derived by the labouring-man from drinking even a small quantity of this nauseous compound with that he would receive from half a pint of clear, healthy, "home-brewed." But here the wisdom of Parliament interferes, saying to the labourer, " Home-brewed jou shall not have, but to the beer-shop you must go " (Hear, hsar). The first blow against the family hearth is thus struck. However hum- ble it may be, I have always considered a labouring-man going to his own home for bis leisure and enjoyment as one of the surest signs of good character and conduct ; as long as he can feel the enjoyment of his cottage as a home that man is generally truthful and to be depended on. It is there he shares with his wife the few comforts of his hard-earned wages, and sets the most impressive example to his family. It would almost seem that the beer-shop system was instituted in direct opposition to the progress of any such domestic comfort and respecta- bility. It drives the man from his home to procure that which was never intended to satisfy, and which can but little invigorate him. The first lesson, too, the beer- shop teaches him is that of selfishness. The satisfaction 2 K 492 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of sharing with his family is at once destroyed, and gra- dually gives place to a sort of reluctance to return home, for how frequently does he loiter, from the force of bad example, to have "another pint," and to spend " another half hour " in listening to the seductive elo- quence of the beer-shop orator ? At all times and sea- sons the seeds of discontent are sure to be sown here by those who craftily encourage the worst feelings of insub- ordination, not only against employers or local authori- ties, but even against the State itself (Hear). Once con- tan-iiuated, how soon the man becomes the degraded en- feebled labourer, or the idle, sculking pauper, ever ready to snare a hare or rob a hen roost. There is ample evidence on record to show that poaching parties are frequently planned at the beer-shop ; the keeper of the house him- self, too, frequently belonging to the gang, or facilitating the disposal of the plunder. The advance from poach- ing to petty robbery is too common, tempted as the frequenter of these places frequently is by the general dealer in stolen goods. The commission of still greater crimes — sheep-stealing, house-breaking, and incen- diarism, all follow on ; vdiile many a man has confessed at the gallows that his career of crime commenced at the beer-shop (Hear, hear). I do not believe that I am over-colouring the picture; but I do conscientiously believe that three-fourths of the ruin and crime charge- able to the agricultural population may be traced to the destructive influence of the beer-shop (Hear, hear). I feel assured that all who are acquainted with the manage- ment of the poor will agree with me that a greatper-ccntage of the poor and county rates is occasioned by the in- crease of pauperism and crime attributable to thissource. It is not, however, my intention to enter here on any question of statistics, but rather to put the evil as it exists to all grades of society who may have the op- portunity of observing it. The judges of the land in their charges constantly refer to it, and well they may, for assize intelligence abounds with evidence against the system. I shall quote but one instance here, namely, the remarks of Baron Piatt on the subject, in his address to the grand jury at the last Hereford assizes : — " Gentlemen (said the learned judge), it is a lamentable con- templatiou, but so long as the curse of drunkenness shall afflict the labouring portion of the community, so long Vr'ill the gaols be filled — so long will wives and children be neglected — so long will husbands and fathers rush into crime. Gentlemen, throughout the whole of the five counties in which I have been present, three-fifths of the crime have arisen from drunkenness; for where it does not lead the criminal to the act of crime by his own inclination, it frequently does by the temptation held out, in consequence of reducing the man to a situation in which he requires protection — by reducing him to a sit\iation which leaves his property unprotected — and so leads them to the commission of crimes for which they suffer. Drunkenness must be put down in some way. The beer-sliops are the very pest of the land. There is not a poaching conspiracy nor a robbery got up— there is no infamy which arises from the combination of wicked men, which does not find its meeting in a beer-shop. These places must he watched for the purpose, if possible, to prevent crime." County magistrates at quarter sessions frequently allude to it; and I may further lake the opportunity of re- ferring to the vuluubie remarks of Rir. Wui. Miles, M. P., within the year, in Somersetshire; and also to the lively interest shown on the subject by Mr, Cotton still more recently, ia my own county. The parish clergy are constant witnesses to this monstrous but legalized source of immorality, which too commonly sets at nought all the good effect of their religious in- struction, and, with the young, completely neutralizes the benefits anticipated from parochial education ; whilst the difierent boards of guardians confess it to be one of the chief difficulties they have to contend with in their endeavours to check the advance of pauper wretchedness , I look to these for full corroboration of all I advance, but not to these only. Benevolent ladies, who make it their business to visit the poor and afllicted, the parish doctor, the village tradesman, ratepayers, the wives and families of the labouring classes, would all give equally strong and unanimous testimony to the injurious effects of ihe present beer-shop system in the agricultural dis- tricts (Hear, hear). The evil, then, I shall conclude to be admitted in all its magnitude. The question which here rises strikes me to be this : Is the evil an inevilahle one ? or can any means be resorted to for removing or greatly modifying it ? Beer I advocate as the right and support of the hard-working man ; but the necessity for driving him to the beer-house to procure it, I do not. I should rather prefer to see him brew the little he re- quires for himself, or to allow him tlie opportunity of procuring it on fairer terms and of a better quality. Under the present circumstances, I consider this to be almost an impossibility ; for the same legislative power which created the beer-shop tends also to grant it a monopoly. The labourer now must go to the shop for his beer ; he has neither the capital required nor the knowledge to make himself independent of it ; and this by the action of a tax which, under present circumstances, lias become a gross injustice, and one that cannot much longer be tolerated. (Hear, hear). I am of opinion that the as- sistance given by this club to the exertions of the Asso- ciation for the total Repeal of the Malt-tax will always be to our credit ; and I only regret the labours of that society have hitherto been so little appreciated through- out the country. The subject has been here frequently and thoroughly discussed ; but as it directly bears on the question before us, I shall make no apology for again briefly reverting to it. I consider none was ever looked at in so wrong a light as this has been by our county members, and others professing to watch over the in- terests of agriculture. With the exception of Mr. Cayley, Mr. Frewen, and a few more, a deaf ear has been turned to that which we have always claimed as a right, and not as a recompense. I see no reason for passing over facts on record. Lord Stanley directly refused any promise for any time in favour of the repeal of the malt- tax ; the advocates of the cause of British industry con- fessed that they were not prepared to support any move- ment in i!s favour ; and yet I believe we have few greater obstacles to the free exercise and full development of British industry than the Malt-tax. (Hear, hear). I should wish it to be distinctly understood that I speak THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 493 iu iioijolitical or jiuiiy bp'uil ; but, loolving ut the Mult- tax question only as connected wilii the cultivation of the soil, I consider it one whose abolition ileinaiids the un- compromising support of all those who Lave at Lcai t iLe happiness and welfare of the rural districts. Those who advocate the retention of the Mult-duty meet us with the argument that it is only a consumer's question ; for the consumer then I demand its repeal, as one of the means to relieve him of an ojipres'iion of the most ruinous description, I should much prefer to see the labourer brew his own beer, and drink it cither at his work or at his own fire-sidc; if, however, he must buy it, I would give him the opportunity to get it as readily ovtr the counter as he now does his bread. You would so go far to do away with those gathering places of dissipa- tion and crime ; for it is not only the abuse of drink, but the contamination of bad character, you have to con- tend against. Mr. Mayhevv, in his work on " London Labour and the London Poor," traces the great source of crime and immorality to the low lodging-houses in which numbers crowd together night after night- What the London lodging-house is to tlie poor townsman, the beer-shop is to the agricultural labourer. Steps have already been taken to do away with the one, but I am sorry to say that 1 have heard nothing lately of any mea- sure to meet the other (Hear, hear). The London lodging-house cannot perhaps be altogether abolished, but its condition may be greatly improved : if the beer- shop also must continue (which I myself, however, deny), there is ample room for better regulation here. TIjc situation is frequently as bad as it can possibly be : at the corner of some bye lane, on the centre of a common, or the edge of a wood — the very place for concealing the proceeds of plunder and harbouring all sorts of bad cha- racters. I think we may take it as a rule that the less open to public observation these hous^^s arc, the more likely are they to contribute to vice and crime. Another evil is the terms on which these beer- shops are permitted to be opened. The man's character has often little or nothing to do with las obtaining a license ; for, ia the actual working, I fear the testimony of six ratepayers is no more to be relied on than the required rating of the house ; and we all know how easily this is cfTected : a shed is covered, or a stable erected, and then the owner frequently goes himself to the overseer to have his assess- ment advanced to a sum sufficiently high to meet the conditions of the Act, If these places must continue, there is no doubt they ought to be more directly under the control of the local magistrates, and, I may add, far more frequently visited by the parochial authorities and rural police, who, as far as my observation goes, appear now almost utterly to neglect them. Li concluding my remarks on this subject, however imperfect they may have been, I cannot but congratulate the club on having taken up a matter of such serious importance. I know none the injurious effect of which is so hourly palpable, and yet agaim-t which so little is attempted. Let, then, the members of this club have at least llie credit of boldly denouncing tlie existence of so grievous a peit to society. But I would not stop here. Let us boldly call on all associated with the interests of asriculture : let the opinions of our representatives be deuunded ; and if (as I imagine tliey must) they agree with us, let them also act. Let us do what we ought— drive the evil home to the fountain-head, and compel the legislature to abolish a system obnoxious not oidy to the agricul- turist but to every good subject iu the kingdom. I repeat that I e.\])cct to find you all feul as strongly as I do on the subjcLt, end that you will unanimously agree with me, at least in the sulistanco of the resolution^ which I now offer to your notice : — "I. That the effect of the present beer-shop system is to deteriorate iu the greatest degree the character and value of the agricuUuial labourer, tending as it does to encourage habits of idleucss, dissipation, and dishonesty. 2ndly. That as all other classes necessarily suffer, it becomes the duty of every one to use his utmost exertion to hasten the siippressioa of these sources of crime. 3rdly. That iu the opinion of this club the labourer should have every opportunity given him (or brewing tlic beer he requires, or for procuring it on fairer and cheaper terms ; and that the reteutiou of the IMalt-tax is to him, as a consumei of tliat his labour produces, both a serious oppression and a direct injustice." Mr. Sidney said : I take the earliest opportunity of mailing some remarks on the subject introduced by IMr. Ilobbs, not from a feeling of presumption, but because agreeing wiih him mainly in the facts which be has brought under your notice. I have taken a different view of those facts, and I think it may be useful to the association that the gentlemen who will follow me, and whose talents and experience qualify them to express an opinion on agricultural and rural subjects, should have an opportunity of commenting on the observations I am about to make. I should not thus early have intruded myself on your attention, but this happens to be one of those subjects which I have had more than ordinary op- portunities of studying. Having paid great attention to the efforts made to promote emigraiion to some of our colonies, I have Lad great facilities for judging the cha- racter of our peasant population. I quite agree with Mr. Ilobbs that you will tind iu the beer-shops of the rural districts the haunts in which the poacher and the thief constantly assemble. There, the man who bad begun with being a good husband, a good father, and a good servant, gradually acquires the habit of poaching, which perhaps leads to thieving, and in the end he himself is punished by the law, and his family are left a burden upon the parish. Indeed, if we only compute the taxes thus arising from gaols and workhouses, we may perhaps be led to the conclusion that wages themselves bear a small propor- tion to the amount thus thrown on the district. But while I agree with Mr. Hobbs s) far, I must say that you take a narrow view of the question if you imagine that you can stop the stream of crime by merely abolish- ing beer- shops, and other sources of vice (Hear, hear). It won't do to attempt to treat your rural population as if they were rats ; stopping up their holes, and so mend- ing their ways (laughter). You must go a great deal further (Hear, hear). You must take away from tbem the taste for such haunts, or work will be only half done (Hear, hear). If it were beer-shops alone that created 2 K 2 494 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. crime, whut would be the position of the working classes in our large towns ? Every one must admit tl:at the means of drinking have very much increased of lute years. Gin shops flare at the corner of every street, and in every locality attractions and incitements to drinking are held out. But is it the fact that our mechanics in the present day are greater drunkards than their fathers were ? So far from that being the case, you have only to enquire of their masters to find that the character of our mechanic population is very much improved. A few years ago it was almost a proverb that the good workman was the great drunkard. But a short time ago, having an opportunity of going through the manu- factories of Birmingham, I asked some questions on this subject, and the masters told me that so far from the case being as it was formerly, they would not have a drunkard in their establishment. Now, to what can we attribute this change .' We can attribute it to nothing, whether as regards bodies or individuals, but the su- perior education which is found among the working classes (Hear). Now, mind, when I say education, I don't refer to the mere spread of writing ; for, as was said by an eloquent writer, reading and writing is no more education than a knife and fork is a dinner. (Hear, hear, and laughter). Education is that which fits a man for the duties of the state in which he is placed, that which makes him a better father, a better husband, a better servant. That is the sort of education, however, which has been going on to a great extent in our towns. I say emphatically in our towns ; and I will give an example. There is the manufactory of Mr. Chance, the great glass manufacturer, who supplied all the glass for the Crystal Palace. A few years ago he was quite satisfied if his men did their work and received their wages ; but he told a friend of mine that he found that it paid him —not to speak of the Christian obligations which one man is under to another — it paid him to have a school- master and a school, and to secure a good education for his workmen. (Hear, hear). Again, if I travel to the cotton districts I find that, whereas a few years ago the character of the working population was generally de- bauched or degraded, a great improvement has taken place recently. Mr. Gregg and other large manu- facturers have discovered that it pays them to support schools, and to take care that those whom they employ are properly educated. Let me now turn from our manufactories to our soldiers. It is very well known that soldiers are usually selected from the most dissipated and debauched portions of our population ; and as the most dissipated and debauched persons must, like the rest of the community, live somewhere, it is well perhaps that they should live under discipline. Now it is not many years ago since it was not at all uncommon for soldiers to receive 500 lashes at once for military offences. Public opinion rose up against this. It was thought too cruel a practice to exist in such a country as this. In op- position to the opinion of some of the highest mili- tary authorities, a change was efFeetcd ; and now flogging is, as you are aware, a very rare occurrence. ISow, what is the state of the army at the present mo- ment? It has been acknowledged bv the highest au- thorities that it nevir was in a higher stale of disci- iiline. But how lias this come about ? Why, at the same time tiuit flogging was virtually abolished, mili- tary schools were established ; and the army was never so well educated as it is now'. Within a few years means have been provided for giving private soldiers an education superior to that which is possessed by num- bers belonging to the middle classes ; and hence it is that the discipline of the army has not suffered, not- withstanding the discontinuance of corporeal punish- ment. I trust you will excuse me for entering at length into this matter, fori know it has an important bearing on the question. \Ve have now an opportu- nity every year of considering the state of education in . this country; and although the reports published an- nually show a very great improvement in the state of education in our towns, and in the army and navy, I find it stated in tho^e same reports, that when the In- spectors go into the rural districts they meet with very great discouragements and very great obstructions. ('* No, no," from Mr. \V. Bennett.) I hear a gentleman say, "No, no." I am very glad to hearhim njake that de- nial, and I have no doubt, from his character, that in the district in which he lives the case is not as I have represented it to be generally. (Hear, hear.) But I refer those who doubt the correctness of what I say to the annual reports on the state of education. You are aware that a very large sum is voted annually for the purpose of promoting education. Thvit sum is distributed in proportion to the subscriptions raised for the object; and it is a lamentable fact that while the clergy throughout the kingdom have, very much to their honour, exerted themselves vigorously and subscribed largely, the landowners and the farmers have not backed their efforts ; they have not, as a body, indorsed them, if I may use the expression. Now, in speaking on this subject, I feel that it is desirable to rest upon facts ; and I have some facts before me which tend to bear out my statement. I find here the following case [referring to a paper] . — It is a parish wholly agricultural. The landowner derives £4000 a-yoar from it, and he subscribes £1 a-year to the school. In another case a landowner receiving £3000 a-ycar subscribes £1. There are many of the landed proprietors, some of whom arc opposed to it, and tlie others do not subscribe. There are four farmers who subscribe 5s. a-piecc. Now, when you consider what is the position of the agricultural — The Chairman : Excuse me ; everything you have said may be connected with the subject, but is not quite to the point ; and, besides, I am afraid that if you pro- ceed as you are doing, you will not be able to condense your observations within the prescribed twenty minutes. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Sidney : I am glad of the interruption. When interrupted I was just about to say, when you consider what the labourer is ; when you consider that he often lives in the most miserable dwelling — the cottages of the labouring classes throughout the kingdom being, I am sure, very different from what you would wish them to be— (Hear, hear) ; when you consider what is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49c the position of a man without education, without a com- fortable home, too often without sufficient fuel to warm himself — can you consider it extraordinary that under such circumstances he should bo found at the beer-shop, where he finds companions of his own class, and hears jests which, whatever else may be said of them, he can at least understand ? I dare say many of you remember that when Sir Robert Walpole, a most accomplished scholar, was asked why at his excellent dinners the con- versation was always so obscene, his reply was, " Why, the company can all understand that." So it is with the labourer when he frequents the beer-shop. You must, then, support the clergy in his efforts to educate the labouring population at an early age, and to train them in habits of virtue and discipline. Labourers should be led to cultivate something higher than those tastes which they have in common with the brute. The brute can eat and drink ; and the man whose tastes are no higher will seek his gratification at the beer-shop. The government now encourages education on a plan which tends to fit those who receive it for the state they are to occupy ; and it was to this part of the question that I was anxious to direct your attention. I am quite sure there are many present who are much more capable of dilating on the subject than myself (cheers). Mr. R. Baker, of Writtle, said : On this question we have now before us two opposite opinions — opposite in so far that the means of arriving at the end set forth by my friend Mr. Hobbs on the one hand, and by Mr. Sidney on the other, are entirely distinct. Mr. Hobbs is for abolishing beer-houses, that is, getting rid of the hole at which the rats enter. (Loud cheers.) Mr. Sidney is for teaching these rats not to enter the hole ; and though that is, I conceive, a distinct question, it is one which bears very closely on the interests of agricul- turists. (Hear hear.) I think that on these occasions it should be our endeavour to keep to as close the card as we could (Hear, hear) ; and if any gentleman wishes to view the question in another light, and to consider, for example, how far education may tend to remove the evils complained of, he will have an opportunity of pro- posing that subject, and showing how education would improve the labouring classes. The question, how- ever, which we have to consider to-night, is how the establishment of beer-houses has operated with regard to the labourers at large. I quite agree with Mr. Hobbs that it has been very injurious to the labourer, though I take a rather different view of the injury from that which he takes. There were before established tliroughout the whole of England licensed victualler's houses. To those houses the labourers used to resort, because there were no other houses at which beer could be sold. At those houses, also, it was customary for the trading portion of the villages, and other parties, to meet occasion- ally, and whenever and wherever the labouring man entered such a place he was liable to be observed by others who entered at the same time. But the case is very different with respect to beer-shops ; and perhaps the best comparison which could have been made in reference to them was to compare them to a rat-hole. There labourers meet and talk ; there they concert measures ; and thence they come out, too often ripe for any desperate act. It has been proved in various courts of justice in this country that it is at such places that plans of iniquity are formed in the rural districts ; and that is the ground on which I so strongly object to beer-houses. There was a remarkable case in my own parish which led to my attention being specially directed to the subject. A neighbour of mine said to a brewer in the parish, who possessed a large number of beer- houses — " I wish, sir, you would take steps to have better order kept in your houses ; for I have been obliged to discharge three of my servants who frequented a house close by my gate." His reply was — " I sup- pose it is the business of the man who keeps the house to sell beer, and if it is his business I suppose he will do it ; and it is your business to have proper servants." That was the answer. The case might be as was stated, but the temptation never existed before that house was established ; and it is at such places that nearly all the mischief which occurs in the rural districts is concocted. I do consider that the licensed victuallers' houses were amply sufficient for all the purposes for which they were established. They have materially suffered by the esta- blishment of beer-houses, and you have travellers now complaining that they are often put to great inconve- nience in consequence. In the parish in which I live there is only one manufactory, and that is a brewery ; but there are fourteen public-houses and beer-houses. There are seven public-houses, the rent varying from £20 to £40, while the average is £26 10s. There are also seven beer-houses, which chiefly belong to one brewer, and wherever a public-house is established the brewer sets up a beer-house. The parish contains 8,000 acres. Now, taking these fourteen houses into ac- count, and assuming that the public-houses pay i£'26 10s. rent, and that the beer-houses pay £8 (which they must do in order to be licensed), and assuming that the rent, rates, taxes, servants, and the whole establishment costs i£'100foreach,whichis, Ithink,avery moderate estimate, if these people get, as they say they do, 25 per cent., there must be a sum equivalent to i?5,600 turned over in the parish to enable them to realize that £100. It has been a matter of astonishment to me whence this money comes, because our parish is entirely an agricultural one. I admit that a certain number of persons travel through it ; but, on the other hand, those who travel out of it spend as much. It is evident, however, that if 14 public houses and beer houses can exist in the midst of a rural population like ours, a very large proportion of the wages of the labourers must reach them (Hear, hear). Mr. Mechi. — What is the population .' Mr. Baker. — Between two and three thoiasand. Now as to the question whether beer houses have injured agriculturists, I contend that they have done so to a very great extent. That labourers have not proper dwellings — that they frequently have not even sufficient fuel, I grant — but I also say, having been amongst them all my life, that their comforts are very much increased (Hear, hear), that they have better houses than they formerly had, and are better clothed and fed. This demoraliza- tion, then, which goes on increasing in spite of these 49(5 THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. improvements, does not arise entirely from the want of education or of comforts. It arises from another source : it arises from the facility with which men meet together in beer houses ; it arises from their meeting together night after niglit, staying as late as they please, and being exposed to all kinds of temptations. This is the source of the mischief, and this is the point which we are met to discuss to-night. Mr. Ilobbs introduced the subject, in my opinion, very ably. He showed clearly that beer houses have been very injurious, and that they rciight be done aw;iy with in the rural districts with ad- vantage, not only to the occupiers of the soil, but to the labourers themselves. I, for one, would see beer sold over the counter, but not to be drunk on the premises. The licensed victuallers' houses are the proper places for the labourers to go to if they go anywhere; there they would be under observation, and would not have facili- ties for plotting mischief; but these skullnng-places, these rat-holes, where men assemble night after night, do an immense amount of mischief. In one house in my village I have at 11 or 12 at night heard dancing and fiddling, and the most riotous noises. I once called upon the parties, and said to them — "You have no right to do this." They replied — " Yes, we have; Mr. , the manager at the brewery, has ascer- tained that, as the population exceeds a certain number, we have a right, and we shall do as we please." It may be so ; but if it be, the law should be amended. I feel with Mr. Hobbs that this question is a most important one ; I feel that the public generally sustain great injury from these houses, because they are the private haunts at which poachers and other offenders meet to arrange tbeir depredations. Mr. AiCKESON said : I should not have said anything on this subject had it not been, as it were, forced on my attention in connection with the late Frimley murder. For several years I resided in Sussex, and, strange to say, when I saw the names of the parties concerned in the various robberies which had occurred, I traced three out of four as having begun with me as ploughboys. The instant I saw their names I could trace their career of crime commencing at a beer-shop in Sussex, where villany of every kind was plotted. I (raced them from the age of thirteen up to twenty- Ihree. I knew where the mischief began, and for many years tried to correct it. I can therefore confirm the testimony of Mr. Ilobbs that the seeds of evil in the rural districts are sown in the beershops ; and if we are convinced of that fact, we eight not to rest uniil we have done something towards putting an end to these mischievous haunts (Hear, hear). Mr. W. Shaw said : I feel with those who have pre- ceded me, that we are greatly indebted to Mr. Ilobbs for bringing this subject before the notice of the club, and, through the club, of more important bodies in this country; and whilst I regret to be obliged to admit t'lat my convictions, arising from daily observation, go to the full extent that plots are laid at beer-houses, and carried out through arrangements there made, I enter- tain by no means a sanguine opinion that the evil would be got rid of by the abolishing of beer-shops. (Hear, h»ar). As I before said, T feel that we are indebted to Mr. Hobbs for calling attention to the subject ; and al- though there seemed to be a difference of opinion just novv' as to whether the question of a remedy was in- volved in the discussion to-night, I must confess that upon reading the subject on the card, I feel that we ought not to confine ourselves to the simple admission of the fact that beer-houses are an evil — that we should stop very short indeed of any useful result to arise from this discussion if we did not endeavour to point out some means of remedying the evil. (Hear, hear). It was observed by one gentleman, in reference to what fell from my friend opposite ( Mr. Sidney), that we should confine our observations to tlie effects of beer-shops, or I will use a stronger term, the effects of drunkenness (Hear, hear) in the rural districts. (Hear, hear). But I think we shall be quite within the mark if we argue from the analogy of what has taken place, or is taking place in other classes of society. The operative class of society has been adverted to by the gentleman who spoke immediately after I\lr. Hobbs, and therefore I will not occupy the time of the club by speaking of that class. But I will go to a higher class, and I will ask whether there are not individuals in this room who, like myself, can remember the time when, amongst men having the advantage of a good education, they were accustomed to witness scenes at the tables even of the highest in the land which would now be considered almost disgraceful even at the table of the labourer .' I have no hesitation in saying that in my early days, at one of our highest seats of learning, the indulgence of the table, and especially of the bottle, was such as is now never seen in any of the middle or higher circles. I would ask you, with respect to the alteration which has taken place in the habits of the higher classes, in i*eference to such inditlgence, has it arisen from the locking the cellar-door, or the placing a higher duty on port and brandy ? or is it not rather the result of a higher state of mental cultivation, that we no longer see gentlemen in that state in which, within my remembrance, every man at the festive board was ex- pected to be before he left it ? (laughter). Now, gentle- men, in my opinion, if we would remedy this evil amongst the agricultural labourers, wc must go to the root of it. This we shall do by making the labourer's home comfortable, by affording him the rational enjoyments which he has a right to expect after his labour is over, by elevating his moral character, by raising him in his own opinion and in the opinion of others, by giving him a taste for something better than those sensualities which now form the only enjoyments he is cajiable of appreciating (Hear, hear). The remarks adverted to by our friend, Mr. Ilobbs, as h^.ving been made by one learned Judge, and the observations of other Judges and Chairmen of Quarter Sessions to the same effect, are no doubt perfectly true ; but I think you will find that many other learned Judges have taken a more philo- sophical course than that of merely stating a fact ; they have also inculcated on those whom they have addressed that greater solicitude should be shown for the labourer, and that endeavours should be made to amend his condition, to elevate him in his own esteem. It is unfortunate for Mr, Hobbs that in liis own county, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4[): Essex, and ia two or tlires adjoining counties, as appears from some elaborate articles wliich have appeared in the MorniiKj Chronicle, the condiiion of the labourer is more degraded than in almost any other part of the kingdom. It has been shown by statistics that there is more incendiarism, and that there are moi"e crimes generally in that district, than almost anywhere else in this country. Now, I feel persuaded that all crimes are to be lessened by means of a sound education ; such an education as was spoken of by Mr. Sidney— an education that will teach a man what are his duties in life, and stimulate him to their performance. I accidentally met with to-day an extract from the writings of a much-ad- mired writer of this country (Southey) ; and it struck me as being peculiarly applicable to the subject of discussion this evening. Southey, speaking of rational and irra- tional creatures, remarks : " Animals go rightly, accord- ing to the ends of their creation, when they are left to themselves ; they follow their own instincts, and are safe. But it is otherwise with man. The ways of life are a labyrinth for him. His infancy does not stand more in need of a mother's care than his moral and intellectual faculties require to be nursed and fostered ; and when these arc left to starve for want of nutriment, how in- finitely more deplorable is his condition tlian that of the beasts which perish !" I fear it is too often the case in this country— though latterly a great deal more atten- tion has been paid to the subject— that the labouring classes have been regarded as beasts of burden, and so far as mental cultivation is concerned left to run wild ; the result being what Southey so eloquently depicts. I will not trouble you with any more observations, but at once proceed to read a resolution I intend to propose as an amendment to Mr. Hobbs's resolutions ; not in any spirit of opposition to his views, but as recording my own opinions on the subject : — "Fully admitting the evil consequences which result from the agricultural labourer frequeutiiig beer-shops, this club is of opinion that the misdiief can only be substantially and soundly remedied by improving their mental qualificatious ; thereby elevating their moral character, and promoting a taste for enjoyments of a higher order." Mr. W. Bennett said : I concur in most of the ob- servations of Mr. Hobbs, and I give him full credit for the able manner in which he introduced the subject : he has, I think, clearly shown the connexion which subsists between beer-houses and the moral condition of the rural districts. I agree also with Mr, Sidney, that education is needed in the rural districts ; but I cannot go along with him in his attempt to show that there is opposition to education in those disti-icts — (Hear, hear) — or when he says that the lower classes were neglected thei'e. If there be neglect, I am convinced that it is the exception, and not the rule. No person can have visited the rural districts much, writhin the last few years, without having perceived that on the part of the clergy and others there has been great attention paid, by means of Sunday- schools and otherwise, to the education of the rising ge- neration (Hear, hear). It is therefore too sweeping an accusation that the owners and occupiers of land throw impediments in the way of education, instead of fostering and encouraging it. I could give you Instance after instance, parish after parish, in which not merely the clergyman and the landowners, but the respectable in- habitants generally, are regular subscribers to educa- tional establishments, and are endeavouring to improve the mental condition of the labouring people in the neighbourhood. The son of our excellent chairman devotes a large part of his time to such efforts ; and I know other persons who are acting in a similar manner. I must say that the press — and I speak more especially of the London press — does not give the agricultural interest credit for anything like the amount of interest which it really feels on this subject. In fact, we are, as a body, most unjustly abused in this respect. It is too much the fashion for a large portion of the press, par- ticularly the free-trade portion, to abuse all who are connected with the rural population (Hear, hear). I maintain that education is attended to in the rural dis- tricts, though perhaps not to so great an extent as is de- sirable. Now, though the giving a good sound educa- tion is one of the most effective modes of preventing the evils which have been referred to ; still it does not follow that beershops do not cause great mis- chief (Hear, hear). Do not parents know that not- withstanding every effect which they may have made to bring up their children properly, to educate them well, and to instil into their minds right principles, they have still great reason to dread the effect of their coming in contact with bad company ? Are they not; always most anxious to keep them out of the way of temptation ? (Hear, hear). In like manner we have reason to dread the pest of beer-shops (Hear, hear). Such a pest are they that I have known persons who, after being brought up in the Sunday-school and day-school of the village, have yet turned out nuisances to society, in consequence, apparently, of the habits and con- nexions which they had formed at these places (Hear, hear) . I cannot help observing that it is a lamentable fact that while the amount of education given has in- creased, crime has not diminished (Hear, hear). Even allowing for increase of population, you would find it difficult to prove that crime has materially diminished in this country, notwithstanding all the efforts which have been made by the religious world, and all the facilities afforded for obtaining a sound education. Now I think one effect which the knowledge of this fact should have upon us is, to make us cautious that while attempting to do good on the one hand, we do not place tempta- tions in men's way on the other. Though I would not for a moment detract from the importance of Mr. Sid- ney's observations on the subject of education, I must deny that the owners and occupiers of land are indif- ferent to that subject ; and I must also press upon you the point that, indepemlently of the educational ques- tion, the evils of beer-shops are of a most fearful cha- racter. I agree with Mr. Baker, that beer-houses have lowered the character of the old-fashioned public- houses ; so that persons are often inconvenienced by not finding now such respectable places of resort as existed formerly. It is quite impossible to avoid mixing up the malt-tas with this subject (Hear, hear). We 498 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. have, in my opinion, a right to connect them. It is a striking fact that, although there is a great deal less malt made in the country, in proportion to the entire population, than was made in former times, yet we are not getting rid of demoralization among the lower classes. I have no doubt that the chief reason why the labouring poor resort to beer-houses is, that they have not at home those comforts to which they are entitled. I fully agree with those who contend tliat the poor have a right to a good malt beverage at home at the most reasonable rate ; and it is nothing to tell me that they have that beverage away from home, when I know that one effect is that the family is often in consequence left to starve. The malt-tax is a monstrous injustice. It would be unjust under any circumstances — it is especially unjust now. £<3 an acre is actually the tax paid on the barley grown on our farms ; and I am astonished that our Legislature can allow such a state of thing to continue. Mr. Mechi : I protest against Mr. Bennett's going into a subject which is connected with politics. The Chairman : I have always considered the repeal of the malt-tax an agricultural question, and not a poli- tical one (Hear, hear). Mr. W. Bennett : I consider the continuance of that odious tax a monstrous evil. It has been men- tioned as such before in the course of the discussion, and it is curious that any allusion to it should have so affected Mr. Mechi. It is certainly very unfortunate that when anything is advocated which would tend to benefit the farming interest generally, he manages to manifest some opposition to it. We have this question to deal with practically ; and we have a right to let the Legislature know what is our opinion respecting the matter (Hear, hear). I hold that the malt-tax has occasioned a great deal of immorality in the rural dis- tricts ; and although education is the first object, in order that the mind may be properly formed and dis- ciplined, still we must remove, as far as may be prac- ticable, the incentives to evil, if we would rear a labour- ing population which shall benefit the rest of the community. I will not detain you longer, but conclude by repeating that I entirely agree with Mr. Ilobbs, that beer-shops are a great curse to the country. Mr. Skelton said : Connected as I am with a popu- lation partly manufacturing and partly agricultural, 1 must say that I think Mr. Sidney and Mr. Shaw have overshot tlie mark in attributing so much of the evil in question to the want of education. I do know, from twenty-five years' experience, that in my own neigh- bourhood the agricultural labourers are pretty well edu- cated ; that the employers are men of well-regulated minds, who have tried to instil into the minds of their labourers right principles, and to train them to right conduct. The temptations of the beer-shops have, how- ever, been so great as entirely to over-ride, as it were, all previous teaching ; and I believe that the remarks of Mr. Hobbs, and of other gentlemen who have taken the same view as he did, have a much closer bearing on the remedy than those of gentlemen more connected per- haps with towns and with literature. I fully concur in the substance of the remorks made by Mr. Bennett ; and although, hke him, I should be glad to see educa- tion carried out to the fullest extent, I maintain, as the result of practical observation, that what is chiefly winted is the removal of those temptations which afford facilities for crime, and tend to degrade the poor. Mr. Mechi said : After the long and interesting dis- cussion which we have had, I will trespass but for a very few moments on the time of the meeting. With regard to the question more immediately before us, I am quite aware that beer-houses were established in order to cor- rect and remedy the evils which were considered to arise from the monopoly enjoyed by public-houses, and in order to give the labouring man an opportunity of ob- taining beer of a better quality, and at a cheaper rate than he had done heretofore. There can be no doubt, too, that the result has not justified the anticipations which were formed ; that what has occurred has been, in fact, merely the multiplication of an evil, and that, instead of doing any good, beer-houses have brought many of our rural districts into a lower state of morality. I must say, however, that I think there is very great force in the remarks of Mr. Shaw and Mr. Sidney with regard to education. The want of employment, too, has a ten- dency to draw men to the beer-shop. The effect of the expenditure of my money on a barren heath, where pre- viously there existed a very low scale of morality — the effect, I say, has been, as Mr. Hobbs, and every magis- trate of the county of Essex will tell you, to diminish, if not to extinguish, crime in my immediate neighbourhood. Statistics and the evidence before the Courts of Justice have settled that question. I really believe that the introduction of steam power into agricultural districts tends to give intelligence to labourers (laughter). I assure you there is a great difference between a man's knocking a barn-floor with a piece of stick from one year's end to another, and his having some acquaintance with a piece of machinery which is capable of perform- ing the same kind of work (Hear, hear). I mention this merely to illustrate my argument, that agricultural improvement has a direct influence on the labourer's mind. For depend upon it, gentlemen, the agricultural labourer has a mind as well as ourselves (Hear, hear). Let us imagine that we were debarred by local causes from meeting our friends in our several districts ; that we could not have any intercourse with each other, or make any exchange of thoughts, or any communication of intelligence. What would be the effect ? Why, there would be nothing to stimulate us, and the want of something of this kind would operate most injuriously. There must be a stimulus for the mind as well as the body. I hold with Mr. Sidney that you must seek to occupy the mind of the labourer when his body has ceased to labour. His mind is at rest while his body labours, and when the bodily labour has ceased, he will search for mental enjoyment of some kind ; and, under existing circumstances, he too often goes to the beer-shop, because it is there only that any stimulas or excitement is to be found. I oannot at all agree with Mr. Bennett, that education in the rural districts has yet reached its proper position (Hear, hear). No doubt an improvement has taken place of late years. When we see the state of I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 499 education here, as compared with its state in Scotland, and observe that we go to Scotland for Scotch gardeners and Scotch bailifts (a voice, " Not Scotch bailiffs"). I believe it is a fact that Scotch bailiffs are employed in England (Hear, hear) I was about to say that I regret that the education of many of our small farmers is so small in amount. I even meet with farmers who are unable to write their names, and such persons arc generally most anxious that tlieir children should receive that education of which they have them- selves felt the want. But while such things exist, do not lot it be said that education in the rural districts is in a proper position. I trust that on this subject we shall ere long adopt the Scotch system, and that every child will obtain education free. As to the beer shops, ne one can feel more strongly than I do that they have proved a great evil ; but there can be no doubt that when the Act passed, the evils which have arisen were not at all contemplated by the legislature. Mr. AicHESON said he regretted to hear that in the county of Essex, where Mr. Mechi's farm was situated, the wages of labourers did not exceed 7s. a week. One cITect (if such low wages being paid was to drive num- bers to poaching, and perhaps some persons even to thieving. Mr. Mechi observed that the wages were 7s. in some parts of the county and 8s. in others. Mr. Tatteiisall said— I must say that I think the discussion this evening has taken an extraordinary turn. Since I first became a member of the Club it has not been my lot to hear any subject brought forward more ably than this was by Mr. Ilobbs. I think his argument sound, and I feel that we are greatly indebted to him for having introduced the question in the manner that he did. I cannot speak with equal approval of the ad- dresses which immediately followed that of Mr. llobbs. The first person who succeeded him was Mr. Sidney ; and I must say that that gentle- man appeared to me to address himself to a subject quite distinct from that on the card. That he spoke eloquently, that he delivered himself as a practical speaker, I do not deny ; but he certainly did not speak to the question on the card. (Hear, hear). No one now doubts that education improves the mind, the mind of the agricultural labourer as well as the mind of persons in a higher station of life ; and that was the utmost ex- tent of Mr. Sidney's argument. The only point which I could perceive in Mr. Sidney's speech was that gin- shops do not increase crime in towns, and therefore that beer-shops do not increase it in the country. It is, I confess, a new fact to me that gin-shops do not increase crime in towns. I am certain, from my own observation, that beer-shops do increase crime in the country. (Hear, hear). Mr. Shaw's remarks were very similar in their strain to those of Mr. Sidney, and tended to the same point. I repeat that while, on the one hand, no man will deny that schools are calculated to benefit the agri- cultural population, on the other hand no nian of ex- perience, no man who has studied the subject, can doubt that most of the crimes that are committed in the country originate at thebeer-?hopg (Hear, hear) ; and I must say that to put temptation in a man's path is a very likely way to lead him to commit crime. (Hear, hear). Many crimes arc concocted at the beer-shop which would pro- bably never be thought of otherwise. Nothing seems to me more reasonable than the arguments used for the re- peal of the malt-tax. Such a measure is an obvious means of getting rid of this nuisance. If we are to have free-trade in bread for the poor, why should we not have free-trade in beer for the poor .' (Hear, hear). The question lies in a nutshell. To give the poor man cheap bread, and then to refuse to allow him cheaji beer — this is a course which I cannot for the life of me understand. It is evident to my apprehension that the most effectual means of getting rid of beer-shops is to repeal the ma!t-tax. Mr. Acton concurred in the substance of the remarks of Mr. Hobbs, but he must say that he thought the ar- gument in favour of the repeal of the malt tax might very fairly be extended to tea and coffee (laughter). The Chairman : Don't let us go into the question of general taxation (Hear, hear). Mr. Sidney wished to make one or two remarks in explanation. Mr. Bennett appeared to imagine that he had designed to draw a comparison between the educa- tion afforded by agriculturists and that provided by manu- facturers ; that he meant it to be inferred that while the master manufacturers paid great attention to the educa- tion of the working classes in their own neighbourhood, landowners and occupiers of land were quite indifferent to the subject. He certainly had not intended to convey such an impression. He referred to particular instances, those of Mr. Gregg and Mr. Chance, because he consi- dered it necessary to specify ; but he was quite aware that there were a great many agriculturists who paid much attention to the promotion of education. It could, however. lie perceived on perusing the reports to which he had referred, first, that the education of the agricul- tural labourers generally is in a most lamentable state, and, secondly, that those gentlemen who travelled north, south, east, and west, to promote the extension and im- provement of education, met with considerable opposi- tion, not from all landowners and farmers, but from a great many. On this point he had referred to a parlia- mentary document open to all, Mr. HoBBs, in reply, said : The remarks of those gentlemen wlio have introduced the education question have led me to apprehend that tliey consider me opposed to the extension of education for the labouring classes (" No, no.") I considered it my duty to adhere as closely as possible to the question stated on the card, and on that account I omitted many suftjects which are doubtless connected with the improvement of the con- dition of the labourer. But I have always been an ad- vocate for endeavouring to benefit the labouring popu- lation by education (Hear, hear) ; and not by education alone, but by improving t!:e labourer's dwelling, by giving him a piece of ground to cultivate near his cot- tage, and by extending the law of settlement. These are things which I think would all tend to benefit the la- bourer. Still I feel that, while making efforts to carry out these objects, we should also endeavour to remove from the labouring man the temptations afforded by 500 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. beer-shops (Hear, hear). It is not my intention to make many remarks on the subject, ia addition to those whicli I made in introducing it. I fycl very much gra- tified by the manuer in which my introdactory ob- servations have been received by you. The question itself is one which has excited a great deal of interest among practical farmers in various parts of England. Since the notice was given in two agricultural papers at the commencement of last week, I have re- ceivcd several letters on the subject from different parts of the coinitry, including one which came only this afternoon from Mr. Milburn, of Yorkshire, inclosing a copy of a pamphlet written by him in reference to tliis question. In a letter from a gentleman in Hereford- shire, it is stated that the beer and cider shops in that county have been productive of a great deal of mischief. With respect to the rate of wages, I am sorry that my county (Essex) occujiies so low a position. At the same time I must be permitted to observe that the amount of wages is not always a criterion of the moral character of our labourers (Hear, hear). You must all remember that a few years ago, Kent and Sussex, the two counties of the whole kingdom in which perhaps the highest rate of wages prevailed, were also distinguished for the pre- valence of violent offences against the law. Incendia- rism and the breaking of machinery were more common in those two counties than in any other part of the country (Hear, hear). It cannot, therefore, be said tliat the rate of wages always regulates the character of the labourer. Besides, I am one of those who contend that the wages of agricultural labourers, like those of manu- facturing operatives, must depend, to a great extent, on supply and demand (Hear, hear). I will not detain you any longer, but at once conclude by again reading the resolutions which I have to propose, premising before I do so (hot I am not bigotted to my own words. Mr. Hobbs then read the resolutions inserted at the end of his opening speech, and formally moved their adoption. Mr. TATrERSAM. seconded the motion. Mr. Shaw then moved the amendment appended to his foregoing speech. Mr. Mechi seconded the amendment. After a desultory discussion Mr. Hobbs's resolutions were adopted. The Chairjian said : Before wc part I should like to make one or two remarks. It has been observed by several gentlemen that the education question is of great importance, I think it is, and I am of opinion that it would at some future day form a very good subject for discussion ; but it appears to me that merely to connect it, as it has been connected this evening, with the question on the card, is not doing such a subject that justice which it deserves (Hear, hear). I hope it will be borne in mind when the subjects liave to be selected for another year ; and it may then be brought forward with much greater advantage than it could possibly be when dove- tailed on to the beer-shop question. (Hear, hear.) On the motion of Mr. Tattersali, seconded by Mr. Skclton, a vote of thanks was given to Mr. Hobbs, for the able manner in which he had brought forward the question. Mr. Hobbs having briefly returned thanks, said, as tliey were approaching Christmas, the period at which the subjects were selected for the ensuing year, the com- mittee would feel particularly obliged to members who would send in questions with a view to their discussion. It was most important that they should have a sufficient number of subjects to select from ; and as he hoped all the members felt that the club had been of advantage to agriculture, so he trusted they would aid the committed in the manner v/hich he had suggested. Tiiis terminated the evening's proceedings. THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. [from the times' commissioner.] Durham, Dec, 1850, The usual system of cultivation ])r£ictised by the clayland farmers of Durham is a " three course," viz,, (1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) one-half oats and one-half clover. Nearly the whole of the fallow is managed as a bare fallov/, there bei)ig very little green crop cultivated. Occasionally this rotation is prolonged l)y pasturing the clover a second j'ear. The stock kept is quite inconsiderable, Tlirec cows and six young cattle to 100 acres may be about an average stock for the clay farms. As this stock is badly wintered (2i acres of inferior turnips per 100 acres being the average extent of the tur- nip croj)), the home supply of manure can be neither rich nor plentiful. To meet rent and the expenses of cultivation, the farmer's sole dependence is on his wheat crop, a little also being received from that portion of the hay crop which he sells off the farm. As a general rule no manure, except hme, is purchased. That is laid upon the bare fallow in ])reparation for Vv-hcat. The system is very exhaust- ing ; a bare fallow, stimulated by lime, is sown with wheat, which is followed by oats or hay. Each return of this rotation further reduces the soluble properties of the soil, as these are not restored by the small quantity of inferior manure applied in nearly the same proportion in which they are ab- stracted. The same farm, wliich 30 years ago ave- raged from 20 to 24 bushels of wheat, and 30 to 3G bushels of oats per acre, is now, under this pro- cess, reduced to 14 bushels of wheat and 18 to 20 bushels of oats. One farmer assured us that his oats did iiot last year average more than 10 bushs, an acre, Diminisliing produce , and lov/cr i)rices are producing their natural effect. The rents vary from Us, to l6iS: an acre; tithe and rates 3s, Gd, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 501 an apre more. The evil here is not higli rents, liut | defective in-oduce. If the fanner ])ai(l no rent he could not continue this system with present prices and liave a profit. In a rotation of six years he has— £ s. d. Two crops of wheat, 11 bushs. an acre each, 28 bushs., at 5s. . . ..700 One crop of oats, '20 bushs., at 2s. 4d.. . 2 G 8 One crop of hay, 1 \ ton, at £3 . . . . 4 10 0 Two bare fallows 0 0 0 His expenses, exclusive of rent, will be— Six years' tithes and rates, at 3s. 6d. an acre . . 110 Bare fallow — Ploughing and har- rowing, live times, at Us 2 15 0 Lime, once in 12 years, proportion for three years. . 0 10 0 Seed wheat, two bushs., at 5s. . . 0 10 0 Harvest, inclusive of carting and stacking . . 0 14 0 Thrashing and mar- keting . . . . 0 5 0 £5 15 0 This process, repeated twice. . 11 10 0 Oat crop, seed, labour, and harvest expenses . . Cloverseed and laljour £13 IG 8 2 1 2 7 0 G .._ 1 4- 1 0 n cn ,. 1 2 10 . . 4 10 0 . . £5 12 10 Deficiency, besides rent. . Add rent, six years, at 15s. an acre Total deficiency on six acres An increase of price to the extent of 2s. Gd. per bushel on his wheat, and Is. 2d. on his oats, would not make good this deiiciency; so that neither a re- duction of rent nor an increase of 50 per cent, in the present prices will make this farmer's business profitaUo. There is no remedy possible here but a l)etter system of farming and an increased produce. To this j)oint Lord Londonderry particularly directed the attention of his tenantry by a jniblic letter addressed to them in January last. After pointing out the inevitable consequences of an ad- herence to the common system of two crops and a fallow, he recommended a change, the main prin- ciple of which was to get rid of successive corn crops, and to substitute green cro])s for bare fallow. In order to accomplish this he proposed — 1st, to drain the land in the best manner, charging 5 ]«r cent, on the outlay ; 2nd, to improve the buildings and foldyards, so that the stock might be kejit lui- der cover, and their provender l)c economically consumed ; 3rd, to make liquid manure tanks to receive the drainage of the liouses and folds ; 4th, to give his tenants, gratis, from one to two cwt. of guanO; or an equivalent of dissolved l.)ones, to be appliei], in addition to the manure made upon the farm, to green cro])s ; 5th, to i)rovide a supply of bones and guano for sale to tiie tenants at cost jirice, and to erect a bone-mill and apparatus for dissolving l)ones ; the use of which was to be given to such of the tenants as chose to avail themselves of it. Such measures as these, if zealously carried out, cannot fail to be attended with the best permanent eft'ccts on the interests of both tenant and landlord. We saw them in operation on the farm of Barm- ston, on the river Wear, a strong, ])oor clay, re- duced by the system already described to such a state of sterility that it was abandoned to the land- lord as vitterly hopeless. One field of the last tenant's pasture still remains to attest its condition. On this there had been no stock during the whole summer, as it was considered incapable of feeding anything to advantage. The whole summer's grass, therefore, is at present on the ground ; and a vejy miserable, white, scanty, innutritions herbage it seems to be. Lord Londonderry has taken this farm into his own management ; and under the di- rection of Mr. Gibson, his able agent, every field is being thoroughly tile-drained. The drains are uniformly made in parallel lines, S yards apart, and from 3^ to 4 feet in depth, the soil being of nearly uniform quality ; and no regard is had to the old crooked lines of ridge and furrow. The land is then ploughed as deeply as two powerful horses can move it ; and, after being v/rought and cleaned in spring, it received 20 loads of ashes and G cwt. of guano per acre ; and is then sowed with swedes. The crop at present on the ground after this management is not less than from 20 to 25 tons an acre. These are drawn for consumption in the buildings, and are followed by wheat, which is sown out with clover. The wheat crop of this year will yield 32 bushels an acre, on land which three years ago had all the ai)pcarance of having been reduced to a caput moriimm. By this change a heavy crop of swedes is substituted for the equally expensive but totally unproductive bare fallow. These are profitably consumed by cattle, which leave a large supply of rich manure to in- crease the productive powers of the soil; the one- year's wheat crop of 32 bushels is more valuable than the two wheat crops of tlie former system; in short, the ascending scale of fertihty is begun, and the ruinous descending scale of exhaustion is abandoned, A necessary supplement to the substitution of green crops for bare fallow on this description of soil is increased house accommodation, as turnips cannot be eaten on the ground on these strong lands. The house accommodation at jn-esent is in- ferior and inadequate, AVherc so much has to be done, it is very imjiortant that some economical mode of construction be adopted; for the expendi- ture recommended ])y most of our book authorities would swamp a landlord altogether. Whilst we certainly should desire something of a more jier- manent cliaractcr, we subjoin the particulars of an estimate and specification drawn up by Mr. Gibson, wl/. h may l)e useful to landlords, as exhibiting a clu';.}) method of affording increased accommoda- tion to their tenants, With care, this may last a 502 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. considerable number of years, until a landlord is gradually able to get over his whole estate with buildings of a more permanent and substantial de- scription. The system of stall-feeding is adopted as the most economical in first cost, and believed to be at least equally profitable as compared with any other in the progress of the stock. Close wooden sheds are proposed to be erected, 15 feet wide inside, with a feeding-passage in front, and a cleaning passage behind the cattle. The sheds are to be made of home-sawn wood, and roofed with the same, coated with coal-tar. Inside, they are to be fitted in the usual manner with stalls, mangers, doors, &c. The whole may be so erected at a cost of 10s. per head, where the timber is got free of expense on the estate. If the value of the timber is added, the cost will be 30s. per head. A shed 70 feet long by 15 feet wide inside, aftbrding ac- commodation for 20 cattle in stalls, 7 feet to each pair, will cost as follows : 34,000 superficial feet 1-inch deal, at £ s, d. 12s. per thousand 20 8 0 50 larch posts, at 8d 1 13 4 40 couple sides, at 8d 1 G 8 20 baulks, at lOd 0 16 8 1 70 feet wall-plate, at Id 0 14 2 170 feet runners, at Old 0 7 1 2 barrels coal tar, at 5s. in Durham . . 0 10 0 Nails. 110 0 Workmanship , 2 14 1 £30 0 0 On Lord Durham's estate an attempt has been made to introduce the Northumberland or five- course system, but the tenants do not take to it kindly. The farms average 200 acres in extent. During the last 10 years, £14,000 have been ex- pended in drainage by the landlord, the tenants being charged 5 per cent, on the outlay. The average rent may be from 25s. to 30s. an acre, and tithe 5s. to Gs. an acre. Lord Durham last year allowed 20 per cent, of the rent to be expended in drainage, buildings, and manure. The four-course is the common system on Lord Ravensworth's estate, which extends some miles westward from Newcastle, on the south bank of the Tyne. The land is generally of superior qua- litj-, and is let at rents varying from 40s. to £3, and as much as £4 an acre in the vicinity of the town. The landlord executes drainage at a charge of 5 per cent, on his tenants. The farms vary in extent from 50 to 200 acres : they are held from year to year, but the same families hold their farms for ge- nerations. The demand for milk in this populous neighbourhood is good, a good cow's produce being reckoned to be worth £20. Other articles of farm produce, such as potatoes and other vege- tables, are equally in demand, and at remunerative prices. Manure in any quantity can be purchased at a moderate rate, the best quality costing 3s. Gd. per two-horse load, and a second quahty is deh- vered on the estate by railway, at a cost, including carriage, of 3s. ])er double horse-load. Notwith- standing these advantages, the tenants are not in a very prosperous condition. Some buy manuie ex- tensively, and use their opportunities with spirit ; but too great a number, we were told, have neither capital nor intelligence. The most improving tenants on the estate, and the men of most enter- prise, are said to be innkeepers and butchers from Newcastle, who carry their business habits and intelligence into the management of their farms. Contiguous farms of the same quality and rent vary in their produce many bushels an acre, according to the energy and command of capital possessed by their occupants. Lord Ravensworth has been giving temporary deductions to his tenants, but it is said that he now contemplates making a general permanent abatement of 12 to 15 per cent. Besides the population of the large towns in this county, Durham, Sunderland, Shields, Gateshead, and, on the other side of the Tyne, Newcastle, there are very numerous populous villages scattered through- out the eastern side of the county, all of which are occupied by well-paid colliers, good consumers of produce, and convenient customers for the farmer. One extensive coal-owner pays about £'10,000 in wages monthly, the greater part of which is spent in bread, meat, dairy produce, and beer, all in one way or other the produce of the farmer. He has thus every encouragement to exertion which good markets can give. But, besides this demand, he has likewise a ready sale for hay, large supplies of which are required by the numerous horses em- ployed al)ove and below ground at the different collieries. The horses employed at the collieries are of two classes, pit and waggon horses — the first a small compact horse for working in the pits underground, the other a larger and more powerful horse for drawing the heavy waggons on the surface. The usual feeding given to these horses is three bushels of oats and twelve stones of hay per week to each pit horse, and three and a-half bushels of oats and fourteen stones of hay to each waggon horse. Lord Londonderry's agent, Mr. Gibson, has eflFected a very considerable saving by giving the horses their food in a prepared state. The hay is cut into half- inch chaflf', oats and beans are crushed, and, besides the dry mixture, a certain proportion of each, with the addition of linseed, is given steamed for the evening meal. In this way two bushels of corn and seven stones of hay per week are found suflScient for the pit horses, and two and a-half bushels of corn and eight stones of hay for the waggon horses. We can testify to the good condition and spirit of the horses in this establishment ; and, as the same feeding is given to the farm horses on Lord Lon- donderry's farms, we think it may be useful to mention in detail the daily allowance of the PIT AND FARM HORSES. Dry feeding consists of cut hay and crushed oats and beans, all mixed together — Hay for each horse per day .. lllb. Oats and beans 12 — 23lb. Steamed feed — Hay 3 Beans 2 Linseed ,1 -^:6 Ul'i" Total daily allowance 29lb. I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 503 WAGGON HORSES. Dry feeding — Hay 12lb. Oats and beans 14 —261b. Steamed feed — Hay 3 Beans 3 Linseed 1 -- 7 Total daily allowance 33lb, The saving effected by this simple change in an establishment like Lord Londonderry's, where nearly 300 horses are constantly em])loyed in the different collieries and farms, must be very great ; according to our reckoning, considerably more than £1,000 a year. The Durham breed, or improved short-horns, are, of course, the prevalent cattle of the county. The north bank of the Tees is not now, however, so famous for this breed as it was once rendered by the celebrated Messrs. Collings ; the Yorkshire side of the river now bears the palm. Small "West Highland cattle are grazed in considerable numbers in the county. On the extensive farms which Lord Durham holds in his own management, a large number of one-and-a-half-year Highland heifers are bought at about 50s. each in autumn ; they are crossed next year with a short-horned bull, and the following year, after suckling their calves, they are fattened and sold at about £7 each. Another class, stots, are bought at the same age, and after being kept two years are sold fat in November at from £10 to £11 each. The cross-bi'ed calves, after being suckled by their dams, are put on good keep, and are turned out prime fat at three years old, the oxen then averaging 50 to 60 stones imperial, which, from the superior quality of the meat, sells at the highest figure per stone. The heifers, though of equal quality, are much smaller in size, and do not bring, within some pounds, the price of the oxen. We had an opportunity at the great Novem- ber cattle fair at Darlington of seeing a large col- lection of the cattle of the district, and though there were several superior lots, there were also too many of a description quite inferior to what might have been looked for in the immediate neighbourhood of Teesdale. The relations between landlords and tenants in this county present some very instructive points. The Duke of Cleveland's estate in Durham compre- hends the greater proportion of the county from the borders of Cumberland along the north bank of the Tees to within a few miles of Darlington. Within these limits are included many varieties of soil and climate, from the rich lowland arable farms at Denton and Pierce-bridge, to the exposed mountain grazings in Teesdale Forest. This extensive estate was valued fifty years ago, and during the period which has since elapsed the rent then fixed has undergone no change. There are no leases, but the tenants are hereditary, the same families, in in direct descent, occupying the same farms for centuries. One of the best farmers on the estate has in his possession a lease of the land he now oc- cuj)ies, granted to one of his ancestors in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Though the Duke has never allowed the scale of his rents to be changed, and admits no competition or interference with his he- reditary tenantry, he has not neglected the improve- ment of his estate. He keeps a drainage bailiff, to lay off and superintend the whole drainage on his farms, whether executed by himself or the tenant. He supplies tiles free of charge, the tenant being at the cost of putting them into the ground ; or, where stones are the material used, he i)ays two-thirds of the whole cost. He does not object to the removal of useless fences and hedgerow trees when they are shown to be injurious, and has encouraged the en- largement of arable fields where it promotes eco- nomy of labour. The cottages on the estate are generally held directly from his Grace, who in that case keeps them in good repair. The rents vary from 2s. to £2 a year, with gardens in all cases, and new cottages of a more commodious description are let at from £2 to £4 a year. Allotments not ex- ceeding a quarter of an acre, and now being limited to less, are let at from 32s. to 4Ss. per acre, all rates being paid by his Grace, and fences and roads kept in good order at his expense. The average size of the Duke's arable farms may be about 150 acres ; the largest on the estate does not exceed 500 acres. When the rent was fixed the valuation was low, the rent of very good arable and pasture land running from 15s. to 26s. an acre, tithe-free, and an inferior quality from 9s. to 15s. an acre. To the latter is generally annexed a right of pasturage on the adjoining moors, on which the Duke reserves the game, but gives his tenants the use of the pasture for stock rent-free. On this great estate, during the last fifty years, there have not been a dozen changes of tenantry. With so many favourable circumstances, one might have reasonably expected that the Duke of Cleveland, from his fine old feudal castle of Raby, would have looked down on a contented and pros- perous tenantry, disturbed by no complaint, but gratified by a reciprocal endeavour on their part to improve the estate, and render more fertile and remunerative to themselves the annual produce of their farms, in the entire benefit and enjoyment of which they are so amply and ungrudgingly secured. Truth constrains us to say that this is not so. As a class, the tenantry are neither wealthy, indus- trious, nor improving. Their easy rents have been made during a period of comparatively high prices with little exertion. The certainty they felt that no additional rent would be exacted, and that the son would, as a matter of course, succeed to his father on the same terms, led to an indolent feehng of security, unfavourable even to the accumulation of capital by saving, and incapable of that energy which is requisite to keep pace with the changing character of the times, and that acuteness which is necessary to turn those changes to the greatest advantage. The son not only succeeded to his father's farm, but to his father's system and preju- dices. He neither went elsewhere to leain, nor sought to learn anything new. This he was not likely to meet with in his own neighbourhood ; for the exclusion of fresh blood and the perpetuation of the same race of farmers, altogether irrespective 504 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. of their natural capacity for the hiisiness, prevented the benefit which would have been afforded by the example of a skilful and prosperous tenant, intro- duced from a district where agriculture was better understood. With rents in some instances 50 per cent, below that of neighbouring proprietors, and generally very much below the average of the sur- rounding country, they have neither improved their own condition nor drawn from the land v/hat it was capable of producing. Lower i^rices have found them even less prepared than their more highly- rented neighbours ; and the Uuke, in declining to make abatements, is not more exempt from com- plaint than other landlords who have not the same excuse. When we consider the circumstances imder u'hich this fixed rental has been unchangeably continued during the last fifty years, we shall be better al^le to appreciate the propriety of the arrangement. During that period the average price of wheat rose as high as 119s. Gd., and fell as low as 39s. 4d. a quarter. The pojjulation of the whole country has doubled, and that of this particular county had, within the ten years preceding 1S41, made a more rapid increase than that of any other county in England. The demand for all articles of consump- tion produced by the farmer, l)esides corn, must hav^e kept ]mce with the increase of tlie population. In the midst of this activity and industry we find a great estate standing still for half a century, the landlord declining to avail himself of the natural and legitimate benefits of his property, the farmer indolently letting slip the opportunities he possessed, the labourers increasing in numbers, but finding little or no increase of employment, and the increas- ing jiopulation forced to seek from abroad those supplies which the land in their own neighbourhood has failed to yield in sufficient abundance. How- ever much we may admire the beneficence and liberality and unselfishness of the Duke of Cleve- land, we cannot acquiesce in the wisdom of this arrangement. The principles by which the amount of rent regulates itself according to the varying circumstances of a country cannot, more than any of the natural laws, be laid aside with impunity. And though we should much more dejirecate the system of recklessly screwing a tenantry by inviting unfair competition and adopting every means which the present state of the law affords to unprincipled or heedless landlords for unduly enhancing their rents, we yet deem it right to state the circumstances of a case of a contrary character to show that the real interests of all — landlords, tenants, labourers, and the public — are injured by any practice which fails to keep jiace with the progressive improvements of the country. Whitehaven, Jan., 1851. The western division of Cumberland presents a much greater variety of soil and surface than the eastern. Its geological features comprise granite, clay-slate, trap, limestone, red sandstone, and coal. On its eastern boundary it is shut in by the lofty mountains of the lake district, from which it slopes in undulating ridges of greater or less elevation to its western boundary on the sea. With a sea-coast line of nearly fifty miles in length, it ])0ssesses numerous shij)ping ports, the principal trade of which is the export of coal. From Maryport to some miles beyond Whitehaven coal is raised close to the coast, and at ^Vhitehaven one of the best seams is worked for a considerable distance under the sea. The populous towns of AViiitehaven, Maryport, Workington, and others, along with the mining population scattered throughout the district, consume more agricultural jiroduce than it yields, so that West Cumberland is an importing county. A great change has been effected within the last half century by the inclosure of the commons, which before that time comprised nearly half the lowland of the district. Another peculiar feature of this division — not indeed confined to it, as it extends over the rest of Cumberland and the ad- joining county of Westmoreland — is the gradually diminishing numbers of the class called " states- m.en," or yeomen i)roprietors and cultivators of small estates, from 40 to 100 acres in extent. 'I'his class of men, formerly very numerous, and still in considerable number, have been located on their patrimonial estates for many generations. Their original possession is said by some to have been granted to them on condition that they should be ready to follow their lord or the warden of the marshes in repelling the border forays. The j'oung men of this class are in many instances zealous im- provers, but the older generation are strongly pre- judiced in favour of old systems, and generally very unwilling to advance with the progress around them, They arc comfortably housed, and as a class most industrious and economical. But they cannot easily accumulate wealth, as the eldest son gets tlie patrimonial estate, and the rest of the family the savings, increased very generally by small annuities payable out of the estate. These little properties are seldom subdivided, but every year they are being absorbed into the larger adjoining estates, either by unavoidable sale, arising from accumulated embarrassments, or by the offer of a tempting price, which the " statesman" thinks it imprudent to de- cline. In point of general intelligence they are not superior to farmers occupying the same extent of land, and are much inferior in education and enter- prise to the more considerable farmers, though as regards real property they may be the wealthier of the two. There are many known instances in which a " statesman," i)aying no rent, has become hope- lessly embarrassed, and a farmer succeeding to the occupation has both paid a fair rent and made a profit. The great proportion of the arable lands is held in farms of from 50 to ] 50 acres in extent, A con- siderable number occupy from 200 to 300 acres, and a few as much as 400 acres. Some hold on leases of 14 years or more ; but the principal estate in the district, that of the Earl of Lonsdale, is chiefly let by verbal contracts from year to year, without any stipulation whatever as to the mode of farming. Notwithstanding the absence of leases, the farmers on this estate are a very enterprising class ; and as the most i)erfect confidence subsists between the landlord and tenant, the latter most liberally invests his capital in the cultivation and permanent im- provement of his farm. When a farm, from any THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 505 cause, falls into his Loiilship's hauils, a good younfr tenant is carefully souH:litout; and as this has lon;^;- been the practice of tho estate, the fanners arc mostly selected men, vieinj^ with each other in the management of their farms. They have no tenant- rif/lit or repayment for unexhausted improvements, but they know that they are dealinj^' with a family which has always felt its own intereist identiiied with the prosperity of the tenantry. The climate of West Cumberland is of a pecu- liarly 'moist character, ranginjjf from 47 inches of rain at Whitehaven to as much as IGO in some parts of Borrowdale. When to this is added a soil, in many cases of very impervious character, it may be readily conceived that thorough drainage here is not only a necessary but a most difficult operation. There is so little vmiformity in the nature of the soil, that many varieties of subsoil are met with in almost every field. AVithin the last 20 years an immense extent of tile drainage has been made, gre.at part of which has proved comparatively of little effect, from having been done too shallow, IS to 30 inches was then the usual depth, and many thousand roods of drains put in at that depth are now being taken up and rolaid at from three to five feet deej), with the best effects. This greater depth was in- troduced into the county about four years ago by Mr. Parkes, who was employed by Lord Lonsdale to superintend the drainage of his estates. But Mr. Parkes, ])robably not sufficiently adverting to the difference in the quantity of rain water to be carried oft' by the drains in this county, as com- pared with some of the drier districts of England, adopted then a uniform rule of small pipes and wide intervals apart. To use the forcible language of Mr, Pusey : - " How can a fixed rule he laid down for the depth or distance of drains, or the size of the pipes, when one county has 25 inches of rain, and an other has 50 inches, to be carried off" by these drains ? If a man living in Oxfordshire said that inch-pipes would drain his land well, a voice from Cumberland might exclaim that it was absurd to use less than 1 ^-incli pipes, v/hich he found far the best. Yet the smaller pipe might be more comjietent to its duty in one place than the larger one in the other," It never can be safe to act altogether in defiance of local experience until we have had time to mature our own ; and, accordingly, further experience has shown that very wide intervals and excessive depth will not do for the soil of Cumberland, Four feet deep and seven to ten yards a]:)art are now the stan- dard on Lord Lonsdale's estate, an additional drain having been in many fields put in between the wide intervals which wereatfii'st unsuccessfully adopted. There are now established in this division of the county 27 drain-tile works, which are estimated by Mr. Dickenson to have produced, since their estab- lishment, 116,000,000 of draining tiles and pipes — a qiiantity sufficient for the drainage of 53,000 acres of land, at seven yards' distance betwixt each drain. A great deal, however, yet remains to be done. We have never seen in any district so great a num- ber of wheat fields with water oozing down their open furrows. The chief excellence in the farming of West Cum- berland is the successful management of the Swedish turnip crop. For this the soil aiid chmate seem to l)c ])cculiarly suitable. 40 tons an acre are said to be sometimes got, atid 20 to 30 tons are reckoned an average crop. The manure used is 20 carts of good farmyard manure and 2 cwt. of guano per acre. This is ])ut in ridges about 30 inches apart, on which, after being closed in by the douljle i)loHgh, the seed is sown from the 30th of April till the 30tli of May, the earlier the better. About the middle or end of October the crop is taken out of the ground, and stored in long slightly thatched narrow heaps for winter use. The tops are usually jdoughed into the ground as manure for the wheat crop, which is then immediately sown. Without further entering into a general state- ment, we may detail the management of a particular farm, which will better exhibit the peculiarities of system than any vague description. The farm of Moresby-hall, within three miles of Whitehaven, on the estate of Lord Lonsdale, contains 340 acres of land, in the occupation of Mr. Turner. He has no lease, no jirescribcd rotation of crops, and is never interfered with by his landlord as to the management he thinks it right to adojit. The lea is l)roken u\) and sown with oats, which yield 45 to 48 bushels an acre. The oats are followed by swedes and yellow turnips, in about equal portions, the land receiving 20 loads of good dung and 2 cwt, of guano per acre. The swedes yield from 20 to 30 tons, the yellov/ about 25 tons an acre. The swedes are all stored by the first week of No- vember, and the land then sown with wheat. On the high land not suitable for wheat half the turnip crop is drawn, to be consumed by sheep on the adjoining grass land in wet weather, and the other half is fed oft' on the land during periods of dry weather. This prevents the soil, which though drained is a moist clay, from being " poached" by the trampling of the sheep. The great object on this farm being to provide rich food for a lai'ge head of stock, there follows a peculiarity in the management at this stage, the benefits of which are daily becoming more generally appreciated. In- stead of taking a white corn crop after the turnips and laying it down with seeds, in the usual fashion, the land is laid to seeds without a cro]i. It is ploughed dry, well-harrowed and rendered smooth on the surface, and then sown with the following mixture of grass, clover, and rape; 2 cwt. of guano per acre having been previously scattered over it and slightly covered by the harrow — 2 pecks Itahan rye grass, 2 pecks perennial rye grass, 4lb. rib grass, 5lb. white clover, and 3lb. rape. The seeds ai'e covered by the roller, they grow rapidly, and are ready to be stocked with sheep in July. A ten- acre field of poor land,'sown last April in this man- ner, kept and fed 100 clijiped hoggets from the 20th July to the beginning of November. It is at pre- sent a rich deep green, and will be early ready for a heavy stock during tlie pixsent season. This lies two years in iiasture and is then ])loughcd for oafs again, which, from the high condition of the land, cannot fail to be bulky and productive. The wheat on the better land yields aljout 30 bushels an acre of the old English white variety, which, from having been long grown in the district, has become acclimated, and is found to stand a moist season 506 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. best. The wheat is sown with the usual mixture of grasses, part of which is mown and part depastured. Whatever has been mown is uniformly ploughed up the next spring for oats, as it does not afterwards yield good pasture; and the ])est farmers in this district find it their interest to have nothing in pas- ture that cannot keep a full and well-fed stock. The management of hay next deserves attention. Mr. Turner every year mows 35 acres of old land of fine quality, the same fields being mown every year. One half of this is top-dressed annually with 20 loads an acre of good manure, which is laid on either immediately after the hay is got, or in the months of October and November ; at all events while the grass is growing. The aftermath yields an abundant pasture for a large herd of short-horn cows. The crop of hay weighs about -2:^ tons per acre. Great attention is paid to managing it with the utmost expedition ; and by the fourth day, if the weather be favourable, it is carted to the hay barn, where it is at once stored, as it is got, for v/inter use. The hay barn is a large loft over the cow- house, and contains the whole of the hay given to the cows throughout the winter. Over the stable, for the fai-m horses, is a similar large loft, in which their winter supply of rye grass hay is stored in the same manner. The hay secured in this manner is of the finest quality, and proves the advantage of this careful management. During the summer this farm feeds 80 cattle, 40 of which are large short-horn dairy cows, and 300 sheep. In winter it keeps 40 cows, 20 cattle, and 150 sheep. The sheep are chiefly Cheviot lambs, bought in September, which are fed as already noticed, during the winter ; and after being shorn are sent off to the fat market in summer and autumn, as they become ready. Between wool and carcass they leave an increase of 20s, to 25s. each. The dairy cows, 40 in number, are kept for sup- plying Whitehaven with milk and butter. This number is regularly maintained in milk throughout the year ; those which have become dry being either fed oft" or sent to another farm and more moderate feeding, till they are ready again to take their place among the milking stock. The best heifer calves are reared to keep the stock good. The mode of feeding the cows is as follows :— On the 1st of No- vember the winter management begins. The cows are then kept constantly housed, excejjt being turned out, two or three at a time, for a few minutes daily, to the drinking pond. They receive turnips twice a-day, two stones' weight at each time. They receive likewise a cooked mixture of oats and tares, grown together for that purpose, and cut by the chaft"- cutter, then boiled with chafF, and given twice a-day, a bucketful to each cow at a time. The boiled mixture is placed in a stone trough 12 hours to cool before being given to the cows. They also receive a small handful of the best old land hay four times a-day, the 40 cows consuming nearly a ton each during the winter season. The hay is conveniently let down through a trap-door from the hay barn into the cow-house as it is needed. The last thing at night the cows receive a little oat straw. By the first of May they go to grass ; they are milked daily at 5 a.m., a portion of them again at 1 p.m., and the whole of them at 5 p.m. They are then all turned out to a pasture-field near the house till 9, when they are brought in and kept in the house all night. They are thus protected from the chills of damp cold nights, and require no food till again turned out to their pastures after being milked in the morning. The morning and midday milk goes to Whitehaven for sale, the evening milk is made into butter. Milk sells at 2d. per quart for new, and id. for skim ; and butter from 9d. to Hid. per lb. The annual produce of each cow is very consi- derable, and the farmer finds it to his interest to give his cows throughout the year the best and most nutritious food. What a contrast does the winter feeding of this stock present to the starving system of the dairy farmers of Gloucestershire, and how different the quality and quantity of the rich manure produced, as compared with the little dried heaps of miserable droppings, which they scatter sparingly over their land ! The horse work is done on this farm by four horses in winter and seven in summer. The farm of Mr. Jefferson, of Preston Hows, is conducted much in the same style, the grasses which he has laid down without a corn crop being of first-rate quality. The Swedish turnip crop on this farm in 1847 was found to weigh 40 tons an acre. The stock principally kept in the arable parts of West Cumberland is the improved short-horns. These were first introduced by the late Mr. Curwen, who spared no expense or pains to get good blood. The produce of his stock still maintains its fame, and some of the best herds trace their descent from his. In some quarters the polled Galloway is pre- ferred ; and on the farm of Mr. Rigg, of Abbey Holm, very fine specimens of that lareed may be seen. The sheep are chiefly bought at the lamb fairs on the Scottish border, and pure Cheviot seem to be preferred to the half-bred Leicester and Cheviot. A few flocks of well-bred Leicester ewes are to be met with in different parts of the county. The continued rains which at certain seasons fall in West Cumberland are most injurious in their washing effects on manure heaps exposed to their influence. Captain Walker, of Gilgarron, has erected covered sheds over his dung-heaps, and constructed a capacious tank to receive all the drainage from his feeding houses. This is pumped up and applied to the manure heap, which it keeps moist, and prevents from too rapidly heating or de- composing. It has been attended with the best effect, the superiority of the manure so treated showing itself to an inch when applied to the land. The sheds are cheaply constructed of light wood, covered with McNeill's ])atent felt. Sheds of the same description are erected in two parallel rows, in which the whole of the corn is housed. The platform on which the stack rests is raised suffi- ciently above the ground to render it proof against vermin, while it also admits circulation of air. The cost of one of these sheds, capable of holding 700 or 800 shocks or stooks of wheat, complete in every part, is £40. They are an excellent contrivance, and in this moist situation (between 500 and 600 I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 607 feet above sea level) of peculiar utility. Wheat is grou'n at thia elevation, at Gilgaiion, of fair quality. The condition of the agricultural hibouicr in West Cumberland is very satisfactory. For English- men employed as day labourers the present rale is from lis. to 15s. a-week. Cottage rents are from £'2 to £3 33. ])er annum. Fuel is everywhere plentiful and ciieap. The most common mode, however, of paying and feeding farm servants, both married and single, is by engaging them for the half-year, and giving them their food in the farm- house. It is the same practice as that common in East Cumberland. The best men have £s, and ordinary men £G for the half-year; boys, £'2 to £3; women, £2 lOs.to £5 and their victuals, v/hich are abundant and good. Barley bread, which for- merly was the kind chielly used by the labouring l)0])ulation, is gone out of use, as wheat Ijiead is preferred and its price now brings it within the reach of all. The poor rates throughout the district are generally exceedmgly moderate. As a class, the farmers of East Cumberland are plain, industrious, and intelligent. Their sons and daughters are ])rought ui)to habits of industry and economy. Agricultural complaints are not much heard, and farms, when they come into the market, are eagerly sought after. Their system of sheep- feeding on turnips has not yet generally received any of the aids which the turnip-cutter and the cheapness of cake and corn have afforded to the southern farmer. The stubbles are not always so clean as they ought to be. Ho that while we gladly accord to them in several points superior merit, we fear we cannot altogether acquiesce in the claim laid by more than one of them to us, that they are the best farmers in England. The rent of good arable land near Whitehaven is fi'om 25s. to 30s. an acre, the highest about 35s. ; all tithe free. OBSERVATIONS IN AUVERGNE ON THE EPIZOOTIC KNOWN BY THE NAME OF PERIPNEUMONIA IN CATTLE. BY M. YVART, INSPECTOR-GENERAL OF VETERINARY SCHOOLS AND OF THE NATIONAL SHEEPFOLDS. ( Report to the Minister of Ayriculliire and Commerce.) M. Le Minisfre, Sir, — At your request I have visited the departments of Cautul, Avignon, and Lozere, with a view of collecting information on the epizootic disease of which the farmers of this couJftry have so loudly complained, and have the honour of submitting to you the following report : — I am prepared to prove that this epizootic, in its symptoms, organic disturbance, and rarity of curability, ought to be considered as of the same nature as that which long ago broke out in many parts of the north and east of France, and has been described under the denomination of epizootic peripneumonia ; and, further, I insist on its con- tagious character. All in this part of the country agree in the epi- zootic now raging in these mountains (of Auvergne) in the centre of France being similar to that which broke out in the east and north of our own country, in the mountains of Switzerland, in many parts of Germany, in the plains of Holland, in the cattle houses of Flanders, &c. Observations of the sick and post-mortem examinations confirm this opinion. In all climates, under all kinds of feeding and habitation, it has a[)peared the same, IjafHing every sort of conjecture as to the causes giving rise to it. The veterinarians and intelligent farmers of this part of the country have had their attention especially directed to — first, the condition of the two principal enveloping membranes of the lungs — viz., the pleurce costalis and pulraonalis; secondly, to the diseases apparent in the cellular tissue con- necting the pleurce to the lungs, and entering into their substance for the ])urpose of connecting to- gether their component lobules ; thirdly, into the alterations undergone by the lobules themselves. It being the custom in this part of the country not to dispose of the sick beast at an early period of his illness to the butcher, but to keep him as long as any hope can be entertained of his recovery, it not unfrequently happens that at post-mortem examinations are discovered both old and new morbid changes in the same lung; so that there appears a possibility of estimating the date of the diflerent cadaveric lesions. We have found a well-defined line of separation between such parts of the lung as remained sound and such parts as had become diseased. The former yielded to atmospheric pressure and to that of the finger, and was quite light, owing to the quantity of air it still contained. By the sides of the sound lobules were others of a deeper colour, which somewhat resisted jiressure ; these contained new blood and less air. Often- times we found them surrounded by a liquid of a 2 L 508 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bright yellow colour, which was contained within the cellular tissue, separating each lobule from the surrounding ones. These constituted the recent changes. In other lobules the disease appeared of older date. These lobules were much redder, some even black, and were more solid than those which were yet but slightly reddened. Around thera were some septa, whitish-yellow fencings formed of the interlobular parenchymatous tissue, containing but a very little fluid. Lastly, in the advanced state of the disease (but animals often die before they arrive at this stage) the pulmonary lobules become soft and lose much of their deep tinge; and sometimes the places where they were, become filled with a liquid, greyish, odourless matter. At this time, nothing is left of the anatomical element of the lung save the interlobular cellular tissue, now become thickened and substantial. When these lobules come to be washed, or even when we wash the portion.s of lung in which collections of matter ap- pear in their places, the cases in which the lobules are contained become apparent. In these are to be seen perforations hke those of a large sponge. The entire of the proper tissue of the lung has vanished— all that served to bring the blood under the influence of atmospheric air. Nothing remains but the cellular envelope, and that is thickened, hardened, and diseased. The same changes which pervade the cells of the interlobular reticular tissue are to be found in the cellular tissue attaching the pleura to the lungs. The pleura becomes involved in disease before, during, or after the lungs become so. A quantity of serosity may be found in its cavity, and, swim- ming in the fluid, masses of yellow substances, readily broken to pieces. Flocculi of the same substance are attached to the surfaces of the lungs. Bands and bridles of it are to be seen running be- tween the pleura (costalis) and the lung, and the latter and the diaphragm. Instead of being loose within the cavity, the lung is attached to its walls. The serous membrane of the pericardium at times contains a much larger quantity of liquid than is found in a state of health ; also flocculi of yellow lymph are to be found therein; shewing that within this serous membrane diseases make their appearance similar to those that more fre- quently affect the pleurae and the cellular tissue. Very rarely are both lungs affected ahke. Sometimes the right, sometimes the left lung is affected, and very often the disease is found to be of longer standing in the inferior than in the supe- rior part of the organ. Sometimes, towards the conclusion of the dis- order, we find collections of yellow serosity, csdema, under the skin at the inferior part of the thorax, at the lower part of the neck, and underneath the belly. The sanguineous engorgement of the pulmonary lobules, the accumulations of fluid containing fibro- albuminous deposits in the cellular tissue under- neath the skin, between the lobules of the lungs, within the pleurae and pericardium; the solidity and non-subsidence of the lung, and its impermea- bility to air ; these morbid changes Avhich I have met with myself, and which the veterinary surgeons of Auvergne have related to me, plainly shew that the disease is evidently the same in this country as in other parts of France. But in one respect has any difference appeared ; and that is, though to be sure it occurred very rarely, that there has been a morbid augmentation of the synovia contained within the bursae of the tendons and the capsular hgaments of joints. Symptoms. — The disease commences by the symptoms common to other affections, and which at any other time than that of the epizootic would assuredly not attract attention. When at such a time a beast breathes more quickly than denotes health, when his coat remains on end, and he is off his appetite, there is reason to apprehend an epi- zootic attack. Frequently, some days after this it happens that cough sets in, at first morning and evening, afterwards during the day, always short, but becoming shorter and shorter as the disease advances. Attentively inspected, the inspirations and expirations will be found unequl : the former are longer and require greater effort. We ))erceive the ribs rising beyond the level of the intercpstal muscles ; and the alte of the nostrils becoming dilated through the contraction of the muscles of the face, an action hardly observable in health. When the air has thus with great labour entered into the lungs, it passes out by a short respiration. All this while the beast neither feeds nor ruminates, and its milk becomes dried up with great rapidity. Indeed, a falling off in the milk even precedes these symptoms; so that the men who milk the cows know by this sign that the cow is going to be ill. When this is not the case, the disease comes on much more rapidly. Neither percussion nor auscultation is of much avail in announcing the invasion of the disease. But, whenever the disease has made some advances, these means are not without their utility in inform- ing us which side of the chest is affected or which the most so, and what progress the disease is making ; or, on the contrary, whether a recovery is likely. And especially are these means of service, after apparent recovery, to enable us to ascertain how large a portion may be impermeable, and v/hether it be to an extent to render the animal unfit THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 609 for work. The important point to be come at is, to determine if the air penetrates or not into the minute and innumerable cells of which the lung is composed. An alarming symptom, and one that betokens a fatal termination, consists in gradual distention of the belly. Flatulent collections may take place at the commencement of the disorder, while the ani- mal continues to feed, but these soon become dis- sipated. When they make their appearance suddenly, they give no cause for apprehension. The meteorisation of which I am speaking is different, inasmuch as it comes on late in the dis- ease, at a period when for a length of time the ani- mal has refused his food, and as the tympanitis of the belly increases by little and little without ever dim.inishing. The country people were well ac- quainted with this. They told me that of one hun- dred beasts that had it, not one was saved. Many beasts, however, died without evincing any meteo- risation ; so that it was by no means constantly present. I may also say as much of the edematous swellings under the belly, and of the swelling and pain of the joints, as well indeed of the oflPensive smell caused by the expired air; not of the air coming from the nose, but of that issuing from the mouth. I have spoken already of the cedematous swellings of the breast and inferior part of the neck : these do not make their appearance until the disease has considerably advanced. The swellings and pains of the joints are no doubt infrequent; nevertheless, they are not less worthy our attention, on account of the nature of the membrane diseased. The synovial capsules, be they tendinous or articular, having the greatest analogy of texture with the pleural membranes, which always contain a great deal of fluid, I wish to know whether disease of the synovial capsules did not manifest itself in the epizootic under notice. In shewing me one of his cows which had per- fectly recovered, and was very fat, M. Majouene, farmer at Aurillac, remarked to me, that this cow had been lame for two months during her malady and convalescence; and he added, that many of his cattle, cows as well as ewes, had shewn lameness (from rheumatism ?) while they were ill. M. Maret, veterinary surgeon at AUanches, has frequently observed swellings in the joints of the knee and hock in sick calves ; and, moreover, he has shewn there has been some alteration in the synovia. I have remarked upon Faucen's farm, which was on the adjoining mountains, the same enlargement of the bursee of the tendons in a calf; and a little farther than his farm, in the cow-establishment at Pradt, four cows, which had had the epizootic, have still shewed enlargements, some in the knee, some in the hough. And M. Cobeal, whose sj/u-it of observation is well appreciated, and who has had his cow-house all but desolated by the epizootic, has declared to me that the recovered beasts continued for some time afterwards affected with lameness and pains in the hip and hough, and even soft tumours in various parts of the body. So that the disease of the synovial capsules and the serous collections which appear in different parts constitute a subject to which our attention for the future must be directed. As to the fetid chiracter of the expired air, we must, as was before observed, make a distinction between that expired through the nostrils and that which passes through the mouth. The denomina- tion, formerly given erroneously, to this peripneu- monia of gaiKjrenous, led to a belief that the air expired from the lungs must necessarily be tainted with a bad odour. In all the diseased beasts I have subjected to ex- amination, I have on no occasion perceived offensive odour from the nasal cavities, though the same result has not been apparent when the mouth was opened, and the nasal cavities were plugged up. I scented the odour of the air as it issued through the mouth. The air was then offensive ; but this admits of ready explanation. As soon as the animal gives over eating and ruminating, the saliva and mucus lodging in the buccal cavity will undergo a change; there can be no reason for surprise, there- fore, should the air in passing through this cavity become charged with fetor. And where several sick beasts are lodged in the same stable, some of them will naturally cast saliva upon the manger, while others may have setons or blisters upon them; in which way we may readily exi)lain how it happens that the atmosphere of the stables be- comes contaminated, without presuming that the lungs are in any way gangrenous. And, besides, the acuteness and rapidity of the disease are not at all equal to what usually happens in gangrenous affections ; for when cattle are violently attacked, according to M. Rhodes, M.D, and Mayor of Murat, they survive seven or eight days; and ordinarily death does not close the scene before three weeks or a month, or more. M. Maret, veterinary surgeon at AUanches, has seen the disease last a month and even two months. Other observers have known it last longer still. I have but few words to say on the state of the pulse and the pulsations of the heart. The pulse in general is rather accelerated at the commence- ment of the disease, though it is rarely stronger and 2 L 2 510 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fuller than natural. At the closing of the disease, when the breathing has become much embarrassed, the jndse is extremely small. The pulsations of the heart are strong and tumultuous at the commence- ment, according to what I have i-eceived from other veterinarians; and I myself have recognised this symptom in some emaciated calves, though in larger and fatter animals I have been unable to recognize any such symjitom. The frequency of abortion in this disease is a fact which has attracted the notice both of veterinarians and farmers; and it is a circumstance which con- tributes to the losses arising from the epizootic. And, connected with this, it is worthy of remaric, as has been observed by M. Cobrat, that cows which aborted early in their pregnancy had not been so likely to succumb under the disease as those that miscarried at a late period. Anocher indisputable fact is the presence of the epizootic m the foetus itself. M. Augsade has assured me that foetuses, the aborts of cows at the time labouring under the disease, presented for the most part lesions characteristic of the peripneumony, and notably in the pleural eft'usion and the produc- tion of plastic membranes. All veterinarians agree on this point. Ill respect to treatment, it is to be remarked of this, as of most other epizootics and epidemics, that numbers of medicines and curative methods have been essayed without any satisfactory results. Some practitioners are for blood-letting; others, of equal pretensions and number, condemn it. One thing is certain about it, which is, that it does not answer to bleed after pulmonary oedema and pleural effusion has taken place. M. Sage insists upon the use of bitters and diuretic drinks, forbidding venesection, on the plea of the epizootic manifesting none of the characters of inflammatory disease ; in which opinion he is quite in accordance with the English veterinarian, Mr. Simonds, who has gone so far as even to com- plain of the name oi peripneumony for the disease. Many Englishmen shew their good sense in not giving it a name incongruous with its nature. In- deed, I do not myself see how we can assimilate with sporadic perijtneumanies a disease never com- mencing in irritation of the respiratory passages ; never, for example, in angina — a disease shewing none of the veritable symptoms of in- flammation, very seldom is found curable by blood-letting, is common to the mother and the foetus she bears, and that is communicated from one animal to others of the same species. One more observation is worth our notice, and that is, that when the disease has proved severe, and has for some time put life in danger by rendering the lungs ahnost impermeable, yet may such consequences become entirely dissipated. Na)', it has even been remarked that such animals become fat afterwards with surprising rapidity. In cows, likewise, who have completely recovered, the secretion of milk returns to what it formerly was. Still there are beasts in which the lungs do not recover their normal condition, and that ever after- wards have a cough ; though most of these may be got well enough to be sent to the butcher, when it has been discovered that portions of their lungs have remained changed and impermeable to air. 3. The contar/ioiis character of the disease has been eagerly inquired into. All the farmers have recognised this character; and the veterinarians of Auvergne with whom I have conversed have enter- tained the same opinion. Some few individuals have thought diff'erently ; but even they, when the question comes to be put to them, how they would like to have diseased animals turned into their herds, uniformly answer in the negative. It be- comes requisite, however, in order to communicate the disease, that the cattle should be living in the same houses or feeding in the same pastures, lying in the same fields, or having met together at some fair; whence it follows, that of two farmers whose farms adjoin, one may have the disease among his herds, the other not; or even of herds on the same farm, provided they have not cohabited or been to- gether, some may remain exempt while others are infected. In proof of these assertions, beasts have been known to convey the disease to localities where it was never present before, and the disease has been kept confined to the shed or house in which it broke out, by the requisite precautions being taken to prevent its spreading. There are also examples to show that a beast is not liable to the disease a second time. These are characters which assimilate it to the small-pox in sheep, and to the contagious typhus of cattle. And whether this last- stated fact be proved or not, it is notorious that farmers, when they want to recruit their decimated herds, will give more for a beast that has already had the disease than for one that has not. M. Yvart has annexed to this preliminary state- ment several narratives of observations and facts in corroboration of it. He afterwards goes on to say that he has found the contagious character of the disease to be similar in the the three provinces through which he has extended his inquiries. And when, he adds, we come to inquire further, in order to ascertain if there be any other known causes of the epizootic, we encounter nothing but doubt and uncertainty. The production of the disease has been attributed to insufficiency in the supply of air for cattle to I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 511 breathe in their habitations ; but I have observed the cow houses of those who had them constructed capacious and airy, and those of others who have allowed no more to every head of cattle than a cer- tain area of space, the fresh air being admitted through apertures and ventilators made in the walls, and yet there has been no difference in the mortality. Changes of temp(!rature have likewise been thought to be among the productive causes ; but observation and aggregated facts do not confirm this notion. Up to the present time there is but one conclusion we can come to on this part of our subject, which is, that disease rages with much more intensity among cows in milk and among milk calves than among young beasts in their second or third year. Recueil de Med. Vet. for April find May, 1851. STORRINGTON FARMERS' CLUB. A meeting of the members of this club was held on Tuesday, October 14th, at the White Horse Inn. Amongst those present were the following gentle- men : — Mr. Upperton (chairman), Mr. R. Chat- field (vice-chairman), Mr. Lear (hon. sec), Mr. W. Battcock (treasurer), Mr. Hardwick, Mr. W. Dotting, Mr. Dumbrell, Mr. Mant, Mr, Emery, Mr. Mudd, &c., &c. The business of the meeting was opened by the hon. secretary (Mr. Lear) reading the minutes of the previous meeting, when The Chairman called on Mr. Hardwick to in- troduce the subject which had been named for their discussion, viz., "Agricultural Implements and Horses." Mr. Hardwick, after offering some few obser- vations on his incompetency for the task he had un- dertaken, said : Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen — In obedience to the call of the chairman, I rise with great pleasure to introduce the subject for your discussion this evening, and I hope I shall pre- sently be favoured with the opinions which you may happen to entertain on the matter, for it is certainly by the interchange of our ideas on sub- jects connected with agriculture that we can hope to arrive at any beneficial result. On speaking of the various implements in use, I shall confine my- self generally within the limit of 25 years, and shall ti-eat principally on those of which I have some little practical knowledge. The first, and perhaps the most important implement on a farm, is the plough ; and you are all aware that this implement is made on various principles, adapted for the dif- ferent soils and purposes for which it is required. Hence it is impossible to point to any one parti- cular plough and say, "This is the best," unless the description of soil and the precise operation it is to perform be at the same time pointed out. Next in im])ortance to the plough, perhaps, comes the har- row j which, although of invaluable service, is an im- plement which will not take much of our time to discuss. The common two-horse drag harrow and the small one-horse harrow are the only ones which I conceive to be really necessary for the efficient cultivation of a farm. There is a harrow of a still lighter description, which may be useful for pre- paring the barley or turnip season, but the two I have first named are sufficient for every purpose. The roller is an implement also indispensable to the agriculturist, and one on which there appears to be a great diversify of opinion, many giving the preference to iron, whilst others prefer the wooden roller. There is also the stone roller ; but for farm- ing purposes the roller is generally made of wood or iron, and I beheve that much may be said on the merits which each implement possesses. My own opinion is in favour of the iron i-oUer — first, because it is much larger in circumference, and is thus en- abled to ride more easily over a rough surface than a wooden one. The iron roller is also frequently made in two pieces, which gives it a great ad- vantage over the wooden roller in turning round. One objection to it is the exj)ense of its first pur- chase, but when it is once obtained it will last for ages. Timber, to be sure, is now very cheap, and a wooden roller with care taken will doubtless last a great many years, still its liability to decay must certainly be greater than that of the iron roller. The next implement I shall notice is what is by some termed the cultivator, but what 1 shall call the scarifier; and which, if ajjphed in proper time and in soils for which it is best adapted, is of im- mense benefit. If I may be permitted to go back to the roller, I will observe that there has been some improvement in this implement in the Cam- bridge roller, which is composed of wheels and something similar to a presser. There is also the clod-crusher, and various other implements in use which perhaps I shall have the pleasure of hearing noticed by gentlemen present. Before we get the seed into the ground there is another implement which is now in pretty general use, viz., the drill, to 612 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which I will call your attention. It is thought hy j some to possess considerable advantage in deposit- ing the various descriptions of seed in the ground, over the old system known as broadcast ; whilst, on the other hand, I have known experiments made , with the two systems of sowing, when the seed sown on the broadcast principle has yielded the heavier crop. My own opinion is that the dif- ference in the two systems of sowing the seed, if carefully noticed with regard to the weight of the crop, would be found to be very trifling. I am, nevertheless, of opinion that ihe drill, in many cases, is a very useful implement. I will next say a word or two of the reaping machine, of which we have most of us heard more than we have seen. There is Cormick's reaping machine, which has been exhibited in the Exhibition, and supposed by many who have examined it to be well executed for the purpose for which it is intended. The reaping machine, however, is of no very recent invention, for I find that in the year 1822, a Mr. Gole, of North- umberland, invented a machine which also put the wheat, when reaped, into sheaves ; and it was then the opinion of agriculturists, generally, that wheat would in a short time be all cut by this machine. A Mr. Bell, of Scotland, in the year 1828, in- vented a machine for cutting wheat, requiring about six or eight persons to attend to it, and which would cut wheat at the rate of one acre per hour. Its cost was from £30 to £35, and, at the time, this was thought to incur too great an outlay for the machine ever to be put into general use. Now these machines — although considered at the time to be v/ell adapted for cutting Avheat — have almost been lost sight of altogether. Now we have Mr. Cormick's machine, which is thought to be a very valuable acquisition to agriculturists, and that it will ultimately be in general use. This part of the subject really bears so hard upon politics, that I scarcely know how to avoid entering upon forbid- den ground. We are told by certain parties that for the difficulties by which we feel ourselves sur- rounded we shall find a panacea in the improved machinery offered us ; that we are to tako advan- tage of these improvements, and experimentalize in oar ground, that we may arrive at the best, the surest, and most economical system of producing the heaviest and most abundant crops. This ad- vice may be useful, and I have no doubt is, in many instances, given with a right feeling; but I feel bound to say I very much doubt if ever it will prove of any real and permanent service to us. I am not prejudiced against adopting any piece of machinery, provided it be within my reach, and I can satisfy myself of its usefulness ; but to tell us to try every fresh invention that is held up to us as a boon that will economize our expenses, is only add- ing insult to injury. It is impossible this can be done. Next is the thrashing machine ; but before speaking of this, I will remark that more than a century ago a man obtained a patent for a reaping machine. It is as old as the Komans. Within the last 25 years it was considered something very re- markable for a farmer to use a thrashing machine, but it has now become very common. A variety of circumstances have led to the absolute necessity of using this machine. In the first place we have been induced, with the hope of finding an increased profit, to expend much additional labour on the ground, and it is universally admitted that there is more corn grown in this country than there was 25 years ago ; and it is a question whether if we were to thrash out all the corn with a flail at the present day, some other necessary labour in the ground, such as hoeing, &c., would not go neglected. Wheat thrashed with a machine is quite equal to that thrashed with a flail; but I question much if every expense attending the use of it were taken into consideration, whether flail thrashing would not be found as economical as that done with a machine. Not long since, Mr. Alcock, at the E))Sora wool fair dinner, held out to the farmers that he could thrash their corn with a steam thrashing machine, every expense included, at 2s. per quarter. Now, if we had a Mr. Alcock in this neighbourhood, and that gentleman could carry his preaching into practice (which I doubt he never will do), there would be a palpable saving to us in getting corn fit for the market. I had once a great taste for steam power applied to agricultural purposes, but the ex- penses most probably prevented my putting it into pratice. There is one very great objection to the application of steam power on a farm, viz., the in- creased liability of fire which it occasions. That horse-power forms one of the largest items of the expenditure on a farm, we are all pretty well aware. A large portion of the produce of the farm is con- sumed by horses, to say nothing of their original cost; and if we could use steam power for general purposes, so as to supersede horse power to a great extent, it would then appear to be of great benefit to us. We have heard of the Marquis of Tweed- dale making experiments in ploughing by steam, and they have been pronounced satisfactory; but we do not find it brought into general use, and I have no doubt but that it is attended with too great an expense, and too many diflSculties, to be both practicable and profitable. Now, looking at all the inventions and improvements which have come to our knowledge during the last twenty-five years, I confess I cannot see anything very impor- tant to agriculturists. There is the drill, the sca- rifier, and a few other implements which are certainly a benefit, but it amounts to nothing of ira- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 613 portance ; neither can I eee the probability of the introduction of anything during the next twenty- five years that is Hkely to render us any important benefit. We want the cost of producing corn ma- terially reduced, or all the highly-burnished im- plements that the ingenuity of man can invent will avail us nothing (Hear, hear). Now with regard to carts and Avaggons, which are indispensable ar- ticles on a farm, we hear men from other countries condemn the use of waggons altogether; and I have known some of them who have settled down in this neighbourhood, wha after a trial with the cart have gone back again to the waggon (Hear), and have admitted they could not well do without it. I am quite satisfied that we are all too ready to condemn the practice of others — as well as the implements they use — before making ourselves acquainted with the particular locality, and a variety of other cir- cumstances by which they are governed. A great many people disHke the large thirty-bushel carts (Hear, and a laugh), although many still continue to use them. I once was inclined to get rid of mine — five in number — in exchange for twenty- bushel ones, but on inquiry found the change would be very expensive ; and hence I abandoned it alto- gether, and am now of o]iinion that for general purposes the large cart is quite as useful as the smaller size. I fancy all hand implements of hus- bandry might be advantageously reduced in weight, but I think it not worth while to go into detail on all those implements of every day use ; and as I have already occupied a great deal of your time in speaking of the v^arious farming implements which I conceive to be the most important, I suggest, for your consideration, the propriety of leaving the dis- cussion on horses until our next meeting. I feel extremely obliged for your patient attention, and hope to hear the opinions you may entertain your- selves (Cheers). Mr. Lear rose and said — Premising in the first place that my opinions generally will be opposed to those entertained by my friend Mr. Hardwick and others, I will commence with him at the plough, and I agree with him that the description of plough which is extremely useful in one soil is utterly un- fit for another, and there cannot be a more palpable manifestation of a person's ignorance on these mat- ters than to hear him condemn the use of any particular implement without at the same time pos- sessing some little knowledge of the material for which it is intended and used. To speak in gene- ral terms of ploughs in this county, however, I must confess I think they are much too heavy for the work they are intended to perform, and the small iron plough may no doubt be used with great advantage on hght and sandy soils. I differ mate- rially from Mr, Hardwick with regard to the im- provements which have during the last 25 years been made in connection with agriculture. To them must we attribute in a great measure the vast increased amount of produce. The first thing, in order to secure a satisfactory crop, is to plough the land well ; and to do this we have had a variety of ploughs introduced. The turnwrest plough is one of great use for particular purposes, such as turn- ing-up stubborn land when it comes up in large blocks (Laughter) ; and I should like to see some of the Suffolk gentlemen with their ploughs and two horses attempt to turn up some of my friend Hardwick's ground. Why, they would have as much chance of success as I should have in at- tempting to steer an East Indiaman against the wind (Hear and laughter). The next implement is the harrow, and we find many persons giving a preference to iron harrows, which, when first brought home from the ironmongers, are very pretty things, but when put to work they very soon give way, and the consequence is a heavy smith's bill to pay ; and the same may be said to a great extent with the iron rollers. There is certainly an advantage in it when made in two pieces, as de- scribed by Mr. Hardwick, but otherwise I consider the wooden roller in every way equal to it; and as to durability, why a wooden one will last a man's life time, and that is long enough for anybody. I recollect one being sold at Mr. Lyatt's sale(Findon), for £2 or £3, which had been in use for twenty or thirty years. That is a proof they are not easily worn out. The scarifier is no doubt a very valuable implement if put only to its proper use, but where, as it is frequently, used to supersede the plough it had better be off the farm altogether (Hear). The clod crusher is another useful implement on some particular soils. With regard to the drill there is no doubt a difference of opinion as to whether it is a very great advantage or not. Many persons use the driU for putting in their wheat, without paying that attention to the after-cultivation which is ne- cessary to be done ; and under these circumstances I consider the drill system of no use whatever. Mr. Lear condemned the use of the thrashing ma- chine, and particularly when worked by horse power, which he considered was attended with great ex- pense, whilst those attending to it were from their ignorance of mechanics generally exposed to many accidents. When the machine gets a little out of order the poor horse often gets thrashed to no pur- pose by the inexperienced attendant ; whilst, if he understood his business, a little attention to the machine might put it all to rights. The ignorance of our working people (continued Mr. Lear) is a great disadvantage in using machinery. Mr. Hardwick has complained that he could not see that any particular invention or improvement had 6U THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. materially lessened the cost of producing their crops. Now it is not hy any one particular imple- ment or system that we must expect to economize to any extent; but it must be done, if done at alL in a general way (Hear, hear). Now for the carts and waggons— they are certainly the most unwieldy, ugly, and barbarous looking things that I ever saw (Laughter). Why one of these heavy waggons is quite load enough for one horse. Then, again, the narrow-wheel waggons are not adaptedTor work in the field, and I should like to see a neat four-inch- wheeled waggon introduced to supersede both of the others. The carts, I think, are really worse than the waggons. When Mr. Hardwick said he found the change from heavy carts to lighter ones would be very expensive, he could not have used a much stronger argument in proof of the superiority of small carts ; for it is very evident that no one was particularly anxious to get possession of his heavy ones, otherwise the change would net have been at- tended with so much expense. I will just draw your attention to the American ploughs, which, perhaps, most of you have seen at the Exhibition. That they have been pretty well ridiculed, I know ; but that does not detract at all from their value ; and I am incHned to think they are well adajjted for the work they are intended for. The turn-furrow is exceedingly well shaped, and, in fact, it is a bu- siness-looking thing altogether. Mr. Chatfield — I suppose there were no turn- wrest ploughs in the American department. Mr. Leau — Oh, no, they would be of no sei'vice in that country. Mr. Lear then drew the attention of the meeting to the heavy loads of hay, straw, &c., that were p-L-d up on the carts in London ; and asked them what their labourers would think if they weie asked to put up the same quantity on similar vehicles. Why, said Mr. Lear, they M'ould open their mouths wide enough to admit of one of Mr. Chatfield's Tankard swedes, which have been brought here to-day for your inspection (Laughter). Mr. Emery spoke favourably of the newly- invented ploughs for light soils. The turn-furrows were much better shaped, and cut a much better comb; and turnip seed would be found to come up much better after them than the old fashioned ones. Cannon's scarifier was one of the most useful im- plements he had ever seen on a farm. With the use of this implement he considered that he could work his farm with two horses less than he could without it, whilst the expense of it was £8 Ss. only. In dry weather, when it was most useful, it would take up docks and other obnoxious weeds without disturbing the moisture of the ground, 'ihe greatest curse that ever befel this country in the shape of machinery was the introduction and use of the horse power thrashing machine. Any man who worked this machine, he (Mr. Emery) consi- dered threw all the horse power awav — it was en- tirely lost (Hear, hear). This machine also did much to prevent a rise in the price of corn, for the moment there was the least sign of this the machines were put to work, and in bundled the corn from all quarters at once, and glutted the market, and down went the price again. Power's horse rake was a useful implement, and did its work well and effectively. The drill, which was considered a very valuable implement by many, he did not estimate so highly ; especially in cases where the hoe was omitted to be applied in the spring between the rows of corn, and when the weeds would in such cases choke up the plants, and prove a great hindrance to their growth. He felt satisfied that a heavier crop of barley could be grown by broadcasting the seed than by drilling it (Hear, hear). The drill was no doubt an excellent implement for the turni]i crop, when there was no fear but the hoe would be put into use. Mr. DuwBRELL, on being called upon to address the meeting, observed that if he offered any re- marks at all, they would be confined to theory rather than to practice, for he knew but little of the use of the various implements which had been no- ticed. There appeared to him to 1)3 certain parties who desired to eflect an entire revolution in imple- ments of husbandry; they desired to see everything that had been used by their ancestors thrown on one side. There is sure to be a remedy found for every ill which the human llesh was heir to, and he really thought there was no class of men who had so many specifics offered them as the agriculturists (Hear). He did not Vv-ish to stand in the way of any palpable improvement that might be oftered them, but to attempt to follov/ the advice of every hair-brained theorist of the day was absurd. Be- fore attempting to introduce fresh systems of im- plements, let them satisfy themselves the change would be advantageous. Mr. Lear had spoken of what he had seen at the Exhibition when there ; where he (Mr.Dumbrell) had no doubt there were many useful implements of husbandry exhibited, but there were, in his opinion, a great many more which were quite useless except to look at. They were entirely impracticable. He thought they should all be cautious in introducing machinery to the discouragement of labour, which was acknow- ledged to be the wealth of the country (Hear, hear), and which ought not to be driven out of the coun- try. Look to Ireland at that moment, and see the numbers who were fiying from that country, and they would do the same from this, if not treated with that consideration they deserve. Mr, Lear wished Mr. Dumbrell to understand THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 616 that his observations, when speaking of the Exhi- bition, were confined to tlie American ploughs, of which lie certainly entertained a favourable opinion. Mr. W. Battcock approved of the half-swing plough for some particular soils, although he pre- ferred the light iron plough for light and sandy soils. With regard to rollers, he was of opinion that when timber adapted for rollers was found growing in the neighbourhood, they would not be driven out of use by the iron ones ; but under other circumstances, he was inclined to think they would be generally preferred. As to heavy waggons and carts, he would merely remark that he would much rather buy the lighter description thanhave the others at a gift (Hear). He knew so little of the reaping and thrasliing machines that he felt inclined to pass them over altogether. The drill he consi- dered a very useful implement ; and if a proper quantity of seed were used, he did not see that weeds would be encouraged more by that sj'stem of sowing than by the broadcast system; and upon the whole, he looked upon the drill as a good implement. Mr. Lear had spoken of the American plough seen at the Exhibition, but if they had any inclination to inspect one of these ploughs they might see one at Major Sandham's brickyard, and also some work it had performed. He (Mr. Battcock) was per- fectly satisfied of its usefulness on light soils for preparing the barley or turnip season. It required but one horse to draw it (Hear, hear; "That's the sort we want"). He was aware this could not be done on heavy stubborn land ; but for the purposes he had mentioned it appeared to him an excellent article. Mr. Chatfield remarked that there was one very useful implement which had been jjassed over, and which was of great use to feeders of sheep, and this was the turnip cutter; an implement which their worthy chairman was better calculated to ex- patiate upon than himself (Hear). A great deal had been said about the different descriptions of ploughs, and it was perfectly true that no one plough could be the best for every description of soil ; but the question was, which was the best for general purposes. He (Mr. Chatfield) had seen no plough to please him equal to the two-wheeled iron j)lough, with skim coulter ; and for light sandy soils especially, the plough was still better with a weight chain attached to the skim coulter, which assisted greatly in burying all herbaceous plants, long manure, stubble, &c. This was Howard's Bedford plough. His (Mr. Chatfield's) land was subject to thistles, and he had found this plough to be more effective in eradicating them than any other he had used. The trial he had had with this plough had induced him to dispose [of his tickle plough. He was decidedly favourable to light wag- gons and tsventy-bushel carts, and also to wooden rollers. He had one in use nov.', made many years ago, which ran in brass boxes, and which he would not exchange for any iron one he had seen (Hear, hear). The presser was a useful inrplement, and this combined with Howard's plough made the prettiest work he had ever seen. Another advan- tage in this plough was, that one of the shears made at the manufactory of this plougli would last two of those made at home, and could be bought at 8s. 6d. per doz. Mr. Lear acknowledged the excellency of Howard's plough, but of the two gave a slight pre- ference to Messrs. Hosted's, of Chichester. It was however very similar to Howard's, but had only one wheel instead of two. Mr. Hardwick replied ; and a vote of thanks having been passed to him for his kindness in in- troducing the subject for discussion, the business of the meeting was closed. A fine specimen of the Tankard swede, weighing from 8lbs. to lOlbs. per root, was exhibited in the room by Mr. R. Chatfield, and was much com- mended by the gentlemen present. HIGH FARMING.-STRONG LAND.— AGRICULTURAL BALANCE-SHEETS. While all right-minded persons are agreeing be- yond all dispute that it is only by high farming — in other words that it is by bringing out the full capabilities of the land, and making the most of everything — that any money can possibly be made by farming, it is an equally jialpablc truism that unless the outlay is made with the greatest possible regard to economy, there is no chance whatever of the cultivator ever again seeing his money. Thus, if an application of guano to a seed ley will increase the produce by six bushels per acre, and the three hundred weight of guano costs 2Ss., it is clear that at 4s. 6d, per bushel the corn will not repay the outlay. Again, no farmer wishing to do right to his land, his landlord, or himself, doubts but green crops are those which ought to be above all en- couraged on all sorts of land, and on strong land in particular. But it is easier to say so than to show him how to consume these crops with a view 516 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to the obtaining of a profit. It is clear to see that turnips on light land may and will pay under the golden-footed sheep : but how they can be made to pay on strong land, is a practical difficulty yet unsolved. We have often had occasion to call attention to tlie sound, practical good sense which often per- vaded the annual meetings of the North Stafford- shire Agricultural Association, and we have great pleasure in again recurring to a paper of very great ability, read at their meeting by Mr. Harvey Wyatt, a name v.'e have not happened to hear of before, but one whose sound good sense we shall be glad to hear again. That gentleman's lecture, practical from first to last, was on the subject of strong land farming, and preceded a discussion on that subject, which it introduced. The lecture is by far too long to give anything like a synopsis of its contents, but thei'e are several very important and somewhat novel points mooted, which we shall make it our duty to notice, and refer to the transactions of the society, which are, we believe, annually jjublished in the pamphlet form, for a fuller outline of the lecture. Nor will it be necessary to say we by no means are to be supposed to endorse all his opinions ; still there is an ability and a discrimina- tion in the whole which not only prove Mr. Wyatt to be acquainted with his subject, but which speak strongly as to his judgment and the power of mind brought to bear on the subject on which he v/rites. But we must say the strong land he takes as an instance is not the ordinary strong blue or yellow clay, too comip.on and too much the difficulty, at the present time, of every practical man. We think it is one of the strong loams too comm.only mis- called clay, or strong land; for the system on which it is at present farmed, a six course one, is one of the rotations so scourging, that if it v/ere very tenacious clay it would not bear it. Such as it is is given below : — The farm is assumed to be 240 acres, and the annual disposition of it in crop is as under : — Forty acres are under open fallow manure. Forty acres are growing wheat after fallov/. Forty acres are in first year's seeds after wheat. Forty acres are in second year's seeds. Forty acres are in oats after seeds : the oat stub- ble is manured with farm-yard manure. And forty acres are wheat upon the oat stubble. Thus, while this is the proportion of crops under which the farm is found in any one year, it will also rejjresent the treatment of any individual field upon the farm, in the rotation of six years ; and three white crops (two gi-own in succession), one cropless j^ear, and two under green crop only, is a system scourging enough to show that the land is somewhat tractable to bear such an infliction at all. Now though we entirely agree that this is an un- profitable treatment of the land — bad for the land itself; bad for the landlord; and worse than all, perhaps, for the tenant in the long run — yet Mr. Wyatt's improved system is one which is somewhat severe, and if he can keep his land clean under it — for we shall show it will never grow poor under it — the texture of the soil may be strong, but it cannot be called strong clay. He gives — Thirty acres of green crop, turnips and mangel. Ten acres open fallow, or has land fallow, tares in some cases to intervene. Forty acres strong wheat after green root crop and the fallow. Forty acres of clover seeds depastured. Forty acres of second year's seeds, also depas- tured. Forty acres of wheat after seed. Forty acres of early peas or winter beans after wheat. This is also a six years' course. It gives three great crops — a non-exhausting crop, and but two grain crops — and is a vast improvement on the other. This we shall examine in another Journal, and explain more in detail ; but our present pii.r- pose is to sliow how he disposes of his turnips. It never pays to eat turnips on with sheep on strong land. In some seasons it is a physical impossibility. It poaches and ruins the land, kneading the arable soil into mortar — a state in which no crop will grow ; and to pull off turnips and feed cattle in winter with tliem, is like throwing away money and labour without end. Beef does not pay for winter feeding ; and therefore why ask a strong land farmer to grow a crop for the good of his land, wliich only entails loss upon him, and which he cannot make pay ? Mr. Wyatt comes to his help. Cart off your turnips to your clover leys. These consume with sheep : the animals will feed, the clover will be improved, the land will be manured, and the best possible preparation given for the wheat crop. To us this is wise, and sound, and rational. Sheep will pay : the strong-land farmer will be able to. winter his sheep : his cattle may make the straw into manure with rape-cake and compound, and he may make green crops pay. There is much that is senseless in many of the outcries for agricultural balance-sheets. Many persons who ask for them never make one of their own, and, as a matter of fact, the making of a correct agricultural balance-sheet is by no means an easy, nor even an entirely accurate operation. First of all, it is impossible from the mere receipts and payments of a farm to make a proper profit and loss balance-sheet : unless there is an annual THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 617 iahng of stock, there can he no proper element of profit and loss. And yet it is almost impossible to take stock accurately. There are several reasons for this. The farmer deals in a fluctuating article. A trifling rise or fall in tlie price of his produce per busheh or per pound, will make almost a ])rofit or loss upon that article. He has ten stacks of corn. The market price may be five-and-sixpence per bushel on the day he takes stock, and it may be four-and-si.vpence when he sells it. If these ten stacks grew on twenty-five acres of land, and contained 750 bushels of corn, his receipts will fall short of his estimates by £37 10s.— a profit per acre of some thirty shillings on the land on which it grew. But he has another element of difficulty : he does not know the e.xact quantity : he may judge that he has 750 bushels, but he will be a very ac- curate valuer if he comes within 50 or 70 bushels. Here, then, he maybe wrong from £12 to £17; and the same principle applies to the great bulk of his estimates. Naj', further. He may have laid out large sums in cake and artificial food— the manure from which is in the land : he finds little profit from the feeding of the animals, but his land is more likely to be productive. He cannot well estimate the sunken ca])ital to a nicety in the increased proba- bility of larger production ; and on the other hand he may have been a little over-cropping — giving more monej', producing corn but exhausting the stamina of liis soils — deriving, in fact, profits out of capital. All these are real difficulties ; and yet, as a mat- ter of business, balance sheets ought to be made. Loose, and vague, and imcertain as they may be considered, they ought to be made; and where an amateur farmer is cultivating a model farm, to instruct his neighbour, he ought to give one an- nually, that they may judge of his improvements, and allow them to act either as a signal to imitate, or an evil to avoid. But balance-sheets must be honest. They must be real genuine productions, arising from bovit fide farming as such — not potato merchanting, like the celebrated Baldoon expose, of which we have not heard again, nor like poor Mr. Laurie's return of twenty per cent., by selling off his straw to a large town — but a real exposition of the profits and losses of a given mode of cultivation. It will l)e remembered Mr. Harvey Wyatt pro- posed to improve clay land by substituting two white crops and one bean crop in the six years with three green crops— for one dead fallow and three white crops in the rotation, and gave some valuable hints as to the consumption of turnips by sheep on strong land. He gives the comparative results in crojjs, and the gross receipts of the two cases as follows ; and though not a balance-sheet, shows, and we think fairly, that his system would vastly increase the productive capability of the soil. Under the old six-course sj'stem, the produce would be — £ s. d. Dead fallow o 0 0 Wheat after fallow, 30 bushels per acre, at 5s. per bushel. . 7 10 0 First year's seeds 3 10 0 Second year's seeds 115 0 Oats after seed, 30 bushels, at 2s. 9d 4 2 6 Wheat after oats, manured, 25 bushels per acre, at 5s 6 5 0 Making a total of. . £23 2 6 Or £3 I7s. id. per acre average produce. 0 0 4 10 0 Under his new system — 1 rood fallow 0 3 roods turnips, &c., 15 tons per acre, at Ss W'heat after these, 30 bushels, at 5s First year's seeds . . ., , Second year's seeds Wheat after ditto, manured, 30 bushels, at 5s. j)er bushel . . Early peas after \'.'heat, 25 bush. per acre, at 4s 5 0 7 10 3 10 1 15 7 10 0 Making a total of. . £29 15 0 Or £4 1 7s. Gd. per acre average |:roduce. Now it is an easy thing to increase produce. Mr. Huxtable would demonstrate the capability of turnips being produced on a deal board ; but there is a point of j)rod action beyond which it will not pay, and even every extra bushel of corn is not all profit. Mr. W^yatt goes on to say that there are extra expenses, v/hich he enumerates as follows : green crop seed ; sowing, hoeing, pulhng, carting, camp- ing, &c, ; then there is 2\ cwt. of guano given after the turnip crop, as a jjreparation for wheat sowing — these reducing the profit per acre from some 203. to lis. and 5s. per acre between the tv/o systems of management. This is a fair diflference ! But it neither shows that the one nor the other is absolutely profitable. There may be twelve shillings per acre loss on the ' old system, and the new one will not turn the scale so fnr as to make it into a profit. Bat we think he has made many more omissions. Our columns shall be open to him if we misrepre- 518 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sent liim ; but we think lie has omitted — 1 . The artificial manure for the green crop, which he stated to be 2^ cwt. of Peruvian guano, or 2 cwt. of pulverized bones. 2. Then we think he has also omitted the 4 cwt. of rape-cake, or 2 cwt. of guano, and one of bone-dust, which he recommended to be sown with the wheat after seed — for he appears onlj' to have given credit for the guano after the green crop. Now if each of these dressings cost the sum he has given as the amount of the one he mentions above — or 27 shillings, it will add two pounds fourteen to the extra amount before given ; and this, spread over the six j'ears, will give a total of nine shillings per acre, to deduct from the eleven shillings and five-pence, leaving the profit by the new system over the old in the reduced amount of two shillings and five-pence per acre for the extra capital employed. We shall be glad to be shown we are wrong ; nor does this detract from the many sound practi- cal remarks contained in Mr. Wyatt's lecture, which is of great length, and contains both prin- ciples and details of very great value, and which stampd Mr. Wyatt as a thoroughly practical man. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. Scientific men of the continent have expressed their opinion of the absolute necessity of a scien- tific training to the industrial classes of every nation that expect to keep pace in the race of com- petition. It is obviously the intention of the Prince who is at the head of the Exhibition to elicit from the thinkers of this country whether they share these opinions ; for in a letter addressed to the Society of Arts he suggests that the most eminent men should be invited to communicate freely their opinions on this subject. We watch Vv'ith much anxiety the development of public opinion on a matter of such vital interest, and gladly give ])lace to the report of a lecture, given at the Government School of Mines, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, who, as one of the commissioners, maybe presumed to speak with a peculiar significance on the subject of industrial education. The line of argument adopted by the learned professor is per- haps the most practical one that could have been devised ; for, in addition to a clear explanation of the intimate connexion between science and prac- tice, he adduces numerous instances to prove that all discoveries in science, however abstract, produce numerous practical applications as oflshoots ; and he strongly shows the impolicy of severing practice from science, "like a tree from its roots." The attendance and deep attention of a large aristocratic audience of both sexes, mixed with many such men as Faraday and Babbage, show that the sub- ject is at the present moment one of peculiar interest to the public. THE NATIONAL IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING AND PROMOTING ABSTRACT SCIENCE AS A MEANS OF GIVING A HEALTHY PROGRESS TO IN- DUSTRY. The raw material, used by industry for the pro- duction of useful objects, doubtless forms the basis of manufactures, but possesses a fluctuating value in relation to that of the object into which it is con- verted. In the successful prusecution of manufac- tures, apart from the influence of mere capital and labour, two elements are involved, each forming a factor which, in a competition of industry, may be made to assume very different values. The first element is the raw material; the second the skill and knowledge used in adapting it to the purposes for which it is designed. Thus in America cotton is indigenous, and consequently cheap ; and fuel, the other raw material employed in its conversion to a textile fabric, i^ not expensive. In England the same cotton is much dearer, but the fuel may be assumed to be equal in price. The competition between the two countries, in respect to calico, re- solves its elf into the necessity that England, to over- come the disadvantage of the greater cost of the raw material, must infuse a greater amount of skill and knowledge into the processes employed in its adaptation to useful purposes. England has succeeded in doing this, and consequently the mills of Manchester may render unproductive the mills of Lowell. But reverse the conditions of the two countries, and a similar result attests the truth of the same principle. Shefiield produces steel, which in large quantity is exported as a raw material to America. The history of that country has created a knowledge of the conditions required for the manufacture of edge tools. The forests were not cleared, nor the prairies converted into arable land, without that observing nation undei"standing the qualities and the requirements of the axe, the adze, and the spade. The knowledge thus attained was applied to the mauufacture of edge tools ; and com- merce returns to England its own steel, but under a new form, and endowed with an excellence, a temper, and a cheapness yet unattained by our artizans. Without this application of greater skill it would have been impossible for America to have competed with the country which furnished the raw material. A nation, if it combine ordinary intel- ligence with its local advantages of cheap raw ma- terial, may long preserve almost a monopoly in special manufactures, and will continue to ^»'^^ .. ; (; ,5fniJ 9rn£a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 519 either until the competing nation has risen so high above her in intelligence as to make this more than an pquivalent for the local advantage of the other, or until a greater equalization in the price of the raw material renders a small amount of superiority in the intellectual clement of sufiicient importance to secure successful competition. But, should any great transition of the world take place, and should means arise by which local advantages were levelled, and the raw material confined to one country became readily attainable by all, the difference in its cost being inconsiderable, then the competition in in- dustry must become a competition in intellect; and that nation which most ciuickly promotes the intel- lectual development of its artisans, must, by an ine- vitable law of nature, advance, whilst the country which neglected its industrial training must as ine- vitably recede. It requires no mental acumen to ]ierceive that we are rapidly approaching to, if we ha\'e not yet arrived at, this period of wonderful transition when nations must speedily acquire the levels due to their different amounts of intellec- tual development. It is quite true that a super- abundance of capital may for a time preserve a country from a quick dei)ression, even should it lapse in its intellectual training, but the s-ijiport thus given can only be temi)orary and illusory ; for if, by the purchase of foreign talent, the necessary knowledge is infused into home manufactures, this can only have the effect of raising the intellectual element in the foreign country, and thus finally ac- celerate its success as a competing nation. There never was a time when it was so necessary as now that skill and science should be united for the pro- motion of the industrial arts. At former periods of human history, local advantages or accidental combinations were the foundations of a nation's prosperity. The time is not distant when it was thought that the possession of mineral fuel indi- cated a country as the natural manufactory of those necessaries of life which employ machinery in their production ; while the existence of large tracts of land, warmed by a genial sun, stamped another nation as essentially agricultural, and employed its population in the labours of the field. Each coun- try fell into a routine of manufacture, and Italy and France produced their silks and shawls with as httle thought of competition as England its ma- chinery and calicoes. Science in advancing has created resources unthoiight of before, and has re- moved those local barriers which had retarded the progress of industry. Countries were no longer confined in their aspirations by smallness of terri- tory, for this, by the aid of science, enlarged its I)owers. The country which in its agricultural povei'ty could support only a scanty and miserable population, expanded itself for the reception of in- creased numbers as the produce of its land aug- mented ; and thus knowledge, in the improvement of agriculture, won by a bloodless victory vast additional territory to aid in the industrial resources of the nation : for a land, with a twofold increase in agricultural production, has, for all ])ractical purposes, unfolded itself to twice its size. Science in its progress was imj)roving and simplifying pro- cesses of luanufacture, while it was opening, at the same time, a communication between the nations of the earth. The amazing facilities of transport, afforded by the introduction of steam, enabled a ready interchange of their natural ri'dies, and mere adventitious local advantages, ajjart from skill and science in their adaptation, became of much less moment than tliey formerly were. The proof of this is in the fact that the iita{)le manufactures are now carried on in all parts of Europe, and that thei-e is a constantly increasing and active compe- tition f)f most of the great nations in all the mar- kets of the world. If England still continue in advance, it will not be that her coal and iron are plentiful, but because she unites science with prac- tice, and because she enables her discoveries in philosojihy to keep pace with her aptitude in apply- mg them. But is it true that England does act thus wisely ? And is it true that science does hold in this country its just position in puljlic esteem, or that it is fostered sufficiently to make that pro- gress which it is now doing in other lands ? To all such questions a negative rejjly must be given ; for beyond a theoretical recognition of the importance of science in its relations to practice, and the estab- lishment of this museum and college— a very im- ])ortant measure, I admit — the State and the ])ublic only look to the empirical result, and have not deemed it necessary to foster that knowledge which directly led to it. But England is the only European State which is thus blind to its own in- terests, and which has not yet thoroughly awakened to the importance of giving an intellectual training to those entrusted with its manufactures. This is proved by the large endowments given by foreign Governments for the support of institutions con- nected with industrial science, and it finds expres- sion in the writings of their thinking men. '•' An equal appreciation of all parts of knowledge," says Humboldt, " is an especial requirement of the pre- sent epoch, in which the material wealth and the increasing prosperity of nations are in a great mea- sure based on a more enlightened employment of natural products and forces. The most superficial glance at the present condition of European states shows that those which linger in the race cannot hope to escape the partial diminution, and perhaps the final annihilation of their resources. It is with nations as with nature, which, according to a happy expression of Goethe, knows no pause in ever-in- creasing movement, development, and production, a curse still cleaving to standing still. Nothing but serious occupation, with chemistry and natural and physical science, can defend a state from the consequences of competition. Man can produce no effect upon nature, or appropriate her powers, unless he is conversant with her laws and with their relations to material objects, according to measure and numbers. And in this hes the power of popular intelligence, which rises or falls as it en- courages or neglects this study. Science and in- formation are the joy and justification of mankind ; they form the springs of a nation's wealth, being often indeed substitutes for those material riches wliich nature has in many cases distributed with so ])artial a hand. Those nations which remain behind in manufacturing activity by neglecting the practical applications of the mechanical arts and of industrial chemistry, to the transmission, growth. 620 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, or manufacture of raw materials — those nations among whom respect for such activity does not pervade all classes, must inevitahly fall from any prosperity they may have attained ; and this hy so much the more certainly and speedily as neigh- bouring states, instinct with the power of youthful renovation, in which science and the arts of indus- try co-operate, or lend each other mutual assistance, are seen pressing forward in the race." It is but the overflowings of science which thus enter into and animate industry. In its study we are never sure that the morrow may not gladden the world with an application of a principle which to- day was abstract, and appeared remote from prac- tice. This is a truth which it is aljove all things necessary to convert into a hving faith in the minds of those who devote their lives to its practical a])- phcations. Nothing is more erroneous in their case than to neglect the acquisition of abstract scientific truths because they may appear remote from practice. I do not admit that it is even wise to address to oneself the question — Cui bono F Science is too lofty for measurement by the yard of utility — too inestimable for expression by a money standard. These grovelling ideas of the objects of science, which constantly jar it in its intercourse with the world, ought to find no response in the breast of any devotee who would draw inspiration from its shrine. But whilst I protest against the indulgence of a mere utilitarian appetite for science, I think it infinitely advantageous to examine it in its practical relations to life ; l)ut it must not be for- gotten that though the object of industrial study is to view science in its beneficent overflowings of kindness to man, these material benefits arise from the very fulness of its measure. If we revert back to the intellectual wanderings of science in its search for truth, it becomes surprising how soon it shook off the trammels of ignorance and developed into a glorious liberty. Let us recollect how much science has advanced within the last three cen- turies, and even her past history becomes mote re- markable in its progress than the present. It is no mean task for intellect to leap over the barriers of ignorance ; far more easy is it to go steadily on- ward in new and untrodden paths. It was only at the end of the sixteenth century that the Council of Sages at Salamanca negatived the idea of a western continent by the writings of Lactantius. " Is there any one so foolish," he says, " as to beheve that there are antipodes, with their feet opposite to ours ? people who walk with their heels upwards and their heads hanging down ? That there is a part of the world in which all things are topsy-turvy — where the trees grow with their branches downwards, and where it rains, hails, and snows upwards ?" Do we not know that Columbus was told by the sages that were he to succeed in saihng down the rotundity of the earth its bulging out would prevent him ever sailing up again ? and do we not remember with what a stedfast faith in abstract truth he saw beyond " the region of the torrid zone, scorched by a blazing sun — a region of fire, where the very waves which beat upon the shores boiled under the intolerable fervour of the heavens ?" Recollect that these were the opinions of a time when the utmost national encouragement was given to intellectual progress, and that it was not very many years after the death of Prince Henry of Portugal, who gave that glorious motto to princes — " the talent to do good." Recollect that this ignorance was mani- fested in the brightest time of the reign of the en- lightened Isabella, of Castille, and you will be sur- prised with me that science has since that time achieved what it has. Had Columbus not investi- gated the abstract truths of cosmography, the western continent, even with the advantage of the " astrolabe " discovered in his time, would perhaps for u century have i-emained unknown. It is easy to make an egg stand on its end when the way is shown how to do it ; the applications of science are not difficult, but without the science there are no applications. The philosophy of our times does not expend itself in furious discussions on mere scholastic trivialities or meaningless questions in theology ; the polemics of a past age do not repre- sent the search after abstract truth of the present. Yet you are in no position even now to treat with derision the past errors of philosophy. The man who is on the mountain complains of the fog which obstructs his view; while the inhabitant of the plain speaks of it as a cloud capping the mountain. Both are right, but read the phenomena differently from each other ; yet only he that was in the fog- could rightly appreciate its darkness, or fully un- derstand the force of the rising sun which dissi- pated its obscurity. The progress of knowledge, the search after truth, can scarcely be recognized in its sublimity by those who do not imderstand the errors which had to be swei)t away before it coidd advance in an uninterrupted path. There are very few instances in the history of science of a sudden development of great discoveries, either illumined from darkness by a flood of light from genius, or betrayed through some accidental and straggling ray. The great discoveries of science leave behind them no boundary line of demarca- tion from those which have preceded, but, like the full day succeeding the dawning of the sun, follow that which fully foretold their approach. The tele- scope and microscope did not open their wonders to an unexpecting and startled world, but crept into existence with steps so slow that their impres- sion is not sufficient to trace out the history of their progress. The improvements in the steam-engine were so gradual, that a court of law, only half a century since, gave a solemn judgment that Y/att had done nothing essential towards them. The compass cannot point to us the period when it offered its inestimable services to man, nor has paper left a record of its discoverer. In fact, all great practical discoveries are the result of much study, the exponent of a long series of observations, and often arise out of those truths of science which appeared least promising on their first announce- ment. Boyle knew that he wrote an imperishable truth when he titled his essay " Man's great ignorance of the uses of natural things ; or, that there is no one thing in nature whereof the uses to human life are yet thoroughly understood." This truth of the seventeenth century is no less true in the nineteenth ; the history of the intermediate time having been, as Sir John Herschel justly remarks, but one commentary on the text. The every-day THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 521 progress of the arts abounds in new applications of objects the most familiar. Practical, like abstract science, has no limits. The Romans thought them- selves at the culminating point of civihzation ; and the Greeks, pluming themselves on their inventive- ness, could not conceive that the world would ever take a higher flight. Even in our times like opinions are entertained, because ignorance can- not see over the heights raised by modern science for a wider view of creation. These conceited ideas of a nation or of an age have no foundation. In science there maj'- be an horizon which bounds her view; but as she proceeds onward, the horizon constantly recedes, and shows the limit to be alto- gether illusory. In one time and generation a na- tion may, like Newton, pick up a few pebbles on the sea-shore, while the boundless ocean of science lies beyond with all its vast and unexplored trea- sures. Empiricism has frequently been a substi- tute for science— a lame and sluggish substitute, it is true, but, nevertheless, one which, in the history of mind, has had much of influence. Gunpowder was known before the condensed air of which it consists was recognized or understood; and it suc- ceeded in killing man, without knowing that man himself is little more than air similarly condensed. Man used and succeeded in producing condensed air, in the form of food, without having the slight- est conception of the character of the air out of which this wondrous transformation was efl^ected. Without a knowledge of atmospheric pressure, mills and pumps were formed. Glass was produced from the ashes of the fern, and china from kaolin, without a knowledge of the principles involved in their production. The length of the year v/as known, and the duration of the seasons explained, without the law of gravitation being suspected. All this, it is true, arose without science, but required ages to grow into a stunted and feeble childhood ; vv^hile no sooner did science remove the trammels of ignorance than a few short years produced a vigor- ous manhood. Ignorance may grope in darkness on the confines of an unexplored region ; but, to proceed steadily and securely onwards, she must borrow the lamp of science to guide her. Newton, " that glory to his species," as Chalmers calls him, did, by the exposition of the law of gravitation, produce more real practical benefits to industry than all the ages of empiricism which preceded him. Navigation, and consequently commerce, sprang from his time into a state of development which be- fore was impossible ; and eveiy nation and every human being enjoys from him, and to the end of time will enjoy, actual material benefits which an eternity of empiricism could not have produced. The hard-won experience of two thousand years of the Chinese in regard to porcelain was given to the European by a few years' application of science. The improvements in postal communication, which allowed our kings to transmit a message to Edin- burgh in five days, now enables us to send it in less time than their " post-haste messenger" could saddle his horse. But these and other triumphs of mind over mere empirical experience arose from a steady progress of abstract science, the practical applications of which appeared as oft'shoots. It is my chief object to show that it is the abstract science that is necessary to the development of practice, and that it is above all things necessary that i'„ should formtheeducationof aman who is to devote his life to the progress of industry. There is no vein of science too abstract for future industrial application — none which is yet thoroughly mined out and exhausted. Volumes might be filled with illus- trations of the practical benefits which have arisen from the ajiplicatksn of discoveries apparently the most unpromising in their origin ; but a few only can be selected in support of the text of my argu- ment. The most " practical" man — a title used by our English to envelop their ignorance — could not have objected to the marvellous development of truth arising from the study of light, that mes- senger from the sun which had travelled to us at the rate of 180,000 miles in a second, to illumine our earth with the glory of its parent. It was wondrous to be told that the light of yonder far- distant fixed star, travelling without cessation at the same incredible speed, and which has this night struck our wondering eyes, started in its long and weary course some billions of years since, and has now for the first time shed its pale light on such points in time and space as ourselves. The sub- limity of these truths awes the utilitarian, and hushes his half-uttered question of " Cui bono ?" But show him a young officer of Artillery, looking through a prison at the windows of the Palace of the Luxembourg, and noticing that in a particular position the light of these windows disappeared from his view ; show him, further, the startled wonder with which the philosophers of Europe heard of this phenomenon, and the eagerness with v/hich they threw themselves into the track of an observation apparently so insignificant— and your utilitarian sneers at science and its followers, and buries himself again in the darkness of his em- piricism. The light which was reflected from the Palace of the Luxembourg had suffered a change similar to that experienced by ordinary light in passing through closely-refracting Iceland spar. When a ray of this changed or polarized light is passed through plates of crystallized substances, brilliant colours and a peculiar structure were ob- served. These remarkable phenomena were indeed well worthy of the attention of scientific observers. Nothing, however, could appear more remote from practice than the study of an altered beam of light. It was most interesting that, as in the case of sound, where two sounds reaching the ear either exalt or destroy the effect, so, in light, two rays in- terfering with each other may produce darkness. Much of the light from reflecting surfaces was found to possess this changed condition. The hght coming from the surface of water, being thus al- tered, refuses to pass through a " NicoU's prism" in a particular direction. If, therefore, you look at the shadow of a man on a smooth lake, on turning round the pi-ism, the shadow disappears, while the man seen by common hght remains visible : the story of Peter Schlimmel is thus realized. But who, from these curious observations, would have dreamt that out of them would come useful appli- cations ? In a short time, however, this property of the polarizing prism was applied to the import- ant purpose of detecting rocks and shoals at sea. 522 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. It had long been ihe practice of mariners, wlien tliey suspected the existence of shoals, to look out for them from the mast-head, because the outlook from his vertical position shut out much of the li;:^ht which dazzled and obstructed his view. But as part of this dazzling reflected light is polarized, it is ob- vious that the polarizing prism enables the observer to scan the depths of the ocean uninterrupted by its glare. Behold, then, the light which struck the student's eye when gazing on the Luxembourg, used to preserve man from the hazards of the sea ! It was easy to apply it in new directions, and tlie salmon fisher speared fish at dej)th'j inaccessible to to his unaided vision, while the engineer used its searching powers to discover the laws of tension in beams. Mechanics and chemistry both pressed it to further their resources. Under the hands of a Biot, a ray o[ polarized light performed with magi- cal quickness the most refined but tedious opera- tions of the analytical chemist, and enabled him to tell the amount of sugar in the cane, or beet juice. He thus followed the increasing richness of sugar in the juices of various plants at different stages of their growth, and was enabled to suggest a more economical adaptation of the labour applied to their cultivation. Thus, when beet is ready to be gathered, labour is in demand for the harvesting of other crops, and consequently is expensive. It would not then do to take another crop, such as parsnips, inferior in its amount of sugar, as the cost of production would outweigh the return. But when the horses and carts are disengaged, and la- hour is cheap, parsnips are richest in their amount of sugar, and the idle mills may be usefully em- ployed in producing sugar from this plant. By the same ray of light, the size of distant objects may be measured, and even time may record its passage. This latter apphcation, made by "NVheatstone, is es- pecially remarkable, and gives a means more accu- rate and useful than the sun-dial of determining the apparent solar time by the diurnal changes of the plane of polarization at the north pole of the sky. By availing himself of the fact that the planes of polarization in the north pole of the sky change exactly as the position of the hour circle alters, he has adopted a simple and ingenious apparatus by which the true time may be told within three mi- nutes. All these are strange paths to practice, opened out by a ray accidentally caught in its pas- sage from a window of the Luxembourg. Pass from its utilitarianism to its unfolding of nature's laws, and follow the same straggling ray, as it silently displays its gorgeous colours while passing through a transparent mineral substance, until it gives to man the knowledge as to whether the light of the sun proceeded from its solid mass or from its gaseous canopy, or whether comets enjoy light of their own or borrow it by reflection from other bodies. I now pass to hght in its ordinary form, and ask you to examine the importance of studying its abstract phenomena. 'J'he world had long known that salts of silver were blackened by ex- posure to light, and the fact became familiar ])y their use as cauteries, or as indelible inks for linen. Wedgwood proposed to apply this means to fix the fleeting pictures of the camera obscura, but the re- sults of his experiments being imperfect, the sug- gestion itself was almost forgotten. In the mean- time chemists pursued their abstract discoveries, and, without relation to this want, investigated tlie properties of gallic acid, and of the iodide of bro- mine, and found a class of salts termed the hyj>o- sulphites. Some of these bodies possess pro[)erlies which accelerated the blackening of silver salts by light; the others prevent the further blackening when applied. Philosophers began now to revert to the old idea — for truth is never lost, though its reality may be incapal)le of proof at a given time — and thus various unconnected discoveries began to re-act one upon the other, until man was able to use the sun as the painter of the pictures which she exhibits and enlivens with her glory. So perfect became the art, by new adaptation of other dis- coveries, that the most fleeting objects can be de- |)icted. The flash of lightning exhibits its fiery streak on these sun-painted pictures. The tossing out of lavas, the vomiting forth of smoke, and the bellowing of flame from craters in their wildest moods, are portrayed with unerring fidelity; the tumultuous dashing of the cataract, and the slight rippling of the stream, the changing forms of the cloud, the sparkling of the rain-drop, and the ever- varying expression of the human countenance, are all capable of being preserved in these paintings by Nature. Nay, the truthfulness of the sun-painted landscape is so great, that from the very shadows on the picture the altitude of the sun may be deter- mined ; and the time at v/hich it was taken being known, the latitude of the locality may be elicited. Artists now use this application of light to acquire models for study ; and the engineer employs it to obtain proofs of the exact state and progress of the works superintended by him. Doubtless very soon, for it is now all but accomplished, the sun will be compelled to fix those transitory coloured glories which she now imparts to natural objects ; but not till then should man cease to question her as to the means of accomplishing this end. I need not say that this art is but disclosing its future apphcations. Already can we use the sun to record observations too delicate for man's perception. The constant and momentary excursions of the magnet, the ever- recurring variations of the thermometer and baro- meter, are now recorded by light with a fidelity and precision unattainable by the most conscientious and unremitting observers. These instances will suffice to show that the study of abstract laws, so far as regards light, produce as offshoots important practical applications. In each department of science like lessons may be taught. There never was an age so rich in practical applications as that in which we live, and it is interesting to see them drawn from truths which have long been familiar to man, or which seemed to be beyond the range of utilitarian application. When an Italian physician, having hung on an iron railing the legs of a frog fastened to copper hooks, observed that eacli gust of wind caused convulsions in the legs of the dead animal, who could have prophesied that this acci- dental observation would entirely alter the charac- ter of a future century ? And yet it is but an ap- plication of this discovery, extended, it is true, by many intermediate researches, that annihilates space and time, that empowers our thought to travel with THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 523 the speed and with the power of lightning to the most distant land, and enables mind to be recipro- cated without being arrested by distance in s])ace. Who could have dreamt that the same discovery of Galvaniwould in futurejoin continents,in spite of in- tervening seas, and give more security to nations than cordons of soldiers or fleets at sea, by redering sud- den invasion all but impossible ? At the late Exhibition you had a singular proof of this quick interchange of intelligence, for every morning you could buy at a trifling cost a map showing the state of the wind, of the ba'r'ometer and thermometer, in all the principal towns in Great Britain daring the previous day. You have already seen how useful may be made this discovery ; for the transit of a star at Greenwich and at Paris may be instanta- neously recorded, and the longitude of these places be verified. As a means of communicating intel- ligence, its powers are not yet nearly developed, for in its mercantile communications it produces re- sults no less individually important than in its general results, such as when it sends information to distant provinces of the approach of a tornado, time being thus given to provide against the fury of the storm. It is rare indeed that brilliant dis- coveries, such as the electric telegraph, flash ma- tured across a human intellect, and in a generation produce such mighty results. It is true that some of the most wonderful discoveries have been sha- dowed forth by some sudden inspiration ; but in few cases has that shadow appeared as a picture with all its lights and shades. Before steam had been subjugated to the service of man, in accelerat- ing his transit on land or water, Darwin had said : " Soon shall thine arm, unconquered steam, afar. Drag the slow barge, or move the rapid car." It was a similar inspiration that showed to Goethe that plants were but a development of their leaves ; and that made Oken, when stumbling over the bleached skull of a jjeasant, perceive that the ossious system was constructed on the vertebral type. But it was only by patient and long-con- tinued study that these thoughts became substantive realities. This is essentially the case in electricity, which is but now beginning to reward mankind at large for all the patient investigations of the phi- losopher. Already has the fierce and untamed lightning allowed itself to be dragged from its course, and be conducted tranquilly to places where its fury is dissipated without injury to man. Even in its fiery flashings in the wide expanse of the ocean it submits to the intellect of a Franklin, and leaves unscathed the ship rolling on the stormy waves. Providence in his beneficence to man has allowed him to find "away for the hghtning of thunder." Artificially formed, it allows itself to be conducted through land and sea, humbly serving the purposes of man by blowing up mines, or en- abling him to rescue treasures from sunken vessels. This immaterial power produces material results at places fixed on by the will of man, and London may now fire a friendly salute at the Invalides, while Paris returns the compliment with the guns of the Tower. Although as yet electricity is not used with economy as a motive power, the obstacle is only in the cost, and even this may be resolved as dis- coveries jn'ogress. Although her passage is so rapid that a journey to Paris could scarcely be ex- pressed in time, yet she may be controlled and used to record Time's own progress; for nothing is more accurate than clocks worked by her power. It would not be difficult to have all the clocks in a town worked with i)erfect uniformity by the aid of electricity. Electricity now plates with gold and silver the baser metals ; copies in metal from more perishable materials the most exquisite designs and forms ; perpetuates the skill of the engraver by multiplying, at a trifling cost, his elaborately en- graved plates ; and separates and purifies the metals, which could only be obtained by tedious and com- plex chemical operations. Electricity offers for your lighthouses light of a brilliancy the most intense, and asks you to substitute the light gas which streams through the streets by a still more ethereal existence, running along simple wires. Even in the smallest oflfices of good-will to man she refuses not her aid, and offers to tell the ]ierfumer whether his essential oils are adulterated with cheaper fatty substances as willingly as she lends aid to the che- mist in the minute operations of his laboratory practice, or as she kindly ministers with the phy- sician to allay human suffering and restore wasted strength. Recollect that all these are but the be- ginning of her applications, and that we know not to what extent they may be carried out, and rejoice with me that philosophers studied her abstract laws, from the knowledge of which these applica- tions have arisen. I have no time to extract further examples from physics or meteorology, but I cannot refrain from directing a passing glance at the beau- tiful discoveries of Colonel Sir William Reid. Studying the phenomena of a hurricane at Barba- does, he followed out his observations to all re- corded hurricanes, and thus elicited the simple law, that hurricanes and many gales are progressive whirlwinds, revolving in the direction of the hands of a watch in the southern, and in the reverse di- rection in the northern hemisphere, but moving along in its mass at the same time. The variable winds in a hurricane now become inteUigible, and a mariner caught by it may make every wind a fa- vourable one to steer out of its course, and prevent himself being overwhelm.ed in its vortex. To be wrecked in a hurricane can now only result from a lamentable ignorance of scientific laws, for know- ledge has triumphed over the terrors of the storm. Let us now turn to chemistry proper, and see how this supports the text of the argument. It is an old science, and from the time of Tubal Cain to that of Liebig has been progressing steadily on- wards, though not always with similar aims and aspirations. The alchymists erred, as England now errs, by valuing and studying only practical appli- cations, instead of following abstract laws. Health, wealth, and longevity comprised their aspirations in the place of eternal truth. But these objects were sufficiently important to produce in the search a " zeal allied to madness," and facts became ac- cumulated of infinite importance to the science when it attained self-consciousness, and learned to value itself for its nobler ends. No later than the time of Henry IV. a royal edict recommended that "the clergy should search for the philosopher's 2 M 524 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. stone ; for since they can change bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, they must also, by the help of God, succeed in transmuting the baser metals into gold." As soon as chemistry began to be studied for the mere sake of ab- "stract truth, then she deigned to reward man for his unselfishness by numerous collateral results having a direct material benefit. " The philoso- pher's stone," says Liebior, "for which the ancients sought with a dim and ill-defined impulse, was, in its perfectinn, nothing else than the science of che- mistry. Is not that the philosopher's stone which promises to increase the fertility of our fields and to ensure the prosperity of additional millions of mankind ? Does not chemistry promise that instead of seven grains we shall be able to raise eight or more on the same soil ? Is that science not the philosopher's stone which changes the ingredients of the crust of the earth into useful products, to be further transformed by commerce into gold ? Is that knowledge not the philosopher's stone which promises to disclose to us the laws of life, and which must finally yield to ris the means of curing dis- eases and of prolonging life ?" He that supposes that chemistry is the result of practical knowledge derived in its contact with industry knows little of the progress of the human mind, or is little grateful for the infinite development which it has given to human resources and human enjoyment. Let us select a few examples of abstract chemical truths bearing on practical appliances. When Dumas in- ve-tigated the laws of substitution, and discovered a new body by distilling alcohol with bleaching powder — interesting, indeed, in its chemical for- mula, but capable of being sneered at by those who see science at a distance, by a wrong-end telescopic view of its commercial productiveness — who could have dreamt that this chloroform was destined to remove many of the woes which man is heir to, by mitigating pain and preventing its occurrence even in the most severe surgical operations? In 1842 I had the pleasure of travelling with the Dean of Westminster and Liebig over different parts of England ; among other places we visited a lime- stone in the neighbourhood of Clifron, where, in former times. Saurian reptiles had been the pirates of the sea. There, along with the relics of the fishes on which they had preyed were their own animal remains. Coprolites existed in great abun- dance, and proved the extraordinary number of the reptiles which must have existed. The interesting question arose as to whether these excretions of extinct animals contained the mineral ingredients which give so much value to animal manure. The question was, in fact, not yet solved by the chemists, and we took specimens in order to confirm by chemical analysis the views of the geologists. After Liebig had completed their analysis, he saw that they might be made applicable to practical pur- poses. " What a curious and interesting subject for contemplation ! In the remains of an extinct animal world England is to find the means of in- creasing her wealth in agricultural produce, as she has already found the great support of her manu- facturing industry in fossil fuel, the preserved matter of primaeval forests, the remains of a vege- table world. May this expectation be realized, and may her excellent population be thus redeemed from poverty and misery !" I well recollect the storm of ridicule raised by these expressions of the German philosopher. And yet truth has triumphed over scepticism ; and thousands of tons of these, or similar animal remains, are now used in promoting the fertility of our fields. The geological observer, in his search after evidences of ancient life, aided by the chemist, excavated extinct remains which produced new life to future generations. Two years before this, the same German philosopher, in his researches into the food of plants, had drawn atten- tion to the importance of guano as a manure ; and by his intellect wafted fleets to the Ichaboes and to the Incas. Mankind gets so accustomed to luxu- rious applications of science that it often forgets the searcher of abstract truth, whose discoveries led to them. Nothing is more useful than has been the discovery of the lucifer match. Some of us recollect the time when the tinder-box was the only artificial means of procuring light, and a lively remembrance of the often unsuccessful efforts, always tedious and lengthy, is required fully to appreciate the value of the lucifer match. What an improvement it was when a little bottle of oil of vitriol could be carried about, and by dipping matches into this, light was obtained ! and yet this elegant method is now considered clumsy, and is entirely superseded in less than ten years ! The properties of chlorate of potash and of phosphorus became by study better understood, and their appli- cation to the production of artificial light was appai-ently perfected. But the lucifer-match maker is dangerous to society and a curse to himself. The transparent waxy phosphorus with which he works must always be kept under water, and even then is so hazardous that insurance offices decline to insure the premises in which it is contained. In working with it the heat of the hand will cause it to inflame; and the worker, even avoiding this, becomes diseased and liable to ulcers. The prac- tical man now comes helplessly, and lays his wants before the searcher of abstract truth. Chemists had for some time noticed that various bodies assume difterent forms ; as, for example, carbon, in the states of diamond, graphite, and charcoal. An Austrian chemist. Professor Schrotter, investigating the abstract laws of allatroposim, inquires whether phosphorus has more than one form, and by heat changes the transparent waxy body into a bright] scarlet powder. This scarlet powder is the samel phosphorus ; but in a state in which it may be kept] in the open air, or packed up and transported inl casks, and is not readily inflamed by a gentle heat] or by friction. Physiologically it has little actionj on the body, and yet by proper admixtures makesj as good lucifer matches as the ordinary dangerous! phosphorus. By these discoveries the means ofl giving artificial light is rendered a safe and healthy] manufacture. A French chemist discovers that! paper immersed in nitric acid unites with that body, and becomes highly combustible. Any woody fibre] is subsequently found to do the same. This ob- servation lies dormant for years, noticed only as anj interesting fact under a long and scientific terra iaj the books of chemists. But one day a Swiss! chemist announces the startling fact that the] THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 525 peaceful cotton bales of Manchester may be con- verted into dangerous ammunition of war, and that cotton, unchanged in its physical a])pearance, has been made more destructive than gnni)Owder. There was something appalling in the fact of this peaceful representative of industry being made to assume such destructive properties under the magic wand of the chemist. The chemist now examines cotton in the now form, and, trying to purify it, finds that it is soluble in ether. When left exposed the ether quickly evaporates, and the gun cotton retains a skin-like appearance. Surgeons seize the dis- covei'y of the chemist — and gun cotton dissolved can heal the wounds it makes in its dry state. Numerous applications follow ; and man, forgetting his fear, uses the gun cotton to silver mirrors, and to produce the portraits of his friends on glass by a process speedy as the daguerreotype. Another chemist, seeing how readily cotton unites with acids, investigates its power of combining with alkalies; he discovers that it does so, but notices that a con- traction ensues in its fibres. Looms are not now required to make coarse calico fine, for immersion in sdda makes it take the form of fine cambric. The alkaline calico washed in water loses its soda, but unites v.'ith water ; and this in turn is displaced by the colours when the calico is dyed, so that it as- sumes dyes of much greater intensity and brilliancy. Analogous to this is the application of a well-known fact to the manufacture of flax cotton. As long ago as the time of Solomon it was well known that acids produced an effervescence with carbonate of soda ; for that wise king says, singing songs to a heavy heart is like pouring vinegar upon natron (mis-translated nitre). This old fact is now used to separate the fibres of fiax, and give to it a cotton- looking appearance and properties ; but this would have been insufficient as a practical result, had it not been that scientific discoveries had shown the existence of a class of bleaching compounds, termed hypochlorites, which enable a few hours to do the work of many weeks. These various facts, one acting upon the other, have led Chevalier Claussen to his interesting discoveries. These various dis- coveries of Schonbein, Mercer, and others, did not in any case arise from a direct practical search, but as offshoots of abstract investigation. Antioch, in the l)eginning of the fourth century, discovered the importance, as a matter of police, of lighting its streets. But the discovery lapsed, and it was only in the middle of the sixteenth century that Paris lighted up her streets by fires made of pitch and resin. Slowly did this matter of primary police creep on till the end of the last century, when it started forward with extraordinary vigour. Chemists had long observed that coal, on being distilled, produced a combustible gas, and the means of col- lecting and distributing various kinds of gas were among the common experiments of a lecture table. But it v/as not till 1792 that Murdoch employed coal gas to light up his oflUces at Redruth. Now gas has entirely substituted oil in the lighting of streets ; but simply as a question of cost, the coals from which it is produced being cheaper than the corn necessary to form and allow. It by no means follows that gas is always the most convenient form of using a combustible. " It would certainly," says Liebig, "be considered one of the greatest discoveries of the age, if any one could succeed in condensing coal-gas into a white, dry, solid odour- less substance, portable, and capaljle of being placed upon a candlestick or burned in a lamp." A want is rarely clearly expressed by a man that science does not administer to it, and already is the desire of Liebig accomplished. A mineral oil flowed out of coal in Derbyshire, and was obviously produced by a slow process of distillation from the coal. It contained solid paraflfine dissolved in a liquid oil. Mr. Young, of Manchester, in examining the mode of its formation, found that parafiine, a solid, waxy subctance, which had hitherto never been produced from coal, could in reality be readily formed in commercial quantities by a slow and regulated dis- tillation. This, in fact, " is condensed coal-gas," or rather it might be considered as a solid form of olifiaent gas. It is, therefore, really the want of Liebig supplied. In forming coke, this product dissolved in an oil of a similar composition may readily be obtained, and thus coke may be econo- mised in its production by converting into useful products those waste gasses which are now thrown uselessly into the atmosphere. It might appear chimerical to you if I were to state many of the consequences which must follow if this discovery in its maturity is found as successful as it promises to be in its dawn ; but it is not difficult to see that a cheaper and less carbonised coke would soon render our fires smokeless, and enable us occa- sionally to see a sun which now refuses to penetrate the sooty canopy of our cities. Hour after hour might be employed in recording the triumphs of chemistry in its investigations into the play of the organic elements. Looking back no further than the last few years, you see how it has thrown open the most hidden processes of animal and vegetable lifi' — how it has taught us to increase and econo- mise the food of man. It is even yet the practice of those who have not followed her discoveries into the wondrous affinities of the few simple organic elements, to depreciate the importance of following their infinite creations. If, however, there were no other result from doing so than the one great achievement of having explained the ingredients in food used to build up the mascular frame, and those employed in the support of animal heat, the importance of that discovery would have repaid all the labour of the past century. Almost all the staple manufactures of this country are founded on chemical principles, a knowledge of which is abso- lutely indispensable for their economical application. In a few educational establishments, and in some of our universities, the alphabet of chemical science is taught ; but it requires an institution such as this, devoted to a special object, to teach how to use that alphabet in reading manufactures. The extension of scientific and technical education is a want of the age. The old and yet widely existing scholastic system of education, introduced by the revival of learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is ill adapted to the necessities of the times. Erasmus would not now aid Cambridge in advancing the progress of England, nor would Vitelli make Oxford useful to the mass of its popu- lation. It would be of little use to the lagging pro- 2 M 2 52 G THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gress of Italy, even if Chrysolaras was again to teach Gi'eek in its universities. Euripides and Thucydides cannot make power-looms and spinning- jennies ; for these, Watts and Arkwrights are re- quired. A Poggio may discover copies of Lucretius and Quintilian without thereby producing a result equal to that of the smallest discoveries of a Stephenson or a Wheatstone. When will our schools learn that dead literature cannot be the parent of living science or of active industry? "The great desideratum of the present age," says Liebig, "is practically manifested in the establishment of schools in whicli the natural sciences occupy the most prominent places in the course of instruction. From these schools a more vigorous generation will come forth, powerful in understanding, qualified to appreciate and to ac- complish all that is truly great, and to bring forth fruits of universal usefulness. Through them the resources, the wealth, and the strength of empires will be incalculably increased." Institutions such as this are not substitutes for, but supplements to, the universities. It is the industrial training which we profess, and everything else is made subsidiary to that object. Not that we do or should forget abstract science as such, because I believe the dis- coveries in abstract laws are of more real benefit to indust'-y than their immediate applications. The technical man is, perhaps, of more use to himself and to his time and generation than he who dis- covers the abstract laws which the former applies to the purposes of industry; but it is the abstract philosopher who benefits all time, and confers uni- versal and eternal benefit on society. If I have convinced you that it is of infinite importance to a nation not only to study science, as constituting the foundation on which industry rests, but to pro- mote the advancement of abstract science, the soul and life of industrj', you will readily understand the importance of mstitutions, the object of which is to infuse this life into special departments of technology. England has too long rested en the position which it has acquired as a manufacturing nation. This position was gained when local ad- vantages gave an impulse to our practical national mind. But now that the progress of human events has converted the competition of industry into a competition of intellect, it will no longer do to plume and pride ourselves on our power of mere practical adaptations. It is miserable and con- temptible to see our industrial population glorying in their ignorance of the principles on which their manufactures depend, by vaunting their empiri- cism or, as they term it, their " practice." Let us waken from this delusion, unless we prefer to " Sit like spent and patient fools Still puflling in the dark at one poor coal. Held on by hope till the last spark is out." If England is to keep pace with other countries as a manufacturing nation, it must be by her sons of industry becoming humble disciples of science. At present her reliance in the " practical" or " common sense" of her population is the sunken rock directly in the course both of her agriculture and manufac- tures. On this subject Archbishop Whately has some excellent remarks. " By common sense," says he, " is meant, I apprehend (when the term is used with any distinct meaning), an exercise of judgment, unaided by any art or system of rules ; such an exercise as we must necessarily employ in numberless cases of daily occurrence, in which, having no estabhshed principles to guide us — no line of procedure, as it were, distinctly chalked out — we must needs act on the best extemporaneous conjectures we can form. He who is eminently successful in doing this is said to possess a supe- rior degree of common sense. But that common sense is only our second-best guide — that the rules of art, if judiciously framed, are always desirable when they can be had, is an assertion for which I may appeal to the testimony of mankind in general ; which is so much the more valuable inasmuch as it may be accounted the testimony of adversaries ; for the generality have a strong predilection in fa- vour of common sense, except in those points in which they respectively possess the knowledge of a system of rules; but in these points they deride any one who trusts to unaided common sense. A sailor, e. cj., will perhaps despise the pretensions of medical men, and prefer treating a disease by com- mon sense ; but he would ridicule the proposal of navigating a ship by common sense, without regard to the maxims of nautical art. A physician, again, will pei-haps contemn systems of pohtical economy, of logic, or metaphysics, and insist on the superior wisdom of trusting to common sense on such mat- ters ; but he would never approve of trusting to common sense in the treatment of diseases. Nei- ther, again, would the architect recommend a re- liance on common sense alone in building, nor the musician in music, to the neglect of those systems of rules which, in their respective arts, have been deduced from scientific reasoning, aided by expe- rience. And the induction might be extended to every department of practice. Since, therefore, each gives the preference to unassisted common sense only in those cases where he himself has no- thing else to trust to, and invariably resorts to the rules of art wherever he possesses the knowledge of them, it is plain that mankind bear their testimony, though unconsciously and often unwillingly, to the preference of systematic knowledge to conjectural judgments." Practice and science must now join together in a solemn union, or the former will soon emigrate to other lands. The time is past when prac- tice can go on in the blind and vain confidence of a shallow empiricism, severed from science "like a tree from its roots." The rudest sailor may steer his ship in the direction of a landmark, but, without compass and sextant, he dare not traverse the expanse of ocean. Ignorance may walk in the path dimly lighted by advancing Knowledge, but she stands in dismay when Science passes her; and she is unable to follow, like the foolish virgin, having no oil in her lamp. Depend upon it, an empirical knowledge of practice is not the way now to succeed in the struggle of individuals, or in the struggle of nations. Intellect is on the stretch to get for- ward, and that nation which holds not by it will soon be left behind. For a long time, Practice, standing still in the pride of empiricism, and in the ungrateful forgetfulness of what Science had done in its development, reared upon its portal the old THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 527 and vulgar adage — " An ounce of Practice is wortli a ton of Theory." This wretched inscription acted lilce a Gorgon's head, and turned to stone the aspi- rations of Science. Believe it not! For a grain of Theory — if that he an expression for Science — will, when planted, like the mustardsced of Kcrip- ture, grow and wa.v into the greatest of trees. The pressure and difficulties of the age and the rapid advancement of intellect in continental nations have been the Perseus to cut off this Medusa's head from the industry of England, and to fix it on the shield of Minerva, who turns to stone such as still believe that Science should be ignored by Practice ; but, reversing that shield, wisely conducts those who would go further under her guidance. It is now rare to find men who openly avow, although they actually entertain a belief in, a necessary antago- nism being theory and practice. Theory is, in fact. the rule, and practice its example. Theory is but the attempt to iiu-nish an intelligent explanation of that which is empirically ascertained to be true, and is always useful, even when wrong. Theories are the leaves of the tree of science, drawing nu- triment to the parent stem while they last, and by their fall and decay affording the materials for the new leaves which are to succeed. I have now said enough to show you that it is indispensable m this country to have a scientific education in connection with manufactures, if we wish to outstrip the intel- lectual competition which now, happily for the world, prevails in all departments of industry. As surely as darkness follows the setting of the sun, so surely will England recede as a manufacturing nation, un- less her industrial population become much more conversant with science than they now are.* THE GREAT EXHIBITION. MODEL COTTAGES, AND MACHINES OF DOMESTIC ECONOMY. The enormous extent of the Exhibition has rendered it impossible to avoid what, according to the view the -S/;ec/aio?- takes of it, adds to, or dttracts very much from, its interest — that is, the want of perfect classifica- tion, both in catalogue and in the collection. To a person holding a season ticket, and merely strolling over the building for amusement, the search for any interesting object may, in itself, be a pleasant pastime, in both souses of tlie word, as may also he the endeavour to discover the use and nature of the vai ious articles exhibited. But to those who wish to increase their knowledge, and make the best use of their time, the imperfect classification, and the want of intelligent officials to explain the articles, is severely felt. The Exhibition may be compared to a beautiful pictorial cncyclopcedia, having most of the letter-press torn out, and the illustrations rather intermixed. There is, therefore, some difficulty in obtaining a clear concep- tion of the leul number and variety of the contents ; and although the articles themselves are there, yet, from being subdivided and apart, they do not attract the attention so much as if perfectly classified. Nor, probably, could this be remedied; for, taking the agri- cultural implements as an example, every contributor, of course, wishes to have all his implements together, or, if he is a foreigner, to have them in the foreign compartment ; yet, to have had all the implements of a class (as ploughs, for instance) together, would have afFoidcd an easier means of comparison to the visitor. Anything affecting the condition of the working classes is well worthy of notice, and among the evils to which the agricultural labourer is subject, few are more injurious, both to health and morals, than insufficient and inferior cottage accommodation. It is pleasant to see that the noblest gentleman iu the kingdom has in this set an example worthy of being followed by every landowner. Prince Albert's morlel cottage is erected in the yard of Knightsbridge Barrack, just opposite the Crystal Palace, and naturally attracts much attention. It is Intended for four families, and is built entirely of fire- proof materials. The walls, and even the ceihngs, which are slightly arched, and strengthened by iron rods, are of hollow brick — those employed in interior work being previously glazed, so that merely wiping them with a wet cloth will clean them as easily as if made of earthenware ; the floors, both below and above, being of similar bricks, the stairs of slate. The cost of a similar tenement for four families would be, it is said, about £400, each house containing three bed-rooms, besides the day-rooms. Inside the Exhibition building, the Society for Im- proving the Condition of the Labouring Classes exhibit their building contrivances as adopted in the construc- tion of their model dwellings for labourers, particularly that of hollow brick -work, glazed and unglazed, whereby dryness, warmth, durability, security from fire, deadening of sound, and economy of construction, are obtainable. This society also shows drawings and models of buildinss erected, and designs. J. Sillet, of Kelsale, near Saxmundham, exhibits a model of a ground-floor cottage, designed and built by * The lecturer stated that some years since he gave a lecture, never published, though a few copies were printed for private circulation among his students, the subject being siinilar to this. A demand having been made for it by publishers, as expressive of a want novv' acknowledged by manu- facturers to exist, he jjreferred taking this o])por- tunity to write a new lecture on the same text, incorporating some of the passages of the former lecture. 528 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the exhibitor for himself, at a cost of £Go. In class 7, No. 19, is also a model of alab jurer's cottage, suggest- ing some improvements in construction for lessening the cost of such structures, exhibited by a Mr. Allen. Such are almost the only articles exhibited that refer solely to the agricultural labourer, although most of the cheaper articles in woollen and cotton fabrics, hardware, and crockery, may be considered to appertain in a great degree to the labouring classes generally. Machines for assisting in domestic economy are scattered here and there in such numbers that, if they succeeded as well as their Inventors allege, the ladies would soon have cause to lament, with Othello, their " occupation gone." No less than six machines, combining washing, wringing, and mangling in one article, are exhibited in class 22. Judbrius (62, class 6) exhibits a sewing machine capable of setting 500 stitches a minute j and in the French department sewing machines appear a favourite idea with the machinists. They have (373) a hemming machine suitable for the sewing of coarse linen cloths. This, in action, seems to require a man's power to work it, and to hem about half as fast as a tolerable needle- woman ! No. 1545 is a double sewing machine. No. 1654, a causo-broduer, a sewing, embroidery, and cord-making machine is shewn, with samples of the sewing in different stuffs. America exhibits (64) a netting and (338) a knitting machine. Both the English and French shew two or three ma- chines for kneading bread and biscuits, and the Swiss (60) go so far as to invent a new machine for cutting bread. Steam, which has been employed for so many things, has even been enlisted into the baker's service. This is done by immersing the dough in high-pressure steam; for, although low-pressure steam is damp, and often used as a substitute for boiling, steam, if kept up to high-pressure point, is quite dry, and may even be employed to char wood. If we proceed to dairy requisites, we have churns of all countries, kinds, and shapes. English churns, Scotch churns, Swiss churns, Belgian churns, American churns, a thermometer churn, a self-adjusting churn, a chemical churn (92, class 9), a self-temperature, or winter and summer churn (237), Anthony's American aerating churn (266), and the centrifugal churn. Nearly all these profess to produce butter in half the usual time, and in one instance (92) the butter pro- duced by the churn and process is stated to be effectually preserved from becoming rancid. We have also a French patent plan for preserving butter without salt. So much for churns. Now for milk. Here, in the English section, we have (class 3, 139) essence of milk, combined with chocolate, cocoa, and coffee (140); consolidated milk (which may be a sort of cheese), and (129) artificial milk — this latter being, one would think, no great novelty in Londoti. The Americans exhibit a sausage cutter and sausage staffer, which, however, are no novelties in England; but the following American inventions are something out of the common, and "calculated, I guess," as .Jojuilhan would say, to cheer the spirits of those who complain of their incompetent servants. Tliose are, Mr. Joel Houghton's (of Ogden, New York) machines for washing dishes and scrubbing floors. In the first, the articles to be washed are placed in a rack and set upright, when it is carried to a vessel containing water and a little soap, and by turning a crank the dishes in the rack are whirled in great style to remove the dirt. The unclean water is then drawn off and replaced by clean boiling water, and the crank again turned a few seconds; the dishes are then clean, and can remain in the rack, which obviates the necessity of handling them repeatedly. The machine for washing floors has a spring, a drum j with a cord to it, and a few levers peculiarly combined, | and worked by canes, all operated by a handle turning " a wheel. All that is necessary to be done is, to turn the handle, move it every square yard, and supply it with clean water ; by turning the handle it scrubs the floor, wipes it, and wrings out the cloth. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. We shall proceed to describe the reaping machines of Messrs. M'Cormick, Hussey, and Garrett, to which al- lusion was made in a former communication. M'Cormick's machine consists of a platform, to the front of which a cutting apparatus is attached, on which the cut corn falls, and is then raked off on the land side; a large four-vaned fan, or reel, gathers the corn towards the cutter, and makes it fall on the frame or platform. The corn is cut by a fine-toothed knife, or rather saw, working backwards and forwards just above a series of triangular equilateral teeth, placed at a distance apart equal to their own bases ; these teeth hold the corn firmly while the saw cuts the straw. Motion is given to the fanner by a strap, and to the saw, or cutter, by a series of cogged wheels, from a broad driving wheel, not more than two feet in height, upon which the machine travels. It is drawn by two horses harnessed on the outside of the platform, and so passes along the outside of the uncut corn without coming in contact with it. One man drives the horses, and another sits upon a perch slightly in advance of the platform, with his back to the horses, and rakes off the sheaves as they are thrown upon the platform. As the horses advance, the fanner revolves, and gently descending upon the corn, forces it between the forks, which serve to compress it while the vibrating knife cuts it off, and the continued motion of the fanner throws it upon the platform, from whence it is removed in quantities sufficient for a sheaf by the man with the rake. The mere progression of the machine — as in our drills and dibbling machines — with the aid of a few cog wheels, sets the serrated edged knife in motion. M'Cormick, in his circular, states that with two horses and two men from one to two and a-half acres of corn may be cut per hour, the machine carrying a width of about five feet. We ourselves believe it is quite possible to cut one acre per hour of the ordinary English crops of grain, the two men taking their turn THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. 529 at the rake. It is quite apparent that the rakiugr off requires some skill, and that it is too hard work for continuance through a long day's labour. Mr. M'Corniick, the inventor of this machine, is, we believe, a Scotch emigrant, who has for some years been settled at Chicago (Illinois) ; his invention is said to have been in high repute in the States for several years. The numbers yearly sold there have been, in 1843, 30 machines; 1844,100; 1845, 200; 1846,250; 1847,500; 1848,775; 1849,1500; 1850,1800. The invention is described as having been patented in 1834 in America, and in England in 1850. We have already alluded to the result of the trials of this machine at Tiptree Hall, upon unripe, and after- wards, at Pusey, upon ripe corn, which have procured for Mr. M'Cormick the award of a council medal of the Great Exhibition — an honour which only four of our first agricultural implement makers, Messrs. Busby, Crosskill, Garrett, and Hornsby, have been successful in obtaining for collections of their best English im- plements. Mr. Meehi's opinion of the machine, from its trial upon a heavy crop of wheat, very long in the straw, partially laid, and estimated at five quarters per acre, is as follows :— " That it will cut from 10 to 16 acres per day, and perfectly on level land, with a standing crop. That the quantity cut depends upon the acti- vity of the man with the rake, and that it is hard work to remove an acre and a-quarter per hour. That the perfect action of the machine is impeded by open fur- rows, by very long straw, and by laid corn that falls from the machine. In conclusion, Mr. Mechi feels a strong conviction that all our reaping will soon be done by horse or steam power." Mr. Pusey gives, as the particularsof the Jury trial, "That the machine cut the wheat about eight inches from the ground with the greatest regularity, and, although cutting at the rate of one and a-half acres per hour, the horses found the work light. He anticipates difficulties where ridges and water furrows exist ; but in this trial upon level land it was wonderful to see a new implement working so smoothly, so truly, and in such a masterly manner ; and, in conclusion, attributes to the Great Exhibition, and its royal originator, the merit of the introduction of this the most important addition to farming machinery that has been invented since the threshing machine first took the place of the flail." Since the above trials, the reaping machine has been tested in other parts of the country, and in the pre- sence of large parties of agriculturists, the general opinion being in confirmation of the award of the Ex- hibition jury. At Guildford, it was tried upon a 12 acre field — the property of R. D. Mangles, Esq., M.P. —of strong and uneven ground, with deep furrows, and but a slight crop, indeed it was said to be the worst field and crop upon the farm, but, in spite of all obstacles, it was the opinion generally that the machine did its work admirably, and that it was well adapted for cutting standing crops of corn. The time occupied in cutting an acre of wheat was twenty-four minutes. The machine was next shown at work upon the farm attached to tlie Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, and again gave great salisfacliosi to a crowd of gentlemen and practical farmers. It was tried on barley, wheat, and oafs, and under circum- stances fairly calculated to test its merits, and the re- sult was similar to former trials, the standing corn being well cut, the lodged or thin corn but in- differently so. We trust the result of this trial will be of some ad- vantage to the college, as well as to Mr. M'Cormick, by drawing towards it the attention and support of the practical farmer, and we trust that such trials will be extended to every new agricultural implement that is brought out, and thus be the means of extending the usefulness of a valuable institution that has hitherto devoted more of its attention to the theoretical studies of the student than to the practical requirements of the actual tiller of the ground. The price of this machine (£28) appears high, par- ticulai-ly as there are other and cheaper machines in the market. Mr. Hussey's (of Baltimore) reaping and mowing machine is constructed on a very similar principle to M'Cormick's, the motive power to the cutting part being given from the carrying wheels of the frame, but, having no fanner, it is apparently a much smaller and less formidable looking implement. Instead of a straight sickle-edged knife, it has triangular double- edged cutters, each about three inches wide, which are made to work to and fro very quickly between a series of projecting teeth placed about three inches apart. The woodcut shows the manner of working in the field, Mr. Hussey attributes his failure in competing with Mr. M'Cormick for the prize medal of the Exhibition to his not arriving in England in time for its projier trial, and to its working having been entrusted to one of the Exhibition porters when shown before the jury. Be this as it may, he appears to have been successful at subsequent trials. In the Mark Lane Express oi October the 13th a full report is given of the meeting of the Cleveland AgriculturalSociety's Jury (composed of well known agriculturists and practical farmers), for the purpose of ascertaining the respective merits of the two reapers from America. The trial was made in very unfavourable weather, upon a crop of wheat of about 25 bushels per acre, very much laid, and on barley at 25 bushels per acre, very short in the straw, and, if possible, more laid than the wheat. 1. "The Jury expressed their unanimous opinion that Mr. Hussey's machine cut the corn in the best manner, especially across ridge and furrow, and when the machine was working in the direction the corn was laid. 2. "By a majority of eleven to one, that Mr. Hussey's machine caused the least waste. 3. "That Mr. Hussey's did the most work, taking the breadtli of the two machines into considtralion. 4. " That Mr. Hussey's machine leaves the cut corn in the best manner for gathering an:l binding. This question was submitted to the labourers employed on 530 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the occasion, and decided by tliem, as above, by a ina-- jority of six to four. 5. "Their unanimous opinion that Mr. Hussey's machine is best adai^ted for ridge and furrow, and that Mr. Hussey's machine has the advantage in the first cost being of less amount." It also appears, from this and the other trials, that either machine may be managed, after a few days' practice, by any ordinary farm labourer, and that their introduction have not been viewed by the labourers with that dislike with which tliey would most certainly have been looked upon a few years since. We now come to the Messrs. Garrett's machine, I what is of great importance, it is sold at a lower price which is similar to Mr. Hussey's, but with a larger Tliis machine has been daily at work during the late and more powerful carrying and driving wheel, with harvest upon Mr. Garrett's farm at Leiston and up some improvements in the cutting apparat.is, and, I wards of 100 gentlemen and practical farmer, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 531 actual occupiers of 50,000 acres, have tcslilicdtu the merits of tlie performance of tlie niacliinc. It is now well known that the idea of manufacturing a reaping machine upon Mr. Hussey's principle was suggested to the Messrs. Garrett by John Tollemache, Esq., M.P. for South Cheshire, some time before the Exhibition was actually commenced. The drawing shows the working in the field, the corn being cut by a series of triangular knives, placed on a horizontal sliding bar, intersecting or working between a like series of iron tines, which are fixed to a wooden platform, provided to receive the corn as it falls. Mo- tion is communicated to the knives by a crank-shaft, worked by the revolution of the travelling wheel. As the implement proceeds in its work, the corn is re- ceived and cut between the knives and tines, and falls on the stage, from which it is raked off at intervals by the man in attendance for that purpose. FARM BUILDINGS. A good collection of models of the farm buildings, as they are now built, in different counties of England, and in different countries of Europe, would have been very useful, by showing at a glance what can only be acquired by extensive research and travel. The few at the Exhibition were certainly, although perhaps un- avoidably, shown in so many parts of the building, and in such an unconnected manner, that visitors found it quite impossible to compare them ; and although few in number, we feel certain that, for these reasons, many of the models have been passed over almost unnoticed by persons who would otherwise have felt interested in them. Generally, agriculturists were not frequent visitors to the Exhibition ; and in the midst of so much that was new and beautiful, it can scarcely be a matter of a moment's wonder that a few paste-board models, dis- tributed here and there, should be passed over, at the best, with a slight and casual glance, which might in a situation less attractive have commanded the serious at- tention of parties interested in such things. Feeling certain that these models have not been noticed so much as they deserve, it is now our intention to describe them, and endeavour to make the arrangements proposed by each designer as intelligible to our readers as we can. Models constructed of several thousand pieces of wood , of pith, or of shells, are important affairs to the curious ; and the general public feel a deep interest in the models of such places of well-deserved fame as Tintern Abbey, Shakespeare's House, or even of Prince Albert's birth- place ; but even these admit of no comparison, as re- spects usefulness, with the designs of our farm-yards. Had the latter been more numerously exhibited, they would, with our excellent show of agricultural imple- ments, have illustrated the industrial processes of our fields and homesteads in a far more substantial manner than the models of wax show the manners and customs of the luxurious Mexicans, or even the interesting series of figures which so well and plainly exemplified to us the rude handicraft of the natives of India. The large and complete model of Mr. Meclii's well- known Tiptree Hall and farm-buildings dpsorves atten- tion, if it is only because of the annual gathering of agriculturists from all parts who yearly assemble there, who at a sight of this model have probably recalled to mind the kind hospitality of Mr. Mechi, and his perse- verance and energy devoted to the advancement of im- proved and new farming practices. Whether these are successful or not, we are not the less obliged to gentle- men who try costly experiments, and then candidly, as Mr. Mechi does, give us the benefit of their experience, dearly purchased as it sometimes may be. This model was shown in class 30, but in what way it is connected with fine arts, and its mosaics, enamels, and sculptures, we are at a loss to imagine. It is de- scribed (220) as the working model of Tiptree Hall Farmery, near Kelvedon ; the model executed after Mr. Meehi's own design by H. S. Merrett, 83, Fetter Lane, London ; the machinery of the model by G. F. Camp- bell, 17, Addington Street, York Road, Lanjbeth ; the models of animals by Vincenzo, Ruffoni, and Forzano, 4, Greville Street, Hatton Garden. It was enclosed in a handsome and well-made case of mahogfiny and plate- glass, and inscribed upon it ia letters of gold a descrip- tion written in English, German, and French, so that all nations might view the place to which Mr. Mechi has doubtless given a world-wide fame. Tli.e model shows an excellent and comfortable-looking farm-house, carefully laid-out grounds, and flower- garden — the house itself, perhaps, marred in some respects by the outbuildings immediately s^butting upon it, without the counter advantage of a direct view from the windows of the house upon the affairs of the farm- yard. Gentlemen who have read Mr. Meehi's latest writings, or heard the speeches he has recently made, or, what is better, have been included amongst his guests at his last gathering, will perfectly understand that the principle adopted in the design of the buildings is that of keeping cattle, sheep, and pigs under cover upon open and removable boarded framings, through the interstices of which the excrements fall, to be col- lected in a tank or sunk compartment beneath the framing. We conjecture the volatile portion of this collection of unadulterated dung and urine is absorbed by scientific admixtures of sulphuric acid, gypsum, or salt, or by the more practical application of burnt and charred soil, sawdust, &c. ; otherwise the effluvia arising from it would, we fear, be far from pleasant to the nose of a scientific farmer. If we except the new method of " feeding cattle on boards" — not internally, but exter- nally— the benefit of which must be proved by more ex- tended experience than Mr. Mechi can afford, we do not observe much that is desirable or novel in the model. The loft or tallet over the stables is certainly conveni- ently placed for receiving supplies of straw for litter from the thrashing-barn ; but the latter so plainly f Iiows the change that has recently taken place to adapt it to steam-power thrashing that it cannot be complete. Close by, in Class 30, No. 28, Mr. C. Bond, of Edin- burgh, and 53, Parliament-street, London, shows a S32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. model of a Highland cottage, described as combining simplicity of construction, comfort, warmth, ventilation, and economy. It is a plain low structure, simple enough in its details, having the living rooms as usual on the ground floor, and the bedrooms in the roof, the latter doubtless a great improvement on the cottages of the Highlands ; but we do not admire the lean-to at the back, in which the wash-house, poultry, and cow sheds, barn, and dairy are combined under one roof with the house. Probably the division of these compartments by internal partitions is the improvement the architect alludes to ; and he is perfectly correct if he compares his design with the miserable huts and cabins of the worst districts in Ireland, and perhaps of the Highlands of Scotland, in which a single room forms the living and sleeping apartment of the cotter with his family, his pig, and his fowls. However, it cannot be conducive to health or cleanliness to have the dwellings of human beings under the same roof as those for cows and poul- try : and this being the principle which Mr. Bond has adopted, we can scarcely recommend his design as suit- able for the dwellings of our countrymen, however low they may be placed in the scale of society. Nov. 10, 1851. W. H. R. SOILS IN THEIR RELATION TO WATER The accessibility of soils to water, or what is usually denominated their absorbent power, is one of those features in their character of much interest and im- portance, not only to the professional drainer, but to those more immediately interested in their economic qualities. In porous soils, or those whose parts are not in a state of positive cohesion, as, for instance, those termed "gravelly," water finds its way through them by percolating through the interstitial spaces of the mass, as in an artificial filter. By much the same process water passes througli the lighter loams; but its passage is differently effected through such soils as consist of clay, and which are so cohesive as to be usually regarded as impervious to water. Such soils, under the desiccating influence of heat, become fissured in all directions, and these fissures constitute channels through which water flows with facility, and readily finds its way either to a porous substratum, or artificial conduit, should such exist in the subsoil. No fear need, therefore, be entertained of the inability of water to penetrate to a drain formed in such soils, however cohesive, as by the fissures so formed a ready channel is presented for its passage to a lower level. These fissures, formed in summer by the shrinliing of the mass of the soil under solar influence, may con- stitute channels through which water may continue to percolate in future ; and my attention was lately called to the manner in which the durability of such fissures as natural water-channels is, in some cases, secured by a natural process of great simplicity and beauty. The case was as follows : — I was employed in draining a field in Berkshire, with pipes placed inthetrenchesatadepth of four feet, the soil consisting of what may be justly de- nominated,fromitsconstitution, siliceous clay, thelatter earth predominating in its composition. In the course of excavating the drains, I perceived, in particular spots, that masses of the soil fell to pieces on being thrown on the surface ; that such masses abounded in sand ; and that they broke up in such u manner as to indicate that the sand pervaded the clay in the form of veins. Upon noticing this phenomenon to the workmen, they re- marked that there were veins of sand in the soil, and my opinion of the truth of this notion was confirmed upon further investigation. On close examination of the masses of clay so veined by sand, I found them presenting appearances which indicated that the sand filled fissures in the clay, the smooth sides of the fissure being encrusted with sand ; and in one sample taken from the bottom of a drain, four feet from the surface, there were indications of the roots of plants having pe- netrated to that depth. The phenomena above mentioned left no doubt on my mind of the mode of formation of these " water* veins," as they were termed by the workmen ; and the process, as I interpret it, is at once so simple and so eflTicacious for its object, as to appear a provision of nature for tlie specific purpose of providing a channel in such soils for the percolation of water. I have stated that the soil in which the drains were made was a clay abounding in silica, or a siliceous clay, which readily became fissured in summer during the preva- lence of drought ; and during showers or heavy rains, the siliceous particles became separated from the clay, and were exposed on the surface abundantly. When a heavy rain fell, therefore, such particles were readily moved, and as a natural result were immediately washed into the fissures formed by solar desiccation, which they in the course of time filled up, constituting afterwards a natural drain, which readily conducted the water of rain through the mass of the soil ; and the efficient action of the artificial drains, in the first winter of their existence, disposed me to believe that the artificial process was very much promoted by the natural one, as undoubtedly it was. The veins of land above described must not be con- founded with the phenomenon called " stratification," by geologists, as if they had appeared to alternate with the clay in strata or beds. Had such been the case, they would have been disposed in layers horizontal or nearly so; but, on the contrary, the sand could be traced vertically through the clay, from the surface to the bottom of the drains, justifying the description above given of them, and verifying the inference as to their origin deduced from that phenomenon. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 533 Although tbo above explanation of a natural plieno- . cesses in nature, which we frequently wot not of, which raenon appears to be a true one, and although it dis- promote our arlificial operations, and btrtn^then with covers aii important feature in the economy of soils, it the Inspirations of lioiie our efforts at improvement. — is difficult to direct a knowledge of It to a practical George Kirk, Hammersmilh. end ; but at least it seems to show that there are pro- 1 AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD. FRANCE.— No, XIX. THE CANAL DU MIDI AND THE DEPARTMENT OF l'hERAULT. [from the spkcial correspondent of the morning chronicle.] Of almost equal importance with the fertility of a district are the means of transport, by the help of which it can send forth its own produce, and re- ceive in return the commodities which it requires. The maxim is a truism ; but it furnishes my apo- logy for introducing here some account of a work which, if not purely agricultural, is yet of vast con- sequence to the agriculture of the south of France, and which is, historically and scientifically, as in- teresting as it is commercially important. I refer to the Canal du Midi, and to the extended system of water-ways of which it was the originator, as it is now the centre. To this canal system Langue- doc and Provence owe incalculable benefits. It early opened up the great markets of the north for their corn, oil, and wine ; and the day which saw the waters of the Black Mountains descend through a series of locks to the Garonne on the one hand, and to the Lagoon of Thau, communi- cating with the Mediterranean, on the other, saw the olive-grounds, almond-gardens, vineyards, and corn-fields of the great southern provinces doubled in value and utility. The project of uniting, by means of a canal, the Mediterranean and the ocean is a very old one. It is said to have been a Roman scheme, and at all events it was more than once entertained by the French 'monarchs of the early and middle ages. About the time of Francis I. a plan was actually constructed, having for its object the establishment of a communication between the Aude and the Garonne. Nothing was then done, however, and a similar fate befel a scheme concocted for and presented to Charles IX. Sully's sagacity revived the project, and a commission was issued under Henry IV. charged with the duty of examining into the practicability of the design. Engineering science had, however, attained no great proficiency in the days of the Bearnais King, and the elevated table-land between the two great valleys puzzled the most intrepid adventurers. The project was now entertained, anon abandoned, sometimes pro- nounced possible, sometimes stigmatized as hopeless, and finally laid aside in despair. Years passed on. Henri Quatre slept with his fathers. Another great King ruled in his place, and another great Minister held the portefeuille of Sully. Then it was that there arose one of those stubborn en- thusiasts— one of those gaUant soldiers of an idea, who cheerfully devote life and fortune to fighting an obstinate battle for the ruling passion. Pierre Paul Riquet, a feudal seigneur and baron of Bon- repos, was this engineering champion. The pro- ject of joining the two seas was the absorbing idea — the very end and aim of his life. For many years he fluttered vainly around the problem. The Black Mountain ridge was the obstacle which stuck in the throat of even his best contrived schemes. Backwards and forwards he flitted from the Ga- ronne to the Aude, exploring every mountain path and noting every mountain level. At length his perseverance was rewarded. In my last letter I had occasion to mention his discovery of the dou- ble flomng Fontaine de Greve, which in a moment gave the clue to his future operations. It was, of course, clear that, if from a higher level in the mountain ridges a sufficient body of water could be brought down upon the spot occupied by the all-important well, mechanical digging and lock- making were all that was requisite to lead it, on the one hand to the Mediterranean, and on the other to the Atlantic. Riquet immediately set to work, to ascertain upon what water-supply he could depend. Dim old traditions of the country yet tell of the scientific seigneur, attended by his little corps of assistants and servants, toiling wea- rily, week by week, and month by month, amid the flinty summits and deep gullies of those deso- late hills. The baron's principal coadjutors were two uneducated, but intelligent and clear-headed, labourers from his own estate ; and aided by the help which they could give him, and by the rude and simple instruments then in use, Riquet at length succeeded in marking out an infinity of channels, by which he proposed to conduct the waters of as many unknown and unnamed moun- tain-streams to the water-shed jjoint at the Fontaine de Greve. The skill and indomitable energy with which this survey was made, and the persevering ingenuity with which every little runnel was tor- tured into becoming tributary to the grand design, still form, I am assured, the admiration of French engineers. Towards the close of the autumn of 1662, Riquet had elaborated his scheme so far as to be able dis- tinctly and practically to see his way, and he then addressed himself to Colbert. His letter is still preserved. It is that of a genuine enthusiast, set- 534 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ting forth, with all the energy of profound and pas- sionate conviction, the idea of the work, the bene- fits which would result from it, and the steps which he himself had taken to assure its practica- bility. Riquet was unknown at court, but as a guarantee for his good faith he offered to place in the hands of the minister every fraction of his pri- vate fortune to be devoted to the grand work of his life. Colbert seems from the first to have been profoundly struck with the scheme. He presented it to the King, and earnestly supported it. The consequence was the appointment of a Commission to examine into the plan— the members to be ap- pointed half by the King, and half by the province ot Languedoc. The commission was nominated in January, 1663; but a year elapsed ere they com- menced their labours. This year Riquet spent with his two labourers, wandering among the mountain ridges, tracing the lines of his multitu- dinous feeders, verifying his levels, and here and there improving upon his original plans. By the spring of 1664 he had fixed the hne of a main feeder, into which the smaller rivulets were to flow, and which conducted their united streams to Nou- rouse, near the guiding fountain. In November the notabilities appointed to judge the scheme met at Toulouse, and passed the best part of the winter in going over the ground, terminating their pilgri- mage, late in January, at Beziers. Their report was eminently favourable. Meantime Riquet cor- responded regularly with Colbert. He had better luck or a wiser patron than most projectors ; and on the 27th of May, 1665, he received letters pa- tent from the King, authorizing him to construct a small preliminary runnel, debouching upon the proposed summit level of the work. As might be expected, Riquet set to work in a fervour of enthu- siasm ; and the commissioners — who were no doubt then, as commissioners generally are now, somewhat slowly moving bodies — were astonished at receiving a summons to attend upon the ground early in November. They obeyed the call, how- ever, and found a dry ditch and a sluice. With his own hands Riquet raised the latter, and forth burst abundantly the waters collected from the hills, and flowing over either side of the ridge in the direc- tion of the Aude and the Garonne. Theoretically, it was clear that the thing was done. The com- missioners drew up a jubilant report. Colbert, in the name of the King and the nation, congratu- lated the projector, and in the course of the year the decree for commencing operations was issued. The canal was created into a fief, the profits of which, after the necessary expenses had been de- ducted, were to accrue to Riquet, in whose hands also the control of the works to be undertaken was ])laced. In the early part of 1667, about ninety- three years before Brindley cut the first turf of the Bridgewater Canal, the foundation stone of the entrance lock into the Garonne was laid with due solemnity, and the toil of excavation commenced. Two years afterwards Riquet broke ground upon the southern half of his canal, descending from the mountain to the Mediterranean, the works being now carried on in three difFerent localities. It is worthy of remark, as indicating the scientific skill of the master mind which conducted the opera- tions, that the three isolated portions of the work fitted perfectly into each other, without occasioning the least delay or necessity for change ; no great praise, perhajjs, for an engineer now-a-days, but Riquet's were not the times of Menai tubes and Box tunnels. The work, once begun, was carried on with great energy; upwards of 12,000 "navvies," divided into brigades, and ruled with something like mili- tary discipline, being employed at once upon the line. In 1672, after five years of labour, the ])or- tion of the canal, from the summit level to Tou- louse, was finished, and was filled with water in six days. The southern portion of the work was longer and more difficult ; but it was pushed on with un- tiring energy, labour and money being forthcoming in abundance. In 1680 the completion of the grand enterprise appeared to be at hand, and the epoch for the solemn opening of the junction between the seas was actually proclaimed, when Riquet, the motive spirit and master-mind of all, sunk beneath the pressure of anxiety and fatigue. He had van- quished all obstacles, triumphed over all foes, sur- mounted all delays; but a Pisgah peep of his finished work was all he was destined to enjoy. On the 1st of October, 16S0 — six months only be- fore the day appointed for the opening of the Canal du Midi— its indomitable projector died. In the course of the next spring the commissioners of the King and of the province, gracefully accompanied by the two sons of Riquet, rode along the bed of the canal from Beziers to Toulouse. Arrived at the Garonne extremity, the canal was filled, and in a bravely-decorated barque they set forth again southward, heading a jubilant fleet of 23 barges, loaded to the water's edge with merchandise des- tined for the great annual fair at Beaucaire, and accompanied from point to point by applauding multitudes of the peasantry. The Canal du Midi was, therefore, commenced in 1667, and opened in 1681; a great feat of industry for the age, and considering the engineering resources at its dis- posal. The outlay amounted to no more than seventeen milhons of francs; worth, perhaps, thirty-four millions of the same coin in the jjresent day. Of this amount two-thirds were partly fur- nished by Provence and the Estates of Languedoc, and partly raised by the sale of offices connected with the canal. The remaining third was the pri- vate fortune of the projector, including, it is said, the price of every acre of land he possessed, the jewellery and plate of his family, and the dowers of his daughters. So great, indeed, had been the drain upon Riquet's means, that v.hen, after his death his heirs took possession of the canal, they found it heavily encumbered, and the receipts were at first to small as to be insufficient to pay the ordinary working expenses and the interest of mortgages. Under these circumstances, the heirs in 1683 alienated one-third of the property of the canal, in "1684 three-twentieths of the remain- der, in 1690 two-twentieths more. It was not until 1724 that the increasing receipts enabled the then proprietors to pay off all incumbrances and to come into possession of the clear revenues of the canal. The benefits of the water communication thus formed throughout Provence and Languedoc THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. 635 came slowly, but surely, into operation. Unculti- vated land was reclaimed everywhere along the line of the canal, the value of the cultivated portions were doubled and trebled, while at numerous points a new agent of fertihzation was intro- duced by the overplus of the waters of the canal, which were employed to fling their vivifying influ- ence over the arid wastes and parched shingle beds from which hardly a blade of grass had ever pre- viously sprung. Great as was the design of the Canal du Midi, it comprehended only partially the scheme of its founder, and Kiquet had been dead and gone many a day ere the totality of his plan became a fact. Indeed the finally finishing stroke to the design was not completed above a few years ago. Riquet left the higher reaches of the Garonne joined by a water way to the Etang de Thau, one of the great shallow lagoons which line the French Mediterra- nean coast from the Pyrenees to the Rhone, sepa- rated generally by a low bank of sands or marshes from the open sea, with which, however, most of the Etanffs, as they are called, communicate, often by tortuous and intricate passages, winding among sand-banks, shingle-beds, and dreary salt morasses. On both sides of the channel which led from the Etang de Thau into the open sea, Riquet, like the great men of antiquity, founded a city, the town of Cette; and the soundness of view which prescribed the site is very amply demonstrated by the thriving career which Cette has enjoyed ever since, and which has made it one of the most active, bustlir-g, and energetic towns of the south. Thus the two seas were now linked, but the work was still only half done. In the first ])lace, the navigation of the Garonne from Toulouse to Agen was dangerous, tedious, and uncertain. Sometimes a flood swept the barges down rapids and over reefs of shelving rocks. Sometimes a drought left them to pass the summer high and dry upon the shingle. In the next place, so far as the southern shore was con- cerned, the chain of lagoons stretching from Cette to the mouths of the Rhone hinted the facilities which nature had afforded for imiting, not only the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, but the great river traversing France in descending from the Pyrenees with the other great river descending from the Alps. A glance at the ma]) will show the strange lagoon-pierced coast which runs from Cette to the delta of the Rhone. It had been therefore a ])art of Riquet's original plan, either to deepen the Garonne to Agen, or to run a lateral canal as far as that town, and at the other extremity of his central water-way to extend a canal or series of canals through the Lagoons beneath Montpelliei-, and thence northwards to the Rhone at Beaucaire. The second portion of this design was com.menced com- paratively soon after the death of Ric^uet. The first portion, the lateral canal to Agen, has been only just completed. Previously to the opening of the Canal du Midi a precarious and often-interrupted navigation had actually been carried on between the Rhone and the Etang de Thau. Flat-bottomed barges made their slow way through the marshes and lagoons, crawhng through channels here and there hollowed in the salt slime, battling again -with the impetuous mistral which lashed the salt lakes into very re- spectable surges. Rut the depth of water afforded by the connecting ditches between the marshes was slight, and insufficient for the capacious barges launched U])OU the Canal du Midi; so that, in point of fact, a series of new works was imj)cratively re- quired. Soon after Riquet's death, the Estates of Languedoc undertook the task. But the great mind was gone, and the work fell through. From one great courtier to another the design was ban- died 10 and fro, the projected hue of communica- tion being wrenched about according to the whims of these amate\ir engineers, until, after more than half a century had passed, the task was once more remitted to the Estates of Languedoc. But tliey made little way with the work ; shortly abandon- ing it to a company formed by the Maruchal Richelieu, who had taken it into his versatile head to dabble in navigable canals. His projects mis- carried with notable ref^ularity, and once again the weight of the burden was flung back ujjon the au- thorities of Languedoc. This time they set seriously to work, and continued their shoulders to the wheel until the revolution swept them and their procrastinating energies away for ever. A great deal had been done, however. The chain of la- goons had been successfully canalized, and good progress had been made in the water-way running north to Beaucaire. This portion of the great de- sign was finally accomplished by a company early in the present century. Over and above these main ways of communication, there branch off, from the canals running along the Mediterranean, numerous subsidiary lines, connecting towns lying apart with the principal water highway, and in seve- ral instances also furnishing direct modes of commu- nication with the sea. I may mention that, at the pro- jection of the work, the sage and far-seeing authori- ties of Carcassone had petitioned that the line might be carried as far from their city as possible, dread- ing, doubtless, the pollutions of commerce and the evils of convenient locomotion. A few generations afterwards, the city provided funds for altering the route of the canal so as to bring its waters beneath their walls. The Canal du Midi, from the lock communi- cating with the Garonne to that opening upon the Etang de Thau, is 244 kilometres, or rather more than 150 miles in length. The fall of the canal from its summit level to the Garonne is rather more than 200 feet, effected by 17 locks. Its fall from its summit level to the Mediterranean is no less than 600 feet, effected by 45 locks. The ave- rage breadth of the canal at the surface of the water is about 6Q feet. Its width below is about half that extent, and the average depth is some- what more than six feet. The branch canals are in general narrower and shallower than the principal line. The vessels navigating the Canal du Midi are either barges belonging to the company who at pre- sent represent the jn-oprietors, Riquet's heirs, or private vessels, entering it from the Rhone or the Garonne. The size of these barges is fixed by law. They must not be more than 92 feet long, includ- ing the rudder, nor broader than 17 feet. The ave- rage depth of water required by these vessels is 4 J 536 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. feet; their tonnage varies from 100 to 120; and the average speed at which they proceed through the canal is 2 3 miles per hour. The vessels belong- ing to the company are uniformly decked, and are comfortable and substantial-looking craft, which would create no particular curiosity in any large English canal. As with us, the boatmen often live aboard with their families. The number of horses employed for these, the company's barges, are three uniformly powerful animals in good working condition. The barges in question are numbered up to about 300, but I understand that many of the units in this sum belong to boats long ago broken up for fire-wood. The number of strange barges which navigate the canal is about equal to the number possessed by the company. Besides the heavy barges which proceed a la vitesse ordi- naire, there is a service of lighter boats for more perishable effects. These craft are of about si.\ty tons burden, and are dragged by three horses at the rate of about 4 or 44 miles per hour. One passenger packet-boat starts every morning from either end of the canal, moving at ordinary dili- gence speed, between si.x: and seven miles per hour. l^]\Qse.bateaux de poste are dragged by four or five horses, accommodate 150 first and second cabin passengers, and make the voyage from Toulouse to the Etang de Thau in about forty hours. To the poorer classes all alcng the line of canal these boats afford the means of travelling almost inva- riably resorted to. For the conveyance of merchandize this canal is divided into distances, consisting each of about 3^ miles. There are forty-eight of these distances, and goods carried along the canal pay four cen- times (under a halfpenny) for every distance, or for every fraction of a distance, per metrical quintal ; that is, for each 225 lbs. This toll is reduced to, I believe, three centimes upon the conveyance of all bulky material for agricultural purposes, such as lime, chalk, manure, coal, &c. In the construction of its scale of prices the Canal du Midi has cer- tainly been very liberal. No charge whatever is made for warehouse room at any of the ports or stations. The principle is, that only goods con- veyed along the line pay; and so rigidly is the theory carried out that empty barges may pass through, from end to end, without disbursing a far- thing for the right of waterway; and v/hen only par- tially loaded, the rates are, of course, levied in due proportion to the quantity of goods on board. The empty barges are, however, liable to certain deten- tions; in the case of a scarcity of water, for instance, when they must wait the arrival of a loaded barge at each lock, and so pass it together with the latter. Fares as well as freights are calculated upon the "distance" system. Second-class passengers pay 25c. per" distance," first-class passengers 36c. Persons are also allowed to travel on board the ordinary goods boats on paying to the company 15 c. per distance, and giving some gratuity to the captain or " patron" of the boat. Besides the revenue rising from the passenger and goods traffic, the company raise an additional annual in- come from the sale of the surplus water for irriga^ ting purposes, from the rent of mills constructed near their discharging sluices, and from that of the grassy banks let out for the pasturage of sheep. For many generations the canal was regularly dried once a year, for an interval of a month or six weeks, for the purpose of repairs. These chornages, as they are called, now, however, take place only once in two or in three years. The water runs out in four days, and the canal can be refilled in six. The v/hole of the works connected v/ith the under- taking is solid and substantial. Along those por- tions of the bank where the soil is clayey or yield- ing, rows of thickly growing aquatic plants have been established to break the wash of the water. The locks are opened and shut by means of winches. They are somewhat clumsy in construc- tion, but very strong and massive. Women very frequently perform the necessaiy operations when a barge passes through. The number of bridges crossing the canal is immense, and is a great hin- drance to the traffic. At these bridges the towing- path very frequently changes from one bank to the other. Here and there the path in question is double, but generally speaking it runs only on one side of the canal. Up to within a dozen of j^ears, the barges, on their arrival in the Etang de Thau (a shallow sheet of clear water some ten miles long by four broad) had to make their way under can- vass from one end to the other. Now, however, a tug-boat service has been established for the company's boats, and for any others which may choose to avail themselves of it. The travelling by the Canal du Midi and its branches is a sleepy and monotonous business enough. Mile after mile, and league after league, the boat is gliding along between grassy or rushy banks and rows of poplar, and sometimes of acacia trees, the monotonous tramp of the team upon the bank mingling with the endless gurgle of the waters beneath. The towing-paths are generally very life- less. Now and then a solitary peasant, with his heavy sharp-pointed hoe (an implement, in fact, half hoe and half pick-axe) upon his shoulder, saunters up to see the boat go by ; or a shepherd, whistling to his flock, paces slowly at their head, wandering to and fro in search of the greenest bits of pasture; or a handful of jabbering women, from some neighbouring bourg, will be squatted along the water's edge, certainly not obeying Napoleon's injunction to wash their linge sale en famille, but pounding away at sheets and shirts with heavy stones or wooden mallets — the counterparts of the instruments used in Scotland to " get up " fine linen, and there called " beetles." The bridges are shot very cleverly. At a shout from the steersman, the postilion, who rides one of the hindmost horses of the team, jumps off, casts loose the tow- line, runs with the end of it to the centre of the bridge, drops it a-board as the boat comes beneath, catches it up again on the opposite side, flies back after his horses which have trotted very tranquilly ahead, hooks on the rope again, jumps into his saddle, cracks his long whip, and the boat is ofl[ again in full career long ere she has lost her former headway. Little of the country can be seen from the deck, but along the southern and eastern half of the canal you seldom lose sight of the dusty tops of the formal olive groves, varied now and then by a stony slope covered with ugly sprawhng THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 537 vines, and dotted ^vith white little country houses, of which more hereafter, the glimpses of the chang- ing picture lieing continually set in a hrown frame of sterile hills. The Canal des Etangs, eastward of Cette, is curious. It is occasionally cut through great tracts of shingle and sandy gravel, more or less vine-grown, crowned, wherever the ground rises into a little hillocky ascent, with a knot of stunted olive trees. Anon the line is carried through long stretches of marsh and shallow pond, dikes of loosely-piled stones bounding the deep waters, end raised causeways affording artificial towing-paths. The passage presents a strange scene of watery desolation, the puzzle being to tell whether you are journeying by sea or land. From Aiguesmortes — an ancient and death-like town, in which there reigns a perpetual plague of fever and ague, the products of the miasma of the marshes — the canal runs northward through the pastoral dis- trict of the Camargue, or delta of the Rhone; a vast level of rich marshy herbage, intersected by laby- rinths of drains and ditches, pastured on by nume- rous flocks of sheep and cattle, and supporting herds of wild horses, the greater number of them white ponies, which are caught at harvest-time, galloped backwards and forwards over the spread- out crops of maize and rii^e which are here and there cultivated, and, having in this wild way per- formed the duties of the thrashing mill, are dis- missed again to their swampy prairies. The land- scape is Dutch-like in its greenness and flatness, in the scattered towers of windmills, and the steeples of distant churches. I shall probably, however, in a future communication, have more to say of the Camargue, of its irrigation, its people, and its cattle. So much, then, for the Canal du Midi, its branches and continuations. This work was, I believe, the first great European enterprize of the kind in question, and it formed the neucleus of a vast complication of feeders, auxiliaries, and conti- nuations. Since the days of Riquet, France has many more wonderful engineering works to show, but none of more remarkable merit, considering the difficulties under which it was undertaken, and the infant condition of physical science at the time. One by one, all Riquets plans have now been car- ried out, and his memory is deservedly idohzed in the country for which he accomplished so much. A monument was erected some twenty years ago to the memory of the engineer of the Canal du Midi, near the stones of Nourouse, where he established the principal and high-level reservoir ; and Beziers, the native city of the indomitable projector, has erected in its chief esplanade his bronze eflSgy — a handsome and characteristic monum.ent. Riquet is represented in the graceful costume of a grandee of the age of Louis XIV. — a pencil in his hand, a compass and level placed before him, his head bent, and his eyes fixed upon the earth, as though at that moment contemplating the divided flow of the guiding waters of the Fontaine de Grave. I pass to other matters. While at Beziers I had an opportunity of making acquaintance with the scourge and the plague, agricultural and sanitary, of the Mediterranean-bordering provinces of France — the mistral. This is a wild, gusty, and most abo- minably drying and cutting wind. It blows from the northward and westward, swce])ing over the land with terrible violence in the spring and sum- mer months, moderating towards the fall of the leaf, and only occurring in a mitigated form and at long intervals during the winter. The gale which blew for a couple of days over Beziers was, I was told, only a very modified version of the true mistral, but it was quite enough to give a notion of the wind in the full height of its evil powers. The whole country was literally one moving cloud of dust. The roads, so to speak, smoked. From an emi- nence you could trace their line for miles by the columns of white powdered earth driven into the air. As for the ])aths you actually traversed, the ground-down gravel was blown from the ruts, leaving the way scarred as it were with ridgy seams, and often worn down to the level of the subsidiary stratum of rock. The ordinary russet brown of the fields was speedily converted into one uniform grey. Never had I seen anything more intensely or dismally parched up. As for any tree or vege- table but vines and olives — whose very sustenance and support are dust and gravel — thriving under the lial)ility to such visitations, the thing was impos- sible, i'^ or was the dust by any means the only evil. The wind seemed poisonous. It made the eyes — mine at all events — smart and water, cracked tb.e lips, as a sudden alternation from heat to cold will do, caused a little accidentally-inflicted scratch to ache and shoot, and finally dried, hardened, and roughened the skin, until one felt in an absolute fever. The cold in the shade, let it be noted, was intense — a pinching, nipping cold, in noways frosty or kindly ; while in sheltered corners the heat was as unpleasant, the blaze of an unclouded sun dart- ing right down upon the parched and gleaming earth. All this, however, I was told, formed but a modified attack of mistral. The true wind mingles with the flying dust a greyish or yellowish haze, through which the sun shines hot, yet cheerless. I had, however, a specimen of the wind which quite satisfied me, and which certainly enables me to af- firm that the coldest, harshest, and most rheumatic easterly gale which ever whistled the fogs from Es- sex marshes over the dripping and shivering streets of London, is a genial, balmy, and ambrosial ze- phyr, compared with the mistral of the ridiculously bepuffed climate of the south of France. Vines and olives form the staple vegetable pro- ductions in the vicinity of Beziers. Under the olive-trees corn ripens, as under the apple trees in Normandy. The oil-giving fruit is, however, of incomparably more consequence than the cider- producing trees, and the relative crops are treated accordingly. To look at a vineyard one would think that the bushes were allowed to grow wild, so rough and jungly is the appearance of the field. The plants are, however, cultivated with as much care as those of the most precious patches in Medoc. The vines are set in rows about a yard apart. The plants are generally thick tough stumps, each send- ing forth a scanty bunch of shoots. The young slips only are supported, being usually trained to h nlock stalks. Every year a hole is dug round the root of the old plants and filled with manure, principally formed of chipped leaves. The plough 538 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. is not used. The cutting and trimming of the plants is carefully attended to, the workmen being in most cases day-labourers, acting under the di- rection of a species of bailiflF called a ramoner, of whom more anon. The wages of the vine tenders range from 20 to 25 and 30 sous per day, with their food ; the higher rates being given to the better class of workmen employed in the most valuable vineyards, or at the most difficult and delicate work. As in the claret districts, the grapes are stamped and pressed, producing a black, rough, strong wine, a great portion of which is distilled into brandy, the process taking place at the dif- ferent farmhouses throughout the country. In the vicinity of Beziers, the shade only of the true system of metairie exists. The contract for one-half or two-thirds of the produce may subsist here and there in isolated cases, but by far the greater portion of the cultivation of the soil is per- formed either by day labourers or regular farm ser- vants engaged by the year, and placed under the charge of a ramoner. This latter functionary, in- deed, occupies the place of the metayer, taking a ge- neral charge of the proceedings of his subordinates, but being seldom or never raised above them in intelligence or social position. His annual wages are much on the same scale as those of the other farm servants — say 200 francs per yetir ; but he has also a fixed allowance of grain, fire-wood, and so foith. The principal peculiarity, however, of the condition of the ramoner is, that he contracts with the proprietor of the soil for the board of the farm servants, and occasionally for that of the labourers in whose wages food is included. The proprietor, upon making this agreement with his ramoner, is bound to furnish him with a house having the necessary ac- commodation for cooking and eating. In many cases, however, the ramoner occupies the lower por- tion of the campagne or country house, which is per- haps entirely abandoned to him daring the greater part of the year. The contract with the ramoner binds him, in the matter of eating and drinking, to treat the labourers boarded with him "' raisonablement Men." He is provided by the proprietor with a re- gular allowance per day per man, of wheat and ve- getable food, including potatoes, haricots, vetches, beans, and so forth. In most establishments a ra- tion of wine, amounting to about a litre or a htre and a half — equal to a quart or a quart and a half — is also served out. For providing meat, the ra- moner receives a money payment per head. This amount, and also the quantity of grain allowed, materially differ, according to the season and the consequent length of the working hours. In sum- mer four meals a day are furnished, the proprietor disbursing what is called " la grande depense." In winter the labourers receive either two or three meals a day from " la petite depense." The sum- mer money allowance for animal food varies from five to six sous — the winter allowance from two- and-a-half to three or three-and-a-half sous. The meat which can be procured and served up at this price is, of course, little in quantity, and usually no great thing as regards quality. Sometimes a tiny morsel of animal food is provided every day. In other cases, by a mutual understanding between the boarders and the boarded, only three or four days a week are made meat days, so that the allow- ance then served out can be proportionately 'in- creased. It is, however, upon the economy, skill, and good management of the ramoner's wife that the dietetic comforts of the labourers principally depend. Some of the latter were cordial in their praise of the treatment they received ; others were of a different opinion, and I heard much grxmibling as to the tricks which the ramoners played — how they bought bad cow beef, and how the flesh of every beast which died of itself in the country was sure to find its way into the farm i^ot au fexi. The profits, if any, which the ramoner can draw from his bargain depend also, of course, upon domes- tic management and tact in husbanding the re- sources at his command. Some of the indivi- duals in question, I was told, made money, and fed their boarders much better than others who remained poor, or, if possible, became poorer. It was " toiijours selon la femme." The ramoner was bound to convey food to the fields for the labourers working at too great a distance to come conveniently to his house at meal times ; and sleep- ing accommodation was frequently provided in the campagne for the day labourers, who, in like man- ner, resided at an inconvenient distance from the farm. This last is a state of things of very com- mon occurrence, not only in the south, but in many districts of France. The peasantry live in bourc/s, lying often at the distance of several miles apart ; and the outskirts of a town are sure to be peopled by labourers who have to walk daily more than a league to their work. One or two bourgs which I visited near Beziers had quite an imposing ap- pearance, seen from a little distance. A street of large, commodious-looking white mansions gleamed cheerily cut through the olive grounds, the houses clustering round the massive square tower of a ve- nerable grey old church. The place had, in fact, quite a city look ; but a close inspection showed the real nakedness of the land. The high white mansions became great clumsy barns — the lower stories oc- cupied as living places, the windows above burst- ing with loads of hay and straw. The crooked devious streets were paved with filthy heaps of lit- ter and dung. Dilapidated ploughs and harrows — their wooden teeth worn down to the stumps — lay hither and thither round the great, gaunt, un- painted doorways. The window shutters of every occupied room were shut as closely as port-holes in a gale of wind ; and here and there a wandering pig or donkey, or a slatternly woman sifting corn upon a piece of sacking stretched before her door, or a purblind old crone knitting in the sun, formed the only moving objects which gave life to the dreary picture. A cafe which I found in one of these bourgs was open only in the evening, when its proprietor returned from his daily labour in the fields. Since my arrival in the south I have been more and more struck with the change in the tone of the working population, with whom I talk every day in the fields. In the central and northern portions of France I heard much complaint of the badness of the times, and of the hard labour required to se- cure the poorest living. Still the tone adopted was meek, and complaints were seldom or never accom- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 539 panied by threats. In the south all this is changed. Tlie people when talking of their con- dition, are, in many instances, fierce in word and full of significant gesture. The " rich" and the (iovernment are the universal themes of objurgation. What have recent changes done for the poor? How are the labouring men the better otF for the Revolution which the Parisians made ? Want of regular employment is bitterly complained of, and the complaint is very often accompanied by mut- tered threats against those who, it is believed, can. but will not, furnish it. " If the people here dont get work," said one man to me at Beziers, " the people will take work. The poor must live as well as the rich." Still, I think the peasantry as a ge- neral rule admit that they are better off than their fathers two or three generations back. A recent article in the Journal des Economistes estimates the average amount of money wages earned by the fa- mily of a labourer at 27 sous per day. The prin- cipal article of household consumption is wheat, of which it is calculated that each individual consumes three hectolitres annually. The yearly income of the family being 500f., and the price of wheat rang- ing in good years from 15f. to 20f. per hectolitre, a sum of nearly 300f. is left for the other necessaries of the family. In bad years, however, when wheat rises to 25f. and :?0f., the same quantity being ne- cessarily consumed, a surplus of from 150f. to l60f. only is left for the general necessities of the house- hold. Narrow as is the margin to which the agri- cultural population may thus be reduced, their state is one of affluence compared with what it vvas be- fore the Great Revolution. Under the Grand Mo- narque, a French peasant, it is said, had only a suf- ficiency of bread for two days out of four, and under Louis XV. for two days out of three. It is calculated that the income of an agricultural family has quad- rupled since the former of those reigns, and tripled since the latter. What the infinitesimal division of property is bringing the country to, remains to be seen. TREATISE UPON MILCH COWS. [from the IRISH farmer's GAZETTE.] (Continued from page 332.) COURBE LIGNES-CROOKED LINES. THIRD CLASS. — FIFTH ORDER. — NO. V. These cows give 9 quarts a day, and hold their milk till 3 months gone in calf. The mark is still lowei", and more contracted at the bottom of the thighs. There is on the left a bunch of hair, bristling and growing upwards, marked f, about 7 inches long and Ig inches wide. Going from the point A, on the right and left, you will find two barenesses or scarce places of hair growing up- wards, marked f f, which sink into the thighs, about six inches long and four inches wide. SIXTH ORDER. — NO. VI. These cows give 7 quarts per day, and hold their milk till 2 months gone in calf. The milk is al- ways the same, but the letter B is lower below the bearing, and more contracted at the botton of the thighs. At the point B you will find a little line of hair groAving upwards, 1 i inches long by thi'ee- fourths of an inch wide ; it is situated below the bearing. On the right, below the point A, is a bareness or scarcity of hair growing upwards, marked f. SEVENTH ORDER. — NO. VII. These cows give 5 quarts of milk per day, and 2 N r,io THE FA11MER*S MAGAZINE. only holfi ibeir iiuik till again in calf. The f^i'avui'e or mark is still lower, and more contracted at the bottom of the thighs. To the right and left of the bearing there are two ecussons or bunches of ha'r, marked v f ; the hair is bristling, and flows over or spreads on each side ; they are about 6 inches long and 2y inches wide. EIGHTH ORDER. — NO. VIII. These cows give 3 quarts of milk per day, and only hold it till again in calf. The mai'k is of the same form as in the seventh order, but always lower. In fact, there is hardly any mark. MIDDLE SIZE. — THIRD CLASS. First order. — The cows of this order give 16 quarts a day, and hold their milk till 8 months gone in calf. Second order give 13 quarts a day, and hold it till 7 months gone. Third order give 1 1 quarts a day, and hold it till 6 months gone. Fourth order give 9 quarts a day, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fifth order give 7 quarts a day, and hold it till 4 months gone. Sixth order give 5 1 quarts a day, and hold till 3 months gone. Seventh order give 3| quarts a day, and hold it till 2 months gone. Eighth order give 2 quarts a day, and only hold till again in calf. SMALLEST SIZE. — THIRD CLASS. First order. — These cows give 1 2 quarts of milk per day, and hold it till S months gone in calf. Second order give 10 quarts a day, and hold it till 7 months gone. Third order give 8 quarts* dav, ?nd hold it till 6 months gone. • Fourth order give 6 quarts a day, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fifth order give 5 quarts a day, and hold it till 4 months gone. Sixth order give 4 quarts a day, and hold it till 3 months gone. Seventh order give 3 quarts a day, and only hold it till again in calf. Eighth order give 2 quaitis a day, and only hold it till again in calf. The ecussons to the right and left of the bearing, marked f f, are very discernible in this class, but they should be of the same size as those above described in the description of the particular marks belonging to this class. When they are longer or wider, it shows that they will only hold their milk till again in calf. When ihey are 4 to 4^ inches long, and from l| to 2 inches wide., they are gene- rally pointed at the ends and of a coarse hair ; they then denote a batarde or mongrel cow, which will lose its milk as soon as again in calf, or a very short time after. It may be remarked, that by the ecusson of this sort, in this class, the largest denote the worst cow; the smallest denote, in general, a better beast. BICORNES— DOUBLE HORNED OR FORKED. FOURTH CLASS. I call the]'cows of my fourth class Bicornes, be- cause they have in their gravure or form of ecusson two horns, which represent a fork ; with two little ecussons, marked f, to the right and left of the bearing. The cows of this class are productive and abundant in milk. LARGEST SIZE. — FIRST ORDER. — NO. I. These cows give 17 quarts of milk daily, in full milk, and hold their milk till 8 months gone in calf. The first order here has all the advantages of the first orders of the preceding classes. The udder is covered with a small down, and the bran or dust which comes oflf the skin is of a reddish yellowish colour in the gravure. This gravure has two horns growing upwards, and the centre between the two horns falls down to the letter c. It springs from the centre of the four teats, within the two houghs, growing upwards in the whole extent of the mark, and flowing over on the thighs to the points a a ; going from these points, it describes a crooked line inside, to the points B B — which are about four inches distant from the bearing— from whence, by nearly a right line, they are joined at c, about seven inches below the bearing. To the right and left of the bearing there are two small ecussons of hair THE FARMKR'S MAGAZINE. oil jrrowing upwards, marked v i', aljout two inches long, and quite half an inch wide. Above and op- posite the teats behind are two small ovals, marked D D. — See plate 4, order 1. SECOND ORDER. — NO. II. Tliese cows give 1 5 quarts a day in full milk, and hold their milk till 7 months gone in calf. The mark is the same as in the preceding order. The ecusson is a little lower, and more contracted ; the colour of the skin is the same. There are two ecussons of hair growing upwards, to the right and left of the bearing ; that on the left is about two inches long ; that on the right, marked f, is only- half the length. The peak on the right side, marked b, is lower down than that on the left, by li inches. There is only one oval on the left, above the teats behind3L_marked D. THIRD ORDER. — NO. III. These give 13 quarts a day, and hold their milk till 6 months gone in calf. The mark is the same as above, but more low and more contracted be- tv/een the thighs. There is only one ecusson on the left, marked f. On the right, the point marked b is lower by two inches than that on^^the left side. FOURTH ORDER. — NO. IV. These cows give 11 quarts of milk a day, and hold their milk till 5 months gone in calf. The mark of this order resembles that of the preceding, but there is a hne of hair growing upwards, below the bearing, marked e, about 2f inches long by not quite half au inch wide. Below the points a a, the hair stops growing up, and is replaced by some hair growing dov/n on the right, marked i, which sinks into the thigh at the point h. The hair growing down is whiter than that which grows up ; its size or width, going from a a, is about four inches. It forms, in sinking, an acute angle, at the point i, about 6 or 7 inches long. FIFTH ORDER.— NO. V. These cows give 9 quarts per day, and hold their milk till 4 months gone in calf. They have the same form of mark as above. The gravure is more con- tracted in all parts. On the left, near the bearing, there is an ecusson of hair gromng up and brist- hng, marked f, about 6 inches long and 2 inches wide. To the right and left of point a are two barenesses (scarcities) of hair growing up, marked I, which sink into the thighs at the points I i. SIXTH ORDER. — NO. VI. These cows give 7 quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk tDl 3 months gone in calf. They have the same mark as above, but more contracted 2 N 2 642 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in all the parts of the ecussons, which sink into the thighs. Above the mark, on the right and left of the bearing, are two separate ecussons, marked F F, of hair growing up, bristling outwards, of the same length and breadth as in the fifth order. SEVENTH ORDER. — NO. VII. These cows give 5 quarts a day, and hold it till 2 months gone in calf. Same mark as above, but still more contracted at the bottom of the thighs. The ecussonS to the right and left of the bearing, formed by some hairs growing upwards and brist- ling, are longer and larger than in the preceding order, but that on the right is less long than the other. EIGHTH ORDER. — NO. VHI. These cows give 3| quarts a day, and only hold their milk till again in calf. They have the same form of mark, but much more contracted at the bottom of the thighs. If there is any hair growing up, marked f, it is bristling, and goes across. MIDDLE SIZE. — FOURTH CLASS. First order give 15 quarts a day, and hold their milk till 8 months gone in calf. Second order give 13 quarts a day, and hold it till 7 months gone. Third order give 11 quarts a day, and hold it till 6 months gone. Fourth order give 9 quarts a day, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fifth order give 7 quarts a day, and hold it till 4 months gone. Sixth order give 5 quarts a day, and hold it till 3 months gone. Seventh order give 3 quarts a day, and only hold it till again in calf. Eighth order give still less, and only hold it till again in calf. SMALLEST SIZE. — FOURTH CLASS. First order give 12 quarts a day, and hold it till 8 months gone. Second order give 10 quarts a day, and hold it till 7 months gone. Third order give 8 quarts a day, and hold it till 6 months gone. Fourth order give 6 quarts a day, and hold it till 5 months gone. Fifth order give 4 j quarts a day, and hold it till 4 months gone. Sixth order give 3 quarts a day, and hold it till 2^ months gone. Seventh order give 2 quarts a day, and hold it only till again in calf. Eighth order. — These are still less abundant in milk, and lose it when again in calf. The ecussons, marked f f, are of the same size, and have the same properties in the batardes of the fourth class, as those of the third class. POITEVINES. FIFTH CLASS. It is doubtless not a good name which I have given to these cows. It is not that I wished to de- scribe them as the cows of Poiton particularly, but because the form of their gravure or ecusson re- presents a kind of vessel for holding wine — a dauce jeaune (darijohn) j I, therefore, call these cows Pot'de-vin. LARGEST SIZE. FIRST ORDER.— 'NO. 1. The cows of this size and order give, in full milk, 17 quarts a day, and hold their milk till 8 months THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 643 gone in calf. They have the skin on the gravure of the same colour as in the first orders of the pre- ceding classes. The udder fine, covered with small down. This gravure springs from the four teats, within and above the houghs, and flows over towards the middle of the thighs, at the point a a, where it forms a right line coming to the point j J, which are about 4j to 5t inches one from the other. From the point j J a line of haii-, growing up, extends it- self and terminates square at the letter n. This square is from 2i to 3 inches wide, and stops at a distance of about 4 inches from the bearing. The cows which have the square most wide, and the letter n nearest to the bearing, are the best milkers- Above the hind teats are two ovals, marked e e, formed by some hair growing down, about 4 inches long, by 2| inches wide. To the right and left of the bearing are two smaller ecussons of hair grow- ing upwards, marked o o ; they are aljout 2^ inches long, and not quite i an inch" wide. > The,, hair of these ecussons is short, fine, and very distinct from the hair growing downwards. — See plate 5, order 1. SECOND ORDER. — NO. II. wide ; but that on the right is only half the length, and of the same width. THIRD ORDER. — NO. III. These cows give H^ quarts of milk per day, and hold their milk till 7 months gone in calf. The mark has the same form as order 1, but a little more con- tracted in the entire gravure, where the hair grows upwards. Above the hind teats there is an oval on the right, formed by hair growing down, and marked e. The ecusson on the left of the bearing is about 2g: inches' long, and not quite i an inch These cows give 12 quarts per day, and hold their ^ milk till 6 months gone in calf. The mark has the same form as in order 2, but more contracted. The points A A are more rounded, and do not flow over the thighs. The hair growing up, in parting from J J, is more contracted. The point n is lower be- low the bearing. There is only one ecusson on the left of the bearing, marked o, 1 ^ inch long, but not quite h an inch wide. FOURTH ORDER. — NO. IV, These cows give 10 quarts per day, and hold their milk till 5 months gone in calf. The mark is more contracted in all parts. The points a a are more sunk, and there is a curved line, which i)asses by J J. The line from j j to n is much shorter than in the third order. Below, from the point a, on the right side, is a scarcity or bareness of hair^ growing up, marked p. (To be cojitiiiued.) 544 THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS NORTHRKN COUNTIES — DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND. Letter XXV. (From the Morning Chronicle.) I have now nearly completed what I have to ofter to you on the subject of the county of Durham, and the condition of its working jiopulation. On reviewing the course of my inquiry, and looking back at the many steps which have conducted me to the conclusions already communicated to you, I am st)-uck with the variety of circumstances which investigation showed to exist, and with the infinite diversity of individual cases. Experience teaches me the difficulty of generalizing with safety and certainty. I am inclined to think that few ques- tions are more complicated than that of the wages of labour. There is no such thing as one uniform rate; to put the matter thus would only be to deceive ; and it is no easy task to ascertain the mean of a hundred different terms. It is probable that these diversities may exist to a greater extent in counties which are, like the one in question, the seat of a vigorous and varied industrial movement. Still the standard of wages must ever be influenced by individual character, both in the employer and the employed ; whilst the sufficiency of its remu- neration is a point partly determined by causes within the control of the labourer himself, and de- pending on his own habits of provident or impro- vident management. Few arts, again, appear to me to embrace a greater multiplicity of qualifying conditions, or to require for their successful pro- secution a higher degree of practical skill and ver- satile accomplishment, than that which is the parent and foundation of them all — agriculture. Modes of cultivation and systems of farming are not only very various in themselves, but receive, in practice, a hundred modifications, from the nature and state of the locahty, the character of the population, and the plentiful or stinted supply of articles required by the farmer. A subject on which I have hitherto given but few details, is the rent of land, I have already alluded to the indifferent quality of the soil; rents, there- fore, are not so high generally as the proximity of large towns and populous collieries would lead us to expect, I am induced to believe that 25s. an acre might be a fair average. A farm of 150 acres was taken the other day at 12s. an acre, but the land is far from good, and has been much neglected, I know a moorland farm of 350 acres which is let for £45. But 30s. and £2 are common rates in more favoured localities; whilst in particular circum- stances a considerably higher rate prevails. In Weardale, near the lead mines, where" the land is almost entirely pasture, and the farms generally small, I found much of it let for £3, £3 10s., and even £4. Accommodation land, near the towns — • so called because subserving the convenience of some classes of tradesmen, such as the butcher, the innkeeper, or the greengrocer — often runs as high as £5, The principal manufactures of this county are as follows, viz, : — the carpet, employing 385 per- sons, of whom C5 are under 20 years of age; the flax and linen, emploj'ing 339 persons, of whom 43 are under 20 years of age; the rope and cord, em- ploying 427 persons, of whom 122 are under 20 years of age; the sail and sail-cloth, emjdoying 299 persons, of whom 85 are under 20 years of age; the woollen, employing (dyers in- cluded) G05 persons, of whom 186 are under 20 years of age; the glass and glass-bottle, employing 858 persons, of whom 184 are imder 20 years of age ; the ii'on, nail, anchor, and chain, employing 1,637 persons, of whom 408 are imder 20 years of age; the earthenware, employing (painters and printers included) 520 persons, of whom 107 are under 20 years of age ; and the pa])er, employing 235 persons, of whom 27 are under 20 years of age. There are 262 manufacturing chemists, 96 bleachers and dyers, 900 weavers and s])inners of linen and woollen. The mines of this county employ 18,000 labourers, of whom 16,000 are coal-miners, and 2,000 lead-miners. The rate of mortality differs very considerably in different districts of this county. It is greatest in Gateshead, where it is 2-523 for males and 2'351 for females, and in Sunderland, where it is 2"703 for males and 2*287 for females. In the city of Durham and its neighbourhood, it is 2 '206 for males and 2" 122 for females. lu Weardale and Teesdale — the country of the lead mines, but which enjoys the most pure and salubrious air to be obtained in the county, except on the border of the sea— it is 2-028 for males and 2-012 for females. I have already alluded to the comparative state of education in the northern district, as illustrated by the number of persons signing the marriage re- gister with marks. Applying this test to the year 1847, the latest for which returns are given, it ap- pears that for all England and Wales the number of marriages was 135,845 — that the number of cases in which both the parties signed with marks was 32,622, and that of cases in which one only signed in that manner, 39,062; in all more than 104,000 persons. In the county of Durham the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 515 number of marriages was 3,287 ; that of cases in whicli both signed with marks, G38 ; in which one only did so, 1,100; total of persons, 2,37G. In North- umberland the number of marriages was 2,3 11 ; that of cases in which both signed with marks, 275 ; in which one only thus signed, 640 ; total of persons, 1,190. In Cumberland the number of marriages was 1,012; that of cases in which both signed with marks, 117; in which one only thus signed, 2SC; total of persons, 520. In Westmoreland the num- ber of marriages was 431 ; that of cases in which both signed with marks, 48 ; in which one only thus signed, 124 ; total of persons, 220. But it is interesting to look at the number of men in the northern counties whom the possession of studious tastes and the acquisition of knowledge have elevated from the lowest and most obscure stations to eminence and fame. Emerson, the great mathe- matician, was one remarkable instance of this ; and in the scientific world of London at the present day, more than one might be named. Nowhere, per- haps, in England do excellent schools abound to such an extent as here; educational activity and a wish to learn pervade all rauL^. Boarding-schools and day-schools for the middle classes are multi- tudinous. Every town contains its free grammar school and its charity schools. With regard to the educational institutions growing up under govern- ment superintendence, and particularly to schools for the pauper children in the workhouse, fault may, perhaps, be found with some of the details, and much has been said in condemnation of the ar- rangements adopted. But it appears to me essen- tially vmfair to press with severe censure on measures whicli are only in their initiatory stages, and which, as regards a system of education for workhouses, can hardly be said to be yet commenced. The report of Mr, Browne, inspector of workhouse schools in the northern district, is a document which shows that its writer is fully alive to the duties and responsibilities of his position. It abounds in sound and valuable suggestions on the subject of pauper education, as will be seen by the subjoined extracts on the subjects of the reli- gious instruction and industrial training of the children, the qualifications of the teachets, &c. ; — " Religious instruction, as the subject of most im- portance, is usually most attended to, but it is often very imperfect, especiiilly in those schools where no secular books are used, or where the teachers are paupers. In some workhouses, as at Chorley, Lan- cashire, where there is a very incompetent pauper teacher, the ordinary practice is to hear the children road the Testament, and ask no questions. The teacher exj)rcssly excused liimself from questioning the chil- dren, on the ground that he was a Roman Catholic. Under such circumstances the children read on me- clianically, without attending to the subject-matter, and their ignorance of it when questioned, or when re- quired to explain its meaning with the books open be- fore lliem, is marvellous. One defect in examining a class I find common to all bad teachers. They cannot so shape a question as to compel a child to frame an answer in his own words. Thus, when the Scriptures are read, their questions can constantly be answered in the very words of the text. They do not teacli tliccliil. dren to tliiuk, and the consequence is, that it appears to be quite an accident whether the answer suits the question or not. I have frequently found children, after repeating the Creed, unable to tell whose son our Saviour was; and could fill ])ages witli such anawers as, to the question, ' Who was Poutins Pilate?' — ' Mary Magdalen.' It is obvious that unless the matter of a child's lesson is made part of his mind by reflection, it is perfectly useless to him. The impression is almost as transient as tluit of a footstep on water. "The cultivation of land is peculiarly desirable, as it renders the labour of the elder boys directly avail- able towards the diminution of the expenses of the es- tablishment, of which the manure would otherwise be wasted, or not made the most of; as a very healthful occupation ; as furnisliing the means of earning a liveliliood with less interference with tlie labour mar- ket than by giving instruction in trades; and it is also beneficial morally, for, as the work is hard, the thoughts cannot ramble in the same manner as in those em- ployments where manual dexterity rather than strength is necessary ; so that, when the fingers get accustomed to the task, the mind can be employed otherwise. "Arrangements for the cultivation of land by the labour of the elder boys are nowhere as yet in a ma- tured state in this district. It appears not unreason- able to anticipate that by employing the boys who have sufficient strength in the cultivation of land at- tached to a district school, by rendering the manure of the establishment available, and thus growing larger and more frequent crops, and by the greater economy which is always practicable to a certain extent in a large establishment, where everything can be turned to some account, the expenses per head of each child in an industrial school may be reduced below the aver- age of an ordinary workhouse. If so, the most com- mon objection to the formation of district schools would be removed. With a little additional experience, it is probable that this point may be satisfactorily deter- mined. " In an industrial school the girls might be trained, as at Swinton and Kirkdale, to the duties of domestic servants, without the risk of corruption to which they are liable, even in the better class of workhouses, from casual association with the adult females. They would also contribute to reduce the expenses of the establish- ment, by doing the chief part of the household work, and by making their own clothes. But it seems to me that the advantages of district industrial schools are moral rather than economical, or economical because they are moral, as it is certain that the nation must gain, even in an economical point of view, by the greater influence of religion, by the more general pre- valence of upright conduct, and by tlie diminution of crime, vice, and pauperism. I would, therefore, ad- vocate the formation of such schools, mainly on the ground that a better education is attainable in them than elsewhere, with less exposure to corrupting in- fluences. " The qualifications of workhouse teachers in the north of England are proved by their examination papers, transmitted to the Privy-Council Office, to be generally low. Very few have received any regular training for their office. I have not been able to re- commend a single schoolmistress lor a higher certificate, as yet, than that of probati(>n, and one only, the schoolmaster of Leeds, for a certificate of efficiency. He has since been examined by her Majesty's Inspec- tor of Church of England Schools, and has obtained, according to your lordships' minutes for 1848, a middle- class certificate, first division. The head-master of Kirkdale school, who was a Battersea student, has obtained a certificate of the same class ; and another Battersea student, the schoolmaster of Coekermouth, has received the lower-class certificate, second divi- 54G THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sion. The position of the teachers generally, in the northern district, has not yet been determined. " Of some teachers whom I have examined the ig- norance was gross. One schoolmistress who had been appointed, though lier duties had not actually com- menced, did not iinow that King Saul and the Apostle Paul were different persons, and her spelling and pen- manship were on a level with her scriptural know- ledge ; another, when required to mention some of our Saviour's principal miracles, answered, ' Those which lie worked before Pharaoh, king of Egypt, to de- liver the Jews from Egyptian bondage.' These per- sons were not paupers, and are not now teachers. *' Schoolmistresses usually prove most deficient in arithmetic, and this is also the subject in which the in- feriority of the girls to the boys is more uniformly ma- nifest than in any other. It is easier, however, to attain a ceitain amount of arithmetical knowledge tlian to conduct a class satisfactorily : in this essential jioint 1 have rarely known an untrained teacher suc- ceed. Good sense, however, to discriminate what is trivial from what is material, is a more valuable ele- ment of the schoolmaster's character than any acquire- ments. Yet a man of sense, principle, and acquire- ments may fail, or succeed very imperfectly, unless he also possess a ready perception of the characters of chil- dren, and tact in influencing them accordingly ; since it is certain they will do far more for one person than for another. The common low estimate of a teacher's qualifications may have altered somewhat of late, but there is still practical proof that many consider a per- son fit for that office who is scarcely fit for any other. "The desire of your lordships to raise the character of the teacher is now clearly felt, and will, I doubt not, be felt more extensively ; but teachers constantly com- plain that want of leisure prevents them from improv- ing themselves. At Chorlton, Northwich, and else- where, the teachers are occupied for about twelve hours daily, although the children are scarcely half the time actually in school. Sometimes teachers are employed in oiiices directly menial, as at Burnley, where the schoolmaster acts as porter ; but the teacher's time is more commonly occupied with a succession of petty duties, not perhaps absolutely inconsistent with his office, but which a respectable servant might easily discharge. It appears essential that the teachers should be present when the children rise in the morn- ing, and when they go to bed at night, in order that their devotions may not be omitted, and to secure due attention to cleanliness. But there does not appear to be the same necessity for the constant presence of the teachers during tlie children's meals, or for their su- perintendence of the children during play-hours. The consequence is, that the teachers have very frequently no time really at their own disposal, until about eight o'clock at night, when they are naturally fatigued, and ill-fitted for study. The position of a workhouse teacher is otherwise unpleasant, as he is constantly liable to be brought into collision with the governor ; it is one of much confinement, and which a good teacher, easy as it now is for such persons to obtain situations of more comfort elsewhere, would feel often reluctant, not unnaturally, to occupy or retain. Under such circumstances, the qualifications and attainments of workhouse teachers are likely to continue of a me- diocre description, and the schools to remain nearly stationary, when a certain point has been reached, by no means advanced, and below that where education may be expected to make a lasting impression upon the child, and consequently to operate as a check upon pauperism." Desirous to sound the lowest depths of destitu- tion and moral degradation in the district of which I have undertaken the inspection, I have visited, in most of the towns through which I have passed (Darhngton, Durham, Bishop Auckland, Barnard's Castle, Stockton, Morpeth, Alnwick, &c.), the lodging-houses resorted to by trampers and cadgers, as the classes of vagrants and mendicants are com- monly styled. I found, however, in these esta- blishments little to excite surprise. Of the sqvialid misery of which I have often read, and which I know from my own observation to exist in the great metropolis of England, at a stone's throw from the most gorgeous abodes of opulent luxury and jnnncely splendour, I have here seen nothing. Some of these abodes are fitted up in a style by no means uncomfortable ; and with the single excep- tion of the bed-sheets being occasionally dirty. there is nothing repulsive in the household econo- my. One of them, of which the matron was a returned convict, was remarkable for its regularity and tidiness of aspect. There are, however, con- siderable differences in the character of the accom- modation. The charge made is low enough — 3d. a-night in all the cases where I inquired. The parties frequenting these include the extensive and indefinite class of persons of loose, vagabond, or disorderly habits. The most respectable are the drovers who are employed by the butchers in bringing up cattle to market, the hawkers of petty wares — pottery, articles of dress, printed pamphlets, and broadsides — and labourers or mechanics, of an inferior class, in search of work. The least reput- able characters are beggars, poachers, and petty pilferers. In many cases these persons are as well provided for as the honest and inteUigent labourer ; and on the whole they may be set down as being fully as well off as they deserve. Still there are degrees of discomfort or misery, and in the lowest depth you will always find lower depths still. Upon the habits of this class of our population a most curious and instructive light is thrown by the story of a prisoner in the gaol of Durham, as given from his own mouth, in the Fourteenth Report of the Prison Inspectors. I think it, on every account, well deserving of insertion. It is as follows : — " J. G. S., a prisoner under sentence of transporta- tion, examined : I am 29 years old. I am a native of Edinburgh. My father and mother are both dead. My mother died when I was a mere suckling. I do not know when my father died, and I cannot be quite sure that he is dead, but I believe he is. lie deserted his family, I believe, soon after my mother's death, and went to England. The only time that I ever re- member seeing him was one day in the streets of Edin- burgh, when I was 15 years old. He tapped me on the back, and invited me to go and take some refresh, ment with him, which I agreed to do. He took me to a tavern, and after a while he toll me that he was my father, and he appointed me to meet him again the next evening. I was at that time in the Orphans' Hospital at the D . The next day I saw Mr. , a writer in Edinburgh, who was my mother's father, and I told him joyfully whom I had met the day before. He, however, desired me not to go to this per- son again, and he sent a letter to the teacher of the hospital to prohibit my going to him. My mother was an illegitimate child of Mr. . I obeyed Mr. 's directions, and I never saw my father afterwards, but THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 647 I have heard that he died in London, from a person who represented herself to me as his second wife. I have heen told that my father had some property at the time of his marriage, and that he received some with my mother; tliat he got through it all by drunk- enness and dissipation. Till I was seven years old I was under the care of Mr. , who lived in street, Edinburgh. He was my godfather, and my grandfather Mr. paid him so much a-week for my board. I then went to the Orphans' Hospital, and there I remained till I was fifteen. I left a short time after I met my father. 1 have no brother, but I have a sister. I do not know where she is. Tlie last time I saw her is about eight years ago. I do not know whether my grandfather, Mr. , is still alive. It is about eight years since I saw him also. On leaving the Orplians' Hospital I went to live with my grand- father, Mr. ,and I used to go to Mr. , surgeon, living at street, to have lessons in anatomy. I was to be brought up as a surgeon. In about nine months, however, I had a quarrel with my grandfather, and left him. It was about my keeping company with a girl named . She was very respectable, but she was a Catholic, and my grandfather, who was a Pres- byterian, did not approve of her for that reason. He was afraid that if I married her I should change my religion, which he said would be sacrilege. He ex- postulated with me, and tried to show me the differ- ence between the two religions, but I would not give up Miss 's company, and he told me that I must either keep such company as he liked, or leave his house. I therefore left his house. One cause of my first losing my grandfather's favour was my getting tlie worse of liquor the first new year's day after leaving the Orphans' Hospital, but 1 did not form any habit of drinking til! I went to live at Newcastle. My grand- father then lived at , but he afterwards went to live in . About two years ago I wrote to him ac- cording to that address, to ask for some assistance, as I was going out as mate of a vessel from Sunderland, and he sent me £5. I have not written to inform him of my present situation. On leaving my grandfather's I went to Dunfermline to be out of his way, and in- tending to remain there till the father of Miss should find me a situation, which I hoped he would do when he knew how I was placed. My motive for wish- ing to be out of my grandfather's way was, that I had taken some money, about £S I think, which belonged to him, and which was kept in a writing desk in my bed-room. The desk was locked, but the key had been left in the lock. This was the first theft I ever com- mitted. I did not take the money till after my grand- father had told me that if I did not abandon Miss 's company, I must leave his house. After staying a short time at Dunfermline I went to the Rumbling- bridge, and remained at the inn there about four montlis. During the first six weeks I paid for my board, but during the remainder of the time I was al- lowed to remain without charge, on condition of giving some lessons every day to the landlord, Mr. , in reading, writing, and arithmetic. At the end of that time I returned to Dunfermline, and was six months there with Mr. , a master weaver. I kept his ac- counts. During all this time I heard nothing from Mr. . I left Dunfermline at the end of six months, because I had taken 30s. which belonged to Mr. . I went to Edinburgh, but Mr. followed me and found me at my sister's. He had me taken before Mr. , but on my paying back the money in court, and promising to return to Mr. 's employment, to whom by a written agreement I was engaged for four year I was released. I returned that night with Mr. "— — • to Dunfermline, but I found that the people there looked down upon me for embezzling the money; and as I did not like the disgrace, I absconded the next week, and went to Newcastle. At Newcastle I went into a chemist's shop to buy some cough lozenges. I believe while I was there a person came in and asked for some medicine. There was no one in the shop but a boy, and I observed that this boy took down a bottle with the wrong medicine marked on it to give to this cus- tomer. I told him it was not correct. I forget just now the name of the stuff which the boy was going to give, but 1 remember that it was poisonous, and that it would have proved fatal if taken. While we were discussing the matter, the master of the shop, who over- heard our conversation, came in. He asked me how I knew that the medicine was the wrong one, and whether I had ever been in a chemist's shop ? I told him that I had not, but that I understood Latin, and was acquainted with the names of many kinds of me- dicine. He asked me who my parents were ? and after some further conversation, he told me that if he should have a vacancy, and I liked to be bound to him for seven years, he would take me into his employment, providing my friends would give security for my re- maining the whole time. This person's name was , and he lived in the . He wrote to my grand- father, and my grandfather and Mr. , the lord justice clerk, together, gave security to the extent either of £50 or of ,£150, I forget which. I then en- tered Mr. 's service, and remained with him four years. At my birth my mother suckled one of Mr. 's children, which is the reason, I believe, that Mr. ■ was kind enough to join in the security. At the end of four years I was obliged to leave Mr. in consequence of an improper intimacy which took place between me and liis niece. Mr. did not, however, demand payment of my security, because it was his act for me to leave. At Newcastle, as I have already men- tioned, 1 first fell into the habit of drinking. I became acquainted there with several people who were them- selves addicted to drinking, and were in other respects of bad character. The street in which I lived, called the , is, I believe, the worst in Newcastle. A large portion of the inhabitants in it are of loose and drink- ing habits. On leaving Newcastle I went to Edinburgh, and after some time got a situation with a baker living in the whose name I forget. I became bound to him, but at the end of six weeks I absconded, as I found that the employment did not agree with my constitu- tion. I took some money with me, but I forget how much. The baker gave information to the jjolice, and I was apprehended and sent to prison for sixty days. On leaving prison I wrote a note to my grandfather, saying that I had been ill, and begging him to pay the doctor's bill. This was done to gain admission to his presence ; for in reality I had not been ill. He saw me for a few minutes, but he had found out that the story of my illness was a pretence, and heupbraided meformy conduct, and refused anything more to do with me. He sent me out, however, a sovereign by the butler. After calling on my sister, I set out for Newcastle. I re- mained a night there, and then went to North Shields, and finding a vessel in which an apprentice was wanted, I engaged myself to go one voyage on trial. I did not like the sea, and on the return of the vessel I gave up my situation. I then went to Sunderland, and got a place in another vessel, but this was only to get a pas- sage to London. After remaining a few weeks in Lon- don, and trying in vain to obtain employment, I re- turned to Sunderland. There I engaged as a seaman on board a collier that was going to Cowes, in the Isle of Wight. At that place I enlisted into her Majesty's service, and went on board the Peak frigate. We sailed to Barbadoes, and there I waa drafted to the Flamer, 548 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a steam brigautine. I did not like service, and soon deserted. I was, however, retaken, but on our passage from Barbadoes to Demerara I deserted again at St. Vincent's. Tliere I remained about eighteen months in tlie employment of a Mr. , a grocer. At the end of that time I returned to England, on board a brig bound for London, in which I acted as steward. Soon after landing I fell in with a prostitute, and in the liouse to wliich she took me I was robbed by her ; but a man who appeared to live in the house, and who had onee met me before in the north, recognized me, and ordered the girl to return the money. He and I drank the money together, and from him I learnt the art of forging base coin, which lias ended in bringing me here under my present sentence. This man's name is . He lived at that time in street, ; but I do not know where he is now. This is about six years ago. He first faugiit me to make shillings by means of a mould of Plaster of Paris. 1 found it diffi- cult at first to make a good mould, but at the end of three or four months I could make one perfectly. I could miike about 100 -hiUiugs in a night. We used, at that time, to make tliem for sale to other parties. We sold some to people who took them into thecountry, and a good many we sold to keepers of public-houses. There were two men, named and , who bouglit large nuuibersof them, and we sold large num- bers to the keeper of the public-house called the in street, and to the keeper of the public-house in street-road. The name of the latter person was — — , but I forget the name of the other. We generally got five shillings for a pound's worth of base shillings; but if the parties would consent to give six shillings a pound, then we used German silver or Gates's metal in coining, otherwise we made the shillings of Britannia metal. Four of us worked together. We made different coins. I made shillings, two other men, named and , made Iialf crowns, and made sovereigns and half sovereigns. The sovereigns and half sovereigns were made out of buttons. For the sovereigns we got 10s. a-p:ece. In making shillings and half crowns we some- times used a metal called British plate, which is so close an imitation of silver that it is scarcely possible to distinquish it from silver. This is more expensive than the other kinds of metal which I have mentioned, and when we used it we got 10s. a pound for the coins. Wo generally worked two or three nights in the week ; it depended upon what custom we got. When there was not much custom we used to go and pass some of the coins ourselves. did not pass any, but he got Gue-haU' of what we passed. We worked together in this way for six months, during the whole of which time we were never apprehended by the police, or in any fear of being apprehended. When we were not at work our tools were always eitiier buried in the ground, or hidden in a hole behind a moveable brick" in the wall. During the whole time we did not hear of any one who had bought the coins from us being appre- hended. At the end of six months I went to work by myself, as I found I could get more money than when I was with the others. I went to Gravesend, and there fell in with an acquaintance who followed the same pur- suit as myself, and we travelled togethcrto Portsmouth, where we remained a short time, and then returned to London, where I remained all the following winter, em- ployed chiefly in coining ; but I sometimes went out with members of the swell mob to take the dimensions of locks, in order to make false keys. After making the keys, I was sometimes engaged in the robberies. I sometimes got as mucli as £30 for my share of a rob- bery. One of these robberies was committed on a liousc of a gentleman at Plumstead, whose name I forget, and another on the house of Dr. Dodds,in the Commercial- road. Sometimes we robbed shops also. A robbery was frequently committed by one of us going into a shop, and engaging the attention of the shopkeeper, while another slipped in and took oflF something : or sometimes the other party would cut out a pane of glass, and take away articles. Many jewellers' shop were robbed in this way. My principles associates were named , , , and , one of my former associates in coining. I do not know where they are now. was once apprehended, but he was ac- quitted for want of evidence. A woman was living with me at that time ; and I have no doubt but, one weelc with another, she and I made ,£'5, by making and passing bad money, besides what I made by the rob- beries. Next spring she and I went to Gravesend, where she fell ill. I returned to London to get some more metal for coining, and on my road broke into a house on Plumstead common. I had been told that the house belonged to a miserly gardener, and that there was a chest with a good deal of money in it underneath the bed, but I found nothing in the chest but a suit of clothes and l.js. These I took ; but as I was walking at a rapid into Woolwich, with the clothes in a bundle, I was met by a police- man, who stopped me, and finding that I could not give a proper description of the clothes in the bundle, conveyed me to the police-office. I was sent to New- gate, where I remained a month, and was then tried and sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment, which I underwent at Maidstone. Both at Newgate and Maid- stone the prisoners have frequent opportunities of talking together, and the conversation was almost al- ways about the robberies we had committed, and what robberies we might commit in future. There were the same opportunities in the trial ward in Durham prison, when I was in that ward, and the conversation was of the same kind. I had not been out of Maidstone pri- son more than a fortnight, when I committed another robbery at Shawn, a village near Gravesend. Between money and goods, I made about £35 by that robbery. I was apprehended, but acquitted for want of evidence. I then went to Sunderland and broke into a sliip- btiilder's office ; there, however, I got only £G. I soon after committed a robbery at Whitburn, but was caught on the premises by the squire's coachman. When I was taken to the police-station and examined, it was discovered that I had committed the robbery at Sun- derland by the circumstance of part of my braces being missing, which part liad been found in the ship- builder's office. For these offences I was tried by the magistrates at Sunderland, and was sentenced to two months' imprisonment. The remainder of tliat sum- mer and the winter following T passed in the nortli of England, coining and passing bad money. I pretended to be a doctor to avoid suspicion, and liad a man with me to pass bad money. I often really practised as a doctor. I bought several medical books, and dispensed me- dicine as well as I could. I got a good deal of money as a doctor, chiefly between Hartlepool and Scarbo- rough. I got on better in the towns as a doctor than in the country. At the end of the summer, now two years ago, I got tired of this life, and determined if I could to reform and lead a new career. I engageil to go as mate in a vessel from Sunderland, which was bound for St. Petersburg, but was shipwrecked on the coast of Jutland eight days after we left the port. I returned to England, and in about a month got another situation as cook and steward on boar 290 1,537 1,501 4,026 788 634 978 2'-9 379 1,168 606 ,736 138 1,252 781 6,080 3/6 2,580 8 979 1,256 801 1,020 738 2,172 798 352 293 1,543 1,418 4,008 691 718 902 287 371 1,155 603 750 138 1,242 803 6,044 376 2,659 1,142 1,240 801 1 ,038 729 2,042 803 357 296 1,519 1,280 3,991 709 623 950 277 309 1,153 622 747 139 1,251 795 6,034 379 2,622 10 1,100 1,240 814 1,016 746 2,071 778 355 308 1,551 i,442 4,009 706 686 16,824 909 274 871 1,181 6(i5 755 189 1,2J8 787 0,075 379 2,674 15,395 11 12 1,074 1,153 1,184 1,184 816 810 1,009 993 730 756 2,121 2,159 832 805 375 375 292 290 1,506 1,539 1,352 1,400 4,004 4,004 733 738 023 678 950 910 274 209 379 379 1,168 1,160 605 604 752 750 138 136 1,250 1,261 799 813 6,056 6,084 378 378 2,730 2,739 13 1,107 1.181 8()3 979 "23 2,082 830 368 289 1,507 1,825 4,012 798 620 933 207 874 1.163 627 749 146 1,251 808 6,(195 382 2,7i'3 In the case of out-door relief, it is impossible to ascertain totals and averages with accuracy, many being returned twice under the heads of non-resident and non-settled relief. 3. Similar return of in-door relief for the year 1847, quarter ending September 30. IN-DOOR PAUPERS, 1847. Durham— Weeks. Auckland ., Chester-le- Street .... Darlington Durham Gateshead ... . . . . Hcughton-le-Spring Lanchcster Sedgefield South Shields Stockton . Sunderland Teesdale Weardalo Northumberland. Alnwick BeUord Bellingham Berwiek-on-Twecd ... Castle Ward Glendale.. . , Hallwistle Hexham Morpeth Newcastle-on-Tyne. . . Kuthbury , . . . Tynemouth no. 125! 2761 44 4o! 50' 260 80 300 160 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total. 1 50 44 51 49 55 53 55 59 63 59 61 60 60 7191 54 46 47 44 47 46 47 46 45 46 45 44 45 6O2' 63 61 62 62 61 59 59 59 63 59 58 62 61 789 85 85 78 83 85 84 86 85 80 84 88 92 97 1,107[ 161 157 162 160 164 163 161 165 168 164 158 158 158 2.099 14 14 14 14 14 17 16 15 14 14 14 13 18 186' 32 37 34 88 43 35 36 35 34 33 34 34 34 459, 34 36 36 37 37 37 82 25 25 26 26 26 26 403 130 130 135 I.')4 134 137 132 134 132 130 130 120 129 1,745 41 42 48 51 54 59 59 53 36 33 30 33 35 520' 225 223 233 244 247 21) 224 215 225 217 219 219 232 2,934; 73 70 74 65 60 58 58 60 68 60 62 61 65 826 34 33 32 25 21 25 26 27 29 26 905 37 34 25 364 100 98 101 91 89 79 76 S2 84 79 73 73 80 1,174 15 16 16 16 17 16 16 16 15 15 14 14 15 197 21 21 21 19 19 22 24 23 24 23 23 19 21 280J iia 101 108 90 81 76 85 8B 78 83 81 80 81 1,142| 79 76 73 76 73 77 69 71 69 69 73 69 74 948 1 41 39 33 84 34 :i9 Sj 3.0 34 41 46 42 45 495! 30 30 34 34 30 so 27 27 27 27 28 28 30 8321 ns 159 164 178 182 171 170 174 166 170 162 161 160 2,174 66 61 68 64 66 67 69 65 62 61 64 75 74 862 374 382 389 375 885 38? ■"isa 375 373 367 369 357 361 4,678 30 28 28 28 27 29 28 4) 27 26 27 29 25 373 284 261 263 271 275 268 270 270 273 265 1236 264 257 253 3,474 46 61 85 162 14 35 31 134 43 226 64 90 37 15 •• 88 10 73 2 38 10 29 5 167 89 66 13 360 3 29 6 267 39 Increase. 34 3 9 23 ii 4 18 7 49 6 Decrease* 554 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4. Similar return of out-door relief for the same quarter of the same year, excluding totals and averages for the reason above stated. Durham— Weeks. Auckland Chester- le-Stieet Darlington Durham Easington Gatbsliead Houghton-li>-Spring .. . Lanchnster Sedgefif Id South Shields Stockton Sunderland Tecsdale Weardale Northumberland. Alnwick Belford Belli nghani Berwick- on-Twoed Cistle V/ard Glendale Haltwhislle Hexham Morpeth Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Eothbury Tyuemouth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 884 8-36 929 922 925 891 836 901 848 896 860 1,173 9G4 964 964 962 962 9fi0 96U 960 961 S60 982 964 8.39 85! 837 810 843 815 829 831 830 881 877 824 856 528 851 513 908 529 811 538 839 524 820 640 852 518 848 532 853 .521 844 528 87^ 510 864 521 1,934 1,9J3 1,959 1,972 1,993 1,939 1,987 1,928 1,943 1,910 1,973 1,936 795 700 691 805 785 812 785 822 772 808 790 790 295 283 282 260 260 2155 265 268 268 276 276 310 308 306 306 298 290 293 282 276 275 277 275 277 1,243 1,242 1,254 1,248 1,WI 1,246 1,^53 1,226 1,258 1,252 1,267 1,263 1,244 1 ,0(14 1,074 1,035 1,176 1,071 1,936 1,106 1,1^3 1,242 1,123 1,164 4,249 4,240 4,256 4,232 4,221 4,222 4,226 4,203 4,199 4,213 4,217 4,211 881 9i2 913 788 779 807 789 810 802 732 74S 770 659 831 615 1,121 613 862 619 1,055 698 852 625 850 658 1,119 640 871 €83 1,112 615 652 872 601 Sfil 15,464 871 515 883 509 286 28G 286 289 287 286 285 479 289 342 342 345 345 345 344 850 349 S49 335 336 350 l,n4) 1,044 1,042 1,035 1,042 1,014 1,029 1,0.33 1,035 1,096 1,095 1,094 585 607 605 611 607 604 612 605 592 595 597 591 668 718 667 754 675 747 654 806 664 788 661 762 163 163 175 175 171 171 173 173 178 1-8 178 178 1,158 1,183 1,136 1,159 1,151 1,150 1,147 1,144 1,139 1,137 1,142 1,139 656 656 667 659 677 673 7ii3 698 707 703 712 707 5,065 5,150 6,287 5,254 5,232 5,161 5,258 5,269 5,282 5,3S5 5,463 5,513 3G5 354 354 355 354 354 355 355 355 355 355 351 2,693 2,588 2,619 2,628 2,619 2,623 2,606 2,599 2,587 2,588 2,566 2,571 14,356 13 853 964 876 8;i8 503 1,811 814 310 272 1,810 1,258 4,222 750 660 1,014 302 350 1,037 588 666 154 1,138 694 5,394 351 2,553 CULTURE OF TURNIPS. HOW TO GET RID OP THE FLY. The culture of turnips has so completely changed the character of our husbandry, and is of such vast importance to us, that anything affecting the wel- fare of this staple root cannot be of trivial impor- tance. The cleaning of the land, manuring, season of sowing, &c., are pretty generally under control ; but, " 0, the fly .'" that terrible scourge, what is to be done when it sets to work ? Tarred boards are drawn over the field to trap the jumping vermin, for flea- beetles are nimble as their namesakes, and very little driving gets them to a gallop ; but, although the tarred wood traps thousands, myriads are left unmolested to do the work of destruction. All sorts of remedies have been proposed to meet this giant evil, and anything that would lessen the chances of loss, such as rich ma- nures to hasten the plant into rough leaf, are eagerly sought after; steeps for seed, too, have their advocates ; and various wiseacres have unrevealed wrinkles of their own, that the uninitiated, and particularly the editors of agricultural papers and lecturers, shall never know. The following plan of attack upon the turnip -flea beetle is worthy of some consideration, since its operations are all above board, and the fight is in open day. The besieged, although incased in pretty good mail, like other beetles, finds, to his dismay, that the slow hound is at his heels, and that there is no rest for the sole of his f®ot whilst such an army has possession of the (turnip) field. Our moorland hind scratched his pate and studied hard to match " the fly." Brimestone was put upon the damped seeds until they shone like gold, but still " the fly " would taste the seed-leaf after all, and seemed to have it all his own way until the hind, taking the hint from tales of life in India, where certain species of ants infest every place, and reign supreme for the time, driving all before them, went to the ant-hills in the woods and filled sacks of ants, and, with gloves on his hands, turned them down in little heaps, at regular distances, over the field ; and whether it were the work of the ants or to be ascribed to other causes deponent sayeth not, but the crop was seldom seriously injured in this hind's lifetime, and he never failed to call in the dogs of war to his assistance when the weather threatened to be dry after turnip sowing. In gardening, the above remedy would be perfectly practicable, but upon large farms it would be a tedious affair .—S. R. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 555 CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE— DECEMBER. Vegetable Department. To commence, I defer the retrospect to the last paragraph, because the weather is frosty, and pro- mises so to continue : it will therefore be prudent to wait. If the ground become fixed and immov- able, little can be done ; I therefore offer the gene- ral direction which was given by a gentleman's gardener at a season the reverse of the present, when heavy rains had rendered the ground too wet for cropping. It may be previously observed that, if snow and a thaw supervene, the land will become in a worse condition than the one alluded to : in either case, therefore, the following directions, if judiciously observed, will be productive of good results. " So soon as the ground shall become sufficiently dry, sow peas and beans of the earliest varieties on some well- sheltered border ; and some of each may be sown at once in pots and shallow boxes ; also peas, in thick reversed strips of grass turf, two feet or more long, a groove being cut an inch-and-a-half deep along the middle, in which the seeds are placed singly, one inch or less apart, returning the soil, or any soft loam, over the peas, and pressing it firmly on them. These strips, or the pots and boxes, are to be kept in a cool vinery, or under any artificial protection, without heat, that can be afforded. Mustard and cress sow as usual once a week. Ash-leaved kidney potatoes" (or Cuthill's Early) " prepare for planting in boxes or pots, or under a greenhouse-stage, and covered with dry mould. Cover some sea-kale and rhubarb, or remove a portion of the latter to a mushroom- house, which is decidedly the better practice." (A dark warm cellar would do well). " Remove all dead leaves from cauliflowers under glass, and dust them occasionally with lime and soot, to pre- vent the ravages of slugs, " and to develop am- monia. Towards the end of the month sow radishes, and early-horn carrots, in frames with a gentle heat. These directions apply also to January. Should the weather be severe, and the ground hard, wheel out as much manure as will be required for the undressed quarters : and this cannot be done at a more favourable opportunity. ' Fruit Department. Having mentioned in the November Calendar the autumnal pruning of wall-trees, I again allude to the practice, though I still doubt its superiority only in so far as it saves time by anticipating an operation which, in a large garden, would increase labour at a more busy period. Pinners would obtain much comfort, and per- haps safetjf, were they always provided with strong shoes, soled with stout gutta-percha, or rather, with a gutta-percha sole interposed between the inner and outer leathern soles. Wet would thus be entirely excluded, and the escape of heat from the feet greatly obviated. The figure of wall-trees is of some consequence; but fruitfulness is much more so. For peaches and nectarines the regular fan-training is perhaps the best, and the most natural form that trees so artificially placed can assume. There was, some j'ears ago, a mode of training called " Seymour's ;" it had a central stem, the shoots from which were trained sloping right and left, as they were deve- loped. I tried the system on some maiden trees, but proved the truth of an observation now before me— that it will not succeed in all soils and situa- tions ; " even one of the sons of the originator could not bring the trees under his care to the uniform appearance of those under his father's manage- ment." But why ? Certain it is that these trees are very capricious as to soil, flourishing in some kinds (as an unctuous, sandy, and loamy turf) with healthy luxuriance ; while in other loams the shoots appear as if refractory and obstinate, inclined to gum, and to produce leaves that rarely escape the bladder-blight. Apricot, plum, and cherry- trees are sometimes trained horizontally, or nearly so, with a slight inclination upward. Pear and apple-trees against walls and espalier-rails should, I think, be always trained horizontally from a cen- tral stem, or sometimes from two such stems, the branches from which are carried right from the one, and left from the other, commencing a few inches only above the ground. Gooseberry and currant bushes would keep their fruit more clean, by having one single stem to each, at least two feet high, without a shoot. Fig-trees ought to be suffi- ciently protected before frost commences. I saw almost every fine wall-tree at Missenden Abbey and elsewhere completely destroyed to the ground by the " Murphy " winter of 1838. A careful inter- lacing with spray of the spruce-fir, or a covering with double mats over some light, dry hay, aflTord ample protection. 2 o 556 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Fiiuii's UNDKK Glass, Vinci ies. — It is the custom of some prudent growers (with limited means) to defer the excite- ment of the Black Hamburghs till about Christmas- day, when the stin begins to ascend ; and then, to heat the flues or hot-water machinery very gra- dually, commencing with 50 deg. (in sunless days) and by night. At the end of the month 5 deg. may be added. Persons with large establishments may have commenced in October. To such the following hints, taken from a Calendar pubhshed in 1S50, may be acceptable :—" December. — The vines will now be breaking : when so, remove the dung" (N.B.— a useful stimulant, and perhaps the best medium for raising vapour) " from the interior of the house, if such plan has been adopted. The temj)erature must be kept up during the day to 70 degrees, with an increase of 10 degrees from sun- beat, if such can be obtained. The night tempe- rature should be cautiously raised to CO degrees, and even 65 degrees, when the vines are in bloom. Admit air daily, and during the night as well, if there be means of doing this with safety." Venti- lators from the back-shed offer one means, but a shding up or down of the glazed roof-sashes is in- admissible. "The roots of the border, if outside, must be kept at, as nearly as possible, 70 degrees, adding more materials (dung and leaves) whenever the weather gives indications of becoming severe." Cover the house with a strong canvass roller- screen, well secured from winds. Mildew.— k\dt.%\ for it— but its attacks upon leaves and fruit, within the past three years, have been fearful. Flowers of sulphur, or levigated stone brimstone, dusted over every leaf, bud, or twig, at, or even before, the faintest hint of its ap- pi'oach, is the only acknowledged antidote ; with this, however, use as an adjunct the application of sulphur, in the form of paint, over the warm flues and hot-water pipes. The heat volatilises the sulphur, which thus is deposited upon the vines. Care should be taken that it be not ignited by too much heat; otherwise sulphurous acid, and not the pure mineral, M'ill most likely injure, if not destroy? both foliage and fruit. Of Pine culture nothing remains to be said in addition to what has recently, and in many pre- vious calendars, been stated. Peac/ies. — The Royal George and Gallande are thought most suitable as forcers. Great attention is always required in making increase of heat ; for 50 deg., commencing with 40 deg., are the limits of temperature till the fruit sets. " By sus- taining this temperature day and night, while the trees are in flower, and by taking advantage of fine days to give plenty of air, five tirnss as mafly fruit may be made to .set as should be penniUed to ripen." So experience teaches. The peach is very liable to aphis (green-fly) and the spider. Fumigations of tobacco, made in anticipation, and repeated to such an extent as to render the house a rftass of dense fog, are the safest efliective remedy. Keep close for night, excluding the exit and ingress of air so far as it is possible, and after some hours syringe the trees, i.e., before the flowers open, but then not till the fruit shall be set. Cucumber-house, — Better fruit is seldom seen than that which can be produced in a double or span-roofed low house, heated by hot-water pipes, and a good tank under the soil the length of the central bed. ITie plants may be grown m deep wide flower-pots. Dung-beds are troublesome ; failing at critical times, and mischievous at others by the rank ammoniacal vapour which they de- velop. Give plenty of air at proper times. Keep the glass clean, to admit ample light. Modern gardeners sa)', " Remove all male blossoms, as they appear ;" and this with reason, because impregna- tion only produces fertile seeds, while it spoils the figure of the cucumber. Keep a moderate tempera- ture during night ; but cover securely by screen or mats and rough three- qudrter-inch boards in frosty weather. The day heat may be 70 deg. to 75 deg., or more with sun and air. These directions will apply in due season to melon grooving. Straivberries. — The blossoms are apt to become blind if they are exposed to much heat without a sufficiency of light and air. This defect may, I suggest, arise from a disease of the anthers, which destroys their tissue before they can discharge the pollen. A first portion of the pots should be placed on shelves of the vinery, peach-house, or of a pit, &c., prepared expressly, so near the glasses as to have the full influence of the light. Abun- dance of air must be admitted unless in frosty weather. The potted plants for successive forcings should be protected from keen and durable frost ; and if the pots are lying on their sides in rows, one over the other, the lower ends resting against the back wall of a pit facing the north, the spaces filled up with sifted coal-ashes or saw-dust, a few mats, as a screen, let down some inches in front of the plants will prevent the injurious eftects of (tost upon the roots. Double rows of pots may be laid ends to ends, and be equally guarded and secured by mats or canvass* It will be needless to allude to any operations iii the ornamental grounds. Neatness, order, and regularity are always required, and economic means to provide and prepare earths, soils, and manures, animal and vegetable, must never be lost sight of. The plant stove, orchid house, jfiOpa§aiim pit. Ttm FAUMEIl'S MA(iA2lNli 56^ &c., citirildhcl much care, bciuing ill inittil tliat tlie setisdfi Is one of repostl, not of excited growth : Light dirniriisheS during three tVeeks of Decfember, and in the moi'nings even till the first week of Jcinuat)'. Christmas, therefore-, may be safely con- sidered the pivot, or gardeners' turn of days. RETfRospEct.-^ Frost commenced in good ear- hest on the 15th. Th^ meteorological table will notice its strength as registered by me. Tlie ChiS- wick Weekly reports statfe it as much more keeti by night. At once the dahlias and heliotropes fell before it. The last bloom of autumnal roses was parctlyzed, and that of chrysitntbeniums, tvhitll promised to be superior, irrecoverably ihjured. The approach of tliis frost was clearly indicated by the corltinual fluctuations of the wihd, by its calm state ffom the 8th instant, and the frerpient fogs. Without devoting attention to aspectal theories, we may expect a protracted winter, if not a severe one. In britlging my papers and these calendars to a close, I observe that in the early morning of this day the thermometer rose from 28 deg. to 36 deg. by eight o'clock, and some drizzling rain came on. Croydon, 2lst November) 1851. AGRICULTURAL REPOtlTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR NOVEMBER. Agriculture in general has derived great advan- tages from the unusually fine weather experienced during the whole of this month. From its commence- ment till quite its close all out-door labours pro- gressed steadily, with scarceily any interruption, if we except the period which elapsed between the ISth and 24tli, dtiring which large quantities of snow fell in most of the eastern counties, especially in Noffolk. Ploughing, which was commenced very early in several districts, was concluded under very favour- able auspices ; and it is satisfactory in being enabled to observe that our accounts agree in stating that the winter wheats, notwithstanding the somevv'hat severe check they have met with, are looking re- markably strong and healthy. Although prices continue extremely low, owing, we need scarcely observe, to the immense quantities of foreign pro- duce continually pressed for sale, and farmers have been much occiipied oxit of (\obts, very large sup- ' plies of home-grown wheat have been thrashed out and disposed of, the weekly sales reported by the '^ various inspectors having exceeded 101,000 qrs. That very great inroads have been made upon the stock of new wheat is evident from the almost total J absence of old stocks throughout the country; never- theless, as this year's crop has turned out remarkably &iy, millers have had nO difficulty in purchasing ample supplies to meet their wants, without being compelled, as has been the case in many past years, to have recourse to foreign qualities. This is a very important feature in the trade, and calculated, ■ Sooner or later, to have a decided influence upon '''prices. That we have reached the lowest point does not, we conceive, admit of a doubt ; whilst ^ tfcere is every prospect, looking to the immense consumption, and the reasonable probability of de- creased importations, of a steady^ though not to say important, rise in thfe value of most articles of food. There is one circumstance, atld rne only,- that may tefid to pi-event a sudden advancfe : we mean the immense quantities of potatoes which continue to be brought fofWctrd; and the wfeU- known fact that the total produce, making eteiy allowance for losses by disease, is large and of ex- cellent quality. On the dthet hand, we must rift lose sight of the fact, to which we adverted some time since, that very few good and sound potatoes have been grown upon the Continent. In former seasons, by this time we havC deceived from 15,000 to 20,000 tdng, chiefly frOm Holland arid Belgium; but sihCe the fii-st of Sef)tember, the total importations have beert under 500 tons. It may be said that our prices are agaihst shipments. Granted : but at the Same time, it mifst be a matter for consideration whether any stirplus remains abroad sttffiCiently large to affect fhe value of Eng- lish wheats.' The riCar aiyproach Of that period wh'efl ^ipdrts of cattle from Jutland and some of the Dutch ports must ceas^, has ihdttced great activity oti the part of the foreign graziers in forv^ardih'g stock to the London market : henCe, as Will be seeh on reference to our '* Review of the Cattle Trade,*' the importations since v/e last wrote have beeri on a very liberal scale, both as regards number and quality. Prices, however, not only in Smithfield, but likewise in most of the country markets, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, have been steadily on the advance. The improvement in value may chiefly be attributed to the gfeat abundance and excellent quality of this year's root crop, and not to any actual scarcity of stock. Very few com- plahita have come to hand in reference to the dis- 2 0 2 658 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ease amongst cattle, the health of which has been j prices in Smithfield have had an upward tendency. much better than for a series of years past. Lin seed cakes have commanded more attention, and the quotations have had an upward tendency. Since the declaration of the duty on hops the demand has ruled steady, and prices have conti- nued comparatively high. Very few old qualities are now to be met with. For both hay and straw the inquiry has been in a very depressed state, and the quotations have ruled lower. Meadow hay has sold at from £2 15s. to £3 15s.; clover do., £3 5s. to £4 7s. 6d.; and straw, £1 to £1 8s. per load. The colonial wool sales have passed ofF extremely well, at an advance in the quotations of from id. to l^d. per lb. upon all good and fine quahties. Rather a large business is doing in English wools, both for home use and for shipment to the Conti- nent, on rather higher terms. The yield of the oat crop, both in Ireland and Scotland, is represented as considerably in excess of 1850. Up to the present time, shipments to some extent have been made to London and Liver- pool ; and which, as the foreign arrivals have been comparatively small for some time past, have kept Ijrices in check. The general produce markets in the metropoUs have continued unusually inactive, at further de- pressed rates. The immense importations of tal- low from Russia have increased the stock to nearly 70,000 casks, the largest quantity on record ; whilst the continued influx from South America and Australia, aided by the large make of town parcels, have brought forward numerous sellers on lower terms ; notwithstanding that the Russian houses, who have forwarded 40,000 casks on their own account, appear determined to hold for higher rates. Should the supply of English tallow continue large it is evident that a further material decrease will take place in the arrivals from St, Petersburg next year. In point of fact, the trade is rapidly getting into other hands, to the manifest injury of Rus- sian commerce. Much might be said on this head, but it may be sufficient for our present purpose to observe that free trade is proving ruinous to Russia; and, further, that unless she immediately relaxes her present restrictive import duties, and thus opens a wider field for British produce and manufactures, at least two-thirds of the present outward trade will be wholly lost. with a good consumptive demand. Of course the low temperature has had considerable influence upon the trade, as it has enabled butchers in gene- ral to purchase somewhat beyond their immediate wants. The quality of the Danish and Dutch beasts has exhibited signs of improvement, both as to weight and general condition ; whilst the sheep froin Holland have turned out much better than at most corresponding periods of the year. As re- gards the supplies of English stock, we may ob- serve that they have proved very even in quality ; but that scarcely any first-rate animals have made their appearance, as they have evidently been kept back for Christmas consumption. The show in Baker-street, from the numerous beneficial changes introduced into the rules for the guidance of exhi- bitors, promises to be of an extraordinary cha- racter. The following are the total supplies exhibited in Smithfield : — Head. Beasts 23,583 Cows 435 Sheep 11 5,770 Calves 1,718 Pigs 3,210 COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Beasts . Cows . Sheep . Calves . Pigs. . . Nov., 1847. 20,514 583 121,320 1,608 3,206 Nov., 1849. 19,388 342 120,060 1,113 2,116 Nov., 1848. 19,700 600 103,770 1,483 2,326 The range of prices has been as under : — Per Slbs., to smk the oflTals. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 2 Mutton , 2 Veal 2 Pork 2 Nov., 1850. 19,896 419 120,206 1,475 2,872 2 to 3 8 to 4 8 to 3 6 to 3 10 COMPARISON OF PRICES. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Very large imports of foreign stock have again taken place into London : nevertheless, as the arri- vals of both beasts and sheep from our own grazing districts have been comparatively small. Beef, from 3 Mutton 3 Veal 3 Pork 4 Beef, from . . ., . 2 Mutton 2 Veal 3 Pork 3 Nov., 1847 s. d. s. 2 to 5 8 5 3 10 5 4 0 5 Nov., 1849. s. d. s. d, 2 8 to 4 0 10 4 2 2 4 0 2 4 4 Nov 1848. d. s. d. 8 to 4 2 0 5 0 4 4 4 10 4 8 Nov., 1850. d. s. d. 6 to 3 10 8 4 2 8 3 10 0 4 2 The bullock supplies from Lincolnshire, Lei- cestershire, and Northamptonshire, have rather exceeded 11,000 shorthorns. From other parts of England, 2,850 Herefords, runts, Devons, &c., have come to hand ; whilst the arrivals from Scot- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 559 land have been confined to 400 horned and polled Scots. The imports of foreign stock into London have been thus : — Head. Beasts 0,279 Sheep 22,866 Calves 1,409 Pigs 1,127 COMPARISON OF IMPORTS. Nov. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1850 5,928 17,662 1,058 1,486 1849 4,228 14,204 618 409 1848 3,488 13,424 669 — 1847 3,486 16,213 667 41 The arrivals at the outports have been confined to about 2,000 head of beasts, sheep, calves, and pigs from Holland, Denmark, and Germany. Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been seasonably well supplied with each kind of meat, in which a full average business has been transacted. The arrivals from the provinces and Scotland have exceeded 20,000 carcasses. Beef has sold at from 2s. to 3s. 2d.; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd.; veal, 2s. 8d. to 3s. 8d. ; and pork, 2s. 4d. to 3s. lOd. per 8 lbs., by the carcass. CUMBERLAND. The year 1851 is now fast drawing to a close, and as the process of threshing has commenced, there is a better opportunity of calculating the probable produce of the harvest, and the result of the different branches of farming during the past season. Ujion the whole, the summer, so far as weather was concerned, might be said to have been favourable, and the crops, both hay and grain, were secured under very favourable cir- cumstances, and in good condition. During the early part of summer, and until towards the latter end of July, the temperature was generally low ; and although there was no want of a sufficient quantity of rain, yet there was no excess to produce injury to the growing crops. During a great part of the month of March, and beginning of April, the weather was dry and favourable for jjreparing the land for green crop. The quantity of rain which fell during the winter months was so excessive, that the land was so completely saturated with wet that it required some continuance of dry weather to bring it into a proper state for work- ing : the dry weather alluded to had the desired effect, and the potato crop was got in under very favourable circumstances; they came well, and notwithstanding that their growth was somewhat retarded by tlie cold weather, yet tliey got to be a fair crop, of much larger size than last year, and of excellent quality. There was a large breadth planted, but the disease has pro- duced extensive destruction : many that appeared not to ail so much when first raised became much worse afterwards. In the west of the county they have suf.. fered considerably more than in the east, owing pro- bably to a greater quantity of rain falling, in conse- quence of its nearer proximity to the sea. Every thing connected with this valuable, but luicertain crop, tends to confirm the truth of the opinion expressed by the writer of this a few years ago, namely, that the disease would not turn out a temporary one, but that in a short time there might be great difficulty in getting a crop at all, especially should the summer turn out a wet one. If anything like so wet a season as 1830, or 1838, and 1839 should occur, the chance would be that the crop might be a complete failure. Turnips were got in with the laiul in good order, and consequently came well, except where the soil was rather stiff and tenacious, and that applied more particularly to swedes, as the weather was drier at the proper time for sowing them, than afterwards when the other sorts were put in. The latter end of the summer being favourable for their growth, the crop altogether may be pronounced a good one; and as there are fewer sheep tlian there otherwise would have been, owing to their being so high at Fal- kirk fair, the price of turnips ranges rather lower than in preceding years. Wheat turns out belter in quality than last year, and although the bulk of straw is not quite so large, it will on the whole yield better, and the gross quantity will be more than in last year. The present summer has been rather favourable for pre- paring the fallows, but the latter end of September and beginning of October being wet, hindered the get- ting in of the wheat ; but the operation was completed in tolerable order at last, and the wheat appears to braird well. There is still a large quantity to get in after green crop ; but the quantity sown this year will not be so large as the two preceding years. The price has lately been from 153. to 17s. the Carlisle bushel of three imperials. Oats were a fair crop, and pretty well as regards bulk, ;md also yield, and the quality too is good : the price is better than last year by about a shilling the Carlisle bushel. Hay was a very fair crop, and well got, and of good quidity ; so the winter keep for cattle is not only plentiful, but of good quality, as both grain and hay were secured in good condition. The summer pastures afforded a plentiful supply of grass, as there was a supply of rain at intervals suffi- cient to prevent anything like the appearance of drought. Cattle have been selling a little better lately ; but the profits realized by graziers will only be small, as the price of fat still continues at a low figure. Sheep have done better than cattle, bringing a com- paratively higher price; and wool sold well. The sea- son for curing bacon is commeiicing, and pork brings 4s. 9d. to 4s. lOd. a stone of 141bs. A severe frost set in on Sunday evening, with a cold biting north wind. 'Ihe frost still continues with uiiabated severity and at present all is covered with snow : its rigour is more like the middleof January than this early period of the season. It has not been equally severe so early for a great number of years. — Nov. 19th, 560 THE FARMER'S MAGAZLME. ETEOROLOGICAL DIARY. itiiono'J Si ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF NOVEMBER. Barometer. j Thermometer. High. I Low. j High. I Low. ] Mean, 30.27 29.080 62 | 23 | 42.9 REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD. Highest. I Lowest. j Mean. 47.36 I 37.3 I 42.33 Weather and Phenomena. October 22 — Close j hazy. 23 — Overcast; fine afternoon ; mottled clouds. 24 — No sun. 25 — Perfectly calm; overcast. 26 — Less gloomy; some sun till the evening fog. 27 — Some sun. 28 — Rapid fall of the mercury; weather became broken. 29 — Pretty fine. 30, 31 — Wind; fluctuation; fine, without sun ; changeable. Lunation. — New Moon, 24th day 3 h. 10 m. afternoon. First Quarter, 31st day 7 h. 18 m. after- noon. November 1 — Generally fine. 2 — Frosty air. 3 — Rime early; evening frosty. 4 — Early rain. 5 — Keen ; becoming changeable. 6 — Rain in the night; fine day. 7 — Changeable; chilly day. S — Smoky fog here. 9 — Dark and chilling. 10 — Fine, not bright; drizzle. 11 — Calm; sunny; evening misty. 12 — The same; frost approaches. 13— Fog early; clearer; broken clouds. 14 — Air becomes very fickle ; frosty. 15— Hoar frost, and some ice; sunny day, 16 — Keen; a little snow; changeable. 17 — Fine and frosty, 18, 19— Cold frosty nights ; thick ice ; sun warm ; wind W. by S. below; clouds move from N, 20 — A hint of snow ; fine calm day. Lunations. — Full moon, 8th day, 11 h. 21 m. night. Last quarter, l6th day, 9 h. 22 m, fore- noon, REMARKS REFERRING TO AGRICULTURE. Little rain since the 7th, and scarcely any .snow. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. m\ Frost kept oft', with little exception, till the 15th, when it commenced in earnest, the ground having remained firm l)y da)'. The land was brought into fine condition, and every advantage seems to have been taken. This early commencement of steady frost seems to indicate a long winter : it may not be so ; but the farmer and shepherd should be prepared, and keep on the alert. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. ANDOVER FAIR.— Tlie number of sheep aud lambs was supposed to exceed 60,G00. So large a fair baa not beeu known for the last twenty-eight years, aud the whole was not penned nntil ten o'clock. As a proof of the great demand at the present period for stock sheep, nearly ail were sold at prices equjl to Appleshaw fair, excepting lambs, which declined from Is. to 23. a heaJ. The up-country dealers who attended o'lr Devizes fair, Oct. 20, say it was the best to make purchases j this season. Another Account. — The number of sheep i and lambs penned was unusually large. So g'reat a show has i not been witnessed in this fair for the 'ast thirty years. The j numb; r was considered to be fully 10,000 beyoi;d the usual average. In consequence of this a;. ' -npply, prices were perhaps somewhat below those obtained at Appleshaw fair. Lambs were not in much demand, but very ])rime ewes rea- lized full prices, and the dealers purciiascd very readily. The trade was stated by many agriculturists to be quite .'•atisfactory to all ])artics. Although the prices obtuiued may be stated to be about Is. per head less than at Appleshaw fair, where the supply of sheep was much less than usual, the followii;g v.ere about the prices given : — Ewes, from 243. to 3Cs. ; wttiiers, 26s. to 3S3. ; lambs, 22s. to 33s. By the middle of the day the greater part were disposed of, and at the close of the fair few, if any, remained unsold. ASHBURTON FAIR.— There was a good supply of sheep, hut not equal to the November fair of last year — a large por- tion of them sold at good prices. The bulloek fair was not so numerous as iu former years ; fat bullocks sold at from 408. to -Ms. per cwt. ; cows and calves in good demand, at £10 to £13 ; fat sheep, i^d. to 4fd. per lb. ; store ewes, 223. to 25 s each. 13ARNSLEY FAT PIG I AIR.— The show of fat pigs was only small. The sales made were at from Ss. 9d. to 6s. per stone of 141bs. BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— Th.e supply of cattle aud sheep was rather thin. Buyers also were not numerous, but very willing to purchase, all beiuK quickly sold up. Prices obtained for both fat and lean stock were better than last week. Beef, 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. per stone ; mutton, 5d. to 6d. per lb. BRECON FAIR.— Although generally the largest through- out the year, was not so well attended this year as usual. The cattle and sheep shown were few, but they met with a ready sale, at a marked improvement in price. Pigs went very cheap. Butter brou^-ht Ss. 6d, per stone, and cheese 30s. per cwt. BRIGEND FAIR.— The stock of cattle, sheep, aud pigs, was not so great as we have witnessed, although the day was very fine. Buyers were few. Cattle sold at 4d., sheep at 5d. to .'J^d. per lb. Very few of the pigs changed bauds, aud at rather low prices. CHIPPENHAM MONTHLY MARKET.— We had 300 tons of cheese pitched, an unexampled quantity for this time of the year ; the yard was so full that parties who were rather late to the market were obliged to pitch their cheese in the street, where it reached half way up the town ; prices as follows; — Broad doubles, 36s. to 463. per cwt. ; prime cheddar, 40s. to COs ; thin, 30s. to 37s. ; loaves, 40s. to SOs. ; skim, 203. Beef, 83. to 8s. 6d. per score ; mutton, 5d. to 5~d. per lb. ; veal, Sjd. ; pork, 7s. 6d. per score. CREWE FAIR. — The shov/ of cattle was much larger than on any former occasion, and there was a grcal deal of business done, with but little improvement in prices. Ol pigs aud sheen there was scarcely the average quautiiy. Tiie cheese fair came off on Tuesday, and was decidedly the largest held during llic year. Sales were so quickly managed that it is impossible to state the quantity pitched ; every dairy was sold, with one or two exceptions, and all cleared away soon after eleven o'clock. Tolerable dairies fetched 57s. ; average price 483. DONCASTEK FAIR.— We were well supplied with stock, although, perhaps, not so largely as we have seen, yet fully equal to the general average. Good steers and heifers sold m ^re freely, aud were generally disposed of at rather higher rates. In-calvers near upon calving, and cows and calves, were in demand, cousequeutly higher prices were obtained. Fat was iu limile 1 supply, and prices ranged from Ss. to 5s. 9d. per stone. We had a large show of sheep, especially of lamb^-, and those of a really good sort were better of sale. The horse fair exhibited but a very iudiffereut show, and these in a clasB of animals reiuiriag uo comment. DUNSE FAIR.— The number of cattle was about 700, consistiug chiefly of lean beasts, with a sprinkling of fat. The market was dull for lean beasts, on account of high prices being aslied in the morning. As far as we can learn, lean cattle was sold as follows : — High year olds, from £3 lOs. to £6 lOs., accordiug to condition ; two-year-olds, from £6 to £10 10s.; fat, from 5s. to Ss. 6d. per stotie ; ons lot of kyloes supposed to be as high as 6s. In the sheep market there were 28 scores, coiisisting chiefly of fat sheep. Prices for wether mutton, 6d.; ewe do., 5,§d. per lb. There was a considerable number of milch cows exposed for sale, but most of them were of an inferior description. New calved cows from £8 to £10 ; other cows sold at from £1 to £6. The horses consisted principally of inferior animals. GATEHOUSE AND CASTLE- DOUGLAS H0RS3 FAIRS, Nov. 15 and 17.— At Gatehouse there were fully the usual number of dealers, and a larger show of good horses than we have recently seen iu that town ; but probably owing to the alleged high prices asked, the amount of business done was very limited. At Castle-Douglas there was a very consi- derable assemblage ot country people, including breeders, graziers, and farmers. There were fully the usual number of dealers, and a larger show of really good horses than we have commonly seen at a Martinmas fair. There was a brisk de- mand for young and suitable draught and gig horses, and a great amount of business done at tolerably satisfactory prices. From £20 to £30, £35, and £40 were very commonly given, and in some exceptional instances still higlier figures ; and the eager competition among the dealers made the fair a lively one. There were a number of inferior aud aged animals offered for sale ; and though many exchanged owners, the prices were nominal. We believe that this was the quickest selling fair that has beeu witnessed iu the Stewartry lor a number of yeers bypast, KENDAL FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— There was a fair average quantity of cattle, the sale for which was only sluggish, at about late rates. Cows were selling at from £10 to £12. Heifers, of which the supply chiefly consisted, and some^ of which were iu very good condition, brought from £10 to £11 10s. ; for the lest smaller ones from £7 to £9. Calves from 253. to £2. A few milk cows were selling at from £12 to £15. Sheep were numerous, and commanded the chief atten- tion of dealers. Leicesters were selling at from 33s. to SSs., cross breeds from 26s. to 273., black-f:xed fell sheep from IBs. to 243.; sheep out of condition, cross breeds v>ere selling at from 153. to 18s , black-faced fell sheep from 13s. to 14s. 6d. A large portion of sheep met with a ready sale, and were im- mediately despatched by rail to the south. Average price per lb. : — Beef, 4|d. ; mutton, 5d. ; veal, 4^d. KNIGHTON FAIR.— There v.as an average supply of .-attle and sheep. The demand for the former was rather limited, but the sheep market was very brisk all the momio^. 562 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. prices looking up, and scarcely any remaining unsold. There was a large number of stove pigs, which sold at a low figure, and the best porkers did not realize more than 4d. per lb. Salt butter, of which there was an unusually large quantity, sold at from Ss. to 8s. 6d. LAUNCESTON FAIR was well supplied with cattle, which met a brisk sale. There was a larger number of cattle than was ever know n at this fair. LEEDS FORTNIGHT FAIR.— There was a good show of horned cattle, which were generally of good quality. Buyers were numerous, but business was a little languid at first, yet as the day advanced all were nearly sold. The top price was 63. 4d., whilst many good thinjfs were sold at 6s., and inferior 5s. 8d. per stone of 16 lbs. Number of beasts 600. Slieep 4,200. A slow market, but all eventually changed hands ; prices 5d. to Srrd. per lb. LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— The show was only limited, and buyers were exceedingly scarce, there being few in attendance, except our own butchers. The consequence was, that holders were not disposed to accept the prices offered, the sale throughout progressed very languidly, and some lots, par- ticularly sheep, remained unsold at the close of the market. What stock changed hands realized the following prices : Beef, 5s. to 5^. 3d., and in one or two instances (being very superior), 5s. 6d. per st. Mutton, 5d. per lb. NEWPORT FAIR was not so fully supplied as on previous occasions. Business was brisk at improved rates, many pur- chases being made at fully an advance of from 203. to 25s. per head. Herefords and Devous were eagerly sought after and found ready sales. The show of horses was quite of a se- condary character, very few really good hackneys being exhibited. NEWTON-STEWART HORSE FAIR.— The show of horses was the bist, both as regards numbers and quality, we have seen at this fair for many years. There was no want of dealers to purchase. The business done in the early part of the day was but trifliug ; sellers were evidently standing out for prices, which the jockeys were determined not to g^ive. As the day wore on, the farmers werj obliged to yield to a reduc- tion from the high prices they expected ; and m the course of a couple nf h"urs a very largo amount of business was trans- acted, and fair prices obtained. Forty guineas was the highest sum we heard named, and several brought from £30 to £35. Good heavy draught horses, we believe, rated fully as high as they have done for some time. Messrs. Hill, Dunlop, Arthur, Given, and several other dealers, have all sent off a goodly number of horses, which will do no discredit to the breeders in Galloway. OAKHAM FAIR was well supplied with both beasts and sheep ; the beasts were nearly all sold, but the sheep were a slow sale, and many pens were turned out without exchanging hands. TRURO FAIR.— There was a very full supply of both cattle and sheep, but sales were heavy, though much business was done. Beef fetched from 403. to 45s. per cwt.; and fat sheep, 45d. per lb. ; lean sheep sold at from 22s. to 28s. per head. There was very little done in lean cattle. WARSOP FAIR. — The number of cattle about an average, and a considerable amount of business was done, especially in young barren stock in good condition. Fewer sheep than usual ; store ewes high, not many sold. Good hogs up in price ; a few lots exchanged hands. A poor show of horses, and very little selling ; a few prime cart colts were sold at prices varying from £15 to £20. A moderate business done in pigs, at rather better terms ; this fair being rather noted for showing a good breed of pigs. There was a large attend- ance of highly respectable and first-rate farmers, but the un- usual, early, and severe frost was a serious check to speculative transactions. WELLINGTON FAIR.— There was an average show of stock, and an upward tendency in prices. Reef realized from 4^d. to 5id., and mutton from 5d. to 6d, Good barrens were eagerly sought after at advance in prices, YEOVIL FAIR was very fully attended with farmers and dealers, besides an unusual quantity of itinerant dealers in the smaller articles. The number of sheep was nearly 5,000, the demand for which was very great.^and they very soon all ciianged hands. Down stock wethers fetched from 283. to 35s. ; horned ditto, 28s. to o3s. per head; a few horned couples brought 42s.; fat mutton also sold brisk, and at higher prices. There were about 400 beasts offered, and those of good quality found pur- chasers at remunerating prices ; whilst the inferior sorts were dull cf sale. Fat beasts realized from Ss. 6d. to Vs. 6d., and in a few instances 8s. per score. Good barreners were in re- quest, and higher prices were demauded and obtained. The supply of pigs was large, there being upwards of 300 penned, and most of them were sold. The horse fair was a miserable afi'air, as there was scarcely a good animal offered, with the exception of a few cart colts, and therefore but very few of them were sold. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF NOVEMBER. The weather has, on the whole, been of a favour- able character during the month now about to ter- minate ; and the sowing of wheat, which was com- menced under auspicious circumstances, has been finished in a highly satisfactory manner. The high range of temperature experienced the greater part of October caused the seed to vegetate rapidly; and at one time there was some reason to fear that the young plant might become prematurely luxuriant. Occasional sharp frosts have, however, allayed the uneasiness which was felt on that subject; and the prospects for the future thus far are decidedly pro- mising. The very low range of prices has tended to check supplies of wheat, farmers having kept their hands employed in out-door work in preference to thrashing ; there are consequently no arrears of farm labour to be completed, and favoured by fine weather everything has been well done. The increasingly unfavourable repoi ts from the north of Europe respecting the yield of the rye and potato crops, the relatively high value of grain in the Baltic, &c., and last, though not least, the fall- ing off in the importations of bread-stuffs into Great Britain, have naturally had the effect of im- parting a firmer tone to the corn trade here, and matters have taken a turn similar to what we ex- pected, bearing out the opinions expressed last month, to the eflfect that the value of wheat would probably creep up. The rise has been greater in the agricultural markets than at the large consuming towns : but the tendency has been that way generally in all parts of the kingdom. Good runs of red wheat THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. have lately been selling at the shipping ports on the east coast at 35s. to 36s., and even 37s. per qr., show- ing an improvement on the rates current at the close of October of 2s. per qr. Latterly, however, prices have become nearly stationary ; and, as we have now arrived at a j)eriod of the year when merchants and millers are usually unwilling to make any addi- tions of consequence to their stocks, whilst farmers (having Christmas-rents and other outlays to pro- vide for) generally supply the markets freely, it maybe questioned whether any further enhancement will occur until after the turn of the year. How matters may rule subsequently it is yet difficult to foresee ; this will in a great measure depend on the tone of the advices from the north of Europe, and the extent of the autumn shipments from the Black Sea and America. If it should be proved that the loss of food in the interior of Germany, &c., owing to defective crops of rye and potatoes, turns»out so great as many now suppose, the extra consumption o" wheat in those quarters would certainly leave a leis quantity for shipment from the Baltic to Ergland, and our markets Mould in that case not be ?o overdone next year with foreign supplies as the) have been ever since the repeal of the corn laws' but we must at once state that we have consi- deratie doubts on this point, and we are afraid to encou-age our farmers to expect much higher prices for wleat than those now current. The crop though not sosatisfactory as in Great Britain, has, with few exceptsns, given a good return in most of the large corn-gmving countries in Europe; and in the Unit>"d Hates of America the produce has all along been dearibed as abundant in quantity and of good quality. Under these circumstances we much question I'hether a partial failure of rye in some unimportnt states in Germany, and a more exten- sive loss d potatoes in the north of Europe, will suffice to rise the value of bread-stuffs all over the world. If't does not do this, quotations cannot advance muh in England; for unless other markets offer highei rates than ours, whatever surplus is produced Oer the quantity needed for con- sumption \i\ certainly find its way to our shores. We have fom the commencement of the free- trade experimnt maintained that the effect would be a permaner reduction of the value of agricul- tural produce n this country to the continental level, and the eperience which the working of the new system ha afforded has confirmed our con- viction. Prices nay perhaps creep up during the next month or tV), so as to bring the general ave- rage for the kingom up to 40s. per qr., but at that point we should pjbably obtain supplies on a suffi- ciently extensive cale to prevent a further rise, provided nothing hould occur in the interval to cause an unfavourable opinion to be entertained in regard to the crops on the ground. The belief that the yield of barley was rather short of an average was pretty general immediately after harvest, and this impression has since been strengthened. This grain has thus far reahzed relatively higher prices than wheat. A steady rise in the value of barley in Septembsr and October failed to draw large supplies, but this month the deliveries from the growers have increased suffi- ciently to check the upward tendency, and within the last week or two a reaction to the extent of Is. and 2s. per qr. had taken place in most of the mar- kets in those districts where this grain is most ex- tensively grown. We are nevertheless of opinion that the depression will not be permanent, inas- much as we shall be in a great measure dependent on our own producers for fine qualities of barley suitable for malting, it being difficult to obtain such from abroad ; indeed, it may be questioned whether the north of Europe, which alone fur- nishes a quality which our maltsters could use, will have much to spare for export. Oats are also, we think, likely to maintain their present value until next spring, and with anything like severe weather a rise of a few shillings per qr. would very probably take place. The only quarter from which we can calculate on obtaining supplies of any importance, during the next two or three months, is from Ireland ; and according to the reports from thence it appears exceedingly doubt- ful whether large shipments will be made from the sister isle, if consigners do not receive better re- turns than they have hitherto obtained for what they have sent to the English markets. It seems, therefore, that during the winter and the early part of the spring of next year, prices at least equal to those now current may be pretty safely calculated on for the principal kinds of grain. We do not pretend to foresee what may subse- quently take place, but allowing for occasional fluc- tuations of Is. to 2s. per qr. up or down, as supply or demand preponderates, the view we have laid before our readers will, we are inclined to think, prove tolerably correct. Very little has for sometime pastbeen said respect- ing potatoes, and in the absence of complaints we are disposed to hope that this valuable root is keeping in the pits better than was expected would have been the case. Thus far there has certainly been no scarcity of potatoes of good quality, nor have prices been particularly high, either in this country or in Ireland. The extent of the disease to which this crop has been liable since 1846 has in subsequent seasons been so frequently exag- gerated, that reports which would at one time have been received with alarm, have almost ceased to 564 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, produce any iofluence ; and we are disposed to be- lieve that the accounts which have been circulated from time to time since July on this subject have had very little effect on the prices of grain, one way or the other. In comparing the importations of grain, &c., from abroad into the United Kingdom, during the month ending 5th Nov., witli those of the preceding month, a very great falling off is shown, the figures stand thus : — Nov. 5. Oct. 5. Decrease. Wheat, qrs. 141,926 300,380 158,334 Barley, qrs. 23,428 59,799 36,3/1 Oats, qrs... 51,102 106,676 55,574 Rye, qrs. .. — 1,521 1,521 Beans, qrs. 23,921 28,894 4,973 Teas, qrs... 2,820 4,117 1,291 Maize, qrs. 133,594 193,211 59,6 17 Flour, cwts. 256,307 624,4/6 36S,l69 This decrease must, however, be partly accounted for by the advanced state of the season, shipments from the north of Europe usually falling off as winter approaches. From that quarter little more can now be expected until next spring; but from the Black Sea ports we shall probably have rather considerable arrivals of wheat and Indian corn on the first shift of wind. We may also calculate on arrivals of flour, on a moderate scale, from time to time, from France ; and .the receipts of that article from the other side of the Atlantic will probably be on a rather liberal scale for another month or two, viz., till the fall shipments shall have come to band. Having offered the best opinion in our power respecting the probable future, we shall proceed to give a detailed reportof the proceedings which have taken place at Mark Lane since we last addressed our readers. The fluctuations in prices have not been very im- portant on any article ; but it will be seen that some improvement has occurred, and that the general tone of the trade has been characterized by firm- ness. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of London have been moderate, and as compared with the receipts in October a material decrease is shown. The weekly supply has averaged only about 2,500 qrs., having received comparatively little from Lin- colnsliire and that neighbourhood, the nortliern markets having held out more inducement to ship- pers than the south. The smallness of the quantity exhibited at Mark Lane, and the fyct that many of the millers had allowed their stocks to run rather low, caused a firmer tone to be assumed by sellers in the early part of the month. The rise in prices has, however, scarcely been so great in the metropolitan market as in the agricultural districts. An advance of about Is. per qr. took place the first fortnight in November without being quoted, and on tbfi l7th a further improvement was established. Since then business has not been by any means brisk, but needy buyers have had to pay full terms, say for good runs of Essex and Kent red 38s. to 39s., and for fine white 44s. to 45s. per quarter. These rates, it will be found, are about 2s. per quarter higher than those current when we last addressed our readers, but the rise has been so gradual as scarcely to be remarked. The changes which have taken place in the wea- ther from time to time have naturally had more or less effect on the condition of the wheat of this year's growth ; but, making allowance for this, the samples have come to hand in excellent order, 63lb8. per bushel being considered a moderate weight, and 64lbs. to 65lbs. being by no means rare. The arrivals of wheat from abroad have amounted to only aljout 35,000 quarters, from i\e close of October up to last Saturday, and of tVm quantity a considerable proportion has consistec of inferior qualities from Egypt, &c., unfit for millers' use. There has, consequently, been no pressuie on the market, and the value of the finer kinds rf old Baltic wheat has rather crept up. Owing how- ever, to the dry condition in which th; new EngUsh has in general come to hand, a mich less quantity of old has been needed than is usn:lly the case at this period of the year, and the tranactions in foreign have consequently been on a retil scale. We are, nevertheless, disposed to think fiat more has been taken from granary than Jas been imported this month ; and, it being tolera)ly certain that no supplies can now reach us fronthe Baltic till the spring, holders have become indifferent about selling, except at full prices Rostock, which has been more in request tha any other sort, has brought 45s. to 46s., and, we believe, in one instance 47s. per qr., being 8. to 10s. per qr. more than new English wheat of the same weight might have been bought a) It may be readily conceived that the millers ar not disposed to take more, under such circumstates, thanabpo- lutely necessary, and it is only the teal want of old, of home growtli, which has enaled holders of fereign to obtain the prices naied. Egyptian wheat has been in request for istillation, and cargoes on passa;T;e have been ready talcen at 249. to 24s. 6d. per quarter, cost, freigl, and insurance. The arrivals of PoUsh Odessa, ad other descrip- tions of wheat from ports lying ;ast of Gibraltar, have been very small during the month; and having had occasional inquirieffrom Holland and Germany fur floating cargoes,prices have rather tended upwards, though the aiual operations have been comparatively few. 'i'heatest sales of Polish THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 565 Odessa of which we have heard occurred about a ' week ago, two or three cargoes being then taken for the continent at 33s. per quarter, including the freight and insurance to the port of destination. The top quotation of town-made flour lias not varied for some months, and, though the millers have lately had to pay 28. to 3s. per quarter more for their wheat, the manufactured ar- ticle has been offered throughout the month at former terms. Country flour has, however, rather risen, and fresh Norfolk households and similar sorts are certainly Is. per sack dearer at present than they were at the close of October. The arrivals of flour from abroad have amounted to about 0,500 sacks, principally from France, and 10,000 barrels from America; the stocks on the wharves having however been previously reduced into a very narrow compass, tlie fresh arrivals have sold readily at rather enhanced rates. Besides a good local demand for the finer kinds of American flour, considerable parcels have been ijurcluis^ed for shipment to the Cape of Good Hope, for the supply of the army, and the quantity remaining unsold is comparatively trifling. English barley has come rather freely to liand ; only a comparatively small proportion has, however, consisted of really fine malting qualities, and the best sorts have consequently commanded very full prices. Secondary lualtin;^ barley has, however, within the last fortnight leceded Is. to 2s. par qr., and its value has still a downward tendency ; but it is not improbable that this decline may check supplies, in which case we should probably have a small rally. The supplies of grinding bailey have scarcely kept pace with the demand, and the season having now ai'rived v/hen the supplies from the northern continental jjorts may be expected to cease, whilst the consumption of the article usually increases about this period, a further small improve- ment is not improbable. Good heavy Danish bar- ley cannot at present be bought below 25s. to 2Gs., and for Egyptian IQs. to 20s. per qr. has been re- aUzed, showing an advance of Is. to 2s. per qr. on the terms current about a month ago. Malt was in fair request so long as the value of malting barley v.'as on the rise, but witliin the last fortnight the demand has rather slackened ; sellers have, nevertheless, remained firm, and previous prices have been firmly maintained. The market liaa been very sparingly supplied with English and Scotch oats, and though about 35,000 qrs. were received from Ireland the first three weeks in November, and 25,000 qrs. from foreign ports, the total quantity which has com.e to hand has hardly sufficed to meet the regular consumptive demand. Some slight concession was m partial instaucea made in the early part of the month to effect sales of new Iriuh from on board iibip ; but the small decline then submitted to has since been recovered, and old oats, whether of home or foreign growth, have meanwhile crept up 6d. to Is. per qr, The (quantity of Russian oats remaining in ware- house is now reduced into a narrow compass, and it is consequently by no means improbable that Rigas and Archangels may command higher terms during the winter ; at present they may be quoted 18s. to 19s. per qr. The new Irish oats hitherto brought forward have been of good, but not particularly fine, quality ; light feed have sold at 16s. to ISs., and fine heavy potato have brought 20s. to 21s., and in some cases even higher prices. English beans have not come to hand so freely as earlier in the season; and the enquiry having improved, sellers have been enabled to obtain en- hanced terms. The total improvement in the value of this article since v/e last addressed our readers has been fully 3s. per qr., and foreign have risen almost to the same extent as English. Quotations of white boiling peas have fluctuated materially. Fine samples were not much over 32s. to 33s. at the close of October, whilst on the 24th inst. 35s. was asked for good, and 38s. for su- perior breakers. These prices will probably draw larger supplies than we have had of late, and we are therefore disposed to expect a reaction. Grey and maple peas have been influenced by the rise which prices of white have undergone, l)ut not to the same extent. The Irish demand for floating cargoes of Indian corn has not at any period of the month been par- ticularly active. Parties having offers of cargoes on passage have nevertheless insisted on full terms, and Galatz has not been sold below 26s. to 26s. 3d. At present 26s. 6d. per qr., cost, freight, and in- surance, is firmly asked. Whether potatoes will hold out sufficiently well in Ireland to render her comparatively independent of supplies of Indian corn, we have no means of knowing ; but the pievailing belief is that such will not be the case, and that the article will com- mand higher prices in the spring of next year. The advices from the north of Europe continue of an interesting character, and the accounts from thence are at present u'cU worthy of attention, inas- much as the tone of the grain trade there ajipears thus far to be wholly uninfluenced by the reports from hence. That the deficiency in the yield of rye and pota- toes must be serious, is tolerably evident from the effect which has been caused thereby on prices of wheat in all the leading Baltic markets, 'i'hat spe- culation has assisted to drive up prices, we do not question ; but a real cause must, nevertheless, exist. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or the~exciteinent could hardly have been thus long kept alive. The dearth appears to be principally in the in- terior of Germany, and not in the countries bounded by the Baltic ; but though the grain crops have generally given a satisfactory return in the neigh- bourhood of Danzig, in Pomerania, Mecklenburg, and even in Silesia and the Uckermark, a constant and increasing demand from the inland parts of the country had caused prices to rise at all the large shipping ports, notwithstanding the absence of any- thing like an active export demand. The most recently received letters from Danzig inform us that the supplies of wheat from Poland had up to that time been very small; and the wea- ther having become wintry, an early closing of the inland navigation was expected. This has naturally influenced prices ; and common qualities of wheat, not in fit condition for shipping, had brought equal to 37s. 6d. per qr. for home consumption. Rye, after a temporary lull in the demand, had again become in great request, and sales had been made at the extraordinarily high price of 37s. 6d. per qr. There were scarcely any stocks of the latter article in warehouse, the purchases made from time to time by distant buyers having nearly cleared the market. So little was l)eing shipped to Great Britain, that much difficulty had been experienced by the captains of the few English ships there to obtain cargoes, and freights were very low, charters having been closed for London at 2s. to 2s, 2d. per qr. The accounts from Konigsberg are of much the same character ; indeed, prices were higher at the last named place than at Danzig, quality taken into consideration. At Stettin a very active business appears to have been done, many buyers having visited that market from Saxony, Thuringen, and Bavaria. Rye and barley had, however, commanded more attention, and relatively higher rates than wheat, though some quantity of the latter had also been taken with a view of mixing with rye. The aggregate amount of corn bought for the interior had been so great as materially to reduce the stocks, and holders were therefore, in general, very confident as to prices being maintained; in proof of which, we may notice that higher rates were being asked for wheat deliverable in spring than for immediate shipment. Rye was quite as dear there as the in- ferior qualities of wheat, and this circumstance would, it was presumed, cause a larger consumption of the latter than in ordinary seasons. The excitement has not been nearly so great at Rostock as at Stettin, and quotations are lower in Pomerania than in Silesia. The latest advices from Rostock state that fair quahties of new wheat, weighing 61 to Gl^lbs. per bushel, had been selling at equal to 35s. 6d. to 36s. per qr. free on board; but the supplies from the growers had been only moderate, and any increase in the demand would therefore, in all probability, cause an advance to take place. The quality of this year's growth of wheat is stated to be decidedly inferior to the pro- duce of 1S50, but the yield is not generally com- plained of. Barley had come rather sparingly to hand, and 51 to 52lbs. quality had realized 21s. 6d. to 22s. per qr. The few peas brought forward had found ready takers at 25s. per qr. free on board. At all the near continental ports prices of wheat are higher than in the English markets. From Ham- burg we hear that equal to 39s. 6d. had been paid for red Marks wheat, weighing only 60ilbs. per bushel, and 41s. 6d. for Wahren of 6l^lbs. weight, whilst sellers had declined entering into contracts to deliver the latter in spring below 42s. to 43s. per qr. free on board. Hardly any supplies of barley had come forward, and Danish had brought 21s. 3d. for immediate, at 22s. 9d. up to 23s. 3d. per qr. for spring shipment. In the Dutch markets prices of most kinds of grain are also at present higher than with us ; and beyond a few parcels of oats from Groningen, little or nothing was being shipped for Great Britain. The advices from France are generally of a firm character ; but though the advices from hence have certainly not held out much encouragement to con- sign, still flour has from time to time been shipped from the northern French ports, and we are in- clined to think that a very small margin for profit will suffice to induce consignments, many mills having been set to work in that country since the repeal of our corn laws, with the express inten- tion of manufacturing for the English markets. The accounts from the Mediterranean continue uninteresting, prices being very high at the princi- pal ports. Scarcely anything appears to have been done for export, and the most recent accounts in- form us that Polish Odessa wheat ranged in value at Marseilles from 26s. 3d. to 29s. per qr., whilst at Leghorn as much as 33s. per qr. had been paid for fine qualities of new Marianopoli. In the American markets prices do not appear to have fluctuated materially, the supplies from the interior having been on a sufficiently liberal scale to satisfy the export demand, without raising quotations. Good shipping brands of Western Canal flour had been taken steadily at 3f to 3|- dols. or about l6s. 6d. per barrel. The demand for ship room had increased, and freight had slightly advanced, as much as Is. 9d. having been paid for London, and lOd. to Is, per barrel for Liverpool. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 567 CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillini^s ptT (Quarter Whtat, Essex and Kent, white 37 to 41 fineup to 46 Ditto ditto old ..30 41 „ 46 Ditto ditto red, new 36 38 „ 39 Ditto ditto old 36 39 „ 40 Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 35 37 „ 38 Ditto ditto old, noue „ — Ditto ditto white new 37 39 Ditto ditto old, none ,, Barley, maltinjf, new 27 Chevalier 31 Distilling 24 Grinding 23 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 52 54 extra Ditto ditto old 45 KiugstonjWare, and town made,new 52 Ditto ditto old 48 Oats, English feed 17 Ditto Potato 19 Scotch feed , 20 Ditto Potato 23 Irish feed, white ; 17 Ditto, black 16 Rye 26 Beans, Mazagan 26 Ticks 27 Harrow 29 Pigeon 29 Peas, white boilers 32 Maple 30 Grey 28 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — Country marks — FOREIGN GRAIN. Sbillings per Quarter Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. . 37 to40 high mixed 41 43 extra 47 Konigsberg 35 39 „ 40 42 „ 43 Rostock, new 42 43 fine old 43 44 „ 46 Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckerrak.,red 38 39 extra 40 42 BUesian „ 35 37white37 Danish and Holstein „ 33 35 „ 35 Rhine and Belgium „ 35 39 old 37 Frencn „ 34 37 white 35 Odessa, St. Petersburg, and Riga. . 29 31 fine 32 Barley, grinding 22 Distilling 23 Malting none — — Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 21 24 Feed 18 19 Danish and Swedish feed 17 19 Strilsuud 18 20 Russian 17 18 French , 16 18 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 24 26 Konigsberg 28 31 Peas, feeding 25 26 fine boilers 27 29 Indian Corn, white 27 28 yellow 27 29 Flour, French, per sack . . , 2S 31 fine 31 34 American, sour per batrel 19 20 sweet 21 22 48 ,, 54 ,, 53 jj 18 fine 22 extra 23 fine 26 fine 19 fine 17 fine 28 old 26 28 „ 25 29 ., 28 31 „ 30 33 „ 31 34 „ 30 31 „ 29 30 „ 28 — ,. 32 ~ „ 28 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Averages from the corr espond- Gazette. Av. ing Gazette in 1850 Av. Qrs. s. d. Qrs. 8. d. Wheat . .104,316 . . 36 9 Wheat .. 95,088 .. 39 11 Barley . . 10,188 . . 27 0 Barley .. 92,257 .. 24 1 Oats ... . 23,273 . . 18 3 Oats 24,251 .. 17 3 Rye ... 85 . . 23 2 Rye .... 28 . . 29 6 Beans . , . . 5,129 . . 29 8 Beans .... 4,856 . . 28 9 Peas . . . . 2,799 . . 28 7 Peas .... 2,159 .. 29 4 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six ■WEEKS ENDING NOVEMBER 22, 1851. Priob. Oct. 18. Oct. 25. Nov.l. Nov. 8. Nov. 15 Kov. 22. 36s. 9d, :: ^ 'P — ::-J 36s. 4d. 369. Id. 866. Od. ;:L ;; IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Wkkks. Wlieat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans Peaa. Week Ending: s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d.lg. d. 8. d. Oct. 18, 1851.. 36 0 24 9 17 0 23 6 27 6 27 2 Oct. 25, 1851.. 36 9 25 5 17 5 23 828 6 27 7 Nov. 1,1851.. 36 6 25 7 17 5 24 10 28 6 27 5 Nov. 8.1851.. 36 1 26 1 17 6 25 1128 10 28 2 Nov. 15, 1851.. 36 4 26 7 18 1 26 0,28 8 28 3 Nov. 22. 1851.. 36 9 27 0 18 3 23 2,29 8 28 7 Aggregate average 1 of last six weeks 36 5 25 11 17 7 24 4.28 7 27 10 Comparative avge. same time last year 40 0 24 2 17 0 25 ir29 0 29 7 Duties 1 0 1 0 1 0 10 10 1 0 SEED MARKET. Friday, Nov. 28. Our market to-day is well supplied with most seeds. Clover is in moderate request, at full prices. Linseed and rapeseed, as well as cakes, move off steadily, at fully last week's quotations. In other articles very little doing. Duty was paid on the following quantities of foreign Cloverseed, up to the 22nd inst. : — 1851. 1850. London 89,609 56,821 Liverpool 8,189 8,233 Hull .., 40,139 25,796 BRITISH SEEDS. Linseed (per qr.;. . sowing 60s. to 658. ; crushing 483. to 528. Linseed Cakes (per 1,000 of 3 lbs. each). . £8 lOs. to £10 Os. Cow Grass (nominal) £ — to £ — Trefoil (per cwt.) I63. to 21s. Rapeseed, (per last) new £21 to £23 old £— to £— Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 Os. to £4 10s. Mustard (per bushel) white 63. to 7s. ; . . brown, 7s. to 8s. Coriander (per cwt.) new 10s. to lis., old 9s. to lOs. Canary (per qr.) new 37s. to 403.; old 38s. to 423. Tares, Winter, per bush., 3s. 6d. to4s. Od.; Spring, nominal. Carraway (per cwt.) new, 31s. to 333. ; fine 348. Turnip, white (per bush.) 6s. to 10s.; do. Swedish, — s.to — b. Cloverseed red 30s. to 353., fine 38s. to 408. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Clover, red (duty 53. per cwt.) per cwt. 35s. to 428,, super. 458. Ditto, wliite (duty 5s. per cwi;.) per cwt 35s. to 45s. Linseed (per qr.) . . Baltic 44s. to 473.; Odessa, 463, to 50s. Lmseed Cake (per ton) £6 Os. to £8 Ss. Rape Cake (per ton) £4 2s. to £4 43. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 32s. to 34 s., Do. Dutch, 343. to 378. Tares, (per qr.) small 22s. to 25s., large 28s. to 30s. BOROUGH HOP MARKET. Friday, Nov. 28. Our market is very firm for all new Hops — the show of which is tolerably good — and, in some instances, prices are a shade higher than last week. Yearlings steady, but old Hops are very dull. New Sussex Pockets 1128. New Kent 128s. Golding Mid and East Kent 180s. Yearlings 95s. Old olds . to 130s. to 160s. to 240s. to 110s. 30s. to 80s. POTATOES. Borough and Spitalfields, Friday, Nov. 28. Notwithstanding that our markets are seasonably well supplied with all kinds of Potatoes, the general demand is steady, at very full prices. This week's imports are only 7 baskets from Rotterdam, 25 bags from Dordt, and 33 bags from Amsterdam. York Regents 70s. to 80s. per ton. Scotch do 50s. to 708. Kent and Essex 65s. to 75s. Do. Shaws 55s. to 65s. Lincoln and Cambridge whites. . 50s. to 65s. 50S THE FARMER'S MAGAZlNi:. PROVISION MARKET. Friday, Nov. 28. Very little is doing in Irish Butter, at farther reduced rates. Carlow, C'lonmel, and Kilkenny, 82s. to 84s. ; Waterforfl, 73:5 to 78s. ; Cork, 80.-!. to 82s. ; Limerick, 73s. to 76s. ; Tralee, 72s. ; and Sligo, 74s. to 80s. per cwt. Dutch Butter is still falling — the top price being 96s. per cwt. English qualities move off slowly. Fine weekly Dorset, 98s. to 102s. ; middling, 70s. to 84s. ; Devon, 80s. to 90s. per cwt. ; fresh, lOs. to 12s. per dozen lbs. Bacon — the supply of which is large — is heavy, at 4s, less money. VVaterford, sizeable, 44fi. to 46s. ; heavy, 42s. : Limerick, sizeable, 44s. ; heavy, 40s. ; llambro' sizeable, 44s. ; heavy, 40s. Lard steady, at late rates. Fine Irish Bladdered, 56s. to 59s.; middling do., 50s. to 55s. ; fine kegs, 50s. to 53s. ; mid;, 46s. to 50s. ; Hambro' bladdered, 54s. to 588. ; kegs, 48s. to 50s. per cwt. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 77s. to 84s. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks> 9d. to Q^d. per lb. Bacon, 45s. to 479 ; Hams, prime, 60s. to 623. per cwt.; second quality, 543. to 563.; Mess Pork, 6O3. per brl.; refined American Ijarc!, in bladders, 543. ; kegs aiid firkins, 503. ; Irish Lard, in bladders, 333. to 56s.; kegs or firkins, 52s per cwt. Bacon, [Dried H.ims, Mess i ork per cwt. '. pei' cwt. | ptr •' rl. Nov 30. 1847 1848 1849 1R50 1851 Butter, per cwt. ] 3. d. 9. d. j 87 0 90 0 77 0 7!) 0 fiS 0 73 0 ; 56 0 09 01 75 0 82 ffl 77 0 58 0 60 0 70 .1 90 0| 80 0 44 0 50 0| fiO 0 84 Ol 65 0 0 02 0| 5S ': 0 62 01 68 0 74 0 80 0 34 0 44 0 77 0 84 0 1 45 C 47 0 80 0 82 0 67 6 58 U Cii (■ TALLOW MARKET. Friday, Nov. 28. Although a full average business has been transacted in our market, this week, and nearly the whole of the season's supply of Tallow from Russia has arrived, no advance can be noticed in prices. To-day, new P.Y.C. , on the spot is selling at 37s. to 37s. 3d., and old 368. 6d. to 363. 9d. per cwt. Town Tallow remains at 36s. 6d. to 37s. per cwt. net cash, and rough fat at 2s, Id. per 81bs. The imports amount to 21 casks from Sydney, 756 do. from Constadt, and 1,384 do from St. Petersbnrgh. OILS. Linseed, 28s. per cwt. ; RapeseeJ, English refined, 31s. 6d. ; do. foreign, 33s. to 333. fid.; brown, 31s.; GallipoU, per tun, 41^.; Spanish, 38/. to .39/.; sperm, Sll. 10s. fo 85/.; do. bagged, 84/. ; Smith Sea, 31/. lOs. to 33/. ; Seal, pale, 32/. lOs ; do., coloured, 32/. ; Cod 38/.; Cocoa Ntrt, per toll, 38/. to 40/.; Palm, 29/. 6s. CHICORY, Per Ton:— Foreisn root(d.p.)£ s. £ s. English root (free) ;£ s. £ s. Guernsey .. 21 0 39 0 I York .. .. 17 0 17 10 Harlingen . . 27 0 St) 0 | Roasfe t and ground English root (free) I English ,. 30 0 40 0 Kent&Suffollc none. ' Foreign .. 40 0 50 0 IJuty on all ChiCory imported, Sd. per IB. WHALEBONE. Polar per ton £180 0 0 to £0 0 0 HAY iM A R K E T S. Thursday, November 27. Both Hay and Straw were in full average supply, and heavy demand, at barely last week's prices. At per load of 36 trusses. Smithfield. Cumberland. 'Whiteeliapel Meadow Hav 55s.to75s. 55s.to78s. 55s. to 75s Clover Hay' 70s. 87s. 70s. 85s. 703. 88s Straw ;.. 203. 27s. 21s. 28s. 203. 273 WOOL MARKET. FuiD.^Y, Nov. 23. Fine English Wools are in steady request, at very full prices ; but all other kinds, owing to the large stocks held in the manufncturing districts, command very little attention. The imports are, only 39 bales from Ham- bro', 13 from Havre, and 620 from Taganrog. LIVERPOOL, Nov. 22. 8. di «. fl. Laid Highland Wool, por 2llii?..,. 9 0 to 10 0 White Higliland do ,12 0 12 6 Laid Crossed do.. .unwashed .... 11 0 12 0 do.. .washed II 0 13 0 do. ..uriwashea,,.. 12 0 14 6 do.. vjas!if(!..„.a. 13 0 19 S do... do 22 0 24 0 Do. Lrtid Cheviot f>o. White Ch*?viot HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. M irket Hides, Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. .'6 to 641bs 0 If 1 64 721b9....4.. 0 2 72 dOlbs 0 2^ 80 8Sl!is..i.... 0 2| S3 aeibs ,. 0 ' 98 104 3 lOJlbs 0 34 112ibs. 0 ■ Calf Skins, liglit..... I Do. full 4 HoTseHides ..,., 5 Polled Sheep , 4 Rents and Half-brcds 3 Downs 2 n. d. 2 0 per lb. 0 2i ,, 0 2i ,, 0 3 „ " 8j .. 0 3J „ 0 4 2 0 c.ich. 0 0 0 0 „ 6 0 „ 4 6 „ 3 0 ,i BARK. Per load of 45 cwt. English, Tree ....£12 0 0 to £14 0 0 Coppice .,, 14 0 0 15 10 0 MANURES. London, November 24. prices current of guano, artificial manure CAKES, &C. Guano, Peruvian w per ton £0 0 0 to £9 „ In quantities under 5 tons ,, 0 0 0 to 9 Potter's Guano „ 0 0 0 to 7 Peat Charcoal .. , ...,,..... „ 3 0 0 to 0 Nitrate Soda „ 14 10 0 to 16 Nitrate Potash er Saltpetre ...... ,, 26 0 0 to 28 Superphosphate of Lime . .- ,, 0 0 0 to 6 Soda, Ash or Alkali.,... ■..•;... ■^.. „ 0 0 0 fo 8 Gypsum .-.WJ.-.-. „ 1 10 0 to I Coprolite , 3 0 0 to 3 Sulphate of Copper, of Roman Vitriol for Wheat steepinji.. .. , 27 0 0 to 29 Salt „ I 1 0 to 1 Bones, J inch .^...perqr. 0 0 0 to 0 „ Dust „ 0 0 0 to 0 Oil Vitriol, concentrated per lb. 0 0 0 10 0 ,, Brown ,, 0 0 0 to n Rape Cakes per ton 4 10 0 to 4 Linseed Cakes — Thin American in barrels or bags „ 8 6 0 to 8 Thick ditto round none ,, 0 0 0 to 0 Marseilles „ 0 0 0 to 6 English „ 7 0 0 to 7 S, OIL 5 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 ft 0 0 0 0 () 0 15 0 6 e 0 0 5 0 i.-y A 17 0 0 J 0 "f 15 5 0 0 0 e 0 5 0 END OF VOLUME XXXV. Printed by Rogerson and Co., 246, Strand, London. ^ -^ r M. A ^j^' ■1^- A., r ^s^ ***-' '^-'^ > ^- -®« /<^' ;■ ^>^