'■^^^^ ifcf^ .,JU^ 3ff /fr^ '^X /V^ fu^.^. 7(p^'f eriment from Mr. Pusev to prove, that two horses cannot plough these stubborn soils at any season of the year, and all light ploughs run on the surface or sink too deep and are broken. Most Scotch writers, and with them Mr. Handley and others, condemn these heavy impleraents ; but their opinion'? arise turnwrist plough, on various soils ; but in many cases the furrow is clumsy and round in the shoul- der cut, owing to the set of the coulter and share, and the round" breast of the plough. In numy in- stances these ploughs perform the niost abominable flat work that can "be imagined. Crooked drills are incomplete farming, and though good crops are grown on crooked ploughing of all kinds, it offends the eye, and attaches as much to the farmer as to the labourer. On no point of practical agriculture have the farmers of the North more surpassed the culti- vators of South Britain. CuLXon. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE DISEASES OF WHEAT. Sketch of a lecture on this subject, delivered by Professor Ilenslow, at the meeting of the Hadieigh Farmers' Club. Professor Hf.nsi.ow then rose, and was received with enthusiastic applause. He said he should hardly have ventured to offer a lecture on sucli an occasion, when they were all met rather for social purposes than for the discussion of philosophical suhjects ; but as he understood it was their plan at these meetings to enter into discussions upon various suhjects, he felt less hesitation in bringing before tLem the questions he now proposed to do. (Hear.) l"he subject was that with which they weie all perhaps a little too familiar in one respect, he meant certain diseases which occurred in corn. They might think him presumptuous, as he was not a practical man, in proposing this subject to them ; but there were two ways to look at it — the one was that in which the practical man regarded it as those diseases annoyed his crops, and as he could or could not find remedies to prevent their recurrence ; and the other was the way in which the scientific man looked at it as a matter of curiosity, and tliat he might find out the precise causes of those diseases ; and when he had done so, that he might present them under a different aspect than before they had been presented to the practical man, that steps might be taken to destroy them, or at least to check them. The diseases he referred to were a few of those which either destroyed the produce or which materially deteriorated it, either of their grain itself or of the straw, for some affected the grain, others the straw. What he meant by diseases generally was a certain morbid action, — a certain diseased state of the plant, >A/hich was induced by some external in- fluences. The climate in certain seasons produced disease in wheat as in animals ; also varieties of soil produced disease ; but there were also diseases oc- casioned by the presence of the lowest tribes of plants, which botanists called fungi, and to which belonged the mushroom. There were also diseases produced by animals lower in the scale of animals than even insects themselves. He should single out seven diseases, which, during the last autumn, he had examined. He did not turn his attention par- ticularly to the subject until after the great meeting at Cambridge of the Royal Agricultural Society, when his opinion was asked, and though he liad specimens in his museum, yet he had never before examined them, and had never consulted practical men about them. Since, he had employed some of bis leisure hours in investigating these minutely, and he had found it an interesting subject as a mere matter of curiosity ; and he had no doubt that, if scientific and practical men followed up the subject, they would, in the end, find out something or other to check some of those disorders, — he did not say all of them. The first four disorders or diseases that he proposed to introduce were occasioned by the presence o( fungi. And in order that they might understand what he meant, he would mention a few circumstances connected with the general habits of these curious plants. He would take the common mushroom as an example. It was composed of two very different parts. One part was underground, and extended like the roots of trees and plants, with a flower destined to absorb nourishment for the growth of the mushroom — the other part above ground was destined to carry the fruit. These two parts they might consider to be present in all fungi, though it was very difficult to detect the part which pro- cured the nourishment for the mushroom in many cases. Even in common cases it generally escaped notice. Gardeners were acquainted with it as the spaum of mushrooms : it consisted of white filments below the ground, spreading from a centre. When he mentioned mushrooms he referred also to toad stools, and the whole tribe. The filaments spread from a centre, and diverged to all points, and they produced those curious appearances c;il]ed " fairy rings." (Ilcur.) The part bearing fruit called mushroom rose up, and when they decayed away manured the land, and they found biight gruen rings in the nest year, which they would observe to increase in size, merely from the spawn spreading underground. These minute funs;! had also their spawn, with which they attacked the plants on which they fed. 'J'he habit of all fun>^i was to live on organized matter, which meant upon eitlier animal or vegetable substances. They did not derive nourishment directly from the soil, air, or water, like flowers or plants of a higher order; but would prey either on decomposing organized matter, or on that which was absolutely rotten. 'J'hev were found sometimes in a healthy subject, but even then it was likely that disease had begun in that which they so attacked, and which could not be seen to be diseased ; hut from that thev spread, they increased the disease, and what they caused they afterwards preyed upon. Tliey were useful in nature, however, and assisted in decomposing matter on the surface of the earth — they were a sort of scavengers, fed upon it and in the end decayed. Among these /'u»,^i were immense numbers so exceedingly small us to escape obser- vation. Men were living as it were in the midst of a world without seeing it ; until they took a microscope and looked around them, they were not conscious of the immense number oi fungi and other plants existing in all their fields and everywhere else. (Hear.) All that was seen of them by the naked eye was when they assembled in large numbers, aggregated into one spot. If they saw a little spot on the surface of a leaf, or on the stem of a plant, and took a microscope and examined it, they would find it composed of hundreds and thousands of thesa little fungi. All these little fungi too had spawn which preyed upon the fruit. He would now introduce to them four of those fnvgi, which occasioned four disorders. In introducing- tliem he would observe, that in difTerent parts of England, there were different names; for instance, what was called Smut in one place was called Pepper-brand in another, and Smut-halls in another. The four disorders he found to be named, bunt, smut, rust, andmildew ; these were the four first, and they were caused bv fungi. With respect to tiie hunt, it was best known in this neighbourhood by the name of smut-halls. They all knew that wheat was sometimes attacked by this disorder to a sad extent, though not so much of late years as formerly, for formerly he had read that sometimes half the crop was completely destroyed. In the smut-balls they had a dirtv greenish looking grain, without the appearance of the embryo, which was to become the future plant : it swelled and attained the same size as the sound grain, which had the embryo ; but when broken, it contained nothing but a dirty brown powder, extremely disagreeable to the smell, and the whole ear was frequently infected and destroyed by it. What he would now speak about, was the nature of the brown powder which produced the smut-balls. He had been asked by a practical man in this neighbourhood, what occasioned this 7 Now it was not likely that a person not in the habit of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 9 using a microscope sliouUl be Me to know what it was, but it Iiail been known to botanists and others for many years, that this and many others were true fungi, and attacked the plant on wliich they grew. Before the ear makes its apjiearance out of tlie holes, that which was to become the future grain was very small indeed ; but a skilful microscopic observer would be able to anato- mize or detect that small grain in an early state, before the blossom had made its a|)pearance. In so doing:, and on opening- the grain carefully, a liollow would he found in which the embryo made its ap- pearance ; but in tliis hollow they would ilntl the fangiif, in its young- state, and then the s]>awn of thai fungus appeared like clay lining- this little cav- ity in the grain. Upon it was iho part which bore the fruit, and in this case that part consisted of a lot of liitle balls or parts of fruolilication. The size of these rapidly increased, and as tlie grain expanded they grew larger and became brown jiovvder, which ultimately Idled the grain. The spawn de- voured all the flower — ^it was not allowed the fornia- tion of any embryo, and it completely occupied the whole interior of the grain. They would be as- tonished to find that there was no ditficulty by microscopic observers to measure these little balls. 'J'iie diameter ®f one of them when full grown was ilie l,(J0Oth part of an inch, consequently on tiie tenth of -.m inch they might put 1()0 of them, or on the tenth of an inch square 'i5,(J0() of them. ()r if thev took an inch cube and took the tliousandth part of it, that would contain 4,(J'.M,l)l)0 of these /vofgi. Hence he considereil that a good grain of wheat was rather larger than the tenth of an inch cube, so that one single grain might contain above four mil- lions of them. Now a single smut-hall would be sufficient to ati'ect a whole field, if they were allowed to scatter themselves throughout it. But this was not all, for these different balls were not to he con- sidered analogous to seeds tliemselves, but as seed vessels. If these were magnified verv highly, they seemed to be made up of little cells perched upon a little stalk, and under water they were observed to hurst and discharge what appeared to be a smoke. Under the very highest powers of the microscope thev could scarcely make out this smoke to be made up of little grains — these grains were the seed of the fungi. On a little fungus, not bigger than the tip of the finger, it had been calculated there might be tens of millions ofthese seeds. This would give an incalculable number of seeds contained in a sing-le grain of wheat. I'his almost exceeded comprehension in the division of matter ; it almost reduced it to nothing, or as far as the infinity of space carried them in their conceptions in the other direction. It was evident, therefore, that a single ear of corn, al- lowed to produce these /u;io-i, would be sufficient to infect many fields with lungl of tliis description. In ascertaining precisely the manner in which these fniif/i were propagated, they might hope to arrive at some means of checking them. He now proposed to introduce anotlier fungus that attacked wheat and corn, and, as the habits of ihe two were similar, if he could suggest a means of checking one, it would apply in other cases also. The /xiiit fungus alluded to, confined its attacks to wheat and the grains of wheat. It was not found in any other description of corn. The next one, smut, which bore the name of chimney sweepers in some places, in this district knowri as burnt ear, was a kind of fungus frequently confounded with bunt ; hut it was quite a ditferent species o( fungi. In the case of bunt, the grain did not burst and the seeds were not scattered, and it was housed ; whereas in the case of smut, the whole ear was burst before the corn was harvested. The mode of attack was also different. Its size was not above half tiie size of the bunt ; it had not the un- ]jleasant smell of tiie bunt, but in other particulars was very like it. This might be detected more jjar- ticuhn-ly in barlev or oats. Soinetime.s half ;i crop of barley had been deslj-oyed bv it, as he had read ; but in some years a small ipiaTility. If they examined nn ear of corn while still in the hole, they found that this fungus made greater progress than the other, and arrived at ])erfection before it came from the holes. There were little spawn, and a number of l):ills upon it, which iialls hursted and scattered the seeds in the same way ; but they were much smaller, the dianieter of one being 2,8()nth part of an inch, and the lOOOth part of a cubic inch con- tained :if ,952,000 of these seeds. It did not attack the grain as in the case of bunt. Suppose the fiower of the barley was in a healthy state, when it was early attacked by smut-fungus all the parts were blended together, so as to form a solid mass. The flower did not grow, the corn did not expand, but instead, the base of the yrain became expanded, grew harder and bound together ; so that they found a lar'^e fleshy mass, in one part of which they found the young grain situated. The fungus attacked thij fleshy mass, of which it had itself been tiie cause, and by degrees ate it all up, and then it appeared in the state of brown powder. In growing-, the corn which had been put into the ground, when the root had been thrown out, absorbed the seeds of the fun- gi ; just as it drew up (lie moisture, so it drew up the fungi scattered around. Tliey were introduced to the roots, and went with the sap through the j)lant, until they rose to those parts where they preyed. 'J'iiat no doubt was their true history from repeated experiments. This fact in the history of the plant pointed out the manner in which they ought to endeavour to prevent their propagation. They must look either to the soil or to the seed. If the seeds of these fungi, as he would term them, were in the ground, some precautions should be taken to wash them off. It had long been proposed as a mode of securing one of these two jtoints, to keep the corn pure and clean. One old plan was to wash it in a running- stream of water ; more recently the plan was to add lime, which indeed was in use in some places at this day. But there was a diffi- culty in tlv* use of lime ; and unless it was pure and applied a considerable time, with certain precauti- ons, it would not answer. Another was the use of arsenic and sulphate of copper ; and the intention here was not merely to wash the fungi off the grain, but also to kill their seeds if possible : for many of those mixtures he Iiad mentioned were very destruc- tive to vegetable life, and sulphate of copper in ])ar- ticular. When they sowed grain which had been in a solution of blue copperas, as it was commonly called, it was certain that it would destroy the fungi, but might it not also destroy the grain"! That was very possible ; hence the object of the farmer was to keep 't soaked so long as to destroy the fungi but not the grain. (Applause.) He did not think that at present the jiractical agriculturist was suffi- ciently acquainted with the precise limits of time during which he should soak the grain, and of the strength of the material to be used. (Hear, hear.) All these things should be determined, and then this part of agriculture would become as scientific as the process of malting and brewing, or that of sugar- boiling, where every stage of the process was ruled by the hydrometer and other instruments — so that, if the agriculturists would make experiments, they might ascertain the quantity to be used, and run 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. no risk of destroying' the corn as well as the fungi. With respect to the seeds of the fungi in the ground, the case might be more difficult. Pie had no hesitation in saying, that the worst bunted or smutted corn might be cleansed by soaking it in sulphate of copper; hut with respect to the seeds in the ground tliere might be this difhculty, that after sowing the corn, they had notjKotected it against these seeds in the ground. With respect to some substances this miglit be the case. Perhaps in the case of lime its strength miglit go off, and if the grain placed in the ground met ihe fungi it might absorb it. (Hem-). They might soak tlje grain so long as to prevent the attacks of the fungi. 'I'his might be likely from what they knew of the habits of fungi geneially, and what was the effect of sulphate of copper. Having no- ticed these two disorders of bunt and smut, he next mentioned the rust, which was called the red ra"- in some places; he called it the mildew, and it was well known here by that name. The attacks of this disease were not upon the grain as in tlie cases of bunt and smut ; it did not destroy the grain as the others did, but lessened the produce by absorbing the juices of the plant, which it lived upon. The plant was more or less diseased at the time, and it increased the dis- order to a frightful extent. The red rag or rust, as far as he had seen it, made its apj^enrance in the scales or chaff of the plant; it was to be found in the straw, but generally it did not burst through the straw. In the skin, or epidermis, which covered all plants, these little fungi inside the plant made their appearance outwardly by bursting the skin. They appeared as blisters at lirst ; tlie skin then bursteil and little balls tumbled out, and iliese balls were the little fungi. The learned and reverend Pro- fessor here exhibited a representation of one of these blisters highly magnified. The little balls which contained the rust vrere many of them per- fectly spherical, and others were oblong and differ- ently shaped; up to this day lie believed these were ootiisidered to be the only forms which this parti- cular fungus assumed. He had made a curious ob- servation in a scientific point of view, and that was — that this rust was nothing more or less than a younger state of the fungus, which had been hitherto called tlie mildew ; that it was the passage from one to another ; and if the weather continued favour- able to the development of this disease, it would turn to the mildew, (Hear). It was fortunately checked in most places during the past ^ ear by finer weather succeeding cloudy weather, uhich latter was the most favourable to the development of the species oi fungi. He made this discovery by observing that some of th(!sc blisters within the scale of the chaft', as the plant advanced, were becoming of a dark brown colour ; and upon examining ihem lately he found that, though not one had the appearance of the fungus usually called, the rust, they had assumed the shape of little clubs, which was quite the interme- •liate state between Ihe rust and the mildew. The shape the true mildew assumed was curious ; every one knew it when it appeared in black stripes or streaks on the surface ofthe coin. These streaks or stripes, ifseenbya common lens, might be observed bursting through the skin or epidermis. By a higher power of the microscope, they might lie seen burst- ing through the epidermis in tufts, and it was lliese tufts coming out in hundreds, and thousands, and millions, which gave them this dark appearance. Tiie passage then from the rust in this form, when itwa,"> checked by the alteration in the weather, uj) to the time of its bursting, was manifest, and he had no doubt that the four disorders he had mentioned might now be reduced to three, and that the rust and mil- dew were really the same — one being in its inci- pient state, and the other in its complete state. (Hear. J No doubt it fretjuently happened that when the weather was unfavourable to it the red rag- was becoming mildew. When the weather was favourable, he had as little doubt that mildew would follow. He had no particular remark to offer re- specting the mode of checking the rust and mildew, for the history of these two was not yet sufficiently understood. It must be left to the practical agri- culturist to point out the recurience of the disease, and botanists must then set to work with their microscopes and experiments, and see if they could not elucidate their history a little better. There was still a doubt how these plants were propagated ; it was supposed that they shed their seed ; but it was doubtful if it were introduced by t'je root, as other plants, or by certain pores in the skin, or epidermis. This epidermis, to the naked eye, was an exceed- ingly fine membrane. Tinder a microscope that membrane was found to have a number of cells, of a sausage-like shape, which opened and closed, and were the truebreathing or air holes. Some supposed that the seeds or spherules of the fungi were intro- duced through these pores. He (the Professor) doubted it, and believed they were introduced by the root. Botanists were divided in opinion, and until they could find out the manner of their reproduction, it was impossible to prescribe with the skill of a doctor the mode in which they were to be checked. In speaking of the rust or mildew, be had been asked if he thought the barberry hush had influence in producing the disease. It was the opinion all over the Continent, and in some parts of England, that it bad ; he could not say that it had not, and he could not see any reason why it should. One rea- son which was urged that it had was, that the bar- beriy was subject to be blighted, and that conse- quently the blight might extend over the fields. Now that was not correct, for the blight of the barberry was dift'erent from the blight of wheats. On the leaf of the barberry they found a quantity of rusty red patches, represented as so many cups. They contained a sort of seed vessels, which were sometimes like the rust certainly, but the holes were quite different. That which was called the mildew on barberry, was a sort of white filmy stufl'; when on the leaves it appeared to be made up of brown and yellow globes, containing the seeds, so that the two fungi which occurred as barberry blights were totally different from those which affected wheat. (Hear, hear.) Whether it bad the horrid, disagreeable smell which the barberry put forth, lie did not know. It was true that rust might occur in the neighbourhood of barberry bushes, and it might be ascribed to this, that the barberry loved to grow on those soils which might cause blight in the corn. Some plants liked rich soils, others barren soils, and the barberry liked the latter; and when wheat was sown in those particular patches, of course it was more exposed to the attack by mildew. Experi- ments bad been tried with the barberry : in many instances wheat had been sown round it, and no blight or mildew followed : there were also fields sur- rounded by barberry trees, and yet they were not blighted ; and it had been asserted, that in some fields the barberry had been removed, and the blight had not been removed. He should be most happy to assist in the elucidation of these things. (Lniid applause.) The Rev. Professsor here finished the first part of his lecture. Mr. Last, in an eulogistic speech, proposed the health of Professor Henslow. (Loud cheers.) Professor Hensi.ow brieflv acknowledged the toast. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 The Vice-President proposed the Chairman, and success to the " Hadleigh Farmers' Club." (Much cheering). Tlie President returned thanks, and congratu- lated the town of Hadleigh, the gentlemen in its neighbourhood, and tlie agricultural interest gene- rally, on the establishment ot'Faiiner's Clubs, the great and solid advantages of which he enumerated. One reason for his advocacy of these institutions was, that they encouraged a patriotic s[)irit ; for it had been said, that he who made two blades of grass grow where formerly there was but one was a true patriot; and with how much propriety might that sentiment be applied to corn as well as grass. (Cheers.) Rlight it not be applied also to the flock as well as to the fleece! (Much cheering). Might it not be applied to the grower as well as to the gra- zier of stock! (Loud applause). Every advance made in agricultural improvement, and in the adaptation of science to agricultural purposes, was a national blessing; and by the means of these associations, tt teas ihroioi upon the world free and unshackled ; it was sent ibrth to the whole com- munity free as the air they breathed. Here there was no monflpoUzing spirit ; every ascertained improve- ment was oflfered to the public, who might receive or reject as they pleased. (Applause.) Mr. Henuy Sallows gave the health of IMr. Rnnd, the Vice-President. (Applause.) The Vice-President returned thanks. Mr. Grimwade (the Secretary) here read the Re- port for the past year ; it was a very elaborate docu- ment, drawn up with much talent, and possessed con- siderable information upon the various subjects which had engaged tlie members in discussions at their meetings during the past year. Mr. Farhow proposed that the Report be adopted and jjrinted for circulation amongst the members. (Cheers.) In doing so he observed, that the further they went the more they found the necessity of meet- ings like this, for the purpose of diffusing the in- creased intelligencts of the agricultural interest, and for registering those experiments which were daily making upon the cultivation of the soil. And he thought that the evidence of this evening, as to the benefits to be derived from the association of men of science witli the practical members of the Club, was a striking instance of the good that might be effected by them. Much as they had heard of the benefits M liich science was calculated to impart toagriculiure, there was one subject which had been a little over- looked, and that was the advantage which science itself might obtain from the results of experiments made by practical men. Hitherto the experiments and researches of scientific men had been hounded by too circumscribed a field. They had not had that room for their experiments which would afford their tlieories all the utility which might be wished ; but by means of these Clubs a member's farm might in fact become the laboratory or workshop of the scien- tific man, and the result of experiment, carefully noted, might be of infinite use to him in his re- searches. (Hear and applause.) Mr. Robert Hawkins, of Mildenhall, seconded the motion. — Carried. Mr. Last moved the re-appointment of the Com- mittee and officers for the ensuing year, which v. as adopted. The healths of Mr. Grimwade, the secretary, and Mr. Clayden, the treasurer, were then drunk ; and those geutlemen responded to the toast, amid ap- plause. Professor Hensi.ow again rose and resumed his address. The next disorder in corn which I.e wished to introduce was one with which in this neighbour- hood, they were, liappily, not familiar. Still it was one which embraced so many curious details, that he was sure they wished to hear something about it. (Hear and applause.) It was a disorder very de- structive to rye more particularly, especially in some continental nations, and even in Ireland and Scotland, and some parts of England. It was seldom to be met with in other kinds of corn, e.-ccept to a trifling- extent. It did exist liere, but not much, and from inquiry he had made, it liad been generally overlooked. The disorder he alluded to w as termed the Ergot. The reverend Professor here displayed a sketch of the appearance it assumed in the rye. In this case the grain was lengthened to a considerable degree, instead of being of the size of the husk, and was not confined within it. It had a black appearance, and was frequently cuived in the form of cockspur, lience its name of coclc's-ear, or ergot of rye. It was a very powerful medicine, but a very dangerous one, and only to be emj>lo_ved by experienced practitioners. Its origin was not exactly known ; but its description was that of a grain lengthened out and become black, having lost all its nutritive qualilips, the eargrowino- to an inch and a half in length, and assuming the peculiar character of burning very readily, and like an almond, showing that it contained a considerable quantity of oil. It had quite changed its nature. To the taste there was no very great sensation; but it was rather nauseous to the smell in large quanti- ties. When it occurred to a great extent in a rye harvest, it made bad bread, and produced effects which he would presently allude to. The cause of this ergot was not thoroughly understood. Some had supposed it was owing to a puncture b}' an insect. Many insects laid their eggs in different plants, and in consequence prochicet) disease. The common oak apple afforded an instance of this, in which a little fly deposited an egg, which ultimately formed what was called Robin's Pincussion. A gall on a rose was occasioned by a small insect puncturing the leaf, and then the disease or tumour was assumed, which afforded food for the fly. Another supposition was, that the ergot was occasioned by a small fiivgi ; in that respect it might be supposed to be the same as the other diseases. But heie the fungus was not in the plant, even if it were the inducing cause, which he doubted. A little fungus was frequently seen to corrt orer the whole of the ergot : possibly t!.:e ergot afforded a good nest for the fungus, and then it attacked it ; for the fungus was found on ether parts of the plant where tht- ergot was not induced. Whatever the cause, it was sometimes induced in great abundance ; and in certain seasons, perhaps from the fifth to the third of a harvest was destroyed. In those districts where it abounded, it added such a noxious quality to the flour, and to such an extent, as to produce the most fearful diseases bv which man- kind couhl be afl!licted. It had been proved that, for the last two centuries when the ergot raged, gan- grenous epidemics raged in proportion, which epi- demics caused the extremities to rot oft", and hun- dreds of people of the poorer classes, who mostly fed on rye bread from extreme poverty, to die. They seldom recovered when carried to the Hospitals. It was supposed, therefore, that these gangrenous epi- demics arose from the ergot, from the circumstance of their being most prevalent when ergot prevailed most. The fact had been tested by exjieriments witli flour adulterated wih ergot administered to fowls, upon which it load the eftiscl of rotting oft' the tongues and bills, and occasioning death, the bodies beino- covered with !';..ngrene spots. The tails and eais of pigs had dropped ofl' from the animals having 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. eaten of it. It was staled, however, that after being kept for a time it lost its property. Some coffee was once ground by mistake in a mill, where a chemist liad previously submitted ergot to the same process ; tiie result was that a gentleman, who ])artG0k of the coffee, was seized with ihe most violent pains in his stomach, and was obliged to have medical aid. The fact of ihe ergot being- so deleterious to the crops, he had brought before ihem from the circumstance of its occurring in wheat about here to agreat extent; an ex- tent which surprised him very much, because he had heard from those who had jiaid attention to it, that it was seldom seen in wheat. One of these gentlemen of50 years' standing, said lie never saw but one exam- ple in wheat, and another said he never saw hut two — he (the Professor) had found it here in sufficient abun- dance. .Speaking to the miller at Hitcham about it, he picked out a couple of handfuls from a bushel of wheat sent to he ground ! lie thought it not at all impossible that in certain years, when the ergot abounded to a considerable extent, it might produce great injury; and it was a remarkable faci, that in tbe next parish to his own, in the year 1752, when ergot abounded, a whole family lost the use of their legs in one week ! At the time it was ascribed to their living- on had wheat. No one dreamt of wheat havnig ergot ; hut it was not improbable that the wheat was ergotted. It never attackeil any but the poorest el-asses, and these from having a had habit of body, induced by scanty nourishment. He would now pass on lo a disorder with which they were all pretty well acquainted. It was commonly known by the name of pepper-corn, anil ear-cockle. It was where the grain was blighted, dwindled in its size, and assumed a dark i)urplish colour; when thoroughly ripened it had a tough skin, and when opened antl examined, instead of iinding- flour was found a cottony mass. I'hat cottony mass was a number of livino- creatures, and a single grain of wheat would contain ten thousand of them. The hisfory oi' that animal- cula= which caused the disorder had been thoroughly investigated by acientilic men, who observed tbat when these pepper-corn grains were put into the soil, the animals did not come out of them until March, having- lain there all the winter. In March the ground got moisler : then they came out in clouds, some thousands out ofa pepper-corn, penetrated the soils, searched about for food, till they came to the grain of wheat deposited in the ground. They entered the grain which was then growing, and came U[) with tbe stalk, 'i'hey might be traced in the stalk gradually, until they arrive at the young grain even in the hoTes, before the blossom was expanded or the seed formed. When they got into the grain they grew raj)idly, and being full of eggs they deposited them, and in a few days they were hatched. There they lived on the flour and devoured the whole of it, so that Ihe |)epper-corn contained not an atom of ilour by the lime the ear was ripe. Tliey generally found that every grain in the ear was attacked ;' though it was true that in some cases all were not. The most extraordinary circumstance in the history of these little animals was, that they retained their vitality under circumstances in which animals ofa higher order would cease to exist. If one of these pepper-corns were dried and kept for years, so that the animals appeared as if tiead, and if they were to be touched they would go to what seemed to be powder ; yet if they were moistened, they would become perfectly alive in a faw minutes, or if very dry, in a few iiours. If he were asked what he would recommend as a preventative of the attacks of these animalcuhe, he did not know that he was prepared to suggest anything particular, excepting this — he might be altogether wrong, not being a practical man, but it was a suggestion which had been listened to in other places — it was that the growing of sfied corn should be made quite a separate branch of industry — (fhar, htar) — not n^erely for the purpose of procuring clean seed for sowing \a their tields, but for procuring- good crops of <-orn. ( Much applause.) .Suppose an individual, for in- stance, raised a crop of seed-corn in beds, just as gar- deners raised their finest and choicest seeds, and took care in so raising them, to go round the beds continually. By so doing, practice would enable hiin to see every ear of corn which was bunted, smutted, or ear-cockled ; and he could pluck it out and destroy it. That, at least, would reduce the extent of the disease. There was another object, which was the keeping the seed from spreading^that would also be under control by the plan suggested. The last dis- order he would notice was verv common all over England,-— more common than was generally allowed or supposed lo be — or at least the effect was not duly estimated, according to what he had seen, though in some cases it might. In an ear of corn, whon they rubbed out the kernels, they found some that were not fdled, and some remaining as they were in the state of flower. Thismightheowing lo a variety of causes. Sometimes wet weather might cause the bursting of the skin, and the seed was lost; but the most destructive was a little fly, an insect called by botanists the wheat-midge. This fly was furnished with a tail, a long sort of tube, which it drew up into its body. "^I'he use of this tube was to deposit its eggs in the flower of wheat. When so deposited, these eggs became caterpillars or nraggots, and these maggots ap|)eared to suck the juices of the young grain so as to prevent its expi»nsion and development. Having laid their eggs, generallyin thcfirst part of themonthof .Tune, the wheat-midges appeared in myriads. Itmight be asked, " were thev not to be seen ?" The fact was, that they only flew about in the evenings from seven to nine o'clock, and they were all so small tbat, un- less watched for, a person might he in an immense multitude of them without being aware of their pre- sence, 'i'he eggs, when deposited, hatched in a feiv days ; the gi ubs went on sucking the juices until the time of harvest, when they went into a chrysalis state as caterpillars did. In tb-.it case they spinned them- selves into a little web, and attached themselves to a sound wheat-grain or to the chaff; and at this time of year, if they took a head of corn and found tliis chry- salis of the wheat-midge upon it, they might ascer- tain that it would remain there until next June, when it would come out. Since everj' one of those wheat- niidges laid a great many caterpillars, of course, if there were no means of checking their progress, it might be supposed that in a few years the whole of the grain in I'lngland would be destroyed, they in- creased so much. But all things seemed to work to- gether for good, and there was a provision made by Nature to keep them down, of the most remarkable description. There was a tiibe of insects, which entymologists termed /"c/nie»«i()K, which -were destined to keep within bounds the increase of other insects. These flies were furnished with a little prongat their tails, and they settled upon the caterpillars of the other flias, and with this prong deposited an e^^^ in their body. In the autumn, just before the wheat- midge caterpillars turned into a chrysalis state, if the ears of corn were examined, these little black flies might be observed excessively busy about them. They were engaged in searching for the caterpillars , of the wheat- midge, and they laid but one egg in a caterpillar. This egg turned to a grub, and gradually devoured the caterpillar, not touching the vital parts THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 until full grown, and ultiuiately tliese midge cater- pillars became nothing more tban a shell, and died. This was similar to the case o( tlie common cabbage caterpillar. Stacks oC corn, which were not thrashed out before .lune, were fidl of these wheat-midge ciirysalis — there tiiey were dormant, hut ready to come out in the harvest. Conse(|ueiitly the stacks not thrashed out before June, supplied the surround- ing neighbourhood with an ahundance of these de- structive littlfi insects. It was said that it was ne- cessary to the farmer's iaterest, that the corn should be kept unthrashed until after June. Perhaps so, l)ut of two evils they should choose the least, and it might be expedient to thrash out before June, and .1 means found of preserving it in as good a state as if it were unlhrasiied. This autumn he was mucli surprised in examining the ears of wheat which he had plucked from a lield belonging to JMr. Bennett, of llitcliam, to tind thtit on a slight calculation his crop must have suft'ered ])retty nearly one third (so we understood the Kev. Professor) from the wheat- midge. IMr. Bennett himself said lie was never so disappointed in a crop in liis life— everybody thought he had the finest in the neighbourhood, wliile it turned out to bo very trifling indeed. AVith resjiect to the keejiing of corn and tlie practice of not thrashing it ou( until after June, the learned Professor observed, that it was a fact that corn would keep good for centuries, and referred to that found in the ancient granaries discoverd in recent times, and in the cata- combs of Egypt, where it had lain for .'},()00 years ; and within the last few months, it had been recorded that some of these grains had been sown, and had vegetated. Having spoken of the ravages of the wheat-midge in the vineyards of France, he proceeded to observe, that a French society oflered a premium for the best mode of destroying these destructive insects, and the following simple remedy was adopted. It was the custom of moths in general lo fly to a liglit, particularly the males did this, and a genUeman induced a proprietor to hang 'JOO lamps about his vineyard, with little floating lighted wicks, protected by a glass. Beneath every one of these lamps he placed a saucer of oil, and the moths flying against the lamps, dropped into the oil, by which means, in the course of two hours, upwards of 30,000 of these moths fell into the oil and were destroyed. By attack- ing them boldly in this way, nearly the whole produce of the vineyard was saved (Hear, hear, hear). He should conclude his lecture by stating that the prin- cipal advantage of the study of these diseases, lie conceived to be this, that upon the old proverb of" a penny saved is a penny got" — a bushel undestroyed was equivalent to a bushel grown (Load chccn). 'i'herefore, if they were to increase the main produce of I^ngland, there were two ways to do it — not only to secure increased crops, but to prevent a vast amount of destruction which would go as so much saved ('Hear). His own attention had hitherto ra- ther been directed to the saving system than to pro- ducing increased (juantities. I'ut he and other gen- tlemen had been appointed as a committee, to procure all the varieties of wheat known in England and abroad, for the purpose of forming a general calcu- lation of each ; and there was now in progress a sys- tem for arranging these and making experiments with them. And he trusted that in time a museum would exist in London, where every one might see for himself which was the best, by trying it on his own soil in different ways. Thus an improved pro- duce might be discovered CHear, and applause). In this undertaking he sliould be happy to receive the assistance and information of any practical agricul- turists (^Loud cheers). The reverend and learned Professor then concluded his lecture. Mr. East proposed a vote of thanks, on behalf of the Farmers' Club, to i'lofessor Henslow, for de- livering this scientitic and excellent lecture (Much cheering ). Rlr. NiiWMAN seconded the motion, which was carried by acclamation. Professor Henst.ow briefly acknowledged the com- pliment, and stated that he was ready at all times to assist in the discussions of the Hadleigh Farmers' Club. Several toasts were afterwards drunk, and speeches made, and at a seasonable hour the company broke up, highly pleased with the proceedings of the evening. [The Ileport of the Club shall appear in our next number.] ON THE REPORT OF TPIE CHART- HAM FARMER'S CLUB. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAKMEr's MAGAZINE. In your JMazazine for this month, I find the Chart- ham Farmer's Club have come to a decision upon the best mode of feeding their horses ; in which I find they say \\ cwt. sanfoin is sullicient lor four horses for one week. Now I wish to know whether this is an error in the printing or a fact ! as we, in our part of the county, cannot understand it, and liope to find in your next magazine, one of the members of the above Club, will readily explain if. For 1^ cwt., which is three trusses for four horses, for one week, seems to me impossible to he suffi- cient. The allowance of oats and beans, ^cc, is about the same as we give. I also wish to ask whether in the four-course system it is advisable to sow your early fed off tur- nips with wheat ; we do it, thinking it is better to rob the last season of about 12 acres or so every year, this quantity being fed off in time for wheat, tlian letting it lay tliiough the winter idle with the sheep dressing at the top, thereby losing a great deal of the goodness of the dressing by being so exposed. On the other hand, will it do lo have wheat come so often, viz., turnips wheat, seeds wheaf, instead of turnips, barley, seeds, wheat ; and I hope to find some experienced farmer will an- swer this, (being a wheat stubble before turnips, it makes wheat come three times in five years,) we only sow half seeds and half tares, thereby making our seeds come only once in eiglit years, by ex- changing with the tares, the same witli the barley and oats, conseciuently the turnips and wheat only come once in four years, excepting when I rob the lent season as above, and I doubt whether we are doing right in so doing. At the same time it seems a pity to let your turnip fields fed ofl' lay bare through the winter, to be ploughed and sowed in the spring. I also wish to ask any of your readers whether tiiey can show me a profitable account of suckling, changing the cows, witii rent of meadows, oilcake and hay, and man's time, and sucklers ; as I find by taking all these things into account there is nothing left for the farmer ; I have asked man}' myself, and the only answer I can get, is, I think they do pay, but I cannot tell you, 1 keep no account ; and I fear farmers do a great deal at a loss in ignorance, by neglecting keeping proper accounts. I hope to find some able peraoa will an- 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. swer tbis question, and if lie can show me that suck- ling pays — after taking into consideration the rent of meadows and expenses as before stated — I shall be obliged to him ; but if I am answered with silence, then 1 say why not do away with such in- sipid food as veal, which is verv unwholesome and no advantage to any one, but a loss to the country ; and let vour meadows be cut and your aftergrass for sheep or horses, if they will not come to a cut, sheep them, and the sucklers weaned and reared, to make roast beei' ; your yards would yield much better dung by fatting or feeding bullocks with cake, as cows only have cake when in full milk, for the butcher or the marshes, as you please, bv giving much or little cake to cows only kept to supply milk and for bieeding, by which means we should make more beef and no veal, doing away with un- wholesome, indigestible food, fur tiie best food, giving the farmer a protit instead of no profit, and doing the country a great good, by giving a greater supply of beef, and thereby rendering it cheaper. Kcnl. Addis Jackson. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES. BY THOMAS WAKD JESTON, ESQ,, llENLEY-ON-IHAMLS. (From the Jnurnal of tlie Royal Agricultural Socieli/.J I have found by experience my plan for the management of bees, and mode of taking their super- fluous honev, without destroying the parent hive, fully to succeed ; in a bee-country it will aflbrd the cottager a very ample return for his trouble, and not require so much watching as i;he old plan — for the older the hive is, the less chance will there be of swarming, but a greater chance of a large deposit of honey. 1 have kept bees more than twenty years ; have tried Iluish's, Nutt's, and various other plans; but the one suggested by this industrious insect itself I have found to be the most simple, cheap, and suc- cessful, and will not cost the cottager more than sixpence to adopt, in addition to his old hives. Some years ago I placed an empty butter-tub under the board on which the hive lested; the sun cracked the board, and ihebees enlarging the opening, took possession of the tub, and, after filling their own hive, deposited 26 lbs. of honey and comb in the tub below. I'his I took possession of for my own use, leaving their hive full of honey for their winter's consumption. By improving on this simple plan, I have carried off the prizes for honey at the Henley Horticultural Society for the last four years. A board, half an inch in thickness, 18 inches ia width, and perforated with two lioles, each au inch in diameter, is placed between the hive aud the butter-tub. The tub should be placed under the hive as earlv as March; the bees having a great dislike to any disturbance of their arrangements. I last year took ujjwards of 40 lbs, of honey in this way, although the season was so bad, and an ample supply of food was left for the bees to subsist on during the winter. This plan will jirove a good substitute for the " rear" used to enlarge the common hive ; wilii this advantage, that a supply of honey can be ob- tained from the strong swarms as well as the old hives. I have never found occasion to feed the bees from which honey had been taken in the mode described ; but previously to the adoption, I was in the habit of feeding them with coarse sugar boiled in beer and a little old wax-comb, to the consistence of a syrup. As an experiment I once fed some bees with treacle, made from grating 112 lbs. of beetroot, pressing from it one gallon of juice, and boiling this with one tea-spoonful of sulphuric acid (commonly called oil of vitriol) and three tea-spoonfuls of common chalk, or whiting in powder, wliich will clarify it and throw oft" all impurities, leaving, on evaporation, a clear syrup fit for feeding bees. There is little or no gorse or heath near Henley, and the character of the countiy is arable. The market-price of virgin honey (such as is obtained ou my plan) is in the town from Is. 6d. to Is. od. per pound, and the wax from Is. 6"d. to 2s. The following are the weights of seven hives, taken in April 1838, from which honey had been taken in the previous autumn, and yet the season of 1838 proved so bad that I obtained no honey that autumn, and two of the hives perished in the fol- lowing winter: — Hive No. 1 28 lbs. 2. .. .. 28 „ ,, 3. . . . . '-15 „ „ •*• . . . . -J ,, ,, ri. . . . . Ii4 „ 6 23 „ 7 '22 „ 'J'his season my five old hives, and Nutt's hive also, are in full vigour and operation. Ilenley-VH-Thames, Orfordihirc, May, 1840. SUPERIOR PLOUGHS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Allow us, through the medium of your re- spectable and widely circulated journal, to draw the attention of the agricultural public to a very valuable ]ilough which wc have used for some years past, doing so under a full conviction it is a duty we owe to the public, as well as to the humble individual its inventer and maker, an ingenwns practical Ploughman , John Adams, Cotton-end, Northampton. The best proof we can give of its superiority, is its having for some time past obtained the best prices at agricultural meetings ; we more particularly allude to those annually held at Lord Spencer's farm at Brampton, where they have competed with all the best ploughs in the neighbourhood, and always ob- tained prizes ; as also at the great Cottesmore meet- ing held on the 13th of last month, two of them con- tended against about 40 of the best ploughs in the kingdom (the match being open to all England), and brought home the two first prizes in class 2. See account of this meeting in the Leicester or Stamford papers. We have recommended him to attend the Smithfield Show, and to give every pub- licity to his invention. We shall be very happy to give any information to gentlemen willing to patro- nize this worthy individual, and are Sir, your obliged servants. W. Shaw, Jas. Rice, W. Siiaw. Jun. Cotton-endf 'Northampton,, Nov, 20th, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15 AGRICULTURAL LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS. TO THE KDITOH OF THE ESSEX STANDARD. Mr. Editor,— Through tlie medium of your valuable and widely circulated paper 1 would bee last have been ini])ro])erljf termed nenfers, since the cx])criments of Huher show they are females, and miiy at the ])leasure of the coininunity, and by an iiitfrestiiig process, be converted into the prolific Queen of the hive. Reaumur asserts tb^it the female in the sprinc: lays as many as 12,0t0 e^;gs in the spac(3 of 24 days. The ])roduct of the bee is of four kinds, the honey, wax, ;>olleu, and j)ro- jiolis. The /lunei/ is drawn from the flowers, and iinderf^oes little change, as is evident from its occa- sionally jiartaking of the narcotic or intoxicating effects of the plants from which it is derived. Age usually deprives it of these noxious qualities. The ira.i' is elaborated from the honey by the bee. It is formed between the abdominal rings of the working bees into j)lates, and is used for making the combs, 'i^he pollen or liee bread, uiuler diffe- rent modifications apjiears to constitute a large ])art of the food of the bees and their larvii' ; while the propolis is used for lining the hives, closing unnecessary holes, &c. Tiie working bees, and the queen also, secrete an active poison, which is retained in a small bladder at the root of the stings, and through which it is ejected into the wound by pressure. The Mexicans have a bee, an excellent worker, domesticated like our common bee, but which has no sting, and in its habits is as harmless as the house Hy. Several attempts to iutroduc:c thein into the United States have failed ; we believe from their inability to en- dure the cold of our winters. iMr. Weeks, of Vermont, has paid more attention to the bee than probably auy other individual in the United States, and hp has i!i several valuable papers given to the public the result of his observations, correcting errors into which others have fallen, and disclosing many new and valuable facts in regard to their habits and ]n'oper treatment. BliEF. Of all kinds of aiumal food used, it is believed there is none finer liavoured, more easily digested, or more nutritious than beef; certainly there is none more universally used as an article of human sustenance. To have beef in perfection it is necessary that the animal should be wull fed ; that the beast should be disposed to take on fat at the points where it is of the most value ; that the pasture should be clean and free from noxious weeds, or if stall-fed, that the substances used for feeding should be sweet, and such as will conmiu- nicate no unpleasant taste to the flesh ; and finally, if salted, that the pickle should be carefully made, containing salt enough to preserve the meat per- fectly sweet, yet not enough to harden the lean to the consistence and colour of mahogany. Juried beef, properly prepared, is an excellent article, and one which should be found among the stores of every farmer. In the tropical regions beef is pre- served by being cut, as soon as killed, into thin slices, and thoroughly dried in the sun. Such beef, in the huiguage of the country, is called jerked beef. In some parts of the world, par- ticularly in Abyssinia, beef is eaten raw. At a feast, the animal is tied to the door post : the flesh is cut from the living beast, is served to the guests, the muscles still quivering with life, and the more distinct this action, the more highly is the flesh esteemed. BITUjMEN. This is the name of a si)ccies in mineralogy, chiefly interesting as forming the b4- sis of a large part of the coals termed mineral coal, an article of vast iinpnrtance to the arts, com- merce, and comforts of lite. It has acquired several names, from its appearance in its different states of consistency. JSlaptha is a fluid, of a yel- lowish tingp, transparent, and with a peculiar odour. It consists of carbon 82.20, and hydrogen W.W. It is found in many parts of the world. Petroleum is of thicker consistence than naptha, in some cases resembling in colour and consis- tence, common tar. It is in this state that it is found in such vast quantities in the United States, ])rincipally at the salines on the Kenhawa and lAluskingum, at the depth of from oOO to GIIO feet. It is also found on the Olean creek in this state, and is the article known as Seneca oil. At Rainonhong in Birmah, is a hill containing coal, in which more than 500 pits have been dug for the collection of the petroleum, and from which 400,000 hogsheads are taken annuallj'. In boring for salt in 1838, on the Tombigbee river in Alaba- ma, at the depth of dOO feet, the miners struck a vein of petroleum, wdiich, flowing over the top in immense quantities, spread itself over the river for some fifty miles, and in that state wns sec on fire, forming a striking and brilliant spectacle. Com- pact bitumen, or Aij)hatium, has lately attracted much notice from a new application, which, in connection with some other substances, has been tnadcofitin paving streets, where its durability has been fmnd to e.\ceed granite. All the coal west of the Allegany mountains is bituminous, and some large beds of it occur on the east of this range. BLAST. A disease of plants, to which by difl'e- rent writers has been given the name of blight, blast, and mildew. The latter, however, is evi- dently a distinct disease, and produced by different causes. Blast or blight has been divided into several varieties, affecting plants in different ways and with varying intensity. Among these may be mentioned blight originating from cold. The north or easterly winds of spring often produce this, by freezing the tender shoots, or by retarding the flow of the juices. Thus the young fruits are deprived of their, nourishment, and fall from the stem, lilast or blight from sultry wet weather, originating contagious diseases of plants, is an- other of the forms noted, and mildew sometimes seems to result from this cause. The blight which sometimes strikes the grain of whole dis- tricts, would seem to be owing to atmospheric causes thus generated, since the disease appears to follow, and be governed by the course of the winds. Blast from the want of nourishment, is another form of the disease, but of which the cause is usually obvious. Impoverished land, too great quantities of seed, or injudicious culture, may produce this blight, but in this coimtry it is oftener observed as an effect of drought. Blast from_/«/(//i is the kind of blight which attacks grain also, and which has been erroneously attri- buted to particular plants, as the barberry bush, since the fungi on the leaves of this i)lant, and those that cause the blight in wheat, are clearly distinct. BLINDNESS. No animal is so subject to blind- ness as the horse, and in most cases it can be clearly traced to the treatment they receive. Se- vere drawing in the harness, or racing, either on the course or otherways, will not unfrequently produce blindness, sometimes temporary, but 2 c 20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. often permanent. An examination of the pupils of the eye, will most usually enable an obfserver to determine whether there is blindness or not. If the pupils, when exposed to light after being in a dark stable, contract, the horse is not blind ; if they contract unequally, or one not at all, then the vision is imperfect, or gone in one of the eyes. The hand placed close over the eye for a few mi- nutes, so as to render the eye dark, will show the dilation or contraction of the pupil, when no other convenient means of excluding light are at hand. A horse, blind with both eyes, will visually have his ears in constant and rapid motion, directing- them in quick succession to every tjuarter, relying- on hearing rather than sight ; he will lift his feet high, as if lie were stepping over some obstacle, when there is another actually in the way. It is a common saying, that iraJl-ej/ed horses are never blind. This is probably an error ; as there appears no difference in their structure to warrant such an inference. BLOOD. The circulating fluid of animal bodies, and by means of which the functions of nutrition and life are carried en. Blood is usually divided into arterial blood, which is that given by the lungs to the heart, and by that thrown into the arteries of the system, and the venous blood, which is returned to the lungs through the veins from the surface and extremities. The venous blood is of a dark purple hue when [passed into the lungs, and it leaves them of a rich vermillion colour. This change is effected by the absorption, while in the lungs, of oxygen, from the atmosphe- ric air with which they are filled in breathing. Messrs. Macaire and Marcet of Geneva, in a se- ries of expel'iments on the blood, demonstrated that the difference between arterial and venous blood, was as follows; — Carbon. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. Arterial blood, 50.2 26.3 16.3 " (Jj; Venous blood, 5.5.7 tl.l 1G.2 6.4 Blood is of mnch use in some of the manufac- turing processes, some valuable colouring pig- ments being derived from it. From the large quantities of albumen it contains, it is the princi- pal ingredient in freeing sugar or molasses from its impurities, previous to the conversion into lump or loaf sugar. Blood is found to be one of the most powerful of manures when applied to the ground ; and large quantities of it, mixed with other materials, are obtained from the slaughter-houses of our principal cities, and ap- propriated to this purpose. When animals are attacked with fever, one of the surest remedies is bleeding, either local or general, as the cause may demand. BOG. A swampy piece of ground, usually con- taining large quantities of vegetable matter, fre- quently of the nature of a quagmire, and with tufts of coarse grass mingled with aquatic plants spread over its surface, is in Europe, and usually in this country, termed a bog. Such pieces of amphibious soil, are not common in the United States, but in Scotland and Ireland, a very con- siderable portion of the surface is occupied by such non-productive lands. Where bogs exist, the only modes of bringing them under culture are, by draining or covering the surface with firm earth, and frequently it is necessary to combine both operations. Draining the land consolidates the surface, and affords opportunity to cut off" the bogs or coarse tufts of grass, and introduce more yaluable grasses, if not to submit it to the action of the plough. Where the boggy ground is most- ly composed of vegetable matter it is desirable to incorporate the common earths with the surface, thus giving increased ])owers of production, and greater tirniness. Gravel or sand may be carried on when the ground is frozen, if the surface is not liard enough at other times, and by thus unit- ing draining and the application of earths to im- part consistence, such soils, worthless in their natural state, are rendered most valuable and pro- ductive. BONE. The frame-work of animals, constituting the osseous structure or skeleton, is called bone, and is composed of several ingredients, the princi- ])al one of which is the earth called phosphate of lime. This material appears to have been selected for this purpose, as forming much harder com- pounds with animal membrane than the carbonate, which is used in the compo-iition of shells. The harder and more solid the bone, the greater the ])roportion of the phosphate ; thus the bony por- tions of the ear, arc very hard, and they consist almost wholly of the phosphate. The long part of the teeth contains considerable carbonate, but the enamel or the cutting parts, which sometimes approaches to the hardness of steel, is nearly ])ure phosphate. The composition of bone can be determined by fire, or more accurately by the acids ; and they are found to consist of phosphate of lime, a small quantity of carbonate of lime, the whole cemented together by a strong elastic ani- mal membrane, to which is added oil, of which the principal depository is the interior of the bone. The use of bone dust, or bones reduced to j)Owder by grinding, has introduced a new era in agriculture in some parts of the world. Crushed bones were first extensively used as a manure in the counties of Lincoln and York, aboutthe begin- ning of the present century; and they are now considered the best and most efficacious applica- tion that can be made to the soil, it has been estimated that by extending the growth of the tur- nip crop to districts where it was not before grown, and thus increasing the means of raising cattle and sheep, and through these indirectly, the culture of wheat and barley, the means of subsistence in England has been increased one- fifth. Twelve bushels per acre drilled in, is the usual allowance, but it is sometimes sown broad- cast, and the quantity varied from ten to twenty bushels an acre. The experience of farmers who have used this manure, shows that it succeeds best on light, dry, calcareous loams, or in general on any soils that are dry, and do not contain too much alumina. If sown broadcast, the better way is to mix the bone dust with earth and let it slightly ferment before spreading on the land. With turnips, and for these as a manure it is un- rivalled, the practice is to drill it in with the seed. Bones that have undergone fermentation, are superior to those that have not undergone this process, and their effect on plants is more rapid. Where land is much impoverished, thirty bushels per acre have been used with success. In this country they are well spoken of, and mills for grinding the bones have been erected in various places. It is evident from the chemical compo- sition of the bone (salts oflime and animal matter) that its action on plants must be energetic, and such is found to be the case. The finer the dust the more rapid its action, while as a matter of course, that which is not so fine is the most dura- ble in its effects. BOTS. It is well known that most animals are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 infested with particular kinds of parasitic vermin that prey upon tliem, either externally or inter- nally. Thus the ox, horse, slieep, and oven man himself in the tropical regions, areatiacked hy the fly, tlie species dift'erent in the dilTcrent animals, and the larvic dejjosited on the hair, on the nm- cous membrane of the nose, or in the iiesh, lives on the body to which it is attached until it is prepared to undergo its last transformation and become a perfect insect. The^c Hies belong to the genus (Estrua, of Linn, and the parent of tlie hot, or the one that attaclcs horses, is the (Eslrv.s e(jiii. The female of this fly is known at once by the extremity of the abdomen being lengthened, and turned under the belly so as to form an ovipositor for placing the eggs on the hair of the horse. As this flydoes not bite, it does nut occasion that terror to the animal it attacks, as is prodnced by some of the species of gad-fly, and a horse will continue quietly feeding while the (Lstrus, conti- nually on the wing, is busy depositing the eggs on the hairs. The place selected by the fly is generall}' on the inside of the knees, or the sides of the horses, always avoiding those parts that the horse is unable to reach with his mouth or tongue. On these points the eggs are rapidly deposited, being fastened to the hair by a glutinous substance. This substance dries, and the egg is lirnily attached to the hair, where they remain some four or five days, at which time the larvie is read}' to burst the envelop, and a slight application of warmth and moisture is sufficient to ctt'ect this. If at this time the tosii^uc of the horse passes over the iiairs to which the larva; are attaciied, the operculum or cell is instantly opened, and the worm, small and white, adhering to the tongue, passes with the food into the stomach. This fact of the quickness with which tlie living worm will lie produced when the egg is ripe, may casilj' be tested by placing some hair containing eggs or luts in tlie hand slightly moistened with warm water or spittle, and closing it upon them. They may even sometimes be hatched liy drawing the moistened hand slov/ly over the hau- of the horse, the worms, lively and vigorous, remaining on the hand when removed. When the hot has de- scended into the stomach of the horse, it attaches itself to every part of the inner coat, but oftener about the pylona than elsewhere. From this account of its production, it is evident the num- bers in the stomach may vary from a dozen, or twenty, to several hundreds. They are usually in clusters, attached to the membrane of the sto- mach by two hooks or tentacular. Some writers have maintained that these hooks are on the tail, instead of the head of the animal, and conse- quently as it is suspended by that extremity, the idea of its penetrating the c»at of the stomach, and thus causing death, is absurd. The researches of Messrs. Youatt and Clark, however, prove that it is by the head the insect is attached, and that they may at times prove fatal, though such in- stances they conclude are very rare, and that on the whole the hot is really productive of injury to the horse. When the bot has attained its growth, it quits its hold, and passing through the intestinal canal, falls to the ground, in which it secretes itself and enters the chrysalis state, from which in due time it emerges, a j)erfect insect, and re- commences its round of propagation. BOULDERS. In almost every part of the world masses of rock or stone are found, from the weight of many tons down to a few ounces in size, and rounded by attrition, or angular, as when broken from the quarry. Such rocks arc frequently many miles from the place of their original formation and depositc, and by fixing their original location, they greatly aid in deternuning the nature and diiection of the causes that in former ages have acted on tlie face of the earth. In examining the country from Boston to the Mississippi, and tracing the boulders which ere scattered over aliimst all the whole of this extensive region to their original deiiosite, it will be found that they have been in nearly every instance driven from the north in a southern direction. Thus the greywacke boulders found in the valleys of Berk- shire, are traced to the west and north of the Hoosic range, over which they have evidently been forced. All are aware that there is no pri- mitive rocks south of the Ontario in the state of A ew York, yet the whole surface is found sprin- kled with boulders, which, from the character of the rocks, must have been derived from the pri- mitive ranges in tho St. Lawrence district and north of the Ontario. Boulders of gneisis, weigh- ing many tons, are found on the elevated lands of Allegany and other southern counties, which have evidently been transported from the north to their present eituation. Perhaps there are few of the rocks of the transition or secondary classes more distinctly marked, and more easily known, than the red sandstone of the whole southern shore of Lake Ontario, particularly the strata im- mediately under the bed of iron ore that reaches from Oneida county into Canada; yet blocks of this very stone may be found in great numbers, j on a substrata of impervious clay. Notwithstanding- this unfavourable character, 1 will exhibit liiy farm against any other in tlie United l-vingdom, which shall show the most marked im- provement compared with all other lands in tlie same locality respectively within a distance of one or two miles. In making- this challenpre, 1 disclaim anything- which can be considered as a gambling transaction, neither is it to gratify any vain feeling ; my object is a wis!) to si-e something in agriculture superior to any practical effect whicii lias as yet come under ray observation, therefore, if this offer is accepted, the loseing: party should only bear all expenses of inspection, and tlie enquiry to be made in April next. MALT, The Quantity of Malt consumed by the undermen- tioned Brewers of London and its vicinily, iVo.u lOth October, 1839, to lOlh October, 1840. ON MIXING SALT AND LIME. Sir, — In an Editorial note, appended, in a recent number of your excellent Journal, to the queries of a correspondent respecting the use of salt, you remark — " Why does he not mix it with lime, and so ute it V You would very much oblige inc, and I have no doubt many others of your readers, by stating- in vour pajter at what period of the year this mixture should be made, how often it should be turned over before it is applied to the land, and whether the compost should be iilaced Hnder cover, or remain in the open air ? I fear to tax your good nature, or I would a-^k many other questions — such as, if it is suitable for all soils, and all kinds of crop, or not. But I refrain, and with many apologies for troubling you at all, I have the honour to be A Constant ItEADEa and Subscriber Nov. 11. TO YOUR Papku. [In reply to our correspondent's question?, we have to remark that the salt and lime (wne bushel of the former with two of the latter) must be mixed pretty intimately with each other, three tnonllis before they are used. The heap is best placed in a shed, or thatched over, so as to preserve it from the ridu. The wet makes it run into cakes, and renders it mare difficult to spread evenly over the land. We have seen it used with decided success for turniji-;, wheat, barley, or oats, chiefly on tne light silicious lands of Essex and Hampshire. Mr. Bennett has been equally succes>!ul with it on the clialks of Wiltshire, and Sir Charles Burrell has uffd it with decidi-dly good results ou the heavier soils of Sussex.— Ed. M.L.E] Qrs. Barclay and Co. . . 115,561 llaubury and Co.. 98,1-24 Whitbread and Co. 53,62-2 Keid and Co 48,130 Meux and Co 40,784 Combe and Co. . . . 38,3fi8 Calvert and Co. . . 30,872 Hoare and Co 30,310 Taylor and Co 27.300 Elliott and Co 25,255 Tliorne, Son, & Co. 20,846 Goding- and Co. . , 18,516 Cluurington & Co. 18,072 Gardner and Co.. . 16,558 Jiroadwood 14,631 Lamont & Stewart 13,475 Mann 11,657 Courag-e and Co. . 11,532 Wood and Co.... 7,194 ftlore ti,954 Hazard and C;o. . . 6,729 Hodgson & Abbott 5,704 Alantieis and (Jo.. . 5,334 Harris, Tliomas . . 5,152 Richmond and Co, 4,964 Tubb 4,478 Hale 4,443 Farren and Till . . 4,425 llallord and Co. . . 3,585 M'Leod.Bentley.. 3,403 Dug-gan & Gaskell 2,999 Pag-e 2,700 Laxton 2,658 Lambert 2,607 .foluisonand VVyatt 2,425 Siaiaes and Fox .. 2,416 Keen and Geaid.. 2,354 Patterson 2,333 Fleming and Co.. . 2,159 Lane and Bowden 1,964 Clarke, Charles .. 1,934 Gritliths 1,916 Gurney 1,903 llerringlonandCo. 1,903 Jones, T 1,879 Verey, W, and G. 1,762 Cox, John 1,7-23 JJrapcr and Co. .. 1,711 Hill and Co 1,677 JMasterinan 1,672 Fdlmerand Co. .. 1,490 Brown, late Hicks 1,450 Woods and Co. .. I,4.i2 Safchell 1,308 Uflbrd uHd Oider- shaw 1,201 Honeybali 1,153 ICasdell and Co. .. 1,116 Dickenson 1,100 Holt 1,093 Turner, R 1,077 Blogg- 1,034 Church 949 Jen tier 929 Hume 791 Plimiiier 788 M'Cleod, J. 6c M. 782 Chad wick 775 Lock 775 l\Iaiin,Joel 773 Manvcll 732 Qrs. Turner ■... 728 Mantel 723 Addison 711 West 626 Collins 620 Hodd 594 Martin and Parker 591 \'erey,J 572 Colyer 505 Cooper 503 Rudg-e, late Clarke 555 Garrett 481 Clarke, S 450 Harris 447 Bye, W. and H. . . 433 Woodward 431 Abbot 407 Paris 405 Sa-dndeis 3()1 Liadriey 358 West, J. W 352 Wicks 343 Griffiths 321 Chapman 318 Green 309 Todman 279 Thompson 237 Olley.... 206 Prosser 20G Edwardi*, S..; 205 Powditch 204 Prace 197 Jackson 196 Clark, H 193 Watkins 182 Mattam 179 Lasham 168 Lloyd 155 Brewer 150 Turner, R 146 Goading' 143 Bye, F 143 Jewett 143 Pugh 141 Thorpe 130 French 129 Hainstoek 117 Eaton 115 Collins, W.L 114 Purcell 107 Birt 103 Husbands 102 Miller. Jos 102 Woodruff 92 Wood, D 91 Combe 74 Waig-h 70 Steer 66 Godfrey 63 Big'bee 64 Chapman 65 Batt 52 Field 52 Shejdierd 50 Meaton 47 Bradficid 45 Fotler, E 43 Hulls and Co 40 JNIayiiard, Jofs ."^9 Potter, LI 38 Smith -20 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE KINTBURY NAKED BAR- LEY, OR BARLEY WHEAT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. My Dear Sir. — The enclosed report by Mr. Cox, with regard to tlie Kintbury Barley, is every way worthy of the attoutioii of your readers. Mr. Alderman hifonns me that he shall furnish Mr. George Gibbs with a sack of it, for exhibition on his seed stand, at the approaching Smithiield Show. — I am, my dear Sir, yours faithfully, CUTIIBERT W. JOIIX.SOX. Gray's Inn Square, Nov. 28. To C. Alderman, Esq. My Dear Sir, — A (evf days ag'o I wrote to our friend, and said I would brin? with nie the compa- rative estimate of your naked barley malt, but bein.q- at leisure I shall copy otf and send it to you by post, so tiiat you may peruse it before I shall have the pleasure of seeing yoa. You are not to scold me for saying' that I think your barley, if well harvested, is capable of peaterthingrs ; you will see what I have remarked upon it, but I believe a little more experience, especial ly.with those who have been accustomed to make wheat malt, will cause it to be done better.— I remain, Sir, yours most truly, John Cox. Brewery, Bermendsey, Surrey, Nov. 6. August, 1840. Memorandum of a comparison of Samples of Malt. No. 1. A sample of malt made from naked barley from Mr. C. Alderman, of Kintbury, Berks. No. 2. A sample of very fine malt made from Che- valier barley from Essex. In the first place, the weight of each sort of malt in an equally dry and in an ungrouud state was ascertained, and found to be in the following proportions, lb. lb. No. 1. Weight per bushel 50 per qr. 400 No. 2. Weight per bushel 41| per qr. 332 Then each sample was ground equally fine ; tliey were kept free from any admixture, and then equal por- tions by weight were submitted to experiment, con- ducted exactly alike in each instance. A portion of No. 1 in the proportion of 271b. to 3b" gallons of water was macerated, and infused for twelve hours in a good extractive heat, and produced a wort of 7.2561b. heavier per barrel than water, by Dring and Page's saccharometer, which is at the rate of 107;^! bs. per qr. ; and by Dicas's saccharometer containing 18.751bs. of dry extract per brl. which is at the rate of 2781b. of dry extract per qr. A portion of No. 2 in the proportion of 271b. to 3i3 gallons of water was macerated and infused exactly as .above, and produced a wort of 7.48191 bs. heavier per barrel than water, by Dring and Fagc's saccharo- meter, which is at the rate of 921b. per qr. ; and by Di- las's saccharometer containing 19.11b. of dry extract per brl., which is at the rate of 2351b, of dry extract per qr. There cannot be a doubt of the correctness of the operations, because as respects No. 2 the results asrree with the produce obtained from many brewings of that malt within a fraction, indeed within a half per cent. The following remarks are made with reference to the comparative produce of dry extract, as greater reliance can be placed on its accuracy (from repealed proofs of it)thHn on the weight per barrel above the weight of water. According to the results shown by the foregoing ex- periments, if the produce (pound for pound) extraetible from each sample should be equally valuable, then if No. 2 cost 73s. per qr. (the price paid for it). No, 1 would be worth 865. 4d. per qr. ; but the extracts were net equally valuable, for that from No. 1 was inferior in flavour i& that from No. 2, probably owing to infe- rior management before and in the process of malting-. It will be observed that (taking equal weights^ the malt made from the naked barley is not so productive as that made from the Chevalier barley by nearly 2 per cent. ; this appears extiaordinary, because not being en- veloped in an insoluble husk, it ought to be, and pro- bably would be, more producliveif equally well malted, and indeed in such case it may be expected that with equal weights, instead of being nearly 2 per cent, inferior it would be that much or to a greater extent superior; but then also, probaldy, the bushel would not weigh .so much as 501b. It ,vill also be observed that (taking equal mea- sures) the malt made from the naked bsrley exceeds in produce Ihtit made iiom chevalier bailey by more than 18 per cent. ; and this extent of produce would, pro- bably, be increased if the naked barley had been unin- jured and equally well malted. But No. 1 sample of the malt made from the naked barley, was not well-flavoured nor of fine quality; se- veral of the grains had not vegetated, and consequently (not being malt) could not be productive, and other grains had apparently been crushed, broken or bruiserl by the shoes of tlit; thrasher, or by the shoes or shovels ot the maltster ; and those injureil grains had contracted an ill flavour from inouldiness, which was communi- cated to the wort. It is probable that the extract would be equally good-flavoured, equally valuable, and the produce considerably greaterif managed as well, and as perfectly malted as the sample No. 2, which was particuliiily excellent malt. In the barn and in the malt-house, with common or chevalier barley (each grain of which is protected by a '*s^ substantial husk), cloth;or list ^hoes, Nvithout leather soles, should always be worn, whether in thrashing, cleaning, pulling up, or in all the operations of the malt-house ; and with naked barley (which has no husk to protect its germ) it becomes doubly necessary to use not only the same but every other necessary precaution, to prevent injury, and to use farther delicacy in the operations of mailing. John Cox. Bennoiidsey , Surn'ij'. The Kintbury Naked Barley is thus described by jMr. Alderman : — 1. It contains more flour than any other grain, rice only excepted. 2. .'t weiirhs more than GOIbs. per bushel. 3. The flour is whiter and sweeter tlian common barley flour. 4. The flour absorbs inore water than other flour, conseqnently it produces more weight of bread, 5. Bread made from any barley flour is better made into thick cakes ; and if from a fourth to an eighth of an ounce of carbonate of soda is dissolved in the yeast, it improves all bread, and takes the bitter taste away. 6. r>y plain boiling it is good food for children. 7. 'I'he malt made from ii increases in measure more than from common barley. 8. The malt will make in seven days less than com- mon barley. 9. It can be made one month earlier and one month later than from common barley. 10. It weighs considerably more than the malt from common barley. 11. The beer made from this malt is superior. 12. Three bushels will seed the land as well as four of other barley. 13. It should lie sown in March or April. 14. It ripens in 80 or 90 days only. 15. If sown without grass it can be harvested in two or three days. 16. If sown early it will be harvested in time for a following good crop of turnip». 17. It only requires the same cultiv.ation as other barley. 18. The straw is much superior for fodder. 19. It very seldom lodges, and is not subject to dis- ease. 20. Each acre of this barley produces about one- third more food for human beings or animals. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 25 VETERINARY SCHOOLS AND BREEDING OF HORSES IN FRANCE. Attention has been particularly directed of late years in France to the improvement of the breeds of horses, of which some are possessed of properties uselul and peculiar to the country, the g:reat desideratum to he supplied being the acquisition and naturalization of horses of pure race and greater speed. When any object is desirable and expedient in a national point of view, the Government there is not slow in its direct intromission, and accordingly with that faculty for systematisiug in which the people are &o ready and expert, a grand plan was speedily traced and organized for forming seme extensive establishments of haras, or convenient open, grounds and buildings for the recep- tion, pasture, and superintendence of the best breed, in various districts of the country, for which indeed models were to be found in Hungary and the Crimea. At yearly exhibitions of horses premiums are besides awarded to all such breeders or farmers as shall pro- (luce horses of the most approved qualities, and to encourage individuals in improving their stock the choicest horses are supplied from the haras to the proprietors of brood mares for a trifling consideration. A permanent commission for the examination and re- gistration of horses of pure blood is constituted, at the head of wliich are the Due Decazes, Count de Flahaut, with seven other distinguished per^ODS, under whom are different services conducted by inspector- generals, directors of the haras, and directors of the depots of entire horses, &c. The most useful institu- tions however springinj^ out of and attached to the system of these haras, are doubtless those of the " royal veterinary schools'' and " royal i-er^enes," the latter a kind of horse folds as it may be said. The advancement of veterinary science by training scien- tifiCMlly to the practice persons of superior general attainments, and thus elevating to the dignity of a profession an art hitherto abandoned to a class of men of such low degree, as to be without pretensions to more than the commonestrudiments of education, when any at all, has long been felt in this country to be a consummation earnestly to be wished, but of which the means to the end could not be exactly comprehended without the intervention of the state, which was not a very probable event. In France however the object is at once attaiaed, or in progress, by these veterinary schools, of the principles on which founded and to be governed the followintr outline may perhaps be of some interest generally. There are three of these schools, one at Alfort near Paris, another at Lyons, and a third at Toulouse. Any one i? admissible into these schools from 16 to 25 years of age ; some at the charge of pa- rents, others entitled to a whole or a half bourse, which would seem something like the exhibilions for the uni- versities attached to various grammar-school founda- tions here. The charge for board and education is 36o francs per annum, or about 14/. Ss., payable quarterly and io advance ; ail the pupils are subject to the same regime, clothed in the same manner and receive the same instruction. The time of entrance is fixed for the fiist Monday in October of each year ; no one can be admitted without the authorisation of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, the candidates authorised to present themselves do not definitively take rank among the pupils until on examination before a competent jury they are proved to pos.sess the requisite conditions, wiiicii are to be able to read and write correctly, and to fwrge a horse or ox shoe, en deux chaitdes, a technical expres- sion which seems to imply the making the shoe in two heats, or wiiilst the iron is twice heated in the fire for the operation. Every requckt for authorisation to enter into the veterinary schools mu^st be addressed to the Alinister of Agriculture before the 1st of September at latest, with a copy of the register ot birth of the peti- tioner, a certificate of good conduct, and an attestation • hat he has been vaccinated, or has had the small pox. The Government defrays tlie expense of one hundred and twenty bourses, one for each department, at the nomi- nation of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce upon the presentation of the prefect, and thirty-four on the direct nomination of the Minister. These bournes are all divided into half /jouciM. In order to obtain a ilemiboarie& pupil must have studied six months at least as pupil paying pension, and that he shall have distin- gui-ihed himself l)y the regularity of his conduct and success in his studies. The pupil entitled to a demi- bourse may obtain a second, but always as a reward of good conduct and successful i)rogress. The Minister of War supports at the veterinary school of AUort forty military pupils for the service of the cavalry. The pupils who, lifter four years' study, are adjudged ca- pable of exercising the veterinary art, receive a diploma as veterinary surgeon, the co^t of which is fixed at 100 francs; The veterinary schools have hospitals attached to them, for the reception and treatment of diseased animals. 'I'he owners of these horses have only to pay the alimentary charge, of which the price is fixed yearly. It IS clear that an institution so well conceived, conducted on rules and principles so well ordered,' cannot fail to answer the important and economical purposes of the founders, by producing a cl;iss of educated and skilful practitioners capable of renderi no- great service both to the state and individuals. " ON DISEASES IN SHEEP. Sir, — Having consulted soi>:e experienced sheep- masters, to whom the following- cases appear en- tirely new, will you allow of this insertion in your paper, hoping, through that means, the diseases and their remedies might be known, and thereby become of general benefit. Ten days ago, the shepherd found in a fold of last year's wether 1 mib.s, one extended and apparently deaJ, but on taking it up, it was paralyzed, the eye clear and lively, the nose moist, no fever, pulse regular, tongue good, in fact, no indications of disease or pain, excepting an incapacity of moving the legs, or standing when put up. The sheep was bled ; soon after he walked about for a few minutes, then relai sed, when he was housed, and some Epsom salts and ginger given; he eats sliced tur- nips, and the greens, when put into the mouth, but cares not to help himself to any (|uantity. In two or three instances, almost as quickly as the attack came on, it has gone oft'; the sheep gets up, walks about, and one day seemed so well climbing up the hurdle for the purpose of seeing other sheep in the adjoining field, ihut the shepherd thought he would let him into the meadow, but Lad not gone many ])aces before he again fell. One ounce of sulphur has been given to keep the body sufficiently open, since then another dose of Epsom salts and gino-er. During the illness there has been a grinding of the teeth, the head has inclined to the left, and there has been a disposition to lie on that side in preference to the other ; witheut appearing worse in symptoms he has not recovered the use of his legs for these two past da^'s. I Lave examined W. Youatt's treatise on sheep, and find no disense so analogous as palsy, but palsy usually attacks young- lambs, and at weaning time, not as now, good sized lambs nearly twelve months old ; then again, palsy seems constant, not intermittent iu the attacks. 'I'he second case is — the sheep staggers, turns round two or three limes quickly, tben falls, after one or two minutes -again rises and follows the floek. This has been repeated two or three times in the day by the same sheep, and is so like Youatt's description of epilepsy that it would be passed as 26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sucb, but foi'tbis difference, itbas been accompanied witb frothing at tbe mouth and sickening for sohie days ;ifter tbe attack. Tbese sheep bave recovered soonest v.- hen notliing bas been given them. Will sheep eat the young shoots of tbe common dock at tins season of tiio year, and will iliat pro- duce tbe above injurious effects? Tiie tbird case is analogous to atrophy in the Jjunian race. There has not been observed any fever or injurious symptoms, but from graduitlly wasting, thinking tliere must he some latent miscbief, the sheep bas been bled and physicked as if for fever ; be has been kept well, eats, looks lively about the eye, but is still weak and wastes. If there have been tliough unobservc-,d — fever, it can be explained ; otherwise, there dues not appear in Yoiiatt a disease among sbsep to which it can be compared. Tbe general treatment of tbe flock is, tliat tbey are allowed to feed on good meadows during the day, and at night in rongh weather, tbey are folded, baving bay given ihem at night, and again in tbe morning- before being let out, that tbe sheep might not eat too much moist food, particularly wlien tbe white frosts are on tbe ground. Should any of your readeis be able tO' give in- formation on this subject, it will oblige, Sir, Yours, veiy respectfullv', ]VoD. 19,1840. "" S. II. ON THE PRESENT EPIZOOTIC AMONG CATTLE, SHEEP, &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE DONCASTER GAZETTE. Sir, — From the epidemic raging among cattle, this place has not been exempt. Although it has not as- sumed so serious a character here as at some other places, perhaps the following remarks may possess sufficient interest to render them acceptable tc many of your readers. From the present epizootic among cattle, sheep, and swine of every denomination, neither age nor sex alfords the least protection. I have witnessed it in its various gradations, from the cow of ten yeai s old to the calf of two days only. As yet, I have not seen it iu either the horse or dog, neither do I think the former animal sus- ceptible of the disease. I believe we have not yet arrived at a knowledge of the real cause of this malady, although many sugi,es- tions have been ad»anetd both by theoretical and prac- tical men. Tbe disease has been attributed by some to cattle taking the ranunculus, or buttercup; but the majority of cases, and the most obstinate that have fallen under my notice, occurred before this flower made its appearance. The most likely cause seems to me to be that of the Jitmosphere being charged with some poisonous effluvia exuding from the eartli, in consequence of the dry wea- thei' setting in so suddenly after the extreme wet; bad provender, such as hay, tares, tkc. In many of the obstinate cases that I have witnessed, the patients have been living in this way ; and we are practically ac- quainted with the lact, as it reganU the human subject and our more general patient the horse, that there are many diseases to which bl^th are liable, such as the itch, gaol and sheep fever, glanders, farcy, and mange, all of which are generated within themselves, and yet are highly contagious. Such may be the case with this disease. Like other epidemic or epizootic diseases, those ani- mals which are first attacked are visited with tbe great- est severity. In selectiug those localities most favourably situated for exciting its malignant influence. .^nd those places where the materials most fitting for its propagation are to be found— namely, where the greatest number of animals are kept together — where the air is least pure, the epizootic appears tobe nothing more or less than an attack, from some unknown or at least undetermined agent, upon tbe whole of the raucous membranes, commencing at the usual lining, and con- tinuing its course through the trachea, &c. Whether the digestive organs are primarily or secondarily affected, is not yet decided ; but I am much inclined to believe the former, and in this supposition my success- ful treatment adopted sorm what bears me out. Counter irritants are recommended by some of the profession ; but I confess that I cannot see the utility of them iathis disease, as, before they will act efiectually, we obtain all we desire by other and more certain means. The disease is evidently of a contagious character, and although this is disputed by some, I think sufficient evidence may be easily collected in any locality where it has prevailed to place the question beyond dispute. In the south, where tbe disease existed for so long a period, the farmers regarded it not only as of the most contagious and infectious nature, but as of a charao-ter too hopeless to admit of cure; and they had therefore resorted to tbe qualifying remedy of inoculation, and applied the saliva of the diseased cows to the mouths of the rest of the herd, thereby communicating the disease to them in a milder form, and preventing them taking it with its natural and severe consequences. The disease is ushered iu by a cold fit, manifested by a slight erection of the coat, extremities cold, diminu- tion of appetite. This is quickly followed by what may be termed the hot-fire ; the coat resumes its natural appearance, the roots of the horns are unusually warm, the mouth presents a slight increase of saliva, nose quite dry, the bowels iu various states ; pulsegeuerally about 70 beats in the minute, feet tender and the beast occasionally shelliug them, tongue swollen, and some- times the angles of the lips are very tender. From six to twelve hours after the commencement of tbe cold fit, an effusion of serum takes place under the cuticle where it is most dense and void of hair : it raises the cuticle in the form of extensive vesicles, namely, on the dor- sum and around the point of the tontrue, under the upper lip, the extremity of the nose, tbe conaectiug portions between the hoofs and around the top of them, and often a considerable portion of the heel of the horny sole, also on the papillae or teats of those cows that are giving milk at the time of the attack. From this to the third or fourth day constitutes the sloughiug of the raised cuticle, duriug which time the aniu.al is pre- vented feeding to any extent, from the e-xtreme soreness of the mouth, although it makes frequent attempts to do so. By the end of the third day, the animal has a most wretched appearance, looking exceedingly emjity, the coat partially erected, head droopiog with a con- stant flow of saliva from the mouth, the eyes sunken ; generally lying down, and manifestly from two causes, debility and tenderness of the feet . In its treatmeut, it should be borne in mind that it is of a specific nature, dependent on a peculiar diathesis, or stale of body arising from epidemic influence ; being subjected to the action of a vitiateit atmosphere, which giving rise to febrile commotion, a state of excitement is induced, which soon conquers the opposing force of nature, depresses organic nervous power, arul quickly renders life extinct. Therefore, althounrii the disease may be based on inflammation, attended with a quick, full, and bounding pulse, yet venesection must nijt be carried to excess. There must be no bieediug to " ap- proach syncope;'' none to produce a ''falter'' of the heart's action, or fatal collapse may ensue, and rapidly sink the powers of natuie; but moderate bleeding, during the state of excitement, I have often found to abate the disease, also to lessen the degree of tubse- quent debility and duration iif it. All concur, I believe, in the propriety of unloading the bowels, by means of some cathartics, as speedily as possible, which are often found loaded with a quantity of black, highly offensive faeces, frequently streaked with blood. The after-treatment 9nust be left to the discretion and judg- Tttfi FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 ment of the medicul atteiidaut ; for no rule can be laid down trom which no deviation in treatment is called fur. It is mere quackery to suppose or assert so. I will here close my remarks, by staling that the disease has so far lost its virulent character that many thataie now attacked with it require little or no treatment ; and instead of its spreading rapidly throujirh the whole of the cattle in a farm in the short space of a lew days, it now selects individuals, leaving the great bulk un- touched. J, B. Lord, Veterinary Su:gcon. Priory Place, Duucaster, Nov. lo, 1040. ON DRAINING AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. TO MR. EI.LIS. CoUbigham, Nov. 18, 18-10. Sin, — I regret much tliat your letter sboulcl liave remained so long unnoticed by me, but the reason is this : I have been from bonif* for some time, :ind hnve not until this very day seen the " Mark Lane Express" of the 9th. Hoping tliat this letter may find admission into the next number, I shall be as brief as possible, taking- the subjects on which you touch in consecutive order as they stand. As I have before stated in the Mark Lane Express, I consider the subsoil plough of immense importance in the improvement of clay land, and there are few soils on whicli it may not be " advantageously worked" ; but whether or not this opinion will hold good as to the principality equnlly with c)ther parts of the United Kingdom which 1 ha>'e seen, 1 cannot say, but there cnn be little doubt about it. As to the " soils best adapted to the operation of the subsoil plough," I am not able to meet the (|uesiion exactly in the way you may have beeri led to expect ; nor do I think th;it the experience of tniy one man will enable him to answer it. The subsoil operiition is comparativtdy a new discoverv, and I, at least, am not aware that it has been well enough done, on the difl'erent varieties of soil, to warrant a conclusion as to whicli it is " best adapted to." The first and principal object of the improve.- of cold, wet, strong, clay land, is to get off the water : this will be best done by thorouyh-drabibif/ , and tlie use of the largest Scotch subsoil plougli. When applied to land several degrees lighter than the above, the smaller iron plough will he better, taking much less draught ; and for land still lighter, where the object is more to cool the land in summer, than to facilitate the exit of the water, the Rackheath plough is perhaps the inost suitable. You speak of " a Mr. Smith," quoting my friend ^Ir. Wright. There is bat one Mr. 'Smith in Scotland, every one will say who knows the inventor ot' the subsoil plough. \ ou may procure either o( the |)loughs of Messrs. Drummonii, of Stirling ; the largest for 8/., and the s'tnaller one for 4/. 4s., (irst cost. The one used by Mr, Wright, is jMr. Murray's, and may hi?, drawn bv twopowerjul horses. Mr. Wright has, I believe, the merit of having fust discovered the importance of the agency of the subsoil plough, in destroying the wire worm, and 1 do hope, that many others, nosv that their attention has been drawn to this particular point, will give the plough a ti'ial. You are quite right as to Mr. .Smith'.* plough. It will often he found luird nork for six horses; but, of course, much will depend on the nature of the subsoil. and on its stule as to dryness. Four horses will sometimes be sufficient, where I should yet prefer the largest plough. Finally, for your government, and to assist any other gentleman who may have a desire to use the subsoil plough ; if the soil be a strong clay, and the subsoil still' and impervious, the land should iir.st be irell-drained ; the drains being so put, if possible, that the subsoil plough shall cross them at nearly a right-angle- — and then the party must embrace the most favourable season for using the largest plough, which will be, when it is iieither wet, nor dry. With the other kinds of soil referred to, — jnovided always that the land be well-drained, if it needs it, — the improver must proceed according to circum- stances, nothing doubting, but he will find an ample return for all his labour, whatever it may be, and however discouraging his first attempts mny be, arising from the ignorance, stupidity, and awkward- ness of the horses, and men, which he will Hnd pretty equally balanced. Should these hasty remarks beef any use to you, it will give rae great pleiisure. In conclusion, 1 beg to inform yoil, that it is my intention in a month or two, to publish a small work on the Management of Woods and Plantations, and on the best means of improving clay land, which will include all 1 have to say on the subject of the subsoil plough. I am. Yours truly, .T. Wpst. ON PLANTING POTATOES. TO THE KniTOR OP THE YORK HERALD. In proportion to the success or failure of the wheat crop, is the inqjortance of that of potatoes ; the wheat on being secured in this district, is found very far short of an average, although of good quality, we, therefore, look to that of potatoes, as being in some measure a substitute ; but alas! that crop also is a failure. This deficiency may chiefly be attri- buted to the cold ungenial season. Anotiier and one of the chief causes I believe to be cutting the sets too small for planting, for although a small set may do well in a favourable season, it requires more heart to support it, and more stamina to work upon, in seasons so unfavourable for vegetation as the last. It IS the duty of the farmer to counteract, by attentive management, the casualitiea of the seasons ; there- fore, if you think the following suggestions worthy a place in the I orh Herald, I hope they will be found interesting to your agricultural readers at this sea- sun. At the time of planting my potatoes last spring, I saw some remarks of Sir James Giaham's, in the third number of the "Transactions of the Iloyal English Agricultural Society," on the advantages of planting whole tubers, at long intervals instead of sliced tubers, at short ones ; following these suggestions, they being my own opinion previ- ously, 1 tiled two rows in the middle «f a field of potatoes, jdanling whole tubers about thirty inches apart in the rows, tlie other part of the lield being- sliced and planted at about ten inches. I have this day lifted the ]iotatoes, and find the- result to be an increase in bulk of twenty per cent, on the whole tubeis over the sliced ones ; for on measuring the two rows plar;ted whole, they contained ten bushels, whilst t"o sliced ones adjoining only had eight. The hauni of those planted whole was also much more luxuriant during the summer, and easilv distin- 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. guisbed from the other as soon as you entered the field. The land is a fine pliable loam, favourable to potatoes, and I should consider the benefit of planting- whole sets mnch greater, where tlie land is clayey, or other- wise unfavourable to their growth. As to garden ground or new soils, apt to produce loo much top, tlie case might be different. The following- is also an instance of the advantage of good si-^ed sets. I allowed a labourer of mine to plant a bushel for his own use, in the field abovementioned, the seed being bought of ine, and the same I was planting ; he being anxious to plant as much land as possible, the seed was cut into very small slices, the conse- quence was a failure in tlie crop of al)out ten per cent., compared with miae in the adjoining stitclies, not cut so small. These ex|)eriments lully bear out Sir James Graliam's renrarks, and are therefore worthy the furtlier attention of agriculturists in meeting those precarious seasons, always remembering to try experi- ments with due caution, and on a small scale, as the difference in soil, climate and other circumstances, make material dift'erences in results. I am, Mr. Editor, vours resiiectfully, Hallgartk Farm, K'ddale, R. C. Weatherell. Oct. 29, 1840. COLOURING CHEESE. To the Secretary of tiie South Cheshire Agricultural Society. Sir, — When I mentioned my intention at the late agricultural meeting at Norlhwich, of giving a pre- mium for the best " Treatis,-; upon the Use of Colouring in Cheshire cheese," I did not wit-h that it should remain a mere barren offer, but I sincerely hoped that it would be claimed and adjudged at our meeting in 1841 . The subject may to sonie appear trifling, but I am mistaken if the greater part of I lie hirmers who were present at the dinner, were not fully alive to its impor- tance to our farming interests. Dr. Holland, in his " View of the Agriculture of Cheshire," published in 1808, asserts that upwards of 10,000/. went annually out of the county for the pur- chase of the drug aunatto, which is the principal mate- rial employed in the colouring of cheese in this county, and 1 see no rea>on lor supposing that that amount is less in the present day. Now even this sum would be worth saving, and would be better in the farmers' pocket than to be uselessly thi own awuy . But if it could be shown, that it is not only thrown away, but that it is the very means by which our produce, ofwhich we had formerly so much reason to be proud, is deteriorated and disgraced in the estimation of the public, I think it is high time that a society professing to ivatch over the agriculture of the county, and to guard the interests of the farmer, should bestir itself and take S'ome steps to persuade the cheese-eaters of the metropolis and others, how absurd it is to prefer this worse than useless embel- lishment to the natural beauty of a real well-made Che- shire cheese. Everybody has heard the common com- plaint that the cheese of the present day is not so good as it was formerly. Tiiis is not mere fancy, and in some measure may be accounted for by the injudicious use now made of ihe annatto. There are farmers who remem- ber the day when no colouring whatever was used in the dairy. Is it then ntce:isary to look further in order to discover the real cause in the falling-off in the quality of our staple commodity ? My friend, ]^r. Lathsm, of BradwelUliull, from whom I received the first hint on the subject, and whope authority I should prefer to most others— for it would be difficult to find any person who unites so much practical knowledge with such scientific attainments— assured me that he considered the colour- incr matter used in our cheese as little better tham rank poison. It may perhaps be harmless for ii considerable period, but the moment the cheese acquires a certain age, when it begins to fret, as the farmers call it, then the lactic acid combines with the vegetable matter of the annatto, and a strong offensive compound is the result. This takes the place of the formation (■>( the blue mould, which is a symptom of its natural decay, and used to characterise a good old Cheshire cheese. I propose then that you and the gentlemen of the committee should, by such means as you may think fit, make known the object proposed by this trifling pre- mium, or rather I should say this token of approbation from the Society (for it will out poorly pay the labour and the research required for such an investigation, and who- ever uudertakes it must have his reward rather in the consciousness of tlie good that may be effected to the farming intere.st ef the county by his labours than in the value of the premium itself), and endeavour to find out same person who would undertake to enlighten the public mind by writing a treatise upon the use and abuse of annatto in cheese-makinc-. It might perhaps be desirable that whoever undertakes this task should previously be informed of what would be required of him in order to fulfil the object of the society. I therefore take the liberty of suggesting the principal points to be arrived at in this inquiry : — 1st. It will be e*senti-al to examine it botanically. Miller, in his Gardeners' Dictionary, says the annatto tree or shrub is found in several of our West Indian Islands, and in South America. The colouring matter is extracted from the bulb which covers the seeds. It is used by the natives medicinally, — a good reason for supposing that its qualities cannot be quite harmless. 2ndly. The writer should follow it in its commercial character. lie should infonn us of the manner of pre- paring it for sale, of the quantity imported into this country, and its use in manufactures. But, above all, he should endeavour to trace the various colouring sub- stances, deleterious or otherwise, which are sold as a substitute for the real annatto. 3rdly. He should endeavour to ascertain by experi- ment and by the most searching enquiries, as well among cheese buyers as cheese makers, the effect which the snnutto produce-; upon the cheese at its different stages of maturity and decay. After all that can be said on the subject, cheese, like every other article of commerce, is only good for what it will fetch in the market. If the London factor and the London consumer prefer a painted beauty to a natu- ral complexion, we cannot help it ; but there is no need for us to encourage them in their foolish fancy to our loss. As an agricultural society, we are bound to show them the meretricious character of the object of their preference. No Cheshire gentleman or Cheshire farmer will endure a coloured cheese at his table ; and it would be well, if we could, at the meeting of the great En- srlish Agricultural Society, which is to take place at Liverpool next year, try to disabuse the public on this head, by sample as well as by theory, and show that " good cheese requires no colouring." I have the honour to be, your obedient servant, Delamerehouse, Xov, 9, 1840. G. Wii.BRAiiA^r. THE TURN WRIST PLOUGH. Sir, — As I quite concur in opinion, with your correspondent, on the plough, (whose letter is in the " Farmer's Magazine" for .Tuly last) as to the g-re;tt merit of the Kent or Turnwrist Plough, I shall be obliged to him to inform me, where I can procure one, to be made upon the best and most improved principle. I have seen them work in Kent and in Sussex, and for hilly land, I have always considered them far superior to any other plough. I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, John Barker. lligham Grange, near Hinckley, Leicestershire, Sept. 18, 1840. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 ANGLO-RUSSIAN TRADE. TO THE MANUFACTURERS OF SOAP ANJ) CA>ULrs THROUGHOUT THE UNITED KIN(;1)0M. Gentlemen, — There are few persons, iind I allude particularly to those engaged in trade, to whom it is not beneficial to revert occusionally from the excitement of every day's chanpre of action, to those first principles by which they should be governed and (iirected. Man is too apt to be acted upon by circum>taKCR ami impulse, and so powerful do these become, ihat>tep by step they outweigh his better rea<;on, and ultimately supplant, or at the best warp, the matured opinions, which frequently a whole life's experience ha* endea- voured to consolidate. This ihrd. I venture to call your attention to this, because much loss has occurred to your interests irom it, and 1 believe you will from experience agree with me, that such a delusion may easily gain on any one. If therefore we examine, by the test of fair and im- partial analysis, the state of our trade with Russia, we shall find that while by dexterous management the people of England have been heavily taxed for Ru«;sian produce, time has brought changes in the condition of both countries, to which little or no attention has been paid. Agriculture has, within the last ten years, attracted the attention of men of talent in this country. The race of common and uneducated farmers is giving way to a new class, who bring science to the aid of practical knowledge, and a glance at the agricultural records of the past year, will siiow how much new light has been thrown on the subject of husbandry, and, as more nearly concerns you, the breeding and fatting of stock. With the vast increase in the population, and conse- quent increased demand for food, the home -produce of fat has yet progressed beyond it ; for, with the non- consumption of Russian tallow, froni whence could come the masses which have supplied the country during the last five months, if not from the enorinous stock which improved husbandry and farming is creating m Great Britain? Russia, too, has in the same time considerably in- creased her produce, and each successive season adds facilities to her doing so, yet the farmers and dealers there have not been idle, but with quickness availed themselves of the delusion existing as to our home sup- ply, by extorting from the fears and ignorance of the British consumer prices, which, most assuredly, his bet- ter reason would never have conceded. But that day is, I trust, gone by, for the trade are now aware of the powers they possess; they have ex- perienced that from the resources of their own powerful country, unequalled as it is for wealth and the means of amassing it, they can supply themselves ; and with the experience of the last ten days before their eyes, they will for the future read Russian monopolists the same lesson which Mr. Biddle learned from the people of Lancashire, when he deemed himself able to over-reach them. It is strange that this attempt on t'le tallow market should have followed so closely on the famous Sicilian brimstone monopoly. It is a fit companion in the defeat wjiich has destroyed both. As if retribution should ever attend upon injustice, the people of Sicily are for ever debarred from obtaining high prices for their sulphur. The extortion attempted by them called into life and activity all the chemical knowledge in the kingdom, and although in the first instance a variety of opinions existed as to the value of the substitute, yet, by the universal adoption of British sulphur ores> called '' pyrites," and the increased facility in working them, there is no doubt rejiiaining that the monopoly is ended, and that brimstone wifl fall yet much below i's present reduced value. And so, gentlemen, it will be with your trade. There are substitutes to be found ibr tallow as well as for sul- phur, and they are too numerous and too available for monopoly to hurt vow, if you remain true to yourselves. The stock of tallow equals now the quantity I as- serted would arrive by January, and the belief u com- mon tiiat France, tho'.-igh ordering addilionil forces to South America, is, in reality, bent upon raising the Buenos Ayres blockade, and the tallow accun-ulated there (10,000 tons) will shortly arrive. But, without any such accession to our present stock, which would spread confusion indeed among holders at high prices, we shall have more than will be wanted until the commencement of next season. 'I'he quanti- ties of both home and foreitin tallow daily increaMiig, have had the effect 1 predicted, and prices have declined more than til. per ton within the last ten days. This is to be ascribed mainly to tlie firmness you have mani- fested ; and gentlemen, I now ask you, putting to one side the trifles which in a question of tiiis magnitude serve but to embarrass, whether 1 exaggerated to yeu your powers over the Russian trade .' To such of you as arc not engaged in soap- making, and consequently are unable to use the substitutes for tallow, I would nevertheless, recommend a strict atten- tion to the state of the palm-oil trade. It is, lam happy to say, prospering to an extent which, but a few short years back, it would have been extravagant to have even imagined— it is employing ourship.s and our sailors, and doing silently and slowly, but surely, the work of eman- cipation in Africa. Not long ago 2,000 or 3,000 tons of palm-oil was con- sidered a heavy importation for one year; and nov^, from January, 1840, to January, 1841, there will have been brought to this country, upwards of 15,000 tons, equal in quantity to 40,000 casks of tallow ; and at this moment I am informed that there are on the coast of Africa no less than 22,000 tons of British shipping load- ing palm oil for England. In short, the time is fast approaching when the soils of England and of her colo- nies will make her people independent of the rest of the world, as well in respect of the necessaries as of the luxuries of life; and, witii the consummation of this prospect ends the career of the foreign monopolists in our land. Your course is now clear before you. Yon have by prudence overcome your opponent. There came a pres- sure upon them ; and, failing of your support among the various obstacles which assailed them, they had no choice but to submit. I trust, gentlemen, that you will preserve the same reasoning, the same discretion, forasimilar ca0 are used on an acre, and cost 4d.to fid. sown by hand. The usual price is 7s. fid. p?r cwt., and fid. for chopping. They are much used for manuring hops, on account of retaining moisture ; but in dry seasons they create moidd and do harm, and the operation is slow ; and the most useful application seems to be ploughing them into the ground with one furrow for crop, so as not to be j)idled out by the harrows, or used as a top-dressing on clovers. An excellent preparation has been effected by steeping them, chopped small, in privies or receiving tanks, and then applied to any cro])s. When chopped small, and used in an unprepared state in drills tor tur- nips, beet, and potatoes, they failed by 40 i)er cent, against farm-yard dung; the barley and hay crop showed a difference for a time r.fter brairding, as often hajipens with such manures, but none at the time of reaping. It was curious to observe the dark green colours of the artificial grasses during winter and spring, till the growth of the plants commenced, when the difference speedily vanished. Jn applying such manures, no rule for quantity can be adopted ; a sufficient supply is seldom available, and the greater quantity will imply a greater produce and a greater expense ; and the comparative merits of each can onlybeascertaintd by allowing an equal expense per acre, or a greater produce must be realized from thc_ greater expense, which must exceed the difference in order to induce the application. It is a curious fact, that linen rags yield more than half their weight of sugarby thesimpleagency of one of the cheapest and most abundant acids. An application of concentrated sulphuric acid con- verts the rags into a mucilaginous mass, entirely soluble in water, scarcely coloured, homogeneous, pungent, and very tenacious. The acid is then saturated with chalk, in order to disengage it from the gummy substance, and a solid sulphate of lime is formed, which is removed by piessing the mixture through a linen cloth. The liquor is evaporated and freed from chalk, and assumes the appearance of insoluble gum. But the diluted solution of the rags by the acid may be boiled, and instead of a gum, sugar, in form of a syrup, is produced. The free acid is then neutialized, the liquor is filtered and evaporated until the syrup is thick. Crystals then appear, and after- wards solid sugar; and by redissolving and re- crystalizing, a pure and snowy whiteness may be obtained. Rags contain " lignin," or woody fibre, which contains precisely the same elements as occur in sugar, and the only use of the acid is to effect that change in the proportions and mode of combination of the elements which will produce sugar. "Lignin" contains equal weights of water and carbon, and possesses nearly the same com- position in all plants, and forms an important item in all vegetable products. The elements of many organic substances differ little, but the peculiar mode of combination has a great effect on quantity and quality, and similar ingredients in like jjroportions do not produce similar results. But this truth does not account for two bodies, so nearl}' allied ip composition, showing so very different (jualities — for one sub- stance may be converted into another, but that ]iroduct cannot be again converted into the origi- nal substance. Vinegar may be got from sugar, hut not sugar from vinegar : sugar is a combina- tion of charcoal and water, but we cannot make sugar from these bodies, because we cannot command the circumstances under which the ma" terials come in contact in the sugar cane. Some inorganic bodies may be composed, as water, by mixing the elements of composition, oxygen and hydrogeti ; but organic bodies are subjected only to one method. Gelatine or animal jelly has the same elements as carbonate of ammonia -, and the salt can be produced from gelatine, but not gela- tine from the salt. Human power is unable to produce organic substances from inorganic mate- rials ; and in trying to imitate the beautiful pro- ductions of nature, which is the highest excellence of art, the chemist can only watch and slowly comprehend the wonderful operation of nature's modes, but he cannot do the work ; he can undo it and examine the materials, but remains in ignorance of the power and means by which the vast variety of organic substances is produced. Recombination of the elements eludes our search. J. D. NEW REAPING SCYTHE. FROM THE DURHAIM ADVERTISER OF DATE 23rd OCT. The new reaping scythe invented by Messrs. Drummond and Sons of Stirling, has this harvest been introduced upon his laud,- by Thomas Harrison, Es(]., of Stuhb House, in this county, and used with the most complete success. i\lr. H. has had S8 acres of oats, 9 ncres of beans, and 31 acres of wheat, mown this season by the new scythe, in the most perfect manner. Tbe mowers were Robert and John Wappat. Several of the neighbouring agriculturists (who may fairl}' be ranked amongst the very best farmers in England) have visited IMr. Harrison's estate, and have declared the mowing to exceed their utmost expectations, and almost unanimously ex- pressed their intention of adopting these scythes next season. DIBBLING WHEAT.— One of the greatest ob- jections to the adoption of dibbling wheat is the difficulty of getting the seed dropped into the holes with i-egularity, children being generally employed, and independent of time being required to teach them, there will always be a degree of carelessness attendant upon youth. We are now enabled to state that a hand-dibble has been in- vented, which will drop the grain with certainty and regularity two, three, or four grains, as re- quired, thus reducing the distribution to a cer- tainty, and effectually insuring the saving of seed. As in many other cases, the inventor of this dibble has not been engaged in agricultural pursuits. This invention will remove much of the objection lo dibbling hitherto entertained, and will, we trust, be the means of increasing the employment of manual labour in those districts where the population is superabundant. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 31 ON PREPARING NIGHT-SOIL. 10 THE EDITOR OF THE FARJlEU's MAGAZINE. Sir, — I observRcl a few days Q£ro in one of your late periodicals, an enquiry, by a correspondent, lor ilie bust, method ot preparin,? ni^'iit-soil fur manure. JJe said " he hfid mixed it with lime, and a very stronpr smell ot" ammonia was evolved, whereby hu f' ared the efticiioy of the manure might be impaired. These conclusions ate perfectly correct; its efficiicy as organic manure would be destroyed by the use of lime. Wiieri an organic body containins" ni!ro!?en under- g-oes pntrelaGtiun, and moisture present, tlie nitrog'en unites with the hydrogen of the water and form? ammo- nia ; the oxycen, the other element of water, unites with the carbon of the j)utiifyinij body, and forms car- bonic *cid ; both these transformations, in their nascent state, combine and form carbonate of ammonia, a vola- tile salt, which is always evaporating' with wiiter, ijs loug' as the decomposition eontinue-s. Such hivartahly take* place in nitrogrenous bodich. When lime is added to a body holding carbonate of ammonia in solution, as in nigfht-soil, the ammoniiscal salt is decomposed ; the Jime robs it of its carbonic acid and caustic ammonia, a still more volatile compound, flies ofF in gas: thus we have g'ot rid of all the nitrogen the org-anic compound contained. Org-anic manure, witiioui nitrog'en, is of very little value. It pervades every part of the vegetable struc- ture, and no plant will attain maturity, even in the rich- est mould, without its presence, The relative value of manure may be known' by the relative quantity of nitrog'en it contains. There does not appear to be any manure so rich in nitrog'en as human excrement (except bone manure, which contains upwards of 30 per cent, of g-elatine in its interstices^ ; so much so, thnt according' to the analyses of Macaire and JMarcet, l()i) parts of human urine are equal to 1300 parts of iVesli dung" of the horse, 600 parts of the cow, and 450 parts of the urine of the horse. Hence it is evident that it would be of much importance if none qf the human excre- ments were lost, especially when we con-ider that with every pound of urine a pound of wheat might be pro- duced. JNow I would sup'g'tst to your correspondent the best and most economical method 1 know of preserv- incr unimpaired the most valuable clement in night-soil, which is as follow? : — To every 100 lbs. of night-soil add 7 lbs. of sulphate of lime (gypsum ) in powder, a double decomposition will ensue, and the result will be, instead of sulpiinte of lime unrl ci!rbon;ite of ammonia, carbo- nate of lime and sulphate of ammonia; the latter a soluble salt which cannot be voltitilized. It might now be mixed with other compost, or dried any way thought proper, and applied to the roots of the vegetable, to be agiiin transformed into bread, butter, cheese, &c. Chloride of calcium, sulphuric or muriatic acid, sub- stances of low price, would completely neutralize the urine, converting its ammonia into salts which possess no volatility. I would also suggest that if the floors of stables be strewed from time to time with a little sulphaie of lime, they will lose all their offensive smell, and none of the ammonia which forms can be lost, but retained in a condiiion serviceable as manure. In close stables the horse's health would be better preserved", aad they would not be so liable to get blind as now. 1 J lbs. of sulphate of lime will fix as much animonia as is produced by 100 lbs. of horse's urine. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Wambridge, Nov. 14. Gregory Brabyn. steel ibrgers in England ; and this week a very large supply arrived nt the new quay for shipment to Lon- don. Jt IS made up in the shape and f^ha of soiii> b',irs, npil so powerful is the compression employed that the original peat is hardly to bi- recognized in the black ami metallic looking mass which the machine perfectr-. 'The properties of this liiel are found to be highly ad- vantageous in the brunches of manufacture'^ above re- ferred to, and its great economy is evidenced in the re- duced pric" at which cutlery wrought with it i« oflered (or sale. .'-Sheffield razors, bearing the mark " peat compressed,'' have been on sale liiis year throughout the country, we have been inlormed, as low as 27s. per dozen. Wo look for a rapid extension of the use of this valuable invention of Lord Willoughhy'i;, not only as offering the means of procuring for the inhabitants an abundant supply of a more cleanly and useful fuel than they have hitherto, from their iniiind situation, been able to obtain, but opening up to them a proiitable braech of industry, for v\ hich the held is nearly as inexhaustible as that of the material. — Ferih Courier. TO MR. READ, Vet. Surg. Sir — AUo'a- me (through the medium of our excel- lent friend "The Editor of the Mark Lane Express") to thank you for the valuable and scientific treatise you of late gave the public on the " Hooee" in cattle. Much as I feel indebted for this communication, I am not satisfied without asking for more ; and I am in- duced to do so, from the readiness you displayed in correcting the error of the printer, in his mistake of the terms " Hoose" and " Hoove." My request is— that you will favour us with a paper on the proper treatment oi calves when troubled with that horrid coughing complaint. Should I be asking a favour before conferred, my apology is, a want of tiuje to examine the columns of your .Journal so carefully as I cnuld wish. I have in my care at this time a lot of sixteen yearlings troubled with a cutaneous disease (which remiuds me very much of ring-worm in chil- dren), having round and oval spots about the face and other parts. It appears catching from contact. My " cow-leech" gave his opinion, and said he could cure it, and so he may, but I should be far more pleased with yours, if I might venture to ask it. Trusting to your liberality, allow me. Sir, to subscribe myself, Your's, obliged, Nov. 14. A Norfolk Steward. COMPRESSED PEAT FUP:L -We have referred to a machine, some time ago invented by Lord VVil- ioughby d'Ercsby, and latterly perfected by skilful arti- sans unrler his direction, for compressing peals. One of his lordship's tenants, on the Drummond Castle Estate, Mr, Clark, at Coryour, has of late been manu- facturing the new fuel, chiefly for the jewellers and ON BREEDING CATTLE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— I observe in your paper of the 9th Inst, a letter from Ythan Side, in the county of Aberdeen, signed Agrestis, which appears to have been originally pub- lished in a local paper, giving an excellent account of the rise and progress of short-horned cattle in that quarter. I confess that I long entertained the prejudice which Agrestis describes, and which was not removed by the high prices which some of my neighbours obtained for crosses, brought to maturity at less expense than cattle of my own, which did not realize so much by twenty per cent. The short-horns I at first saw were generally large, coarse, fleshy animals ; I did not like them, andl fre- quently asked the question stated by Agresti<;, as to our soon " substituting an animal for our native breed, for which our soil and climate were not adapted." I at the same time saw with infinite regret what Agrestis men- tions as observable on Ythan Side, that tne .size of our cattle did by no means progress with our improving' agriculture, but rather the reverse. Some of the short-horned cattle I have lately seen THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. are of a very superior description to those first common in tliis locality ; but the circumstance which completely overcame every doubt in my mind, was seein?: at our last Banffshire Show some second crosses, first-rate animals— exceeded hovv-ever, if possible, by iv larpe lot of beautiful /icijcr.s (or queys,mi we call tliem) from first and second crosses with short-horns, by (!»( Aber- deenshire bull.; thus provintf that crossiii'r l)y j^ure blood, on either side, produces an animal infinitely su- perior to our native breed. Believing' witii Agrestis that local observations such as these are of more importance than whole essays of opinions unsupported by facts, your giving- this letter a place in your widely-circulated columns may be useful in dissipating: prejudices, which, in reverse of what used to prevail in Scotland, are, with some exceptions, more tenaciously held by tiie proprietors ih:;n tenants — which circumstance accounts for the want of encourag-ement afforded by the Hif^'hland Society ; whilst, such as Agrestis ap.d his neighbours, by outstepping- even that intelligent and patriotic body, confer the more merit on the enterprising farmers of Aberdeenshire. I am. Sir, you obedient Servant, Banffshire, Nov. 13. Agricola. ISLE OF THANET FARMERS' CLUB. FIRST REPORT. I'RESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING, IIELU AT MOUNT PLEASANT, OCTOBER 13, 1840. Your committee have great pleasure in pre- senting the first report of " The Isle of Thanet Farmer's Club." Ihcy take the opportunity to express their entire conviction of the value and importance of such institutions. The interchange of thought on those subjects which are es])ecially interesting to agriculturists, the free communica- tion of plans and experiments, the stimulating influence of example, and the habits of reflection and observation induced, encouraged as they are by the hope of ultimate jjrofit, cannot but he accompanied by useful results. If in the first instance the want of knowledge or skill be re- luctantly discovered, and the farmer be led to conclude that he has yet very much to learn, such effects are salutary, and their operation will prove highly beneficial. He who never looks beyond his own circle will soon resign himself to ease and slumber ; and those who are contented with their present attainments, will of necessity re- main in a stationary position : but the thoughtful observer, like the bee or the ant, will gather honey from every flower, accumulate fresh stores of knowledge, and employ all his powers in furthering the great practical purposes of his calling. General improvement must enstie ; and j'our committee have no hesitation in recording their assurance, that the establishment of nume- rous societies for the promotion of agriculture, constitutes the present a most auspicious era in the history of the science, promising advantages of no common order. Every such institution de- serves to be regarded as a national blessing. Although "The Isle of Thanet Farmers' Club" aspires to no high rank among its contemporaries, the committee are encouraged to believe that many good effects of its establishment have been already realized ; and they feel satisfied that in proportion as its objects are understood they will be appreciated, and that the members will aim by punctual attendance, unreserved and orderly dis- cussion, and harmonious co-operation, to secnrc all the advantages svhich the institution is de- signed to confer. The club was formed July 0th, 1839. Rules for its management were framed at a subsequent meeting, held on the 3t)th of that month. After a long adjournment, rendered necessary by the har- vest, the members met again on the 23rd of September, when the appointment of officers and committee for the year took place, and arrange- ments were made for the monthly meetings of the club, >vhich it was agreed should be held, during the first Acar, at Mount Pleasant. At tlie first monthly meeting, held in October, the following question was discussed : — The sorts of wheat best adapted, generally, to the soil of the Isle of Thanet, and the best method and season of planting it. A member stated that he had planted four sorts of wheat, about the middle of the pre- ceding November, fifty five perches of each, on the same day, and on the same tilth, and that the following were the results : — SOIIT. GROWTU I'ER ACKl: wr.mirr I'ER, ^BUSHEI,. VALUE PER QR. VAI.PE PER ACRE. Whittington Leghorn .... Salmon .... Golden Drop qrs 5 5 5 4 bush, gal 0 (i 3 j 2 2 0 (i pts. lbs. ozs. 1 1 61 4 0 63 6 7 01 1 3 G3 5 £ s. d. 3 14 0 3 8 0 3 fi 0 3 7 0 £ s. d. 18 17 1 18 2 »»- 17 9 5i Ifi 4 11 A sample of Syer wheat was shown, which had proved very productive. The Talavera wheat was much commended by a member, who had grown it for several years. INIr. E. Collard, a visitor that evening, stated that he had sown some wheat, the name of which he did not know, and had pro- cured, by dibbling in the garden at six inches •ipart, at the rate of ten quarters per acre. It was ultimately resolved : — " That the information produced at this meeting is not sufficient to warrant the adoption of a spe- cific resoluiion on the subject ; but that it is very desirable that several sorts of wheat, already proved to be valuable, yhoidd be made the sub- jects of experiment ; — that the following sorts be especially recommended for such experiments, viz., — the Syer, the '^Vhittington, the Leghorn, the Golden Drop, Mr. E. CoHard's un-named sort, and the Hoary White ; and that such members of the club as may resolve to make such experiments, be particularly requested to accom- pany their future statements with a description of the soil on which the experiment has been tried." " The preparation of wheat for planting" was then discussed, and several members described the methods adopted by them, but no resolution was passed on the subject. At the same meeting a conversation took place " on the best method of breaking up sainfoin ley and lucerne for v^'heat," and it appeared to be the general opinion, that when sainfoin ley or lucerne is to be broken up and cropped with wheat, the furrows should be well turned over, the soil tho- roughly pressed or trodden immediately after ploughing, and a suflicient dressing of manure applied. The meeting was closed by a discussion of the " safest method of feeding sheep and lambs on turnips, especially in the early part of the winter." On this subject the following resolution was passed : — TilK FARM Kirs MAGAZINE. r33 "That the safest nictliod ol" putting sliccp and lainl)s to iniriips in tlic eariy part oftlic winter, is to allow them lir«t to fill themselves uith sainfoin, clover, or other food of a similar deicription, and by no means to close-fold them on turnips." At the meeting in November, a small apparatus WHS exhibited by one of the members, intended to regulate the draught of the three-horse plough, and to preserve steadiness of action. This led to a conversation on the comparative advantage of ploughing with two, three, or four horses; in the course of which an account was given of the state of ploughing in some parts of Scotland, and the secretary was directed to write to the secretary of the " Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland," inquiring whether ^\■ill^ie's tnrn-wrcst plough has been brought into o])eration, and with what success. " The most approved method of storing tur- nips" ^'as then taken into consideration. One member stated his practice to be, to top and tail them in the field, remove them iu a dry state, and deposit them in chalk caves on his premises. Another member recommended placing them singly, close together, and in an upright position, in a meadow, by adopting Vi'hich method he had found them keep well till lambing time. The re- solution passed was as follows : — " That in the ojjinion of this meecing, turnips should always be stored iu a dry state, and covered lightly, so as to keep out the wet, but not alto- gether to exclude the air, or prevent the escape of heat from the mass, "The best method of fattening boasts in the winter season" was then discussed. The member who introduced the question offered the following observations, which were generally approved. " That good sorts should be chosen ; that the short-horned are generally considered the best, but that in this district the Sussex breed are the most profitable ; that they should be in good con- dition when put up, and not confined too closely, but have a warm shed to lie down ia, and room to move about in the yard; that the hay should always be given out of doors ; that oil-cake, Swedish turnips, and hay, form the best food ; that the change of food should in all cases be gradual, one oil-cake a day being given at first, and the quantity gradually increased ; that more food should never be given at a time than the animal will consume; that it is a great error to give a larger feed at night, which only occasions bad feeding the next day ; and that in case of over- feeding, the following mixture has been found effi- cacious : — one pound of Epsom salts, and two drachms of ginger, mixed in a pint and half of boiling water." In consequence of the absence of a member who had undertaken to introduce another ques- tion, it was resolved : — " That if any member who has introduced a subject for discussion shall be prevented from attending the meeting at which the discussion is appointed to take place, he shall be expected to depute some other member to introduce the ques- tion in his name." A. letter from Sir Charles Gordon, secretary to the " Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- land," was read at the L^ecembcr meeting ; it in- closed a communication from Mr. Slight, curator of the Society's museum, at Edinburgh, resitccting Wilkie's turn-wrest plough, which it aj)pears has not yet come into extensive use. " The cheapest and best method of fattening hogs" was a subject which dicitcil scarcely any discussion, the members present being generally of opinion that stea-ncd potatoes and bnrley-nieal, in the pro[)crtion of two-thirds of the former, and one third of the latter, form the best food for that jiurpose ; and that the pork so fed is prime, and boils out less than pork fed in any other way. A discussion then took place on " the wages of agricultural labourers." It api)earcd that the fol- lowing wages arc now generally ])aid in the Isle of Tlianet, viz. : — for able-bodied day labourers, 2s. (id. per day; for thrashing reaped wheat, 4s. jjer ([uarter, mown ditto, 4s. (id. to Tis., barley, 2s. (id., oats, beans, and peas, 2s. It was then re- solved : — "That in the opinion of this meeting, the wages now generally given in this district appear to be fair and sufficient ; that labour will always find its true value in the market, and that therefore it would be inexpedient to attempt to establish any uniform scale of payment." At the same meeting a member read a paper on " the best method of cropping the land with beans." from which the following is an extract: — " With respect to the best method of putting in beans, the plan which I at i)resent think best, and which I consequently adopt, is to strike the fur- rows north and south, if convenient, ten to the rod ; to drop the beans from four to six inches a.\mvt, according to their size, — common ticks, four inches, larger beans, five or six ; to heal them with a double mould-board plough, and con- sequently to let the land lie in balks, until it is necessary by the growth of the beans to harrow them down." The advantages of this plan over drilling I take to be these : — First, that less seed is consumed ; for whereas, I believe, four bushels per acre are generally drilled in, from two to three bushels are sufficient to droj). Second, that the beans come up regularly, and not iu lamps of four or five together, and then a space, which is frequently the case when drilled ; each single bean conse- quently stocks, and does better. Third, that you give employ to a number of people, with no expense to yourself, the saving of the ieed jiaying the droppers ; which I consider to be a very essen- tial benefit. "I think the advantages of healing with a plough are, — that supposing the beans have begun to grow in a few fine warm days, and it then be- comes winterly, with sharp frosts, which is fre- quently the case, they are then protected, and do not receive that severe check which they otherwise would ; and that by the time the beans are sufiicicntly grown to make it necessary to harrow down the balks, a considerable quantity of spring weeds have grown also, which you destroy by- levelling the ground." At the January meeting two letters were read from Mr. J. A. llansome, of Ipwich, containing information respecting ploughs manufactured by the firm of which he is a member. It was con- sidered desirable to introduce the Rackhcath subsoil plough Into the district, and eleven members of the clul) entered into a subscription for that ])urposc. The plough was afterwards supplied by Messrs. Ransomc, and has been used in various parts of the Island, but your committee arc not able to state whether any beneficial results have followed. They are of opinion, however, that a fair trial has not yet been given, as the l>lough was not brought into operation till the spring, and the summer proved unusually dry. If 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tlie subscribers use it extensively, on different soils, in tlic present autumn, its utility will be much better tested. At the same meeting, " the rotation of crops best suited, generally, to the soil of the Isle of Thanet," was discussed. A member read a paper on the subject, in which he contended that corn cannot be profitably grown in this district without giving rest to the land by fallowing it. Several plans of rotation were mentioned, and it was at length resolved : — " That in the opinion of this meeting, the fol- lowing course, which has long been in use in a large portion of the Isle of Thanet, is on the whole the best adapted, with occasional variations, to the soil of this district ; that is, supposing the soil to consist of 400 acres, there will be — AGUES. ACRES. 1. Turnips .... 50 3. Beans 50 Teas 50 Clover 50 2. Barley 100 4. Wheat 100 400 A letter from the "Grove Ferry Club" Laving been read at this meeting, requesting the co-ope- ration of the "Isle of Thanet Club" in opposing the present movement against the corn laws, it was resolved to convene a special meeting of the jnembers of the club, to take the letter into consi- deration. The special meeting was held January the 28th, and after a lengthened discussion the following resolutions were passed : — First. "That in the opinion of this meeting the 14th rule of the club precludes it from enter- taining questions of a political nature, or wliich refer to any matter to be brought forward or jjending in either House of Parliament." Second. " That a copy of the preceding reso- lution be forwarded to the secretaries of the " Grove Ferry Club ;" and that the secretary he directed to express, at the same time, the entire "willingness of this club to co-operate with the " Grove Ferry Club" in the improvement ot agri- culture." The subject was resumed, however, at the meeting in February, and the secretary was di- rected to correspond with other clubs, particularly in Norfolk and Suffolk, with a view to ascertain their practice in reference to the discussion of the exist- ing corn laws at their meetings. " The cheapest and best method of keeping farm horses" was opened for discussion at this meeting. In consequence of the importance of the subject, and the variety of opinion expressed, the further consideration was postponed, and the club proceeded to the next question, " the sorts, of barley best adapted to the Isle of Thanet." A member furnished the following statement of the result of his experiments with the Chevalier and Annat varieties : — KUANTITV WEIGHT QUANTI- TILTH. VARIETY. ON SF.VEN PER TY TKK pr^iicjiES. BUSHEL. ACRP.. bsh. gl. pt. lbs. qr.bUS. 5>1. Potatoe Ground Clievalier 2 4 .5 .53 7-8tlis 7 2 7 Ditto Annat 2 4 7 52i 7 3 r) Pea Grattan .... Clievalier 2 3 2 50J 6 7 0 Ditto Annat 2 2 01 50i 0 3 4 The general opinion seemed to be in favour of the Chevalier. At the meeting in March, letters were read from farmers' clubs at Ashbocking, Vo.xford, Becclcs, Haleswortb, Wrentham, Walton, Need- ham Market, ^Vickhani ftlarket, and Grove Ferry, detailing their respective practices with regard to the description of the existing corn laws at their meetings. A member then gave notice of his intention to move at the next meeting that the 14th rule of the club should be altered, so as to stand thus ; — "That all political subjects shall be totally ex- cluded from the discussions of this society ; excepting those relating to the corn laws, or any other measures that may be brought before Parlia- ment, affecting agriculture." The motion was considered at the meeting in April, and adopted. " The feeding of farm horses" was again dis- cussed in March, and a decision again postponed. At tlie meeting in April, the subject was resumed, and sundry plans and calculations presented to the meeting, differing much from each other. The following resolutions were ultimately passed : First. " 1 hat, according to the information now laid before the meeting, the average annual expense, of keeping farm horses in this district is about £18 each; but that whereas the lucerne or clover specified in the calculations now produced is valued at a low price, it appears to this meeting that farm horses are not commonly kept in this district for less than £20 per annum ; but that as to wiiich of the methods now described is the " cheapest and best," the meeting is unable to decide, as the exi)ense of keeping horses must necessarily vary with the quantity of land ploughed on the farm, and the nature of the soil." Second. "That the members of this club be recommendGd to keep as accurate accounts as possible of the c-xiiense of keeping their horses, in order that the subject may be more fully dis- cussed at some future time" Mr. J. A. Ransome, of Ipswich, favoured the club with his company at the meeting in May, and communicated important and valuable infor- mation on several tojucs. The subject for the evening was " the best sort of artificial manure for turnijis." Mr. Ransome stated that Mr. Morton, the author of the work " on soils," had made experiments on the growth of turnips with jjure dung, mi.xed manure, farm yard manure, straw, and other articles ; and that the value of the crop lessened in the order in which the diff"cr- ent manures are mentioned, that grown from pure dung being decidedly the best. It was re- solved : — "That, while the statements made at this meeting lead to tbe conclusion that farm-yard manure is jjrobably the best and most profitable manure for turnips, sufficient information has not row been communicated to enable the meeting to come to a decision on the question before it ; and that it be particularly recommended to the members of the club to test by experiment differ- ent sorts of manure for turnips, to keep accurate accounts of the comparative expense and the result, and to report tlie same to the club as soon as they are ascertained." At the same meeting, it was resolved : — " That the thanks of the club be forwarded to the committee of the ' Royal Agricultural So- ciety,' for the important and valuable paper they have circulated on the diseases of cattle." "The best method of cultivating carrots" was considered at the June meeting; and a meml)er communicated the following information relative to the mode of cultivation he had adopted. The land was ploughed and manured early in the THE FAlllVlEll'S MAGAZINE. 35 winter, and spudilled twice in the Fijuint.^ ; tliu carrots were sown the first week in April, in furrows eleven to the rod ; the)' were well hoed, skimmed two or three times, and thinned. The produce was about 2o tons per acre. At the same meeting, " tiic best method of making dung-mixens'' wa?, discussed, and the further consideration of the subject postponed. The discussion was resumed at the meeting in July, and the following resolution was passed : — " That in the opinion of this meeting, it is very desirable to s])rcad a thick layer of mould in the fartn-yard and on the mixen spot before the ma- nure is collected ; that if the manure is wanted early, it should be thrown on the he;ip from time to time, and not pressed down ; but that if it is not wanted early, it should be trodden down, by driving the loaded cart upon it, to prevent evapo- ration ; that care should be taken to provide a sufficient quantity of moisture, by mixing sea- weed with the manure, or salt water, urine, and similar liipiids ; that the mixen should be covered with a layer of mould or blight, and that in ordinary cases it should be turned about a month before it is wanted on the land." Another question was also entertained at the July meeting — " The comparative advantages of reaping and mowing wheat," and it was re- solved : — " That it is more advantageous to mow wheat than to reap it, inasmuch as all the straw is se- cured, the grain is less injured by wet weatiier, and may be sooner harvested, and the land may be cultivated again at an earlier period, and is in a cleaner condition. But that, while mowing is jirei'erable to reaping, liagging is still better than mowing, since by that method the whole of the grain is preserved, and nothing left on the ground ; on which account it is recommended to the members of the club to encourage workmen who are skilled in bagging, and also to require them in all cases to use the lockbands, which are less liable to break than bands made in any other way." There were so few mendjcrs present at the meeting in August, that no discussion took place. Ac the meeting in September, " the best method of clearing the land after harvest" was taken into consideration ; and the conclusion arrived at may be thus briefly stated : — " That, in general, the best plan of clearing the land after harvest is to spuddle it with a broad share, and then nidget, and afterwards harrow it ; that on wheat and barley grattcns, and when the land is very foul, the triangular harrow should be first used ; that when there is much grass in the land, the best plan is to balk and split repeatedly, that the grass and roots of weeds may be tho- roughly brought to the surface ; and that pea grattcns and all lands intended for turnips or barley should be ploughed as soon as possible, and always, if jjracticable, before Michaelmas." Yoin- committee have further to report, that it has been resolved to have a show of roots at the monthly meeting in December next, and that several members of the club have entered into sweepstakes for the occasion, in the follov/ing terms : — AT ONE SHILLING EACH. 2Iaiif/et lourzel. Six roots to be shown, from not less than a quai'ter of an acre. Turnips. Both Swedes and other sorts. Twelve to be shown, from not less than two acres. Carruts. Six to be shown, from not less than a (quarter of an acre. Pointocs. The entire produce of twelve roots to be shown, from not less than half an acre. AT FIVE SHILLINGS EACH. I'or the best field of Turnips, not being less than two acres, to be determined by reference to the weight i)er acre, and other circumstances, at the discretion of the judges. With the funds entrusted to their care your committee have purchased some important works on agricidture, which are in circulation among the members of the club in the manner usually adopted by book societies, three weeks being allowed for the perusal of a quarto volume, a fortnight for an octavo, and a week for a duo- decimo. The Farmer's Magazine, the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, and the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, are also taken in for the use of the club, and three days are assigned for the l)erusal of each number. A fine of six-pence per day will be levied for the detention of a volume or'number beyond the allotted time. Your committee have examined the treasurer's accoimt, and find that he has received £13 10s., and expended £13 3s. 7d., leaving a balance of (is. 5d. in his hands. They have also the pleasure to state that the club now consists of lifty-two members. Having thus reported the proceedings of the club during the past year, your committee have only to repeat their conviction that a wide field for observation and experiment is open to the agriculturist, and that young farmers especially may derive immense advantage from the study of agricultural works, now happily no longer few and rare, and the acquisition of sound scientific information. It was stated in the prospectus issued previous to the formation of this society, that " among the objects sought to be attained by the farmer's clubs, are the following ;— to ascer- tain the nature and qualities of the soil and sub- soils of the district ; to inquire into the comparative values of different sorts of manures ; to test by ex- periments alleged improvements in cultivation, in agricultural implements, or in management of stock ; to discover the most profitable varieties of corn, seeds, or roots, and the most advantageous rotation of crops ; to collect information respect- ing the state and progress of agriculture, by correspondence, by the establishment of agricul- tural libraries, and such other means as may be deemed expedient ; in a word, to advance the interests of agriculture in every possible way — reducing theory to practice, and throwing the light of knowledge and science over the most useful and important of the arts of life." In aiming to accomplish these great objects, the observant eye and the attentive ear of the enquirer may be unremittingly engaged ; while it will ever be found that pleasure is combined with profit, and that " knowledge is power." THE FARIMER'S ALMANAC. — We haye lo acknowledp:e the receipt of a copy of llic Farmer's Al- manac, for 1841, by Cuilibert Johnson, Esq., and Wni. Shaw, Esq. The names of these two •reullemen on the title page augur well for the contents of the work ; and an inspection of the latter more than answers expecta- tion. The almanac contains indeed a ma^# of the most useful matter for those to whom it is dedicated, and moreover (no small consideration) at a cheap rate.— Sussex Advertiser. a 2 36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SUSSEX AGRICULTURAL TUR- NIP AND MANGEL-WURZEL SHOW. (from the SUSSEX EXPRESS.) We beg to draw the particular attention of our readers to an excellent letter from Sir C. IM. Burrell, Bart., on the subject of growing the •white carrot, the value of which we can fully con- firm, having this year (although the season has been very uufavourable) obtained highly satisfac- tory] results respecting it. We were induced to experimentalise on this root at the recommenda- tion of the hon. baronet, given last year. Next year we shall offer a premium for samples of white carrots. WHITE CARROTS. Knejjp Castle, Nov. 3. Sir, — Perceiving, on perusal of your last Ex- press, your notice respecting the premiums offered for specimens of turnips and mangel-wurzel, with accompanying statements of their culture, and appreciating tlie probable beneficial results of such an exhibition at Lewes, I trouble you with the following practical statement in support of my last year's published opinion on the preference of the culture of the white cattle carrot over that of the parsnip for agricultural purposes, and which was made in consequence of a letter from a cor- respondent in the Lewes Advertiser, advocating tlsc growth of the parsnip, in which 500 bushels per acre was stated as the produce. Conceiving that from my then crop of white carrots, grown on a very indifferent field, the yield of which was 100 bushels per acre, without the green tops, that their culture would be more advantageous on stiff soils than that of the parsnip with a return of about a moiety of the produce only, I laid a comparative statement of my crop before the public, that agri- culturists of intelligence and spirit might try the results by sowing both sorts on similar quality of land. But satisfied as I am myself at the jirefe- rence of the white cattle carrot on my farm over all roots fit for cattle, I again sowed four acres broadcast on land of better quality this year, and so far as expei'ience shows in the raising and housing of about half my crop, there will be, as near as we can determine, 1,300 bushels per acre, after separation from the green tojis ; and con- sidering the depth whence their nourishment is obtained (in one instance no less than 3 feet b\ inches, and in several others nearly as deep), 1 do not view it as a very scourging crop, especially considering the vast increase of nutritious winter fodder, with consequent economy of hay, for both fatting and lean stock, and especially milch cotvs, their cream and butter being as good and free from any ill- flavour as when feeding on the j)as- tures ; and likewise looking to the great increase of farm-yard manure resulting from its consump- tion, to which may be justly added the clean, friable, and finely pulverised state in which the ground is left after the removal of the crop, par- ticularly well adapted for ridging up during winter and sowing with barley and seeds in the ensuing spring. I do not hesitate to bring the results of my exi)ericnce to your attention and consideration, how far it may be desirable here- after to introduce the white cattle carrot among those encouragements you ofier in the shape of premiums for turnips and mangel-wurzel. For the obtainment of the seed I recommend both Messrs. Wrench and Sons, of King Williani-street, seed merchants, and Mr. Gibhs, of Half Moon-street, from either of whom good seed may be depended upon. JMy first inducement to try it was the representation of Mr. Eaton, INI. P. .whose father, 1 understood, obtained the seed from Holland ; with a result on sowing it on indifferent lantl in Cambridgeshire, of 1000 bushels per acre, with which my crop in 183!) tallied very accurately, I led myself to believe (but from the dryness which prevailed after sowing my seed last spring, and the consequence of a fresh growth on rain fall- ing after hoeing in summer) that the carrots would have been of more equal size, and tlic amount of the produce possibly greater in weight and value. For the cultivntion of the wliite car- rot, free-working deep soils, well and deeply drained and subsoilcd, are to be preferred ; and the better heart the ground is in, and the cleaner the tilth, the greater will of course be the chance of a remunerative and beneficial cro[). Mine were sown broadcast, (ilbs. to the acie, costing last spring Is. per lb.; but whether being sown in drills at proper distances, and ridded up, wovdd im.prove the crop, I leave to the discriminate judgment of practical and more scientific farmers. I shall only add, that those who at my rccomniendatiou have sown the white cattle carrot express 1 heir satisfaction at their adoption ; and mj' neighbour, the Rev. \Villiam AVoodward, of ^Vest Grinstead, having sown them on a small breadth of land, has had cause to be satisfied with the result equally with myself. You are welcome to make what use of my observations you think juoper, accepting my excuse for sending them hastily, and I fear, rather incoherently written, my lime being too much occupied to make a fair coi)y. I am, Sir, your liumble servant, Charles Mekrick Burrell. ON SMUT IN WHEAT. TO TflE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — Being a constant reader of your valuable publication, I have perused the several articles that have appeared in your numbers from time to time, relating to smut in wheat (being myself a large wheat grower), and wonder none of your numerous correspondents have suggested a more simple preventive than the use of poisonous in- gredients, which I consider injurious to the seed, besides numerous other objections which I could name. The means I 'take to prevent it are perfectly simple, and if all wheat growers will follow the directions here given, they will have no need of substituting poison. Choose a clean brick floor, on which put three bushels of wheat, then stir a shovel full of quick lime in about four gallons of boiling water ; ])OHr it on the wheat immediately, and mix it well to- gether, taking care that every corn is steeped ; when the desired quantity is finished let it be put together in a heap (the closer the better), and cover with cloths to about four sacks' thickness ; let it remain ten hours, then take oft' the covering, spread it thin, and it will be ready to sow or drill almost immediately. I have practised the above method for the last "3h years, duiing which period 1 have never grown a single smut. Should you deem this worthy a place in your valuable columns, you will oblige, Sir, 3'our obedient servant, Leicester, Nov, 14. C. R. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 ON COAL-ASHES. Coal-aslies have long been known as a valuable article in improving all stiff' tenacious soils, in opening the texture, and in correcting the tenacity; ;uid in a pulverized state they form an excellent top-dressing for young grasses. They are very seldom found unmixed with other substances from the dwelling-house — a calx or cinder mostly accompanies, and exce|)t near large towns they form an inconsiderable article as a manure. Lime and magnesia arc found in coal-ashes ; but they arc chiefly composed of siliceous and aluminous earths, and vary much in their nature and proportions. They contain much carbonic acid gas, carbon and hydrogen, with someiron ; but our knowledge ofthemisvery imperfect. The principal use is in to[)-dressing clovers in March and April, at the rate of 50 to 200 bushels per acre, and usually applied in moist weather, when the eftects are very great and certain. The calcareous matter they contain imparts the warming and sweetening quality that is found attached to all residual substances from combustion ; and accordingly the use of coal-ashes, and of all alkaline and saline matters are always recommended to be used on all soils that produce sorrels, rushes, and inosses, in order to banish those plants, by depriving the land of the peculiar pro])erties that are necessary for their production. But it may ' k^ observed, that such plants cannot exist where farming prevails, and that the action of inpivirrc: should be restricted by every ])ossible means to the pro- motion of those plants which the cultivator uses as a crop. In inland situations, where the supply of ashes is limited, an excellent use may be adopted by throwing them into the night-soil reservoirs, where they will absorb the liquid parts, and ultimately form a solid mass, thoroughly impregnated with the urine ; and in the neighbour- hooil of towns, wlicrethey can be got in quantity, and where the pulverization of the ashes is sufficiently fine, they may be very beneficially used as atop-dressing ; or probably equally, if not more beneficially, b)' being mixed in a compost with good earths, and applied in the Spring on grain lands, and harrowed in with the seed. Coal- dust, or the pulverized particles of coal pro- duced during the different operations at the pits, has been found useful in some cases on stiif lands ; but, it is evident, that the action in that case would arise wholly from mixing with the soil, and o])ening the texture as an earth}' ingredient ; for the substance apjdied contains none of the ele- ments of vegetation, to be supplied directly by itself, or the power of producing thereby any stimulating and reciprocal action. Ashes, in a fine or riddled state, are useful for mixing with bones, at the rate of 1 to '20, in order to produce heat before sowing ; though practice is far from confirming that process as being essentially ne- cessary, which ma}' arise from differetit tem- peratures of soil, and air during the ajjplications. J. D. A. Fitzherbert, Judgo of the Common Pleas, in 1534, and from this, Harle, (Janon of Windsor, in his Essays on Agi'inulture, dales the revival of acrricultuie in ICng- land. Ttisser, the author of " Five flundred Points of Iluibandry," published 1562, was n schohu' of Eton and afterwards of Trinity Hall, Cambridgre, before he ap- plied to farming and literature. Sir R. Weston, who was ambassador from England to the Elector Palatine and King of Bohemia in 1619, introduced clover into Enghuid; his " Discourse on the Husbandry of Bra- bant and Flanders," was published in 1645, and is said to mark the dawn of the vast improvements which have since been effected in Britain. Evelyn, who is consi- dered one of the greatest encouragers of improvements that ha« ever appeared, was, it is well known, a gentle- man attached to literature and science, and often em- ployed in the public service. He published in 1664, his " Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest-trees and the Propagation of Timber in his Majesty's dominions," with many other woiks, which had a great influence in the improvement of the country. Jethro Tull, who in- troduced the drill liusbandry, and published his work on hcrse-hoeing husbandry in 1731, was bred a barris- ter ; he first made experiments on his own estate, and then practised farming. — Dr. Rojjle's Productive Re- sources of India. ON PLANTING POTATOES. Sm,— The following is the result of an experiment on a small scale of planting potatoes w/to/e, or cutting them into sets. I purchased a gallon of the Prince Rohan variety, and picked out ten of the smallest, which I set whole two feet apart in the rows. They weighed 31bs. 8oz., and the produce was 891bs. A single root consisting of twenty-six potatoes weighed lUbs., and the largest potatoes weighed 2lbs. The other portion I cut into fifty-four sets, and planted thsm one foot apart in the rows ; these weighed 41b. 12oz., and the produce was 2221bs. A single root of six potatoes weighed lOlbs., and the largest potatoe 3flhs. The most remarkable difi'erence in this produce was the size of the potatoes, for you will observe, that the root of those which were set whole consisted of twenty-six, and only weighed lllbs., when a root from one of the sets which had six potatoes weighed lOlbs. ; those from the sets were very superior in quality as well as in size. The produce as to weight is also very much in favour of those which were cut, 41b. 12oz. producing 2221bs., and those which were set whole only produced 891bs. from 31b. 8oz. This experiment, as far as it goes, proves that the largrtst potatoes cut into sets will produce a larger and better quality, and double tlie weight of those which are set whole. The produce is much the same per yard, fori find from those set whole, I had 121b. lloz., and those cut into sets I had 121bs. per yard. They were planted on the 20th of April, and got up on the 6th October. De Rohan. AGRICULTURISTS NOT liMPROVERS.— It is curious that many to whom improvement* in agricul- ture are traced, were not professional farmers, but men engaged in otiier pursuits, who, with cultivated minds, turnerl their attention also to this subject. Thus, the first English Treatise on Husbandry was written by Sir WOODERIDGE FARMERS' CLUB.— Subjects for discussion at the monthly meetings : — Jan. 13, 1841. On the propriety of manuring maiden layers. Feb. 10. On the varieties of Spring corn, and prepara- tion of land for the same. JMarch 10. On weaning and rearing neat stock. April 7. On preparing fallows for vegetable crops. May 5, On the management of the hay crop, .Tune 9. On sowing vegetable crops. July 7. On harvesting corn. Sept. 8. On feeding agricultural horses. Oct. G. On preparation of seec\ wheat. November, anqiuul meeting. 38 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SO- CIETY OF ENGLAND AND THE VETERINARY COLLEGL:. There has perhaps never occurred a period when the importance of the veterinary iM'of'ession to tlie agriculturist hiis appeared so prominently as during the past year. An epidemic, in some instances fatal, and in all cases productive of great loss to the fiirmer, has spread, and ii still spread- ing throughout the country, attacking cattle, sheep, and pigs. It is a malady which, in common wiih other diseases, human skill, to whatever degree of perfection it may be brouglit, may never be able to avert. The same diligence and attention to the diseases to vvhicli these animals are incident, cannot fail however to attain an equally successfid result as the study of tlic diseases of the iiorse has produced. It sliould seem, from ]nocecdings now going on,lhal there is a considerable number of members of the veterinary profession, who think that a great imiMovement might be efi'ected in the system of education pursued at the Veterinary College, and that tiie profession, as a body, has a right to call upon tiie legislature for certain privileges which they do not now enjoy. Upon these points we ofier no opinion. There is, however, one question on which we entertain an opinion, in common wiili a considerable number of the movement party, namely, that the course of study adopted at the Veterinary College, in regard to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, is not by any means effi- cient. If tiie question stood as it did before the Royal Agricultural Society made die liberal con- tribution of two hundred pounds per annum to the Veterinary College for the express purpose of promoting an improved system of education, in this pdrticuiar braucli, we sliould have only felt it neces- sary to appeal to the Veterinary College, as best consulting the interests of the members of the pro- fession, by qualifying them to treat successfully the diseases of animals of such great value to the farmer. As the question now stands, however, we feel our- selves placed in a different position. The Royal Agricultural Society has placed the sum of 200/. per annum at the disposal of the Veterinary College, for the express purpose of improving the system of education in reference to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs. We deprecate die nig. gardly, meddling spirit, which would seek an inter- ference in the conduct of the affairs of tlie \'^eterinary College, merely because a contri- bution is made to the funds. We should be content to state the object, pay the money, and leave it to the right feeling of the managing parlies, to see that sum pioperly expended. But if we are told by members of the veterinary pio- fessiou itself that the money is not well applied ; if we are told that the receivers of this money do little more than has been done heretofore, — we hold it to be a just subject for animadversion, — we hold it to be the duty of tne Council of the Royal Agricultural Society to inquire into the matter. We learn from the" Fe/m?Jrtrirt»j,"the accredited organ of the jirofession — and in the pages of which, fron^ tiie knowledge we have of its editor, vvo know that noUiing incorrect would be stated — that " all that was said" by Professor Sewell,in his in- troductory oration on Uie 2d of November, " of other animals besides the horse was incbuhd in two short sentences; and that they did not contain the slightest y)ledge that the maladies of these animals would ever receive die attention which they deserve." If it be true, diat the lolmlf, or the ]">rincipal part of the funds contributed by the I'oyal Agriciiltund Society goes into the pocket of Professor Sewell, surely the subject deserved from Jiiiti at least some furUier notice. But it is also stated upon the same authority, " that with the exception of a few slight and unsatis- factory glances at the diseases oi sheep and cattle, only thrte IfcUiirs were, during the wliole of the session (last), devoted to diis all-important subject." Two hundred pounds for t./irefi kclurcx! .' .' But then, it may be said. Professor Sewell has sent a valuable communication to the Royal Agri- cultural Society on the treatment of the ]ire- vailing epidemic, and which has been attended with great success. Granted ; we are willing to give Professor Sewell full credit for his communi- cation, but that communication gives the results of his previously acquired experience. The sum con- tributed from the funds of the Royal Agricultural Society is intended to be ajiplied to the education of the rising generation of veterinary surgeons, and we shall not be content until we see it so applied. A course or courses of lectures should be delivered upon this particular branch of study, and per- sons should be selected to give such lectures who are not only qualified, but who have sufficient leisure from other pursuits, to enable them to devote study and attention to that which should be con.sideied their es|iecial department. If we iiave here stated ought in error; if more has been done by the Veterinary College than we are advised of, we trust that these remarks may meet the eye of some of its members who will set us right ; should such not be the case, we shall feel it our duty to revert to the subject. — Murk Liine Evpie:^. HOW TO PUES;ETIVE potatoes. -a?, ^rne- rally speaking', the poor peoplit are ohiiwrd to keep their potatoes in tump?, pciliaps the lollowiiifr additional liints ni:iy be of some service to tliosK who have not the convenience of a dry cellar. When the potatoes are ridcced up, ready for covering', let -a little btraw or dry tern be spread over them, alter whicli let a toot thick of earth be added, chopped, or otlierwise rendered as fine ns coal ashe? ; let neither a foot tread it nor a spade beat it, but leave the whole as lig-ht as the .^oil will admit of; but where the soil is naturally stiff, u. g:reater thickness oi it must be added, and the side.* of the rids^us be left as steep as passible, ami die lighter the soil is put on the the more frost will it keep out. The reason is obvious enough, tor when light soil is laid on steep ridges rain never enters deeper, perlui]!':, than two or three inches, it being' held in a kind of solution with the tine earth by capillary attraction; or in oilier words, the air in the light soil keeps the rain from .sinkiny, consequently it runs down the side* of the ridges, and keeps the iivlerior of the mass as dry a>; po'-sible, and of course the frost never enters to a g^reat depth. When I he soil is trodden. or otherwise made firm, the air beats out of it, every drop of rain enters and sinks ihroiigii the whole mai;'-, then frost t.ike? the lilierly to follow, -.'n'l/i Pcuiion. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 39 ON DESTROYING SLUGS BY LIME. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEUs' MAOAZINE. S'ln, — As the season is again aj)proacliinn-, wliea innumerable fitlds of what ought to be our most pro- fliictive wheat land, (that is, our strong clays after beans,) ;iff.)iil to tho agriculturists hut a miserable prospect, owing to the ravages of the slug ; allow me through the medium of your most excellent journal, to inform them of a cheap and ellectual cure, — one which I have adopted for several years and al- ways with the greatest success. ]\ly plan is as fol- lows : — as Soon as the wlieat should show itself from one end of the drill to the other, but which, owing to their voracious apjietite, appeal's hut on the milder and liner pans of the field, I procure as many ibur- biishel sacks of unslaked lime tresh from the kiln, as I have failing acres of wheat, and place the same iti one or more heaps in the field, as occasion may re(|iiire, and the dryness of the ground will permit; then choosing the lirst mild and misty day, (or in- deed the first dav lean find them well out,) send two men as sowers into tiie lield, each taking a l)readih of four vard* or one land with us, the first man always keeping in advance from 15 to 20 yards. 'I'lie instant he has scattered the lime, to extricate themselves they cast away their only shield of de- fence, wiiicin is their slime ; the second lufiii then overtakes them in their naked state, and thesmallest particle falling upon them is instant dciath. I con- sider two great savings are effected by this mode of killing them, time and expense. Having noticed several people twice ploughing their land, harrovi-- ing, rolling, &c., ibr no other purpose than that of destroying them, and whilst doing the same, per- haps a heavy rain sets in, and the seeding put off" till spring ; whereas,by my plan, they may proceed with getting in the wheat as soon as the beans are ofTthe land, and the total expense of destroying the slug, including carriage, sowing, &c., does not exceed from .js. to 3s. 6d, per acre. Should this meet with the attention of any brother clay-land fanner, I have not the least doubt of its success, and shall I'eel happ}' in being instunncntal in procuring him a full crop of wheat. 1 remain, Sir, yours ver}' respectfulh', Nov. 23r(i. A LiNCOLNSiitnE Fahmeu. will hone-dust hij land without having a lease of his farm. By inserting the foregoing in the nest No. of your Journal, will oblige A Farmer and SuBSCuiiiER. I'rcslon, Lancashire. 1 1th Month, 10th, LANDLORD AND TENANT. TO THE EDITOR OE THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In No. 464 of your very valuable Journal you have favoured the public with an account of the meet- ing of the South Cheshire Agricultural Society held at Northwich on the 2[)th of September last. At this meeting a iNIr. Martin, Secretary to the Society, in his speech, takes leave to recommend to the landlords of Cheshire, who have poor tenants, to lend those tenants a helping hand to bone-dust their land, charging the tenants interest on the amount of cost of the bone-dust ; but of course, instead of the landlord receiving seven or eight ))er cent., which is something like the rate of interest generally paid for bones when applied to pasture lands, " I think," says Mr. Mar- tin, " the landlovd miicht reasonably require ten, or even twelve per cent, lihould this meet the atiention of Mr.Martin he would confer a great favour on numerous landlords and their tenantry, by causing to be inserted iu the next number of your Journal, whether he means ten or twelve per cent, on the capital laid out on bone- (lu<;t, to be paid only on the jear the bone-dust is ap- plied, or to be paid annually during the term of the tenant's iea>?e— as I fake it for nrranteii that no tenant ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CIDER. Sir, — Beinga subsbscriber to the Farmer's ?.Ia- gazine, and perceiving your readiness to insert cointnnnications, I take the liberty of addressing you, with the hope of gaining information for my- self and others on a subject that I think capable of vast improvement ; 1 mean the manufacture and management of cider. I should be greatly obliged, and I have not the least doubt tliat very many of your readers in cider districts would also, if some of your scientific corresjjondents would give, through the medium of the Farmer's ^Magazine, some chemical information on the subject ; the nature, cause, and efl'ecc, of the different fermen- tations it is subject to, with directions for the management of it. I should be glad to be informed what causes the acetous fermentation, how to dis- tinguish when the vinous ends, and the acetous commences, and if there is any article that will neutralize the cause of the acetous, without affecting the vinous fermentation ; and if charcoal could not be used with great advantage, and in what manner. The less encumbered by compli- cated apparatus, the more attainable, and conse- quently more likely to be generally useful. If some of your numerous correspondents would be so kind as to answer my queries, they would much oblige a sincere well wisher to agriculture. Herpfordshire. \V. T. ON WIRE-WORMS, &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S aiAGAZINE. Sir, — I am glad to see the attention of some of your correspondents directed to the wire worm ; many hundreds, I believe I may say thousands of acres of wheat, are annually destroyed by this mis- chievous little creature, and hitherto with perfect impunity. I am one of those w!io look forward with conlidence to agriculture deriving great benefit from the aid of science, and I know no subject to which it may be more beneficalily applied than to point- ing out a ■practical method of destroying insects injurious to the food of man. Our Royal Society- has now the means of commanding the best scien- tific information, and I trust it will use those means liberallj". With regard to smut bladders iu v.dieat, I have strong reason to believe they will not appear on corn grown from old seed, but am not prepared to speak positively. I have been in the habit of using a solution of sulphate of copper, in the proportion of one pound to three bushels of seed, dried with a little lime ; this has effectually exempted me from the evil. I shall be obliged by any of your intelligent cor- respondents informing me, through the medium of your Magazine, the proper quantity of nitrate of soda to apply to an acre of grass land ; the best time of the year to apply it ; the best state of the weather for its application ; whether it is best applied alone or mixed witii earili or other matter; and last, not least, where it can bo obtained unadulterated. 1 am. Sir, with many thanks for the information and amuse- ment I have derived from your Alagazine, your ob.-- dient servant, ANTi-Guvn. 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. RUTLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. DECEMBER SHOW. AWARD OF THE PRIZES. Class I. Oxen or Steers, of any breed or weig-lit, ■without restrictions as to feeding:. Open to all Eng- land. To the feeder of the best fat Ox or Steer, a premium of 15 sovs. awarded to Mr. Cheetham, of Ham- bleton, for his four year seven months and two weeks old Ox. To the feeder of ihe second best ditto, the second pre- mium of 7 sovs. to Mr. C. Sniitli, of Burley, for his four year and two weeks old Hereford Ox. Class 11. Oxen or Steers, of any breed or weight, under five years of atre. Feeding' restricted. To the feeder of the best fat Ox or Steer, a premium of 10 sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burleigh Park, for his three year and nine months old Steer. To the feeder of the second best ditto, the second premium of five sovs. to Mr. C. Smith, of Burley, for his three year and eleven months old Hereford Steer. Class in. Oxen or Steers, of any breed or weight, un- der five years of age. Feeding restricted. To the feeder of the best fat Ox or Steer, a premium of ten sovs. to Mr. Hodgkin, of Eadenham, for his four year old Steer. To the feeder of the second best ditto, 5 sovs. to Mr. Jas. Clark, of Burley, for his three year and t-ix months old Steer. Class JV. Cows or. Heifers, without restrictions as to feeding. To the feeder of the best Cow or Heifer, a premium of seven sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burghly Park, for his three year and ten months old Heifer. Class V. For fattened Dairy Cows, without restric- tions as to feedinar. To the feeder of the best Cow, a premium of 7 sovs., not awarded. To the feeder of the second best ditto, the second premium of three sovs. to Mr. Clarke Morris, of Oakham Grange, for his nine or ten year old Cow, Class VI. For fattened Cows or Heifers, feeding re- stricted. To the feeder of the best fat Cow or Heifer, a pre- mium of 5 sovs, to Mr. C. Smith, of Burley, for his three year and six months old Heifer. Class VII. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best pair of Steers, bred within ihc district, and under two years. The first premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. H. J. Rudkin, of Langham Lodge, for his pair of Steers. The second premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. C. Smith, of Burley, for his pair of Steers. Class VIII. Long woolled fat Wether Sheep, one year old, without restrictions as to feeding. To the feeder of the best pen of three, under twenty- two months old, a premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Painter, of Burley, for his three twenty months old Leices- ter Wethers. To the feeder of the second best ditto, the second premium of 3 sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burghley Park, for his three twenty months old Leicester Wethers. Class IX. Long woolled Sheep, with restrictions. To the feeder of the best peu of three, under twenty- two months old, a premium of 7 sovs. to Mr.Painter, of Burley, for his three twenty months old Leice'.- ter Wethers. Cla«s X. Breedincr Ewes, that have suckled lambs up to the 1st July, 1840. To the exhibitor of the best pen of five, a premium of 5 sovs. 10 Ml-. Paintei', ot Burley, lor h'n live new Leicester Ewef. To the exhibito.i'of the second best, the second pre- mium of ,S sovs. to 11. W. Baker, Esq., of Cotltrs- more, tor his five breeding Etves. Class XL Long woUtd Theaves, one year old. To the exhibitor of the best pen of five, &c., 4 sovs. to the Hon. II. C. Lowther, M.P., for his five Theaves. Second, 2 sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burgliley Park, for his five Leicester Theaves. Class XII. Pigs of any breed or age, weight above 20 stone. Open to all England. To the feeder of the best fat Pig, a premium of 4 sovs. to Mr. W. Snodin, of Langham, for his one year and eighteen weeks old Pig. To the feeder of the second best ditto, thesecond pre- mium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Thomas Chapman, of Whitwell, for his one year tind sixteen weeks old Pig. Class XIII. Pigs of any breed or weight under 20 stone, bred within the district. To the feeder of the best fat Pig, a premium of 3 sovs., not awarded. To the feeder of the .second best ditto, the second jjrenuum of 1 sov. to Mr. R. Smith, of Burley Park, for his thirty-three weeks old Pig. Class XIV. To the exhibitor of the best Mare for the general purposes of Agriculture. A premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. R. Smith, of Burley, for his four year old Mare. Class XVI. To the owner of the best Boar. A premium of 3 sovs. to ftlr. S. Penistan, of Oakham, for his 17 months old Boar. Class XVI I. To the exhititor of the best Bull, above 3 and under six years of age. A premium of 5 sovs. to J\Ir. M. Hack, of Braunston, for his three year and nine months old Bull. Offered hy ihe Hon. Berkeley Noel. Class X\'1II. To the exhibitor of the best Bull, above one and under three years old. A premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. R. Bosvi'orfh, of Gnee- tham, for his two year and nine months old Bull. — This class was highly commended. Cass XIX. To the exhibitor of the best Shearling Ram. A premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. R. Smith, of Burley, for las Sheailing Kam. To the exhibitor of the second best ditto, 3 sovs. to Mr. T. E. Pawlett, of Tinwell, for his Shearling Ram. Class XX. To the exhibitor of the best aged Ram. A premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. John Painter, of Bur- ley, for his three shear Ram. Second prize to Mr. Joseph Tirrel. Class XXi. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best Heifer. A premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Thomas Bullock, of Wanton, for his Heifer under three-years old. To the ovfuer of the second best ditto, 3 sovs. to Mr. J. Musson, of Colsterworthjfor his two year and eleven months old Heifer. Offered by the Hon. IV. M. Noel. Class XXII. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best Heifer. To the exhibitor, a premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. R. Smith, of Burley, for his Heifer under two years old. Second, a premium of 2 sovs. to S. J. Welfitt, Esq., of Pickwell, for his nine months old Heifer. Offered by the Hon. Chark's George Noel, M.P. Class XXIII. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best Sieer. To the feeder of the best Steer, a premium of 7 guineas, to 1\. W. Baker, Esq., of Cottesmore, for bis Steer uuder three yeais old. To the feeder of the second best ditto, the second premium of 3 guineas, not awarded. Offered by Stafford O'Brkn, Esq. Class XXIV. 'I'o the owner, being a tenant farmer, of tlie best Cow ill milk. To the owner of the best Cow, a premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. Dawson, of Ingthorpe, for his three year and six months old Heifer. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 To the owner of the second best ditto, the second premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Chapman, of Whitwell, for his four year and seven months old Cow. Offered by the Uight Hon. Lord Barliam. To the tenant occupier of not more thau Thirty Acres of Land in the district. Class XXV, To the owner of the hest Cow in milk. A premium of 5 sovs, to John lieasley, of JJurley, for his four year old Cow. For the second best ditto, a premium of -2 sovs. to Mary Smith, of Langham, for her three years and eleven months old Cow. Class XXVI. To the owner of the best Heifer. A premium of 4 sovs. to Ann Woods, of Langham, for her one year and eleven months old Heifer. For the second best ditto, a premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Hiillamore, of Estou,for his Heifer. Class XXVII. To the owner of the best Heifer Calf. A premium of 2 sovs. to William Koe, of Langham, for his Heifer Calf, five weeks and two days old. To the second best ditto, a premium of 1 sov. to J. Sneath, of Cottesmore, for his Calf, four weeks old. Class XXVIII. To the owner of thebest fat Pig of any weight. A premium of 2 sovs. to Thomas Hemfiies, of Egletou, for his one year and seven months old Pig. To the second best ditto, a premium of i sov. to Edward Holiday, of Eston, for his 44-weeks old Pig. Offered by Mr. Bosworth. Class XXIX. To the owner of the best pen of three long-wooUed fat Wether Sheep, with restrictions. A premium of 5 sovs., to Mr. Robert Bosworth, of Greetham, for his three under thirty two mouths old Wethers. Aho by Mr. Bosworth. To the exhibitor of the second best aged Ram, in cL^ss 20. A premium of 2 sovs., to Mr. Joseph Tirrell. Offered by Henry Nevite, Esq. To the occupier of an allotment (who does not sow more than half a rood of wheat annually) for the best sample of not less than 1 bushel of Wheat. A premium of 1 sov, to William Wright, of Ridliug- ton. Also by Mr. Baher. To the second best, the second premium of ten shil- lings, to JohnBarfield, of Ridlington. Ditto, the third premium of 5 shilllings, to Thomas Mauton, of Ridlington. Offered by Sir Thos. Whichcoie, Bart. To the shepherd who shall have raised the greatest number of Lambs. A premium of 30 shillings, to Robert Manton, shep- herd to Mr. N. W. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the second best, the second premium of 10 shil- lings, to William Freeman, shepherd to Mr. J. Berridge, of Barrow. Offered by Aiigiistiis Stafford O'Brien, Esq. To the labourer in husbandry who has brought up the greatest number of Children, and has never received parochial relief, except in sickness, and can produce the bast character from his employer. A premium of 5 sovs. to Benjamin Porter, of Burton Goggles, Lincolnshire, Offered Uy E. W. U'ilmot, Esq. To the second best ditto, the second premium of .3 sovs. to Thomas W\ird, of Edithweston. To the third best ditto, the third premium of 2 sovs. to J. Williamson, ofTeigh. To the fourth best ditto, the fo\uth premium of 1 sov. to Joseph Coleman, of Kettou. Offered by Mr. C. Smitli. To the labourer who shall have been the feeder of the best beast in the yard, and can produce a good charac- ter from his employer. A premium of I sov. to Lord Exeter's labourer. Offered by Mr. T. C. Beasley. To the shepherd who shall have been the feeder of the be>;t pen of Sheep in the yard, and can produce a good character from his employer. A premium of 1 sov. to Mr. Painter's shepherd. SWEEPSTAKES. The following Sweepstakes open to nil England. A sweepstakes of 1 sov., for the best Cow or Heifer in milk, that has calved within nine months of the time of showing. Mr. R. Smith, of Hurley, a Cow shown in extra stock. A sweepstakes of 1 sov., for the best Heifer under two years. Mr. R. Smith, of Burley, a Heifer shown in class 22. A sweepstakesof 1 sov,, for the best Heifer under three years. iVIr. Musson, of Coltersworth, a Heifer shown in class 21. A sweepstakes of 1 sov., for the best pen of 5 Breeding Ewes. Mr. R. Smith, Burley, for his 5 Ewes. EXTRA STOCK. Samuel James Welfitt, Esq., of Pickwell, a seven months old Heifer — Commended. Mr. R. Smith, Burley, a Cow, has calved two months, — Highly commended. MR. JACKSON'S PAMPHLET. Sir, — As I conceive it the duty of every one to make known to their neiglibours what they Lave been taught by experience themselves, I cannot re- frain from making a few remarks on the revision of INIr. Jackson's works in your November number; the part to which I allude is on page32(). Alluding to wheat Mr. Jackson says, "the best cri- terion for the fitness of grain to be carried home, is to examine the knots or joints of the straw, and if these be perfectly dead and free from juice, the crop may be then gathered with safety, even although it be a little wet with rain." Now, the revisers say "no such thing," the points to be examined in wheats before carting, "is the grain hardt No matter what state the straw or wheat is in. if the grain be dry, no more is neces- sary." Now, I agree with Mr. Jackson in this point, for I have experienced it ; Iwill go no farther than the last harvest to prove it. In my neighbourhood, part of tlie wheat ripened at ear quicker than the straw, llierefore some of the corn was nearly hard before it was cut ; had that bc-en carted as soon as bard, there would have been some burned wheat. And again, on our land last year, the wheat was very thin, therefore it was very large in the straw, and the knots required a great deal of drying. Many farmers in this vale paid no attention to that, and carted it ; the consequence was, their ricks were put on the wrong staddles, and soon, after thatching, were obliged to be uncovered again. I knew one instance of a rack being thatched three times. And not only in ricks ; in one or more instances it became necessary to move it in the barn, and even so liot, that the people could not work at it long toga- ther ; had they, (as I did) waited till the straw, as Mr. J. says, was perfectly dry, (suppose thecorn was not quite hard, it would soon become so,) their ricks and barns might have been untouched till the thrashers were ready for them. Wiltshire, Nov. 21, A Young Farmer. 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, AGRICULTURE. STATISTICS OF FRANCE. (Cimlinued fnnn par/e 303, Vol. II.) KESULTS. After having assembled together, by the con- currence of more than 100,000 co-operatots, about 18,500,000 of numorica! terms, expressing agricultural and social fiicts, it remained to fulfil a task which, though no doubt less vast, was, if IiOssil)lc, still more difficult — that of classing the results of all these elements in the order which offered the ereatest connexion of things and ideas, and to exhibit them afterwards in a sim])le and natural manner, which should facilitate the com- prehension of the whole and the different parts without being obliged to submit tlicm to transfor- mations, and to lind with rajjidity and ease ninnorous and varied objects of research. If we cannot flatter ourselves to have satisfied all the conditions of this problem, we are at least sure that nothing has been neglected in order to intro- duce order and perspicuity into tliis prodigious mass of figures. To describe the agriculture of France, the first method that offers itself is a very easj' division of matter, which consists of entering in a register, under the title of each of the departments, all the numbers which belorig to it, and then putting all the departmental statistics one after tlie otlier in alphabetical order ; but by this distribution only local notions would have been obtained ; the knowledge of general facts would have escaped, aiul it would have been so nmch the more difficult to trace them, as the alphabetical order would have broken all natural affinity, ])y i)ringing to- gether the most distant departments, ;md sepa- rating those which are nearest to each other. The ancient division by [)rovinces would not have been more favourable ; and if even it v^f-re not totally out of the question, it would have been re- jected, for it (iividcd the territory into jsarts too numerous and unequal, which did not admit of establishing any comparison between them. In the necessity of grouping together the seve- ral dejjartments into regions, in order to [jrcservc the afllnities of climate, of soil, of geographical jiosition, and every other analogy existing between adjacent po])ulations, a very broad and simple division has been sought for, at once easy to be understood and remembered, and founded on the natural order of things. The meridian of Paris, which separates France into two parts which are nearly equal, and the 47th parallel, which precisely crosses the centre of the kingdom, have iiirnished the outline ofthe division by which the territory is divided into four regions, each containing 21 or 22 departments, and having nearly the same extent and the same population — an csscnti:d cir- cumstance, as it enables ns to compare together tlio different ])arts of the country, either one with the other, or two to two. Thus in tlie same manner as the agriculture of each legion may be compared to that of three other regions separately, we may l)esides, if we unite two together, compare one half of France with the other half, and show the ana- logies and the differences which exist between tlicjn, whether by oiijjosing the eastern to the western territory, or the dcpartm^-'nts of the north to the soutli. Subdivisions, to be adnnttcd or rejected at will, are given for the considcraiion of the position. They bring together, in each region, the depart- ments which border the frontiers or the coasts, and those whicli belong to the interior of the country. It is important to verify if these dissi- milarities in geographical position exercise as great an influence iqjon agriculture as tliey do on the population.* In each of the four great divisions of territory three series of statistical tables reproduce all the agricultural facts under different points of view. The first series concentrates these facts in each of the departments to which they belong. It is a statistical topography of agriculture. The second series enumerates all the rural pro- ductions. Every species of it is the object of a special table, and the indication of the localities only comes in the second line. Nevertheless, it is here developed in a manner hitherto without ex- ample. The production of each sort of cultiva- tion is ex])ressed, not only by department, but even by arrondisscment, which forms a ma'^s of details hitherto altogether unpublished. The third series recapitulates the two others at once by departments and by rural productions. It does not, however, confine itself to summing up figures, it distributes them so as to show what are the principal elements of the agricultural economy of a region. It expresses iu a succession of tables the extent of cultivation, the seed that it requires, the quan- tity of produce yielded, that which is disposable, that which is annually consumed, and fitially, the value of each of these classes, cither in total or by the hectare. These three series complete each other. They exercise a mutual control, and indeed it would be difficult if calculations considered under so many aspects should not disclose the errors they might contain. If some of them are exceptionable, it is easy for our observation to find and to seize them amidst these multiplied evolutions, and we may easily detect by what phenomenon the chain of analogies is interrupted. Besides their common and general aim, these series, which are composed of more than 200 statistical tables, each separately satisfy a par- ticular want of science and of the country. The first is required by the geography of France, the second by agriculture, and the third by political economy, which for a long time past has called loudly lor an investigation of its important truths. The numerical facts of which tlie statistics of agriculture are formed arc again united together in continuous order to each and to all the divisions of the territory, from the arrondissement, which does not contain more than 150,000 hectares up to the double region, which comprehends more than 26,000,000. These facts, summed up as briefly as possible, give for the 4,3 departments to the east of the meridian of Paris the results which I am about to have the honoiu- of submitting to your Majesty. The eastern half of France con)preheucls, in a territory of more than 2(), 000, 000 hec'varcs, a ])0- ])ul;itiou of nearly 1(!,000,000 inhabitants. It is divided into 177arrondissements,and ID, 000 com- munes. Its northern part contains nearly twice as many communes as that ofthe sontli ; its sur- face is less extensive, but the population is more numerous and dense. The northern region reckons nearly 12,000,000 hectares and 1,719,000 houses subject to taxation, * Sliitistics oj' France, vol, i, i>. 'if3?. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 which pay in the aggregate 38,500,00Of. of land- tax. The region of tlie south contains !2,r)0O,000 hectares, anil 1,44.'., 000 huiUlings, subject to the lan(l-t;i\', to which it contributes about 3 1,500, OOOf. Ill the first of these regions tlie moan sum of the taxation of each hectare is 2f. (J8c. ; in tlie second it is 2f, 4c. The one pays an average of ;}f. 9;5c. for each house, and the otlier 4f. (!c. The t»vo regions united, wliicli form something less than tlie half of continental Fiance, ])osscss 2!,r.00,000 of taxed hectares, and 1,700,000 uot taxed ; together with 3,l()3,00O l)iiildings subject to tax, and nearly 4(>,00O which are exetii|)ted. 'J'hc mean general quota is 2f. ['>3c. for each taxed hectare, and ,if. l)!)c. for ench house. 'I'hese preliminary notions, wliich make kno\vn the territory, the population, and the assessment - of the land-tax, will permit us better to apjireciate the numerical j'eturns presented by the agricnl- tmal statistics of this fine portion of France. 1.— EXTENT OF CULTIVATION. Out of 2(;, 000 ,000 hectares i),()00,000, or consi- derably more than a third, are employed in culti- vation. This proportion is raised to one-lndf, if we add to the land actually cultivated the fallow ground and various plantations comiu^ised under the names of orchards, nurseries, willow-grounds, alder-heds, &c. But if we confine ourselves to enumerate the cultivated parts in the strictest sense, by even rejecting the artificial meadows from the jiasturage, there are then only 8,8()3,000 hectares in cultivation, or 1 in A. In the northern region we reckon nearly 10 hectares cultivated out of 25, in that of the south 10 in 34. The total surface of cultivated ground is divided into three principal parts — viz., Grain (!,538,198 hectares, three-fourths. Vines 897,423 — one-tenth. Various cul- tivations . 1,428,081 — one-sixth. This is more than a hectare in cultivation for every two inhabitants.* The choice and the vailety of cultivations are determined not only by the capahilities of climate and soil, but also by tlie wants, and above all the habits, of the population. Ill tlie northern region wheat and raeslin cover a surface nearly double that which is assigned to them in the southern region ; barley :uul oats have, so to r,])eak, a quadruple extent, but rye and maize arc reduced to one-half. The gardens and fields destined for the cultivation of dry vegetables arc twice as large, and the cultivation of rapesecd and beetroot of five times the extent. 'J hat of hem]) is a third above, and the flax-grounds occujiy 23 times as much space. It is true that the influence of climate in the south favours various productions which it rejicls in the northern region. Thus the mulberry trees * That the reader mav completely understand tbo report we have here translated, and to enable him to reduce the different Frencli measur, 000,000 ; which mates from ] 4, 000,000 to ir.,000,00(( hectolitres annually employed in the reproduction of grain. This is in abundant years a value of l()2,000,00()f., while in others it amounts to more than 250,000,000f. The quantity of seed required for a hectare does not vary mucli ; it exceeds two hec- tolitres for the ])rincipal giains in the north as well as in the south. It is rather more for barley, and still more for oats. Potatoes require more than 6,000,000 hectolitres at the rate of 12} to the hectare. It is an average expenditure of 13,000,000f. 3. QUANTITY AND VALUE OE THE ANNUAL PRODUCE. No question of agriculture and of political and social economy can equal the importance of that which is here laid down and determined. It con- cerns the subsistence of the population, the well- being and ])rosperity of the country. The conclusions that we are about to establish e,^- ])ress the ])rodiice of an ordinary year. They increase in abundant years, and contract in years of a bad crop ; but it is essential to say, that the dirnimition of produce is very far from ever being so greai as is ordinarily supposed, and that there is no truth in the expressions of a half crop, or of a third of a crop, which we commonly make use of. These are exaggerations which have no foun- dation anj' further than as regards a locality, a commune, or a canton, and which there is no ex- ample to justify in the case of a region or an extended country. The average annual entire mass of grain pro- duced in the 4.3 dejiartments of eastern France form 84,500,000 hectolitres, which the deduction of seed reduces to 70,000,000. Ihe northern region furnishes two-third.s of this vast produce, that of the south jiroduces the other third. The grain more i)articularly approjiriated to the nourishment of man— that is to say, wjieat, spelt, mesliii, and rye, average 52,000,000 hectolitres' and the others, barley, oats, and maize, about ■31,000,000. The 70,000,000 of disposable hectolitres allow for each inhabitant 4^ hectolitres for his nourish- ment and that of his (u)incKtic animals. The different kinds especially destined for his subsis- tence furnish him with much beyond 2^ hectoli- tres, of which wheat forms two-thirds, and meslin and rye the remainder. In abundant years ilie value of this subsistence does not exceed 78(),000,000f. ; in less favourable seasons, it is worth l,200,000,OOOf. This is a difference of from 50 to 75 francs in the expenditure of each individual. The grain, which constituted formerly the whole subsistence of the population, became progressive! v of less absolute necessity, since they have had for auxiliaries the cultivation of the potato and pulse 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and the produce of the gardens* The care he- stowed on these productions now furnish every year a mass of subsistence which is truly pro- digious. In East France 5o, 000, 000 hectolitres of potatoes are gathered annually, or three and a half for each inhabitant. The cultivation in the gross of pulse furnishes 2,000,000 hectolitres, and the value, at a rough guess, of garden produce amounts to more than 72,O0O.OOOf. In this hnlf of the kingdom the vines, which occupy nearly 900,000 hectares, yield above 20,000,000 hectolitres of wine, estimated at 231,500,000f., and by including the brandies to more than 2(i3,000,OOOf. In the north the hec- tolitre of wine is worth 29f., and only 18 in the south. There are annually made 3,360,000 hec- tolitres of beer, and 4(j 1,000 of cider of all kinds. Their united value does not exceed r)2,000,000f. The beetroot occupies lessthan 37,000 hectares, which yield about 12,000,000 hectolitres, estimated at 20,000,000f. The rapcseed covers at least 116,000 hectares, •which °ive 1,500,000 hectolitres of seed. The gross revenue of ihc hectare amounts to nearly 300f., and the total value of the crop to 35,000,000f. The textile plants cover more than 100,000 hec- tares. The flax yields 12,000,000 kilogrammes of produce, and the hemp 33,.'JO0,O0O; including the seed, they give a crop estimated at 64,500,000f. The mulberry trees, of which the culture has received too recent an extension to be correctly ajypreciated, yield a gross revenue, per hectare, which exceeds l,000f., and the total product of the values of which they are the first source is not below 42.000,000f. Estimated according to the low prices of a year of average or abundance, the produce amounts, on the principle of the most minute estimation, to the undermentioned sums : — Francs. Grain 950,000,000 Vines 264.000,000 Hecr and cider 52,000,000 Various cultivations 430,000,000 Total 1,696,000,000 But at the time of high prices grain attains a value greater by one-half, and the total produce considerably exceeds 2,000,000.000f. 4. — CONSUMPTION. It is very difficult to determine the quantity of agricultural produce consumed, because there is the perpetual supi)ly of an arrondissement, of a department, of a region, to another, and that the truth of the figures is exposed to be falsified, on the one hand by omissions, and on the other b)' being twice employed. We consequently offer the investigation of this important subject as approximations ; but we may venture to affirm that there have not been any up to this time which have been made from such numerous and complete materials. An unexpected guarantee of their ac- curacy is, that their figures are in accordance with those of the production, though they have each a different origin, and that they are derived from immense calculations made separately, and with- out any foreknowledge of the agreement of their results. When we have deducted the seed, there remains in the 43 departments of East France more than 70,000,000 hectolitres of grain of all kinds, dispo- sable for consumption and exportation. The quantity annually consumed amounts to 68,000,000 hectolitres. Thus, the average jiroduce provides for the sowing of the land, the wants of the popu- lation and of domestic animals, and gives an ex- cess of a 34th. The departments of the north produce more than they consume. The contrary is the casein those of the south. We cannot compare with exactitude each sort of disposable grain with the quantity of it which is consumed, because, besides the meslin reaped on the spot, it is made at pleasure in some depart- ments by a mixture of wheat and rye in variable properties. In total, the grain in East France ap- jiropriated to the nourishment of man leaves a difference of less than 1,300,000 hectolitres be- tween the disposable quantities and those con- sumed. This difference, which is not equal to a 52d part of the consumption, is the sum of the necessary importations which take place in that part of France, either from the western depart- ments or foreign countries, by the arrivals at the port of Marseilles, 'i'o counterbalance this there is an excess of 3,500,000 of hectolitres produced above the consumption by the cultivation of bar- ley, oats, and maize. It is principally the oats of the north which give this excess. These calculations show the profound error of the assertions of common people, and even of some economists, who suppose that a crop furnishes sufficient for the consumption of two or three years; that the produce is too great; that it is necessary to prohibit the importation of foreign grain, and other opinions conceived a jjriori and totally in opi)osition to known facts. They explain how a slight deficiency in the crop rapidly and forcibly affects the price of grain, and furnishes plausible or specious motives to raise it, when nevertheless, there is not the slightest foun- dation to dread a scarcity. They finally establish the necessity of maintain- ing with vigour the free circulation of grain in the interior, and by facilitating this object by cheaper, more rapid, and more e.xtended means of communication and transport. The consumption of each inhabitant is nearly in the following proportions, taking the depart- ments of East France one with another : — Hect. Hect. Wheat 1 . 70 ~\ Meslin 0.28* )> 2.68 Rye 0.70 J Oats, Barley, Maize, Buckwheat. . 0.32 Potatoes 2.«3 Pulse 0.11 Kil. Meat 20.53 Hect. Wine 0.75 Beer 0.20 Cider 0.03 The consumption of the north differs materiall}' * The grain here sooken of, meslin, is a mixture of wheat and rye. The practice was formerly very general in France of sowing these two species of grain mixed together in the same ground ; but from the circumstance that the rye generally comes sooner to maturity than the wheat, the practice in some de- gree is abandoned, and a great part of the meslin now consumed arises from the mixture of wheat and rye after their res|)ective production. This mixture is in any proportion that may suit the taste and habits of the consumer. The household bread made of meslin is exceedingly nutritious and wholesome. THE FARMKirs MAGAZINE. 45 ill all respects from that of the south ; it is greater ill wheat, in niesliii, in i)otatoes, in pulse, in meat, and in beer ; it is less in rye and in wine. a. PASTWRAGE. East Trance possesses Ki, 500, 000 hectares in pas- turage of all kinds : one quarter only in natural and artificial meadows, and the remaining tiirce- (|uarters in pasture, sheep-walks, and fallow- ground. The departments of the northern region contain 1,()0(),000 hectares of natural and artificial meadow land, yielding a produce of 200,0()0,000f. These of the south have only 1,000,000, furnishing a value of r2(;, OOO.OOOf. The fallow grounds are of the same extent, and of an equal produce, in both regions. It is different as respects the sheep- walks ; their extent is scarcely 800,000 hectares in the nortli ; in the south it is from four to five times as great. Here the value of their produce is less than half. In total, the whole pasture-ground yields annually a gross revenue of 4r2,000,000f. — that is to say, 2;W,000,000f. in the north, and 17!),000,000f. in the south. The improvement of tins essential portion of agricultural domain is an object of the highest interest, and with which it is necessary that we should be constantly occupied. 6. — WOODS AND FORESTS. The 4j departments to the east of this meridian of Paris contain nearly o, 00, 000 hectares of wood, of which three fifths are in the north, and two in the south. Of these two categories, the first fur- nishes nearly six steres the hectarp, whilst the second only yields two and a half. Thus the annual revenue derived from the woods and forests amounts in the northern region to IOC, OOO.OOOf., instead of ;)l,000,000f., which is yielded by the southern region. The whole of the forests of East forest produce only 137, OOO.OOOf. annually, which must be attributed to the rights and cus- toms to which a great many of them are subject, and to the state of dilapidation into which for a long time past those have fallen which are in the neighbourhood of concentrated populations. ". — EXTENT AND VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL DOIMAI N. The administration of the state and the econo- mists have had recourse, during a century and a half, to every possible method of reduction, in order to estimate, by attentive observation, the value of the gross produce of the agriculture of France : but it was not possible to arrive at this essential knowledge except by means of a detailed inventory of rural produce. The half of this difficult task having been ful- filled in the work that I have now the honour of presenting to your jMajesty, we may already draw IVoiii it exact and comprehensive notions of the extent and value of the agricultural domain of half of the kingdom. East France being divided into two regions, we find, that in calculating the extent of territory of one and the other, that the first, that of the north, contains a little less than 13,000,000 hectares ; and that the second, that of the south, has a some- what larger surface. _ Of this extent of 2(i,000,000 hectares, the cul- tivations of all kinds, joined to nursery grounds, orchards, willow plantations, plots of chcsnut trees, and other plantations, occupy 9,000,000, or rather more than a tliird, the pasturage two-fifths, and the woods more than a fifth. A '2(>th part of the whole surface, or more than 1,000,000 hectares, is set apart for social wants, and is occupied by towns and villages, churches, canals, public roads and watercourses. ' Tliough the extent of agricultural domain may be the same in the two regions, the distribution of it differs considerably, in the north the cultivated portion is greater by 1,200,000 hectares; the orchards, nurseries, and other plantations exceed by more than half, and the woods and forests in the same proportion ; but, on the contrary, the natural pasture, the heaths, and the fallow gnnunii occupy but 4,000,000 hectares, instead of (i, 000,000 j as in the southern dci)artments. The gross revenue of the annual agricultural ])roduce amounts in the northern Vc^ion to 1, 300,000, OOOf., and in that of the south to ;)45,00O,O00f. The difference is 3(i:),roo,000f. or more than a sixth of the total value, which amounts to 2, 241, 000, OOOf. This amount produced by 43 united departments ought to be increased— 1. By the produce of the nurseries, willow and alder grounds, and that of the orchards which do not contribute to the making of cider. 2. By the value of different productions of agri- cultural industry mentioned elsewhere. 3. By the overplus value of grain, in years when the prices have been higher than those existin^- when the materials of this work were collected. "^ In taking no account of the two first articles, which require special investigation, we may at least estimate the overplus value of orain at 300.000,000f. or 400,000,0001\ ; which hnngs the minimum of the gross value of agricultural produce in the east part of France to the sum of more than 2,500,000, OOOf. S. — NUMBER AND VALUE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The principal species of domestic animals be- longing exclusively to agriculture, form an im- mense aggregate, which in East France amounts to nearly 25,000,000 heads. The cattle form less than a fifth, the flocks three-fifths, the swine one- tenth, the horses a twentieth, &c. The departments of the north have considerably more heads of cattle and swine, and from three to four times as many horses, as those of the south ; they have fewer sheep, goats, mules, and asses. These animals contribute to the agriculture of this part of France a cnpital of 877, 000, OOOf.— that is to say, 371, 000,000f. in cattle, 157, 000, OOOf. in sheep, 87, 000, OOOf. in swine, 200, 000, OOOf in horses, 47, OOO.OOOf. in mules, &c. The mean revenue of each animal is generally higher in the north, where the different species have been improved. The total revenue amounts to 350, OOO.OOOf.. of which the cattle produce 137,000, OOOf., the sheep 5(i,00O,O00f , the swine 40,000,000f., the horses ;'3,00O,O00f., the mules from 15,000,000f. to 16,000,000f. y.— NUMBER OF ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED FOR CON- SUMPTION. There is annually taken for this purpose two oxen out of seven, one cow out of seven, and a greater quantity of calves than that which is re- served for bringing up. Out of 15,000,000 of sheep and lambs, one-fifth is slaughtered. As to swine, there are nearly as many killed every year as are fed. In total, 7,000,000 of animals are required for the substance of the Ki, 000, 000 of inhabitants forming the population of East France. 10. — QUANTITY AND VALUE Or THE MEAT CON- SUMED. Calculated carefully by communes, the meat 46 THE FAllMEll'S MAGAZINE. coiisiimcil forms a quantity of 327,000,000 kllo- Kiauiiiicf, cstimatcil at 2(i0,000,000f. The cattle fiHuish two-tifths of tliis quantity, tlie slicep onc- cightli, the swine nearly half. The (Icpartiiieuts of the north furnisli iic-irly twice as many oxen, cows, and calves as those of tlic south, and of swine half as many more ; hut their cnnsumption of sheep is only one-third of that of tlic southern departments. The domestic anifaals add to the agricultural riches of East France : — Francs. 1. An annualrcvenue, amounting to. . .3.S0, 000, 000 2. A consumption of meat estimated at 2()0,OOO,O0O Total 610,000,000 Thus from that half of the territory which lies to the east of the meridian of Paris, the public resources derive annually from agriculture a gross revenue composed of— Francs. 1. Minimnni valueof rural produce. .2,500,000,000 2. Animal produce valued at 610,000,000 Total of gross revenue derived from agriculture 3,110,000,000 It is probable that the articles omitted would bring- this sum to .'5,500,000,000^, but this increase can only be conjectured. This vast work contains so great a number of numerical facts of which the knowledge is essential to tlie prosperity of the kingdom, that I have not been able. Sire, to exhibit them with the con- ciseness I should have wished. I trust that your Majesty will forgive me, in consideration of the novelty ar.d the importance of the objects eni- ))raced by this report, and that you will receive the rdsuhs which it comprehends as one of the most useful applications of science to the fust interests of the state. I am, with respect, 8ire, your Majesty's very humble, devoted, and faithful servant, Al. Gouin. The Secretary IMinister of State for the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce. Parii', May 30. A PECULIAR AFFECTION IN SHEEP, IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING SIIEARIN(.I. BY MK. J. GUITERIDGE, V.S., OF ROSS. In June last, my attention was directed to the sheep on three farms in my neighbourhood. There were eleven ewes on one of them, seven on another, and fifteen on the third ; all of them affected with a very peculiar disease, and which the proprietors were naturally fearful would spread through the rest of the flock. It appeared either in the night after they were shorn, or in the course of the following daj'. The first symptom was usually great swelling of the hind legs, the udders, and the under part of the abdomen ; giving, as some of the shepherds called it, the appearance of a boot, blackened and polished. Some of the ewes wei-c not able to stand, and several died before the disease was recognized. I had them brought under a warm shed or into a barn, and gave to each a gentle dose of aperient medicine, and had theai well fomented with warm water as far us the swelling extended. This favoured the i)r()cess of suppuration, and as soon as the enlargement pointed at any particular s])ot, I opened it with my lancet, and continued the fomentation, adding, in some cases, alittle chloride of lime to the water, for the ulcer was very foul and fetid. I administered inwardly mild tonics, and allowed my patients some ground oats, v/ith cut hay, clover, &c. All this was caused by tlie unthinking shepherd turning them out immediately after they were shorn. At an early period I will send you the full particulars, for I consider the case a very interesting one. — Veterinarian. ON THE DtJRABILITY NITRATE OF SODA. OF TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXFUESS. Sir, — I observe in your last paper, an inquiry re- peated by Rlr. Syraonds, as to the durability of Cubic- petrc, as a fertilizer, wliieii has been recently made on several occasions. There is no doubt but that its effects extend beyond the first year of its application ; this is certainly tlic case with saltpetre — thus Air. Kimbcrley, of Trotsworth, when he used it upon his clover land, found that its effects were equally great upon the follow- ing crop of wheat. — Journ. Roy. Ag. Soc. vol. i. p. 276. — Mr. Wilshcr experienced a similar result. — My Essay on SaUpetre, p. 30. Mr. Lfe, who successfully used it for barley, found it improved in an equal ratio the fol- lowing- crop of clover. — 7'(/»;(. Qnur. Jour, of Ag. vol. i. p. 302. Air. Oakley, of Preston, in II erlfordsh ire, says, " it survives to the succeeding- crop."— Essay on Saltpetre, p. 38. It is a very erroneous conclusion, that saline manures are speedily washed out of the soil by the rain, for I ascertained some years since, by very careful experiments with common salt, that at ttie ex- piration of twelve months, sixty per cent, of the quantity originally applied remained in the soil. — Easay on Co>n- mon Salt, p. 1.56. I am glad to find that the use of Cubic-petre is ex- tending so supcfjssfully. In some recent trials on the estate of his grace the Duke of Norfolk, detailed by Mr. Anderson of Oakley, the following i-esults were ob- tained (for an account of which I am indebted to Mr. E. Purser, of New Bridge-street, an extensive dealer in these powerful salts) : — One hundred and fifty pounds' weight of nitrate of soda per acre, were sown on a portion of a field of clo- ver in April, 1840; the reniainingiiart of the hold was not manured. 'J he clover was cut on t!:e 6tli of July ; on the Ilth, when in a good state to cart, the clover was weighed. Ton. cwt. qr. lb. £ s. d. I'roiluco per acre, where the Nitrate of soda was sowu 3 Produce per acre, where the Nitrate of Soda was not sown 2 1 1 20 vaUic il. per ton 12 5 9 i 1 24 value il. per ton 8 17 10 Difference in quan- tity per acre.... 0 16 3 2-1 In value 3 7 11 Cost of Nitrate of Soda per acre, and sowing 1 9 0 Profit, per acre, from the use of the Cubic Petre .. 1 18 11 The benefit derived from thus increasing the produce of clover will hardly ever terminate with the first crop. It is a well-known fact amongst the Essex farmers, that by whatever means ihey increase the produce of clover, the yield of the following crop of wheat will be in a similar ratio improved. I am. Sir, yours, faithfully, CuTiiBERT W, Johnson. 14, Gray'i Inn Square, Dec. 3, 1840. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 ON SOOT. Soot (sot, soot, soote, Sax.; soot, soet, Dut. ; suye, Fr.) is a clammy, e;irthy, voUitile matlor, arising: witli the smoke by the notion of lire, or smoke itself embodied and condensed on the sides of the chimney, or a collection of substances formed by the tlame of combustible bodies. '1 hough once volalilo, it cannot again be resolved into vajjour. Distilled with a strong heat, ityiehls volatile alkali and enipy- reumatic oil, with a ciuantity of iixtd mntter remain- ing- at ibo bottom of the vessel. When burnt in an oi)en lire, it liames with a thick smoke, and jiroduces 01 her soot, used in making sal-ammoniac, and like- wise as a manure. Soot has escaped perfect com- bustion from insufficient contact with vital air, and consequently may be burned again. The l)lack and brownish colour arises from an oil that is burnt and half reduced to a state of coal, and the dilferent qua- lities and appearances arise from the nature of the inflammable substances, and tiie mode in which they are burnt. It contains a black carbonaceous mptter, with carbonated ammonia, and emits a strong pun- gent smell from the touch of quick lime. It affords a brown extractive matter of a bitter taste, and some ammouiacal salts, and also an einpyreumatic oil ; but its great basis is charcoal, in a state capjible of being rendered soluble by the action of oxygen and water. A slight portion of fibrous matter is volatilized by the lire, and again occurs in the soot. The soot produced by the combustion of coals is generally reckoned better in (juality than that of wood or peat ; and soot that is got from kitchen chimneys, where it is impregnated with the etlluvia of the cooked victuals, has been reckoned preferable to any other ; but experience has not in every case established a marked and permanent difference. It has been long used as a manure in the way of top- dressing all crops, culmiferous or green, and on grnss lands, and on turnips soon after brairding, as a pre- ventive of the fly. The season of application gene- rally recommended is in the spring months of March and April, and if [lossible during calm and mild showery weather ; but an application on wheat lands in autumn, when the wheat was sown, and ploughed in with the seed, was very successful ; and the use of soot on grass lands in October was equally bene- ficial with the spring application, in cases of my own personal superintendence. The quantity used on an acre varies in different statements from 20 to 100 bushels, the average being 40 to 60, and the medium price, including the sowing by tlie seller, may be stated at fid. per busliel, the sowing separately being charged ;^d. Twenty bushels an acre are scattered bv hand on turnips to prevent the ily ; on wheats that look sickly, or are infested with grub, soot will work a great change in restoring a green and healihy colour, and in causing much tillering from the roots. On clovers, tares, and on all voung grasses, and on grass lands, the effects will be equally beneficial ; and also on young barleys, and on all spring crops. It may also be harrowed in with the seed of any crop in the spring on well pulverized land ; but as mois- ture is necessary to its operation, it may sooner obtain the assistance of that element by lying on the surface as a top-dressing. Quantities of soot can only be got near large towns and villages, where it is bought and carried to considerable distances, as few substances are more certain in efiV-ct as a manure. The spreading of it on t'le land requires a gentle wind to cari-y it from the sower, and to scatter it evenly. A four-horse waggon carries 160 bushels, and may be driven across the >Yind, and by the sower walking backwards oyer a space, the soot will he tarried from tlm horses and the sowers, to whom the caustic (jualities are often very inconvenient. 'J'wenty bushels of soot have been reckoned eijual to fifty of the ashes of coal, wood, or peat; it never fails in jiroducing good cro[is, but as may bL^ readily coiicluilud from its nature and composition, it lasts oulv for one year. J. D. THE ilOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Siu, — I liave seen with tlio deepest regret an iinnoiinccrnent thfit the English Agricultural So- ciety, for the future, do not intend to give any prize to encourage the lireeding of hunters, carritige- horses, and hacks. What can be the reason for it? Are these descriptions of horses beneath the atten- tion of the council of the society, whilst pigs and sheep arc objects worthy of their regard? Is it of no concern whether the farmer can obtain a good hack to carry him -through many a long day ; whether the gentleman can get a good hunter to carry him in tlie field ; or the military man a good charger, to bear him safely through the field of blood and carnage : Avhether tlic breeder can pro- duce an animal which •will repay him for the four or five years he is obliged to keep it, or one that will not i)ay him after the same extent of time for one year's support ? England has been pre-sminent for horses. Is it to be so no longer ? Is no inducement to be given by the chief agricultural society of our island, to farmers zealously to continue to improve their breed of nags ? Are foreigners to be permitted, year after year, to convey from our shores our best blood, and no efforts to be made to replenish those we have lost? yhould another continental war occur, how will our cavalry appear, once above all competition? will they be so in future? I consider the proposed witltdrawal of the jirize as a proceeding most inimical to the best welfare of the society, and if i>ersisted in, as calculated to cause the withdrawal of many amongst its mem- bers, and array against it a great number of farmers in the northern and eastern counties, where the de- scriptions of liorses I refer to are largely bred. To withdraw the pren.ium this year seems to me to be a very ungracious act, as the show takes place near to Yorkshire, from Avliich celebrated county we might reasonably expect much superior breeding stock would be sent, producing a far m.orc splendid ex- hibition in this particular department than either the one at Oxford or Cambridge.' But it appears the council of the society have de- creed otherwise. Farmers of England, members of the English Agricultural Society, is it thus to be ? I call upon you to rise as one man, forward remon- strance upon remonstrance to the society ; besiege its very doors until the voice of reason, interest, and a regard for your country's future weal shall prevail. An ENGLISHMAN. Tolleshunt Knights. THE FARMER'S ALMANACK : Ridgway.— A very usefvd manual for agriculturists. Au immense quantity of information in a very umall compass— in fact, nothing relating to the real interest of the farmer has been omitted, — iiunday Times, 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. NITRATE OF SODA. Capt. Alexander has published, at the request of the East Suffolk Agricultural Association, the Essay on the soils of that district, for which he ohtained Mr. Long's prize. It contains much that is valuahle, and from it we select the following extracts, which particularly appertain to some of the soils of this county. " The employment of nitrate of potash (saltpetre ) and nitrate of soda (cubic, petre) have of late beea used to a great extent, and there appears to be no doubt of the beneficial effects ; and it forms a fair presumption, tbat the fertilizing- power of our compost heaps maybe attributable to the quantity of calcareous nitrate, formed by a due admixture of earth and manure in our usual mode of forming com- posts. "In Prussia, the nitrous enrth is prepared so much after the manner in which we form compost heaps of manure, tlrat I must be excused for tran- scribing the method as I find it in the P^ncyclopajdia Londinensis. ' Five measures or parts of black vegetable earth, or the earth of subterranean caverns, are mixed with one measure of wood or vegetable ashes, and some straw ; these articles beat up with water of dunghills, or draining of yards and sewers, are formed into walls or beds, twenty feet long and three feet wide below, two feet wide at the top, and six feet high; they are covered with light straw, and moistened from time to lime, and at the end of the year are fit for washing.' " In Malta they employ the most j.orous calca- reous earth, mixed with straw ; a layer of this earth and a layer of dung alternately follow each other, until they are six feet high ; this is sprinkled with water from dunghills, and occasionally turned, it then becomes fit for washing in three years ; during the first year the beds are sprinkled over with slated lime every month. " In Sweden, a layer of meadow turf, ashes and lime, and the draining of sewers, stables, 6cc. are sprinkled over in a similar manner ; then a layer of straw is put on, and these layers are continued above six feet. These beds are defended from rain, and occasionally moistened with tho drainings of stables, &c.; they then begin to yield nitre at the end of a year, and continue to yield it for ten years; it is swept ofi:' every eight days, and after each sweeping is watered as Ijefore ; the remaining matter at the end often years forms an excellent manure. "In the canton of Appenzel, they take advantage of the situation of their stables, which are built on the sides of mountains, to have a trench under the floor ; into this trench they cast porous earth, and emptying it once in three years, thus obtain a ton of saltpetre from an ordinary stable. " Whoever compares these and similar modes of obtaining nitre, with our common practice of rais- ing compost heaps, will be struck with the coinci- de°nce, that both appear to be managed for a like purpose ; and if so, that in the proportion in which we raise nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,) and nitrate of soda, (cubic petre) so is the value of our com- post heaps, more or less ; but the inference to be drawn is, that we may pursue the system with more accurate results by a slight attention and observa- tion. First then it would appear, that in collecting our calcareous earth, whether it be chalk, crag, marl, or clay, it should if possible be chosen from the north face of the pit, and where it has been some time exposed ; that it should be mixed in much lar- ger proportion to the manure than is generally prac- tised; that it should lay in alternate layers, rising six feet high ; tliat it should ho occasionally watered with the water of dunghills, drainings of vards, or where this cannot be ohtained, with salt and water, slaked lime being occasionally added, and that these heaps should have one whole summer or year to propagate nitre. We are also instructed in tiie use of mortar rubbish, gypsum, &;c. " There is a practice among the smaller farmers, who kee]) a i'ew young stock and eows in heavy land, of forming tlieir compost heaps from the out- jKjJlowings of ditches, with small proportions of wet straw liom their cattle yards, in which no great (juantity of manure from the cattle exists ; and I have often been surprised that sufficient effect could be produced by so small an admixture of ma- nure, among so much apparently inert matter ; but when we consider that this assemblage of mate- rials from the ditchescomprisestiie facings of banks, which have been shaded, and the dead leaves of the fences, and water washing from the surface soils, I am inclined to attril)ute the good efi'ects to the pro- duction of nitre by these manure heaps, and to sug- gest that if they could be allowed more time to col- lect nitrogen from the atmosphere, they would be more valuable. " It would then appear advisable in forming ma- nure heaps, to place them at the north side of a barn, near to some tank into which the drainings of the yard are collected, from whence they may be wa- tered ; and to keep them covered with light straw, and in other respects to imitate the artificial forma- tion of nitre beds above described, and especially to allow the heaps a whole year ; this may be afforded by allowing tbem to have sq mucli calcareous and clayey compost, as to form two heajis from the same ' now, Sir, noticed all (lie poiiit.'!; in Mr. Bates's letters which I consider nccessury, and having- imparted to hiui and your readers, the nio- d- iii'j; of animals, and, in part also, the means by which I oljtainod that knowledge, any further com- ment on my part wonld be snperflnous. I shall, therefore, for the future, leave the subject to the discussion of Mr. Bates, from whose superior skill and ex))erience, I doubt not, both the public and myself will derive great benefit, and under whose tuition 1 shall be unfeignedly willing to place my- self, when he can ]n'ovcthe position lie has assumed, by " incontrovertible facts." I have leai'ned from observation and experience, that I am much more I'XnoYwwtnow, as regards the breeding of animals, than I co7is'ulerccl ini/self to be forty years ago. Apologising for the formidable length of this letter, I am, Sir, your very obedient servant, John Price. Poole Hotise, Dec. 8. P.S. — I cannot resist this opportunity of offering a few remarks, for the consideration of breeders of Hereford cattle ; those, more particularly, who live in the county of Hereford. These gentlemen must be aware, from the great and increasing attendance of graziers and other.s at their county fairs, and the eagerness there evinced to purchase Herefords at almost any price, that tbey are known to be a truly valuable breed of cattle. If other proof were re- (|uired, I need ouly instance the engerness evinced in Smithfield and elsewhere to buy Herefords, by a very shrewd, clever set of men, the butchers, the most choice cutting of whom are anxious to get hold of them ; and the price per stone that Herefords command, above all other cattle, save the very best North Devons and the Scots. I would, therefore, advise the Herefordshire gen- tlemen to look stcadil}' at the high position they occupj as breeders, and to endeavour to maintain it by discarding any feelings of envy or jealousy which may exist, eitlier among themselves or towards others, who zealunslit advocate their breed of cattle ; let them, individually and collectively, embrace every chiuice of improving the breed of Herefords, regardless altogether from whose stock the improve- ment proceed ; let form and quality be their beacon, with as much size as is compatible with Nature's law ; they will thus, as they have hitherto done, keep the Ifad in the struggle for superiority, even for prize cattle, which, if I mistake not, was seven to two in their favour at the Smithfield cattle show last year, and about 6 to 4 the year preceding : I hope this year it may be as eight to one, but even should it be that odds against them, they have nothing to fear if they will condescend to act on the advice I humbly offer ; and if there be among them any breeder desirous of trying a cross from other breeds, let it be made with a Il'est Highland Scotch hull. I would try this cross myself with ten cows, did I know where to get a good bull ; and I would back the produce, for paying money in proportion to the food consumed , against the progeny of any short- horned bull in or out of England. John Price. ON PREPARING NIGHT-SOIL. Sir,— I feel obliged to your correspondent, G. Bia- byn, for bis valuable remarks on preparing night-soil, and hope he will be so kind as inform me, through your paper, whether ammonia escapes from the dung in the yards where cattle are fed in winter, or if it remains ia solution till the heat of fermentation in the dung-camps in spring disengages it. I consider it is of importance that farmers should knov; if they should apply gypsum to prevent the loss of ammonia in their cattle-yards, or if it be merely necessary to do so in the dung-camps wlien they begin to ferment. Would it not be proper to sprinkle the layers of dung, as they are placed in the camp, with gypsum, to make sure of retaining the ammonia ? I wish also to know from whom in London I can procure genuine gypsum in powder, as the most part of two tons which I used on clover this year was evi- dently plastered lime, ground down. Your obedient servant, Nov. 27, 1840. J. Mackenzie. THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. An opinion seems to be entertained by some that tlie remarks in reference to Professor Sewell, and the Veterinary College, in our last number, exhibited an improper degree of acrimony. We then stated that if we were in error, we should be happy to correct any mistake. We have obtained some further information, and we see no reason to alter our opinion ; we impute nothing improper to F'rofessor Sewell personally, we deal with him as an officer of the Veterinary College, and without reference to the Professor in any way, we assert, that the Ptoyal Agricultural Society has not had value received for the three hundred pounds paid, or about to be paid, to the College. The \'eterinary College, as it seems, met the Society in a laudable spirit, by erecting, at l/ieir own expense, suitable buildings for the reception of cattle, sheep, and ])igs. The sum contributed by the Society has, therefore, been appropriated to some other pur- pose. It has, we presume, been given to some one. Now, we ask, in the name of the members of the Royal Agricultural Society, to whom has it been given, and what have been tlie services ren- dered ? The charge against the late Professor Coleman, in reference to the instruction of the stu- dents at the College in the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, was that it was made less than a secondary object. We have stated that only three lectures on this subject were delivered in the last session, and we are further informed that the instruction ge- nerally was not more than in Professor Coleman's lime. Now, we say, this is not what was ex- pected when the Society offered to contribute 200/. per annum to the funds of the college ; if the facts be not as we have stated, we are willing to give any explanation which die parlies concerned may be pleased lo furnish us with. The proposed certificate from Professor Sewell, adverted to by Mr. Pusey, the President of the Royal Agricultural Society, will not suffice. A knowledge of the treat- ment of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, must be made part and parcel of the education of the veterinary student, and if the laws of the college do not at present admit of it, they must be amended. We repeat we seek not toallach blame lo any one personally, but die College must make a suitable return for the amount received from the Society. — Mark Lane Express. £ 2 52 THE PARMER'S MACxAZINE. SMITHFIELD CLUB CATTLE SHOW. Tuesday, Df.cembeu 8, 1810. The stewards of the yard, Mr. Franklin, of Asi;oll, near Tetsworlh ; Mr. Wortliington, of Brockhurst, Coventry; and Air, Ladds, of Ellington, Jluntingdon ; and the judges— for cattle and long-woollcd sheep, Rlr, Charles Stokes, of Kingston, near Kegworth, JVotts ; Mr. William Trinder, of Wantage, Berks ; and Mr. Richard Parkinson, of Babworth, Notts ; — for short- woolled sheep and pigs, Mr. William U'anner, of Patch- am, near Brighton; Mr. William Staee, of Bnrnack, near Alfreston ; and Mr. William Saxby, of Rotten- dean, near Brighton ;— all assembled on Tuesday. The honorary secretary, Mr. Humphry Gibbs, laid before the stewards the various certificates received of ilie^toi'k to be exhibited for the club's premiums and medals and as extra stock. The judges, after reading and considering their printed instructions, and having, in the yard, learned from memorandums placed in their hands by the secretary all the particulars contained in the certificates, except the names of persons and plaees thereon, whilst they were examining each animal to which the several cer- tificates referred, proceeded, being alone, to consider and determine the comparative merits of the animals in each class and of those in extra stock, by the num- bers affixed to them, and resolved to make the following report, viz. :— We, Charles Stokes, of Kington, William Trinder, of Wantage, Richara Parkinson, of liabworth, being the judges appointed to examine and decide on the re- spective merits of the beasts and long-woolled sheep shown by the several candidates for the premiums and medals offered by the Smithfield Club, and of those in extra stock, having considered the printed instructions given us, do adjudge as follows : — CLASS I. That the first premium of 20 sovereigns, in class 1 , for oxen or steers of any breed, under five years of age, without restriction as to feeding, be adjudged to No. 28 — viz., the Ilight Honourable the Earl Spencer, of Althorpe, near Northampton, for his lordship's 4 years and 5 months old Durham ox, bred by his lordship, and fed on cake, Swedes, mangel wurzel, and carrots. Travelled to the show by van 10, and by rail 60 miles. That a silver medal, as the breeder of the above, be awarded to the Earl Spencer. That the second premium of 15 sovereigns, in class 1, as above, be adjudged to No. 31 — viz., Mr. Christoiiher Smith, of Burley-onthe-Hill, for his 4 years and 1 month old Hereford ox, bred by Mr. U. Proctor, of King's Pon, Herefordshire. Travelled to tlie show by van 100 miles; and fed on cake, bean meal, hay and carrots. That the third premium of 5 sovereigns, in class 1, as above, be adjudged to No. 34— viz., Mr. Wratislaw, of Rugby, Warwickshire, for his 4 years and 7 months old Hereford ox ; bred by Mr. Philips, of Leigh House, LTpton-on-Severn, and fed on cake, barley flour, cab- bages, turnips, and hay. Travelled to the show on foot 2 and by rail 84 miles. CLASS IL That the first premium of 30 sovereigns, in class 2, for oxen or steers of any breed, under 6 years of age, weight 90 stone ana upwards, that shall not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains or distiller's wash, during 12 previous months to the 1st August, 1840, be adjudged to No. 36 — viz., the Right Hon. the Earl Spencer, of Althorpe. near Northampton, for his lordship's 5 years and 1 week old Durham ox, bred by himself, and fed on Swedes, mangel wurzel, and 896 lbs. of cake ; travel- led to the show by van 10 miles, and by rail 60 miles. That a silver medal, as the breeder of the above, be awarded to the Earl Spencer. That the second premium of 20 sovereigns, in class 2, as above, be adjudged to Not 46 — viz., the Most Honourable the Marquis of Exc4cr, of I'urghley Park, near Stmnfoid, for his lordship's 3 yeiirs ami 9 m(uuhs ■old Durham sieer, bred by liis lr)rdfl)ip, iiiid fed on 900ibs. of cake and 650 lbs. of barley ilour ; iiavelied to I lie show by van 90 Luilt^s. 'i'liat the third ])reniiuni of 5 sovereigns, in class 1, as above, by adjudged to No. 43— viz., iNIr. Buckley, of Norniiinlon Hill, Nottinghamshire, for his 4 year^ :ind 11 months old Hereford ox, bred by himself from the stocks of the Earl Talbot and Mr. Price, and fed on vegetable food, and 8401b*. of c;ike and 3 bushels of barley-meal ; travelled to llic show on foot 3 miles, and by rail 155 miles. CLASS IJT. That the first premium of 15 sovereigns, in class 3, for o\en or steers of ;iny breed, under 5 ycai-s of age, under 90 stone and above 70 stone vvi;ight, that slmll not have had cake, corn, tneiil, seeds, grains, or distiller's wash during 12 months previous to the 1st of August, 1840, be adjudged to No. 51— viz., Mr. H. Chamberlain, of Desford, near Leicester, for his 3 years and 8 months old Hereford ox, bred by himself, and led on^rass, hay, green vegetables, 921 lbs. of cake, ami 100 lbs. of bean- meal; travelled to the show on foot 10 miles, and by canal 140 miles. That a silver medal, as the breeder of die above, be awarded to Mr. 11. Chamberlain. 'i'hat the second premium of 10 sovereigns, in class 3, as above, be adjudged to No. 49 — viz., Mr. Bailey, of Shenley House, near Stoncy Stratfoi'd, for his 4 ycurs and 9 mcjnths old Hereford ox, bred by jMr. 111. West, of Little Froine, and feopulation that virtue in any situation of life shall be rewarded. Earl Si'ENcrn would presently make an observa- tion on what had just been said, but the toast he would now propose to them was " Success to Agri- culture." {Cheers.) The CiiAiRjiAN then gave " Success to ]\Iannfac- tures," Earl SpENciR then gave " Success to the La- bourers of the Country," and said that he perfectly- concurred in the observation, that the Pgricultural societies throughout the country should give en- couragement to well-deserving labourers. As in me- chanics, nothing was so absurd as to give force where force was not required ; so it was with la- bourers, who should be encouraged to good conduct rather than coerced. Agricultural institutions could reward good comliict in the localities wheie they were situated. It would be impossible to give a prize in this metropolis, as a local knowledge was necessary, and they would have to meet persons from Northumberland, and anywhere else, before it could be awarded. The local societies will under- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. stsiud this, ami they will confer great benefit by en- couraging good conduct in labourers. It was not necessary for him to preas this subject further, as be did not know any agricultural societies which gave i)rizes sucli as "these that hud not done good, it w;is their interest that the labourers should have every comfort and to promote their prosperity. He therefore proposed as a toast, " Success and j)ros- perity to the labourers, wiUi three times three." The tiast was warmly received. The C'liAin.MAN' then gave the " Duke of Manches- ter, the father of the Club." Earl Spkn-cer proposed " the Duke of Richmond, and the Highland Society. {Much cheering.) The Duke of Richmond rose, and said— Gen- tlemen, my noble friend has accompanied my name with the Highland Society, because I have iiad the honour of being appointed a Vice-President of that society. I feel that hOnuur more, as 1 am but little known to the farmers of Scotland, and I believe that my appointment took place because the farmers of Eogland did me the honour of appointing me President of a society in this country. The Highland Society of Scotland would not have done me the honour of appointing me a Vice President, if they were not fullv satisfied that 1 take a deep interest in agricul- ture. Though not born a Scotchman, still I have some Scotch blood running in my veins, and I feel that the good which I have attempted to do to my tenantry in this country ought to he extended to the tenantry of Scotland, I have seen my tenantry in my own house once in every year. It is absolutely necessary for us landlords to see our tenants. We like to receive our rents, but I like to see them, and lor them to become acquainted with me. I do not say that if they see me they will like me, but I think that the tenant should consider himself part of the family of the landlord. I believe that the Highland Society has conferred great benefit on the people in Scotland. That Society will go with you in any-. thing that can promote the prosperity of agriculture. The'toast which had just been given, to a useful and most meritorious class of men, was always drank with pleasure. There must be different grades, or else who would till our lands, or who would farm 1 Ret us act according to the commands of Provi- dence, " Do unto others as you would be done by." This was the motto which we should all adhere to. I have met manv farmers in my life-time, and I never saw any who would not drain their glasses in drinking health and prosperity to the labourers. No man could ever hold up his head if he did not do so. I consider it an excellent plan to ask meritorious labourers to dine with you. I have seen men who htive said that to meet their employers and their clergymen at dinner was more gratifying than the premiums they had received. If any land- lords did this they would feel that they were doing to others that which they would wish should be done to them. Mis Grace concluded by saying, that in return for the health of the Highland Society I beg to say that our next show is coming on ; we shall be liappy to see you, and if you come you will find that hospitality is not forgotten in the " land o'cukes." (Great cheering). Earl Spencer then announced the names of several candidates for admission. The Chairman said — I propose the health of the father of agriculture in this country, who is a per- sonal friend of mine. I propose the health of Lord Leicester (cheering). Earl Spencer then gave — " Live and let live." This w«s the last toast of the evening, after which the President left the chair, and the company sepa- rated. It cannot fail to have been remarked by those who have been in the habit of attending the dinners of the Smithfield Club that the present was the most orderly and well conducted assemblage that ever met on any previous occasion. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AND THE SMITH- FIELD CLUB. If we may be permitted to use a sporting phrase, the two great meetings of tiie week, namely, of the Smithfield Club, and of the Royal Agricultural Society, have come oft' vvilii great eclat. On Tuesday, after the judges had concluded tlieir labours, His Royal Highness Prince Albert visited the cattle-yard and inspected the animals, attended by Earl Spencer, and H. Gibbs, Esq., the Honorary Secretary ; and, as we are informed, seemed to take great interest in the exhibition. On Thursday, His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridtje, honoured the Show with his pre- sence. His Royal Highness attended by Earl Spencer and Col. Challoner, inspected the animals and implements, and expressed his approval both of the exhibition aijd of the arrangements. It is not a point of minor importance attendant upon the removal from the old place of exhibition, that tiiese exalted personages have the opportunity afl^brded them of seeing an exhibition of the finest animals and vegetable productions of cur soil without annoyance or inconvenience. George the Third was a farmer, and tliere is no doubt that the liking which he displayed for the pursuit, induced many persons of influence in that day to direct their attention to the subject. Since the reign of George the Third the jiractice of farming has made a great advance. Thc3 species of encouragement which it now should obtain from the Monarch is of another and a higher character. We trust we si'.all not incur the ridicule of our practical readers when we say, that we confidently believe that farming will become a scientific pursuit. The laws of nature, whether vve observe them in the formation of tiie most minute animalculee, or see their effects in the tempest and tiie wiiirlwind vvhicli desolate a whole country, are purely and beautifully scientific. Thei'e is not an operation performed by the farmer, the result of which, with the aid of science, may not be shown to be governed by certain rules. Experience teaches the farmer that lime is beneficial on one soil wjiilst it is useless on anotlier; and that manure made from cattle fed on straw is very inferior to that produced by animals fed on oilcake; surely he would not be likely to farm worse, or more disadvantage- ously, who should be able to explain the causes of difference in the above-mentioned cases. As the personage nearest the throne, as tlie parent of the future occupant of the throne of these realms, we rejoice that His Royal Highness Prince Albert has evinced an incipient feeling of interest in the productions of our soil. The exhibition of cattle at the Smithfield Show, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 59 altliougli not so numerous as in some past years, wns of good quality. Earl Spencer's oxexliibited in class two, vvhicli, besides a premium of thirty sovereigns, obtained the gold medal as liio ■' best beast in any class," was a most complete animal. The Soutiidown sheep were of a very superior order. The Leicesters, as a whole, not so good as we have seen them. The altenition in tiie place of exhibition has not only added to the convenience of the exhibitors and of the visitors, but lias also improved the finances of t!ie club, which, as slated by Earl Spencer at the dinner, are now in a very flourisli- ing condition. Some alterations in the classes and regulations have been made, which it will be well that our readers should notice to prevent irregu- larity or disappointment at the next show. At the meeting of the Committee on Friday, it was resolved that, in future, the certificates of the exhibitors of stock, and the notices of exhibitors of implements and other articles, must be sent so as to reach Mr. Ilumpiney (jibbs, the honorary Secretary, on or before tlie 20lh of November. That the stewards of the year be allowed £7. each for their expenccs. That in class 3, which at present is for oxen or steers of any breed, under live years of age, under 90 stone, and above 70 stone weight, that shall not have had cake, corn, nieal, seed, grains or distillers' wash during twelve months previous to the 1st of August, 1840, the weights shall be raised from under 90 stone to under 100 stone. That the weight in class 5, in like manner, be raised from 70 stone weiglit to under 8") stone weight. That the fifth class be called the fourth class, and the fourth class the filth class. That an additional sum of £.5. be added to the fust premium in classes 10, 13, and 15. That all animals coming to the show shall be labelled by the exhibitor, describing the classes for whicli the animals are respectively intended, when the certificates are received the secretary will send labels to the exhibitors for that purpose. That the cause of agriculture in this country is greatly indebted to Earl Spencer, will not be de- nied by any one, and it is not saying too much to assert that the Smithfield Club owes its present condition, if not its existence, to the generous support rendered by his Lordship, when it was in a sinking stale. The consciousness of having (lone good service will, under any circumstances, i'urnish a rich reward to the rightly constituted mind ; but we do not believe the man exists who is indifferent to the acknowledgement of services, or to whom a recognization of such services is not grateful. For these leasons, therefore, we think that a part of the proceedings of the Committee of the Club, on Friday, must have been very gratifying to the noble i^resident. It has long been considered, that although the gold medal of the Club must be regarded as a mere token of the honour conferred, still that it was not of sufficient value, speaking of it in a pecuniary point of view. A resolution was therefore passed that the value be increased, and that a die be procured for the use of tiie (Jlub; that Earl Spencer's likeness be stamped on one side of it, and that his lordship be requested to sit to Mr. Wyon, of the Mint, in onler that a perfect likeness may be procured. This well-merited testimony from the members of the Club cannot fail to be acceptable to his lordsliip. Lord Wcijiern exhibited three shearling, and three two-shear wethers, of his Anglo-Merino, and one pure bred Merino wether, which when clipped last produced a fleece weighing 33lbs. This fleece was very much admired for its beautiful fineness of quality, and lerigth and strength of staple. The quality of the wool on all the sheep was highly spoken of, and although much increased by crosses with our English breeds, was very little deteriorated in (juality, A Devon heifer was also exhibited by his lord- ship as extra stock, and attracted much admiration for her purity of breed and quality of flesh. Messrs, Thomas Gibbs and Co., the Seedli, jun., Red Brook, Wliitchurch, Salop \\'aller, TIik Rev. Keate, Abbott's Ham, Barnstaple, Devon •Roe, John Colville, l^ynniouth, South Moiton, Devon Pinneyar, Bcoom, Newbury, Berkshire Duddino-, J. W., Saxbey, near Lincoln Cambridge, William, South Runcton, Kiag'sLynn Rawlins, Robert, Whitchurch, Hampshire Caparn, Daniel, Horncastle, Lincolnshire Ireland, James L'eland Clayfield, Binlington, near Bristol Clifford, Henry Cliflbrd, Frampton-ca-Severn, Glou- cestershire Best, George, Compton, Guildford, Surrey Read, William Pryor, Maldoa, Essex Ilalley, Francis, ShifTiial, Salop Johnson, J^cv. Henry Luttman, Binderton House, Chichester Cana, Robert, RIarlcsford, Wickhara Market Bruch, Charles Cumming, M.P., Dunphail Forres, N. B. Flack, William, W;itors-place, Ware, Herts Pyalt, Abraham, Wiltbid, near Nottingham Websitr, George, Hallfield House, Des.ford, Leicester- shire Ellis, John, Beaumont Leys, Leicestershire. PROFESSOR IIENSLOw's LECTURE. A letter was read from the President, informing the Council of the liberal offer of Professor Henslow, of Cambridge, to deliver a lectureonthediseases of wheat, to the members of the Society, in the week of the Smith- field Show ; illustrating his report on that subject in preparation for the new part of the journal, by drawings and illustrations. This offer was unanimously accepted by the council, and Thursday, the 10th instant, at nine o'clock in the evening, was fixed for the delivery of the lecture ; members to be admitted by tickets, to be had on applying to the secretary of the society. It was also announced that papers would be read at the rooms of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 the sociely to the members wlio resorted to tlieni during ilic lour evenings this week they woukl be thrown open tor tiieir accommodation. AUriT OF ACCOUNTS, Colonel Challoner, chairman of the finance com- mittee, read the report of the sitting hekl that day, re- commending tl)eir accounts to be auilited previuusly to the general meeting, by the auditors appointed at the anniversary meeting in IVIay last, and agreeably with the terms of the bye-laws. INDIAN SEKDS. Reports on the various success which had attended the trials of the Indian Seeds, transmitted in March last to the Society, by Professor Royle, on the part of the East India Company, were read to the Council, from Earl Spencer, Earl of Enstnn, Sir Samuel Crorapton, Bart., M.P., Mr. Sanford, M.P., Mr. Kinder, Mr. T. Raymond (Jarker, Mr. Woods Page, Mr. William Greaves, Mr. Davenport, and Mr. Dean. Colonel Challoner and Mr. Shaw also gave an interest- ing account of the success which had attended their distribution of the seeds into various hands, but of •which 1 hey had not received the linal details. All the reports spoke favourably of the pine-tree seeds, and especially of a new clover, which in every case grew iHOst luxuriantly; and, should it stand our climate, is likely to be a very valuable addition to the plants now cultivated for the food of cattle and sheep in this country. EI'IUEMIC. Communications were received from Sir Samuel Ciomplon of the progress of the distemper in Yorkshire, from Mr. Atkinson, of Houghton-le spring, in Durham, and Mr. I'orter, of Hembury-Fort, in Devonshire. The noble chairman informed the coun- cil that he believed great success had been found to follow au immediate housiug of the stock as soon as taken by the complaint. Professor Sewell has presented his report to the Journal Committee. LICHFIELD ADDRESS. Mr. Chawner, secretary of the Lichfield Agricul- tural Society, transmitted to the council the address of the inhabitants of Lichfield and Tara-\vorth, and of the owners and occupiers of land in Staffordshire, approving, in common Avith the great majority of the farmers of England, of the- principles upon which the Society had been established, acknowledging the bene- fits already derived, and anticipating Irom its exer- tions, still more important advantages to the great and varied interests of agriculture ; and therefore re- spectfully requesting the Council to select Lichfield as the place of the annual meeting of 1S42, on the grounds that Staffordshire possessed no peculiar breed of cattle, and consequently offered a neutral ground, on which the various breeds of the kingdom might meet in fair competition ; that a most convenient site for the ope- rations of the society was presented by Whittington Heath, situate midway between Lichfield and Tarn- worth, and furnished with every facility of communica- tion by railway and canal; that Lichfield being the central town of England, and surrounded bv a manu- facturing as well as agricultural population, would afford to the society the best position for making known to both classes the laborious and successful efforts of the husbandman to apply to agriculture those principles of science which have elevated to so high a decree, and are_ still actively engaged in advancing the manufac- turing operations of the kingdom. The address was signed by Earl Talbot, president, and Sir Francis Lawley, Bart., vice-president of the society ; by the Marquis of Anglesea, Earl of Lichfield, Sir Robert Peel, Bart., Lords Leveson and Paget, and 700 of the most distinguished and well-known agricultural name? in that part of the kingdom ; and its consideration stands adjourned until the time when the question of selecting a place of meeting for 1842 was brought gene- rally before the Council. Communications were received from Sir Charles Gordon, Bart., Secretary to the Highland Society, on tlie subject of exjierimental farms; from Mr. Hooper, Secretary to the Isle of Tlianet Farmers' Club, trans- mitting ;i copy of their report, and exuressing on their part a wish to promote the objects of the Society in East Kent; from Mr. Parkinson, of ISabwwrth, Not- tinghamshire, liberally ottering, from his own set, to complete the very imperfect copy of Ruffy and Evans's Fi(nii.er's Joiinuil possessed by the Society ; and from Mr. Vcnable, of Sheerness, transmitting a specimen of wheat ninety years old. The council then adjourned. THE GENERAL MEETING, The General Meeting of the Members of the Royal Agricultural Society of England was held at the rooms of the Society, in Cavendish-square, on Saturday, Dee. 12, at 12 o'clock, when there were present the following noblemen and gentlemen : — Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., T. N. Cwtlin President W, Woods Page Duke of Richmond T. Chapman Eail Spencer James Bisshopp Earl Ducie S. Jones Earl of March I C. J. Kendle Right Hon.Speaker of the ' J. Walker House of Commons | If. Strafford Col. Challoner | Geo. Kdby Thomas Raymond Barker j S. Bennett Henry Handlev, M.P, W. Bennett J. W. Childers', M.P, J. Edmonds E.A. Sanlord, M.P. J. Fulshnw Rev. W. L. Rham H.Pa-et, Francis Pym '■ J. A. Ransome SirHarryYerney,Bt.,M.P. W. Smart W. Shaw : James Dean W. Greaves I T. Osborn Thos. Gardom \ John Shelley Charles Lees | W. Trinder C. Whitlaw ! John Clarke Edward Bowley, j H. Boys C. Hillyard j W, Hannam T. Inskip Thos, Umbers Thomas Derry, jun. John Ellman T. E. Pawlett ; H. Ellman T. Pawlett J i G. Boys T. Cobb ! \V. Wells H. Overman i H. Chamberluin T. A. Champion | H. ftlachin F. Wratislaw | Thos. Greelham C. Hill j Geo. Swan John T. Carter John Wiggins Robert Martin i James Martin W. B. Wingale David Martin J. Cheere H- W. Baker J. Roper J. VV. Barry J. Hilton J. Bateman R. VVorthington Jonas Webb W. J. Pickin J. Soames C. Burness H. Wilson J.White T. Knight Thos. Weall John Glutton S. Sandon 1. R. Coojior W. Fisher Hobbs John Beasley C. Roby R. B. Harvey S. Druce W. R. Brown John Morton R. Cobb John Oakley The President of the Society, Philip Pusey, Esq. took the chair shortly after 12 o'clock, sup- ported on his right by the Duke of Richmond, and on his left by Earl Spencer. The President said : — The first business which we have to discharge is to hear the report as to the state of our affairs and accounts, which 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has been prepared by the council, read. Tlie Secretary will read the report. Mr, Hiidsoji tlieu read the following report : — REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. The Council, in presenting' to the General Rlceting llicii- report on the present state and prospects of the Society, have the satisfaction of congratulating' the Members on the general and awakened interest now everywhere pervading' the agricultural community of this country. During liie last half year no less than 1,400 new Rlenibers have been proijosed and elected into the Soeielry, and this rapid increase of Members, and ex- tension ot the Society, conjoined with the cordial good- will and co-operation of tlie local afsociations and I'armcrs' Clubs established, and flourishing in every part of the kingdom, lead the Council to anticipate, with well-grounded confidence, the happiest results in the acquisition of sound practical knowledge, and in 'opportunities of extending the objects and permanent usefulness of the Society. The success which attended the Society's Annual Meeting at Cambriilge, in July, is too recent to require any comment on the part of the Council, but they beg on this occasion to report to the General jMeeting thatat the first council held after the Cambridge Meeting they had the pleasure of expressing by their unanimous votes the deep obligations of the Society to the heads of the colleges, and the muuicipal authorities of the town, for their co-operation in promoting the successful issue of the meeting, and in a more especial manner to the Master, Vice-Master, and Fellows of Trinity College, for the liberal use of their Hall for the ordinary on the Tuesday, and to the Master and Fellows of Downing College, lor permission to erect on their quadrangle the pavilion for the great dinner on the Wednesday ; and to the Mayor and Corporation of Cambridge for their grant of the use of Parker's Piece for the Cattle Show, and for the admirable arrangements they effected for preserving the peace and good order of the town during 80 extraordinary an influx of strangers on that occasion, and in so perfect a manner that not a single misde- meanour or breach of the peace was reported to the Watch Committee during the three principal days of the Show. They have also had the satisfaction of returning the best thanks of the Society to the Earl of Hard wicke and the Cambridge Committee, for their zealous co-operation in carrying out the various details ;iff'ccting the success of the meeting, and to those gentlemen who so liberally came forward to offer every facility in the trial of im- plements, especially to Mr. Grain and Mr. Emson for the use ol their land iind horses,and to Mr. Bryant, l\Jr. Witt, and also Mr. Emson, for the gratuitous supply of horses for working the machines, as well as to Rlr. Swan of Cambridge, for the offer he made to the Committee of the use of his land for the trial of the subsoil ploughs. The Finance Committee have been actively engaged in simplifying the mode of keeping the accounts, and thus checking any casual errors which may from time to time arise from the insertion of so large an increase of new members in the Register of the Society, and ob- viating the temporary confusion which has in some cases been occasioned by similarity of name, and error or imperfection in the address of their residences ; and they have recommeudud that the financial year of the So- ciety shall in future be established, not as formerly, by the irregular periods of the General Meetings, but in half-yearly divisions from January to June, and from July to December inclusively, and the auditors' first balance-sheet will be presented to you under this half- yearly form. The Journal Committee still feel a strong desire that the parts of the Journal, as published, should reach the hands of the Members in the securest and most expe- ditious manner, and your President, as their Chairman, has been anxiously occupied during theautumn recessin completing the classed list of those friends of the Society who have kindly consented to act as agents for the dis- tribution of the Journal in every county throughout the kingdom, and in directing' the insertion of this list in the forthcoming part of the Journal, on the cvc of pub- lication. The Council taking into consideration the incalcula- ble national importance of every circumstance alfecling the growth and produce ef wheat, have requested the members of the Society to transmit for the Museum such specimens as afford a fair average of their peculiar respective districts ; and Professor Henslow, Colonel Le Couteur, and Mr. Morton, have kindly consented to act as a Committee of Curators in deciding on the plans to be adopted for the preservation and permanent ex- bition of these specimens. The Council would, in an especial manner, record their sense of Professor Heuslow's services in promot- ing the objects of the Society, in having drawn up and presented to the Journal Committee a valuable report on the Diseases of Wheat, and in delivering to the members an illustrative lecture on the same subject. The Council have also been desirous of arriving, if pos- sible, at some conclusions respecting the application of Nitrate of Soda as a manure, and although the com- munications already furnished lead to the presumption of highly interesting principles of organic action and laws of vegetable life, about to be developed from these enquiries, they regard the present state of our knowledge on this subject as very imperfect, and requiring much additional information. The Council observe, with much satisfaction, that already men of the first scientific character have turned the powers of their minds to the investigation of these interesting but at present recondite laws of Nature ; and the celebrated Professor Liebig, of Giessen, has given to the world an important contribution to the Theory of Agriculture. 13ut on this and on every other occasion, the Council cannot too strongly express their conviction, that however splendid, as works of genius, such theoretical disquisi- tions and deductions may be regarded, the solid ad- vancement of practical agriculture can only be steadily and effectively promoted by sound induction from care- ful observations and repeated experiment under the most varied circumstances of locality, soil, and aspect ; and they trust that the motto of the Society, " Prac- tice with Science," will ever be the guiding rule of its members in their efl^orts to advance the cause of good husbandry. The Council have watched with much anxiety the pro- gress of the epidemic among cattle and other stock, now prevalent in so many districts of the United King- dom ; and while in the treatment of this disorder, they have perceived in the remedies proposed the application of no new principle different from that assumed in the Society's original circular,— in its nature, on the con- trary, and its mode of action on the living economy they require much further information to enable them to de- cide on many peculiar points of the disease, and they have, therefore, resolved to circulate among their mem- bers a list of such Queries as they trust will obtain a mass of facts which will fully enable them to derive just conclusions on the true nature of this trouble- some and injurious complaint ; for, although not very fatal in its consequences, its prevalence is the cause of much suffering to the animals, and disappointment and loss to the owners in the depreciation thus occa- sioned in the value of their stock. Mr. Hudson also read to the I\Ieeting the financial account of the Society presented by Colonel Chal- loner as Chairman of Finance, comprising the Audi- tor's Balance Sheet, from January to June inclusive, 1840; the Finance Committee Memorandum of the present state of finances (showing a present balance of upwards of 1 300/. in favour of the Society) ; and the Finance Committee of Cambridge Balance Sheet. These accounts were most satisfactory, and gave much pleasure to the meeting. The Cambridge balance sheet showed that the total receipts had been 3,415/. 19s., and the expenditure 3,089Z. 2s. '2d. and that the Cambridge Meeting had thus occa- THE FARMER'S MAGAZIWE. 63 sioned a loss of only 173?. 3s. "id. to tlic fuinb of the Society. The Presidknt said : — (Jeutlemcii, the report of the Council just road has entered so fully into our affairs, that I think it unnecessary to say any- thing with respect to them. If any gentleman has any question to ask nie, cither myself or some other member of the Council will endeavour to reply, and, if possible, to aflbrd every information tliat may be required. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Ravmond Barker: I beg to move that the report now read be iulopted. Mr. RiiAM seconded the motion, and it Avas car- ried unanimously. The President: I think, gentlemen, that it may be interesting to most of you to hear the report of the Judges of the implements exhibited at Cambridge, especially as I do not tliink that it has yet appeared in the public prints. {Hear.) Tlie President then read the following report: — CAMBRIDGE MEETING.— REPORT OF THE EXHIBITION OF IMPLEMENTS. The judgres of implements, after having carefully ex- amined sucii as were exhibited in tiie show-yaid, Cam- bridge,.TulyHlh, unanimously agreed to a report, which they delivered to the Council on the following morning, recommending to the notice of the Society sucii imple- ments as appeared to them, from novelty and general utility, to deserve the Society's honorary rewards ; and these were as follows, viz. : — To Mr. Beart, of Godmanchester, for his Tile and Sole MakinpT ftlachine. To I\lr. Grounsell, ©f Louth, for an improvement in his Dropping Drill. To JNIessis. Garratt, of Saxmundhani, for their Corn and Turisip Drill, with moveable axle and swing steerage. To Mr. Wood of Stowmarket, for his Barley Roller. To Mr. Croskill, of Beverley, for his Clod-crushing Roller and Liquid-manure Curt. To Mr. Wedlake, for his Corn and Stubble Rake, with balance-weight. To Mr. Hannam, of Dorchester, Oxfordshire, fcr his Skeleton Harvest cart. In justice, however, to the several exhibitors, who, at considerable cost to themselves, had responded to the Society's invitation, and had sent from various quarters of the country sucli a selectionof implements as, beyond controversy, was never before collected in one show- yard, the judges desire to particularize others also, which although on this occasion they were unrewarded, yet are not the less entitled to notice. At the conclusion of last year's report a hope is ex- pressed that upon a future occasion a still better exhibi- tion may be made than on that their first attempt. That this hepe has been realised no one who has had an op- portunity of comparing the two can doubt ; thus prov- ing that one great object of the Society is in the progress of fulfilment — namely, the producing competition among macliinists and the consequent improvement of agricul- turalimplements. Before proceeding to comment upon the variety of implements which pas=ed under their inspection, the judges beg leave to notice the very great difference that was observable in their workmanship ; nor can they for- bear expressing an opinion that in general the attention ot implement makers has been more directed to novelty and ingenuity of design than to skill in execution. Messrs. R'hnsome, of Ipswich, liowever, appeared to them to merit the commendation of the Society, as well for their unrivalled collection of machinery of all descriptions as for the superioiity which these machines exhibited in the above noticed i)artioular. A bank of their ploughs (86 varieties) were arranged and elevated on planks to the height of at least 20 feet, and struck the eye of the beholder as he entered the yard; nor did a nearer inspection of thera diminish his admira- tioR. There were three gor»c-crusher?;, but none ol them seemed to come within the conditums of the Society's premium of 20 sovereigns, and thcrelbre it was not awarded. INIcssrs. VViiiie iind Leitli, of Worksop, showed one which might be efficient, but its price vvould ))ut it beyond the reach of the small farmer. Mr. Dell, of Dudswell, Hert=, exhibited one which seemed to possess the merit of simplicity, being worked by the i)ovver of an ass, and the gorse bruised by means of a heavy cast iron grooved roller passing in a rotatory direction over a grooved cast-iron iloor. The construction, however, of the machine was extremely incomplete ; and the bruised matter produced too insufficient to entitle the miu^hinc to reward in its ])resent state. There was one other, manufactured by iMessrs. Hurwood and Co., of Ipswich, and to be worked by two men ; by this Miachinc the gorse was well bruised, but the labour of the two men was too great to be long sustained, and the quantity produced less by much than that of Dell's. Of the Drills there was a great variety. 'The judges especially commended two ; one made by Messrs. Giir- rattand Sons, calculated for sowing either corn or tur- nips. The improvement efi'ected in this drill seemed to consist in having a moveable axle, whereby when used for sowing turnips en ridges, the wheels may be ex- tended at pleasure, and thus adjusted to the exact width of the ridges. The other drill was made by iMr. Groun- sell, of Louth ; and although rewarded last year by the Society's medal, was considered to be entitled to a similar distinction again, on account of an improvement re- cently introduced into it, viz., the being made capable of delivering manure, especially when in a damp state, with greater facility and less liability to clog than here- tofore. In this respect — and no practical farmer will under-rate its importance — the various other drills which came under the judges' notice were deemed to be defi- cient. Upon the dropping piinciple they do not think it necessary to pronounce an opinion farther than to state that it does not yet seem to have arrived at that degree of precision by which alone the principle can be brought into advantageous practice. The straw-cutting machines were very numerous ; the principal implement makers contributing each their several varieties, from the large one, cutting straw from P16 to2 inches in length, and worked by two horses, to the small one cutting one length only, and worked by one man. The judges, however, did not discover any one of a novel principle, regretting very much that Ransome's patent chaff engine, marked A in their cata- logue, and for which a patent has recently been taken out, did not fall under their inspection. Of turnip-cutters there was not much variety ; public attention being now apparently confined, in these ma-^ chines, to two rival principles, viz., chat involved in' Gardner's patent cutter, in which the movement is cylindrical ; and that of Hart's, in which the cutting part is attached to a cast-iron plate, and the movement vertical. It would be well if, on some future occasion, the respective merits of these exceedingly valuable im- plements were fairly brought to the test. Of iron rollers there were several : the judges distin- guished one, made by IMr. Wood, of Stowmarket, intended for rolling barley or oilier spring corn, in which there appeared novelty. The roller was in two parts ; the one part placed a little in advance of the other, so that in turning the movement of each partis reversed, and thereby an actual saving of power is obtained, and a considerable evil obviated incident to rollers in general, which in turning are apt forcibly to displace the soil and disturb the new sown seed. A clod- crushing roller, made by Mr. Croskill, of Beverley, was also exhibited, which in particular cases h;is been proved to be a most valuable implement ; land the most tough and stubborn, and clots of earth the i-nost unmal- leable, being by it reduced to powder. That consider- able notice has been attracted to i his implement is evident from various causes, especially from the fact of another being exhibited on this occasion, professing to work on the same principle, but in reality being divested of the essential quality of Mr. Croskill's ; his clod-crusher consisting of a series of cast-iron rings having a dentated 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. surface, and hung rather loosely upon an iron axle ; and thus in working (and it can only work on a dry soil) an irregular sh?iking movement occurs, preventing' thereby the possibility of any clogging; a fault into which the imitator's seemed liable to fall. JMr. Croskill showed also a liquid-manure cart, which was thought to merit the Society's reward. There were cake-crushers of various descriptions ; one, of the manufactory of INIessrs. Bond, Turner, and Co., of Ipswich, was very much noticed : it was maile for the purpose of crushing cake, by one movement, for beasts, sheep, and tillage ; and Ihis was done by the in- troduction of two sieves of different diinensions. The linseed cake, by the action of opposing teeth, is crushed into pieces of an irregular size; the largest pieces are caught by sieve No. 1, and thrown out by a spout for cattle ; that which is next intercepted by sieve No. 2 is of a size suited for sliee]) ; and tl,e remainder, which, has passed throagh both sieves, may be applied either tor tillage or as a Hii^ture with other food. The machine, however, which perhaps attracted more observation than any other m tlie yard was a tile and sole making machine, invented by JMr. Beart, of God- manchester, and was by the judges recomniended for the Society's reward; it was slated to be an improve- ment upon one for which i\lr. lieart had recently received a medal from a local society in the county of Huntingdon, and was of an ingenious and simple con- struction, and its price such as fo render it wiihin the compass ol any one possessed of capital enough to set up a tile yard ; sufficiently portable also to be moved with ease, and without risk ©f disarrangement. Messrs. Drummond and Son, ol Stirling, showed a variety of implements, chiefly of ir(m, and well executed. Amongst them was a turnip-scufller, made with a pair of moveable cast-iron mould-boards; which was perhaps one of the most cfficieat articles of the many that were shown of a similar description. In conclusion, the judges can but reiterate the hope of last year, that, under such encouragement a-i that afforded by the Royal Agricultuial Society of England, the advancement of knowledge in agricultural machi- nery may not be of a temporary nature, but progressive, and be not more characterized by novelty of design than by skill in execution. Signed by Gkorge Legard, ]l. S. Graeuun, Rd. Tleetwood Shawe. The President said: — I tliiiik it necessary to state, that as the Judges have complimented the machines of Mr. Beart most particularly, the Council have inquired into the subject, and it will be noticed in our next number of the Journal of the Society. By this machine the price of tiles has been reduced considerably — as much as from 35s. to '20s. and 22s. per 1000. In some places (the President observed), where coals were dearer than they Avere in Huntingdonshire, the price of tiles was as high as 50s. and GOs. per 1000. All present well knew, that where tiles were cheap, they were better than stones; and that where tiles were so dear as he had last mentioned, it wtis almost out of the power of the small farmer to buy them. The reduction, therefore, in the value of tiles was a most important feature. It must be observed, however, that it was not the desire of the Council to notice so directly any speculative invention. Mr. Pym observed, that the prices of tiles iu various parts of the country depended on their size. The President was fully aware of the fact. The facilities the machine jjossessed in making tiles, had, however, caused a great reduction in ])rices. A Member present observed, that all that was required to make the machine perfect was a better mode of stami^ing. Earl Spencer said, — Mr. Pusey, I am desirous of offering myself to you on the present occasion as being one of the Stewards of the Yard at Cam- bridge, and therefore an attentive eye-witness to the pains tliat were taken by the Judges in the execution of their duty. (Hear.) No persons could take more pains, I am sure, than they did, to do their duty well. It is a disagreeable ofhce to be Judges on such an occasion, as they are liable to soine-eriticism from the disappointed (liewr) ; and if they make a mistake they are severely criticised. (Hear, hear.) If, indeed, they make no mistake at all, they are liable to criticism. (Hear.) On the present occasion I am sure the Judges took all ]»ossible i)ains to do their duty, and their decisions have, I believe, given general satisfaction. {Hear, hear.) That being the case, I feel it is due to them, from this Society iu General Meeting, to give them a vote of thanks. As I have said before, the office of Judge is a disagreeable oHice, and we ought to be vei-y thankful to any gentleman who willinidcrtakc it (hear). — In jiroposing to yon (con- tinued the noble Earl) to give them a vote of thanks I'or their services, 1 will say a fewwords on the state and prospects of the society, anfl these are very good. We have done much already ; but the main good we expect from its establishment cannot for some time be obtained. Some years must, in fact, elapse before all the good we expect from the Society can be realised. We have, however, laid the foundation, and a spirit of investigation too, and enquiry has been already excited which must lead to gooil. We find that in very many jjurts of the country the farmers will improve and make ex- lierimcnts on the land in order to benelit themselves. W'c are not desirous that experiments should be tried on such a scale as to be injurious to the pockets of the farmers (hear). It will not be our doctrine to hold out that these experiments should be carried to such an extent, that if foiled, they would occasion the loss of a great deal of money. (Hear). The object is, they should be on a small scale. It is as advantageous to knowwhatwill not, as it is to know what will do. ( Hear). AVe shall have practical knowdedge extended by this society throughout the country. This has not been the case as yet. We have no right to expect that either by words or figures any great practical benefit to agriculture should have yet resulted. Yet still we have excited a sjiirit of enquiry and investigation which must tend to good. I beg to move a vote of thanks to the judges at Cambridge. Mr. Pym seconded the motion, and said that as one of the stewards of the yard Avitli his noble friend Lord Spencer, he could bear testimony that every thing was conducted by the judges with cau- tion and with perfect fairness. I therefore (said Mr. Pym) cordially second the vote of thanks to the judges, to whom they are justly due. The President put the question, and It was carried neni. con. E. A. Sanford, Esq., M.P. said it was neces- sary that they should recollect those gentlemen who have undertaken the office of auditors of tlie accounts of the society. (Hear). It was abso- lutely necessary to appoint gentlemen whose know- ledge of accounts as auditors gave confidence to the subscribers, that their money was properly applied to the purposes intended. He would therefore pro- pose that the auditors be re-appointed — viz., Mr. C Hampden Turner, Mr. Thomas La Costc, and Islr. John Knight. Mr. Raymond Barker, in seconding the reso- lution, explained the reasotis why the Council had altered the period for the balancing of the accounts THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 65 of the aociety as stated in the llcport ol' the Cdiuk il. He fully h'tpctl tliat the accotiiit;> next year would he as full aud salislactory as tlic subscribers could wish. Tlicrc I:ad Itecii miforesccu hiiiroj>ose the thanks of the society to the learned l)n)fessor. (Hear.) I.ord DuriE seconded the projiosilion. 'J he Pur.sioENT, in putting the resolutian, ol)- sprved, that there were many of the iriemleid pre- sent who heard tlie lecture, and lie could say all were very mud) ])leased with it. ( Hear. ) The vole of ihaidis was carried unanimously. Hdnhv }I.\ni)ley, Esf]., RI.l'. — 1 am sure T shall stand excused in rising' to propose a vole of tlianks (o our ex'.Uent Piesident. (ClicefS.) 'J'lie last time it (ell to my lot to pay him a siuiihir compliment (at Camliiidge), it will be recollected by those present, that when ] moved tlje vote of thanks to -Mr, Tusey on that occasion, I had not so silent an audience as 1 have now. '1 heir excellent president had hrouglit his talent to bear on the important sub- ject of the improvement of agriculture, and had been indefaiigahle in the cause of the Society. 1 shall pro- post* the tiianks of the meeting to him for the very able manner in which he has performed the business ol the meeting on the jiresent occasion. (Hear, liccir.) IC/MiLui RJahcii. — I have much pleasure in second- ing the resolution. 'J'lie Duke of Rh ujiond then put the vote of thanks to the IMeeliug, and it was carried unanimousl)'. 'J'he I'liKSiDi.NT — I beg to thank you most sincerely fijr the honour yciu have done me. iMr. Handley thinks it a benefit to have a silent audience on the present occasion, but how much more may I have hoped lor it, who l)ave not half his power. I feel ))ride and gratitude for having been allowed to fill the chair during the past year. There is nothing which tons is ot greater interest th;i:i the facilities which it will give us to have communication with the farmers of this country. 1 have never asked for in- formation froni them without having obtained it, if it was in their power to give it ; T am therefore greatly indebted to them. — I wish to mention one subject which 1 think was' omitted in the Report. It was with reference to the \'eterinary College, aud the steps that have been taken to carry into eflect the objects of the Society witii respect to it. 'I'he annual grant ap[>ears large, — it is '200/., but it is not too large in proportion to the object to be obtained. J'rolessor Sewell had attended the Committee, and stated the causes that had rendered it as yet im- jtossible to carry out the object s contemi)lated , — that of having repertoriesof sheep, cattle, and horses. Gentle- men are aware that to obtain a knowledge of the diseases ot the human frame it was necessary to have an inspec- tion of the purpose, and so important was it to form hospitals for the subject, that when it was decided to form medical classes in our two Colleges in London, hospitals were founded by each. The Veterinary College stables had not been successful for the purposes inteaded — itwasnQtonly necessary to see the living animal, but to dis.'ect it when dead, in order to obtain a knowledge of the disease with whi( Il it was atllictcd. There had been a great dif- licultv in obtaining subjects, but I'rofessor Sewell had not been daunted by dilKcullies, and he had communicated his intention to provide the funds out of his private fbrluno to open a hospitid where persons might be instructed in the diseasej of cattle, shee]), and jiigs. lie has given a pledge that he will do so, and he also undertakes (what is of very great importance) to give testimonials to those pupils who demanded them of their knowledge of this sub- ject, if liiey show their competency. It was not intended to make it compulsory on parties to take ti'stiinonials as to their talent in this particular de- partment of professional study, but when in the country, if our cattle are bad, aud one ])erson has a ceiliHcate for proficiency in the study of disorders of cattle, and another only for the disorders of the horse, tiien we shall well know who to apply to and eini>loy. — (7/c«r, licur, hear.) Tlie business of the Meeting having been tinns- acted, the rreKsident left the chair. At a council held on Wednesday, December .0th ; present— Pliilip I'liacy, J'lsq., W.P., President, in the chair; his Ciracc tlic Duke of Ricliinond, ftlarquis of Dowiisliire, E»irl Spencer, lion. C. CI. Noel, iM.P., David Barclay, Esq., .lolin Raymond Barker, Esq., Colonel Cliallouer, C. IlilljMid, Esq., ^V. Fisher liobbs, Esq., Samuel Jona'?, Esq., Rev. W. L. Illiam, Edw. Aysid'ord Sanford, Esq., M.P., William Shaw, Esq., and William \'ouait, E?q. ; 'I'lie Rev. Professor Henslow, of Cambridge, on the motion of the Duke of Richmond, seconded by the JVIar- quisolDovvnsiiire, was unanimously elected an Honorary i\lember of the Society. riie following gentlemen were elected Mcmbcro of the Society : — JVewburgli, the Earl of, Hassop Hall, Bakcwcll, Der- by'^hire Cox, Henry, Trevereux, Lyinpsfield, Surrey Cole, Charles, CJorse Hall, near Kidderminster D ivies, Henry, Blakebrook, near Kidderminster Styles, Ferdinando B., Oft'more Farm, near Kid ler- minster Adams, James, Wolverley, near Kidderminster Slator, iMlward, jun., Preston, Wingham, Kent Stuart, Ihnry Pett, St. Nichola=^, Thanet, Kent Arch, John, Clifton, near Shetford, Bedfordihire \Vells, Henry, Slieuditch Farm, Hemcl Hempstead Dsll, Thomas, Broadway Farm, Hemel Hempstead Hunt, John, Thornington, nr. Wooler, Northumberland Thompson, Joiin, llawston, near Wooler, Northumber- land Smith, Til., jun., Buclon,nearBeIford,Nortiiuniberland Nairn, Philip, Waren House, near Belford, Northuiu. berland Fawdon, Ja=., Tughale, near Alnwick, Norlliumberland Storey, Rdph, Beanley, near Alnwick, Northumberland Kobsoii, Joiin, West Cliirton, Newcastle-ouTyne Ford, R.icliard S., Clifford's Wood, Stone, Staflbrdihiie Scott, Jolin, Harley 'J'horn, Stone, Stad'ordshirc Warner. James, Sandyford, Stone, Stallbrdsliire JMereditli, Rev. Edward, Newport. Siiropshire. Shearn, Edvv'ard, Stratton, Cornwall Gurney, John, Towcester, Northamptonshire Heelis, 'i'homas, Skipton Castle, Yorkshire Walker, David, M.A., Colchester, Essex Nunn, Carrinfton, Little P>romley Hal/, Colchester 'Faber, James, Ivawf'ord, Colchester Sykfcs, Joiin, Sudbury, Suffolk (ireen, Hugh, Newton, Sudbury, Suffolk Downes, VVilliam, Dedliam, Essex Swan, Georsre, Garnston, Retford, Nottinghamshire ANNUAL COUNTRY .■^ILETING Ol 1842. Earl Spencer gave notice that he should move, at the morning council in the first week of Feluruary next, that 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the place for the country meeting for the year 1842, should be then taken into consideration. REI'OnT 10 THE GENEIIAL MEEJINl.. The council liaving proceeded to tiie consideration of the business at the ensuing' general meeting on the 12lli, uuanimou>ly agreed in tlieir report on ihc present state and prosperity of the society, to be presented to the members on that occasion. El'IDEMlC AMONCJ CXilhE, The Council passed a resolution that the \ eterinary Conmiittee should be requested to draw up a li^t of queries on the symptoms and mode of treatment of the Epidemic, ami that these queries siiould be transmitted by post to every member of the Society throughout tlie kingdom, for the purpose of obtaining, by their aid, such a mass of fact; as will enable the council to draw sound and practical conclusions on 'tiie nature of this disease. The Hon. Robert Clivehas informed the Society thut the state of the health of the stock in Shropshire is gene- rally good, but that some instances have shown them- selves of the i)revailing disorder, where cattle have been brought ill, and the mischief,by timely aid.thuschecked : that no deaths had occurred, and no alaira been occa- sioned ; much caution, however, has been exercised in the strictest manner. CAJlBIUlXiE BAr.ANCE-SIJF.El . Colonel Challoner presented the balance-sheet of the Cambridge account?, which satisfactorily showed a balance against the funds of the society of only 173/. 5s. 2d. SPECIMENS OF MIIEAT. The President communicated I'rofersor Henslovv's suggestions respecting the mode in whicli the siiecimens of wheat should be preserved, and the council issued directions that the plans proposed slioull be carried into execution. The President and Mr. INiorton presented some spe - cimens of of the firm. He is the Atlas, on whose ahonlclera rest the uiain business of the So- cicty. Sho>v me ^ good Secretary, and I will show you a good I'aiinei's Club. One word to the members generally. They may liiive zealous ellicieut oHiceis, but luilcss tho-c oiJiccra are siippoitcd by ihe zral aud attendance of individual raciubi-rs, " it inoiittth th','m nothing ;" but I am wil- ling to hope that such instr-.nces of apathy or neglect ate raie. The mere hearing a discusion '^n a subject of interest to the praclicil farm; r begets a wish to bo present at the next meetine:. The takinara part in such di«cus*ion implies a necessity to look into books for informiition on the particular point in question. Tiie looking into books for p;uticular purposes, by degrees, induces a love for general reading — the mind is ex- panded— the idc:i8 become liberalized ; a sure and cer- tain effect of the interchange, and, perhaps, the collision of seuiiuientP, thus brought about by the agency of Farmurs' Clubs ! I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Samuel Taylor. SU>he Ferry, Norfolk, Nov. 19, 1840. ON SINGEING THE COAT THE HORSE. or nv Ml{. M. TITCIIMAKSU, BISHOP S STORTFOKU. At the commencement of the year 1838, I submitted to my pi-ofcssional brethicn an in- stniniciit for the purjiose of shortening the coat of the horse, by singeing, or the application of Hiiuie. The instrument is so formed as to press clown the coat, a comb following, above which is a grove containing cotton that is to be moistened with naptha, then igniteil, anJ quietly drawn over the coat. By repeating the operation occasionally, the coat may be kept at any length the owner may deem requisite. It is a fact well known to tho^o who may have the care of horses, that they can perform double the work required of them, and with greater case and conjfoit to themselves, when the coat of hair is reduced to about that lengtli in which it is Ibund upon them in the month of July, than they can with the lengthened coat which nature has given to them as a protedion fron\ the rigours of winter, but wliich protection is not required in the present domesticated state. The hunter with a short coat returns to his stable after ever so fatiguing a day, and is dressed aud comfortable iu a very short space of time : while the long coated one, on the contrary, continues in an uncom- fortable stata for several hours, in defiance of rubbing aud clothing. The perS[)iration saturates tlie clothes, and renders the atmosphere damp and unlit for him or any horse to breathe. It rapidly throws him oiit of condition and predisposes him to disease. ^Vilen clipping is resorted to, and the horse is taken as much care of as a hot-house plant, it is l)rodu(:tivc of considerable advantage : hut the clipped horse wiio has not this care taken of him, fiom the sudden cx])osure of iiic skin — the functions of which arc so important in tire animal economy-- becoming suspended, is very liable to bccou)e seriously diseased, and particularly to have fatal affections of thp Inngs. I consider singeing to possess the fdlowing advantages— the tiking oft'a small portion, and, at the same time, sealing uj) the pores of tlie skin, and preventing the access of cold. It is also a very great economy in the application of shorten- ing the codLU—Veterinarian. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK- LANE EXPRESS. Siu, — In reply to Mr. i\Iackenzi«'s letter pubiisliei! iu your journal of Monday last, I beg to state that I do considor there ia a considerable esca[)e of carbo- nate of ammonia from farm yards wliere cattle are fed during winter. As putiefactiou goes on to caibunato of ammonia is generated, (whilst nitrogen remains in the compsund), which is held iu solution in the water present, and as the water evaporates so does the ammonia with it. 'i'herefore wo cannot apply gypsum in too early a stage of the decompo- sition, after which the same loss would result if water were allowed to drain from the yard without being used as mauure. All duug piles ought to have a body mixed with them having greater atSnity lor ammonia than car- bonic acid, or else a great part of the ammonia will be lost; but if it be npjdied in the farm-yard, in sufficient quantity, it need not bo applied alterwards;. I believe with your correspondent, that " these things are of importance," and not so nmch at- tended to as they ought, for I have seen men and horses toiling up Ihe hills with ponderous loads of ("so called^ manure, when in fact v(>ry little mauuin existed in it, whilst they Itavo the most valuabltj manure seattered about their farm-yards and lields fermenting and dissipating in vapour, " carried away upon the wings of the wind," serving their neighbour's purpose as much 3S their own. I am a great advocate for using manure as early as possible, that its decomposition lakes plate in tlie earth in the midst of vegetation, and none of its elements would be lost. Thus the death and dis- solution of the present generation would S[n-ing up into life in a new one, I am Sir, your obedient servant, \Va(lebri(lge,Dec.9. GarGOuv BiiABi'N. THOROUGH-DRAINING. Sin, — Having read iVlr. Smith of DcanstonV pam- phlet on thorough-draining, and as there is some diversity of opinions as to the muin-draiii, 1 am anxious to call that gentleman's attention again to the subject through the medium of your valual)le journal. We ail agree as to the longitudinal system of draining being far iireferable to the crovs d'ldns ; we are agreed also as to the depth the frequent drains ought to" be cut, and the materials to be used, and the manner the drains ought to be filled up; but thero is a diflerence of opinion as to the necessity oCa u^ain drain at all. I know an experienced agriculturist, who, where he can, runs each longitudinal drain into the ditch or open course as the case may be, thereby doing away with the necessity of a main drain altogether. It is agreed that fhir, plan is preferable, as in ease of any of the drains being stopped, by ex- amining each single mouth you would know which it was; it is therefore on the practicability or not of main-drains that 1 am anxious to elicit inlDrmation ; as far as niv own experience goes, I a'u decidedly in favour of main drains in all cases, so that it I could, and the tiuld I was draining admitted of it from its declivity, I would so arrange my main drain as to have but one emptying place for the drainage of the whole field. I also wish to enquire from Mr. Saiith if he still advocates the svstem recommended in his pamphlet, of partially tilling up the drains with broken sionea, and thereby doing away with the necessity of using sin|le tiles'} A SxAffORDsmREFAnMEn, Vraycot, Dec, 10. THE FARMEJl'S MAGA/LlNE. TO PHILIP PUSEY, ESQ., M.P. TRtSlDENr 01 THE DOYAL AGIUCULTU B AL SOCIETV OF ENGLAND. Sir, — The interest you have already sbown on t.lie subject of ploughs, and the trials which iiave been made under your superintendence, together with the otlicia! situation to whic!) you have been unanimously called m President of the'^above Soci- ety for the current year, have induced me to address these few observations on ploughing to you. 'J'hey may be considered as a continuation of my former paper on ploughs, which apjieared in the Mark Lane Express on the 2'.iih of June, and in the Farmers' jMagazine for July luot, and which 1 had gre.it j>k'a- Bure in submitting- to your consideration last siiring. And as in reply to my conimuuicalion you diti not disapprove of uiy theory, or ohject to such discus- bious, if conducted in a friendly manner, I am en- couraged to request your furthe*- notice, wljile 1 endeavour to explain my view of the subject in the spirit which you recommend. The Kent turn-wrist pluugh, which ]\Ir. Balls Garrett, of Maidstone, exhibited at Cambridge, was made under my direction ; and as it is the custom in many parts of Kent to j)lough the land from six to eight inches deep, the jdough in ipiestion was con- structed for that purpose. It may not therefore appear strange to persons used to Kent ploughing, if an instrument thus pre- pared shouhl seem to execute its work less perfectly when required to have its powers limited to four inches in depth, than if allowed to take its intended course. 'J'he observations I was enabled lo make in pass- ing through the county of Essex, in my Way to the tou-n of Cauibridge, the remarks also of several gen- tlemen with whom 1 conversed, were to the effect that the general practice of ploughing in the afore- said county as well as in that of Cambridge, was from three to four inches in depth of furiow, ami as that of Kent in about twice as much, it ajipears ne- cessary that while considering the (juality of the instrument employed in the worlc, it is equally necessary to a-;certain (as far as may be) what that instrument has to perform. If the general work of a plough is to be limited to a de])th varying from three to four inches, it certainly is not necessary to bring to that work the power possessed by the Kent plough; for to emjjloy a four horse power where two only is required, can only be throwing labour away. The ploughing match at Cambridge, where up- wards of fifty ploughs were engaged, was to be cha- racterized as three and a half inches in depth upon an average ; of course two horses were amply sutii- cient for the work. The Kent plough in such a case could not conteml on equal grounds with those, being constructed for a different purpose, but had the said ploughs been recpiired to do their work at a depth of six inches, the result it is apprehended would have been widely diU'erent. Tiie (juestion therefore appears lo turn upon this point ; is such ploughing conducive to good husban- dry, or is six inches more desirable to atlain that end'! If the former, then a Kent plough of such powers and dimensions as that exhibited at Cam- bridge is unnecessary, but on the other hand, if the latter is better adapted lo effect that object, (parti- cularly in unbroken land) then the Kent plougli can do its work, while its competitors will generally fail. The principle contended for in my former paper, in reference to the form of ploughs, has not as yet been proved erroneous, and as I believe it to be founded in truth and experience I do not think it likel)' to be so ; under all these considerations, I have had a plough constructed upon a reduced scale, (yet adheriug stiiclly to the principle laid clown) in order to try a few experiments upon the eliallow ]doughing system. Tlie resistance oti'ered to a plough in removing a given quantity of earth a given distance may be calculated, if not with certainty, at least with some a[>proache3 to it ; vrnd as it has been shown in my former paper, that a furrow six inches in depth and nine in breadth, requires fifteen inclies to turn in, as it is considered indispensable in all cases, that to have the furrow properly turned, the ojiening must he equal to the depth and breadth added together — so by this rule it is clearly seen that twelve inches i-j sufficiently wide when the depth is reduced to three. In calculating the power riiquired in the two cases to remove the furrow proposed for each, let a section be taken of the furrow^, sis inches deep and nine wide, which is to be removed fifteen, thus: — exy^-J'iX 1-'>=S10, the power required, again : 3 x 9=^27 x 12=3il4, the second do. The comparative power therefore is as 810 to S2i, or 5 to 2. The Cambridge ploughing, at three and a half inches, compared with the Kent ploughing at six, will appear thus : — 3.;.x9=:31.6x 12—378 or 7 to lo. If the furrow is four inches deep, the opening must be thirteen inches, thus : — 4 X ^^—36 X 13=468 or b2 lo 9(t. If five inches deep it must be opened fourteen inches, thus : — h X 9=15 X 14=;63(), or 7 to 9. The importance will thus be seen of deciding upon which of the two methods of ploughing good hus- bandry depends, and which is to be considered effi- cient. It has been a received opinion, and one that still prevails to a gieat extent, that thetwo-horsc plough, which I shall hence distinguisii as the bliullow-jUough, peif'orms tlie same quantitii of work as the Kentturn- wrist or deej) one, and therefore requires but half the animal power which is applied to the latter in- strument. 'J'his subject should bo well considered, as impor- tant conse(}uences depend upon its being fully understood. An able and judicious friend of mine, who accom- panied me to IpswicI), and assisted at the ijloughing which is hereafter described, has with me gone fully into the details of the subject, and the result appaary to be, that the surface i)loughedl)y tiie shallow ploughs in comparison with the deeponcs is as four to thr'e ; but as the lands where the former are used, requires four acres to be ploughed lo three of the latter, the equilibrium is again restored. This will appear by the necessity of extra fallow being noinlod where the shallow ploughs are used, as will be found in the comparative modes of cultivating one hundred acres. The course of crops adopted in the neighbourhood before referred to, with the sliallow plough is in the four-cmirse, so that in one hundred acres, twenty-five are fallow ! Whereas in the other the seven-course is generally ]n'actised, in which fourteen and a fraction only are fallow. The deep ploughing liere has an evident advantage, in that, only four acres of fallow are required to seven of the other! This it is apprehended also accounts for iha J'ttct, that in the system pursued with the deep plough^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 69 the animal power aijproprialed to one liundied acres doth not exceed that required by those who adopt tUe shallow one, which was fully proved (o be the case, bv the actual practice of those gentlemen in the county of Sullblk, wlio gave the aid of their ex- perience to this enquiry. The deep plough, bv facilitating the operation of the broad-share and scarifier, is by far the best adapted for removing- weeds; and 1 am of opinion lljat the Kent farmers with the deej) plough, would not be shanned by a comparison (in resp-ect to free- dom of weeds) wiiii Ihose of any other county in tlie ITniled Kingdom. It may also be reasonbly in- feired that the sub-soil plough is most desired, and is chiefly successful where the shallow j)l(jugli is used, from which I am led to conclude that the ad- vantage of the deep plough is fully eliig autumn, 1 have let them stand until the latter end without any injury: they will hear a good deal of frost without being spoiled, but I think a severe frost deteriorates the quality; certainly it is not a good plan to take them up in a frozen state. About a month before I want to take them up, I stock the tops with cull or drape ewes ; if any of them have teeth long enough to liite the root, 1 break or cut them off with a small sharp pair of pincers (ihey are termed cutting pincers), and if properly done the greater part of them v.ill snap off lilce a piece of glass. The ewes will very much improve in condition. If it is not convenient to stock them, I employ women to break them off by taking hold of a portion with each hand and bending i hem downwards, which is miich better than cutting them, as by cutting you are likely to injure the crown. I drill them on ridges, tv.eutj'-seven inches abunder, and after the toi)s are clear off, and I am ready for carting, I run a skeleton plough under the ridges, which leaves most of tliem statuiing where it found them, taking care to plough sufficient depth not to cut the root. After this process, if they are of the right kind— that i-^, long and clear, witli very little fangs — two men and two women will throw half a dozen rows into the cart quite as fast as three carts can get them av.ny, even if they arc graved or piled in the same field, which is my usual practice. It will require one or perhaps two men to pile them as they ought to be piled with their crowns outside. My graves are piled on the level surface in a triangular form, six feet w'.de by six feet high ; thatch them with stubble, arid heap them up witli earth, one foot at bottom and six inches at top, taking care to leave the top o. en f^r a fortnight or more. For want of this p ecdution, a neighbour of mine had a severe loss last year, while 1 had not one in a hundred the least injured. To the last question I should decidedly say, the little earth that comes up with thcni will do ■more good than harm. If you Lave been in the habit of growing the short fangy sort, change your seed, for I would not grow them if you would give me the seed. The foregoing remarks vnl! apply equally for Swedish turnips. I drill mine on ridges twenty- four inches asunder, and if f do not top them with the ewes thut have been on mangel wurzel tops, I set a mail to work with a small hoe, — if he is active he will cut them oft" nearly as fast as he can walk ; then run the skeleton plonjli under the rowR, the tap root will be cut off, and they will be ready to throw into the carts at less than half the expense of throwing them in rows, then topping and tailing. I use one of Ransome's N. L. ploughs, with the mould plate taken off, and as I have no stones, I use a wrought iron share with a wing ten inches wide, and the edge steeled to keep it sharp. To those who drill on the flat I would suggest a system that has been found to answer well in this neighbourhood; that is, to drill two rows at nine inches, then a space of twenty-four inches, again two at nine inches, &c. ; by so doing you may use the ridge plough in the wide rows, which will cause the turnips to grow more freely and be fit for the hoe several days earlier; they will be more effectually cleaned, and at less expense. I will here recommend the universal jilough or ridge scarifier, manufactured by Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich, and shown at the Cambridge meeting, in July last. I cannot close without mentioning a circnra- stance that occurred a few days back. A gentle- man from this neighbourhood met with soire friends, who reside on the western side of that celebrated turnip county, Norfolk, — their conver- sation turned on the storing of turnips, and as the one from this neighbourhood was at that time taldiig up a very good crop, estimated at near forty tons per acre (part of them have been measured and weighed), he gave them a full account of his method and expense, which was in accordaiice with the foregoing remarks, and his whole cost of topping, tailing, filling the carts (one-horse carts), and graving in the adjoining field, amounted to the sum of eight shilluigs per acre ; while that of his friend in Norfolk, on a principle, I sup[)Ose, similar to the " Border farmers," amounted to twenty-five shillings per acre. Some allowance is to be made for the Norfolic farmer having to em- l)loy an extra man or boy and cart on account of distance, but that merely makes at the most two shillings per day difference, as I believe horses were not included in either case. iMr. Editor, I will leave your readers to judge for themselves which of the systems arc the best, and if I have not been suincieutly explicit, I shall be very ready to answer any questions, so far as my experience will allow me, and subscribe myself Your obedient servant, Lidcohishiie, Holland, Dec. \7th. S. L. THE EPIDEMIC. Sir, — As the Epidemic has juft broken out among our stock in this county, and as cousequeatly we have had little experience coucerning it, perhaps some of your Southern correspondents v.dll be kind enough to answer me the followiug queries: — Wlietlicr cattle which have had the distemper are liable to take it again, or whether cattle-sheds and fiilds where cattle have had the dis'emper continue long infecteci by it ? iu other words, whether fresh bought in cattle, which have not been infected, are liable to take it from re- covered stock, for any considerable length of time afterwards? I may add, that its effects (though had enough) are not so bad as we apprehended before it actually :;.iade its appearance ; and tlie experience I have had iu my owu stock would lead me highly to commend the report of the English Agricultural So- ciety ou the subject, which no farmer who has stock ought to be without. I nm your obedient Servant, Dec. 15. A Cumberland Farmer. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 71 FARMERS' CLUBS. IMPERFECT CiROWTII OP TURNIPS. (i'ROai THE nuuv post.) The columns of tlie provincial newspapers, nnrl pnrtirularly those in our own county, have been illled, (luring- the lust week or two, with llepovts of ilie proceedings of Farmers' Clubs; many of wliicii Societies hold their annual meetings at tliis season of the yt»ar. The aoricultural public have heard and read so jniirli lately of these Associations and the bene- fit lliey confer, that any further remarks on the advantages to be derived from them might be •leemed snperfluous. Contenting myself, therefore, with expi-essing my regret, that tlie neighboiirliood round iiury (a district in mv opinion, from the intelligence of the occuj)iers of the land, (lecu- liarly suited to such an institution,) is still with- out experience of the interest attaching- to, and the information aflorded by a Finmers' Club ; 1 proceed to a few remarks on a subject which has engrossed the attention of many of these Societies at their last meetings ; viz. — the Turnip crop, either in its cultivation, selection of seed, and ex- hibition of Sj)ecimens, or storing of the roots. Many farmers, and probably not a few round this town who eschew the advantages of a Club, may say — What have we to learn in the growth of tur- nips!—our soil is favourable — this and the sister country have long been celebrated for the cultiva- tion of them — and it is waste of lime to meet and talk over the details of a subject, which we already perfectly understand and succeed in ! 1 readily admit that Suffolk and Norfolk have long been wotoiious for the quantity of land under cul- tivation with this root, and that the tillage is ge- iierfdiy good and the crep clean ; to which the strict coven uits in our leases have greatly contributed — but I am far from thinking that we have reached the perfection of root growing, even as it is now prac- tised in some other districts ; much less, that we have attained the ne phis nltru of this branch of agriculture. Nay, I am not sure that the same covenants — which, by compelling a certain amount of cultivation, have up to this point so materially benefitted the system of turnip husbandry in this part of the kingdom — will not, unless lemoved, prove a stumbling-block in the way of further improvement, by insisting on a certain number of jdoiighings, for which, perhaps, may be advan- tageously substituted, on many soils, a more eft'ectual and cheaper cultivation by other imjile- ments. The attention now paid to agricultural mechanics by scieniitic r/.en leads us to ex[)ect that if not already accomplished (Biddell's Scarifier on heavy land !) it sjeedilv will be. But 1 shall be told — " Our cultivation of roots has be-n so long notoriously good that we require proof that there is room for improvement! — we shall be surprised to hear that the most boasted jjart of Sufiolk and Norfolk husbandry may be brought nearer perfection ; and if you can convince ns, that by meeting and discussing- the systems of nther counties as well as of this district, or of per- sons celebrated for their success in this department ''I' husbandry, we can improve our own ; we shall not only he surprised, but you will also furnish II strong argument in favour of Farmers' Clubs, — for if we can dei'ive benefit from discussing- sul)jects, in which our practise is already notoriously good, we can certainly receive information on those in which we can but allow we are defective V The criteria of a good turnip crop are, quantity and <|uaiity— as regards the first, the highest estimate of crops in this district is considerably below what we hear of as obtained by cultivators elsewliere, who pay particular attention to root-growing — and to quality, I am sure we do not pay sufficient attention. Tlie discussions at the various Clubs appear to have turned chiefly on the cultivation for this crop, and all of them, so far as I can learn, have arrived at the decision that the land should be prepared as much as possible in tlie autumn. In the MarkLiuie F..\p)Yss of theSOth of December, 1H39, is a letter from Mr. James Scougall, of Hal- gone, in Scotland, in which he gives the details of ail exi)erin,ent made between autumn and spring- cultivation in the same lield. 'I'he turnip seed was sown at the same time, and in the same way on eacli j)art, and the turnips (purple-top Swedes) were carefully weighed, clean topped and tailed. 'I"he produce from that i)art of the field which was cul- tivated in the usual way in the spring, and which I\Ir. Scougall. states " is more than an average one, and is believed to be not inferior to any in the dis- trict," was 25 tons 14 cwts.; and that from the part cultivated in the previous autumn, 31- tons 2 cwts. per imperial acre — being an increase of 8 tons 8 cwts. per acre! In the same newspaper, ofthe dates 3d andlTth February, 1840, iMr. Matson of Wingham, in Kent, one of the most celebrated turnip-growers in the kingdom, gives his method of cultivation. I should state that during the last Smithficld Club Meeting several gentlemen met each evening at the rooms of the English Agricultural Society, in Cavendisli Square, which were thrown open for that purpose. At one of them Mr. Matson was present, when lie stated that he could grow from 4()to4o tons per acre of Swedish turnips, clean topped and tailed, of the quality of thosehe had exhibited at the meeting. This statement excited some astonishment, particularly amongst the Suffolk and Norfolk gentlemen who were present; and in addition to the account then given by Mr. Matson of his mode of cultivation, he was called upon to give further details of his sys- tem; which request i\lr. M-Uson complied with in the papers named above. Space will not serve to insert those letters ; but it is sufficient to state, that Mr. Matson's is almost entirely a system of autumn cultivation, to which he chiefly attributes the great weight which he obtains per acre — and wherever evidence has been ufl'ered at Farmers' Clubs in these counties, of similar cultivation, the result appears to have been greatly in favou'-of the cro]). Next to improved cultivation, the selection of seed of the most approved varieties appears to be very essential ; and here, I think, we are greatly deficient, the seed in this county being chiefly grown by cot- tagers in their gardens, to whom the selection of the roots are left ; or rather no selection is made, but a lo-ad or tno of turnips given to them for that purpose; for even v,-here it is desired to propagate a favourite stock, the individual roots of it are not selected, which they ought to be, and none taken hut what are perfect in shape, as well as in size and qnalit)'. INIr. IMatson says, " a vast deal depends on the preparation ofthe land, and a great dpal on the va- riety, for without symmetry there wUl be a great deal of deficiency of weinht ; fi',r instance, a perfect ^-lo- biihir turni]) of thirty inches in circiimlerence will weigh from f^ to 14 lbs. ; a flat turnip, of equal cir- cumference, ten or twelve pounds only, making a difference of seveial tons weight per acre .' In the same letter Rlr. Matson makes allusion to the quantity 72 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. per acre which, as I have said, excited so much aUonishment at the Siiiitbfield Club Meeting. He says " ail earlier preparation of the land is required ill order to jirepare it for so heavy a crop. When I Siiy a heavy crop, 1 mean forty tons on a statute acre topped and tailed close to the bulh. 'I'hsre are many who doubt the accuracy of tli-.it statement ; and in order to put tliat question at rest, 1 will vi-ager fifty pounds that I Jo produce forty tons per acre of the very next growing crop, and on land which h.is been jdoughed for the last hundred vears, and tlio turnips shall he of tlie vei-v best (pialitv, of the purple-top Swedish variety, and which have been transplanted by myself for the last thirty years." Will any farmer in Suffolk or Norfolk make'sucli a challenge, or dare to acecpt Mr. JMatson's ? Whilst upon the subject of quality in a turnip, I cannot refrain from quoting tlie same centleman's racy description of a good turnip, (l\[ark Lane lUjireis, 29t/i June) : — " liy (juality I do not mean liiat thick-necked monster turnip sometimes shown at agricultural meetings, and whicli excites wonder and admiration until it is cut and tasted ; wlien it turns out to ha ^voollv, stringy, juiceless, with ill-flavoured flesh, with gigantic leafage, and altogather fit only for the descendants of the ' Ram of Derbyshire,' celebra- ted in ancient song. No, no ; by quality I mean the ful- ness of sacchaiine juice, which delights the palate of cattle, and clothes their bones with flesh at a rate akin to railway speed, that gives the clear crisp slice ^vhich tiies like glass before tlio knife, and between the teeth of distinguished noblemen, gentlemen, and yeomen agriculturists, and of worth}' Londoners too, whom 1 haveseen crowding around my standing at the Smithdeld Cattle Show, munching slice af- ter slice, as if they were astonished how very few removes it appeared to be from the golden pijipin or pine apjile, 1 mean that turnip of six, eight, or ten jiounds, round as a cricket ba'l, and which melts in in the mouth of those unerring judges, the jiigs, who %vill absolutily fatten on these Swedes," iScc. I fear it will be thought that I am pufiingMr. Rlat- son's turnips, but I must add anotlier proof of the importance of growing the verii liest vnrieLij that can l)e obtained, which hail I been employed by JMr.Mat- son to write his up, 1 fear would not olitain bis ap- probation. Attracted by the glowing description I liavejusi i)U0ted, and by the great weight per acre that I\Ir. Matson S|)eaks of, I procured this year some of his Swedish seed, both purple and green tapped ; and although I have not yet asked the opi- nion of "those unerring judges the pigs," I am per- fectly satisfied that both are of very superior qua- lily; — hut 1 at tl;e same time ordered some seed of Mr. Skirviiig of J-iverpool, who produced the largest S»vc9 tons to the acre." Can any of the suc- cessful candidates at exhibitions in Suffolk jiroduce 39 tons to the acre] Enough then has been stated to prove that both in quantity and quality our root-crops are ca- pable of improvement, inasmuch as they are not equal to the best growths in other districts — and I have no doubt that thelate exhibitions and discussions at Farmers' Clubs will tend spedily to produce that improvement by drawing- attention to early culti- vation and improved quality. Rusrici's. ON THE FAILURE OF NITRATE OF SODA AS MANURE. TO Tim KDITOR OF THE FAlt-MER'S MAOAZINR, Sirt, — Being a constant reader of your excellent publication the " Farmer's Magazine," and referring to a letter from David Barclay, Esq., in numlier .') for November of this year, I cannot but express my surprise and disa|)pointment, that with so many very clever and well-iiifonned agriculturists in the Ilape of Arundel, no one has stated lo you the general failure and great loss sustained by the use of nitrate of soda on wheat last spring, in a district extending* from the river A run west, to the Adur east, and from the sea-coast south lo the Weald of Sussex north, comprising every sort of soil, management, and situation. I am a very had hand with my pen, and shall therefore content myself with staling that the few instances of success form the exception to the general rule of failure. froping- if you insert this letter in \our next num- ber, it may excite some more effiiieiit person to ad- dress you on the probable causes of tlie failure I I.Tve referred to, I am, .Sir, your obedient servant, It;>;or! Alius. Annnlel, Sussex , December ^9ih, 1840. HAND THRASHING MACHINE. 10 iiu; r.biron of iiiu faii.mi-.r's siac.vzine. Sin, — Seeingin your magazine of 1st August last, an enquiry signed S. 'J\, which is the best machine for thrashing corn, — 1 can recommend the one we have ill u:n', which is worked by four men, a man to feed, and woman to clear away the straw, antl boy to get the sheaves : it thrashes about 7 lo8 qrs. wheat, 7 to !) (|rs. IJiirley, and 9 to l(^ of Oats ; of course all de- pending on leiigtli of simw. We are now thniBhing bailey, wh'ch costs (with cleaning) 2s. '2d. per qr., leaving scarcely any grain in the straw. We had it from Mr. 'J'illman, Lewes, Siisse.f ; the cost tliere is 1or, nnistened in muriatic acid, held over the stcanis arising from a dunghill gives dense fumes, it is a certain test that the decomposition is going too far, for this indicates that volatile alkali is disengaged." Having given my opinion on the economy of farm yard dung, I shall conclude, on the present occasion, by detailing the practice I ndopt in further preparing these compost heaps, j)repai ntory to being laiil on the land intended foi- its reception, &c. loarly in tiie s|u ing, and when the temperature rises, these com[)osts should be well turned and mixed : this cannot be loo eflectnally i>crformed. When heat is generated in the compost, wiilch is generally the result in ten days or a fortnight, according to the temperature of the atmosphere, they should be re-turned and intimately mixed again ; and this process should not, on any account, be neglected ; the non-deterioration ol' the manure will not be safe till it is well amalgamated with the Eoil intended for cropping. 1 am, Sir, very truly yours, A Farmer. North-West Somerset, Nov, 21, 1840. ON OIL DREGS AS MANURE. 10 THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEr'o MAGAZINE. Sin, — As your magazine is made the vehicle of communicating intelligence to agriculturists which may be bentlicial to them, you will perhaps in- dulge mc by inserting the following remarks. In the present day a great deal is said about various kinds of manure, but that certainly must be the best which makes tiie land most juoduc- tive. I have tried various kinds, but I find none to answer so well as oil dregs; I iirocurcd of Messrs. ^Vake and (^flicer, of Hull, a quantiiy last spring, to drill in with turnips ; I i^ual rate for men and horses, &:c., 2d. per rood, of 3d yards, covers all expenses of cuitiug'. Mr. id'Ewan, tiie spirited inventor has, with his own Uien aud liortes, thoroughly dniined ',0 statute acres in one season, with a drain in every furrow. Ag'ricuUurisis may not be generally aware of the existence of an apparatus for preparin-.? food for cattle by steam. Indeed the fact that few have such an article mu-5t prove nn ignorance of its existence, or, what is worse, a blindness to their ownintercsts,iM not adopting,'- tlie system, if they really know that it does exist. We had the pleasure of seeing: one in operation a lew weeks ago at the farm at Fardalehill, near Kilmarnock, possessed by JMr. Warner Barr, and lor cheapness (little more than what would be required te Jet up a common boiler) and simplicity of eonitruction, with the iKCalculahle advantJifrt'S derivable from ii? use, in the production of a healthy and nutritious description of food, we should say that it caunot be equalled by any other substitute. A Inishel of ohIs was thoroughly Iioiled in twenty-five minutes, potatoes and turnips in fifteen and eishleen minutes respectively, while the same fuel would have served to boil twenty bushels of any sort of food. But a saving- of time and fuel are not the only advant;;ges ; for, during the preparation of the diflerent kinds of too 1, a substance closely resembling' tar, and of an extremely poi-sonous nature, was thrown out, which in the common boiling' process must be amulaamaled with the food, and therefore cannot but be prejudicial to the health of cattle.— Sco(c/j Paper, THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. 76 SUSSEX CATTLE. We have been favoured witli the followiiiy- coni- miuiication from Mr. Selines of Eceklfy : — It will be in the recollection of all Ttreedcis of cattle; tliiit at the Uvforil meeting in July, 18;>!), I ehuUeiiged any breeder to show 100 head of eaUle, (bred by himself, and in his own ^losscs!^ioll) which challen^'e was aeeeptcd by Karl Spencer, with 100 of his "short-horns." I have now just sold si.v of the oxen which were exhibited in Se])tend)er 18!^!), ill the yo/ic (being partof the 10(t) having continued lo work till (hejint ircck in /hef'ollvirlii'j Noccm- fjcr, sinei: which time they have lived on grass, hay, and TOUIjs. of oil-cakes, with 12 bushels of turnips each. Tile prices of the six oxen are as under : — i\o. I £o5 0 0 ■2 .34 0 0 3 54 0 0 d 5:3 0 0 o M 10 0 G 49 0 0 From this statement the breeders and feeders of the different descriptions of cattle will be enabled to forin some idea of the merits of tSu^sex cattle. CALENDAR OF IIORTlCULTUllE FUR JANUARY. I he remarks with which our Deccuiher notice opened (sec page 470) were not inappropriate, for frostof considerable severity has occurred at several ]>eriods of the month ; snow also came on the IfJth aftei- thiee days of very reduced temperature, with a strong current from the north- east. '1 he ground became perfectly hard, and as the wind lulled to a calm, no drifts had formed to the present time, Jiut more of this hereafter. It would be interesting, were there a possibility, to compare the variarions of temi)eratiirc which are experienced iti situations by no means remote from each other. On the nrirning of December 15, our night thermoinctcr indicated six degrees of frost (2(j'-' Farenheit.) In a garden not more than a mile from ours, perhaps rather higher, but certainly on a more clayey soil, the mei'cury was depressed !* degrees. We have already read of \i''. i\ regular ro])ort is given from accurate registers laken in the Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick, which seems to prove that the tern- jicrature islo.vcr than ce observe it to be; and during the intense frost of 1838, the differences in several localities were surprising. Shall we ever be enabled to unravel these mysteries .' Our instrunients^tell us of " by-gone conclusions," but reveal siothing of causes ! Hut though little can be said hereon, \vc may safe)}- revert to effects ; and therefore, as far as ap[)earances rray be relied on, never we believe diiece — then open a trench, and asGcrtaiu to wh;it depth the best surface-soil extends. Do not raise any that is clayev, gravelly or intractable, but turn that defective subsoil a spit deep ; then invert the grass tiuf upon it and cover, or pave the bottom of the trench with it. Scattei' common salt, or rallier nitrate of soda, over the turves, and return the good earth, or a correspomiing (juantity of that from an adjoining trench, 'i'hus jjrocccd till all the piece is trenched. The theory of /<<(/»»«, and humic acid, acquires stability; ablc to api)ly frc;>h liorsc-dung where the soil is 1 ichest in humus ; for so the manure has an useful eti'ect on the component jiarts of the soil, rendering the buuiic acid more soluble." W^e cite this passage with the two-fold object of c-hovving what the modern theory is — and to give an opjjortunity to say that ammonia (the rola/ile alkali, or common smelling salts) acts equally on black spit-dung, ici do soda and potasr-ie — and it exerts a more destructive power on vegetable bodies, ifit come directly in contact with their leaves or roots. W'c once had ocular i)ronf of this, in attempting to remove the turtle insect, or brovvn scale, from a small cape jasmin (gardenia). After \ain attempts to clean the leaves and foot- stalks, the |dant was covered with a close vessel, to which a small volume of amuioniacal gas was introduced ; alter a few seconds the vessel was lifted, and the foliage was found to have acqniicd an intense bluish-green tint ; it was very beautiful at first, hut the leaves speedily afforded proofs of the injury their organisation had received, all shrank and fell, and the plant never recovered. This deep tint forcibly calls to recollection tlie lich dark colour imparted to grass, by nitrate of soda prudently ai)plied, and it tends to corrobo- rate the idea before suggested, that the nitrate is decomj)osed, and its acid also, the nitrogen of which unites with hydrogen, and produces ammo- nia. iSoot develops much ammonia, if blended with lime, and its due application is i)roductivc of deep verdure ; it also act-s destructively if misap- plied ; a tieighboiir killed all his stravvbeiries in \%'S\), by a free top-dressing of coal-soot. These facts lead to analogical reasoning, if they go no farther. Land i)rei)ared as directed, by trenching and turfing, will produce a great crop of potatoes ; but in the following season it should be niauurcd with dung, for the JJrassica k'nd of jilants. Small Rhubarb plants can now be forced under pots covered with warm dung, as also a second plot of sea-kale for succession. Sou-, if the ground be free and pretty dry, rows of jieas, beans, carrots, onions, also a little hardy lettuce, and radish seed. The tjrand admirable is the best of all lettuces ; it is e.vtremcly rich and tender, and grows to an immense size; but we onlj' name this prospecti\-eIy, because the season is still too early for so delicate a variety. Earth vp all growing crops, and stick peas, first, with short spruce fir-bows, if obtainable. At the end of .lanuary, plant out a good unmber of York-Vanack, or other cabbage plants from the nursery beds. Keep Mushroom beds deeply coveied with straw, they must be cftectnally protected from frost. rRltllT GAUDEN. If the weather prove long fine, and niiM, gooie- bei ly bushes may enlarge their buds, in tbiit care prune them ; as also rasjiberry plants, and cur- rant tree.;, hut otherwise (lesist till Fchruai y ; our general reuiarks on pruning will be defeiied till then, as uc disclaim the use of the knife till thej.e be signs of activity in the buds of any tree. ,, FORCING Dr,rARI5IENT. Keep lhe^7««e store moist and warm ; never, as we observed last month, suflcring a plant to flag, because if it once become torpid, premature fruit is the inevitable result. Tlie Vijiery for early fruit, should now enjoy ^^2° by fire, and be freely steamed, and the ro'is sy- ringed. I'A'ciy day, frosty or not, adds energy to the sun \ 1810 was jierhaps an exce])tion, in con- se(]uencG ofthe almost incessant rain and glootri. The ground also was so drenched with water, that it required the splendid sun, lively wind, and total ahseuce of rain during March, to rectify the niis- chief already produced. tilll.LNIlOUSi:. Tiic keen wind, and really severe iroit, (now at 2I°j demand some care, and as we directed n December, " a degree or two by fire, above .12 of Fareidieit" but no more, must!)e njaii)taine8 by the iuteusifi/ of frost ; but in winters of little severity, many fine laurels and lauruslines are scalded and disfigured by a powerful sun acting upon masses of snow on the leaves. It was ('ilbert White, of Sclbourne, who first strcnuoujly urged the necessity of beating oft the snow from the branches, with long poles or whisks, ere the the sun had acted on it. Let us re-urge this expedient, for wc have proved it efl^cacy. J)ec. 18. DRILLS. TO iiii; Einjoit or iiiii lAn.MLit's BiAe;.>/iNf. Sin, — Rlay I beg leav-(>to ask, through the inediuni of your widely circulated Magazine, for a little iti- ibnniition respecting a drill so highly spoken of in your Dpcember number, by the president of ilie Lan- caster Agricultural Society — where it may be pro- cured—at what cost — and what advantages it jios- sessosover common drills? An early answer would much oblige, A Constant Reader and Dec, 2J,1840. CAMBniDCFSHiRE Farmck. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 77 AGRICULTURAJL REPORT. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR »o han'l from all parts, and their quotations have DECEMBER. beea well maintained. Beans, peas, and flour as .„»„<• i„. .1 „ • 1 , r.i „, last noted, wiih a limited amount of business As to farm labours, this is perhaps one of ilie most ' unimportant periods of the year, vet tlie events which ^''^?,?'""; ,,. ,. ^, ., - , ,. ,, ^, , „ ,,, „i 1.,., ..»!,„« 1, . .1- ti • .1 1. ,1 ^-1,1 Ihe holiuno- of tiie femithheld Club Cattle Show- have taken phice tins month in the iiirriculiural world , .O 1 • 1 1.1 ■ I- ..-, ;„ «.,,„ .1 I- .1 1 .,,.,. hii:j, ns usual, attructeil considerable attention trom are in everv wav worthy oi narticuhir observatum. • , • , •, ■ , . , ,■ Tr, fi.o <;-„f ; I , ■ f .1, .1 (.;. . .„■ <■,>.,,.,„ . aj-rtculturista ; but it is to be observed that, owm? In tue iirst iilace, one ot tue mostiiiiDoiiimt leatures ",, ,' , ■,.-,■, -l has been thi extraordinary fineness of (he weather *°. "''^ ^^ "!"«'' complamed ot epidemic, the numbers throughout England, which h.s had a most bem-licial ""^ ''" «''^«'^' '»'"'o''t *'^,'^*^f '^ were by no means so influence upon the vvliole vegetable creation; in- ""'"erous as wo have had the pleasure of noticing deed, we scarcely ever recollect a corresponding "" ,'"'f"y previous occasions. However the beasts „„„, ' ; I • T -^ r „. . ,• 1 , t, ', , and sheep well merited the prizes aware ed to them, season in which so low obstructions liave been pxpe- . ■ T- ■ i ', •,, , - i ■ . : „ ,1 1 c ■ ^1 .■ c *i ■ and exhibited the greatest skill on the part ot their nenced by our fanners, in the prosecution of their ,,,, ., <= , . , . ' . , - .■ ii i r • .1 \ ■ 4. owners. VVIu st on this su biect, wo would respect- necessarv occupations, as that forinmo- the subject ,- ,, i . n i ■ c , ti ^ „r .u; • i. ' f\ 1 * ■ tully beir to call the attention ot the noble supporters of this report. Our numerous correspondents iii ,. .-' r ... ^, ! i ^, ,i.rt\,«,,t „ « «. = i„ „. •.. ,1 * .1 * ot the above mentioned society, to the necessity there difterent quarters have transmitted to us the most ■ <• ■ /■ r , -^ r ,_ i- ■ .;4' ; • » II- I ..• , .ii 1. . IS tor the formation ot a class tor beasts which may o;ratitvinp intelligence, relative to the young' wheat- , t i- . i i i- i i -... • • 7i .■ .1 I 11 ^ ,• ti ....u I 1- have been fattened on succulent food only. Ihis is, iilants — they one and all statinnf, that they are lookino- , . , u , -^ ^ , ' „ 1 1 , ^ . 1 1 ifi • I we are aware, the view now held by some of the remarkably stronsr and healthv, even in exposed , ,. . , -, ,• i ■ situations- while, in the hollows, thev have been ^^"^'^^ graziers, hence its accomplishment is a mat- well protected from the cold north-easterly winds by '"'^^ 7"^*'"" importance. fi> i..f. f.„„ f«n„ „<■ ^„„„ „ „„ „<• i,-„i i„ u „" 1 he followins,' IS our monthly statement of the sup- ttie late tine tails ot snow, none ot which have been ,. , . ° ^ ^ , ■' , -i • i i , . ^ ^r „.,t i„ .1 . „ • • plies and prices oi lat stock exhibited and sold in ot sufncient depth to cause any serious incon- {.,,.,,' ., , , r,,, ,. r . „„.•„„„ , „ ;„ i. • 1 1 • hmitiine d cattle market. — 1 he supplies of beasts vonience to our oraziers, except, indeed, in some , . i .. . - ^^. i- i ' rv^ ^.^^ n instances in the fens of Lincolnshire. But we are ^'^^ amounted o 1D,021 ; of sheep 94 000 ; of happy to observe the casualties have been bv far less ^ '""' i' ''". „ P'°'''n '^.^r ' ^^ ! f P"?' numerous than we have had occasion to notice on [f/e ranged as follows : -Beef, from os. 4d. to 5.s o^r.,,. „,.o,r;„,.> „^„, : „ od ; mutton, 4s. to 5s. 4d. ; veal, .5s. to 6s.; and some previous occasions. '. ^ ^ '„ ^, -,, ' ■ I , «• i T» i' „ L „, I,- * r .„ 1 <• 1 * ..I i pork, 4s. to OS. 2d. per 81bs. to sink the oftals. It lias been a sreneral subieetol remark of late, that ' ^ , i 'j ■ , ,-./-, the past has proved one of ihe finest seed times recol- , ^," ,^''°'' '''^'^''' ^% the general quality of the lected fbr a series of years past ; hence, one great ^^°?^\ ^'^f ^f """^"ally inferior, m consequence of step has been obtained "towards realizing? a good crop ^^''^"''^ ^'f ^"^«^^ descriptions have commanded an in 1341. The soil, too, has been found^o work re- ^^^reased sale at exceedingly high prices; indeed, markably well, even in those damp and low parts '?°f °* f''^ \^^^ ^""'."' I^evo°«' ^nd runt.s have been which are usually cultivated with considerable '''g^er than lor a series of years past and the whole trouble and a large outlay of capitaL We have of them have been readily taken off-. For other kinds likewise to intimate, that the flail and thrashing. ^^ ^'^^^' '^'^''^ '^"^ been a steady enquiry at tolerably machines have been actively employed during the remunerative currencies. A large portion of the whole of the month, and thai the produce has been, stock has come very lame to market, but not so much on the whole, mucli more extensive than was at one ""^ °* condition in that respect as last month. time anticipated. ^ STATEMKNT and COMPARISON of the SUP- FromScotland.welearnthatthe weather has proved PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited exces.sively severe, but by no means unseasonable ; and sold in Smithfield Cattle Markkt, on while the epidemic, so much complained of in Eng- Monday, December 30, 1839, and Monday, Decem- land, has been committing the greatest devastation ber 28, 1840. amongst both beasts and sheep. Thiscircumstance.as AtperSlbs.to sink theoffals. a nece.'ssary consequence, has had the effect of causing Dec. 30 1889. Dec "8 1940 unusually high prices to he demanded for both fat s, d. s. d. s. d. ' s. d. and store stock, and created no little alarm amongst Coar.se & inferiorBeasts 3 0to3 6 .. 3 2to3 4 thfi owners. The various markets have been toler- Second quality do 3 8 3 10.. 3 6 3 10 ahly well, but not to say heavily, supplied with Prime large Oxen 40 4 6. .40 48 whi'at, the quality of which has been very superior ; Prime Scots, &c 48 50.. 4 10 50 good heavy samples have sold readily at an enhance- Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 6 4 0 .. 3 8 4 0 mentoffuily Is. per qr., andthevalueofthesecon- Secoadqualitydo. . 4 2 4 4.42 44 dary kinds, as also -Qf other qualities of grain, has Prime coarr.ewoolled do. 4 6 * ^0 •• 4 6 4 10 ,-,,.,■, ' o ' Prime Southdowa do.. 4 10 5 0 . 4 10 50 been well maintained. Large coarse Calves .. 5 0 5 4 .. 5 4 5 6 Inroughout Ireland the young wheats are repre- PHme small ditto 5 6 6 0 .. 5 8 6 0 sented as looking very promising, but there has been Larfre Ilon-s 42 48. .42 46 a great comparative decrease in the produce on being Neat small Porkers., 4 10 50., 48 50 suhiuitted lo the process of thrashing. Wheat has biipplifs iiroduced a fair inquiry, but otherwise the demand ,^ „„ ,'„. r^ on ,,-„ ,' , . .' - ' Dec. 30, 1839. Dec. 2S, 1840 lias been very inanimate. In the whole of our provincial districts, as also at g^ is'ooo 21510 Mark Lane, there has been a considerable revival in Calves 212 * 59 the wheat trade, owing, in some measure, to the pj^^ * ' ' ' ''^' *.'.*.*.'.* 364 497 slight falling off in the receipts, while an advance of "' from Is. to 3s. per qr. has been readily obtained fbr The arrivals of slaughtered meat from various all dijscriptions. The best malting barley has im- quarters up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, proved Is. per qr., grinding and distilling sorts have been very limited since our last, and of inferior remaining stationary. In inaTt no variation worthy quality, whilst the enquiry has proved steady at full of notice has taken place. Oats Lave come slowly prices. G 78 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF DECEMBER. The commencement of 1840 was not very pro- pitious to the agricultural interest, and conse- quently not very favourable to the community at large. The harvest of 1839, which succeeded one of a very inferior description, was deficient in quantity, and generally the quality of the grain ■was lighter than usual, and in some degree da- maged. From the large quantity of foreign grain, which had been entered for home consumption during the year 1839, and the large deliveries of inferior and light grain with which all our great markets of consumption were supplied in the be- ginning of the year, which has been just now brought to its conclusion, a decline took place in the value principally of wheat and oats, the prices then obtained not being in many instances remunerating to the growers of British grain. The corn-trade remained in this depressed state so long as farmers generally had any grain to sell ; andvast quantities of foreign grain continued to be imported and landed under Her Majesty's lock, it having been perfectly obvious that this state of corn affairs could not continue until the new crop, however brilliant the appearances of it were, could be brought to market. A good deal of foreign grain was entered during the spring months for home use, on the payment of duties fair to the public revenue, and protective of the home producers ; and these foreign supplies for a -while were fully equal to the demand, and pre- vented for a time the occurrence of such an im- provement in value as was necessary to pay the Lome grower for the deficiency in his crops. During the months of July and August, the far- mer's difficulties were again augmented by an un- natural advance, occurring chiefly in wheat, which permitted immense farther entries of foreign •wheat to be made on the payment of only nominal duties ; although it must be admitted by all, that these large foreign supplies were absolutely ne- cessary to the wants of the community, still it is equally evident, that the foreign proprietors of that grain should have been charged for the use of our markets with duties on importations, at all events, cornmensurate with the taxes, direct and indirect, ■which are imposed on our own farmers. Taking the mean value of wheat, on the average of years, so low as 50s. per quarter, an import duty of 15s'. per quarter would not be more than the duties imposed on various descriptions of foreign manu- factured goods, when imported for consumption in the United Kingdom. Thirty per cent, of duty on the original value of foreign goods, is consi- dered a fair and necessary protection to our own manufactures of similar descriptions of goods, and the importers, knowing the amount of duty to be paid by them on the importation of these goods, purchase their supplies, in an equal proportion, cheap abroad; and thus the foreign manufacturer, and not the British consumer of this description of goods, pays an adequate tax into our exchequer for the use of our markets of consumption. To apply the same rule to grain, when its importation becomes necessary, would only be an act of common justice ; and had it been generally practiced during the last two or three years, the revenue would have shown a very dif- ferent resiUt to its present state, and the Chancel- lor of the Exchequer might again have been compelled to consult the House of Commons res- pecting the best channel for the disposal of its surplus. Fifteen pounds are considered a just and adequate protection to the home manufacturer, {and this is in many instances the duty levied) on the importation of fifty pounds worth of foreign manufactured goods ; and fifteen shillings of duty on the importation of fifty shillings worth of foreign wheat, would be only a proportional pro- tection to the British agricultural interest. Our farmers are charged with the same amount of indirect and direct taxes, whether their crops be good or bad — whether the prices obtained for them be remunerating, or destructive to their property embarked in agricultural pursuits, whilst the fo- reign proprietor of grain seldom pays any but nominal duties on his agricultural produce con- sumed in our markets. However very absurd this may appear to be, and actually is, still it most unfortunately is the practice of the corn system of the United Kingdom, and what is still much more extraordinary — it has the sanction of the British le- gislature. During the years 1838 and 1839, the crops of all descriptions of grain were notoriously deficient both in quantity and quality, and as we have already said, large foreign supplies became absolutely necessary to make good the deficiency occasioned by two bad crops. The anti-corn law lecturers havehad a fatal stab inflicted on theiranti- national doctrines by this circumstance ; for the export commerce of the British Empire has not, in the slightest degree, been increased with those foreign nations and states, from whom these large sup- plies of foreign grain and flour have been drawn. On the contrary, money for commercial purposes has been rendered unusually scarce, and conse- quently dear at home, by the very large specie remittances which have been made to the foi-eign landed proprietors of those countries from which the foreign supplies of agricultural produce have been leceived, and thus a serious depreciation has occurred in the value of almost every description of property within the empire. This mone\' re- turns not again to this country ; for the consump- tion of British manufactures by the serfs of Poland, where the best wheats are grown, is at no time of any moment, consisting as it does chiefly of old thrown-oft" clothes of the English peasantry, whilst in the United States of North America, a duty in most instances of fifty per cent, is levied on the im- ])ortation there of certain descriptions of British- manufactured goods. There the landed proprie- tors complain of the British corn laws, because they give in our own markets occasionally a pre- ference to agricultural produce of our own growth over that of foreign nations, and thus, as they as- sert, deprive them of an excellent market for the surplus of their agricultural produce, to the amount of forty millions of dollars annuall}'. No doubt the ruin of our agricultural interest they would consider but of little consequence, if the object of their ambition could only be obtained by this sacrifice of the best interest of the United King- dom. When, however, the immense value of lands in this empire is taken into consideration, amounting, as it does, to upwards of three thousand millions sterling, and as it is perfectly THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 79 notorious that the value of this pmiierty depends on efficient piotectioii being at all times extended to the produce of our own lands, it is irnj)Os;iblc to fancy that the legislature can commit such an act of national suicide as to repeal the corn laws, under the protection of which every interest in the counti-y prospers. In commercial and manu- facturing jjursuits of every description, the capital embarked certainly does not amount to two hun- dred and fifty millions in all ; and surely it would be bad [.olicy to sacrifice agriculture to commerce nnder such circumstances. IJut.as we have already repeatedly shewn, trade universally suffers by the depression ot agriculture, and to repeal tlie corn laws and render the foreign corn trade entirely free, woultl, in a few years, be attended by general ruin. The wjiges of labour would be placed on an equality with the iirice of bread, and at least one half of the people, who are now receiving good wages, would soon be thrown entirely out of employment. The productive classes of society are however perfectly convinced of this fact, and public meetings, there- fore, to petition Parliament for the rej)eal of the ])rotection now given by the law to the agricultural interest, are not attended by any of them. They generally are satisfied with the wages paid to them under the present system, and they desire no change in their presenc circumstances which is not founded on i)racticc. They jirefcr certainty t > theory, and consider it better to receive good wages for woi'king and manufacturing for con- sumers at home, than, by destroying the means of the lionie consumers to pay for the articles they are in the habit of using, to depend on foreign consumers to make good to them that deficiency in their employment, which the ruin of the agri- cultural interest would inevitably entail on them. During the last three years the bullion in the Bank of liugland has been reduced from nearly twelve millions sterling to little more than three millions, and this unfortunate state of our monetary system is entirely the consequence of the large importations of foreign grain, to which we have heen subjected during the same period. Had the money paid to foreigners for the necessaries of life been expended amongst our own farmers, it would at this mometit havcbcenin productive circulation at home — would have been extending our internal commercial pur- suits— would have been increasing agricultural im- ])rovements — and would have been adding con- siderably to the present rates of the wages of labour by the increase which it must, from neces- sity, have occasioned in the means of productive employment. It would hare been, in part, the means of rendering millions of acres of land, at present in a perfect state of nature, productive, and consequently useful to the community at large. It would have been encouraging the consumption of all things necessary, and thus extending our conmiercial pursuits. It would, in short, have been spreading blessings and benefits throughout the British Empire, and would have given perfect and satisfactory evidence of the necessity of con- tinning our present protective system in commerce, shipping, and above all in agriculture. Two bad harvest seasons have subjecicd us to many ditfi' culties, which two good crops however will remove entirely. The last crop was an abundant one, both in quantity and in quality, and another one of the same description will r.gain T)lace everything on a proper foundation. The repeal of the corn laws, however, would not only perpetuate the existing . scarcity of money, but would annually add to our pecuniary wants, until poverty superseded wealth, and misery became the lot of the present happy and flourishing population ; whilst under their pro- tective influence, the progress of agricultural im- provement must eventually render us, not only independent of foreign supplies of the necessaries of life, but also increase our foreign commerce by the supply of many of our southern colonies and possessions with the surplus growth of our own fields. Wise laws must produce these eflfects, and if the crop of 1841 only should be equal to the last one, we shall soon afterwards have no occasion to reduce the value of property and of wages at home, by exchanging the precious metals for foreign grain. During the month which has now closed, our markets generally were so plentifully supplied with foreign wheat in particular, that prices, on the average, have declined considerably more than was generally anticipated two months ago ; but the deliveries from our home growers were rather small, and the decline in the value of this article, therefore, was of the less consequence to our farmers and tenants. Before the end of the month, however, a re-action to the extent of two or three shillings per quarter occurred in the value of the best descriptions of British wheats, and the markets generally assumed, at all events, a more healthy appearance. As the wages of labour have not yet been materially reduced by the scarcity of money and the cheapness of grain, a steady con- sumption may be fairly anticipated during the re- mainder of the present corn season, and all classes must profit by this fortunate circumstance. The means of the consumers being fully equal to the present value of all the necessaries of life, and the la it harvest having been most plentiful, and of excellent quality, we consider the future prospects ol' the agricultural interest as cheering, and in all respects satisfactory, whilst their prosperity must ho of much advantage to manufacturers, and to all the industrious classes of society. It will prevent any farther exportationof money to foreign nations in ' payment for the necessaries of life, and the c;ij)ital thus profusely, we may say, squandered a'.^ ay, will be retained within the Empire — will be employed in giving productive labour to the people, and thus circulating profitably amongst the com- munity. The value of everything depends entirely on the demand for it ; when labour is in demand wages are good, and thus the consumption of all the necessaries and of some of the luxuries of life arcproportionably increased from this circumstance. Throughout all the manufacturingdistricts thecon- sumption oC goods has been increased, and this de- mand mustbe still farther improved by themeansto pay, which the late valuable crop has conferred on the landed interest. British society is at present in a flourishing condition generally, and the wealth of the nation is annually increased. Yearly now are large tiacts of land, almost in all quarters, which previously had been useless, hrought forward into cultivation, and made useful to the people. Under the protective influence of the corn laws, these im- provements must rapidly increase, (for many mil- lions of acres are still in a state of wildness,) until the United Kingdom be enabled to support far more than the double of her present popula- tion. The science of agriculture itself, under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, and of many other patriotic associations, is progressing also so rapidly, and the know- ledge being acquired in the best means of tillage is so very considerable, that the same fields which produced grain a quarter of a century ago, now yield at least a quarter, or even one-third 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. more in quantity, and of far better quality than they did a few years since. These arc certain benefits, and they may be said to be still only in their infancy, for it is not possible even to fancy the limit to agricultural improvements, under the science, attention and capital, which are now in all quarters applied to them. The i)ropo*ed new county of Victoria, when it arises out of the wastes in Norfolk and Lincolnshire, will of itself add greatly to the present agricultural wealth of the empire ; and there are many other districts of equal importance throughout Great Britain, which now require the art and labour of man to reclaim them from, we may say, the wilderness, hut which are also equally capable of being ren- dered highly valuable to the general interest. The conversion of useless lands into cultivation, even should it be attended by no greater advantage, should be persevered in, because it must give an additional quantity of productive labour to the people, and also because it must in a very mate- rial degree limit the very expensive and anti-na- tional system of encouraging the emigration of the most enterpi'ising, and consequently the nio>t valuable jjortion of the agricultural community. The field for much greater improvements in agri- culture than those which have been already effected, is nearly boundless; but without 'due encourage- ment it cannot make the rapid progress of which it is so capable, and strong corn laws alone can give that degree of protection, which is so neces- sary to its successful prosecution. To render the people as independent as possible of foreign sup- plies of grain, is the true road to their general prosperity. There is bow, at all events, a pros- pect that after the present corn season, the im- portations from abroad will be considerably less than they have been for several years past. The last crop was luxuriant in every way, and a better winter seed time than the last has seldom indeed been experienced. We are persuaded that the check given towards the close of December to the winter wheats, must be very beneiicial to their future growth. It has checked their luxu- riant appearance no doubt, but it has proportion- ately given strength to them at the roots, and thus leaves, at all events, the prospect of another favourable crop. Although the farmers did not deliver barley very freely during the month of December, still the supply continued to be more than equal to the demand, and sales could not be generally effected imless at declining prices. Considering the supe- rior quality of the last barley crop, it is certainly at the present time beneath its intrinsic worth, and still consumers of manufactured barley find no reduction in the prices of any description of its extract. This subject is one of much impor- tance, and it has often been our duty to call the attention of our agricultural readers to a point so very interesting to the community at large. To encourage the consumi)tion of bnrley ought mo$t certainly to be an object of every person wishing well to the general prosperity, and that the con- sumption of malt alone may be doubled docs not admit of any doubt. The imposition of twelve millions sterling of duties annually on manufac- tured barley, is;the real foundation of the obstruc- tions which the barley farmer meets with in the sale of his crops. That duty to the same amount would be annually paid into the treasury, under a widely different system of excise collection, the experience of the past most sufficiently establishes ; and that the alteration in the mode of imposing it would eventually double the quantity of barley now consumed in the mamd'actured articles of beer ^ud Britisli spirits, can be ])erfectly proved by facts. When that administration existed, of which the Duke of Wellington was the head, the beer duty was entirely repealed, and the impost on malt itself was also reduced from 34s. "d. to 20s. per qr. This was a bold measure of finance, but its success was more than equal to the nerve displayed by his Grace in attempting the alteration. On the high duty system the annual payment into the treasury from malt, seldom exceeded, but wns oftener under, two millions eight hundred thou- sand pounds, whilst by the reduction of the duty it has ever since exceeded five millions sterling; indeed, one season it was nearer si.x millions than five ; still when we reflect ou the increasing po|)u- lation, and when we endeavour to calculate the proportion to each individual in the community of beer, drawn from five millions of quarters of nialt, we find that the system may with great truth be denominated one of starvation, in as far as the consumption of beer may be considered a ne- cessary of life. Thiity millions of inhabitants, the estimated population of the United Kingdom at the present moment, would be only inadequately su;)plied, were the consum])tion of malt double its j)rescnt amount. That this immense advantage would result from following out the Duke of Wel- lington's financial principles, as we have already asserted, the whole experience of the past very fully and sufficiently establishes ; and that the farther reduction of the malt duty by one-half, would increase the malt consumption to ten millions of cjuarters annually, must be as evident as any demonstration can be made. The amount of duty paid at present into the tieasury would itself be increased by this financial operation ; and for any minister to effect the change would only be performing a great duty to the public. 'I'hc maltster, however, has other subjects to complain of, in addition to the extravagant rates of duties with which he is charged. He is subjected to vexatious fiscal regulations, which very fre- quently are injurious to his interest, and limit his science of mailing. Whatever may be the quality of the barley, whether it be heavy or light, whether it be produced under a southern or a northern climate, he must follow out the same regulations and rules in his process of manufac- ture, and thus he frequently injures his property, and sometimes renders his malt not fit; for the purposes for which it was intended. To charge the duty at once on the barley, would be a remedy for this evil, and would materially reduce the ex- pense of its collection. Nor would the treasury be much more subject to fraud than it is at pre- sent ; indeed, we may say considerably less so by this proposed alteration, — for it would render the collection much more simple than it is under the present complicated management. The maltster would then be enabled to use his science and his practical knowledge in the best possible manner in the manufacture of malt. He would render it suitable to those purposes for which it is intended, and the general interest would profit by some alteration of the above description. The agricul- tural meud)ers in the legislature should call the attention of both houses of Parliament to this im- portant subject, and also to another vexation under which the growers of barley labour. Wc now allude to the excessive duty which is collected on each gallon of spirits manufactured in the United Kingdom, From ten to twelve millions of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 81 gallons of bad Geneva and worse brandy arc smuggled and consiuncd in EngUuid annually, to the great injury ol the landed interest, ot the English distiller, of the revenue, and of public morality ; and this grievance has its origin solely in the extravagant rates of duty levied in England iin Uritish-uiade spirits. Although the duty ehargcd on foreign spirits consumed here be nearly 23s. per gallon, still this heavy duty must be called only a nominal one ; for by adding to- gether the quantities of foreign spirits, legally and dlegally imported here for consumption, the duty actually received will be under 4s. per gallon, being one-half loss than the present charge is in England on home-made spirits. This system is fdled with vice ; and even to place the duty in England on home-made spirits, on a level with that actually not chaiyed hut paid on foreign spirits, would speedily remove this great evil. It would destroy entirely the trade of the snmggler, and all the immorality by which it is attended. It would strengthen the cause of temperance throughout the empire, and it would be beneficial in the extreme to the public health. The pure extract of malt is admitted on all hands to be a wholesome beverage, whilst foreign spirits are generally, in every respect, the reverse. It would likewise do away \\\l\\ the present necessity of Teetotalism Societies, and many squalid faces amongst their members would, at all events, re- assume the marks of health. The revenue also would be considerably improved by the altera- tion— for the full atnount now collected on foreign spirits would still be obtdned on the best qualities of them ; whilst, by the substitution of wholesome British spirits for tiie spurious foreigH spirits which are, under the present high duty system, smuggled into the country, a large addition would be made to the sum now actually paid into the Ex- chequer, as duties levied on British spirits con- sumed in England. Another improvement in the system would be, to allow the rectifiers to retail British gin and British brandies at that strength which would suit the palates of the consumers. Foreign spirits and colonial spirits are now ])er- mitted into consumption, at any strength which the dealers in them jilease ; and there cannot exist any well founded reason for depriving the English rectifiers of similar advantages. Superior as home- made spirits most undoubtedly are, ew.n under the present system, stdl the quality of them would be yet much improved, did the law permit the manu- facturer to make full use of his knowledge and science in these operations ; and quality, with cheap- ness, is sure to command the market. In Ireland and Scotland, moderate duties have entii-ely sup- pressed thespiritsmuggling trade, and the morality of the inhabitants has been proportionately im- proved. Duties on home-made spirits in England, p\-oportionately moderate, must he attended here by advantages equally important, and then the heavy expense of the Coast Blockade service will be entirely saved to the British treasury. This, of itself, woidd cause a saving in the public exijcn- iliture of from live to eight hundred thousand ])ounds sterling, aiiiuudly. It is ])erfectly cleai* therefore, that the cultivators of barley suffer very considerably from the ni.inner in which the malt and British spirit duties are collected, and that the high and unequal rates which are imposed on them, are injurious to the community in general. More thau double the quantity of barley at the present time grown, would be required for the necessary consumption; and at least od^ million of acres of laud, now in a state of desolation, and entirely use- less to the iieo|)le, would be brought into cultivation for liio production of this additional quantity. At a period when it is considered necessary to encourage emi"-ration to our colonies, and even to foreign na- tions, surelv the employment of these unfortunate men, in the cullivution of waste lands athome, would he much more hunelicial to them than to transport them, for similar purposes, to bring forward into tilhi-e lands in our colonies of a far wdder descrip- tion"; and to the general interest, to disjiose of them productively at home, would be of the iiighest con- sequence. The wealth created by the improvement of waste lands at home, for the purpose ot iucreasing the growth of barley, would not only most amply pav for the increasetl expenditure occasiom^d by this additiouiil consumption, but it would also most abun- dantly jiay annual rents on the cajiital which would be embarked in these patriotic operations. The great benefit which it would confer, however, would be in (inding out still larger channels for the produc- tive eraplovmcnt of the people, by which their means would be greatly increased, and their content- ment with their condition in life would be thereby rendered far more certain than it can be under the piescnt high rates of duty system, by which consump- tion is materially restricted, and in consequence of which complaints are unfortunately daily gaining "•round, which eventually may become dangerous to the public tranquillity. These waste lands can be broui'ht into almost immediate cultivation at far less expense than the generally densely wooded lands in Canada, or in any of our other colonial possessions, admit of ; and the returns from them when cultivated, must be far more valuable than it is possible tor the produce of Canada ever to be, in consequence of the great distance of that country from large markets of consumption. The barley grower has no hope of improvement in his condition, excepting in an in- creased consumption of his produce, and he may easily, and likewise advantageously to the revenue, and to the entire population, be gratified in these bis very moderate views ; his fields may be rendered more productive, and more valuable to him than they are at present, and the increased annual wealth created by the alteration, would pay well for an ad- ditional consumi)tion of barley by the labouring classes of society. In Great Britain, lands, which twenty years ago were chiefly devoted to the growth of oats, are now turned into the more valuable system of wheat cul- tivation ; and the supplies of this very material arti- cle of agricultural produce have not been increased in magnitude in the great markets of consumption, neither from the north of England, nor from Scot- land, during that period, in proportion to the vastly increased demand. The great injury done by the elements to this article, chiefly in Ireland, during the season of 1839, rendered the importation of an unusually large quantity from the Continent abso- lutely necessary, and thus additional ditiicullies were created in the money market, by the large re- mittances of specie to the Continent which this large importation had rendered necessary. Although the prices of oats were kept moderate to the con- sumers by these imjiortations, still wr, even in the infancy of her agricul- tural science. She will mainly supply Great Britain with this article now for many months to come. She will prevent any large exportation of the precious metals in exchange for foreign oats during the cur- rent year, and by so doing, she will, in some mea« sure, give additional means for the consumption of manufactured goods, and of different other articles of use whereon the prosperity of commerce princi- pally depends. As confidence gains ground in the safety of ])roperty embarked in Irish pursuits, her wealth must be increased, and no murmurs nor complaints of want of food and want of labour will be heard amongst her inhabitants. The shipments of oats made already from Ireland to Great Britain have been sold at fair prices to the importers, a decline not having occurred in them in proportion to that which has been noted in wheat and in barlej', and still the duty now payable on their importation from foreign states is now a fair protection to our home- growers of this article; indeed, according to its intrinsic value, it is generally better protected against foreign competition than wheat. Since our last publication the markets have been fairly, but not abundantly supplied with beans and peas, against tbe quality of which few well grounded complaints can be made. Generally, the quality has been of a superior description, and anv destructive decline in their vidue has thereby been prevented. The duty has increased in the course of December, but still it cannot as yet be called a more than pro- tective one. The supply has rather exceeded the demand, and a decline ot about 3s. per qr. must be noted on both articles since tbe beginning of last month. The value of them, considering their fine quality, being at the present period rather moderate than otherwise, no very material alteration can be expected to take place in them, until we can gather some knowledge of the prospects for all descriptions of spring corn, and of pulse, for the next harvest. The favourable state of the weather until the middle of December has permitted great progress to be made in getting the land ready, even for the recep- tion of the spring seeds ; and with weather equally favourable, when the spring season arrives, agricul- tural prospects will be cheering indeed to all classes and interests in the United Kingdom. The state of the corn trade in foreign markets is not in any way interesting at tbe present moment : the dates from the Baltic, and from the north of Ger- many, are in due course of post. In Poland some purchases of fine wheats had been made at low prices for British account, for delivery when the rivers be- come again navigable, but in the ports of immediate shipment prices continued too high for speculative purchases of this description. From America the letters are dated early in December, but they contain no agricultural news of the least importance. CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE. Di;c. -28. Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex and Kent, rtd 60 62 (34 White.. &i 66 Irish 50 60 Do 60 6t Old, red fi-2 66 Do 66 70 Rye, old 36 38 New 38 41 Barley, Grinding 28 30 32 Malting 34 36 Cheralier — 37 Irish 25 27 Bare... 24 26 Malt, Sufl'olk and Norfolk 64 70 Brown.. 56 CO Kingston and Ware .... 64 68 Chevalier 68 — Oats, Yoiksh. & Lincolnsh., feed 24 26 Potato.. 25 26 Yoii;;haIl and Cork hlack 21 22 Cork, white 22 — Dublin 21 22 23 Westport 22 23 Wateifoyd, white 21 22 23 Black.. 22 23 Scotch feed 25 26 Potato.. 25 26 Cloninel 23 24 Limerick 22 24 Londonderry 2."? — Sligo .. 22 23 Newrv 23 24 Galway 19 20 21 Beans, Tick, new 38 40 Old ..42 44 48 Peas, Grey 36 88 40 Maple.. 40 42 White 36 88 Boilers . 38 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 88 Seed, Rape SOI. S2l. Irish 28Z. per last. Linseed 41 4@ English Red Clover, fine, 70 80 90 per cwt. White 66 68 74 Flouk, Town-made 55 — Sufliolk 43 44 pr sic. of 380 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk, 42 43 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 44 48 Hamburg 40 42 Barley 18 21 Oats, Brew 28 24 Feed... Ifl 18 Beans 30 — Peas 30 — Flour, American, per brl 26 — Baltic.. 23 — COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Dec. 25tli, 1840. s. d. Wheat ...'..i^^i.^ 59 1 Bari-ey ...... J ;~... 31 6 Oats 21 4 RvE S3 10 Beans 41 1 Peas 40 5 AVERAGES from tlie corres- jKinUiiis Gazette in the last year, Friday, Dec. 27, 1839. Wheat 66 5 Barley 40 5 Oats 23 II Rye 38 C Beans 42 6 Peas 43 7 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending Nov. 13th .. 20th . . 27th . . Dec. 4tli .. mil .. 18th .. Afigregate Average of the six weeks which regulates the duty Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday nestinclu- sive, and at the Ontports till the arrival eft he mail of tliat day from London Do. on grain from British posses- sions out of Eu- rope Wheat, 62 2 01 8 60 0 59 7 58 10 5'J I Barley, 34 8 34 7 33 6 32 7 32 0 31 6 Oats. 23 0 21 11 23 2 23 1 21 11 21 4 Rye. 35 S 35 8 84 10 34 11 34 4 32 10 06 20S006 06 Beans. 44 0 43 10 43 0 43 4 41 4 41 1 Peas. 43 0 42 10 43 7 41 11 40 1 40 5 Account shewingr the Quantities of Grain, Meal and Flour, importeii into the United King'dom, during? the month ended the .5th Dec., 1840 ; the Quantitius on which Duties have been paid tor Home Consuni])- lion during the same month, and tiie Quantities re- maining: in Warehouse at the close thereof. Foreign Grain and Flour. Wheat, from British Possessions Peas, from do Indian Corn, do.... Wheat, foreign .... Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Corn, do.... Buck Wheat, do. . . Flour, from British Possessions Flour, foreign Quantity imported. Quantity en- Quantity I tered for remaining ii consumption.! warehouse. qrs. bush. 3602 3 1841 4 230 0 84543 4 16137 2 8186 I 23517 6 7667 4 1940 6 5 1 qrs. bush. qrs. bush. cwts. qrs. lbs 98020 3 27 34287 2 17 1639 0 1841 4 230 0 2998 4 4S200 2 403 3 23466 3 7576 2 3872 2 5 1 2081 3 52017 4 7063 6 7148 2 8325 4 904 2 935 4 27 6 cwt?. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs.lbf. 55186 3 19 45763 3 262 0 6 38516 0 STOCK OF GRAIN, &c., IN BOND, IN THE PORT OF LONDON, ON THE jth DEC. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Peas. Beans. Rye. Flour. qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. cwts. 38,095 437 1,979 269 303 37,842 Cloverseed, 20,451 cwts. PRICES OF SEEDS. Dec. 28. Linseed, English, sowing 55 60 Baltic — — crushing 45 50 per qr. Mediter. & Odessa 40 52 Hempsced, small 34 36 large.. 38 40 Coriander 10 10 old.... 18 — per cwt. Mustard, brown, now ..16 21 white.. 12 ISpr.liusli. Turnip Seed, new Swedes — — 10 18 Trefoil 10 23 fine npw25 30 Riipeseed, English .^0/. 32/. foreign 28«. SOI. per last. Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch IJ 40 Tares, winter 10 12 Spring — — Large, foi'eign.... 8 9 Clover, English, red .... 55 75 white 48 60 pur cwt. Flemish 40 65 do.. 45 4S ^ New Hamburgh . . 53 60 do.. 46 60 h Old do 85 68 flo.. — — S French 50 60 do.. — — g Old do 40 50 Canary, new 82 84 extra 86 89 Carraway, old 50 53 new 50 52 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Dec. 28. Bags, Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. 18.36 1836 1837 1837 1838 18.^8 1889 1839 1840 1840 East Mid. Weald Sussex. Fam- Kent. s. s. Kent. of Kent. ham. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. 55 to 75 .55 to 75 55 to 65 — to — — 55 . . 85 55.. 85 55 . . 78 55 . . 75 — none none none none — 90.. 116 90.. 116 90 . . 100 _ _ 100.. 130 100.. l-SO 100.. 116 90.. 110 — 130.. 170 130.. 170 100.. 130 _ — 170.. 210 170.. 210 150,. 170 130 . . 140,240. 300 140 . . 300 1 140 . . 340 POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE. Dec. 28. PRESENT PRICES AS FOLLOW : — York Reds , .. — s. to 90s. per ton. Scotch Reds 80s. to 85s. Devons — s. to 80s. Jersey & Guernsey Blues — s. to 70s. Jersey Whites — s. to 65s. Kent Essex & Whites.. 60s. to 70s. WOOL MARKET. BRITISH. Dec. 28. s. d. s. d. Down Teggs 1 2 tol 2^ Half-bred Hogs 11^ 1 2^ Ewes and Wethers 0 llj 1 o| Flannel do 10 12 Blanket Wool 0 5 0 8 Skin, Combing 0 10 1 2 PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of manure : — Bone-dust, 21s. per qr. of 8 bushels. Half-inch ditto, 20s. per qr. do. Rape-dust, 61. 15s. per ton. Rags, il. to 41. 10s. per ton. Graves, 5l. to 51. 10s. per ton. Gypsum, 38s. per ton. Salt, 21. 5s. dirty, 2/. 15s. clean, per ton. Lance's Carbon, 12s. Od. per qr. ,, Humus, 14s. Od. ,, Soap ashes, lOs. per ton. Artificial Manure, 12s. per qr. Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr. Nitrate of Seda, 20s. Od. to Os. Od. per cwt. Nitrate of Potash or Saltpetre, 27s. to 288. 6d,pei c^rt, 84 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. No. of Shares. 6,300 9,500 15,000 9,300 7,300 5,000 .•),000 S.OOI) 04,000 64,000 18,000 10,918 10,918 10,000 25,000 '25,000 37,500 8,000 36,000 26,660 C,334 20,000 9,000 8O,O00L 24,000 1,500 2,100 ii.lOu 11,475 7,908 30,000 0,000 25,000 25,000 31,250 13,000 13,000 30,000 15,714 10,000 10,000 15,000 15,000 12,000 3,702 1,000 28,000 6,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 2000 4,000 30,000 60,000 12,432 20,000 10,000 7,739 20,000 4,000 20,000 12,000 6,000 60,000 IRON RAILWAYS. Birmingliara and Derby Junction 11)01 sh Ditto and Gloucester lOOZ sli Bristol and Exeter. . lOUZ sli 001 pd Ditto and Glouces. . 501 sli 2^1. pd Cheltenliam & Great West. Union 1001 sh 62JZ pd Chester and Crewe . . 501 sli ... Clarence (Durham) 1001 sh Dublin and Kilkenny 100? sh 2^1 pd Eastern Counties ..'..25/sh 23/ pd Ditto Debentures.. 8/ 6s 8d..3Z pd Edinburgh & Glasgow^lOish 35/ pd Grand Junction . . ^ 100/ sh Ditto Half Shares .50/ sli 40/ pd Great N. of England 100/ sh 70/ pd Great Western 100/ sh 65/ i)d Ditto Half Sliar00 2,400 20,000 20,000 4,000 5,387 14,400 3,000 4,000 200,000/ 200,000/ 10,000/ 5,000 MISCELLANEOUS. Anti Dry Rot Company . . 18^/ sh Assam Tea Company .50/ sh 12j/ pd Auction Mart . . . .- 50/ sh Australian (Agricultural) 100/ sh 28/ 33 pd British Rock and Patent Salt .50/ sh 35/ pd Canada Company (Clhartered) 100/ sh 32i/ pd Droitwich Patent Salt .... 25/ sh Equitable Reversionary Interest Society 100/ sh 55/ pd General Steam Navigation Com pany 15/ sh 14/ pd Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Ditto New (Chartered) 25/ sh Hungerford Market 100/ pd Ditto Debentures (var. amounts). Kent Zoological and Botanical Garden Company 10/ sh 4/ pd London Cemetery (Chartered) 20/ sh London Corn Exchange. . . .37^/ pd London Commercial Sale Rooms Average 75/ sh London and Westminster Steam Boat Company 10/ sh Mexican and South American Company 10/ sli 7/ pd New Brunswick Land 100/ sh 50/ pd New Zealand Company 25/ sh Reversionary Int. Society. .100/ sh S. Australian Comp. 25/ sh 20/ pd South Metropolitan Cemc^terv (Chartered) 25/ si Thames Tunnel 50/sh Upper Canada Loan Ditto Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char- tered 100/ sh 18/ pd West London and Westminster Cemetery 25/ sh 19/ pd 13/ 82/a3/ 21/ ■24^1 32/ 20/aO/ 31 /aO/ 25/aO/ 106/ 10/aJ/ Printed by Jose)>li Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London. 4 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FEBRUARY, 1841. jsfQ_ 2. Vol. III.] [Second SeriSs. PLATE I. Tlu! subject of tlie first Plate is a short-lioin Ox, bred by Earl Si)encer, on his farm ;it VVisetonj and fed on his lordship's farm at Althorp. This Ox was got by his lordship's bull Firby, was exhibited at the Sniithfield Show in Decemljer last, and obtained the Gold Medal as the best animal in any class. To expect that an animal shonld be fault- less would be vain, but we can confidently state that this Ox approached as near perfection as anv we have ever seen. The plate, engraved by Beckwith, is taken from a painting by Mr. W. H. Davis of Chelsea, and does great credit to the well known talent of that gentleman, as an animal painter. PLATE II. LAUNCELOT; Wi.nxer of the Great St. Legek, 1840. Launcelot comes of good stock, and his performances Avere such as to warrant the high opinion entertained of him by his backers. He was bred by the Marquis of Westminster, and is by Camel, out of Banter, own brother to Touchstone, and was trained by Scott. At two years old he won tlie Champagne Stakes at Doncaster by a neck, beating Path- finder (second), iMountain Syl}»h (third), Theon, Interlude, Dr. Caius, (filly out of Fancy), and Queen Bee. On the Thursday, at the same meeting, he was beaten a neck by Theon, Fitzroy (third), beating Black Beck, Pathfinder, Mountain Sylph, Naworth, a colt out of Emigrant's dam, La Femme Sage, and Calypso. As a three year old he lan for tlie Derby, and Mas first favourite at starting, and was the only nag out of Scott's siables ; he ran second to Little Wonder, beating JMelody colt, Confederate, Assassin, Scutari, Amaranth, Solace colt, Muley Islnnael, Theon, Bokhara, Sophocles, Monops, Pathfinder, AngeUca coh, Farce colt, and a colt out of Gift. He walked over for a Pro- duce Stake at Liverpool, ])ut paid forfeit in preference to meeting " Cornuto," for a Foal Stakes at the same meeting. By good luck, good generalship, and other adventitious circumstances, he won the Leger. EXPERIMENTAL FARM. '^"* ^^^° °^ general meetings of the society. On all these occasions, the result has been a resolution IIEPOIIT, that it would be inexpedient for the society, if not T, /-, , .., „ also inconsistent with the principles of its con- By the Committee appointed to consider "..".. ^ • »i „ „ f„M- i,,„„„f ^p „„ T, , -..r ,, r^ stitution, to engaore in the establishment oi an THE Petition of the Wester Ross Farming . ' ■, ^ '^ ° o ,, experimental larm. Society, praying that the Highland and ' Agricultural Society would establish an '^^e committee may refer to the two last oc- Experimental Farm. casions on which this subject was discussed and disposed of, viz., in 1835 and 18.")7. On the former {hrom the Prize Essays and Tramactiom of the occasion, the opinions of the directors were Highland and Agriciiltnral Society of Scotland, cnbnjied at length in a report, which was No. 52, vol. xiii., page 4I)7.J submitted to a general meeting of the society, 2nd The committee find that this subject has July, 18;}5, and, after a full discussion, the report frequently before been under the consideration was unanimously adopteil. In 18;?7, (ith July, the not only of the directors and of special committees, matter was again considered. The views of Mr. OLD SERIES.} ' H [No. 2.-F0L. XIV, 86 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Nairne, of Claremont, who urged the recon- sideration of the question, will be found fully- stated in the minutes of directors, 27th December, 183(). The subject was again, on the motion of Mr. Nairne, fully discussed at the general meeting of the society, on 10th January, 1837, when the feeling of the meeting being decidedly against the society embarking in the scheme, Mr. Nairne withdrew his motion. The following was the report of the directors, which was unanimously approved of by the society at its general meeting in 1837 : — "The directors resumed consideration of tiie com- munication from the Duke of Gordon, transmitting a copy of the letter addressed to the society regarding the establishment of an experimental farm. The letter having, in pursuance of the instructions of last meeting, been circulated to the directors and deliberately considered, and members having now given their opinions, the board resolved to submit their opinion in the shape of a report to the general meeting, as follows : — " Transmitted through such a channel, the directors gave the suggestions the fullest con- sideration, but they are sorry they cannot recommend to the society to adopt the proposal contained in the paper. In poiat of expense, it would far exceed the amount of funds at the disposal of the society ; and it is, besides, in a great degree inconsistent with the principle upon which the society uniformly acts. " The directors are not prepared to say, that although similar establishments, hitherto tried, have all proved failures, an experimental farm could under no circumstances be productive of benefit; but it must, under any circumstances, be conducted at a great expense, its objects being in a great measure incompatible with attention to profitable return for its operations ; and they are well convinced that such a farm, and for such purposes as are contem- plated ia the ' suggestions,' would, in a very short time, exhaust the capital, instead of the portion of its annual income proposed by the projector. " Besides this fundamental objection, the plan is inconsistent witli the present system of the society, which is not to be itself the experimenter, but to encourage, stimulate, and in some cases partially remunerate those who are about to make, or who have made, experiments for the improvement of agriculture. In conducting such experiments, the most useful course will generally be followed by those who must necessarily keep ultimate profit in ■view; and the directors are of opinion that the society have wisely left it in their hands, aiding them as far as possible, by collecting and digesting information as to the objects to be kept in view, and the most probable means of attaining them ; by offering premiums to those who, keeping these objects in view, will conduct their experiments on the principles pointed out by the society ; and finally, by promulgating the results regularly through their quarterly transactions, for the use of the public generally. " There is no doubt that the application of scientific principles, and extremely accurate observations of results, which might be commanded under the society's auspices, are important objects, and have been attained in horticulture; but the directors con- ceive the objects of investigation in agricultural practice to be of so extended and diversified a character, that it cannot he so well carried on in one spot, one climate, and nearly one soil, as by the society's present practice, which brings it at once to the doors of a greatmany acute examinators in every part of the country, and causes the trial to he made simultaneously under every possible variety of situation and circumstance. Nor is the whole advantage of the society's present system to be confined to these points ; another and important result is the habit of mental exertion thus fostered among the agricultural classes, and the practical experience which each successive experiment supplies, opening up new trains of interesting speculation, and giving confidence to push forward in hopes of farther discover}'. The directors point with satisfaction to your proceedings, as a proof that there is no difficulty of getting correct reports of numerous and complicated experiments from practical men, and no want of enterprise where there is a reasonable prospect of success in any new inquiry, which, if deemed too hazardous for the tenant's exertions, is generally taken up by some public-spirited proprietor, who is willing to en- counter the risk in hopes of producing a result which may be useful to the community at large. " 'J'he directors fear, therefore, that even supposing the funds requisite for such an undertaking were procured, the scheme, as detailed in ' the sug- gestions,' would have the effect of cramping the energies of private experimentalists, which they must regard as the most useful channel for re- search, by inducing them to look exclusively to the society for results which they are now in the habit of working out themselves. "They have only to add, that if an experimental farm on a well-digested plan and moderate scale should he thought an adjunct for the investigation of certain phenomena, of which cases may perhaps be conceived ofiering too uncertain or too remote chance of advantage for individual speculation, the means of carrying it on being procured and placed at the disposal of the society, they would do their utmost to make the scheme conducive to t!ie public advantage." The committee, in considering the application for an experimental farm, which has lately been made by the Agricidtural Society of Wester Ross, have not allowed their minds to be influenced by the fact of similar applications having been, on former occasions, deliberately weighed and re- jected. They have considered the question on its own merits. But having unanimously come to be of opinion that the society cannot accede to the proposal, it is an important circumstance that this also was the result of an equally deliberate consi- deration of the subject by former boards of directors, as well as by the society in its collective capacity. While the committee fully admit that advan- tages might result from the establishment of a farm, to be set apart for the performance of useful experiments, and where they should be the means of putting to the test of practice the suggestions of agriculturists, as well as of ascertaining the principles on which agriculture, both as a science and as an art, is founded, the committee see too plainly that there are difficulties in the way of such an establishniient, which any means at the command of the society could not enable it to overcome. The committee observe, that in the two last memorials which the directors have received, re- commending the establishment of experimental farms, it is either assumed or expressly stipulated, that they are to be conducted on what are called "scientific principles." Now it has appeared to the committee, that the exact nature of an experimental farm conducted on such principles is not distinctly apprehended THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 87 by many persons, and especially by those who reckon with certainty on its yielding a remune- rating rent. The jjrimary object of such a farm being to make experiments, and by investigation of principles to endeavour to derive aid from other branches of knowledge (as chemistry, vege- table and animal physiology, geology, and mecha- nics) for the elucidation and improvement of agriculture, it would be inconsistent with the principle of such an establisliraent to conduct it so as to yield a profitable return. Were such a farm even limited to the trial of difl'erent practices in agriculture, it is manifest that what is bad, as well as what is good, must be the subject of expe- riment ; and that the experimenters must reckon upon failure as well as success, it being indeed necessary for all practical purposes to ascertain the causes of both results. There woidd thus in- evitably and constantly he loss on a farm con- ducted on such principles, even if a wider range of investigation were avoided, which, however, must be comi)rehended under the designation of a farm coiulucted on what are termed scientific principles. The investigation now pointed at would not only include, for example, experiments on the application to the soil of calcareous and all other matters which stimulate or improve it, but would embrace an inquiry into the way in which the effect is produced, whether through the medium of the soil or through the medium of the organs of growing plants. It would include not only the making the soil productive by the various means determined by exiierience, but an investi- gation of the chemical constitution of the soil, and of the causes of those changes in its constitu- tion and character which different substances produce. Such a train of experiments, it is obvious, would he altogether distinct from the proper business of the cultivator, and would require investigations in chemistry and other branches of science which are beyond the limits of agriculture as a practical and profitable art. The object of an experimental farm, in short, is not to raise produce by such economical means as will yield a rent, but to perform experiments which can yield no pecuniary returns. Were it proposed merely to establish a farm, and conduct it in the best possible mannei', such a farm would be a model or pattern farm, and not an experi- mental one, in the sense in which the term ought to be employed. But little advantage, it appears to the committee, would result by an establish- ment even of model farms, under the direction of the Highland and Agricultural Society. Such a farm would, for any useful purpose, need to show economy of labour and expense, which it is not to be supposed it could possibly exhibit. It is not, assuredly, the merely raising a great quantity of produce, that would constitute a farm deserving of being regarded as a model. This produce must be raised with a due economy of time and capital, otherwise it would fail in serving as a useful pat- tern. But it can scarcely be hoped that a farm, managed by any public institution whose directors are constantly changing, could be conducted with the same economy of time and expenditure, and the same prudent adaptation of means, as in the case of a farm under the constant direction of a skilful agriculturist, who devotes his whole time and thoughts to the subject, and who has a deep personal interest in the economical results. A model farm, therefore, could not be managed by the directors of this society with the same eco- uoiny or the same success as an ordinary farm belonging to, and managed by, any intelligent agriculturist. lint, independently of this general objection, founded on the management of a farm by a public and fluctuating board of directors, there would be expenses attendant upon a model farm, by whom- soever conducted, which would make any profit- able return more than doubtful. If the farm is to exhibit the best of everything known in the art, whether of grain, or stock, or implements ; if, also, it is to adapt itself constantly to the im- provements which are made in the various departments of agriculture, by purchasing what is new, and discarding what is inferior or old- fashioned, — the farm must manifestly be conducted at an expense far greater than that at which any- other farm in the country is managed. Farther, in regard to the practical utility of the establishment, it deserves to be remembered that, however successful and however profitable might be the operations on a model farm, wherever situated, it does not follow that the same operations would, in oiher parts of the country, be equally successful. The several counties of Scotland present such va- rieties of climate, soil, and other material conditions, that it could never be certainly predicted that the par- ticular crops or manures, or operations generally, which had answered well in one district of Scotland, would answer equally, or at all, in every other. If this view be correct", great doubt arises as to the amount of benefit which would result to agriculturists from a model farm ; and the committee feel the force of this objection the more strongly on perceiving that, in one of the proposals lately submitted to the Society, it is contemplated to have a committee of experimenters in every county, whose object it should be to ascertain whether the roots and seeds which succeeded well on the Society's farm were equally adapted for other districts of Scotland. If it is said, that a stimulus would, by a model farm, be given to agriculturists to adopt on their own farms the most approved system, the committee would observe, that every farmer is already under the strongest motive to adopt the most approved system, and to apply it successfully, viz., his own interest and a regard for public opinion. At all events, as already noticed, the Imowledge that a par- ticular operation or practice had succeeded on the society's farm migbt fail to convince individual far- mers that, in difterent circumstances, and with less command of resources, the same operation or prac- tice would succeed upon theirs. This view also affords an answer to another re- mark which might be made in recommendation of a model farm, that, by publishing in the society's transactions journrdsof all the operations conducted on it, the agriculturists of the country would become acquainted with the most approved modes of culture. Ao-ain the committee must observe, that it would be of no importance to communicate such information, unless it were accompanied by an assurance that the sime system would succeed on other farms, diff"erent in soil, climate, and elevation, and other respects. Farther, it may be remarked, that there are few or no material discoveries or improvements in agricul- ture which are not almost immediately made known through the press, and especially through the means of agricultural societies, at their shows and meetings. So that the object in view is obtained already, with- out exposing the resources and reputation of the society to risks of a more formidable character. For these reasons, thecommittee think that a model farm, in the proper sense of the term, would be at- tended with no great practical benefit to agriculturists, H 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and would, if conducted or superintended by the directors of this society, be attended wiib great dif- ficulties and ruinous expense. Much more advan- tage results from the examples which abound in all parts of the country of well conducted farms in the bands of intelligent individuals ; for the operations on such farms are far more likely to be the subject of imitation, than those of one farm situated in a fa- voured district, and conducted by a public body, who would he supposed to manage it without much economy of means. A model farm may perhaps be useful in such countries as Russia or Germany, large portions of which are still unreclaimed from a state of nature, and in no part of which agriculture h 0 Total expenses in marling one acre.... 5 9 3 In this way I marled 80 acres, but afterwards hit upon another plan in which I found a great saving to my horses, as in the wet season of the year it was heavy work for them to draw the carts out of the pits. I got a windlass made on the same prin- ciple as the one used for the draining-plough, which I fixed upon a platform 10 yards from the centre of the mouth of the pit ; the platform was formed of the sand taken from above the marl, and was elevated 2 feet above the surface of the ground. The expense per acre when the windlass was used was — £ s. d. Digging and spreading 150 yards, at4^d. per yard 2 16 3 *Three horses 4 days, at 2s. 6d. each, 7s. ()d. per day 1 10 0 Lad to drive horse in windlass, 4 days, at Is 0 4 0 Driver for carts, 4 days, at 2s. 6d 0 10 0 Wear and tear 0 2 0 Total expense per acre when windlass was used 5 2 3 Total expense per acre when common carts are used 5 9 3 Saving.... 0 7 0 The advantage is not pecuniary alone, but the heavy drag and difficulty in getting out of the pit is also avoided ; and one-third less land is taken up by the pit, as it can be dug much steeper, and to any depth, whilst no difficidty arises in getting out with the loads, even with an inferior horse. The same number of diggers are required- 5thly. The result. — I have already described the land as being light, and of a very inferior kind; this the crops wont to prove, which were generally overgrown with the greatest variety of annual weeds, the growth of which apparently no culture could prevent; but in no instance have they ever made their appearance after the land was * One horse was used fur the windlasf, and thu otlier two for taking away the loaded carls. clayed over. I cannot give an account of the rotation of crops ; ])rcvinus to marling no regular system coidd be adopted. It Was usual to allow the seeds to rctnain four or five years unploughed, for the sake of ridding the land of the weeds, after which a crop of oats was taken, which would not average more than '.'>i quarters per aero. Then followed a fallow, which was sown with rye, and sometimes with turnips, but the land being generally undrained, the latter croj) often proved a failure. Barley was sown after the turnips, also grass or clover seeds. The produce in four years could not be stated at more per acre than — £ s. d. First year— turnip fallow 4 0 0 Second year — barley or rye.... 4 0 0 Third year— seeds depastm-ed. . 2 12 0 Fourth year — oats, barley, or rye. 3 15 0 14 7 0 The same land is now cultivated to the best advantage under the four-course system or rotation of crops. All the fallows are sown with turnips, after which follow barley, seeds which are de- pastured, and then wheat, which finishes the course of crops. I will here give the produce of four years, after marling upon fallow, and four years after marlihg upon seeds: — £ s. d. First year — fallow 0 0 0 Second year — wheat, 29 bush., at 7s. per bush -, .-....,.. 10 3 0 Third year — seeds depastured 4 4 0 Fourth year — wheat, 24 bush., at 7s. per bush 8 8 0 Produce in four years when marled upon fallow 22 15 0 First year — wheat, 24 bush., per acre, at 7s. per bush ,. 8 8 0 Second year — fallow, turnips 4 15 0 Third year— oats, 52 bush., at 23s. per qr 7 9 C Fourth year— seeds depastured 4 4 0 Produce when marled upon seeds 24 16 6 22 15 0 Balance in favour of marling upon seeds. 2 1 G The produce after marling in four years 24 IC C The produce before marling in four years 14 7 q 10 9 (.■ The balance of 21. Is. 6"d. in favour of marling upon seeds, does not show that there is any ad- vantage in it over that of making a naked fallow for that purpose, as more than that ought to be deducted for the cultivation of the turnip crop, which would not occur in a naked fallow. But when a naked fallow is made for the purpose of marling the land, then two wheat crops occur in four years, which, notwithstanding it here makes the produce run much higher in the four years than it otherwise would do, could not be long practised with any advantage whatever to the farmer. The balance of 10/. 9s. Cd. in favour of marling needs no comment. But in stating these results, I must refer to the 92 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. comparative merits of the two different kinds of clay used, not by any chemical definition, but from actual experience. The clay, whether laid upon seeds or fallow, was shot out in loads as already stated, then spread as equally as possible; but, on account of the large size of the pieces of clay, the land could neither be ploughed nor harrowed until it had been first dried, had then become wet, or frozen, and had afterwards thawed. After this it was harrowed. The best or dark-coloured clay will fall long before the top or yellow sort, which is not so easily pulverized. The first named is very productive of itself, but the other requires some stimulant to produce a crop. If laid upon seeds the land was only ploughed once in October, and drilled in the same month with wheat. When upon fallow it was ploughed two or three times, and well mixed up with tlie sand, and also sown with wheat. In this way a good crop was realized without any other manures, but wherever fold-yard manure was applied, the crop was very abundant. On parts of the farm turnips were frequently destroyed by grubs before the laad was clayed over, but in no instance have they since, neither have they been destroyed by any other insect, except in 183G, when a few black caterpillars were upon them. A moiety of the Swedes are drawn off", but the whole of the white turnips ai-e eaten upon the land with sheep. I find no manures to surpass that from the fold-yard. 1 tried, by way of experiment, rape-dust, bones, and fold- yard manure. The turnips sown with bones and fold-yard manure were equally good, but those with rape-dust were decidedly the worst. The land is never so productive the first two yeai's, or until the clay has got well pulverized and mixed with the sand, as it is afterwards, and will not grow a good crop or a fine sample of barley for five or six years after the clay is laid on ; I have therefore sown oats instead. It is thought by some people that the clay will •waste away, and require to be renewed in the course of fifty years, or peiTiaps sooner. On this head I have no apprehensions, but am confident that, if after the lapse of twenty or tjiirty years there were not a particle of clay remaining, the land will have acquired sufficient quality and strength in itself, to produce a crop of any kind of grain. I am led to this conclusion from my own observations, and think it one which may readily be come to by others on referring to the statement made of the produce, which is considerably within what I might have .stated, had I selected the leading or best crops. This increase in the pro- duce (which is double to what it was^ returns in part to the land under the four-course system. It may not be necessary for me to add more, as enough already has been adduced to increase exertion in making such improvements upon light sands. I have to regret that I did not commence the above improvements with greater determina- tion, and to a greater extent from the first; but being inexperienced in the business, and having but little information on the subject, I was desirous of finding out the best way of doing tlie work and of trying the result before 1 went to any extent. If people would improre the land they have, par- ticularly light land, by draining, marling, &c., they would realise a far greater return for the outlay than by purchasing more. It in a great national loss, and much to be regretted, that so much land, capable of being made really good, should lie waste, having a good drainage, and a plentiful supply of excellent clay underneath, which is generally the case when there is a white sandy surface. Having the sanction of my landlord, who is anxious to see this system spread, I may be excused for stating tliat the whole of the above improvements have been carried on at his expense, for which I pay a rent which yields Lim a clear 4 per cent, on liis puichasc and other monies ex- pended on a farm, originally of the most barren quality. Inferior land, and especially light sands, ought not to remain untilled ; but for the common benefit of the owner, the occupier, and the con- sumer of the produce, they should he brought into cultivation. Sheriff Hntton, near York. THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. BY MR. W. C. KAHKEEK, V.S., TRURO. (From tlie Velevinarian.) To trace the history of remote events, and to in- vestigate the origin of our doraesticatetl animals, has given oocupatiou to the highest falenUj and in this interesting incjuirv, mouldering records, decaying monuments, fabulous legends, and the sibylline leaves of tradition, have yielded tlieir respective tri- butes. But still the details, even of probable his- tory, carry us back but a little way into tlie dark re. cesses of antiquity, and we soon reach the c-iioch when truth and fable are inseparablv blended. The natural historian and natural theologian have hitlierto exclusively confined their attention to one volume of Nature's history — that which relates to the present order of things ; and man is regarded by them as the undisputed sovereign of tlie world around him — the cattle on a thousand hills are supposed to be at his disposal — the might}' deep yields iis trea- sures to his skill — the savage denizens of the moun- tain and the forest are tributary to his power, and the viaffiia cliarta for these vested rights they find in the inspired page. From the command to subdue the earth, and to exercise dominion over its tenants, they draw the inference, that their onlv jiurjiose was to increase his luxuries, and that they were created for no other use than that thev might be subservient to his destructive propensities. These views of thp uses of the animal world, so long universall)' received, havs been of late singu- larly modified by the light of modern science; for within the bowels of the earth the geologist lias dis- covered a series of engravings, more or less injured and imperfect, yet all executed by the same hand, and bearing the manifest impress of the same mighty mind, which distinctly inform us of the cha- lacters and habits of races, someof thein extinct and some still existing, which occupied its stnface for many thousands of years ere man ever placed his foft on this wondrous soil, or contended with them for dominion. To trace, then, the ancient history of the horse and his contemporarv congeners, we must first take a slight glance at those engravings which have been discovered in the different strata of the earth, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 wliicb, like the brain of Touchstone, " is crammed with observation, the which it vents in mangled forms." Without enibarrnssing- ourselres with ibe bistor)' of tlie geological epochs, we will briefly advert to a lew facts, — that certain families of organic remains are found pervading strala of everv age, under nearly tii(« same geneiic form which they (jresent amongst existing organizations. Again, that oilier families, both of animals and vegetables, are limited to parti- cular formations, there being certain points where entire grou])s ceased to exist, and were replaced bv others of a different character. It is also u fact well to be acquainted with, that animals and vegetables of the lower classes prevailed chiefly at the com- mencement of organic life, and that tlie more perfect animals became more gradually abundant as the world grew older. If we pass in succession from the ancient to the modern epoch — from the regions of sterility and de- solation to that in which animal and vegetable life were profusely developed, we find that the first evi- dence of organic existence was, setting aside the in- fusoria, a few fuci, uiollusca, and pnliiparia : these were followed bv a large development of the sane order. In the succeeding period, reptiles and insects appear, with sauroid fishes, and an immense develop- ment of vegetable life, particularly the cryptogamia class, such as mosses, ferns, &c. Large reptiles did not then prevail to an extraordinary degree at this epoch, in what are now the temperate regions of southern England — the weald of Sussex and Dorset- shire for example ; but a very long time afterwards these spots were peopled by monsters of an extra- ordinary character, which stalked amid marshy forests of a luxuriant tropical vegetation, or floated on the genial waters. This state continued for a long- period of time, when another change took place, and the country and its inhabitants were swept away. An ocean bad usurped its place ; and then, after ano- ther long petiod of time, and the dry land had again appeared, it became covered with groves of foiests, and herds of deer, and of oxen of enormous size, (jraups of elephants, m-istodons, horses, and other herbivorous animals, occupied its plains ; its rivers and marshes were crowded with the hippopotamus, the tapir, and rhinoceros ; and its forests afforded shelier to the bytena, the bear, and the tiger. This is the period when the horse first appeared on the stage of life, being the one subsequent to the last grand catastrophe, as it is frequently but incor- rectly called, by which the earth was said to be over- whelmed, " Ere Adam was, or }i.Vii the apple ate." We must now confine ourselves more closely to this particular period, being the one immediately an- tecedent to the present order of things. In almost every part of the globe, beneath the present or modern alluvial soil (which is a loose strata constantly deposited by streams and rivers), extensive beds of gravel, clay, and loam, are found spread over the plains, or in the flanks of the moun- tain chain, or in the crest of ranges of low elevation : and in these accumulations of water-worn materials — termed by Dr. Buckland, diluvium, and by Cuvier, alluriuvi — are immense (juantities of the bonts of large mamm;ilia. These remains belong prii)ci])ally to the mastodon and the elephant, to various species of hippopotamus and rhinoceros, to the horse, ox, deer, and many extinct genera ; while in caverns and fissures of rocks, filled vvitii calcareous breccia, the skeletons of tigers, boars, gigantic hvienas, and other carnivorous animals are imbedded. They have been found alike in the tropical plains of India, and in the frozen regions of Siberia, while there is no considerable district of Great Britain in which some traces of them do not occur. These remains are not always found together. Cuvier, whose authority I i|Uote, says, that tlie remains of the home have been found with the mastodon (an extinct animal allied to the elephant^ in America ; with the mastodon in Little Tartary, Sibeiia, Italy, and France; with the rhinoceros in France, Italy, and Germany ; and with the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hyajua, tiger, ele- phant, and a gigantic specie's of cervus, in Cireat llritain. Capt. W. S. Webb discovered the remains of the horse in a fossil state, together with those of the deer and bear, in Diluvium, and on the Hima- layan mountains, at an elevation of 16,000 feet. In South America the bones of horses of a large size have been discovered by J\Ir. Charles Darwin, naturalist to tlie Beagle, in company with the remains of the raeg;atherium, of immense bulk, a huge mas- todon, parts of rodents, and a llama fully as large as the camel. " With regard to North America," Cuvier says, " the elephas primogenus has left thousands of its carcasses from Spain to the shores of Siberia." 'i"he fossil ox, in a like manner, he writes, is buried " dans toute la partie boreale des deux continens, puisque on en a d'AUemagne, d'ltalie, de Prussie, de la Siberia occidentale et orientale.etde I' \merique." "I may here add," says Darwin, '"that horses' bones, mingled with those of the mastodon, have se- veral times been transmitted for sale from North America to England ; but it has always been ima- gined, from the simple fact of their being horses' bones, that they had been accidentally mingled with the fossils. Among the remains brought home by Cajitain Beechev from the west coast of the same continent, in the frozen region of GG"-^ north, Dr. Buckland has described the astragalus, metacarpus, and metatarsus of the horse, which were associated with the remains of the elephas primogenus, and of the I'ossil ox.- In Mr. SauU's geological museum, Aldersgate Street, London, there are three coffin bones, one os sacrum, and one cannon bone, from Big Bone Lock, Kentucky. In the same collection are one cervical vertebra, Heme Bay, Kent ; several metatarsal, ditto, one dentata, ditto, and portions of two ribs, from Plurastead, Kent; several teeth from Banwell Cave, Somersetshire ; and two teeth, and several astragalus, from Swansea, South Wales — all of the horse. With respect to Great Britain, as I before stated, there is no considerable district in which some traces of the fossil horse do not occur, in company with either those of the elephant, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tiger, ox, deer, or hyajna. At Oreston, near Plymouth, an immense number of bones of the rhinoceros and horse were found ; and in a cave at Paveland, in Glamorganshire, those of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hog, bear, and hy.ena, were found embedded together. In the celebrated Kirkdale Cave, Yorkshire, the contents of which have been so graphically described by Dr. Buckland, were discovered fossil bones of the tiger, bear, wolf, fox, weasel, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, and deer, and an immense number of the bones of the hyasna. In the earlier ages, some of those colossal bones were supposed to belong to gigantic races of man- kind, and hence the traditions of giants, possessed by every country in Europe ; but it is an authenti- cated fact, acknowledged by all geologists, that no traces of man or his works have ever been discovered in any of the diluvium strata. Leibnitz, in his "Protogea," mentions the fossil bones of a unicorn, 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. discovered at Quedlimbourg, in 1663. They were found in a calcareous and gypseous bill, and after being collected, a sketch was made of the animal, such as it was pretended to be : but a single glance at the slcetch is sufficient to shew that it was done by very ignorant hands, and taken after parts most in- congruously joined. The bones ot the liorse seemed to have formed tlie principal part of the conformation, with a considerable portion of the muzzle, a piece of the humerus, a lower tooth, and an unguinal phalanx of the rhinoceros. It was supposed by Cuvier, but now denied by most of our eminent geologists, that the diluvium strata on which the animals we have described have been found embedded, was the con- sequence of a sudden inundation of water. It will be necessary briefly to allude to a few important facts connected with this subject, that are acknow- ledged by all parties: — First, that after all the strata which compose the crust of our globe had been formed, a great portion of the earth has been covered with water. Secondly, that the period or epoch which relates to this history was one of immense time, and that the whole surface was denselypeopled l)y various orders of living creatures, some of them, as we have seen, not distinguishable from existing species. Thirdly, that great and considerable changes must have taken place since that epoch in the climate of different parts of the world ; and confining our at- tention to our own island for an example of this, we find that there then flourished on its surface the luxurious vegetation of a tropical clime. In the courseof time, however, the whole scene vanished, with various orders of living creatures then tanging the plain or swimming the lake, such as the tiger, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus ; while their contemporary congeners, as the horse, deer, ox, Sec. were left behind. Shortly after this man appears on its surface. When we carry our minds back to this subtertiary period — which, geologically speaking, is so recent that it may be considered as only just gone by — we receive the accounts with surprise and almost incre- dulity. It must be admitted, that they at first seem much more like the dreams of fiction and romance than the sober results of calm and deliberate investi- gation ; but to those who will examine the evidence of facts, upon which the conclusions rest, there can remain no more reasonable doubt of the truth of what I have been relating than is felt by the antiquary who, finding the catacombs of Egypt stored with the mummies of men, apes, and crocodiles, concludes thein to be the remains of mammalia and reptiles that have formed part of an ancient population on the banks of the Nile. Now, if it was a sudden catastrophe or deluge which destroyed the hippopotamus, the tiger, and the elephant, how did the ox, deer, and horse continue to escape the flood of waters'? Why this partial se- lection of its victims among the ancient inhabitants of our country ? But these changes on our island are not more wonderful than the mutations that have occurred in other parts of the world. It is almost impossible to reflect, without the deepest astonish- ment, on the changes that have taken place on the continent of South America. Formerly it must have swarmed with great monsters, like the southern parts of Africa; but we now find only the tapir, guanaco, armadillo, and capybara — mere pigmies compared to the antecedent races. The greatest number, if not all, lived at the epoch we have been describing, and many of them were contemporaries of the existing raoUusca. " In the Pampas," says Darwin, " the great se- pulchre of such remains, there are no signs of vio- lence, but, on the contrary, of the moSt quiet and scarcely-sensible changes." " What shall we say,"' he continues, '' of the death of the now fossil horse? Did those ])lains fail in pasture, which afterwards were overrun by thousands and tens of thousands of tiie successors of the fresh stock introduced with the Spanish colonist'?" " One is tempted," he continues, " to believe in such simple relations as variations of climate and food, or introduction of enemies, or the increased number of other species, as thecauseofthe succession of races. But it may be asked, whether it is probable that any such cause could have been in action during the same epoch over the whole northern hemisphere, so as to destroy the elephas primogemis on the shores of Spain, on the plains of Siberia, and in Northern America ; and in like manner, the hos 7irus, over a range of scarcely less extent"? Did such cijanges put a period to the life of the mastodon an- gustidens and of the horse, both in Europe and on the eastern slope of the Cordillera in southern Ame- rica"? If they did, they must have been changes common to the whole world ; such as a gradual re- frigeration, whether from modification of physical geography, or from central cooling. But in this as- sumption, we have to struggle with the difficulty that these supposed changes, although scarcely sufficient to aflfect molluscous animals either in Europe or South America, yet destroyed many quadrupeds in regions now characterised by frigid, temperate, and warm climates." The eleplias primogenus is thus cir- cumstanced, having been found in Yorkshire; and now associated (says Lyell) with recent shells in Siberia and in the warm regions of lat. 31^, in North America. The law of the succession of types, although sub- ject to some remarkable exceptions, must possess the highest interest to every philosophical naturalist. Some of the animals we have been describing appear to have been created with peculiar kinds of organiza- tion, suited to particular eras ; and it does not seem extraordinary that their extinction, more than their creation, should exclusively depend on the nature (altered by physical changes) of their country. But as to the horse, for instance, his constitution appears suited to every climate ; and we cannot account for their species being destroyed throughout the whole of the two continents of America, unless the change was much more considerable than we imagine it to have been. It would seem from what has been stated, that cer- tain races of living beings and plants, suitable to peculiar conditions of the earth, were created, and when those states became no longer favourable for the continuance of such types or organization, ac- cording to the natural laws by which the conditions of their races were determined, they disappeared, and were succeeded by new forms. "J'he reader will observe in the geological mutations v^-e have briefly alluded to, that one simple inunda- tion, one general catastrophe, is not sufficient to ac- count for the phenomena we have described, since many alternate changes of heat and cold must have taken place to have produced these alterations on the earth's surface. Mr. W. D. Saull, F.GS.., is the only writer who has accounted for those changes in a satislnctory manner. This gentleman confines himself principally to the strata of England, in his illustrations ; but it will be seen, that they easily solve all the difficulties that Darwin alludes to respecting these changes in the American continents. {To be continited.) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 95 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SO- CIETY OF ENGLAND. At a Monthly Council, held on Wednesrlay, Jan. 6, present— Thos. Eaymond Barker, Esq. (in the chair), Col. Challooer, James Dean, Esq., William .Shaw, Esq., and William Youatt, Esq., the following; new Meitibers were elected .- — Bates, Rev. William, Willey, near Brosely, Shropshire. Baycott, Thomas, Rudge, near Wolverhampton, Staf- fordshire. Brewster, Joseph, Brewood, Staffordshire Bate, L., Badger, near Shiffnall, Shropshire Smith, John, Roiighton, near Wolverhampton Williams, J. Buckley, Glan Hafrew, Montgomeryshire Poundley, J, W., Brook Cottage, Newtown, Mont- gomeryshire Lloyd, Charles, Court Calmon, Newtown, Montgome- ryshire Nicholls, L., Bryncamisha, Newtown, Montgomery- shire Drew, Rev. John, Tregunnon. Newtown, Montgorae- ryshire Pinkey, Joseph Rowley, Much Wealock, Salop Hersee, Dennett, Barpham, near Arundel Field, William, Rumboldswhyte, near Chichester Folke-;tone, Viscount, Long-ford Castle, Salisbury Knighton, Sir Hill, Bavt., Blendworth House, Ilorn- dean, Sussex Grundy, James, Heaves Lodge, near Kendal Pattison, F. A.,'Coggeshall, Essex Cattle, W., Burleigh, Stamford Mussen, James, Colsterworth, Lincolnshire Bullimore, W., Witham, near Colsterworth, Lincoln- shire Salisbury, W^illiam, Dordon, near Atherstone Farmer, Thomas, Stonidelph, Fazeley, Staffordshire Gibson, Thomas, Middleton, Fazeley, Staffordshire Farmer, Richard, Sheldan, Birmingham Wedge, Charles, Bickenhill,Coleshill, Warwickshire Andrews, Onslow, Braborne, Ashford, Kent Hildred, William, March, Cambridgeshire Langton, Robert Martin , Thorney Abbey, Peterborough Price, Charles, 2, Great Queen-street, St. James's Park Trustram, John, Higham Gobrean, Silsoe, Bedford- shire Pain, Joseph, Felmersham, Bedford Neale, Charles, Mansfield, Woodhouse, Nottingham- shire Seedham, William, Brixton Villa, Surrey Minnett, Joshua Robert, Annabeg, Nenagh, Ireland Parkinson, John Law, 26, Cloudesley terrace, Islington Bethell, Richard, Guildford, Surrey Bullen, John, Bi^rgiu Graiig-e, Oundle HarJy, Thomas, near Crowland, Lincolnsliire Cambridge, William, sen., South Runctoti, Norfolk Munn, V/illiara Augustus, Gore Hill, Sitlingbourne, Kent Tombs, John, Great Barrington, Burford, Oxon. Lisburne,the Earl of, Cross Wood, Aberystvvith Tempest, Charles, Brougliton Hall, Skipton,Yorkiiiire Barnard, John, Caufield Hall, Dunmovv, Essex Holland, William, llodbaston Hall, Penkridge, Staf- fordshire Keeling, Charles, Con;?reve, Penkridge, Staflordsliire Harding, William, Acton, near Stafford Wyley, James, Longdon, near Lichfield Stubbs, James, Broclon, near Staftord Smart, Charles John, Rainham, Sittingbourne, Kent Cull, Thomas, Earleigh, Maidstone, Kent Newstead, Thomas, jun., Dunham, Newton, Notting- hamshire Leete, Henry, Tlirapstone, Northamptonshire - Burnhara, George, Wcllinfj borough, Northamptonshire Wright, J. M., Grendon, Northamptonshire Perkins, Abraham, Arniby, Leicestershire Swintord, Stephen, Sarr, Margate, Kent Powlett, William, Barnack, Stamtord, Lincolnshire Cartvvright, Moses, Stanton, Burton-on-Trcnt Lock, Samuel, Barton, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk Salter, W. P., Whinbergh, East Dereham, Norfolk Cheethani, Samuel, Hambleton, near Oakham, Rut- land Skellon, William, Long Sutten, Wisbecli, Cambridge- shire Gardener, William, Ewell Court, Epsom, Surrey (iobbitt, John, Iken Hflll, Saxmundham Simons, (Jharles, [Mshtclt, Lincolnshire Nodder, Rev. Joseph, Ashover Rectory, Chesterfield, Derbyshire Chew, L., Clipston, INIarket Harborougli Crouch, James. Cainhoe, Silsoe, Bedfordshire Bootli, John, Kelston Grange, Louth, Lincolnshire Lveriit, Isaac, Capel, Suffolk Church, Rev. Wm., Woolsthorpe, Grantham Gilbert, Mrs. Davies, East Bourne, Sussex Diclnnson, John, 22. Bedford-row, and Abbot's-iiill, Watford, Hertford ' Mahir, J, H., Lynn, Norfolk Day, John, Burghill, Chiddingley, Sussex. Colonel Challoner, chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, presented the reoort of the meeting held that day, announcing to the council the final settlement of the Cambridge accounts, aud recommending a renewed ^ e.vpression of the thanks of the society to be presented to Messrs. Mortlock, bankers, of Cambridge, for their kind services ; and a resolution to be transmitted to Mr, Henry Manning, tiie contractor for the Great Dming Hall and Cattle Yard, Cambridge, expressive of their entire satisfaction of the strict fidelity with which he appears in every respect to have fulfilled his engagements to the society. EPIDEMIC. Communications on the subject of the epidemic among cattle were received from his grace the Duke of Rutland, from Leicester ; Sir John Cgilby, from Scot- land (near Dundee) ; Mr. Purchas, from Monmouth- shire ; and Mr. Joseph Cooper, from Hampshire. The Duke of Rutland informed the society that in Leicestershire, in the neighbourhood of Belvoir, the disease still continued its ravages, and that the whole of his shearling sheep had, within the previous ten days, been strongly affected with it, and his Grace com- municated the striking fact, that the onlv animals on his farm which had escaped the infection were his dairy cows, and they were surrounded by the other stock al- though not in contact with them ; and the instance in the case of the stock of Mr. Sanders, of Thurmaston, in the same county, in the neighbourhood of Leicester, the whole of which had been s'lmilarly affected, except- ing the dairy cows. They were taken, morning and evening, to his house to be milked, aud, in f.o doing, had to pass a hundred yards along a turnpike road. They unfortunately parsed one day soon after a diseased drove had gone along the road, and the whole of them became at once subject to the disease. Sir John Ogilvy's communications stated that the disorder had broken out with some violence in the neighbourhood of Dundee ; but that the distribution of the society's cir- cular had been found most beneficial to the farmers of that part of Scotland. Mr. Purchas informed the council that the disease had leached IMonmouuthshire, and that a member of the society had, a few days pre- viously, lost four cart-horses, and six more were then ill ; adding that there \\as a great demand for copies of the society's circular. Mr. Cooper's letter was an endeavour to explain the cause of the malady, as ex- isting in the deleterious gases evolved by the food taken by the animals, as in the case of mildewed turnips, proposing that a rowel should be inserted nearest the chest to effect a discharge, and thus relieve the system of the diseased condition induced bv the noxious food. It was resolved that the queries on the subject of the epi- demic, to be transmitted to each member of the society, should be finally decided and ordered for press at the next meeting of the council. Mr. Dugdale, M.P., transmitted to the society the result of his trials on the application of saltpetre and nitrate of soda on two fields on his estate ia Warwickshire— one, a light, 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gravelly soil, and the other a stiflF clay— as well as oa some grass land. lu every case a decided superiority attended the use of nitrate of soda, in the increase of wheat aLd abundant crop of hay. Mr. John Parkin- son addressed to the society a detailed communication from Nottinghamshire, on the crop of Swede turnips grown on his farm, and for which he received the pie- inium and sweepstakes of the Ollerton Society. Mr. Newman, of Court Farm, Middlesex, presented for the society's masuem a model ef the plan pursued, and of the implements employed, in the system of sub- soil draining, iidopted extensively and with such entire success on his farm near Uxbridge, and invented by Mr. Lumbert, of Burleigh Hill, near Reading. Mr, Newman's communication stated that this mode of drainage was most efficient and economical for strong clay lauds, and had stood the test of forty 5 ears' expe- rience. Mr. Cuthbert Johnson and Mr. Alderman jomtly presentf d for the museum an original hoe of the cele- brated JethroTull, found in a well on Prosperous Farm, in Berkshire, on which he lived. Communications are also received from the Imperial Society of Agriculture of Moscow, and Sir Edward Stracey. The Ibllowing donations for the library were laid on the table:— Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland ; Report of the Proceedings of the Imperial Society of Mo^cow ; Improved System of Agriculture, and a Treatise on Practical and Chemical Agriculture, by the author, Mr. Joseph Russell, ot' Leamington ; an Account of the Derby Arboretum, by Mr. London ; the Farmers' Magazine, by Mr. Shaw ; ihe Veterinarian, by Mr. Youatt; the Telford Premiums, by the Institution of Civil Engineers ; the Mark-lane Express, Bell's Weekly Messenger, Farmers' Journal, Magnet, Hamp- shire Independent, Cambridge Advertiser, and Hart- ford American Daily Courant— from tlie respeciive editors and proprietors. At a council held ou Wednesday, Jan. 20, present, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in the chair, Earl of Euston, G. K. Barker, Esq., James Dean, Esq., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Protessor Sewell, and VVm. Yeuatt, Esq. Caledou George Du Pre, Esq.,M.P.,of Wilton-park, was elected a Governor, and the ioUowing gentlemen Members of the Society : — Charles Emerv, Esq., Burcot, Wellington, Shropshire Richard Earl, 'Knowsk-y, near Liverpool William Webster, Upton, Cheshire, near Liverpool Z. Sillar, Zainford, near Liverpool Thomas Slatter, Knowsley, near Liverpool 11. Ledger, Hale, near Liverpool Michael Ashcroft, Bank Hall, near Liverpool James Cannell, Castle-street, near Liverpool John Ronalds, Brentford, Middlesex Joseph Badcock, Pyrien, near Wiitlington William Badcock, VVatlington, Oxfordshire Matthew Sherborne, Heston, Hounslow John Whiting, Heston.Hounslow Joseph Foster, Newton Lodge, Wisbeach, Cambridge- shire Cheesman Williamson, Wi.sbeach St. Mary's, near Wisbeach R. W. Peel, Long Sutton, Lincolnshire William Pennington Gorringe, Shoreham, Sussex William Beard, Tormarton, Cross-hands, Glou- cestershire , „ „ Lieut.-Colnnel William-on, Commandant of the Koyal Military Asylum, Chelsea James Cole Thorpe, Thoresv^ay Vale, Caistor, Lin- colnshire Rev. Thomas Harman, Barden, nearTonbridge Joseph Fountain, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire Joseph Jessop, Grove Farm, Chiswick, Middlesex Charles Ely, Heathtield Farm, Hounslow R. M. Lavton, Tliornley Abbey, Peterborough Henry AU'ington Pye, Louth, Lincolnshire William Abraham, Barneby, Brigg, Lincolnshire L. Hobson, Kettleby Thorpe, Brigg Wm. Wiergins, Little Bridge-street, Blackfriara, and Heme Bay James Spain, Underdown Farm, Heme, Kent William Jacobs, Chale Abbey, Newport, Isle of Wight James Bertram, Gatcombe, Newport, Isle of Wight Wyrley Birch, Wretham-park, 'I'hetford, Norfolk William Glutton, Edwinstone, Ollerton, Nottingham- shire George Thomas Bateson, Sutton, St. Helen's, Lanca- shire. LIVERPOOL MliETING. A letter was read from the President of the Society, announcing to the Council the communication he had received from the corporation of Liverpool, on the sub- ject of the selection of suitable localities, for the ac- commodation of the meeting of the society, to be held in that town in July next, and notice was given that this communication would be taken into consideration at the next Council on the following Wednesday. EPIDEMIC QUERIES. The Council then proceeded to discuss and decide up- on the queries to be issued to the members for informa tion respecting tne epidemic, and having examined them in succession, directed their being put in type, and laid before the Veterinary Committee, for their re- port to the committee next week. Dr. Neill Malcolm, Esq., a governor of the society, residing in Argyleshire, applied for a supply of copies of the society's circular on the epidemic, stating that although the disease had not reached that county, it had proceeded within a few miles of its borders. Mr. George Kilby.of dueen- borough, in Leicestershire, addressed to the council a statement of a singular and sudden loss he had expe- rienced among some of his flock of sheep, which had been feeding on Swedish turnips. Professor Sewell undertook, at the request of the Council, to present a report to them on this communication. NEW CATTLE INFIRMARY. Professor Sewell attended the Council for the pur- pose of announcing to the members the final comple- tion of his arrangements for a Cattle Infirmary at Islington, to be established at Professor Sewell's own risk and expense, in premises adjoining the large weU- known dairy of Mr. Flight (late Mr. Laycock), at that northern entrance to the metropolis ; Mr. Flight ftlso handsomely throwing open his owu establishment for the practice and experience of the pupils attending the infirmary ; Mr. Stavely, an experienced veterinary surgeon, who had for four years been devoting his at- tention to the diseases of eattle, having been appointed the resident superintendent of the establishment ; no charges being made for medicines or operations, and a scale of prices adopted for the keep of the animals, so moderate as not to exceed their expenses at home ; the institution not being limited to any individual, but open to the public at large, and especially to the members of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The Council returned their thanks to Professor Sewell for this information, and referred to the Veteri- nary Committee, on Wednesday next, tlie document the Professor expressed his intention of transmitting to the Society, explanatory of the details and reofuiations of the infirmary, with a request tliat the ^'eterinary Committee would report upon tin: proposed plan to the Council to be iicld on liuit day. EXPERIMENTAL FAPMS. Sir Charles Gordon, Bart., Secretary of the Highland Society of Scotland presented .a copy of the report just made by that body 011 llie subject of tlie proposal made to them of the establishment of ;in Experimental Farm in Scotland. The report was unfavourable to the society's embarking' in an undertaking of this nature, which re- quires, on tlie estimate of Sir John Sinclair, and Mr, Stephens dhe Editor of the " Quarterly Journal of Agriculture of Scotland)," no less a sum than 5,0CK)/. a year for the due carrying out sucli an establishment, would amount to a speculation too hazardous for the THE FARMFJl'S MAGAZINE. 97 fuiuls of any private society of sub'scrilieiv, even were the o))inioii unanimous lunong' its member-; tor llie uti- lity ol sucli pi'oceeding's, instead of beini? in fMvonr, as lliey lire coiiiideretl to be, oF nioie praciiciil and ex- tended operatiotis under the form ol Model Kxperi- ments carried out on tiiesame uniform plan, by various members, under varied localities, soils, and a*pccts. The report contains the following opinion on this point: — " 'J'lie committee cannot believe, for a moment, that this Society can so advantag-cously employ ihe funds ut its command , in endeavouring' to set an example of good farraing to others, or in making experiments with a view to discovery and improvement, as by encouraging the agriculturists of the country to afford these examples, and make these experiments. This has been the course which the society has pursued ever since its institution ; and no sufficient reason has yet been assigned, to show that it would be wise to abandoa a course thus sanc- tioned by experienoe." FOOD rOR LABOURERS. Communications on the subject of the itrize ofi'ered by thesociety, for preparing the most economical, and, at the same time, the most substantial and nutritious food for labourers, were received from Mr. Commis- sioner JMolt, (from Manchester), from ]\lr. John P. Smith, of Harbledown, nenr Canterbury, and from Mr. Jtenry Goodos, of Chandos-mews, London. Sir John Robinson, secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, communicated the thanks of that society, for the copy of the journal presented to them, with an offer of the set of the valuable transactions of that distinguished and learned body. Communications were also received from Mr. Chawuer, secretary of the Lichfield Society, find Mr. Green, of Court Henry, South Wales ; flJr. Ramsey, of Endsleigh-street,Tavistock-.«quare, presented to the library the two quarto volumes (bound) of " Dickson's Agriculture ;'' and ftlr. Lance anuounccfl hi'i intention of tiansmitting, for the museum, a collec- tion of aarricultural soils, yrran?ed geologically. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the '27th mstant. ON THE PREVAILING EPIDEMIC AMONGST CATTLE, SHEKP, &c. Sir, — At a time when the agricultural community are suffering so much from tbe ravages committed on their stock by this troublesome pest, I have con- sidered it a public duty to trouble you with a few observations relative to its history in this locality, its nature, and treatment ; as in too many districts throughout the kingdom the farmer has not the ser- vices of a veterinary surgeon at his command, and I am onlj' sorry my having professional engagements for tliis last three months have prevented me from doing it sooner. This disease is one sui fjeneris, and as far as my reading and observation goes, has never prevailed in this kingdom before ; therefore, to style it the mur- rain, or blain, is highly incorrect, and carries very erroneous ideas along with it, both as to its nature and treatment. It has been asserted that our conti- nental neighbours have long been conversant with the disease, and consequently that it must have been imported into this country through the medium of stock purchased abroad. I very much question the correctness of this view, for, was it the fact, it must have naturally found its may amongst us long ago. I have a vague idea that it was first perceived in the county of Norfolk ; and it would be conferring information of great value, if some of my professional brethren, or some of the eminent and talented agri- culturists which that county boasts of, would, through the medium of your valuable journal, afford us correct data relative to this point ; if would he conferring a great boon upon my friend Mr. Youatt, who has been very judiciously selected by the Eng- lisii Agricultural Society to concentriife and mould into a proper form, everything wortliv of the history, nature, and treatment of this epidemic ; in his able hands we tray rest assured full justice will be done the subject. , When we reflect upon the series of unpre- cedented wet seasons we have experienced up to the spring of 181(), the consequent badness of fodJer and grain, the saturated state of the earth with moisture, and the consequent de- composition of vegetable matter exhaling it poisonous minsma into the circumambient air — ■ when we also take into consideration the extreme fluctuations of barometrical i)ressure, as well as the sudden transition of heat to cold, and vice versa, through the same jieriod, all developing how very powerfully and extensively that mighty and irresisti- ble disintegreting agent, electricity, extends her sway over all the hidden and secret operations of nature ia the great laboratory of our wise and beneficent Crea- tor— we cannot feel surprised that disease and death, in every varied form, should be evolved in the poor fragile frames of the animal creation. It is of a liighly contagious nature, so much so, that it was no uncommon occurrence to witness a herd of from thirty to sixty head of cattle falling- prostrate before its baneful influence in the short space of a fortnight. Its infectious properties extend to all the cloven footed and ruminating tribe, but not to the human subject, nor the horse and do"-. Un one occasion a poor man s cow came to my estab- lishment labouring under the disease, and was very inadvertently put into my cowhouse to have its feet properly examined and pared out ; although my own cow was out in the field at the time, and only tied up at night, yet the disease developed itself in four or five days by tenderness in her feet, followed by the affection of the mouth, and accompanied by thegene- ral febrile symptoms. A very erroneous idea has gone abroad that the pigs have taken the disease from partaking of the milk of the infected cows, but they have simply he- come affected upon the same princifile as sheep, bv having been allowed to come in contact with theni, or to follow after them in the pastures or straw-yards where they have been turned out. Pigs and calves, as a matter of fxiieriinent, have been fed with the milk of infected animals, but kept out of the sphere of the contagion, and have not been the least affected. ]My own family, including a child twelve months old, partook of the milk and cream of my own in- fected animal (being old, milched, and near calvinf-, we gathered no butter) without experiencing any in- jurious effect. The loss, therefore, to the kingdom in butter and cheese by the milk having been unne- cessarily sacrificed, has been immense in amount ; it is only where particular cows' elders, are labour- ing under an attack of inflammation, orwhatis called gnrgeted, that the milk is required to be flung away. Wherever tliis disease has assumed its epidemic form (as in our district) like the cholera, it appears uninfluenced in its freaks by either weather, locality, soil, pasture, or previous feeding — affecting the poor as well as the well-conditioned animal, the old as well as the young, without distinction ; but I consi- der those cows which were the best milkers, and in full milking at the time of attack, as exjieriencing it more severely than others. It made its first ap- pearance in the northern parts of Staflbrdshire, near Uttoxeter, at a kw insolated farms during the spring of last year, in consequence of some dis- 98 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. eased cattle, purchased at Uttoxefer fair, and intro-^ duced into their respective herds, to which localities M it was confined ; nor was it till last autumn that it|\ assumed its epidemic form amongst us, when it in- ',)* Tolved ia its attacks both sbeep and pigs ; at the ? samo time an epidemic fever, of a virulent and hijrhly infectious nature, broke out amongst the horses of the district, seldom sparing a single horse in any establishment, however numerous, from its attack. The same epidemic amongst horses traversed the kingdom in 1825-'.'6, and tiien passed over into France, where it swept off some of the best horses iu the king- of France's stud, and in fact com- mitted sad ravages everywhere ; but at that time there was no particular epidemic amongst cattle. — It had no connection vs-ith other vliseascs, and where the animals passed through it moderately, and •were properly treated, their condition was not much affected, but they seemed to grow much faster and better afterwards from their course of medicine. In those instances where the feet suffered much, the condition was rapidly lost, and long in being re- covered again. In one instance which came under our eye, the animal had the disease twice over, but we considered it an exception to a general law in nature, that peculiar contagious fevers cannot affect the same system twice over ; however, it requires a more extended series of observations than I can fur- nish to set this point right. There are many strong facts which fully bear out the opinion, that healthy animals traversing the roads already tainted by infected animals having travelled along them, have taken the disease, on the same principle as a sheep-walk infected withthe foot- rot shall communicate the disease to an healthy flock turned out upon the same beat. This points out how cautions noblemen and gentlemen possessing deer in their parks should be in not allowing infected herds of cattle or flocks of sbeep to pass along them. I consider, too, that it is capable of being conveyed by parties in attendance on diseased stock to healtiiy herds, Symptoms. — The first symptoms which perceptibly show themselves, were generally lameness in one or more of the feet, accompanied with much heat around the hoof,;fetlock, and coronet, with a fulness and swelling often of one or more of the legs ; this was immediately followed by a flow of saliva from the mouth, accompanied with a champing motion of the jaw. On examination, the mouth and tongue were full of ulcers, particularly under the pad of the upper jaw, the ulcers extending over the top of the nose ; if on examining the mouth, you took hold of the tongue, it was no unusual occur- rence to find the cuticle covering it, raised up into a white blister, and the whole of it stripped off in your hands, leaving the tongue in appearance like one that has been boiled and the skin pealed off. In some instances the affection of the mouth, and consequent flow of saliva, would precede the affec- tion of the feet, but not as a general rule. The cow became dull and off its feed, looking anxious and sunk in tlie eye, the secretion of milk diminished, the ear and horns were sometimes hot, at others cold ; the bowels constipated, the foecal discbarge looking on its outer part dark and glistening, and as if half- baked, showing the hot and inflammatory state of the alimentary canal ; the pulse ranged from .iO to 70. In two or three days after the lameness occurred, an ichorous discharge took place betwixt the claws, at the back part of the heels, and in front of the hoofs, betwixt hair and hoof, the ulceration extend- ing often very far under the sole of the foot : those COWS did best where the discharge came on early but moderately. In some there was such great pain and ten- derness of the feet, that the beast could not stand up, accompanied with mucli sympathetic fever, but no discharge ; in these cases matter became formed under tha bottom or sole of the foot, requiring very free paring to set it at liberty ; in others the ulcera- tive process and discharge would occur extensively and deeply under the horny covering, so that the hoofs would come off, if the diseased action was not corrected by free ])aring and proper dressings ; here the fever also ran very high, accompanied with very rapid emaciation of the animal. In some im-tances the mammary glands were attacked with violent in- flammation, which terminated in mortification ; at others, the connecting cellular membrane of a limb would be the seat of inflammation, which would either end in mortification or extensive formations of matter or pus, amongst the inter- stices of the muscles ; fortunately these extreme cases were rare, and it was evident the disease, as it prevails amongst us, had assumed a much milder tyjie than during its early career. The disease consists in a highly contagious inflammatory fever, possessing an erysipelatous type, consequently bear- ing bleeding ill, affecting particularlythemucousand secreting tissues. In its regular form it runs its course in a fortnight, the animal becoming conva- lescent, and fit to turn out gradually in the day-time, if fine, at the end of three weeks. I generally found tiie pulse to gradually subside to its regular standard from the end of the fifth and seventh day. Treatment. — A more judicious general outline of Ireatrnent cannot be adopted, than the one recommen- ded by Professor Sewell to the notice of the English Agricultural Society ; equally so upon the same principle, is that of the Earl of Surrey, as pub- lished in }-our valuable Journal, for the benefit of his tenantry and the community at large. Looking at the disease as an inflammatory affection of the mu- cous membranes, particularly of the living membranes of the mouth, stomach, and intestines, the treatment cannot be too mild ; therefore drastic purgatives are inadmissible, and fatal in their consequences. I therefore simply ordered a quarter of a pound of Glauber's salts to be administered once or twice a day, dissolved in a pint of warm water, to which was added a quarter of a pint of cold drawn linseed oil, just to" keep the bowels soluble, but not to purge or irritate them. This was continued for a fortnight, during the third week it was only given every other day, and in the generality of cases was seldom re- quired beyond the latter period. Bleeding was not had recourse to, unless there wns much sympathetic feverevinced, by quickness of breathing, and an in- creased frequency of tlie pulse, often arising from great pain in one or more feet ; when the abstraction of four quarts of blood, repeating it if necessary the next day, generally took it oft', at the same time fo- menting the feet in tepid water twice a day, and im- mersing them in bran poultices ; but the poultices must not be had recourse to as a general rule, as being objectionable on account of the ligatures em- ployed to keep them on, and also from having a ten- dency to promote the ulcerative process. The ulcer- ated parts of the feet should have the detached horn moderately pared off, but where slightly affected they do best without paring at all ; on the other hand, where they are badly affected, and the ulcerative process has gone on deeply under the sole, free par- ing must then be resorted to; the parts affected must be washed daily with a strong solution of blue vitriol, and where free paring has been employed, they should be smeared over with warm tar, or else, if very bad, have pledgits of tow soaked ia the mel- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 99 ted tar and fastened easii oi' The moutbs sbould be dressed daily with a strong: solution ot common alum and water. Tbis plan of treatment will he suf- llcient to restore tbe greater bulk of tbe infected animals with little or no deterioration of condition, but in many instances ibey will come out of the course of medicine much improved in their general appearance. We had on one occasion S3 head of stock under our care, belonging to Mr. Lewis, tbe esteemed and respected steward of bis Grace the Duke of Sutherland, 27 of which he had just bought in for feeding; when they arrived home, four or five were found lame, and although they were turned by themselves into a straw yard, yet the whole were in- fected in a little more than a fortnight. In three weeks from each cow's attack, they were by the above treatment 2/. a head better in their appearance and condition. I have no doubt they would become ripe for the butcher earlier than if they had not been at- tacked by tbe disease, simply from the impetus given to their constitutional powers, arising out of the thorough course of medicine tbe system had under- gone. However, there are always more or less of complicated cases arising, which will require all the skill and tact of a regular veterinary surgeon to ma- nage succesfuUy, therefore the agriculturist will do well, where practicable, not to neglect availing him- self of the general surteiUance of such a man, when his cattle are attacked. The pigs were affected similarly to the cattle, but ran through tbe disease more mild, although inmanv instances their hooves came of ; but by dressing as directed for the cattle, the feet soon hardened and did well. The mouths were washed daily with the solution of alum, and internally ; from one to two ounces of glauber salts dissolved in water according to the size of the pig, was administered in their food, they were convalescent in a fortnight or three weeks. My observations relative to sheep I will give you in another jiaper ; I can only observe here, that Glauber's salts were found prejudicial to them, and that they required tbe treatment, to my surprise, to be modified accordingly. I remain, Sir, yours most respectfully, Tiios. Mayeu, Sen. V.S. Kewcastle-under'Li/ne, Stujforclshire, Jan. 2. EDUCATION OF YOUNG FARMERS. TO THE EDITOR OP THE FARMEll's MAGAZINE. Sir, — In the Dcccmbernumber of the Magazine, " A Juvenile Reader" wishes intormation as to the terms on which young men are put out ap- prentice to fanners, and the best part of the country to go to, and the length of time he should be bound. Not having observed any answer to his enquiries, I beg to offer a little information, some of which may be of service to him. So far as I know, the fee charged is from £70 to £100 per annum for bed and board, in the house of a respectable agriculturist, and £25 to £30 ad- ditional if a riding- horse is kept. The best part of the country will be that of somewhat similar soil and climate to that where the apprentice intends to farm, or where a good system of farming is practised elsewhere. Regarding the length of time he would require to be bound, that will de- pend very much upon himself. I should think the most attentive could not be very &t to manage a farm in a shorter time than three years, even although he had not been altogether a stranger to agricultural matters previously. I have had ap- prentices from different quarters, and can say, that those who took part in whatever work was going on, and who were desirous of learning all the ope- rative departments, had most value for their money, because they were every way the fittest (other things being equal) to manage for them- selves afterwards. Generally speaking, a farmer's apprentice should not have a riding horse ; his at- tention and helping hand should be devoted to the business of the farm at all times, except occasion- ally out at markets or other meetings where information can be obtained. Young men should never go to learn farming under a person not possessed of energy and skill in conducting his business ; but it does not matter much v»'here they are placed, unless they give at- tention to learn. I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, A Scotch Farmer. ON DRAINING. TO THE EDITOR Or THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Some considerable time since, there were in your,very useful publication, tbe Mark La7ie Express, directions for under-draining of land, tbe. principles of which, from long experience in its practice, I am confident are very erroneous. There canhe no doubt, hat when it is judiciously done, no outlay of capital on land can he more advantageously made. On the other hand, I have seen in various instances a large outlay made, with very little benefit resulting there- from. I am induced, solely on that account, to lay before your readers u few remarks of my own ex- perience and practice on the subject, in which I have never failed of perfect success for at least forty years past. The error of your correspondent above alluded to, is the direction he recommends his draining gutters to be cut ; viz., up anddown the declivity, instead of across it. I have seen many persons attempt to drairk their land in this manner; they have properly formed their drains, carefully filled them with small stones to a proper height, and aftar all their heavy expence it has been attended with very little benefit to tbe land, as the drains have not had any beneficial effect more than a few feet on each side of them. The reason why, must be obvious to every practi- cal man; viz., water, from the natural law of gravita- tion, has passed through the earth in veins or fissures, down the hill, for ages, and therefore a drain cut in that direction, would cut through only those immediately in its track, and consequently, as before observed, do very little good. 'J'he proper method is as follows ; viz., in surveying the field intended to be drained, observe where the highest part of the field or piece of land is situated, and cut your drain as nearly across that;part of it as will admit of a drop in every rod of about two inches, which will be quite sufficient, the cariage gutter into which all the drainers empty themsel ve should he made directly up and down the declivity, and about six feet from the hedge gutter, and emptied at the lowest corner of the field, in a safe situation free from obstruction of muck, or any other impediment to the water freely running away, 'i'he commencement of tbe work must be at tbe mouth of tbe carriage gutter, which should be about two inches deeper and wider than the drainers. The distance apart and depth of the drainers must depend on the depth of the vegetable earth and the declivity of the ground. Where the latter is rapid 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. they ought not to be excep.rling twenty feet apart ; when the vegetable earth is deep, the drain should be proportionablv deeper than in thinner soils. In general I have placed mv drains nliout twenty feet apart, and about from two and a half to three feet deep, and filled them with small stones to within eight inches of the top, and filled tlieiii to the top with good earth, void of clay, with straw spread on the stones, to prevent the earth running down among them. Should you find the above remarks worthy being in serted in your paper, they are at your ser- vice ; I am fully aware of their imperfect style, but at the same time am certain , if they are carefully car- ried into execution, a great benefit will be obtained by the proprietors and occupiers of wetlands. lam, Sir, most respectfully jour obedient servant, •ToiiN Wreford. Eroiighton House, near Riverhead, Kent. Januarif, 12lh, 1841. ON THE WHITE OR BELGIAN CARROT. By John C. Morton, Esq. Chester Hill, November 18, 1840. SiR) — I am desired by my father to send to you the particulars of tlic crop of white or Belgian carrots on Lord Diicie's farm at Whitfield. The extent of the piece is 1 acre 36 perches, from which 6i cart-loads of roots were taken. The average weight of a cart-load was found to be 10 cwt. This gives 32 tons as the total weight of the crop, which is at the rate of 2(i tons 3 cwt. per acre. The soil is a deep sandy loam, belonging to the new red sandstone formation. This is a heavier crop than any other on the farm. The seed was sown in the second week in April, on land which had been ploughed ten inches deep. It was sown on the flat, in rows eighteen inches apart, by the common Suffolk drill. The seed had been mingled with damp sand for several days jjrevious, as well to sprout it partially, as to render it capable of being drilled, as carrot seed clings so much together. They arc singled out when a fortnight old at intervals of si.x inches in the row, and two horse-hoeings with a hand-hoeing whenever the weeds made their appearance, was all the cultivation they received. The result is a crop not only much more valua- ble per ton than any other green crop we have, but also heavier per acre, and I'aised at an expense less by at least one- half than that attending the culti- vation of the turnip. The crop on the land the year before was Swedes, which were carried oft' the land and sold. No dung of any kind was put to the carrots. — I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, PA. Picsey, Esq., M. P. John C. Morton. NOTE BY MR. PUSEY. This carrot, though it has been long grown as a iield-root in Flanders, has been but very lately introduced into England : it is, however, much liked by those who have tried it in my own neigh- honrhood. A farmer, Mr. W. B. Harris, who has grown it for two years on a good free loam, gives me the following account of it: — " On taking uj) my carrots and weighing them, I find they fall short of the quantity I grew last year. Instead of the white carrots weighing nearly 32 tons peracrc, they will only weigh 20 tons this j^ear ; and instead of the red ones weighing about Ki touf, they only weigh 12 tons this year. 1 liave generally found the diiference between the red and white carrot to he as follows (in all cases where I have weighed them, and in all cases of inquiry) : — The white generally exceeds the red ones in weight from 8 to 9 tons per acre, when you take the average of the field as I have done now. I attribute the failure in my crop this year to two or three things. In the firstplace.the land was not subsoiled; in the second, they were ])lanted late, and the weather too dry ; and in the third place, they were hoed too thin — they were hoed the last time with a bean-hoe." Even the diminished crop of JMr. Harris, however, is very considerable, as it is equal in weight to an excellent crop of Swedes, and is twice as valuable. On some lighter lands, Ki tons of the white carrot were grown last year, where the red field carrot gave a very poor crop- I ought to add, that I have not succeeded in raising more than eight or nine tons myself ; but this new root has in its favour the high practical authority of the "i'oxford Farm- ing Club, who "recommend strongly the cultivation of the long white carrot, as it x)roduces a heavy ci'op of good quality, and adapted to strong as well as mixed-soil lands; will keep well; and is excellent food for cart-horses." It has been stated to me that there are two varieties, and that the best of the two is that which makes a large portion of its root above ground. Sir C. Burrell has grown it in Sussex, and has found it very productive. Colonel le Couteur informs me, " that in Jersey the prize- crop of parsnips this year aff'orded 318 lbs. to the perch, or 23 tons to the acre; while the white carrot, a i)rize-crop also, which he had cultivated experimentally, gave him 521 lbs. to the perch, or nearly 38 tons to the acre — an enormous crop," he adds, " which, if equally valuable for butter as the parsnip, will of course supersede it; as his ])ar£nip-crop in the same field, cultivated alike, only produced Ki^ tons, which, nevertheless, was a very fair crop." — Journal oj the Royal Agricultural Society. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Slit, — Allow me to enquire through the medium of your Magazine, whether any of your readers have fried the Prickly Cumfrey (symphitum aspeivmum) for soiling-, on such a scale as to be able to give any information as to how it will answer for that purpose? 1 have a few plants of it and find it exceed- ingly productive, having cut 14lbs.of greenfood at a time from one root; and I know of no plant that would answer so well, if cattle would like it, and thrive upon it. I have no doubt that on good land it would pro- duce 40 tons per acre per annum, with little or no expense in the culture ; but I should like to know how cattle would do upon it before giving up much ground to it. Theydo not appear to be fond of it, but that may beowingto not having enough to give itafair trial ; as many sortsof food are not eaten by cattle readily at first, which they are fond of when used to. There ap- pears (o be a large quantity of mucilage in the plant, from which I should suppose it would be nutritious. Any information from any one who grows enough to keep stock upon it for any length of time, will be thankfully received. Id. Tlir: I'AlllMKllS MAGAZINK. 101 ON EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE HIAUK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — We now again resume tlie subject of our former letters ; to tlie last of wliicli dated 20tli April we would refer. We tlicrein alluded to several experiments which had been instituted by J\Ir. Black- wood, in this neip;hbourhood, for the purj)ose of as- certainincT the relative merits of salt as a manure in raising potatoes, turnips, &c. ; and we are now en- abled to say that the result of this j'ear's crop of turnips, goes fiir to establish the fact that salt pre- pared in a compound, and applied in the way wliich we formerly described, will bear a comparison with the best description of farm-yard manure in this par- ticular. For not only has Mr. Blackwood again succeeded in obtaininj;- a very large crop, but we can also bear testimony to the fertilizing properties of the compound from our own experience, having this seison, from its application, produced fifteen acres of very fine turnips. In the compost which we ap- plied there was mixed seventy-five busliels of salt, or at the rate of five bushels an acre, and we re- marked after the fermentation had proceeded for some time, that the texture and nature of the compost changed as it were, and the whole mass assumed a moist and rich appearance, wliich we ascribed to the operation of the salt in the mixture. It cannot how- ever bo expected that we are prepared to enter into a chemical analysis of this substance, or scientifically explain the manner and way in which it operates in the compound so as to produce these results. Our present object is rather to direct attention to the sub- ject, for should this composition prove of general applicability, and we have no reason to appreliend the contrary from tlie success which has attended Mr. Blackwood's practice for the last six years, it will then be of the utmost importance to the agricultural community, that a knowledge of its beneficial influ- ence as a manure or stimulant should be widely disseminated amongst them. It will be observed, that a general want of success has hitherto attended the numerous experiments instituted upon salt for agricultural purposes ; but then these were never performed i;i such a manner as to prove satisfactory, for the great Sbcret appears to be in submitting the compost to that degree of heat which is necessar}' to produce (ermentatton, and the process should be continued for some weeks previous to the mixture being ajjplied to tlie land, so that the salt may either be decomposed or undergo some change from the fermentation which seems necessary for developing its fertilizing properties. Now the majority of tliose. who have been in the practice of testing the proper- ties of salt have either applied it to the soil in its mineral state, or have simply diluted it with some liquid ; and even when a compound was formed of earthy matters and other substances, the salt was simply mixed with these injrredients before being applied to the land, or at all events without any attempt being made to produce that fermentation which appears to be essentially necessary to the suc- cess of the whole operation ; hence the reason why reports of experiments on the use of salt as a manure Lave hitherto been as diflerent as the soils on which they were made. We are aware that it has fre- quently been asserted by learned and scientific men, that salt is only a stimulant, and possesses no Bourishment, but may excite the vegetable absorbent vessels into greater action than us lal. We are not prepared to controvert this assertion, but the result of several experiments would go far to establish a different view of the matter. In proof of this we may be allowed to refer to an experiment which is related by Dr. Holland, well known hy his agricul- tural survey of Chesliire. " After draining a piece of sour rushy ground about the middle of October, he ordcied seme refuse salt to be spread upon a part of tile land at the rate of eight bushels to the acre, and in another sixteen bushels. In a short time the vegetation disa])peared totally, and during tiio month of April following not a bhide of grass was to be seen. In the latter end of the month of May a most flourishing crop of rich grass made its ajipearance on that part where the eight bushels had been laid. In the month of July liie other jiortion ])roduced a still strongc'r crop. Tlie cattle were remarkably fond of it ; and during the whole of the ensuing winter (which is ten or twelve years since) and to this day, the land retained, and yet exhibits a superior veiduie to the neighbouring closes." As further coniirma- mntory of the above experiment, we may mention a circumstance that was related to us by Mr, M' Nab, the distinguished manager of the Botanical Garden near l^dinburgh. For the purpose of exterminating the weeds with which the walks of the garden were infested, and if possible prevent their growth, Mr. M' Nab applied a pretty large quantity of salt to their surface, which had the desired effect during the first season, as not a single weed could be seen ; so powerful indeed had been its operation, that part of the box-wood edging with which the salt had come in contact gave way. But afterwards, instead of having any effect in check- ing the weeds, it tended rather topromote their growth, as tliey appe.ired during the second and third seasons in greater abundance and luxuriance than tliey had ever done before. It would thus appear that suit is susceptible of undergoing certain changes, both be- fore and after being applied to the soil; but before we can arrive at a just conclusion with respect to the mode in vrliich it operates so as to become a fer- tilizer, science must lend her aid to practice, and both must be combined to attain this end. One thing however, appears to be beyond the reach of dispute, that salt, on certain soils, and applied in the manner we have alluded to, and in certain quantities, has a fertilizing tendency. In alluding, however, to the probability of salt becoming a useful auxiliary to the farnier in the cultivation of his crops, we must not overlook the advantages that would result from its more extended aiiplication as a condiment and ingre- dient in the food of animals — qualities we apprehend, which as yet are very little understood ; but that it might be so f^niployed with great advantage, the following extracts go far to prove. It is stated in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, "That salt given with the food of cattle augments its nourishment. That in proportion to the quantity of salt eaten by cattle, the effects of the augmentation are perceived. That no ill consequences follow its use even when given without stint. Tliese propositions are supported by unquestionable evidence, and the trials of very many persons. Cran, in tliejurisdiction of Aries, in the county of Provence, France, has an extent of six leagues by three, the whole surface of which is covered with small rough stones, and not a tree or bush is to be seen upon the whole district, except a very few scattered on the border; yet on this nj)- jiarently barren spot, by the free use of salt, more numerous flocks of sheep are bred and reared than upon any other common of equ-il extent in the king, dom ; and what is not less remarkable, the sheep are healthier, hardier, and endure the severity of winter with less loss than those fed and bred on more lux- uriant pastures, and that have the advantage of greater shelter. Add to this, that the wool of the flocks bred and brought up in the Cran is not only the finest, but I 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZIIME. ])ear3 the higliest price of any in France. It is con- cluded that these surprising eliects are consequent upon the unlimited use of salt, for allowing every ex- cellence that can possibly be supposed inherent in tiie herbage, yet the quantity is so small, that with- out the abundant use of salt, a fourth part of the sheep kept ia the Cran could not subsist on it," In Spain, where the finest wool in the world is pro- duced, large quantities of salt are given to the sheep, to whichthevattribute, in a great measure, the fineness of the wool.' Lord Somerville, who was among the iirst to introduce the practice of giving salt to sheep in Euo-land, states,ia a communication with theBoard of Aoriculture, that" he purchased 200 merino sheep in Spain at about 22/. 10s. each, which ho brought to England, and as they had been accustomed to receive salt in Spain, he continued the practice when he brought them to this country, and he also extended the prac- tice to his other sheep. His lordship some years afterwards removed from the rich vale of Taunton, in Somersetshire, to an estate which he had pup-> chased in Surrey ; and this being a light dry sandy soil, he did not think it necessar)- to go on at such a large expense, as salt then was so heavily taxed ; but for some years afterwards he lost miniy of his young sheep, which he was aiccrwards inclined to think might have been saved, had he continued as before, to give them salt, and he subsequ&ully re- verted to his former mode of giving his sheep their regular supply of this useful ingredient. He says, that sheep require more salt in the autumn and spring months, when the dews are heavier, than in summer or winter, and that they consumed at the rate of one ton for every thousand sheep annually." Lord Somerville, together with Mr. (Jurweo, Sir John Sinclair, and others, all unite in recommending the use of salt as a preventative against the diseases incident to wet situations, and their experience almost proves the necessity of it. Sir John Sinclair in his agricultural state of the A^etberlands, says, "that at Mr. Mosselman's farm at Chenoi, beyond Wavre, he found that salt was used for slieep, and that by allowing them to lick it, the rot was effectually cured." Mr. Bracebridge, of Walton-on-Thames, also was induced to drench some sheep, which was aflected with the rot, night and morning with strong brine, after which he did not lose one ; they became fat, and the meat was as fine and good as if the ani- mals had never been affected. " In strong pastures," observes Lord Somerville, " when seasons are wet, the rot often spreads destruction over whole tracts of country ; here salt must be beneficial. It is sup- posed, and with great truth, to correct acidity in the stomach, a disorder common to sheep even in Spain, but of a much more serious nature in the damp cli- mate of Great Britain, more particularly when stocked on moist green food, such as turnips, vetches, and young clover." In Sweden, in Saxony, in Si- lesia, and in France, salt is given to sheep without stint, and with the best results. Now, when we consider these unequivocal testimonies in favour of the free use of salt, we cannot but express our sur- prise with Mr. Arthur Young, that " this practice should be common management in almost every country in the world, England excepted." Lime. — Were we called upon to state any one branch of rural economy wherein the greatest errors have been committed, and the greatest amount of capital to the least purjjose expended ; it would be in the preparation and application of lime, for inde- ])endent of the actual cost in the lirst instance, there are practical proofs innumerable, where the productive powers of the soil have been most mate- rially deteriorated by its application 3 and had it not been from the circumstance that the caustic state of lime is easily and rapidly clianged, or modified by the beneficial influence of the atmosphere, &c., the injury, whicli in many instances the land would have sustained, would have been so apparent as to have deterred man)'' farmers from applying it as a fertilizer ; for, were it not for the correcting cause referred to, many of those fields which had been excessively dressed with hot lime, would in a great m,easure have been rendered sterile and unproductive until the soU had again been replenished with a Sresh supply of organic matter. But whatever dif- ference of opinion may exist amongst agriculturists with respect to the economy of applying lime, there can he none in regard to its prejiaration. The faci- lity witlt which lime rock is pulverized, when freed by heat from carbonic acid gas, is caused from the powerful attraction which this substance has for moisture ; now it is just this very circumstance which render? its proper management a matter of so much nicety, for experience has shewn that lime, when it is exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, and in contact with the earth's surface, has such a natural attraction for moisture that no mechanical power can arrest its progress, and prevent that na- tural tendency which exposure subjects it to — of becoming saturated with moisture, and then, as a consequence, of running together in a body. It is therefore of the utmost imjjortance to the successful application of lime, that the particles be previously completely separated from each other, as the more minute it is in all its parts, the more eflicacious will it prove. For every one wlio is in the least ac- ([uainted with lime, must be awni-e that it differs ii-om every other substance wliich is applied to the soil, in so far that it is not susceptible of decompo- sition from the influence of the atmosphere, &c.; but on the contrary, the longer it is exposed, its per- manency becomes more confirmed, and as a conse- quence, its effects are comparatively negative, unless the alternative is adopted, of eithi-r reducing it by mechanical force to a powder, or burning it over again. It will thus appear from these remarks, that both the preparation and application of lime merits our most serious attention ; for altliough this sub- stance has hitherto been considered as one of the most important auxiliaries to the amelioration of the soil, still our present knowledge enables us to dis- cover that in many instances its application must not only have been ineffectual, but often absolutely hurtful. It must, however, be admitted, that while our scientific knowledge may be improved with re- spect to the chemical action of lime upon the soil, yet in our practice, we at this moment, with few exceptions, persevere in and adhere to that system which is not only proved to be erroneous, but which annually involves the farmer into useless and wasteful expenses. It would therefore be of the utmost importance to the a^^ricultural community were some system devised, whereby this injudicious mode of management could he clearly made percep- tible to the understanding of agriculturists j and although we are not so sanguine as to suppose that every "farmer might be made capable of distinguish- ing a soil, so as at once to comprehend the chemical action of lime upon its fertility, jet by means of an experimental farm, science and practice would be so combined, that the chemical properties of lime in all its different forms and combinations might be di- rectly exemplified, and the results noted ; for there is nothing more certain, than that farmers do evince a most anxious desire for every thing that savours of the practical j what they want, indeed, is well ascer- tained facts, and these caa only be obtained by THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 103 iiieniis of a practic.il Held of o|)cration. 'I'lie dis- advantages of a part (if our jirpsent mode of man- ag-oment was cloaily established by Mr. Dawson, so early as tlio middle of last century. In two adjoin- ing fields ho tried tlio comparative advantages of jiloughing- down tlic lime and nieridy Larrowing it in ; both were sown with onts and grass seeds. I;; the latter case the oats were a full crop, and the plants of gra.is abundant; and altliou;:;li they re- mained upwards of thirty years in pasture, they still produced white clover, and other line grasses. In the former case the oats were also a full crop, and the pasture continued good during the first year, but afteru-ard.s all the liner sorts of grasses were dis- placed. It is Mr. Dawson's oi)i:iion, that it would require more than treble flie (juantity of lime to produce the same elfect wlien ]iloughed down as when harrowed in. Jlis instructions, however, are but little attended to, and his practice disregarded. And why ! Because past experience has shewn that neither j\Ir. Dawson, nor any other private indivi- dual, liowevcr great their discernment and abilities, are enabled, even though willing, to concentrate the attention of agriculturists upon anv given object, however apparent and great may be its advantages. If. requires such an institution as we have been me- ditating, supported by all the influence of a power- ful proprietary, and directed by the abilities of botli scientific and practical individuals to attain this end. Bones. — \Vc shall brif fly refer to this substance as being one of those fertilizers which have more re- cently been brought under the notice of agriculturists, not however with the intention of entering in'o its merits as a manure, for these are manifold, and already well understood throughout the country. Our observations will therefore, in a great measure, be confined to the circumstances attending the intro- duction of bones, and the difiiculties whicii [)resentpd themselves before the agricultural community could be made aware of the advantages resulting from tbeir adoption, affording as it does, another pow- erful argument in favour of having a general centre of reference for the purpose of solving any proble- matical question, and disseminating the knowledge of It. VVhen potatoes, turnips, clover, &c., were first intraduced into this country, there were few, if any, agricultural associations in existence, whether local or otherwise, and many circumstances might be brought forward in extenuation of the slow progress which these made at that time before their cul- tivation was generally adopted ; but at the compara- tively recent period when bones were introduced, agricultural associations abounded in almost every district, and we therefore cannot reconcile the laxity displayed by farmers in adopting so important an auxiliary in their management, without being con- vinced of the utter inefficiency of these associations as at present constituted, to bring any system into notice, so that its operation may be simultaneous and generally beneficial. It was only about thirty years since, that the value ot bones began to be dis- covered in this country, and at that period, and for inany years afterwards, they were only partially known in a hw counties. The effects, however, produced by the bone system of management have been wonderful ; in short, this important article has been the means of bringing more waste land into cultivation than perhaps any other substance which has ever been brought under the notice of agricul- turists. But let us now enquire haw this great change was brought about, and how long this system was pursued by a few isolated individuals before its importance vraa generally known and appreciated. 'I'ho time is not so far distant, but that many indivi- duals can remember, when bones were broken with the hammer in tlie counties of Lincoln and Netting, ham, and put into the ground in very large pieces, at the rate of seventy to eighty bushels an acre. In lSl'2, the bone-crusher from Nottingham might have been seen with a saucer in one hand, shewing bis half-inch bones, and in the other a turnip, as a spe- cimen of their fertilizing powers, at the same time entreating the farmers only to make a fair trial of ihem; subsecjuently the}^ were drilled in with the seed, the turnips, at the rate of from twenty to twenty-five bushels an acre, while some of the higher managers put in forty bushels per acre. The benefits result- ing from using bones were, however, well under- stood for many years in several counties in England, before the practice found its way into Scotland ; and although a few individual farmers may have adopted the system from observing its advantages, yet we are mainly indebted to the mercantile body for their final introduction and extended use in Scotland. For not only did our merchants commission the bones at their own cost and risk, but it was only by using the most pressing solicitations, and the greatest perseve- rance, that they were enabled to get the generality of f\irmers to comprehend their advantages, or even to give them a patient trial ; and it is only within the last few years that the demand has in any way been commensurate to the benefits derivable from their use, in connection with the extension and advantages of tho sheep system of husbandry. Now, when we consider the length of time that was allowed to transpire before the beneficial effects of this highly important manure was made manifest in Scotland, even long after its advantages were known and ap- preciated in England, we cannot but regret that im- provements of such a nature should be left to the merest chance or accident; or that the best interests of agriculture ahould be sacrificed and retarded for so many years, merely from the want of co-operation in that body whose interests it would tend most to advance. But this is not a solitary instance that might be brought forward in condemnation of our present inefficient means of co-operating for the diffusion of agricultural improvements ; on the contrary, it will only be necessary to direct attention to rape-cake, saltpetre, nitrate of soda, soot, &c., &c., to shew the partial manner in which such sub- stances are understood by a few individuals, before they become of general import to the agricultural community. It therefore cannot but appear evident, even to the minds of the most indifferent, that there is something in our present system which imperiously demands an immediate and most searching enquiry. We shall now — for the present, at least — conclud our observations on the subject with the following remarks — not that we consider the matter treated of as exhausted, or its importance lessened, but rather that we conceive time to be required before agri- culturists are sufficiently impressed with the advan- tages to be derived from such an undertaking as the one we have been advocating. We might still bring forward many more examples in support of the views which we have formed with respect to the utility of an experimental farm ; but we believe enough has already been stated to impress upon every unprejudiced mind the necessity and national importance of such an institution, affording, as it would do, an opportunity to a qualified individual of bringing to a successful issue a series of practical and useful experiments, wliich could not fail ulti- mately to prove of the utmost advantage to the pros- perity of the farming interest, as by this means the most intricate and difficult theories relating to the I 2 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. art would be tested and solved, and thereby rendered subservient to their convenience and practice. In aii investigation ef the hidden resources of agricultural improvement, much interesting and autlientic matter would be brought to light, and resulls arrived at, ■which had not Jiitherto come within the knowledge of tlie practical agriculturist. To the student of agriculture such an establishment would prove of the utmost consequence, for, although it has been an almost universally received opinion, that theory ought to precede practice, yet experience has not confirmed the utility of this mode of procedure ; on the contrary, we are convinced, and, in fact, it is reasonable to suppose, that theory and practice com- bined will tend more to enlighten the mind of the student, and enable him to arrive at mora correct and just conclusions, than if he were taught the science and practice separately. In confirmation o( this opinion, I mav be allowed to quote the authority of Chaptal, whose name is well known as one of the illustrious members of the National Institute of France. He remarks — " I was induced to adojit this plan," referring to his work on Chemistry, applied to the arts, " by the opinion I have long entertained, that the intelligence which elucidates practice must succeed the latter. I am in fact convinced from my own experience, that a man who is already acquainted with the mechanical and practical part of an art, re- ceives instruction with much more advantage tlian another who is neither in the habit nor in the piactice of its operations. For the latter, everytliing is ab- stract; because the principles he is taught applv to nothing that he already knows, and either are soon obliterated from bis memory, or take a wrong direc- tion there. The first, on the contrary, reflects on his own experience all the light that is transmitted him ; he lias in his practice the confirmation of all that is told him; be refers all that is said to all that he does ; he compares the theory with his own opera- tions, and in a manner identifies it with them." Not only, therefore, would the agricultural student be benefited bv an experimental establishment, but the mechanical and scientific knowledge of the art would be accelerated by its adoiition. Indeed, the names of many eminent men might be quoted to show the importance which they attach to an experimental farm — men, eminent for their scientific knowledge, and who have devoted much of their time and atten- tion to the theory of agriculture, but who have hitherto been often unable to reduce iliose theories so as to meet the practical operations of husbandry, from the want of a field whereon to test and perfect their experiments. For not only has the mechanical operations of the agriculturist to be nicely propor- tioned and performed, but, unless those natural causes to which the art is subject, are thoroughly investigated by a long series of patient scientific re- search, and their influence, so far as lies in our power, either mitigated or otherwise, by means re()uiring the nicest discrimination, it will be impossible ever to arrivR at a just conclusion, or satisfactory result. The difference between failure and success in prac- tice usually depends upon slight circumstances, very easily overlooked, and not to be anticipated before- Land, even by the most skilful ; their importance is often unsuspected till an experiment has failed, and may not be discovered till after many unsuccessful attempts and numerous failures have been the result. Wliatever difficulties may, therefore, be found in correctly solving any problematical c|uesfion relating to the art of agriculture, tliere cannot be a doubt but these will be materially lessened by the experimenter being thoroughly 'acquainted with the principles upon which practice is founded, as he will tlius be enabled with grenlor advantage to investigate and apply the minor details of cultivation with more success to the full development of the theory. In order to attain this end, however, it is not only necessar3^to understand distinctly those vital actions wliich have a direct refer- ence to cultivation, but it is also necessar}' to study the manner of life wliicl) is peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, and to ascertain what the laws are by which the numerous actions essential to the existence of a plant are regulated. It is moreover requisite that the causes which modify those actions, either by increasing or diminishing their force, should be understood. Mr. Lindley, in his introduction to the Theory of Horticulture, is particularly urgent upon these points; and he adds that '' the vital actions of plants have so little resemblance to those of animals, that we are unable to appreciate their nature in even the smallest degree, b}'' a reference to our own sensations, or to any knowledge we may possess of animal func- tions. Nor when we have thoroughly studied the phenomena of vegetation, are we able to discover any analogies, except of a general and theoretical nature, between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It is tiierefore necessary that plants should be studied by themselves, as an abstract branch of investigation, without attempting to reason as to their habits from what we know of other organic beings ; and conse- quently we are not, in this part of Natural History, tn acknowledge any iheorxf ivhicli is not j'oumled vpon direct experiment and -proved by the most satisfactory course of enquiry'' Such then is the opinion of Wr, Lindley ; but there is scarcely any writer upon the science of agricul- ture of the present dav, who does not lament the difficulty of arriving at any just concluRion upon the subject of their investigations, from tlie want of a practical field of operation for the purpose of proving the utility of their experiments. Dr. Madden, whose recent communications to the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture upon field manures has been of the utmost importance, to the agricultural coipmunity, is not less decided upon this point. He has more than once in the course of these communications stated the impossibility of arriving at the truth without the aid of direct experiment; not merely to determine the various points necessary to be at- tended to, in order to obtain success; but likewise tlie precautions which must be used to render them of practical application. "As regards," says Dr. Madden, " the various circumstances which should particularly engage the attention of the scientific investigator, it may be observed generally, that from the present extremely imperfect slate of this branch of vegetable jihysiology, tlie more numerous they are, the more trustworthy will be the con- clusions which are drawn from their consideration ; for although, as the science advances, many of these may be proved to be of no consequence, still, in its present state, the more minutely each circumstance is noticed the better, as it is always preferable to err on the side of too minute enquiry, than to run the risk of drawing false conclusions from the omission of some circumstances which might appear trifling at the time, but subsequently prove to be of vital importance to the establishment of the truth." If then such be the opinion of men who must have a thorough knowledge of what will prove conducive to the full development of those subjects which they may liave under investigation, why do the agricultural community liesitate any longer to tstablish an institution of the nature proposed, so as to bring to a successful issue, those theories Till-. FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 105 which are often found so necessary and applicable to af!,ricultural improvemeni. ! 'I'lie llighlaud and Agricultural Society of Scotland, from its yreat iutiuence and extension of its members througljout every part of the countr}', would be well qualilied to undertake the foimation of such an institution ; but the proposition has hitherto, as it were, been crushed m the bud, and we are much afraid that official influence has not been wanting- to prevent any encroachment upon the good old system. That many members of the Highland Society, however, entertain a different view of the matter, may be gathered from the proceedings which recently took place at the Society's annual ex- hibition, which was this year held at Aberdeen, and to the account of which we would refer. It will there be observed, that the question of an expei imental farm was brought before the meeting, and the utility of the measure strenuously supported by men, not only eminent fi)r their scientific knowledge, but also by those who have practically experienced the inconvenience and difficulty of reducing any new theory to the every-day practice of the farm. We would here observe, that the g'entlemen who brought forward and seconded the motion for an experimental establish- ment, are both men of much jjractical experience in everything which is likely to advance the im- provement of agriculture, and that they have devoted much of their time and attention to agri- cultural puisuits. Indeed, the proposer of the motion is well known throughout a wide district, as one well qualified to judge of such matters from his thorough practical knowledge of the several details which are necessary to the economy of every agricultural operation. We may therefore hoi)e, that the time is fast approaching, when the Highland Society, through the influence of its own members, will be induced to give the measure a more serious consideration than heretofore; for we do not speak unadvisedly, wlien we say, that the present proposition was not brought forward by those gentlemen from any momentary excitement ; on the contrary, we can safelv affirm, that the attention of one of them, at least, has for some years been directed to this matter ; indeed, so thoroughly convinced is he of the utility of the scheme, that he has not liesitated to declare to us, that unless the maiiagers of the society introduced sometliing of a more useful and practical nature into their proceedings, their exertions, however, well intended, would soon be found behind that of the more enter])rizing portion of the agricultural community; and that, although the means which Ihev had hitheito adopted for the advancement of agriculture might, perhaps, have been adapted to the by-gone age, yet now, when science was beginning to lend her aid to perfect and improve the art of cultivation, it was full time for the members of the society to bestir themselves, and concentrate their exertions into a mo4;e useful and practical field of operation and experiment. Indeed, when the excitement attending these annual exhibitions begins to subside, practical men are afterwards led to enquire into the benefits which the country is likely to derive from such exhibitions ; and it must be allowed, that a strict investigation into the circumstances will satisfy every unprejudiced mind of their utter inutility to meet the end, which, every one must allow, the members of the society have in view, viz., the advancement of agricultural improvement. Under these circum- stances, it may, tiicreforp, he expcct(-d, that a change will at no distant period take place in th,? sentiments of the nieiniiors of the Highland Society ; and it is only to be hoped, that those wlio take an interest in this measure, will view it with tliat liberal spirit and comprehensive judgment to which we conceive its importance entitles it, and which will be found absolutely necessary to the full development and success of the scheme. We are the more ptirticular upon this point, inasmuch as many individuals have manifested a desire to parti- cipate in the advantages of such an institution, and are at the same time thoroughly convinced of the benefits which they would derive from its operation ; but still their views with respect to the principles upon which such an establishment should be formed and conducted, are limited and circumscribed in the extreme. Indeed, they too often overlook what we consider the most essential, if not the principal feature in the whole undertaking — for it should al- ways be kept in view, that while an institution of the nature proposed would be steadily instituting experiments, and adapting them to the practical operations of the husbandman, it would also act as a centre of reference and communication to those numerous local agricultural societies which are at present in active operation in almost every district. Such an establishment, under a matured and well regulated system of management, would not only receive reports from these sub or local associations of any new improvements which might from time to tiiiie occur, but a knowledge of the several modes of management which are at present pursued in the different districts would also be obtained, and a conijiarison instituted, which could not fail to prove highly beneficial. It is by obtaining these i-eports, testing their utility, and disseminating the knowledge of them amongst the agricultural community, together with their own experience, that such an institution would prove so desirable and useful, and have such an important tendency to the furtherance and success of every new imi)rovement, which required the test of expe- rience before being rendered available or profitable in general practice. We have already given numerous examples in the course of these letters, all tending to prove that the want of such an organized system of communication has hitherto materially retarded the advancement of almost every agricultural improvement, and that ye;irs often elapsed before the farmers in one district obtained a knowledge of the ameliorations which were progressing in another. To those, therefore, who may have only taken a limited view of this subject, the means to be adopted to promote the success of the undertaking may at first sight appear to bo of a very enlarged and intri- cate nature, but the details are simple, and method is only necessary to obtain a successful result. The manager ol' such an institution would find little iiffi- culty in organizing- a system of mutual interccurse with the local associations already established, as the assistance of the secretaries of these societies would only require to be obtained to render the system available ; and were this co-ojieration and intercourse once methodically established, we have no hesitation in saying, that little more would be required to keep alive that interest which the sub-associations would naturally feel in the success and results of the several experiments instituted, either directly, or through the auspices of the parent establishment. In fact, the advantages resulting from such an establishment would soon become so conspicuous and important to the agricultural community, that we have no doubt 106 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. numerous local experimenlal fiekls, on a smaller scale, would speedilv sprint;- into existence in differ- ent parts, and tluis facilitate the operations of the centra and ooverning- institution, and at the same time more ellectually exend its usefulness. Let those, therefore, who are friendly to an expe- rimental establishment, keep stearone to view with indifference any natural production, however valuable, when once it becomes familiar to our observation, yet when our reliectiug powers are aroused by any new or striking circumstance, our minds are then led to form those comparisons which are so necessary to enable us correctly to estimate the conaparative value of any particular system or object. The importance of extending our enquiries be- yond the circumscribed limits of our own country, will, however, become more apparent if we reflect upon the circumstances connected with the intro- d"ction of many of the roots and plants which are now in extensive cultivation. Potatoes, for instance, although brought into England about the end of the Kith centtnv, were long confined to the gardens of the noliilifv and gentry, and in Scotland were not ])lanted in the open fields until the year 1792, upwards of 200 years after their first introduction; and yet this root, which had been so long neglected, now constitutes the principal article of food, upon which a large propor- tion of our population depends. Turiii|)s alsn, although known in Britain before the potatoe, did not come into general cultivation until long after the days of Tull, a Berkshire agriculturist, wlio intro- duced the sj''stem of drill husbandry in the year 1701. And how, we would ask, stands the cas(! in this country at the present moment, with respect to our knowledge of the diffenMit kinds of grasses that might be advantageously cultivated? Out of 215 distinct species which are suitable to this climate, from two to three only are used. And why 1 Simply upon the principle of use and wont. Kye-grass, so highly prized by British farmers, appears to have been cultivated |)fevious to the year 1677, being considerably upwards of a century and a half ago; and although it is deficient in almost all the qualities of a good pasture grass, and although nature, when left to herself, testifies most unequivocally to the fact, that a luxuriant sward can only be obtained by a proper conihinalion of different species of grasses, yet her suggestions are unheeded, and each succeed- ing race of farmers contin-ues to adhere to the prac- tice of a by-gone agi — to their own individual loss and that of the community. The grand and distinguishing characteristic of plimts over inorganic matter — that which charac- terizes their latent powers and living functions, is their susceptibility of improvement, not only so far as they embrace the support of the inferior animals, but also of iliat part wliic'i forms the direct ingre- dients of human sustenance. It is therefoie reason- able to suppose, that there exists a degree of excellence attainable by varieties over the sjiecies whence they have sprung ; yet, as that degree is unknown, wo are justified in regarding it as progressive, and in con- sidering the ]iro(luction of a good variety as the sign or harbinger of a better. We have thus attempted to shew the advantages of an experimental establishment, and as we have already stated, were the Highland Society, or any other influential body, to set about the establishment of such an insiitutiou, they would find all the subor- dinate machinery in existence and ready to co-ope- rate in the general plan. At present these associa- tions are comparatively of little use; but had they the benefit of a jjoverning bead, and were the energies of each directed to the promotion of the one great object in view, vvho can eslimafo the magni- tude of the benefits that would ensue ? It might, however, be remarked, that while no body is so v,-ell fitted to occupy such a ]ironiinent position as the Highland Societv, still, at the same lime it must be admitted, that the success of tlse scheme will in no small degree depend upon the talents and activity of the manager ; but that many individuals will be found with sufficient qualifications to undertake this dutv, there can be no doubt. If any difficulty presents itself to us, it is the risk of having some Arvourito thrust forward through the instrumentality of some influential individuals, without reference to his ijua- lifications or fitness for the true discharge of the onerous duties which cannot fail to belong to such a situation. We would therefore say, let the manager of such an institution be elected upon a broad and liberal basis ; let the members of every agricultural association appoint a committee for this purpose ; and let thesa committees in their turn choose out of their number an acting committee, to controul and direct the manager and the affairs of the institution ; and let there be a special clause in the agieeraent when such manacpi-is appointed, that such committee of direction have the power, when thev consider the manager either inca[)able, or not ])erforming his duty in an efiicient manner, to bring his conduct before a general meeting ; ard if the ex])lanatiotis of the manager are not then found satisfactory, that a majority of such meeting will have it in tlieir power to deprive him of the manage- ment, 'i'his mode of procedure in choosing a manager must not be regarded by the members of the Highland Society as throwing any doubt upon their THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 capacity forjudging of the merits of a candidate ; on the contrniy, by adopting- tlio plan we Lave pro- posed, it will be observed that the tenantry will have an interest in the matter, and as most of the members of the Highland Society are landed proprietors, and are therefore likely to be connected with either one or other of the local associatioas, their interest and that of their tenantry will be thus amalgamated, and the landlord at the s;inie time will not be deprived of a voice in the choosing of a manager, nor of his ordi- nary influence in the direction of the affairs of the institution. In conclusion, we would beg to remark, tliat at this moment, proprietors especially^ are imperatively called ui)on to take some steps in order to enhance the jiroductivpuess of the soil, by removing those difKcnlt;r-s which are more immediately connected with agricultural improvement, thereby enabling us not onlv to meet the wants of an increasing popula- tion, but as also tending towards the prosperity of our commercial and manufacturing interests. We ask for no aitificral prop. All that we require is, the development of the inherent and native energies of the soil, being Jully convinced that notiiiug iiiore is uecessarv to place it in a prosperous and a jjcr- maneiitly improving coudition. Dec. 16, 1840. A Sc-otch Faumeu. TO THE EDITOR OF THE CAR- LISLE PATRIOT. Sir, — I have accidentally met with the enclosfd paper, headed " Advice to Farmers," among some old manu!.cripl\. ; as it may be interesting, and perhap?; useful, at the present time, I shall teel obliged to you if you will insert it in the Patriot. I have no doubt it was printed in the year 1746. It is endorsed by a relation of mine, wlio wus living at that peiiod. I may also mention that I happened to meet with the following remark in Medulla Historio: Angiicaiur, Feb. 1747 : — "The distemper amongst the horned cattle, which had raged in a most alarming manner in tliis kingdom, began now to abate." I am. Sir, yours truly, VValteii Fletciiek. Dahlon, Dtc. 16. ADVICE TO FARMERS. Permit no person, who comes from any suspected place, to go near your cattle, nor to go into any of your out-buildiofTs, though none of your cattle are in them. 'J'ak(,' the same precaution with regard to any horse or dopr that can be suspected to have been where the infection is. Do not go yourself out of curiosity, to see any in- fected cattle, nor into the houses or grounds, where they have been. If you think any of your cattle likely to begin of the distemper, immediately separate them from all pus-i- bility of communieatiun with the rest ; and keep tliera very warm (but give them no physic or drink*) for the first four or five days ; let them have rio other nourish- ment but warm water, mixed witii a little oatmeal, of which, let them drink a« much as they jjlease. Alter the first lour or five days, give them the finest hay you can procure, in very sniiii! quantities, still con- tinuing the warm drink with oatmeal, and to keep the cattle as vvarin as you can. Let the person who attends liie sick beasts take the precauticm of cimnging his clothes alter he has been with them ; ami notwiilistauiliug that pri-caution, let him not go near any oilier cattle, imr into any out- building, I though no cattle are intiiem, nor into any grounds where cattle are. Sutler no other person, but he whose business it is, to go near the cattle that are distempered. Take great care that no dogs (either of your own, or other persons) get amongst your sick or sound cattle, nor into any of your out-buildings, if any beast die!<, cause all concerned in the burial to change their clothes. Let the cow-house, where the distempered beast has been, be carefully washed with vinegar, verjuice, or tobacco water, and the floor strewed with unslaked lime ; and let all the straw, hay, or other fodder which remains there, or upon which the distempered beast has breathed, be burnt. If ihey recover, place them in a pasture, as remote and private as possible from the rest of your cattle. And if it be a milk cow, as soon as she begins to re- cover, her milk will i-eturn, and the person who milks her is not to go near any of the rest of the cattle, nor into any of the out-houses, nar into any of the grounds, but those only in which the recovered cows are kept. SEVERE FROSTS.— It is stated in the Farmer's Almanac that " in the year 987, the frost which set in on the 22nd December lasted 120 days; and that of 1729, which lasted nine weeks, began on the 24lli December ; but the great frosts which have visited England, have generally commenced much earlier. The greatest frost of which we have any account— that of 759— set in on the 1st October, and lasted till the 26th Feb- ruary." There have also been several other severe frosts. 1145. — Severe frost commenced on the 9th of December and continued until Marcii 1146. 1204. — Severe frost commenced on New Year's-day and continued unul March 25. 1261. — Severe frost commenced; carriages and horses passed over the Thames, heavily laden, as on a common highway. 1269. — Severe frost commenced in November, and con- tinued until February following. 1283.— Intense frost commenced ; on the breaking up of the ice five arches of London-bridge were carried away. 1434.— Severe frost commenced on the 24th of Novem- ber, and continued until February 10. 1467.— Severe frost and much snow, obstructing the navigation of the Thames, commenced on the 21st of December. 1468. — Severe frost commenced with the year, and on the 9th of January the river below bridge had all the appearance of a general wreck. 1515.— Severe frost, and so great that carriages of all sorts passed on the ice of the river from Lambeth to Westminster. 1564. — The frost so severe on the 21st of December as to admit of all sorts of carriages and diversiotis on the Thames. 1607.— As above. 1684.— The frost commenced about the beginning of December, and continued so sharp till the 5th of February, that the ice upon the Thames was as firm as land, and all manner of trades and diversions were exercised upon it. 1715. — A very severe frost commenced about the end of November, and continued to the 9th of February, and upon the Thames booths were erected, and two oxen roasted, &c. 1739. — A most severe frost began on Christmas-day, and continued eight weeks. A few days after it began .-i high wind arose which did damtige to the shipping upon the Thames, being sunk by the ice, to the amount of 100,000/. 1766.— A violent frost began at the end of December and continued very severe until the 16ih of Jan- uary, then its severity somewhat abated for two days, when it broke out again with greater force, and continued until the 22nd. 'i'his frost, though of short duration, was most terrible in its effects. 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE TCJRNIP-SHOW AT TRING. This Show took place at the Ilarcourt Arms Hotel, Tring; Station, on Friday the 18th ult., but owjus: to the dreadful state of the roads, many who would otherwise have attended were abspnt. Of the seve- ral sorts of turnips produced, tliose of Mr. Matson, in point of shape, ^vere co!isidered the best, although not of the greatest weight. The cballenge between Wr. Houghton and Mr. Matson was decided in favour of the former, the weight produced by Mr. Hougli- ton last year exceeding that of any .'lO Swedes shewn on this occasion. Indeed it is generally agreed, in this part of the country, that the growth of this year falls much short of 1839. Besides the various sorts of turnips exhibited by Mr. ]\Iatson, there were some very fine specimens of mangel-wurzel grown upon his farm at VVingham. The wbite car- rots kindly sent by Lord Ducie from his farm in Gloucestershire, under the management of JMr. Morton, excited much admiration, thejiroducebeing stated at 26 tons per acre. Mr. Little's 50 Swedes were not only handsome in point of form, but were cleaned and shewn in the best manner. After the whole had been viewed by the visitors, dinner was announced. In consequence of the indisposition of Captain Hamilton, M.P., who was to have presided, William Christopher, Esq., of Drayton Lodge, was unani- mously called to the chair, supported by about 61) of the gentry, clergy, and respectable agriculturists of the vicinity. Dinner being finished, and the usual loyal toasts given, The Chaiuman rose, and expressed the great pleasure lie felt at meeting so respectable a com- pany and so many of his neighbours at that place, being the first of the kind which had occurred since Le first came to reside in the vicinity. Although not a practical agriculturist, he felt it his duty f; attend meetings of this kind, and to mix with the farmers around him, inasmuch as he derived agreat portion of his income from land, and naturally looked with great anxiety to their comfort and wel- fare. He concluded by proposing, with the greatest pleasure, " Success to Agriculture." This toast having been drank, the Chairman called upon Mr. W. Brown to read the result of the day's proceedings, which he did as follows : — The challenge between Mr. Houghton and ftfr. Matson for five pounds, was awarded to Mr. Hough- ton. The weights produced by the several competitors challenged by Mr. Houghton for 50 Swede turnij)s, of the growth of the present year, as follows : — lbs. Mr. John Brown, Tring Ford Farm .... 496 Mr. Hart, Ascot, near Wing 405^ JMr. Houghton, Norwood Farm, Rinslip. . 3.t1 Mr. Little, Tring Grange Farm 341 1 Mr. Houghton, Upton, near Aylesbury ■ . 321 Do. Hannigan's Lodge. . ... 284 Mr. T. W^oodman, Hemel Hempstead . . 269 Mr. John Woodman, Pendley 258 JNIr. Houghton, Whyly, Sussex ... ...... 242 Mr, Fulks, Park Farm, Wigginton 234 Besides these, there were several productions by parties not competitors, amongst which were 50 fine- shaped yellow Swedes (Skirving's improved ), grown by Mr. Deacon, of Corner Hall Farm, weighing.'iol lbs., fifty yellow Swedes grown by JMr. Pucuck, of Hedges Farm, near St. Alban's, and various sorts belonging to Mr. ^fatson. Tlie vtq)ort having been concluded, and the "cash" hanilfd over. The CiiAiRMAM proposed the health of Mr. Hough- ton and the winners, which that gentleman acknow- ledged in a very jiractical speech of considerable length, remarking on the importance of the growth of turnips and green crops, giving a detail of the uncultivated breadth of land in this country, which he considered ought to be tilled ; and he knew of no better instance of the ])roduction of such land than a farm which he purchased in 1837, under 8/. per acre (formerly part of Lagshot Heath), and which land produced the turnips he shewed last year, ave- raging nearly 10* lbs. each ; besides which, it would give considerable labour for our increasing popula- tion. He concluded by observing the great advan- tage of such meetings as the present to the agricul- turist, and by proposing the health of the Chairman, tiian whom a more worthy and charitable gentleman did not exist. The Chairman acknowledged the compliment in a very feeling and appropriate speech, and proposed " i\Ir. Matson and the Competitors." Mr. JMatson in acknowledging the toast, took oc- casion to observe upon the civility and attention which had been paid to him that day, and of his in- tention to be present if he was spared another year. \Vith regard to the cultivation of the soil, he consi- dered it of the greatest national importance, and that we ought not to stop at trifling improvements, but continue the good work with increased zeal ; by doing which, we might expect in the course of a few years to see our produce doubled. He considered a ne.v light was breaking upon us, and his belief that the science of farming was now beginning to be known, and he looked forward for much benefit from the various clubs formed and now forming, and more particularly the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land. The healtli of Lord Spencer and success to the Smiihfield Show was drank with three times three. Upon the health of the Clergy being given, Tiie Rev. E. J. Randolph rose to acknowledge the toast, and expressed his anxiety that some ])er- manent institution should be formed in the vicinity, so as to offer premiums, not only to the farmer for the best production of turnip and other roots, but also to the labourer for the best produce of the gar- den, and also rewards for good conduct and long service, which would be the means of drawing together the landlord, tenant, and labourer. Nothing scarcely was done without the assistance of the labourer, who toiled from year's end to year's end in supplying our wants, and adding to our comforts ; it was but just, therefore, that we should do something to mark onr esteem of the most deserving of that valuable class of the community. After commenting at some length upon the advantages of meetings of this kind, where all jiarties had an opportunity of communicating their views and opinions to each other, he concluded by proposing, " I'hat an asso- ciation be now formed for the promotion of agricul- ture and horticulture, called the Tring Agricultural Association," which being seconded, was unani- mously agreed to, and libei'al subscriptions were im- mediately handed in to )n'omote the object. The health of Geo. t'arrington, junr., Esq., was then drank as a practical agriculturist, who took a deep interest in all that concerned the breeding of cattle and the science of agriculture. Mr. (JAmiiNOTOv in his reply, made many admira- ble remarks on the condition and improvement of fanning. He highlv approved of turnip shows, and advised the candidates not to make the sweepstakes too high, as they would then have greater competi- tion. He remarked that many of the specimens THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 shown were very fine turnips, but he wished to ascertain weight ;ind (juality per acre, and the quan- tity of nutriment which the turnips produced, for tliat turnip was most to be approved which would put most fat on the ribs of an animal. He believed attention to ilie turnip plant was requisite, it being a mere machine to absorb and turn to nourishment the manure found in the soil, and by attention that machine or plant would be tliscovered which was most advantageous. Mr. Carrinj!^ton concluded a most useful and practical address, amid much cheering-. On the health and prosperity to the tenant farmer beino; drank, Mr. Liitlk, of Tring Grange, returned thanks, exjiressiui^' his intention to do all in his power to promote an aunuiil meeting of this kind, believing- that emulation amongst the farmers would lend to belter management and increased produc- tion. 'Die toast of the Visitors was responded to by Mr. Ryde. Several other toasts and songs followed, much to the gratification and pleasure of all present. Several challenges were given and accepted for another year. Mr. Matson offered to grow an acre of Swedes against any man in England for any sum from i)l. to oO/. THE TURNIP QLTESTION. TO THE KDITOll OF THE MAKK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I have but just returned home, having visited several friends in several counties since the Smithfield cattle show, and not having met with your paper till my arrival hero, or I should have replied to it before. I have read with great satisfaction your leading article of the 21st inst., urging the necessity of establishing libraries for the purpose of instructing farmers in the science of agriculture ; for whilst, from superior knowledge and cultivation of the mind, commerce, manufac- tures, and the fine arts, have made prodigious dis- coveries and improvements, agriculturists, whether from want of education, or indisposition to adopt new systems, or blind attachment to early pre- judices in favour of old ones; either from one or all of these causes, they have made hut very little comparative progress, and you do well. Sir, to arouse us from our lethargy ; every enlightened farmer must feel indebted to you for your exertions in the cause. Thus far, Sir, our feelings are per- fectly in accordance, but in some of your remarks we are quite as much altogether at variance. After accounting for the blunders which have sometimes been made by scientific men in their books, you proceed to observe, by way of set off, that " ex- travagant statements are not always confined to book-farmers, they are not unfrequently advanced by * practical farmers ;' " and in support of your pro- position, you advance a most unfortunate and in- correct illustration. You advert to a letter iiublished in the iJ2U/., through the medium of your paper, that I would grow 40 tons per acre, and I now offer the like again ■>■■■ the year 1841. Did any one accept that challenge ? No ! What ! 40 tons of turni;is per acre, and which the Mark Lane Ex- press declares to be so extravagant, that no practi- cal farmer will believe it, and yet no man in all England has bad courage, notwithstanding, to ac- cei)t the offer. Oh ! but you had some persons visited Mr. Matson's farms, and saw no crops of turnips in any degree approaching such a weight ; those persons, you very well knew, were Messrs. Anderson, Sandon, and Dixon, and you also knew, when they visited my farms, they did not see the turnips gVov/ing ; for in the published correspon- dence to which you refer; their complaint against me was, "that all the turnips were not sown when they were at the farms. Of course you bad a perfect right to suppress this circumstance, although it does make some slight difference in the matter, for these gen- tlemen could not possibly see turnips where no seed had previously been sownj whereas, your very candid statement would lead the public to believe, that when the trio of agricultural critics came to see my farms, the turnips had been sown, and had attained their full size and growth. A word or two to your worthy ally " Rusticus," and I have done. He mentions having sown my seed with that of Mr. Skirving's, and in his opinion mine are an excellent sort, but he gives the pre- ference to Mr. Skirving's. I have no desire to dis- possess him of this opinion, and it may be that his soil and mode of cultivation may suit Mr. Skirving's seed better than mine ; and if so, it does not at all prove the superiority of Mr. Skirving's seed over mine. I know this well, that on many soils, some seeds would Ik- unproductive, when mine certainly grew a good crop. " Rusticus" says, that in their 110 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rude cultivation and neglect as to seed, they can grow 20 to 25 tons an acre ; and yet he considers 40 tons per acre enormous, when immense pains have heen bestowed for 30 years in tlie selection of seed and the growth of turnips, and on land which has not heen sickened by that invaluable root. As he seems disposed to turn his attention to the improve- ment of the turnip growtli in Norfolk and SufFolk, I hope that he will know better in a few years — at present he has much to learn, althonah I think him an apt scholar, and an aide contributor to your valuable paper.— I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, Rorert Matson. Whujham, Dec. 30. THE TURNIP QUESTION. TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — A rather mischievous turn has been lately given to useful discuscions on certain jjoints of ex- perimental agriculture, by the admixture of ill- bred personalities v/hich have nothing to do with the main question of " how the acreablc produce of the land can be increased at the smallest cost?" — or to put it in other words, " how far superior skill and system can be made to lessen the outgoings, and at the same time leave to the tenant a fair profit, after deducting that modern rent, which landlords like to receive." Setting aside therefore the little bickerings which have crept into the con- troversy between Mr. Matson and some gentlemen, as to the iiraeticability of raising a certain weight of turnips per acre, the subject is well worth con- sidei'ation, if taken u]) dispassionately, and the truth of Jlr. Matson's assertions be established beyond a reasonable doubt, or disproved. I am led to oft'er a few remarks from the circum- stance of my having been an occasional visitant in the parish where Mr. IMatson resides, and I have, season after season, gone ever his lands, alone, or in company witli one or more of his neighbours, and have invariably left with an impression on my mind that Mr. Matson is one of those stirring, quick- sighted, bold, persevering, and shrewd men, who are eminently useful in pioneering the beaten track class of farmers, and who for that reason is well deserving of encouragement and support. No man, be he whom he may, is entitled to im- plicit credit, for merely saying that he can raise greater crops — all other things Ijeing equal — than others, unless he also shows that he actually does so. By this test I would propose that Mr. Blatson's claims to superior tillage should be canvassed in a fair spirit, and fairly tried, because no mystery can prevail where the work i.j all out of doors, open to the scrutiny of friends and foes, from seed-time to liarvest. I submit, then, that Mr. Matson's growing croj) of wheat be attentively looked at from time to time ; the present condition of the land v/ould do great credit to anybody, for it is evidently well farmed, and from the extreme cleanliness it has been brought to within the last few years it is likely that no expense whatever will be incurred in sum- mer weeding ; thus food for the plant will go ex- clusively to the nourishment of the crop, and scarcely a weed will be seen in the stul>ble after the wheat is carted. Ilelias a piece of land adjoining the Deal road wdiicli I remember a swamp not worth fencing in, but which has been under-drained, and Avould pro- bably now let at a very high i-ent, especially if taken by any one whose main object might be to get as much out of the soil as presently to reduce it to its original state of unproductiveness, ill suited to the permanent interests of a landlord and his descendants. Here, then, are several acres added to the productive surface of the kingdom, as much as though it had been gained from the sea. Let the ensuing crops here be also closely watched. His marsh lands have been brought from bog studded with rushes, flag, &c., dear at a crown an acre, into fatting land, bearing, in all probability, a liigh j-ental, which may nev^ertheless leave a hand- some remuneration to the enterprising improver. But turnips seem to be the great war-horse upon which Mr. Matson prances with most self-conli- dence. Local jealousies admit that ui point of fat- tening qualities his sorts are imsurpassed, perhaps unequalled, although they may be exceeded in weight; at all events, his claims to superiority have drawn attention to the cultivation of this bulb^ wliich is now allowed to be a foundation of all other crops, and I trust that such claims will further lead to the clear establishment of the fact, that forty tons per acre can be comujonly grown, — not perhaps in Norfolk or Saflolk, which have been sickened during the protracted reign of that king of hus- bandry, my Lord Leicester — but in East Kent, and other parts, where the land is still fresh. It is often said that no man is a prophet in his own country ; but when I perceive men who dis- parage the efforts of an enterprising neighbour stealthily ado])ting his improvements, the rational conclusion is, that Mr. Matson's system, which par- takes of the garden character, must be good, and reduceable to practice at a jirotit, the problem is whetlier the landlord or tenant benelits most. It is a pity that such men are not more thickly sprinkled over the whole country. Many are found to sneer at science, but let them be reminded, that Sir II. Davy states that the celebrated French che- mist, Lavosier, did in nine years increase his crops and stock four and five fold. Surely what has been done in France may be done in England, and I trust that no effort will be s^jared by your influential paper to turn every disjjuted point in husbandry to the general good. I am, Sir, your very humble Servant, Dec. 30, 1840. Fairplay. THE MURRAIN IN THE LAST CENTURY. The following description and mode of treatment of the murrain, which niged amongst the cattle in England in the yenrs 1745-G-7, possesses peculiar interest at the present moment : — Extract from Dr. Mnrtiiner's third Accotnit nf the Cow Distemper, read before the Hoyal Society, January fl, 1745-6. Some milk houn:lit in Ciiristmas holidays, at tlie vine- yard in St. James's park (where llie cows were then free, tliouirli three liad died in the park) liail a rank smell, and tasted like rank buttrr, and thoug-h wiien boiied it did not curdle, the cream lieiiig put in tea curdled, but none wlio drank it found any inconve- nience. That cow died, and anoliier in Inrty-tigrht hours. 'J'lie Doctor saw one of them open<^d,and llie inflammation was {rreater than any lie had before seen, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill though i-liehad been blooded once, just when taken ill, and also three weeks before. 'I'he cavvl was greatly inflamed, iind the paunch, and its inner coat peeled of!'; tin; liver was inHamed in seme pans, and turned livid in ollier>. 'J'lie {;all-bUu!der was very larj^'e, and ihe g'all very liquid. 'J'lie lunprs udhered to the pleura, were gT(.:atly inflamed, turirid and black, but there were no watery bladders, nor had the cow a purg'in|:r. — So vio- lent and quiik a progress seems beyond the power of medicine, but may bean argument ibr ))luiitifiil biceil- inff, especially as soon as there is ar-liortness of bri-uih. The Doctor wonders how the distemper hysical point of view for the ad- vancement of agriculture. If thus happily situated from natural causes, for the jjromotion of these ends, Fife is equally fortunate in the same way from the distribution of its landed property. There is no district in Scotland where proprietors, whose * Thompson's Survey, &c. t Thom})son's Agricultural Survey of Fife, 1800. Vol. i. of the Farmer's Magazine, 1800. rental varies from 100/. to 1000/. a-year in such numbers farm their own estates, or farm alon"- with them a iiortion of rented land, or where the possessors of more ample grounds keep a portion of these in their own hands, such as tocoustitute them practical farmers in the most genuine aense of the term. By this means a class of individuals is gen- erated, which, happily, unites the higher orders of the aristocracy with the tenantry and yeomanry, tending to promote a friendly intercourse antl good understanding betwixt them, elevating, ot\ the one hand, the tone of more ordinary agricultu- ral society; on the other, tending to imbue the more extensive possessors of the soil with the knowlciige, feelings, and spirit of cultivators. 'I'o proceed with a narrative of the improve- ments in Fifeshire, we may begin with agricultural imjjlements. The Iron Plough of the best construction is almost in universal use throughout the county. It is made with consummate elegance by local black- smiths and agricultural im])lcment-makers. The wooden plough, also of the best form and structure in some parts still prevails. It is, in all essential jiarticnlars, similar to the iron one, by which, however, it is rapidly being displaced. The Jlarrov — the heavy harrow, called a brake, used, when Dr. Thompson wrote in 1800,* for breaking stiff, and loosening and tearing up grass- roots and quick weeds, has gone entirely into dis- use " The construction of this is much the same with that of the common harrow, only much larger and heavier, and furnished with a greater number of teeth. Sometimes it consists of two parts, which move on iron joints ; constructed in this manner, the whole harrow will be able to touch the ground, and no part of it j»ass without doing execution." Ordinary harrows are now generally made of iron. There is nothing remark- able in their form or structure. The lozen-shape, which seems preferable to the rectangular harrow' though occasionally employed, has not as yet come into general use. A small light harrow is occasionally used for covering the smaller seeds, such as those of clovers or of grasses. The potato- harrow, lately introduced into Perthshire, is sometimes, though not extensively, employed. The Gruliber is the most popular of our recently introduced agricultural miplements. It is the in- vention of iMr. James Finlyson, a native of Ayr- shire, who bad it patented for England alone. In the year IHl'o, it was introduced into Fifeshire by James Blyth Fernie, Esq., of Kilmnx. The origi- nal Finlyson required four horses to draw it. A great improvement was soon after this made upon it by Mr. J. Thallon, blacksmith. Smithy-green, near Kennoway, who altered its construction, so as to increase its efficacy, and lightened it so that it may now be drawn by two horses instead of four. In this improved form it is now to be found in almost every farm in the county. The Horse-hoe or drill-harrow, which is used in Fifeshire, exists in a vast variety of forms. Of late a great improvement in the form of its teeth has been introduced, by having them bent, and made to project obliquely, so as to bring the root- weeds to the surface on Finlyson's principle. The Swiuffle-trecs, by which all these implements are dragged forward by the horse, are now mostly made of iron. The form of this iron swingle-tree is in many cases similar to that of the old wooden one, now getting into disuse. It is hollow in the core, and formed by a flat piece of iron, bent * Agricultural Survey, p. 126. 114 TUi-: FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. round and wcMcd. Some imii swiiiglc-trccs con- sist of a single flat bar. These, though more ca^ily made than the hollow ones, have neither the same strength nor lightness. Wooden swin- gle-trees, though cheap at fust, are in the long-run so uneconomical, that they are becoming extinct. Rollers, which used formerly to be made of stone or of (v-Qod, are now manufactured chiefly of cast-iron. The length of the cylinder of the roller is generally about ;") feet ; its diameter about 21 inches; it is always divided into two, some- times into three, pieces for the conveniency of turning. Machines for Sovmi;/ Com are scarcely at all in use in Fife", and those for sowing grass-seeds, though occasionally found, are by no means pre- valent. The liabilities of both to go wrong, and genera! imperfections attached to ihem, have made them to be set aside in many cases where they have once lieen tried, and prevented their general introduction, smart farm-servants being consi- dered the best sowingmachines that can be cm- ployed. The Turnip barrow is now universally employed and is in Fife very skilfullly constructed. It admits of a very considerable variety of forms.* From the universality with which bone-dust is applied for turnip manure, a ijone-dust sowing apparatus now always forms a part of the turnij) barrow. Plumping machines for dropping in bone dusr and turnip seed in little parcels, at in- tervals of six inches or so from each other, aie occasionally in use, hut, though tending consider- ably to economise hone manure, are not in Fife favourite implements. No other sowingmachines are prevalent among us. The Pressor, an imi)lcment which should have been described along v^ith the rollers, is chiefly in use for preparing the softer soils for the reception of wheat, and is to be found on farms on the slopes inclining to the Forth. The LevelUnn-hox is chiefly necessary where considerable transformations on the large scale have been making on the surface of the ground. Where this is the case, it is always to be found : where otherwise it is not required. Implements for reoprnxj. The common toothed hook, which needs not here to be described, was for a long time in Fife the sole implement for reaping, 'i'his has now in a considerable measure given place to scythe or smooth-edged hooks, which, however, are much greater favourites with the work-people than their employers ;— it being believed by the latter that, unless by very careful management, a considerable quantity of shake, and much irregularity in the lay of the grain, is oc- casioned by them. The mode of bargaining with the reapers in Fife, unlike that which prevails on the north of the Tay, is to engage them on days' wages ; or much more generally, to agree with them at a certain rate for the harvest. Besides these wages * The drill-barrow for sowing turnips and other sn^all seeds, is simple and of easy management. One kind requires only one man, and another two to manaot) it. Some years ago, a kind of drill-machine for turnip was in use, which was drawn by a horse run upon two wheels which turned the seed box — had a share for making the rut or furrow, and dragged a small harrow behind for covering the seed. But this is now less commonly used, and Las given way to others more simple, and equally answerable.— Thompson, p. 108 (ann. 1800). certain allowances of bread, beer, and occasion- ally of potatoes and milk, are made to them. Among ?ome disadvantages attendant on this, as compared with the threaving sy^Xeva, is the irregu- larity and magnitude of the sheafs, which, unless when carefully attended to by the binder, some- times attain the absurd dimensions of from four to iive feet iu citcumferencc, instead of three feet, which they ought never to exceed. This saves both the reaper and binder considerable trouble, but produces a sheaf very inconvenient for hand- ling, afterwards very difficult to win in the field, and apt to heat in the stack. The ordinary Scythe has of late begun to be ex- tensively employed ; and as tlie workmen become expert in its use, proving l)0th a convenient and economical, and an expeditious implement. Drum- mond's cradle-scythe still more recently has become a favourite , and were as much systematic care taken to perfect the workmen in its use, as is expended in instructing them in ploughing, sowing, and stack-building, and the other more important operations in agriculture, and in pro- ])erly drilling the hands required for gathering the corn from the swathe, it seems probable that, in a few vcars, this implement may become universal in liarvest operations. The Reap hi (/-Machine on Mr. Bell's or the clip- ping princii)le, has only been successfully employ- ed to any extent on two farms in the county. On the farm of Dunbog on the Earl of Zetland's estate, it has been applied by Mr. Moodie since 1828, with the most lirilliant and unfailing success. This gentleman has cut with it every season from seventy to ninety acres of corn under nearly every variety of circumstances, and in the course of these ten years an area of about 800 acres altoge- ther has been cut by him. Mr. Hain of Clare- n)ount is the only other farmer who has introduced with success Mr. Bell's machine into his harvest field. He has employed it since 1833. Two or three other nrachines of the same construction have been tried in other parts of the county, but not proceeded with. //or*e-rffl/;c.s' are very generally used, even after the most careful reaping. This implement admits of no great variety of form. The ordinarj' horse- rakes, from the flatness of our ridges, are often of great magnitude and sweep. The canting-over, or American form of rake, is one of the most pre- valent varieties. Carts. The prevailing form of cart is the ordi- nary coup or box cart. This, occasionally fitted up with additional movable or slip sides, which, though now general over Scotland, were, about thirty years ago, almost jieculiar to Fife. The frame or tops, prevalent to the north of the Tay, by which a coup cart is so speedily and so conve- niently converted into a corn one, is but little used here, a separate corn cart, which admits of the load being placed low, being considered greatly preferable. A vastly improved variety of this cart was, a few years since, invented by a farm-servant in Clackmannanshire. By this, the centre of gra- vity of the load is raise! no higher than the level of the top of the wheel. This kind of corn cart is cheap, strong, and peculiarly convenient for rough roads and uneven ground, and is getting exten- sively into use. Thrashiny-Machines seem to have been very early introduced, after their invention, into Fife- shire. Before ISOd, that is within fourteen years of their invention, we find it stated by Dr. Thom- son, that, in almost every parish, they had been THE i-ARMEIl'S MAGAZINE. 115 erected to the extent of seven or eiglit in single Iiarishes, and to the amount of nearly 300 within the county ; they now exist every where, so that there is not probably a farm in Fife, above the size of 50 acres, which is without them. Though the principle be the same as at first, the details are immensely improved, — an additiotial shaker having been added. Lifters, or an endless cloth called " a brock machine," is employed to elevate the imperfectly thrashed ^' brock" from the lower to the npper part of the mill, to be subjected once more to the action of the drum. Other improve- ments in detail have taken place which could oidy be made intelligible in description by the use of numerous drawings. A machine for humblhuj barley has been attached to many mills. It con- sists of an upright shaft with horizontal iron arms, which revolve with great rapidity, and strike against the grain as it passes through horizontal tiers of perforated iron plates ])laced j)arallel in the arms of the machine. It dresses the most refractory barley to admiration, and without dam- aging the grain. Additional pairs of fanners, driven by the mill, sujjply themselves with grain, and, in several mills the dressing process is entire- ly completed by the machine, so that it comes out sifted and cleaned ready for the stock market. The best mills of this sort are at Kilmux and Fosterton. The greatest improvement recently made on machine thrashing in Fifeshire, is the introduction of steam as a motive power. Since 1824, no fewer than twenty-six steam engines have been constructed for this purpose in the eastern part of Fifeshire, without taking into ac- count what have been put up in the west. The lii'St who applied steam-power to thrashing ma- chines in this county was Mr. Haigof Seggie, who possessing an engine of 25 horse power for distillery purposes, made it to drive a thrashing-mill about 10 horse power. The following is a list of 27 mills driven by steam in this neighbourhood, with the date of their erection and name of the farmer, and designation of the estate where they are to be found. Farms. Farmer. Estate. Date. Airdry Airdry . ^ • . Ca.findil]y Walker Crawford 1835 Clintry Watt Raith 1835 Craigie Thomson Balcarres 1834 Carnbee Aitkin Balcaskie 1835 Crail Dr.Bonthron Erskine .... Balcarres Lindsay Balcarres 1838 Balneil Bogie .... 1835 Balgonie Young Balgonie Do. Do. Do. .... Blebo Tullis Blebo 1838 Drumcarro Yool . . • • 1838 Falklandwood Dudgeon Nuthill 1824 Foodie Wilson Foodie 1834 Fosterton Flutchison Raith 1836 Kincaple Haig Tarvit 183f; Kilgour Dunn Nuthill 1826 Kilmux Fernic Kilmu.x 1834 Kinninmonth I'atcrson .... 1836 Kingsdale Ballingall Kingsdale 18;i6 Kirkaldy Douglas larvit 1830 Lordscairnic Tullis Crawford 1834 Methilhill Haig Wemyss 1830 Newton Russel Dundass 1833 Pilmure Balfour Wemyss 1833 Seggie Haig Tarvit 1805 Treaton Ballingall .... 1832 These engines arc of the simplest construction, without a walking-beam or parallel motion. The crank is coumionly placed high over tiie cylinder, and connected with the piston-rod by a single connecting-rod, the lower end of which is fur- nished with wiicel-guides. They are commonly from four to six horse j)ower, and can be had from 20 to 25 lb, a horse power, iligh-pressure and condensing engines arc about equally abundant. The engines themselves are well managed, and so admirably kept in i)oint of order by the farm servants, that the present writer, who has had considerable exiieriencc in such matters, has never seen the condition of the Fife thrashing mill engine surpassed by those of the most crack London steam ships or Scotch spinning mills. To the thrashing-mill is occasionally attached, as at Kilmux, rollers for bruising grain, and a straw-cutting machine ; and it were well that these appendages were of more frequent occurrence amongst us. Draining has been long vigorously practised in F'ife. AVherc large masses of water or of marsh land were to be dried, the cuttings are often of stupendous magnitude. The chief ojierations of this sort have been those of Loch Leven, at Loch Ore, at Lochty Moss, and Rossie Moss. Some of these cuttings are twenty feet deep and forty feet wide. While Elkington and Anderson's systems of draining prevailed, operations on their plan were carried on to a great extent. Since the introduction of Smith's furrow drain and deep-ploughing system, the farmers have shown themselves fully alive to its merits, and may challenge Scotland for the spirit and extent with which they have pro- ceeded. For many years past furrow-drains have been put in, in F^fe, to the extent of probably not less than 5O0 miles a year. This, at a cost of £15 to the mile, would amount to £7,500, or to a capital permanently sunk in draining of £150,000. At a competition, where a prize was oflFered for the greatest amount of furrow-drains executed within a given period, it appeared that single competitors were draining, on their own account, at the rate of from sixteen to twenty miles a year, and that one farmer had put no fewer than ten miles of drain into a single field. The expense of these operations is, tor the most part, borne by the tenant alone, though in many cases the land- lord cuts the drains and the tenant fills them. In all cases Smith's system is strictly adhered to, stone drains being much the most prevalent. Where the ground is injured by excess of these, the drains are cut wider than is otherwise neces- sary, for the sake of burying the stones. ^Vhere stones are scarce or difficult to come by, tile drains arc employed. Few of our soils are such as to require that these should have sole-plates.* About the year 1830, a Fife farmer put into his ground no fewer than 220,000 tiles in the space of two years, each tile being fourteen inches long, which in all would amount to about forty-seven miles of tile-drains. t Along with the tile-draining the subsoil and trench ploughing of the Deanston system also prevail to their full extent. * We deprecate the neglect of sole-tiles in every case. The clay that may appear hard enough to bear tiles when newly cut, may soon softeu as much after the water in the drain has remained a short time upon it, as to allow the sinking of tbo tiles into it. Let the Duke of Portland's experience in Ayrshire operate as a warning to all tile-drainers against neglecting to use sole-tiles. — Editor. t Mr. Hay, of Seggie, 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The mineral nianurcs used in Fife arc lime and niai'] ; the former of these is worked and burned at above twenty different quarries, in various parts of tbe county. It is very extensively used in agriculture, though farmers of late i)refer./i?erZ- ing to alimulating manures. The following are the principal places at which it is presently worked : Foriher, Pitiessie, Cults, Annfield, West Lomand- law, Toadstones, East Lomandlaw, Hanj^inmyre, The Bishop-hill, Benarty, Lcsslic, Charleston, Duloch, Burntisland, Innerticl Tyrie, Chapel, Thomasford, Teasses, Griegston, Winthank, Dum- barney, Cornceres, Sypsis,-Kingsbarns. Shell-marl used to be extensively used as a manure in Fifeshire, but has of late got into disuse. It is still extensively employed in Forfarshire. It is found at the following places, in beds varying- from two to eight feet in thickness, and covering, so far as can be ascertained or guessed at the area, as assigned beneath : Lundymoss 10 acres. Duriemoss 6 Near Inchrye ;"> Near Raitb 1 JMugdrum 1 Near Balbirnie 1. Pitlair 3 Cash-loch 1 Stravithy 3 Bowsmoss 4 Tlossie Loci) 4 Rossie Locb (2nd deposit) .... 2 Berriehill 1 Kinghorn Loch , 10 Jjordscairnie 2 With various other lesser deposits not examined; the whole probably amounting to nearly 100 acres. Sea-weed may be viewed as a mineral-manure, as the alkali and salts which it contains chiefly affect the soil. Along the south and east coast of Fife, where farms skirt the shore, sea-ware in a great measure takes the place of farm-yard manure, which is occasionally carted inland, by the per- mission of the proprietors, to less favoured localities on the same estate. Sixteen loads of sea-weed are reckoned adequate manuring for an acre of ground, equal to about twenty loads of farm-yard manure. It costs from Is. to Is. 2d. in collecting and carting. It acts with great effect on hay-stubble cut early, and often yields an admirable after- math. Farms which can command sea-weed give a rent of 10s. more an acre than others of similar quality and position Viithout this privilege. The sea- weed used consists of tbe common varieties of fuel, alga; and conferva;, which prevail upon our shores. A green, delicate variety of weeds, found alone in protected situations in the estuaries of our rivers, is used in the upper parts of the Forth, but still more especially so in the Eden. JMr. Meldrum of Bloomhill, near St. Andrews, besides collecting tbe weed on his own shores, rents that on those of his neighbours. He frequently applies from 300 to 400 cart-loads in a single year, and reckons ten cart-loads good and fifteen heavy manuring. When laid on in winter, and ploughed into tbe furrow-ground, it produces afinepulverizingeffect. With this alone a wheat crop of six quarters an acre has been produced, with a heavy crop of beans the year after, without additional dung. Sand, gravel, and clay, which in many parts of Fife are laid in great quantities on the surface of the ground, are rather to be considered as alter- ratives than as mantircs.* Saltpetre, sea-salt, jjrc- pared kelp, bleachlield refuse, gas-work lime, and animalized carbon, have all at different times been employed to a greater or lesser extent, if not so considerably as to affect the character of the agri- culture of the county. Their popularity is not, however, at present on the advance. Farm-yard manure is here treated with peculiar skill and care. The court-yards of most of our fiwm-steadings have water-spouts all round the eaves of the buildings, so as to prevent the rain which falls upon the roofs from injuring the manure. AVhen carted to the field, the dunghills are very carefully made up, so as to expose them as little as possible to injury from the weatlicr. A plan worthy of universal ada])tation has been introduced by Mr. i'alfour, of Pilinure, that of covering over his field dunghills with earth, laid spadeful thick, as if thej' were potato heaps. This covering, which the workmen ])ut on when they could not be otherwise profitably employed, com- pletely prevents the action of the wind and rain, and intercepts and absorbs those gaseous exhala- tions which would otherwise escape, and is itself converted by them into an excellent earthy compost. The practice of soiling cattle in the yard for the sake of the additional manure pro- duced by them, is prevented from being so ex- tensively resorted to as it otherways would be, from the cattle seeining less thriving when penned up in summer than when permitted to rove at large in closed grass fields. The extent to which sheep pasturing has recently been introduced, tends greatly to meliorate the soil, whether during the grazing or tiu-nip-feeding season. Green turnip tops are occasionally employed as a manure. If cut off in autumn, and ploughed in immediately afterwards, and before they have had time to fade, they act for one season over tbe area on which they have grown equal to ten tons per acre of the best farm-yard manure, if the turnip crop be a fair arerage. They form ver}' poor feeding for cattle, and are apt to scour them. Large white turni[)s, such as are sown for autumn use, afford the largest amount of leaf. At most of our distilleries, the drippings of tbe court-yard are collected in a well, and pumped ofi^ as liquid manure. As these are not required by the distillers themselves, in consequence of the mimense command of ordinary manure they possess, they are sold at so much the barrel to the farmers in the neighbourhood. Bone- dust is now universally employed as a turnip- m.anure. 1 am not aware of any peculiarity in the mode of using it in Fife, as compared with the other counties of Scotland. It has been tried as a top-dressing for grass, and a m.inure for other crops as well as turnips, but not to any con- siderable extent. Rapecake is at present coming extensively into use as a manure, and is just now a favourite one, it is chiefly ap])lied to grass. The greatsst attention has been long paid to the culture of live stock in the county of Fife. The farm-horses are of a strotig, active, not very large breed. The quantity of corn allowed them has of late been considerably increased. Potatoes and corn are often mixed together, and steamed along with Swedes or yellow turnips, and make an excellent feed. These substances are also often given raw, separate))', and without preparation. On many f'jrms, horse corn is * This application is now very prpvnlent where the soil is mucli too stiff or too open ; it is extremely important. Til E FA RRI ER'S M A C. A Z 1 N I'. 17 I) i-ijisc(l with rollcis. Straw-cutters are getting into extensive use. The tiunip-slicer is also employed, not only for cutting; tiirnii)s for horses and cattle, but occasionally for slicing i)otatocs and turnij)S for sheep. In this last case, it is mounted on a carriage like a wheelbarrow, and is accompanied with large troughs, to prevent the cut vegetables from falling or lying on the ground. The horses used for riding or gig harness (for few of the fiumers in Fifeshire who have families are without some springed vehicles for their ac- commodation^, are generally hardy, well formed halt' or three-quarter bred cattle. The ranks of a yeomanry regiment lately disbanded were said to have exhibited a greater proportion of well-monntcd soldier-looking troopers than any other district in .Scotland could have [iroduced. Very fewthorougli- bicd horses arc kept for their own use b)' farmers in the county, though those which are raised by them, or are transiently in their hands for the junposes of sale, are occasionally used by them on the road, turf, or field. The average allowance over all the county of force employed, is one pair of horses for every fifty acres of arable ground. This is considered a ploughgate of land. Statute labour road-money is charged accordingly. Though this is the average, so greatly does the nature of the ground affect it, that, in the soft black lands in Strntheden, one pair of horses are quite adequate for the cultivation of seventy acres, while on the stiff wheat soils near Fifeness, one pair is required for every thirty acres. - There are said to have been originally two breeds of oxen peculiar to Fife, — " the Fife runt'' and the Falkland breed. The former of these, a strong, coarse, hardy variety of o.v, is understooi to have been indigenous, and to ha\'e been well adapted for the cold, swami)y condition of the county, before it was meliorated by agricultural improvement, fhis seems to have been the only variety of cattle possessed by us down to the accession of James VL to the English Crown. This monarch, more remarkable for classical ac- quirement than financial prudence, had, during his residence at Falkland, come under obligations to many of the Fife landed gentry, the most con- venient mode for discharging which he found to be sending them presents of improved breeds of live stock from his new dominions. Tliis is the ])resent Fife breed, before which the poor aboriginal stock speedily gave way. J'he oxen throughout the county, in general, belong cither to this race in a pure state, or crossed with the Teeswater. Improved short-horns are very prevalent, but less so than the above in this district. It is a singular instance of the spirit and determination of Fifeshire agriculturists, that, in this case, they have withstood the judgment of the Highland Society, whose fiat, in most cases absolute and irresistible, has been issued against Fife stock as unworthy of I'.atronage, and unable to compete with the im- proved short-horned breeds. In evidence that their position is not untenable, the Fife farmers have produced specimens of tlie pure native breed which have again and again taken the premium oifcred for the best ox, of any breed whatever, against all comers, at the Society's great annual show. Fife possesses a peculiar native breed of sheep as well as of oxen, hut these, unlike the cattle, seemed to have derived no l)enefit from the royal favour. They are white-faced, and somewhat 'ai'ger in size than Highland shec]). They arc very hardy, Init not distinguished for cither the (inantity or (piality of their wool or ilesh. They are said to have been first known in an extensive tract of sandy downs in the north-east of the county called the Tents-moors. They are chictly patronised by a few active and skilful farmers of the old school, whose admiration of the things of other years indisposes them for tlie accei)tance of the new races of shecj). The black-faced or Highland breed in Fife, -.is in every other quarter of Scotland, was, within these forty years, almost the only one known to us besides the aboriginal white-faced, and is now rapidly falling into disuse. I'he races which have taken its place are the Cheviot, the Leicester, and the cross-breed betvi'ixt the two. A cross betwixt the Cheviot and black-faced is sometimes found, but is not a favourite. The previous cross-breed is much the most general, many beautiful flocks of them prevailing through- out the county. 'J'he pure Leicester, along the south coast ])articularly, is rapidly coming into use. The farmers take the utmost care to have tups and ewes of the first quality : they themselves visit the ir.ost celebrated English and Scotch border-markets to obtain a breeding stock, and, being eminent judges, hesitate at no price, provided they can get animals to their mind. I am not aware of any Southdowns existing in the county. The following statement from Dr. 'J'homson will shew how entirely the views of farmers have changed on this point since the year 1800. "Anciently sheep formed a considerable part of the live-stock of this county. Every farmer almost kept a quantity, which fed with bis cows in summer, and in winter ranged in common over the whole country. 15ut when the system of husbandry came to be changed ; when the culture of wheat became more general ; clover and rye-grass more commonly sown, and the lands at the same time, continuing open and e.sposcd, or the thorn fences young, and therefore r?ady to he checked in their growth, or entirely destroyed by the sheep (for the wool of sheep is fatal to thorns), their numbers greatly de- creased, and now few, comparatively speaking, re- main. There are no ilocks, perhaps, consisting of above 300 or 400 in the possession of one man ; and few nearly so numerous. These are chiefly to be met with on the Lomond Hills, the high grounds on the north, on Eden's iMuir; and in the Downs, in the jiarish of Lcuchars, commonly called the Tents Moors. Besides, many of the gentlemen, and some of the j)rincipal farmers, keep a few principally for the use of their own families; and some who have a tasie for that kind of stock, and convenience for feeding tliem, keep more, and what they do not use they sell to the butcher. Some gentleman-farmers and others follow the practice of purchasing annu- ally in the spring a few scores of great ewes, or ewes with voung, for the most of the black-fated kind. Tliese they lay on good pasture; the lambs thev dis- pose of, in the course of the summer, to the butcher, and the ewes beaten. At these competitions, a strong ground of amicable rivalry often exists betwixt the landlords and tenants, on tlie results of which the former have often no great reason to ])hnne themselves. The spirit of emnlaticm generated by these amongst all classes of agriculturists, and atnongst none more than the farm-servants themselves, upon whose diligence and care so much of the success of the competing objects depends, confers the greatest benefits on agriculture, both as an art and a science. The Fife farmer has no secrets in his profession which he desires to keej) exclusively to himself, — has no jealousy of tiie rivalry of others, or desire to withhold from those who may wish to ])ossess it, the fullest information on every jjoint connected with his profession, so that any one wishing to put to the proof the correctness of this outline of the agriculture of Fifeshire, may, by visiting any part of the county, have an opj)ortunity of doing so. I may conclude this paper by some computa- tions as to the best and most economical sorts of rotation adapted to the better soils in Fifeshire, which has been furnished to me by Mr. Balfour of Pilmure. notation for Six Years. Potatoes — Three ploughing^ and harroR'ings, per acre, jfS 2 0 Manure, 1. 5 tons, at 7s, .. , 5 5 0 Driving manure, 0 15 0 Seed, 4 bolls, at Cs 6d 1 C 0 Hoeing and liorse-labour . . 1 10 0 Planting and cutting 0 9 0 Gathering ami dressing. .. . 0 15 0 Driving to market; 1 15 0 £13 11 0 Wheat — One ploughing and harrowing 0 11 0 Seed, 4 busb., at (is. 6J . . . 1 6 0 Cutting and harvesting. .. . 0 16 0 Thrashing- and driving to market 0 16 0 3 12 0 Turnips. — Three ploughings and harrowing 2 2 0 Drilling and spreading ma- nure 0 10 0 JManure 12tons at 7s 4 3 0 Driving manure 0 12 0 Seed and sowing , 0 5 0 Hoeing and horse-labour.. 0 14 0 Driving turnips 15 0 . 9 12 0 Barley. — One ploughing and harrowing 0 14 0 Seed, 5 bush., at 5s. 3d. .. 0 16 3 Cutting and harvesting. .. . 0 16 0 Thrashing and driving to market 0 16 0 3 'i 3 Clover seed — 12 lb. clover, 1 bushel rye-grass Onts — One ploughing and harrowing 0 14 0 Seed, 6 bush., at 3s 0 18 0 Cutting and harvesting.. . . 0 16 0 Thrashing and driving to market 0 14 0 0 13 0 3 0 0 £33 12 3 Produce of a Six-Years' Rotation, Potatoes, 35 bolls of 4 cwt. per acre, at 6s.6i\ £11 7 6 Wheat, 32 bushels, at 6».6d 10 8 0 Turnips, 25 tons, at 6s 7 10 0 Barley, 42 bushels, at 3s. od 6 16 6 Clover, 2 tons, at 60s 6 0 0 Outs, 48 bushels, at 3s 7 4 0 Straw of wheat 2 0 0 Do. barley 1 10 0 Do. oa's 1 16 0 £54 12 0 Deduct for labour S3 12 3 Net return for rent, taxes, and profit £20 19 9 Rotation of Five Years. Potatoes, }j acre — Three ploughings and harrowing£.0 14 0 Manure, 15 tons, at 7s.. . . 1 15 0 Driving manure 0 5 0 Planting and cutting 0 10 Hoeing and horse-labour . . 0 10 0 Seed, 4 bolls, at 6s. 6d 0 8 8 Gathering and dressing. . .. 0 5 0 Driving to market 0 11 8 £4 10 4 Turnips, § acre — Three plough- ings and harrowing 18 0 Manure, 14 tons, at 7s 3 5 4i Driving manure 0 9 4 Drilling and spreading. .. . 0 6 8 Seed and sowing 0 3 4 Hoeing and horse-labour. . . 0 9 4 Driving turnips... 0 13 4 6 15 4 Wheat, § acre — One plough- ing and harrowing. ..... 0 9 4 Seed, 4 bushs. at 63. 6d. . . 0 17 4 Cutting and harvesting. . .. 0 10 8 Thrashing and driving to market 0 10 8 2 8 0 Barley, ^ acre — One ploughing and harrowing 0 4 8 Seed, 5 bushs., at 3s. 8d... 0 5 5 Cutting and harvesting. .. . 0 5 4 Thrashing and driving to market 0 5 4 10 9 Clover seed — 12 lb. clover, 1 bushel rye-grass, 0 13 0 Oats, 1 acre — One ploughing and harrowing 0 14 4 Seed, 6 bushels, at 3s 0 18 0 Cutting and harvesting., . . 0 16 0 Thrashing and driving to market 0 14 0 3 2 0 £18 9 5 K 2 120 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Produce of a Five-Year's Rotalion. Potatoes, 1 acre— 40 bolls, at 6s. 6d £.4 (i 8 Turnips, § acre— 28 tons, at 6s fi 12 0 Wheat, 3 acre — 36 busbels, at 6s. 6ci 7 16 0 Barley, ^ acre — 44 bushels at 3s. 3d 2 7 8 Oats, 1 acre — 60 bushels, at 3s 9 0 0 Pasture, 1 acre 4 0 0 Do. do 3 10 0 Straw of wheat 1 10 0 Do. barley 0 10 4 Do. oats '. 2 5 0 £41 17 8 Deduct for labour ,., 18 9 5 Net return for rent, taxes, and profit, £23 8 3 Rotation of Four Years, Potatoes, 1 acre — Three ploughings and harrow- ing £l 1 0 Manure, 16 tons, at 7s 2 16 0 Driving manure 0 8 0 Hoeing and horse-labeur .. 0 15 0 ^eed, 4 bolls, at 6s. 6d. .. 0 13 0 '•"lanting and cutting 0 16 Gathering and dressing ... 0 7 6 I^riring to market 0 17 6 £6 19 6 Turnips, -^ acre — Three ploughings and harrow- ing 1 1 0 Manure, 16 tons, at 7s 2 16 0 Drilling and spreading manure 0 5 0 Driving manure 0 8 0 Seed and sowing 0 2 6 Hoeing and horse-labour . . 0 7 0 Driving turnips 0 I'J 6 Wheat § acre — One plough- ing and harrowing .... 0 9 4 Seed, 4 bushels, at 6s. 6d. 0 17 4 Cutting and harvesting 0 10 8 Thrashing and driving to market 0 10 8 Barley, J acre— One plough- ing and harrowing 0 4 8 Seed, 5 bushels, at 3s. 3d. 0 5 .5 Cutting and harvesting 0 5 4 Thrashing and driving to r.iarket 0 5 4 Clover seed — 12lb. clover, 1 bushel rye-grass Oats, 1 acre — One ploughing and harrowing 0 14 0 Seed, 6 bushels, at 3s 0 18 0 Cutting and harvesting. .. . 0 16 0 'i i)rasbing and driving to market , . 0 14 0 5 12 0 2 8 0 10 9 0 13 0 Priuiuce of a Four^Years' Rotation, Potatoes ^ acre^ — 3.) bolls, 6s. 6d ^"S 13 9 Wheat,! acre— 32 bushels, at 6s. 6d 6 18 8 Turnips, 5 acre — 25 tons, at 6s 3 15 0 Barley, 1 acre— 42 bushels, at 3s. 3d 2 5 6 Hay, 1 acre— 2 tons, at (iOs 6 0 0 Oats, 1 acre — 48 bushels, at 3s 7 4 0 Straw of wheat 1 6 8 Ditto barley 0 10 0 Ditto oats 116 0 £35 9 7 Deduct for labour 19 15 3 Net return for rent, taxes, and profit £15 14 »4 2 0 £19 15 NO TITHE ON OAK COPPICE OF TWENTY YEA US' GROWTH. IMPORTANT CASE. Lozox V. Price. This bill was filed by a rector of a parish in the county of Cardigan, to obtain a d.'claratiun in favour of his claim to the tithe of wood of above twenty years' growth, if sucl) wood grew from old stocks, and «as the original proiltice of the acorns. The question was argued at some length in May last, when it was con- tended that the only case in favour of such a claim as that of the rector was Chichester v. Sheldon, a point of the same description, arising out of a contest between the rector and the parishioners of the same parish, find decided by Sir Thomas Piomer. This case had been followed with reluctance by Chief Baron Alexander, in Evans v. Rowe.and it was argued that the decisions on the question were conflicting, and it was the object of the parties to have it tinally settled. The Lord Chancellor now gave his judgment. His Lordship stated the question as it was rjdsed in the pleadings, and observed that the defendant in his an- swer claimed to have such wood exempt from tithe under the statute of the 45th of Edward III., chap. 3, which protected all gros bois from payment of lithe, those words having been subsequently construed to signify all trees above the age of 20 years. Now there was no doubt in his lordship's mind that wood of that description, growing from old stocks, and attaining the age of 20 years, came within the protection of the st.itute, although a different interpretation had been put on the words of the statute in several cases decided by the courts. As the question was one of very great importance to landlords and tenants, as well as to titheovvners, his Lordship had considered it his duty to examine all the decisions, for the purpose of ascertaining the precise grounds on which they proceeded in holding wood of such a description to be subject to tithe, in defiance of the language of the statute, which Lord Coke was of opinion gave a positive exemption. For this purpose his Lordship took a review of all the cases from Walton v. Tyron, decided by Lord Hardwicke, down to Evans v. Rowe, which was decided in the Ex- chequer in 1825. In that case the Chief Baron felt bound by the former decisions ; but he at the same time expressed a strong opinion that such wood was BOt silva cardae, or coppice wood, and that it was exempted by the statute. Now, although it was very inconvenient to unsettle the law as it was found to be established by a series of decided cises, yet, at the same time, it was still more inconvenient to permit an error to become permanent. His Lordship, there- fore, conceived it to be his duty, however reluctant he might be to overturn such decision?, to correct that which he found to be erroneous judgment. His opinion was, that (he wood in question ought to be de- clared exempt from tithe, and he therefore decreed in favour of the defendant, and di-imissfd the plaintiff's bill, but under the circumstances, without costs. TllK FARMF.R'S MAGAZINE. 121 THE AGRICULTURAL MAGIC SQUARE. The sentences of " Agricultural Union is Strength," and " Speed llie Plough !" niny l)e traced from llie re- spective centres of the followinff tables in an immense number, by the consecutive combinations ol the letters. — Perhaps, some infjenious corres-|)ondeiit can tell us the number of combinations that may be so made. htg'nertSsInoinion Is Strength tjrne rtSsInoinUaionlsStrengt gne rtSsInoinUIUnionlsStreng' n e r t 8 s I n o i n LM a 1 U n i 0 n I s S t r e 11 ertSsInoinUlaralUnionlsStre rtSsInoinUlai'uralUnionlsSt r tSsInoinLJlaruturalUnionls St SfnInoinUlarutlturalUnionlsS slnoinUlarutlu Itural Union Is InoinUlarutluculturalUnionI noinUlarutlucicultural Union oinUlarutluciriculturalUnio inUlarutlucirgricuIturalUni nUlaru tl uci rg.'ig'ricu Itu ral Un i n U 1 a r u t 1 u c i r g r i c u I t u r a 1 U n i oinUlarutluciriculturalUnio noinU iurutlucicu Itural Union InoinUlarutluculturalUnionI slnoinUlarutlu IturalUnionIs SsInoinUlar utlturalUnionlsS tSsInoinUlaruturalUnionlsSt riSsInoinUlaruralUnionlsStr ej tSsInoinUIaralUaionlsStre nertSsInoinUlalUnionlsStren gnertSsIno inUlUnionlsStreng tgnertSsInoinUnionlsStreng't htgnertSsInoin ionlsStrength I ! I) ! ! i» g h ! ! h g u g h ! ! h g u o u g h ! ! h g u 0 1 o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P I o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e P 1 o u -^ h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h e P 1 o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h T h e P I o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h '1' d T h e P I o u g h ! ! h g u 0 1 P e h 1' d e d 'J' h e P I o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h T d e e e d T li e P 1 o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h T d e 6 p e e d 1" h e P I o u g !i ! lhguolPeh'1'deepSpeedThePlougli! ! h g u o 1 P e h T d e e p e e d T h e P 1 o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h T d 6 e e d 1' h e P 1 o u g h ! Ill g u o I P e h r d e d 'l' h e P 1 o u g h 1 ! h g u 0 1 P e h T d T h e IM o u g h ! ! h g u o 1 P e h 1' h e P 1 o u g h ! IhguoIPeiiePIougii! IliguolPePloughl ! Ii g u o 1 P I o u g h ! ! h g u e I o u g h ! ! h g u o u g h I ! h g u g h ! ! h g h ! ! h ! MONMOUTH FARMERS' CLUR.-At the first niijetiiisr of the Monmouth Farmers' Club, held the 5th day ol December, 1840, the use of salipetre an induced to send you an account of some tri-.ds 1 have made during the present year ; 1 do this more roadiiv, as it is only bv an accuniuialion of facts that anr general conchision.^ can be arrived at. I distributed the nitrate of soda broadcast on the 27tii of Ajiril, it was very hot and dry, no rain had fallen for a mouth previously; the quantity of the saline employed was I2- hundred weight to the acre ; it was applied to spring tares, oats, barley, beans, peas, clover and wheat. The wlieat succeeded partly fallow-land, and partly clo- ver-ley. J he nature of the soil on this farm is a stiff heavy deep cX&j. No perceptible difference took place in any of the crops to which the nitrate was applied until after the rain had fallen, which occurred in a fortnight ; after this, that portion of the wheat which was manured witii the soda (ar;d the year be- fore was preceded by a clover-ley ) quickly became more luxuriant in growth and darker in colour, the same effects were developed on t! e young clover that was salted ; on none of the other crops could I ]jerceive the slightest benpfit from tlie application of the nitrate. I'he stetches of clover land wheat to which the soda was a[)plied, were rea[.ed by tliem- selves, an equal number to which it was not applieil were also leaped ; on ihra.shing each quantity, it was found the manured portion yielded one fourth more grain, one third more straw than the other, hut tlie sample was not so plump, nor its colour so good, the straw was not so bright. Tjie same plan was not followed with the other crops to which the salt was distributed, as upon the most diligent investigation at harvest, not the slightest difl'erence between these and the other jiortions of the fields could be perceived. In the months of J'jne and July, I applied the nitrate to mangel, Swedes and white turnips, no bene- fit followed. In offering to you the conclusion I arrive at from these results, I beg to say, 1 only throw it out as a hint for other investigators and for my own farther research, for nothing can be more dangerous to the advance of knowledge than drawing sweeping gene- ral conclusions from it.'\x and isolated facts. It appears to mo, that nitiatc of soilaon the heavy l.mds of this district, is oidy useful to crops which have succccd>'d a clover-ley, -ind to young clovers. Siiould tiie future experience of others agree with my own, it at once points out the fields to whicli in a seasen it ought to be applied, and may remove some of the conflicting opinions regarding its value as a manure. Oswald Copiano, GiiuehaU, TuUeshuiit Knil/hl$, Essex, WRENTHAM FARMERS' CLUB, Established 1839. SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. The committee appointed to prepare the report of the A\Tentham Farmers' Club for the past year, have great pleasure in announcing the gradual increase of its members, and the progressive im- provement in the science of agriculture, arising from the general discussions that have taken place upon subjects connected with that important in- terest. The commit'ee feel confident that, while they strictly adhere to one of their fundamental rules, of excluding political subjects from their discus- sions (and vvhich regulation they have acted upon in the course of the present year), these societies cannot fail to be productive of the greatest benefit, by arousing the farmer from his characteristic apathy ; by reducing the pursuits of agriculture to scientific principles ; and by encouraging the em- ployment of capital ; which alone can ensure success and improvement in the cultivation of the soil, now every day bringing new improvements into practice, by means of increased knowledge and exertion, which is chiefly encouraged, if not entirely produced, by the stimulus of these so- cieties. The committee are sensible that the too free discussion of the increased produce of the soil, without at the same time stating the increased ex- penditure to obtain that produce, may, in some cases, be liable to produce false notions iu the minds of some few persons who have not a practical knov^ledge of agricultural pursuits; still, the committee are of opinion, that the discussions on the management and preparation of manures, and their application to different kinds of soil, on scientific principles ; the necessity of great clean- liness in the cultivation of farms ; the advantage of the growth of roots, and other green crops, upon a more extended scale; their preservation for winter consumption, and method of consuming ; and the selection of the best seeds ; are subjects of the greatest general utility for discussion : and the committee feel that the society is highly indebted to those members who have made practical expe- riments, and so liberally communicated the results for the benefit of their neighbours. The committee arc of opinion, that the advan- tage of obtaining good turnip and beet seed is a subject of the greatest importance to agricul- turists, and they think that the encouragement of the growth of these seeds in the cottagers; gardens, under their own inspection, is the best means of procuring seeds of a genuine description; and that while it would encourage and remunerate the cottager, by establishing prizes for the exhibit tion of the best and cleanest samples of seeds of this description, to be shewn at some of their monthly meetings, — it would also be the means of obtaining the purest seed for theii- own use. The committee therefore recommend this subject for the early consideration of the club, as it is well known that turnip seed is at all times a hazardous thing to buy, and the failure of the crop, or disap- pointiTient of the kind, a serious loss to the farmer. The committee, before they conclude these in- troductory remcrl-s to the proceedings of the past year, are anxious to recommend to the members of their club, for the earliest discussion in the following year, the practicability of raising a fund. 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by subscription, for the reward of agricultural labourers and faithful servants, not only as a recompence for past gnod conduct, and for the encouragement of future good behaviour and in- dustry, but also to instil into their minds that their employers are tlieir best friends. The com- mittee therefore think, that the establishment of a fund for giving rewards and prizes among agri- cultural labourers, would he Uie best meaus of producing this desirable end ; and also of com- bining the interest of the labourer with that of the farmer, in such a beneficial manner to both, and at so trifling an expenditure, which the committee recommend to be by voluntary subscription, tiiat they cannot too strongly recommend its adoption, or too earnestly invite all its members lo become subsciibers, to obtain so desirable a bciiefic as it cannot fail to prove, both to the farmer and to the labourer. The first subject which engaged the attention of the club was, that of" stall-feeding cattle in loose boxes ;" and connecting with it, the '' best methoil of making manuie." This system of feeding cattle, which has but recently been brought into practice in this ncighbourliood, is attended with many advantages to the animal, — such as a more even temperature, a greater regularity in feeding, and resting more quietly, not being disturbed by other beasts ; and from the observations made by those who had pursued the system, it was shewn that cattle fattened faster than when tied up. Another very important object appeared to be, the decided superiority of the manure thus made over that laade in yards and exposed situations. The system, so frequently practised where cattle are tied up, of throwing the manure out daily, was reprobated as a bad one, and considered no better than that made in open yards. At the closeof the discussion, the following resolution was agreed to: — "That cattle fed in loose stalls wtre found to fatten faster, and the manure to be of better quality." At the meeting in February, a resolution was received from a neighbouring club, requesting co-operation in the event of a motion being made in Parliament for an alteration in the corn laws. On this subject there was a diversity of opinion ; those opposed to entertaining the question (although in favour of the corn laws), contending that no benefit would result to the club from dis- cussing it, and that, being political, it ought to be excluded. The club being formed for the^lifiusiou of information on practical agriculiure, any sub- ject having a tendency to destroy the good feeling so desirable to exist in societies of this descrij)tion ought not to be admitted, but that each member using his own individual exertions in a private capacity would be more desirable. The chairman coinciding with these arguments, the meeting came to a resolution accordingly. At the same meeting, a gentleman gratuitously delivered a lecture on the nature and properties of bones, and their various applications, more par- ticularly as regards their chemical character and fertilizing eifects as a manure ; from wliich we findthe great want of chemical knowledge in de- tecting the necessary qualities so essential to the growth of ijlants. J'he operation which it was contended was ticcessary for them to undergo, iu the extraction of the mucilaginous and oily parts, are those, it would afqiear to us, wliich if rttainel would make them of greater value for the purpose of iiianure. At its conclusion, the lecturer rc- c.ivcd the unanimous thanks of the meeting. 'i'he utility of" subsoil ploughing" was the next subject ibr discussion. The member introducing this question had tried it on a small scale, and dwelt on the advantage which would arise from the operation being extended to strong lands with a tenacious subsoil, after being well drained, as a means of allowing the water to escape more freely to the drains— a very material object on heavy lands. It was also stated to have been beneficial to more tender lands, and even on light soils of a gravelly nutiue, from not being affected so muck in a dry season. On the other hand it was con- sidered, that it would be of little or no use to this county, where the subsoil was of a hungry brick- earth, or on light lands, with a subsoil of almost a barren nature ; that the operation could not be l)erformed without an admixture of some portion with the surface soil, which it was thought would tend to decrease, rather than increase, the pro- ductiveness of the land. The practice, however, being entirely in its infancj' in this neighbourhood, and members not being sufficiently acquainted with its general effects, a practical experiment was recommended, and the result to be reported. The meeting in April was engaged in discussing the best n'.ethod of " pre])aring the land^for beet." Upon this subject much practical information was obtained, and it was generally admitted that, in order to make a clean tallow in sufficient time for the rece[)tion of the seed, the land should be ploughed up as soon as possible after the previous crop is harvested — that being considered the time when the grass and other weeds can be more effec- tiuilly destroyed at less expense and labour, and with the greatest benefit to the land ; and after being perfectly cleaned, it should be again plougheci uj) a good dei)tii on stetches or ridges, as required. Under this system of fallowing, the seed can be deposited whenever it may apj)eai' most desirable, according to the season, which cannot be done if the fallow is to be made in the spring. The second week iu May is considered the best time for sowing, although, on tender soils, it may be i)ut in for three weeks after that period. The meeting being divided in opinion a.s to the best method of growing beet, whether on the ridge or stetch, came to no decision on that point, as each system appears to be adapted to different kinds of soil ; but from observations made by some members, the ridge system is imprac- ticable on certain descriptions of land, in a dry season, and therefore cannot be recommended as a general system. At the close of the discussion, the following resolution was adopted : — " That in prepariDg the land for beet, it is desirable, as soon as pnfsible after the wheat crop is harvested, lo plough or scrile the land, and by repeated scarifyiug or harrowing, to clean it of all grass and weeds ; to plough it up deep on the stetch before the mouth of November, laying in this state through the winter, a-.id manuring' the land well previous to ploughing for the crop the following spring." " Clod burning" occupied the attention of the meeting in May. S>everal members, practically acquainted with this subject, expressed themselves in its favour, more particularly with respect to laud recently brought into cidtivatiou, as a means of giving more solidity to tlie soil, thus producing corn of better quality and straw less liable to lodge. It is also considered an excellent prepara- tion for turnips on strong lands, and quite equal to a full coatof farm-yard manure. Burning, iu too large acpiantity at one time, is not recommended — about thirty loads per acre may be considered an average THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 (jiiantity ; and if not repeated oftener than once in eijjht years, the land will not be deteriorated thereby. For the o])cration to he performed effce- tiially, the land requires to be of a porous nature; such as are of a close texture, or having any por- tion of sand in them, will not burn on small heaps. Burning old borders was particularly recom- mended, not only as prodwcing a valuable manure, but as the oieaus of destroying the roots and seeds of noxious weeds. The meeting agreeing generally in these observations, came to a resolu- tion accordingly. The following meeting in June was engaged in discussing an appropriate subject for the season — " the best method of making and securing the hay crop." The discussion on this question turned ])rliicipally on the proper season for cutting artifi- cial grasses, more particularly trefoil, with regard to which great disappointment had been fre- quently experienced ; that although it had been well made, and stacked in excellent condition, and had a fragrant smell, still horses would not con- sume it. This, it was contended by some, was occasioned from being cut before it had obtained its jjroper growth, thus acquiring, byits premature cutting, a bitter and unjjalatable taste. Others had experienced the same (lisMppointment when it had not been cut till the full growih was attained. AVith these different statements, it ajjpeared to tl e meeting desirable that a medium time for cutting should be observed— neither too eaily nnr too late. The result of the discussion is embodied in the following report : — " That trefoil should b? cut when the seed is formed from the first blossom, and after laying' a sufficieat time on the swati-.e to be ])ut iato cock?, which will le- quire to be strewed out previous to cartinir, and that the same observations with regard to the making would apply to all other artificial grasses. With re- ference to natural grasses, it i> considered d'^sirable that the ground be left to diy a short lime jirevious to its being strewn, and afterwards to he frequently stirred, and cocked in the evening. Suit was recom- laeuiled to be sown on the stack, as tending to promote the health of stock in its consumption, more particu- larly hay that has been damaged by wet." " Laying down lands for permanent pasture" was the next subject for consideration. 'J'he re- marks of the member introducing this question (who had had some experience in laying down pastures) went to shew, that lands intended for this ])urpose require to be in a good state of culti- vation, and that good pasture must not be expected from woru-out i)!oughed lands, without being ])re- viously well drained and manured ; that care should be taken in the selection of seeds of the best perennial description ; and that where the tenant is required to hij' down lands for a perma- nency, the landlord should find the seeds. An instance was recorded to the meeting of land being laid down part with and part without a crop, and thepasture being equally as good from the one as the other; but in laying down with a crop, it is very desirable to seed the land with only half the usual quantity of grain. Feeding lightly the first crop was rather ])referred to mowing ; the latter plan, it was thought, teiuled to exhaust the new grasses. A resolution was passed on this sulijcct, agreeable to the above discussion ; and it was further recommended tiiat, in order to secure its permanency, a great variety of grasses should be sown, selecting such as are best adapted to the soil intended to he laid down. In feeding the first season, great care should be taken not to feed too close in the summer, nor too late in the autumn; and it was also considered desirable that newly- laid down j)astures should have a diessing of manure, ;ind an addition of seeds sown the follow- ing spring. The next subject which engaged attention was " the advantage to be derived from the use of oxen for the purpose of labour, in lieu of horses." The member introducing this subject contended, that a great saving woidd be efi'ecled by the use of a portion of oxen, instead of working horses, as is the custom in this county, till they are of little or no value ; that horses, after eight years old, de- crease in value yearly ; whereas, by working oxen for three years, and then renewing them, they are always increasing in value ; that oxen are kept at less expense thtui horses, and that less capital is required in the first instance for the purchase of the former. It was also shewn by a statement, taking the working j)ortion of a horse's life to be fifteen years, at the expiration of which period he would be of little or no value, that by renewing oxen every three years, there would be a con- sideral)le balance in their favour at the end of the fifteen years, sup|)osing the labour of four oxen to be cqm\\ to that of three horses. A member also stated, that a saving would beettccted by the plan of buying in three-year-old colts, and selling out a portion of hoi ses yearly, at five or six years old, — a system much pursued in Lincolnshire, and which it was thought would be a good system, although not generally practicable, as purchasers could not then be found for all the horses of that age. The meeting came to the following reso- lution : — "That working oxen may be used with advantage, to a certain extent, for the purposes of agriculture, oa most occupations." At the last mo: ' ' • meeting in November, the club met at an earlier hour, to witness the exhibi- tion oi' roots, which was very good, both as regards quantity and quality. 'Ihe several sweep- stakes, entered into at ])revious meetings, were awarded by the judges as follows : — The best field of commota beet from manure, Mr. L. O. Cottingham. The best field of yellow beet, Mr. J. S. Crowfoot. The be>t field of Swedes, Mr. L. O. Cottingham. The best three Swedes (exhibited), Mr. L. O. Cottingham, The discussion for the evening was " the best method of storing the root crop." The observa- tions arising out of this subject applied principally to the ])rescrvation of beet, great loss having been frequently sustained with regard to this valuable root. The more simple and less expensive plan, now almost general, has been found by experience to be the best jireserver ; as it was proved by several years' pr;ictice, that straw was not re- quired to jireserve beet when clamped, except a small quantity on the top, hut that earth alone was the much safer covering. Several cases were stated, in which even a stack of straw being built over the clamp had not protected the crop from frost, while a simple covering of earth only had been found effectual. One case in particular we quote, of a clamp being covered up on one side (next a hedge) with stubble of immense thickness, the other side with earth alone; the result was, that half the clamp covered with stubble was en- tirely destroyed, while the other half remained uninjured. After fully entertaining this subject, the following resolution was agreed to : — " With reference to the storing of beet, it is the de- cided opiniou of this meeling, that as soon as the crop 126 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has arrived at maturity, it should be carted off the land, and put on clamps of six or seven feet wide at the base, tapering off to a narrow ridge, carefully packing the crov;ns of the roots outside ; and after time has been allowed for the heat to evaporate, to be then earthed up, without the use of straw, except a small portion on the top of the clamp, 'i'he earthing to be about six inches thiclc, and tlie top to be left open till a sufficient time has been allowed for evaparatioo, or an appearance of frost setting in, an! then closed up as the other parts. Sivedes can he stored in a similar manner, with the exception that Ibey are better not earthed up (unless wanted for co'.isumption in severe weather, when a slight covering of earth is desirable), but to be more thiclcly covered willi straw.'' The treasurer's accounts were examined and passed, and a balance of £4 14s. 8d. carried forward for the current expenses of the ensuing year. The committee recommend that a subject for eacli monthly meeting be fixed at the coinincnce- ment of the year, and a list piinted and delivered to each member, unless the same should be super- seded by the wish of any individual member to in- troduce a subject of his own, in wliich case he is to he allowed the precedence. The result of the committee's report upon tlie lUility and advantage of farmers' clubs, considered in a general i>oint of view, is, tliat they are the best means of i)rotccting the interest of the farmer, by I'aising his occupation to that eminence to which its importance so justly entitles it, and which lias liitherto been too long neglected ; for while tlius ])rotecting the farmer's interest, a national benefit is conferred at the same time — as it must be admitted by every unprejudiced mind, that the produce of the soil is the natural wealth of this country, lo increase which and to piotect wliich must be an nndertaldng of the first im- portance to the nation, and of general and univer- sal benefit to the conmiunity. The coinmittec will not venture to intrude smy furtlier remarks, or to touch u]^Gn any subject that may not strictly be considered to fall within the limits of those objects for which the club is established ; bat they cannot conclude this report without strong!',' recommending a steadj' ad- herence to its rules, and a firm continuance of that unanimity and good understanding amongst its members that has hitherto so eminently marked its proceedings, and which will ever be the surest method of securing the protection of their common interests. James Hingeston, Chairman. ADULTERATION OF BUTTER. -Mr. Patrick Black brought under notice of the Board the extent to which adulterated butter wa-i sold in Gla.^gow. Por- tions of it had been fuialysed by Professor 'ilioinpso.i, who feund one-half to consist of the genuine article, and the other of oatmeal. But this was not all, said Mr. Black, for yellov/ turnips, baker's soda, and even weaver's dressing, were mixed up with the article, for the purpose of imposing on the public. IMr. Bhick pro- duced a quantity which he had analysed himself, and only one-haH of which appeared to dc-ervc the name of butter, the rest was oatmeal. In the discussion which followed, it was slated that many i>ersoiis were in the habit of selling this butter without being aware of its adulteration. All, or most of it, was \r.-,h butter : and Mr. Burnet stated that there was a regular establish- ment at Londonderry for the adulteration of it. lie would recommend the magistrates of G la>go iv to cor- respond with the mayor of that city on the subject. It was finally resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the magistrates, with a request that they would apply a remedy to an imposition alike mean and dishoner-f.— Scots Twiss, WEIGHTS OF ANIMALS EXHI- BITED AT THE SMITHFIELD CATTLE SHOW, 9th, 10th, IIth and 12Tn Dec, 1840. [We should have given the weights of the prize cattle exhibited at the Smithfield Show sooner, but were anxious to obtain lliem officially. We now insert lliem as received fioui Mr. II. Gibbs, the Honorary Secretary of (lie Club. — Ed.] Class I. The Right Hon. the Eari Spencer, Althorpe, won the premium of 20 sovs., 4 yrs. and 5 months Dur- ham ox ; dead weight, iJOOst. 61bs. ; loose fat, 23st. 'ilbs. Mr. F. ^Vratislaw, Rugby, won the promiuro of .5 sovs., 4 yrs. and 7' months Hereford ox ; dead weight, ITOst. ; loose fat, 17st. Mr. John .lellicoes, Brighterton, 4 yrs. 7 months Hereford ox ; dead weight, 186st ; loose fat, I6st. Right Hon. C. Arbuthnot, Woodford, 4 yrs. 1 month Durham ox ; dead weight, 2l5st. ; loose fat, 2;5st. His Cirace the Duke of Bedford, 4 yrs. and 3 months Hereford ox ; de.id weight, 220st. '2lbs.; loose fat, 21st. 41bs. Mr. S. Cheethnm, Hainbleton, 4 yrs. and 7 months short-horned ox ; dead weight, IGSst. 51bs. Class II. The Right Hon. the Earl Spencer won tlie premium of 30 sovs., 5 yrs. and 1 week Durliam ox ; dead weight, 234st. tilbs. Rlr. Buckley, Normanlon Hill, won the premium of 5 sovs., 4 yrs. and 11 months Hereford ox; dead weight, 168.s(. 4lbs. His Grace the Duke of Bedford, 3 yrs. and 11 months Hereford ox ; dtad weight, 172st. 21bs. ; loose fat, 22.-it. Right Hon. C. Arbuthnot, Woodford, 4 yrs. and 3 months Durham ox ; dead weight, 212st. ; loose fat, 2ost. Mr. W. Loft, Trustl)orpe,4 yrs. and 7 raontlis short- horned ox; dead vteight, 221st. (Jlbs, Right. Hon. the Earl of Warwick, 3 yrs. and 11 months Hereford ox; dead weig'it, ]83st. 4lbs. i\Ir. W. L. Sutton, Duncliurch, 4 yrs. and 11 months Hereford ox ; dead weight, 182st. ; loose fat, 23st. Ci.AssIII. IMr. W. L. Sutton, Dunchurch, 4 yrs. Hereford ox ; dead weight, 156st. ; loose fat, 23st. ]\lr. W. Lowndes, Chesham, 3 yrs. and G months Durham steer ; dead weight, lC5st.71bs. ; loose fat, 18st. 61b. Class V. i\Ir. W. Hay, Shethin, won premium of 10 sovs., 3 yrs. and 10 months Hereford and shortdiorned ox ; dead weight, ISdst. Class VL Mr. 15. E. Bennett, Market Harboro', won premium of 10 sovs., undoi' 5 yrs. Scotch ox ; dead weight, 127st. 41b3. ; loose fat, 21st. 4lbs. Mr. W. Mc'Crombie, Tillyfour, 5 yrs. and 8 months Aberdeen ox ; dead we-ght, 232st. 41 bs. Class VII. Mr. B. E. Bennett, IMarket Harboro', won premium of 10 govs., Scotch ox ; dead weight, 121st. 4lba. ; loose fat, 21st. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 Class VIIT. Mr. J. F. Potteiton, Stowe, near Weetlon, won pre- luiiini of ?0 sovs., 4 yrs. T montlis Diirli.im heifer ; (leiul weight, ISJst. 2lbs. ; loose fat, 24st. 'libs. His Grace ilie Duke of Norfolk, 4 yrs. and Sniontlis Devon ; dead weio;lit, l()'2st. lib. Sir Felix IJootli, Breniford, 3 yrs. and 9 months Hereford ; dead weight, 128st. albs. ; loose fat, 2lst. G\hs. Mr. II. Morton, Penliill,4 yrs. and 10 monilis short- horned ; dend weight, 187st. 61bs. Class IX. Mr. J. H. W. Jones, Chastleton llouso, won pre- mium of 5 sovs., upwards of 12 years long-horned cow ; dead weight, 117st. 41I»'S. Mr. '1'. L. Meire, Cound, 8 vrs. and 10 months He- reford ; deiid weight, 169st. 'ilbs. Mr. W. Barclay, nasely,5 yrs. and 1 month Hero- ford ; dead weight, 14'2st. 61bs. Class X. Mr. H. Chamberlain, Desford, won )>remium of 10 sovs., 20 months old, 3 new Leicester Wttliers; dead weight, 13st. 41bs., l5st. 71bs., 16st. 2lb.'3. Mr. J. Painter, Burley-on-the-IIill, won premium of 5 sovs., 20 months old, 3 new Leicester We- thers; dead weight, l.')st. 61bs., 16st. 4lbs., 17st. 61bs. Mr. J. S. Burgess, Holme Pievrepont, 20 months old, 3 loug-wooUed Sheep; dead weight, 14st. .51bs., , 16st.2lbs., I8st. lib.; loose fat, 6st. lib. Class XL Mr. J. Painter, Tjurlev-on-the-Hill, won premium of 10 sovs., 20 months old, 3 new Leicester We- thers; deadweight, 1 tst. 41b3., lost. 61bs., l(ist. 2lbs. Right Hon. Earl Warwick, under 22 months old, 3 Leicester Wethers; dead weight, list, lib., llst.7lbs., ]2st. 41bs. ]\Ir. H. Chamberlain, Desford, 20 months old, 3 new Leicester Wethers; dead weight, 12st. 4lbs., 14st. 21bs., lost. Class XIL His Grace the Duke of Bedford, won premium of 15 sovs., 20 months old, 3 leioester Wethers ; deadweight, 19st. 61bs., 20,s(. 31bs., 21st. ; loose fat, Cst.2lbs. Mr. J. Painter, Burley-on-tlie-Hill, won premium of 3 sovs., 20 months old, 3 new Leicester Wethers ; dead weight, 20st. 2lbs., 20st. 41bs., 22st. Mr. II. Chamberlain, Desford, 20 months old, 3 new Leicester Wethers; de;id weight, 14st. 21bs., 14st. Clbs., I5st, 2!bs. Mr. W. Purser, Cople, 21 months old, 3 Leicester Wethers; dead weight, 17st. Jlbs., 18st. 2lbs., 18st. 51bs. IMr. J. Oakley, Frindsbury, 20 months old, 3 Kent Wethers; (lead weiglit, 59 stone ; loose fat, ost. Class XIII. Mr. S. Grantham, Stoneham, won premium of 5 sovs., 20 months old, 3 Southdown U'ethers ; dead weight, 13st.51bs., 14st. lib., l5st. lib. BIr. J. Harris, Hinton, 20 months 2 weeks old, 3 Soutbdov^-n Wethers; dead weight, 17st. lib., 15st. Slbs., 18st. lib. Mr. S. Jonas, Icletcn, 20 months old, 3 Southdown Wethers; dead weight, lost., lost, 2lbs., last. 71b9. ; loose fat, 6st. 4lhs. E. G. Barnard, Esq., iM.P., Gosfield Hall, 21 months old, 3 Southdown Wethers ; deadweight, l5st., 15st. 4lbs., I6st. 2lbs. Class XIV. His Grace the Duke of Richmond, 20 months old .''. Soutlidown Wethtrs ; dead weiglit, IGst., 16st. Cilbs., 17st.4ibs. Class XV. Mr. W. Ilayvvard, W^eston Turville, won premium of 5 sovs., 32 months old, 3 Southdown \Vbtliers ; dead weight, lost. 51bs., 16st. 71bs., 17at. 51bs. , loose I'at, 7st. His Grace the Duke of llichniond, 32 months old, 3 Southdown Wethers ; dead weight, lost. 21bs., l{!.^t. 41bs., 19st. His Grace tiie Duke of Norfolk, SS months old, 3 Southdown Wethers; dead weiglit, 18st. lib., lOst. 511)s., 51st. Bight Hon. Earl of Lovelace, 52 months old, 3 Southdown Wetliers ; de;id weight, lost, olbs., 17st. lib , I7st. 2lhs. Mr. John Harris, Jlinton, 32 months old, 3 South- down Wethers; dead weight, 24st., 22st. 4lbs., 21st. 2lbs. E. G. Barnard, Esq., M.P., Gosfield Hall, 33 months old, 3 Soutlul )vvn Wethers ; dead weight, 19st. 2lbR., 19st. 4ihs., I9st. (Jlbs. Mr. B. Kersey, Hadleigh, under 34 months old, 3 Southdown Wethers; dead weight, iSsi. 4lb3., average. Class XVI. M. W. TempK', Heston, won premium of 10 sovs., 35 weeks old, 3 Imperial Bucks. Pigs; dead weight, 44st. 81b., 43st. 41bs., 48st. Mr. R. Wortheyson, 1'>rockhurst, won premium of 5 Sovs., 34 weeks old, 3 Warwickshire Pigs ; 28st. each. Right Hon. Earl Harhorough, 25 weeks old, 3 Nea- politan iind Chinese Pigs ; dead weight, 16st. each. Mr. J. Crnwlher, Isleworth, 26 weeks and 2 days old, 3 Middlesex Pigs; dead weight, 32st. each. EXTRA STOCK. Mr. C. Large, of Broadwell, Oxon, a silver medal, for best Slieep in extra stock, along-vvoolled ewe ; 35st., 56 months old. Mr. J. Crawther, of Isleworth, a silver medal, for the best Pig in extra stock, 30 weeks and 2 days, improved Middlesex Pig; 24st. 4lb. THE FARMER'S ALMANAC. -We are happy to see that the farmers have now an almanac specially adapted for their own use. Almost every trade and profession has one, of liiese very u^^ctul publications ; and it is only justice to themselves that the farmers, so numerous and important a body, should enjoy a simi'ar advantage. " 1 he Farmer's Almanac aud Calendar for 1841," is the commencement of, we trust, a long^ series, for every success is deserved, both as regards the intrinsic usefulness of the publication aud the great care and skill with which the editors, iMessrs. Jqhnson and Shaw, have executed their task. The " Farmer's Calendar," a series of notices adapted to each month, as it is the eiiii^t feature in this new almanac, appears to us highly vaUiiihle. We have besides a list of fairs throughout the kingdom, of agricultural societies, and a grtat variety ot ujelul tables, besides all the informa- tion required by ordinary readers. In tlic list of agri- cultural societies we have tiuliced some errors and some delicienoies, but the wonder i-. that upon the wliole so much accuracy and fulness have been attained. The ii.t of the Ilouje of Commons is not^o correct as it ought to be; but these are mo'.es in the sunbeam. We re- commend the work to our fanning readers with the ut- most conhdence and i>lws\ii\:.— Kendal Merciny. 128 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MAPvK- LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— In one of your valuable papers in July last, and also in the Funner's Magazine of that month, I read a letter signed J. D., on the cultivation of " poor clay lands," in which the subject is elaborately dncus- sed'. I am so unfortunate as to be the occupier of a poor clay farm ; and always read with great attentiou any article that treats on the culture of such soils, hoping to meet with information which may put rae in a better system of management than I now practice. I assure your talented correspondent, 1 write this in the true spirit of friendly discussion, seeking for information on a perplexing subject; and should I appear to differ from him in any of his propositions, it is with the desire of learning more fiora him, than with any certain conviction that he is wrong in what he ad- vances. ., , , , i I consider the culture of these soils of the greatest importance to the country, and the subject cannot be too frequently introduced ; for it is my firm opinion, that there lays hidden within twenty inches of the surlace of clay soils, a source of wealth, which, under a proper system of management would be brought to light, and prove of the greatest advantage, not only to the owners and occupiers of such lands, but of immense importance to the community at large, in yielding a vast addi- tional produce for the national consumption ; and ren- der us more independent of foreigners for the bread we eat. , . ■ t irv From the description of the soils to which J. D. immediately refers, they must be of a very inferior kind, as he values them atfrom 8s. to 16s. an acre. He remarks, " drilling of wheat can seldom be practised ; the wetness of the lands and very awkward form of the ridges, lying in crooked, unequal, and serpentine breadths, present a great obstacle to any attempt at drilling by machinery." From this, the land to which he alludes, lays in what we call ridge and furrow, and consequently at some period was cultivated by the plough. If this was the case, we certainly with all our modern improvements, have rather receded in the science of agriculture than advanced, if such soils can- not now be cultivated to advantage. Observe, he says, "from Iheivelncss of the lands, &c., they cannot be drilled," it appears, therefore, that the only means now used to take off the surplus water are the same as in the days of our f.ire-fathers— merely laying the lands in the form of segments of a circle, that the water might naturally find its way on the surface to the fur- rows ; and forcing a channel down them, makes its egress as it can. Under such circumstances, 1 am not surprised to hear, that there cannot be grown " green or leguminous crops," or, in fact any other. Your correspondent siiys, "along practice in cul- tivating them (clay soil*), where the fallows amounted to 150 acres annually ;'' surely he never was so un- fortunate as to have such a quantity of undruined clay fallows in his occupation, for in such a case he really would require our sympathy. He further observes, " it remains to be seen what difference will be made in the-e soils by the modern system of furrow-draining ; whether it will render them more loose and friable, and more fitted for green plants." 1 am constrained from the apparent doubt which J. D, expresses, as to the efficacy of draining on such lauds, to make a few ob- servations upon this important point. From what practice I have had in the culture of clay land, I am convinced it is utterly useless to have Ihem otherwise than in pasture, unless they are judiciously and thoroughly drainkd ; and I am rather surprised to hear the undetermined manner in which your corres- pondent speaks of this, the greatest of all modern im- provements in the cultivation of heavy, tenacious, clay soils, I believe it to be essential to have the surplus water quickly taken off such land by systematic drain- ing, before at^y rotation of crops can be produced to advantage. I do not say that it would render them c:\pable of growing all green crops, but 1 am convinced the leguminous kinds might be grown : neither do I assert that a summer-fallow could always be disj.enspd with, for I am well aware the great difficulty there is in keeping poor clay soils clean without pursuing this course ; but, if the drill be used in putting in the seed, and the hone hoe. frequently worked, I think it prac- ticable to adopt the system of alternate fallow and green crop in each rotation. The green crop, which I take is tares ; I find them more certain than any other, and they are very useful as feed for sheep, or soiling horses ; but should be sufficiently early to get the land worked during the summer. J. D. speaks of spring tares in preference to the winter, but I always use the latter when I intend to avoid a summer fallow, and sow them as early as possible after the land is cleared of its crop. If the season be favourable in the spring they will be a good pasture for sheep in April, when 1 give them a portion at a time ; and as they eat them, the plough fallows, and turning up a deep fur- row, which I afterwards work with " Biddell's Scara- fier," and " Crosskill's Clod-crusher," and generally manage to get it in a good state to receive manure and lime by October, when I plough it up-hill, and so it lays throughout the winter. Land which has pro- duced a green crop, I think better sown with oats or barley than wheat, because the winter has such effect upon the soil, that early in the spring it may be drilled after running a light scuffler or harrow before the drill. Perhaps J. D. will exclaim, " this plan will not do with my stubborn, tenacious, poor clay land, and the awkward manner in which the ridges lay." I de not heed how the ridges lay, or how tenacious the soil may be ; if the land be but well drained, I would be bound to use the drill, always working it crossways of the ridges. I confess this culture requires power, and proper implements ; and it is no use a person farming such land unless he has sufficient to employ six hotses, because the necessary implements could not be worked, at particular times, with less. I have already, Mr. Editor, trespassed so long upon your patif nee, that it would be imprudent to enter into further details of draining, rotation of crops, or general management ; but I would venture to recommend to your correspondent to try a thorough system of drain- ing ; for, until he gets the surplus water out of such land, I am persuaded it is in vain to cultivate them. He would soon find whether it would make these soils " more loose and friable, and more fitted for green crops,"— in this respect I will venture to predict he would not be disappointed. In discussions of this na- ture I see no reason for using any other than one's own name. Geo. Kilby. WRENTHAM FAR.MERS' CLUB, JMONTHLY MEETINGS ;— Subjects for discussion :— Flbrvary. Tlie best method of rearing cattle, and of improving the native breed. March. On the application of nitrate of soda. Api;il. On the most improved varieties of beet and Swedes for cultivation, Ai'KiL. On the proper application of farm-yard ma- nure. To what crops can it be most beneficially ap- plied ! June. The advantage of horse-hoeing for the purpose of cleaning the root crop, Ji'i.v. On the cultivation of lucerne. J I'LY. The practical effects of subsoil plougliing to be reported, and its utility reconsidered. SEPiEnicr.u. On the breed of sheep best adapted for this neiglibourhooil, combining weight and quality of fleece, with aptitude to fatten. OcioiiKii, The best method of planting wheat, November. 'I'he breed of cattle best adapted for graz- ing purposes. It is in contemplation to form a Farmers' Club at Sudbury, nfter the plan of that at Woodbridge and ITadleigh, for the purpose of discussing questions con- ntcted with the improvement of agriculture. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 129 ON TURNIP CULTIVATION. TO THE EDITOR OF Till'. IMAHK LANK EXPRESS. Sir, — In your paper of Monilay, December 14tli, 1 read a letter reprinted from the I5iiry Post, and originating from your practical corres- pondent Rustlats ; its piui)ort is an examination into the best system of cultivating our root crops, particularly the Swede turni]). The writer, it appears, i=; not satisfied with the ordinary acreablc produce raised in his district, and cites an account which appeared in the Express, ;'.Oth December, 1839, from a Mr. James Scongal, of F5ii!g;ona, in Scotland. This account alludes to the great supe- riority (as shown in experiment) of autumnal preparation to spring ; Rusticus also refers to Mr. Matson's statement of having grown from 40 to 4.") toi'iS to the acre, and concludes his communication with an extract from my letter to the Mark Lane Express, Kith December, 18:5;», — "Mr. Uarratt, of Agden, near Altringham, in 183;? produced up- wards of 54 tons of mangel wortzel to tlie acre, and the successful candidate for the premium of £5, oftered by the Manchester Agricultural Society in 1838, had a crop of six acres weighing 39 tons to the acre." Now, Sir, the re-appearance of this, and you, in your editorial remarks on Rusticus's letter, having expressed a rather Jinn hesitation as to the vera- city of such statements, is the occasion of my taking up my pen at this time ; because for five days out of the six 1 walk not less than ten miles in surveying and directing one of the most in- teresting and important agricultural improvements now i)rogressing in this countr}' ; add to this a farm in band on my own account, the rental of which is some hundred pounds per annum ; therefore practical men will readily believ-e that my time may be tolerably occupied without en- gaging myself in newspaper controversies of any kind — however, feeling myself called upon, I will proceed and add some further testimony by giving the weights of several crops I have assisted to weigh in November last, for a few of the candi- dates for the premiums offered by the Manchester Agricultural Society in 1810, but I must be ex- cused giving names, because the committee have not yet considered our reports. No. 1, weighed Nov. 9, part of a crop of 8 acres, average weight per perch, 514 lbs. No. 2, weighed Nov. 9, part of a croj) of 7 acres, average weight per perch, 415J lbs. No. 3, weighed Nov. 10, part of a crop of 5 acres, average weight per perch, 504 lbs. No. 4, weighed Nov. 10, a crop of mangel, 5 acres, average weight per i)ercb, 437 lbs. No. 5, weighed Nov. lOth, a crop of turnips, 10 acres, average weight per perch, 504 lbs. No. (), weighed Nov. 11, a crop of 10 acres, average weight per perch, 534 lbs. I could instance many other good crops, but No. 6 was certainly the hea\ iest which came under our notice ; however, the owner of No. 6 crop in- formed us that he had weighed (for another agri- cultural society) a crop much better than his own. In my letter to the Express, IGth Dec, 1839, I stated that it was nothing unusual with the farmers of Lancashire or Cheshire to expend more value on a single acre in manure for turnips or mangel, than the entire produce from the same extent of land was worth in Yorksliire and many other counties. Perhaps, Mr. Editor, some one or other may observe Ihat nu practical farmer will credit this statement unless they saw the crop indled and weighed — not a few perches here and there, but a whole ncre. Re that as it may, this attestation is from the pen of a practical man, one who has worlced at the various agricultural em- jiloyments from bis boyhood, and commenced farming on his own account at 18 years of age, without a parent or guardian, left entirely to lean on his own perseverance, with pecuniary resources the most trivial. I enter into these particulars, Mr. Editor, to shew you that I have some claim to the appellation of a jiractical man, and it is some gratification to know that the oi)inions of larmers on agriculttual practice are in some estimation — for it is nothing extraordinary to see and lieaa- their views set at defiance by many of our great luminaries of the present day. (See Professor Johnsoiis Lectxirc on Af/ricultural C/iemistri/, deiivereii at the Durham Farmer's Club.) In tijc Kxjjress of Dec. 21st, you observe. Sir, in your editorial column, " the improvement of the mind of the cultivator of the soil, so that his ope- rations may be guided by a knowledge of the l)rinciples on which they act, instead of looking to mere practical results, will aftbrd the most power- ful means of promoting substantial agricultural improvements." This, Sir, reads very well ; but I must observe, nevertheless, that the dependence which farmers place on practical results is, in the paper and date alluded to treated rather lightly ; and in answer allow me to observe, that 1 have read as much as most men on agriculture, both ancient and modern — scientific and practical. Within the last twenty years, I have had the direc- tion of expending many thousand jjonnds in bring- ing sterile lands of various character into cultiva- tion ; yet when comparing what I have read with what I have seen, most sincerely do I prefer and respect the unerring lessons of careful observation and experience. It is frequently asserted that agriculture and its operations are capable of receiving like aids and revolutions from chemical deduction and philosophic research, as have been rendered to the manufacturing parts of industry by similar investigations ; indeed, so common is this belief, that now we cannot read any publica- tion, from a penny journal to a costly periodical, but we shall see the same views on this all en- grossing subject reiterated ; but for my part, as an humble endeavourer in thegood cause of agri- cultural improvement, I must confess that 1 have no such exjjeciations. However, we may easily bear with opinions opposed to our own, when we think they originate from an enthusiasm to forward a calling to which wc are and ever have been devoted. It is reported of my Lord Spencer, to have said at the late anniversaryof the Smithfield Club, that it was quite as monstrous to say, that a knowledge of the soil and its qualities was absurd, as saying thirty years ago, that steam power could not be used to propel vessels through the water. Now I should consider such a saying, in respect to the soil, as the noble earl alluded to as extravagant knowledge, I suppose to be correct information ; whether wc can apply every variety of knowledge extensively to our immediate pecuniary advantage or not, is another question. Surely it will be admitted, that wc may have correct^deas on some subjects, but at the same time, not much available in any other, than in intellectual consideration — and in the application of steam power to certain purposes, and chemistry to agriculture, there is a vast distant diflferencc — no similitude in the com- parison. I write this with all due respect to Lord 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Spencer, because, T believe, there is no man more respects truth and candour than that noble earl, whclher he is regarrled in his once commanding station as a public functionary, or now a ])rivate gentleman. 1 have said there is no similitude in the com- parison ; my reasons ought therefore to be required. 1 will proceed to give them, and first — because, steam power is the lesult and product of human industry applied to nature's productions, and con- sequently can be employed with structures of human invention — hut not to any extent in pro- gressing or retarding the economy of nature's rule. (Jliemistry has indeed wrought aivew era in our manufacturing industry— thus, cloth or yarn will now in our times by chemical process be brought to a fancied state of maturity in fewer days than weeks formerly ; this enchatiting science has done the same in dyeing, printing, and in almost every department wl\ere it has been successfully employed. Steam power hns wrought wonders, almost we may say it has stretched out the common duration of human life ; but for all this, who can suppose seriously, that any human efforts can be introduced with the same purpose and end in nature's province, and thereby give anew direction to her ever unvarying course, which she has hitherto required for maturing those indispensables, on which all ammality depends. My letter is already much longer than first intended ; liowever, being so far advanced on a subject exciting now so much interest and well-deserving every careful explanation, I vish to proceed with a few more remarks : — In tlie Aihcnamm Journal of English and Foreign Literature and Fine Aits, for October last, I have read an abstract from Professor Lcibig's new chemical views relating to agri- culture.* This was read by Professor Graham, at the late meeting of the British Association ; and in commendation of the work. Dr. Gregory stated, that he had studied Leibig's production, " that in his opinion from this day (Sept. 19, 1840) might be dated a new era in the agricultural art, from the ])rinciples established with such sound sagacity, by Professor Leibig." I have read the same over several times, and admit some of Leibig's views are correct, and all arc also in- teresting to the philosophic farmer; but at the same time, I question whether these delicate enquiries can be of much use to the practical man in his wide range of practice; because the principles and proceedings for success on his farm, do not depend on such nice calculations as are required in compounding aphysician's prescription — no ; his operations must be on a broad and bold scale, having for essential, effectual drainage, where there is superabundant moisture, deep worliing of his soil, and finally, pulverizingit, always bearing in mind, that twenty-shillings worth of manure properly applied, is of more value than a sovereign. A good farmer will take every possible advantage to perform his labours in good weather and due season ; add to this— to crown all his efforts with success — indeed, he must generally estimate his wit at less positive value than his perseverance. But, again to Dr. Gregory and his new era, — I mean no offence ; still.with every good feeling, we may ask of the lcarne(T Doctor, what are the tangible effects ■wc expect immediate from the time he made the de- * In the part referred to, as published in the AiheiKEum, I do not see much that is new ; let the inquirer consult Sir Humphrey Davy's Agricultural Chymistry. claration. Will there be one single bushel of wheat added to our next year's crop, solely the consequence of these new discoveries; for my part, I do not expect so much— yet, I am not the least disposed, (even had I the power) to lessen the favourable reception which Professor Leibig's work has met with amongst lenrned men. 'I'hese remarks are intended to qualify declarations and expectations unlikely to be realized — not to damp to contemn enquiry ; for I can say with truth, that no one could hardly have had more delight in reading productions relative to the economy of the vegetable kingdom than I have had ; day after day have I taken Sir Humphrey Davy's lectures on Agricultural Chemistry with me into the fields, there to read when my presence has been required to direct a practice, the theory of v\hich, he in many correct ideas, and always language beautiful, endeavoured to illustrate ; and, in concluding, I would wish to introduce an observation once made to me by a venerable Doctor, now living, second to few in good nature, and to none in philosophic acquirements, (Dr. Dalton of Manchester.) " These deep inquiries, however interesting to the curious, are more suited to those who have leisure, the proprietors of the soil ;" and in ray own humble judgment, not of that imperative importance to the practical man, they are almost universally held to be by the educated classes of the present day. I am. Sir, yours respectfully, A Lancashire Agriculturist, Jan. 14, 1841, near Manchester. TO MR. MATSON. Df.ai! Sir, — I quite agree with you, " that the soil of England is capable of being made to pro- duce twice as much as it now does ;" but we have much to learn and to unlearn, before this can be accomplished. You would verj' much contribute towards such a desirable result, if you would have the kindness to reply to the following queries, as it is evident there must be something very different in your mode of culture to that used by farmers generally, or you never could produce such heavy crops as you do at Wingham. I have waited till the busy time of agricultural meetings, &c., was over, before making this request ; but now, that we farmers have more time than usual to read and to write, I hope you will be able to oblige me. I make the application thus publicly, because I am confident your answers will benefit thousands, as much as I am sure they will do — yours, very sincerely, John Maxwell Tvlden. 1. After v.'hat crop do you grow turnips ? 2. What sorts do you prefer? 3. What: is your manner of cultivation, ridge, or drilled, or broadcast? 4. Hoiv much manure per acre, audof what kiodl 5. What is the nature of the soil of your farm ? 6. What is your course of cropping ? 7. How often do you plough your ground for turnips, and when? 8. Do you fold, or draw them off to be used in your yard*? 9. What crop succeeds turnips? 10. How many acres of turnips do you generally grow, and what do you consider to be the average quan- tity grown? You will perceive that these queries principally apply to the turnip crop, but any other information regarding your other crops, wheat especially, will be of the greatest service. J. M. T. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 131 ON THE EXTENSION OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE IN ITS APPLICATION TO AGRI- CULTURE. Arlicles of the most delicate texture are m;Kle, and machinery of the most complicated character is put togetiier by men, whose skill in performing iheir work is purely mechanicul; and who, never occupying their minds in inveslii:;ating the prin- ciple upon which the results which ihey produce, depend, can never be regarded in any other ])oiiit of view ihau as useful animal machines. \\ hat- ever be their occupation or pursuit, it would be vain to expect any improvement in it from such men ; whilst the mere workman, if he be inclined to reflect, may, by observation atid reflection, ob- tain such an intimate knowledge of the principles upon which his operations are based, as to enable him to effect improvements in the application of the materials which he employs. Information ac- quired from a record of the experience of others, will, it cannot be doubted, give tlic possessor of it very superior advantages over him who hatli wholly to depend upon his own personal expe- rience, and a lucid explanation of the qualities of materials employed, — of the manner in which any given system works, — in short, to use a familiar phrase, a plain statement of " the wiiy and the wherefore" as regards effects produced, whethtt applied to nature or art, must materially contribute to promote improvement in the practice of any art, in the pursuit of any occupation. If these remarks are correct, in reference to all other occu- pations, they are most cogent in their application to agriculture. There is a something in particular soils which renders the effect of the application of lime, in promoting their fertility very great, whilst in some instances, from the absence it is to be presumed of that' somethings it is powerless, and in others it is prejudicial. The same observations apply in refe- rence to the use of bones as a manure. The fer- tilising effects of Nitrate of Soda have been most satisfactorily proved by the testimony of a great many persons in different parts of thecountry ; but we have reports from some who have used it without the slightest improvement in the produce of the crop to which it was applied. Experience will, doubtless, in the course of time, determine upon what soils TS'itrate of Soda may be applied bene- iicially, as well as those upon which no good re- sult can be expected ; but it would be a very great advantage if the particular soils to which it is adapted could be pointed out at once. A farmer may occupy a farm on which there are several soils, varying in character in a greater or less degree. Exercising a due caution, lie may try an experi- ment with Nitrate of Soda upon a moderate scale, and finding the result fully answer his expectation, he may be induced to apply it upon a large scale in the following year. On the second trial it may best suit his arrangements to apply it to land on another part of his farm, where the soil is diti'erent, and disappointment and loss may result from its not being adapted to soil of that character. These are cases in which science should step in and aid practice. We know there are those who contend that agriculture has riottiing to expect trom science, we are decidedly of the coi;trary opinion, and we know that many experienced practical far- mers are daily becoming converts to our views. We hear constantly of men wlio justly enjoyed the reputation of being good farmers in their neighbourhood, removing to another part of the country, and there utterly filling in their system of management, and ultimately becoming ruined. This is the consec[uence of possessing a merely local practical knowledge. Practical knowledge is absolutely essential to a farmer, but the more science is superadded the more extensively will his knowledge be applicable. The great question with those who estimate highly tlie application of science to agriculture, now is to devise the best means by which the knowledge of the sciences which bear upon agri- culture can be disseminated. A commencement has been made, and the course which has been adopted should be apjdied as extensively as pos- sible. Farmers' Clubs afford great facilities for the communication of scientific information through tlie medium of lectures. Professor Ilenslow de- livered an interesting lecfureon the diseasesof wheat, at a meeting of the Iladleigh Farmers' Club. Profes- sor Johnston delivered a lecture to the members of the Durham Farmers' Club, and we have read a letter from a correspondent, in which he states "that i\Jr. Pettinger, surgeon, of Sulton-upon- Trent, Nottinghamshire, delivered a very able lecture on Monday evening, .Tan. 4lh, to the mem- bers of the Carlton Farmers' Club, on the manner in which soil acts in producing or facili- tating the germination and growth of plants." Mr. Pettinger has taken a step which we think merits the attention of the whole body of the medi- cal profession resident in the countiy ; he has pointed out the means whereby they may greatly increase the important benefits they already confer upon the community, and that too in a mode which will elevate the profession as contributing to im- prove the minds, and increase the knowledge of the members of the most important class in the country. Chemistry is a science with which all medical men are more or less acquainted. Botany is by no means alien to the profession, and is studied by many of them. The attending lec- tures, whilst prosecuting their studies, affords them an opportunity of attaining the habit of lecturing. In the commencement of their practice, at least, there are few who have not a considerable portion of spare time. The devotion of a part of that time to the preparation of lectures on che- mistry, in its application to agriculture, — on the physiology of plants, — and other such subjects, would not be an unprofitable application of it, even as regards the practice of their profession ; and the delivery of lectures before the members of a Farmers' Cltib, or other meeting composed of individuals of the same class, called together for the especial purpose, would not be an unprofitable or illegiti- mate mode of displaying the talent of the lecturer. Farmers' Clubs and Agricultural Libraries, must become general throughout the country, and there will be found five or six medical practitioners within the district to which each club extends, so 132 THE FARxMER'S MAGAZINE. that were our suogeslioii adopted, scientific in- iormalion might be communicated to tiie farmers upon a most extensive scale, at tiie iiands of gen- tlemen qualified by liaving received a iiroFessior.al education. This suggeslion may perhaps by some be deemed impracticable ; but we do not despair of seeing- it adopted, if not generally, at least to a considerable extent. HADLEIGH FARMERS' CLUB. FIRST ANNUAL REPOllT. In presenting the first annual report of the Flad- leigh Farmers' Club, j'our committee beg briefly to revert to the origin of its establishment, which resulteil from a meeting of se\'eral gentlemen on the 2n(i of December, 18'.'>9 ; who, seeing their neighbours around forming themselves into soci- eties for the improvement of agriculture, they de- sired not to be behind, but instrumental in the promotion of so important an object, viewing it as beneficial, not only to the farmer himself but to the community at large ; as the interchange of thoughts and practices, and the results of expe- riments made known, must of themselves tend greatly to advance and disseminate useful inform- ation amongst those persons whose science it is to produce the necessaries of life ; and while manu- factures and commerce have made their rapid strides in improvement in the various branches of their arts, arising in a great measure from their facilities of communication, and eager watchfulness over their respective interests, tbis all-important body, comparatively speaking, have i)een quite at a stand-still, if not in the retrograde movement. A set of rules was proposed, which met the ap- proval of a subsequent meeting, numerously at- tended, on the 20th of December, when a chair- man and other officers were elected for the year ensuing. Your committee, in reporting the proceedings of this club for the past year, and endeavouring to give an outline of the discussions which have taken place, feel fully aware that nothing very particular or new exhibits itself, but that many interesting remarks have been elicited, conducive to mutual improvement. The first subject discussed was the keeping of farm horses. 2nd. The effects of lime and salt. 3rd. The relative value of manures. 4th. " On sheep" — the best kind for breeding, and the best for grazing in this neighbourhood. 5th. The advantages of tares, ra[)e, and other green crops for summer feeding and soiling, and their relative value to the land, and stock ^hich are fed upon them. Gth. The best manner of preparing the land so as to ensure a plant, and the best kind of roots for general feeding. 7th. The best time to cut the different grasses for making into hay and stover, and the best man- ner of managing them in the field, and in the stack. Sth. The best time and mode of cutting the dif- ferent grain and pulse, and the best method of harvesting the same. 'Jth. The best manner of preparing and deposit- ing seed wheat, and the merits of the different varieties. 10th. The best method of storing roots for winter feeding. The first meeting in January, on the subject of keeping f-irni horses, was entertained by the va- rious modes adopted by different members, the re- sults of which were nearly equal ; an opinion was expressed with regard to the number ofhorses, and the mode of their keep, as depending in some mea- sure upon the soil upon which they had to work ; also the better the horses were kept, the value of the manure was so much the greater; and after much discussion the following resolution was agreed to. " Tliat, allowing five horses to work lOO acres of arable land, each horse could not be kept under lis. to 15s. per week, during the winter months." This subject being concluded, the effects of lime and salt wre next brought under consideration, uj)on which Mr. Farrow, of Ipswich, gave much interesting information upon the chemical nature and operation of them upon the soil ; several other members stated their experience upon the trials made, which were very beneficial upon light land. The subject which engaged the attention of the next meeting, in February, was the relative value of manures, on which some members stated many in- teresting facts, as to the use of saltpetre upon light land ; and a valuable statement was made by a member, who had tried bone dust for turnips in comparison with 11 chaldrons of rich compost, which terminated in favour of bone dust ; the cost of pro(luctio7i, and value of turnips, being about tOs. per acre. Kiln dust and wood ashes were highly recommended ; the subject was ad- journed to obtain further information on many ex- periments now mnking by several members. At the meeting in March, the discussion was upon the different breeds of sheep, and their apti- tude to fatten, as adajjted to this neighbourhood ; this gave rise to a most interesting discussion, which was very important, and much practical in- formation was given. It would occupy too much space to give the evidence in detail ; but the pure Southdown were considered the most valuable for breeding, as the Southdown ewe is the foundation upon which to begin, and likewise very hffrdy. Against this it was urged, the Down and' Norfolk ewe, crossed with the Leicester tup, was more pro- fitable, and the sheep Iietter nurses. V/ith regard to the best description for grazing, the general opinion was in favour of the half-bred Down and Leicester, as a cross strengthens the breed for grazing. It was also urged that sheep, i)ossessing across between the Down and Norfolk, as three quarters Down and one quarter Norfolk, was a good kind of sheep for grazing ; but after various statements, the following resolution was agreed to: — " That for breeding, the pure Southdown isthe most valuable ; and for grazing, the most profitable is the half-bred Down and Leicester." In April, the chairman having received a com- munication from the Royal Agricultural Society, relative to the remedies to be applied for arresting the progress of the disease now prevalent amongst cattle, it was read by the Secretary ; and a member proposed that the subject which stood for discus- sion that evening should be waived for a short time, and those members who had suffered from the disease, should give their opinion ujjon it, with their method of treatment, and the Secretary to transmit them, with anyothcr information he cordd collect, coupled with a vote of thanks from the club, to the Iloyal Agricultural Society for their THE rAFlMlill'S MAGAZINE. 133 rhciilar, and rc((iicsting some more copies, whicli they should lie liappy to purchase. 'I'he general opinion was, that hlcedirig and gen- tle purgatives were most essential, and a dressing for the feet, made of hnlf a pound of soft soap, half a poinid of resin, half a jionnd of Venice tur- pentine, to he api)lied every other day. The Royal vSociety acknowledged the coinimini- cation, and sent fifty copies of tlic circular gratis. The suhject of green cropping was afterwards introduced, and after along discussion respecting the advantages and disadvantages attendant upon sowing green crops, it was resolved una- nimously : — "That tares arc the most advantageous green cro]), esi)ccially on heavy land, for feeding and soiling, and generally beneficial to both land and stock." The next meeting in May, was engaged in the discussion of the best manner of preparing the land so as to ensure a plant, and the best kind of roots for feeding stock. The member who inti'oduced the subject, spoke very highly of the use of Biddell's scarifier, as a material assistance in pre[)aring the land, which was fully supported by such members as hnd made a trial of that implement, but they being few, the general ])ractical information was limited. Ridging the land was the unanimous opinion as bc.it, for the cultivation of beet, and some mem- bers maintained the same oi)inion in the cultiva- tion of Swede turnijis ; and after much discussion the following resolution was agreed to, for prepar- ing the land : — " Cleaning it as soon as possible after the corn is removed, by scarifying with Biddell's scarifier, and ploughing the last niontli previous to sowing the seed; not to jilough the land, hut keep it clean by scarifying and harrowing, so as not to expose it to the sun. In preparing the land for heet root, all that it re(iuires should be performed in the autumn, and put on the ridge before Christmas." The resolutions rcspcding the best sorts were as follows :• — For early feed, the Norfolk white turnip. For winter feed, the purple top Swede. For spring feed, in yards and sheds, red or purple beet ; and the best adapted for ev/cs and lambs, the green round turnip. At the monthly meeting in June, the best time to cut the diiTercntgrasscs, for making into hay and stover, and the best manner of managing them in the field, and on the stack — was brought forward for discussion ; the member introducing it, recom- mending the practice of beginning to cut clover as soon as the heads are upon full bloom, or Just as they begin to change colour, as much quality is lost if allowed to stand longer after cutting ; to be once turned, and then got upon the cock as soon as possible. Another opinion was entertained, recommend- ing it to lay upon the swathe a sufficient time to get thoroughly mside, then to turn it, and cart it the same day without cocking, as there is less loss of leaf j some members strongly recommended the use of salt when it is put upon the stack, (about a peck to the load) and also to be well shaken, and not put together by fork-fulls : the stack after- wards raked into shape. This subject having been closed, the following resolution was agreed to : — " Thebesttime tocut cloveris as soon as the for- ward or first heads begin to change in colour ; to lift it as soon as sufficiently raade upon the top \ the next day turn it, and put tipon the cock ; the cocks before carting to be well shaken and then carted to the stack. Grass when cut, to be well shaken, and put upon the grass cock as soon as ])ossible, and made without exposing it to the sun more than necessary." The subject which engaged the attention of the eight!) meeting, held in -Tulj', was the best manner of harvesting the different grains and pulse. Only one mend)er was present who had practised to any extent niowing wheat; his cvidencewent to prove the iulvantage of mowing over reaping. First, as to getting the work done much quicker, consequently chea()er. Secondly, getting an extra quantity of straw, which is more valuable than haulm. 'I'hirdly, in a fickle harvest, there was less risk from standing so long a ])eriod in the field, as from the fact of the sheaves not being tied so tightly, they became dry much quicker, the air circulating more freely through them. Another advantage is, as soon as the wheat is carted, the land is ready for ])re- jiaring any future crop, as tares, rye, turnips, &c., or any thing rcfjuired. An interesting discussion was entered into njion different plans, and the fol- lowing resolution was agreed to : — " 'i'hat the he>tt modehc adjourned to some future meeting, to obtain further evidence from other members who were likely to try mowing in the en- suing harvest ; and the best time for cutting the different grain, and most advantageous to the far- mer, is to allow it to get ripe, and generally bene- ficial to turn bailey before it is carted." August being harvest month, no meeting took place. In September, the best manner of preparing and depositing seed wheat, came before the meeting for discussion, when a variety of preparations were stated to have been practised, some members using arsenic, others hot water and lime ; hut a solution of blue vitriol appeared to be the plan most gene- rally adopted ; the efficacy of this plan having been tested by the use of bladdered stock. The subject being an inqiortant one, and the dis- cussion not having been fully gone into, especially upon the latter part, viz., " the depositing the seed," — it was adjourned to the next meeting, and a proposition made to consider, in addition, "the merits of the diftcrent varieties." In October, the adjourned discussion of prepar- ing and depositing seed wheat, with the addition, to consider the merits of the different varieties, came before the meeting, and striking testimony was adduced in favour of blue vitriol. Onepoundof blue vitriol, dissolved in onepail of water. The me- thod r(!Commended,isto mix in a dipping tub, suffi- cient quantity to wet a coomb of wheat, then stir it about well for a minute or two, and after havin^ skimmed all refuse and light kernels, drain the liquor ofl", and put it upon the floor, when in a few hours it is fit for use ; but should it occur that the weather will not permit its immediate use, it is recommended to break down the heap and spread it out thinly. On " depositing the seed," some diversity of opinion prevailed, v/hethcr by drill or dibble was the preferable i)lan ; also upon the depth of putting in the seed, and the quantity of seed used ; the drill apjieared to be the method more generally adopted for planting whca", and to use a moderate quantity of seed, say two bushels per acre. Rlost members were inclined to put the seed in to the dejith of two or three inches. Seve- :al members recommended very strongly, where it was practicable, to get the land jjloughed up as early as possible, (say a month or six weeks before 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. planting) as having a very beneficial effect upon the produce. Many different varieties were spoken very highly of. The Pettit wheat, and the Cop- dock red, were general favourites as red wheats ; and the Essex white, and Brown's Clievalier, were generally approved ; but the results of the same variety of wheats upon different soils seemed so much at variance, that it was impossible to decide upon the merits of any one kind for universal adoption. The debate being closed, the following resolution was agreed to : — "That the best manner of preparing seed wheat is in a solution of blue vitriol, not less than one pound of vitriol to 2 pails of water. With regard to the manner of planting, dibbling is considered to be the most productive on light lands, and drilling upon mixed soil and heavy land." At the last meeting in November, an excellent and splendid shew of roots took place, which were the admiration of all members present. Messrs. Matthews, Green, and Sallows officiated as judges, who gave universal satisfaction. The meeting was occupied in the discussion of the best method of storing the same. JNlany plans were mentioned, but the following mode was pre- ferred by themajority of the meeting : — Make long clamps from two to three yards wide, lay the roots regularly on the outside in shape of a roof about five or six feet high, cover them up well with straw, and afterwards with earth about eight inches thick, leaving the top open for a month, without any earth, to allow the evaporation to escape. A mem- ber strongly recommended having all the roots laid in order, as they v;ere more certain of keeping, and an opinion was expressed, recommending in the spring uncovering them of theearth, and leav- ing the straw upon them. As the best method of preserving the Swede turnip for feeding in the yard, it was urged that clamping them as beet, with the top merely wrung ofl", was a good plan, as they remained as fresh as when carted from the field ; and where turnips were consumed upon the land, to pull them up in January, and cover them with a little earth, prevented the turnips drawing the land , and the quality of the root was preserved. The following resolution was then agreed to : — " That the best plan of preserving beet and Swedes appears to be, by clamping them up, and covering them with earth a few inches thick, leav- ing the clamp open in places for a time to allow the heat to escape." Having thus briefly given an account of the re- solutions and proceedings of each meeting which has taken place, your committee have also the pleasing intelligence to record a great accession of members since its first monthly meeting, which was then S'i ; it now contains 85 members. A Li- brary has been formed, containing many valuable works on agricultural subjects, for some of which your committee have also to express, on behalf of the society, their grateful acknowledgments to those gentlemen who have so kindly presented them. Your committee have also examined the receipts and disbursements for the past j^ear, which leave a balance of 8/. IS*. 2d. in the treasurer's hands, which they recommend to be applied in the fur- ther purchase of books, and binding up the maga- zines and periodicals taken by the club. Your committee are unwilling to close their re- port without availing themselves of the opportu- nity of expressing their grateful sense of the valu- able services rendered by your Chairman, and by the gentlemen who have from time to time brought forward the subjects for discussion j and they would suggest the propriety of adopting a similar proceeding to that which some neighbouring clubs have followed to advantage— of determining be- fore-hand the subjects for consideration of the club for six or more succeeding meetings — and if at the same time one or two gentlemen would consent to introduce their own general views on each ques- tion, it is the opinion of the committee, that it would materially conduce, not only to the interest of the meeting by insuring a'fair and full opening of the subject, but it would at the same time afford members the opportunity of preparing and arrang- ing for each question, the evidence and opinions, they may have to lay before it. In their short experienceof the advantages aris- ing from institutions of this character, your com- mittee can but rejoice in the growing- appreciation of their value, which prevails respecting them ; and they heartily concur in the sentiment expressed in the report of the Ipswich Club, that by means of these societies spreading generally over the face of the kingdom, and communicating with each other, the whole country will idtimately become a general scene of experimental farms, united in one common interest, and in which the information of each shall become distributed, and thus minister to the permanent advantage of all. (For the Committee,) W. Grimwade, Jun., Secretary. LETTER BY LORD WESTERN, ADDRESSED TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHELMSFORD AND ESSEX AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. My Dear Sir, — I have been in the practice the last few years of annually addressing' the President of our Society, in order to give the result of a system of farm- inp: somewhat difl'erent from that pursued by the gene- rality of my brother farmers in this county, as far at least as respects one most important branch of agri- culture, VIZ., the putting- the seed wheat into the ground. The deposition of the seed is confessedly a subject cal- culated to excite the rao^t anxious attention of every intelligent cultivator ; and hence the continued discus- sions upon it, and the great diversity of opinion and of methods taken for the purpose. Broadcast is the oldest and mo-^t general, but even here differences prevail — the number of casts, the mode of casting, sowing under the furrow somedmes, as well as on the top ; then we have drilling and dibbling ; the former is the more pre- valent of the two, and in this mode the distance between the rows has been and is a subject of controversy. After all these points are settled, the quantity of seed is also a matter of great dispute ; there is no doubt that good crops, proportioned to the land, may be grown under all these different modes, if the general management is good ; but the real point to aim at is the discovei y of the best ivay to ensure a crop one year with another. It is the misfortune, or rather difficulty, we have to contend with in any attempt to improve, that years of experience are necessary to arrive at and establish the value of any particular system. The conflict of opinions renders it so difficult to come at the truth. I would not give up altogether the light which may be let in by a variety of comparative experiments upon a sma/i scale; but lean- not help fearing they may occasionally mislead, and they can never be decisive. Experiments to prove compara- tive merit must, to be effectual, be upon a scale suffi- ciently extensive to obviate the consequences of rnistake, negligence, or prejudice. All young farmers, in their first start, are very fond of petty experiments ; they ge- nerally fancy they must make some grand discovery — they must distinguish themselves in some way before they are versed in the rudiments of science, and expect THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 135 to establish their fame by tliese petty means. Burkt', whose profound knowledge of every branch of science was perhaps unrivalled, and who ivas himself a prac- tical farmer, always said, that the science of aj^^ri- culture required more c i perience, more patience and perseverance, more foresight, more care and caution, more devoted attention, than any other, I subscribe to his opinion, and think that without those qualities and advantages it is impossible for a man to be a pro- ficient in tile art; I will, at the same time, admit that there are exceptions to this rule, and a genius will sometimes strike out new lights in a science of which the individual possessing such genius may uot Lavo been a regular student ; and it has ever been my anxious desire to encourage genius as far as lay ill my power, wherever it was distinctly shown to exist. 1 have recently taken an active part and very warm interest in two singular instances of inventive genius rising above science: the first, that of the screw to propel vessels instead of the ])addle. I Lave no hesitation in declaring my perfect conviction, that the screw will sooner or later supersede the pad- dle for every purpose of steam-navigation, and more particularly ships of war. The inventor, Mr. Frederick Smith, is the son of a farmer near llythe, and was himself bred to farming business.'' The other case to which I allude is the discovery of a very superier system of suspension- bridge building, by IVIr. Dredge ; and it is founded upon so correct and just a principle, that it must eventually be adopted, and triumph over the preju- dice whicli, 1 am sorry to say, it has to contend with : Mr. Dredge is a brewer at Uath.t I cannot therefore deny that improvements may be struck out even in the science of agriculture by ge- nius, and their utility established ; but the instances will be very rare— they are indeed rare in other sci- ences. It is scarcely necessary for me to assure )'ou, that I have not the most remote idea of any claim to genius in any deviation I have made from the gene- ral system of farming pursued by my neighbours ; instead of aspiring to genius, or aiming at origi- nality, the plan I have adopted has been to look far and wide, everywhere, tor practical lights, and the established methods followed by the most enlightened men in the best cultivated counties, and to adopt such as appear to me best suited to all circumstances of season and of soil. On that principle it is, and upon knowledge and information so ac(juired, that I have come to a conclusion in favour of a large quan- tit}' of seed and wide drilling. I found this practice general in a part of J^orfolk in which there are many superior and intelligent farmers, without mentioning the Earl of Leicester, and upon (/te/r authority I arfo^j- ted, and on mi/ own experience continue steadily to pursue, this practice. I place my rows nine inches apart, and I do not hesitate to recommend otliers to do the same, subject always to deviation, wider the discretion of the cultivators of different soih ; it is as a general practice I pursue and recommend it, 7iot an universal. It must be at least a negative proof of the value of the system, that I have grown five quar- * I think the Admiralty culpably tardy in the adoption of the screw ; the superiority of it has been practically shown in the different voyages of the Archimedes, .and in her trials against paddle-propelled vessels, besides which many of the first naval cliaracters have given decisive evidence in favour of tlie screw. Mr. Smith should have a national reward. I know that many pretend to have known the power of the screw, butofwliatuse their knowledge, if they did not practice it. Mr. Smith alone, by his genius, energy, and courage, has made it available for public service. I Engineers say they have known the principle upon which Mr. Dredge proceeds, but they never carried it out to any practicable purpose. tersnn acre all round, upon near a hundred acres, the last four years. I have thraslied 7"J quarters of this year's growth from a field of twelve acres, (6 qrs. an acrej) and I have done this repeatedly. 1 say it is at ail events a negative proof of t!ie value of the system, that in four successive years it has not prevented as large a growth of wheat as farmers can in general expect to realize ; and I think it is not too much to say, that to thispractice my successis in some degree attributable. But it is in bad seasons that its bene- ficial influence is especially found. It is in the security of a plant, nor less in the strength v>hich it gives to the early shoot to struggle against its nu- merous enemies : we have had but one year of defec- tive plant since I adopted it, and then I had not a single failure, while nearly all my neighbours around rae suffered severely; when the plant first appears above! ground, the number of ends protect each other, and the very earh^ growth is more rapid. The greater number of roots get a stronger hold in the ground, so that if rabbits or other vermin bite off the blades, they will not be so much loosened, and consequently not so subject afterwards to be roof -/ii/- len, winch is certainly a grievous misfortune when it occurs, and which is not unfrequent. I'hen the slug, the grub, the wire-worm, are less able to destroy it. A correspondent writes as follows, after declaring himself a convert to my opinion in favoar of a large quantity of seed : — " These thia plants from a small quantity ofseedmust be more sub- ject to mildew than a thick plant is — the inclemency of the weather is more likely to injure a thin than a thick plant— the thin plant is more liable to the rava- ges of insects, such as the slug, the wire-worm, the grub of every description. I have this year examined many holes of set wheat, and have found two or three corns destroyed by some kind of insect after they had chitted. If wheat is thin and after- wards branches out very strong in the spring, the strong branches draw so much virtue from the stem, that many of the ears will be small and hardly bring the grain to perfection.'* It may be said, that everybody will acknowledge the advantage of a full plant, and that it may be ob- tained by other means than those I recommend ; and so it may , but the failures are many, in strong wet lands particularly. I have sufTered severely from failure and loss of plant, before I adopted my present plan of sowing wheat. The objection made to this system, and the little condemnatory experiments I have seen reported, have not, I confess, had much weight with me. I can well imagine circumstances which may give an occasional advantage to rows of five or six inches apart — for instance, in case of a very drt/ season, like the last, where the land was benefitted by being more covered and shaded, — but in general wheat requires air, and sun, and light, and tlae facility given by the wider rows, of eiYectually hoeing the land if necessary, is an advantage entitled to some consideration. I say nothing of the horse-hoe, which is a very diflS- cultand dangerous operation, not possible if the drill- ing is not straight. I have got mine straight enough, but I would attempt nothing beyond a mere spike ou the narrowest possible hoe, which, loosening the ground, enables the hand hoe to be worked more easily and effectively, and the spike or very narrow hoe may comparatively be worked by horses with little danger ; it is my ambition, however, so to farm that the hoe- ing of wheat may never be necessary. I will now state to you my growth of last year, which is short of five quarters per acre but by two pecks only ; to this I add the growth of the seven preceding years, making together eight, and which L 2 136 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I divide info two periods of four years e-acli ; the aveiiisje growtli of ihe first four amounts to 4 qrs. 1 busli.l pic; the average of the last four 5 qrs. Obusli, 2 pks. — The details are as follow : — 1832-3 1833-4 1834-3 1835-6 A. 101 88 103 88 Qis. 485 306 414 393 0 7 Average of the first four years. 1836-7 .. 94 0 0 .. 497 0 1837-8 .. 73 0 0 .. 376 2 1838-9 .. 103 2 0 .. 523 0 1839-40 . 109 2 0 . . 544 6 Per Acre. Qs. Bl.Pk. 4 6 1 3 3 15 4 0 1 4 2 3 4 1 1 5 2 3 5 0 0 5 0 2 4 7 2 Average of the last four years 3 0 2 The largely increased quantity of the last four years may certainly be attributable, in a considerable degree, to the favourable seasons we liave experi- enced during- that period; but I cannot give more than half to the seasons, and with that liberal allowance, I think I may fairly put the other half to the credit of improved farming. lam happy to sav that the spirit of improvement with which I am inspired, evi- dently pervades the whole agricultural community, and that similar results in a greater or less degree have been realized. I do not like to make estimates of the annual growth of wheat, and the number of acres devoted to it, but the lowest estimate of the number of acres would give upon such increased production a monstrous total. I entreat the Anti Corn-law gentlemen to reflect upon the resources we thus possess within ourselves, and the incalculable advantages which arise out of the means employed to draw them forth : the increased demand for productive labour, which an improved and anulous farming gives over the languid efforts which a subdued spirit inducr^s, is incredible. As to the monopoly which is said to be given us by the corn laws, I distinctly answer that it calls forth a more elective competition at home, than would a compe- tition with the foreigners, if admitted freely to our markets: more energetic efiorts are now conspi- cuous through the empire than perhaps ever were known, and lamentable would be the consequences, and fearful tberesponsibility of Ministers, if by their means that spirit should be broken down ; tljey should pause and consider long before they attempt to intro- duce speculative legislation to interfere with, andper- ]]aps break up, established interests and engagements of such unbounded extent and importance, and ■which might produce such accumulated mischief and individual ruin. It is certainly possible that circumstances may exist which may warrant a change of policy, griev- ances may be shown that may render it necessary; but I deny that any such exist that can justify the sub- jection of British Agriculture and the substitution of foreign for our national produce: such, however, is obviously, I may say confessedly, the object of our philosophers and many of our statesmen of the pre- sent day. Let us never weary in our resistance to the plans of these reckless politicians : they are plausible, strong in oratory, have popular tojMcs to work upon, but they are dccppih-e, lictle solicitous to discover the truth, and rash enough to force upon the country any measure, however dangerous, if they can make their favourite theories triumph over ihe plain good sense of the wiser and more considerate portion of the public. I am, my dear Sir, yours, faithful and obedient, Felix Hail, Dec. 26, 1840. Western. ON BURNING THE SOIL FOR TURNIPS. Sir, — Having been a constant reader of your valuable magazine for some time, I never recollect seeing any observations on a plan now very much adopted in some jiarts of Wiltshire and Gloucester- shire, called Stijle Burniiig. The way in which it is managed is generally by ploughing the fallows across, and the couch being dragged and worked to the surface, it is raked together and lighted with a good deal of straw, being put in the heaps ; after- wards the soil is shovelled on the fires, to the depth of two or three inches, which in a short time burns completely through. As i^ractical results are more convincing than theoretical notions, and to prove that the opinion now fast gaining ground is errnneous, that burning injures the soil, the best crops of turnips and Swedes have this season been grown on this plan. Farmers who have fJlowed this method for several years declare, that the succeeding crops, are superior to wbat they were formerly, before they tried this plan. It is much to be regretted that somei)ersons, having a pretension to a knowledge of agricultural chemistry, should so far have influenced some landed proprietors against burning, as to cause them to prohibit it altogether on their estates, to the very great injury of the tenant. It is my opinion, and also of others more experienced than myself, that if this privilege of burning is set aside, many of the poor farms in this county would not be worth more than three-fourths of their present value to the occupier. 1 am. Sir, your obedient servant, n'77(67ii?-e, Jan. 5, 1841. A Young Farjier. NITRATE OF SODA. Sia,— On the 25th of April last, I sowed a ridfc in a field of wheat with Nitrate of Soda, 1^ cwt. per acre, tiie ridge adjoining with Saltpetrs, 1 cwt. 14 lbs. per acre, the ridges on each side of them receiving' ho manure; the same plan was adopted on the same day in another wbeatfiekl. The field No 1, is a gravelly ^oil ; No. 2, a wet sand, both were fallowed the prc- ceeding year. The following is the result : — No. 1. Produce per acre. Increase per acre. >-- p. Bush. Gall. Qrts. Bush. Gall. Qrts. lbs. AVitlioMt Jlmuirp . . 22 2 62i Dressed widi Sodn 26 3 1 4 1 1 62^ Petre dressed with Salt 25 6 1 •2 8 62^ AVitliout Manure .. 2a 2 1 62i No. 2. Produce per acre. Increase per acre. Without Manure . . Dressed with Sodn Petre dressed with .Salt Bush. 18 28 26 18 Gall, 3 G Qrts. 1 3* Bush. lo Gall. 2 4 Qrts. 1 lbs. 6!i 021 GlJ "^"ithout Manure . . 60i I remain, very faithfully your*, A Friend to Agricultural Improvement. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 137 ON DRAINING— LECTURES ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS— AND THE TURNIP QUESTION. Siu, — I have naited two weeks to see wlietlier Mr. Smith would or would not notice the queries of your corres]ioiideiit, the "Staft'ordshire Farmer"; and see- ing that he has not done so, I heg to make a i'aw remarks on the subject, which, if thev do not, as I am quite sure they cannot, answer the querist's jjur- pose so well as a reply from Rlr. Smith would have done, may yet tend, in some small measure, to help bim out of the difficulty which he proposes. I have seen, and have minutely examined JMr. Smith's farm at Deanston, and white I can speak in the highest possible terms of all his improvements, I cannot say a word in favour of his ditches, for 1 be- lieve he has not one upon his farm. Your corres- pondent may therefore safely conclude, in the absence of any direct information from Mr. Smith, tliat that gentleman's opinion is decidedly in fiivour of iiiaiii drains. His practice is, as the " Stafford- shire Fanner" might have learned from the pam- phlet to which be refers, to run a main drain " along the bottom of the ciiief hollow or valley of tiie grounds, where the whole or greater portion of the drains can be led into it. li' any lesser hollow's occur in the field, tliej' must also have their ]n-opoi- lional mains or leaders." " There should also be a cross submain at the bottom of every held, or stretch of drainis, to re- ceive the water irom all the parallel drains, \c. Open, cuts or ditches, either as mains or submains, should never, excejit from necessity, be adopte 1, being apt to get filled with mud and grass, by which water is thrown back into the drains, and chokes them, &c., is:c." So far your correspondent must consider that Mr. Smith's directions are clear and explicit, and that it is superfluous for any one having Mr. Smith's pam- phlet, to ask his opinion upon the subject of main drains. But, supposing a case where it is decided not to be either practicable or desirable to get rid of ditches, I should incline to thi.k that, vviiere laiicf regularly slopes to a ditch, the i)lan of making each drain in- dependent of the rest is preferable. This is rarely the case, however, and therefore great cure must always be bostowed in sotting out the submains as tributary outfalls. I am truly hapjiy to hear that the " Staflbrdshire Farmer " and his friends are tif^reed on tlie all-impoi'- tant points which he liad mentioned, viz., depth of drains, materials to be used, manner of filling up, ike. i feel a deep interest in everything that relates to draini»(/ at this moment, inasmuch as 1 am pre- paring for the press some remarks on the subject, and in consequencn, would ask the above gentlemen, as it does not seem quite clear, whether they are agreed among themselves, or do they subscribe to Mr. Smith's opinion on those ])oints? I shall be glail to hear that the latter is the fact, as, unfortunately, there are loo many drainers in the jiresentday, who fancy that no draining on clay land can do any good, it it be more than from ten to thirteen inches below the surface. If 1 mistake not, this will be found to be njntal error. As your correspondent appears to set a proptr value on Mr. Smith's o|jinions, and as he possesses that gentleman's pamphlet, 1 sincerely jiope that he Las iollowed his example, and curried nut his system of " thorough draining," with subsoil ploughing, trenching, &:c. lliie have, I for one shall feel greatly obliged by his communicating through your valuable paper, the results of his various operations; and 1 promise him in return all the assistance, either privately or through your widely-extended pages, which my small stock of knowledge and exjierience will enable me to render. On the last jioint referred toby the "Staffordshire Farmer,' and which I had well nigh overlooked, Rlr. Smith has given his opinion, as lately as lolO, in the sixth edition of his valuable " Remarks." He says — " I am still of ojiinion that small stones form the best filling tor drains, both as to elBcienc}' and permanency, and are the cheapest wherever stones are plentiful.'' As a little information on another subject mav bo acceptable to you, I send you a brief report of the proceedings of the Carlton-cn-Trent Farmers' Club, at their meeting on Monday last. After the annual business, such as re-electing the officers, &c., was over, a very able lecture on the nature and properties of soils, and the way in which they act in the pro- duction of vegetable matter, was delivered by G.Pet- tinger, Esq, surgeon, of Sutton-upon-Trent. As it is intended to bring the substance of Mr. P. 's remarks before the public, I shall only say here, that they were distinguished by great research, and a very jirofound ac(|uaintance \\ itli the whole subject. A chemical analysis of the different manures was given, which could not fail to be of great use to the farmers present. bearing oi-i the turnip question, which is now under discussion in your paper, I conclude with adding that a small bet was made by Mr. John Esaai , a sp'irited agriculturist, who is a member of the above club, that he would next year grow fifty tons jjer acre (without top or bottom) of, I think, the White Li lobe. 1 am, sir, your's truly, Cullingham, Jan.6, J, West; TARPORLEY FARMERS' CLUB. - Questions for Discussion : — Isl. — If cheese-making' can be dispensed with on Sunday without detriment to the farmer, what is the best course to adopt? 2nd. — Wliat is the best mode of ventilating cow houses'! 3ri'..— What is the best and most profitable mode of inanag'intr a clay land farm'! 4th. — What plough is the best for the nei^'hbouring diariut ? 5lh.— Will not land become poor by constant graz- ing? 6th. — What are the advantages of applying nitrate of soda to corn and other crops ; when should it be sown, and at what rate per acre 1 7ih, — What is the cheapest and best method of win- terinf,' cart horses, and the general stock of a dairy farm ? THE FARMER'S ALMANAC— We particularly recommend to our agricultural readers an exceedingly useful little work which has just been published under the above title. It has been got up under the care of Rlr. Shaw, late secretary to the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, Editor of the Farmer's Magaziue, and of Mr. Cuthbert W. Johnson, the author of several A.^-ricultural Essays, which have received prizes irom the Royal Agricultural Society of England. It contains an immense mass of information on almost every subject connected both with the science and the practice of a^'riculture, and it cannot fail to secure a very large circulation among all classes of agricultural readers, — IVestuwrelaiid Gazette. 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THEORY AND PRACTICE. TO THE KDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — It is not often any of your instructi\e papers are looked over without noticing more than one " palpable hit" against that much abused word poor Theory. It is generally placed in direct op- position to Practice, whereas that is only its fol- lower. No man is an agriculturist without having- more or less recourse to theory. Let us examine the real meaning of that term. It is derived from the Greek word Qtaopauj, which signifies to see, in other senses to look forward — to consider for the future — to plan or devise ; hence the English word theory, which bears all these meanings. Now, who ever managed or cropped land without " looking forward" to ascertain, as well as he could, and'' considering and devising" which was the best course to render it most productive? "Who ever bred stock without " considering" which was the best male to put to the female ? It is then, the handmaid, and not the opponent of practice, though too often made so by those vv'lio use words without behig aware of their real intent, or as a common slur against their superiors in understanding. It is true the jiroducts of "theory" may be sometimes extravagant, when not controlled by a proper share of judgment and experience • but this extreme ap- plies to all sorts of men, whether or not they have opportunities of reducing, as mentioned above, the " theory of farming," and the " theory of breeding" to absolute practice. Tills latter word needs no definition. There is, doubtless, a good deal to be learned by practising the art of agriculture ; but then, as in forming a good " theory," so does it require previous educa- tion and capabilities to benefit much by it. Were it not so, the labourer, who is always a greater prac- titioner than his master, would soon outstrip him in knowledge, as the keeper is generally a better shot than his lord. If mere farminfj would teach a man this useful art, how came it that — except in an instance or two — so many thousand tillers of the land should have left it, until within these last twenty years, so unimproved as it was, and it may be said as it now is ? There can be little reason to think other- wise than that an undue weight is given to jii'uctice, as heretofore, if not at present constituted, pro- vided the agriculturist has not that necessary pre- paration for the employment he follows, so as to enable him to prepare a good theory, and make just observations and inferences from all that happens to him. This can only be done by the aid of science. Strictly speaking, this word'^(from scio, scire, scirus, knowing) means to know to a certainty — to be assured of an event or result to come, as of one that is past (unless prevented by some very unusual causes) ; as, for instance, by the science of astro- nomy, we know the " sun will rule by day, and the moon by night;'' — of geography, that if we keep on sailing eastward, we shall come to the same point from whence we started ; — of natural history, that if we put a bulb or seed in the ground, it will grow, and that like produces like ; — of Geology, that the soil is composed chiefly of three primitive earths mixed togethci-j that no vegetable will grow in either of them separately, and that a proportionate admixture of them is nccessaiy for the proper t:us- tentation of plants according to their kind ; — and from the science of chemistry, with its requisite analyses, we become acquainted with the sorts of food those plants most delight in, search after them in various articles other than that of common ma- nure, so as to supply its deficiency ; and Imow assuredly, from the experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy and others, that every kind of food always has entered, and ever will enter into the roots of plants only in a fluid or gaseous state. These, then, are some of the advantages of science to agricul- ture, though many more important ones as regards their adaptation to practice or profit, are omitted for want of space and time. I would, however, wish to put poor THEORY" OH its proper footing, and rescue it from being a " byeword and a scofl"," in all conversations. — I am, Sir, yours, &c., Burford, Jan. 14. H. Jbmmett. As an illustration of the foregoing, it may be mentioned, there is a book called "The Theory and Practice of medicine." The first is to be learned before the other is adopted. It is practising me- dicine without a knowledge of its theory, which in that instance constitutes quackery. IMPORTS OF FOREIGN WOOL INTO LIVERPOOL. TOTAL IMPORTS FROM 1829 TO 1840. Foreign Irish Scotch . English . 1S29. .3915 1005 2504 1193 1830. 258-2 2314 18329 2280 1831. 4042 3673 15208 1801 18.32. 4305 19U9 192G3 2340 1833. C489 3507 22 68 3825 1834. 25447 3630 20378 2188 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 18-10. Foreign .... Irish Scotch ...... English 22815 5631 215-29 2100 ■ 47163 5530 21551 1944 43304 3'291 12924 1405 49178 5642 17768 2469 59417 3752 12995 1944 56977 4765 13561 2481 The following' is a copy of a circular just issued by Messrs. Dawson and Hance, the wool brokers : — " The !?loomy state of business wiiich prevailed at the drtte of our last annual circular, and which we ex- pressed our fears would not give place to improved de- mand and higher prices for some months, continued without revival till Aug-ust, when a sliglit reaction was perceptible by the prices renlized at tlic London sales, and which, we are glad to say, have gradually conti- nued to improve up to the present period. " We estimate the advance at about 3d. per lb. on the middle and better qualities both of clothing and combing foreig-n wools, as compared with the same l)C'riod of 1839; but with respect to the superfine qua- lities, we have to repeat our remarks of last year, viz., that they seem almost superseded by the next lower classes of wools, and have not improved either in de- mand or price if of above 2s. value. In wools under 12d. value, we can quote no material fluctuation, with the exception of Peruvian and Itahan, which descrip- tions we tliink are at present disproportionately de- pressed, and in both we look for improvement ere long. " The severe and long-continued pressure in the money market, app'ears to have produced less effect upon consumption than on prices, which the prudence of both holders and buyers has kept on the whole very steady in the face of liglit stocks of saleable clean wools, and which, if not still exerted till this market is replen- ished, will result in an advance on such description* the moment an average business recommences. We trust we shall not be considered sanguine in expressing our impression that spring will bring with it a more active demand than we have for some time; experienced, and that the consumption of wool m the manufacturing dis- tricts now nearly an average one, will become larger and more remunerating both to consumers and importers than in 1840." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 139 ON THE RECENT EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE AND SWINE IN THE COUNTY OF CORNWALL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE WEST I?niTON. Sir, — The pestiferous epidemic that ha-^ been making' such destructive havoc among' cattle, sheep, and swine, in tlie eastern counties, has just made its appearance in Cornwall. L'ntil the commencement of this month, we were, as far as i am aware, entirely free from it ; and there is evei'y reason to believe that it was first intro- iluced by some cattle purchased at the last St. Austell lair, wliich came from some of the easteiu counties; In several instances,! have traced the disease to cattle pur- ciiased at that fair. This fact I consider to be sufiicient evidence, to place its contagious nature beyond dispute ; at all events, it is enough to warn the farmer against parchiising any strange cattle, and introducing them amongst his herds. 'I'he disease is first ushered in by a cold fit, manifested by a slight erection of the coat, and coldness of the ex- tremities ; with frequent shifting of the limbs, and a diminution of appetite. — 'I'he cold Jit soon passes off'; and indeed so quickly that it generally escapes observa- tion.— It is innnedi-itely followed by what is termed the hot fit, when the coat resumes its natural appearance, the roots of the horns are g'enerally warm, the mouth presents a slight increase of saliva, the nose becomes dry, the pulse is increased to seventy beats in a minute, and the bowels are slightly constipated. If tiie animal is examined at this stage, tiie tongue, upper lip, and membrane at the extremity of the nose, are found blis- tered ; and the feet are likewise affected in a similar manner. Should proper remedies be not now employed, tiie vesication increases, the tongue becomes swollen, and sometimes partly hangs out of the mouth, with a discharge of seropurulent fluid having a disagreeable smell ; and the animal is prevented from taking its pro- per supply of food. By this time, which will be about tiie third day of the attack, the animal assumes a wretched appearance, looking exceedingly empty, the coat partially erected, the head drooping, the eyes sunken, and generally lying down, in consequence of extreme tenderness in the feet. The bowels become more constipated, and the fffices are generally covered with a dark brown coat. The proper treatment of the disease consists in first administering a dose of purgative medicine, according to the strength and age of the animal. I have found that one pound of glauber salts, and from two to four ounces of sulphur, mixed with gruel, is sufficient for the purpose. If the symptoms warrant the use of the lancet, from a gallon to s.ix quarts of blood may be drawn, in the early stages of the disease. Tiie blisters in the mouth should be washed with a strong solution of chlo- ride of lime, and the diseased part of the feet dressed with a saturated solution of blue vitriol. The animal should be comfortably housed, have dry clean litter spread twice in the day, and every precaution should be used to prevent communication between the infected cattle and the healthy ones on the farm. Should tiierc be debility, accompanied with low fever, afterthe animal has been freely purged, give small doses of the nitrous spirit of ether, mixed with gruel ; — an ounce of this medicine is sufficient for a dose, which may be repeated for several days afterwards. With regard to swine, they suffer exceedingly in the feet, — in some instances that I have seen, the hoof has completely separated. Their feet and tongues sliould . be treated like those of cattle, and doses of sulphur and salts given according to their strens-th and age. In most cases they will eat tliis medicine with their food. I believe we have not yet arrived at the cause of this dreridful malady, -alt'iough many opinions have been advanced on the subject. But as it is probable tiuit much useful information may be gathered from the iiistory of this epidemic iu our country, I beg to solicit from farmers whose cattle have been or may be af- fected, answers to tiie following queries at their earliest conveir.cnce : — 1st. What was the first appearance of the epidemic ? 2nd. Had the diseased cattle any communication with other stock ? 3rd. 13id tiiey travel along the road on which infected animals luid travelled] 4th. Did any person that had attended on other diseased animals, come in contact with those animals? 5th. What were the earliest symptoms? Did tlie disease appear primarily in the feet or mouth ? 6th. What was the duration of the disease l — and what the treatment pursued ? I remain, Sir, your most obedient servant, W. Kahkeek. Truro, Dec.22,lM0. WESTERN AUSTRALIA:— The Perth Gazette (a colonial paper of the 20th of June), gives the following' account of a sheep speculation, wliich was commenced in 1835, and just closed ; the editor vouches for its accuracy, and declares that it is rather under than over stated : — " In 1835, 212 breeding-sheep and 13 lambs were purchased from Mr. Henty at the cost of 535/. 12s. One-third has been deducted from the proceeds of the sale of the wool to meet expenses of wasiiing, shearing, clipping, &c., and no account is taken of 50 wethers consumed for the use of the farm." RESULT OF A SPECULATION IN SHEEP. Dr. 1837 Jan. Original cost of sheep in July, 1835, and expenses to tliis date .... £565 12 0 1 838 Shepherd's expenses . . 30 0 0 1839 Ditto 80 0 0 1840 Ditto 40 0 0 Total cost and expenses £715 12 0 Cr. 1835 By wool and wethers.. £'20 0 0 1836 Wool 37 0 0 59 ewe lambs and one ram 95 0 0 60 old ewes 180 0 0 1837 Wool 44 14 0 Wethers 120 0 0 1838 Wool 50 3 0 Wethers 90 0 0 1839 Wool 68 10 10 Wethers 100 0 0 Ewe- hogs 205 0 0 1840 4 ewes 20 0 0 2 ewe-hogs 6 0 0 208 ewes and lambs 1310 8 0 1 1 drop ewes .... 44 0 0 88 ewe-hogs 352 0 0 110 wether-hogs on hand 220 0 0 TotalCr £2962 5 10 Deducting cost and expenses as above - . 715 12 0 Leaves a profit of £2247 13 10 VEGETABLE EXISTENCE.— A seed of a Royal Scotch Thistle was planted after having been laid up for more than 16 years. It sprung, vegetated, and pro- duced a plant, the foliage of which was resplendently beautiful. Sensitive plants are said to retain the virtue of germination from 30 to 40 years ; and oats even to 1000 ! The olive resuscitates from the smallest fibre of the root. Themustard and wild raddish will remain for many years wiiliout germinating ; after whicii, if turned up, they will grow. But a still more wonderful cir- cumstance was stated by Mr. Houlton, in his introduc- tory Lecture, as Professor of Botany to tiie Medico-Bo- tanical Society: — " A bulbous root which was found in the hand of a mummy, in which i^ituation it had been for 2000 years, germinated on exposure to the atmos- phere, though, when discovered, it was in appearance perfectly dry. 'I'he root waa subsequently put in the grouiKl, when it grew readily and with vigour !" 140 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE TURNIP QUESTION. TO TIIK EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I am pleased to iind tliat tlie Turnip question continues to excite so much attention in your columns ; for as you justly observed last week, " the turuij) must be considered the foundation of that improved systemof husbandry which has been the means of increasing- the produce of !>rain" (and of meat you might have added,) " in this country, so as to keep pace with the growing demand of the population, except in a few unfavourable seasons." It will be well thoroughly to sift this question, now that public attention is so strongly directed to it ; for it is clear that those who have been hithfirto satisfied with twenty tons per acre, have, making every allowance for difference in the quality of land, much to laarn from those who can grow forty tons ; and if you will allow your paper to be made the arena of what may be called a vast Farmers' Club, and if those who possess evidence and information bearing on the question, will freely produce it, the nestknownsystemof root tillage, (for to cultivation must the difference be chiefly owing,) may be de- cided upon, and universally adopted. It was a knowledge of the great difference in weight of what is called a good crop of roots in different counties — a difference not existing in a good crop of grain— that dictated my letter to°the Bury Post, which you copied into the Erpress on the 14th ult., and in which I attributed part of the deficiency to diff"erence in variety of seed. In proof of this I stated that I then had a field planted alter- nately with two different kinds of Swedes, one of which I thought would beat the other from twenty to thirty per cent. I have since taken up and care- fully weighed the above crop, and the result fully bears out my previous opinion. No experiment could be more fairly tried than this was, and it is interesting not only as showino the great difference in produce from different varieties on the same laud with similar cultivation ; but also as an additional proof of the discrepancy in the weight of a good crop in different districts. I wish I had a sufficient knowledge of soils to describe ac- curately that of the field in which the turnips alluded to were grown ; I will give the best account I can of it. It is a deep, rich loam, sufficiently heavy to re- quire draining, and sufficiently light to work I'reelv ; the subsoil is clay, but laying much further from the surface than is general with the clay subsoils of this district, neither is it so tenacious, as the drains will not stand well without tiles. It is well suited to the growth of barley, clover, and beans ; for wheat it re- quires clay, or otherwise it grows too much straw, and is very kind for turnips — from this imperfect account your readers will judge that it is a good pieceof land ; in fact, it has the character of being not only tbe best in the parish, but eciual to any in the di.strict. It has been in my cultivation only four years, pre- vious to which it was not indulged with manure as it now is, but my neighbour, who has known it for sixteen years, has frequently told me that he never saw a bad crop of any kind on it. Having endeavoured to describe the soil on which the turnips crew I will now add the cultivation for them. The field in 18:?9 had a crop of wheat after a trefoil and r3'egrass layer, in the previous year, mowed for hav. f find by reference to my field book, that the stubble was turned in on the 11th November, (having been previously looked over with weeders to take out any speargrass, or other weeds) ; that it was ploughed again (turned back) ou the 8th February ; that intiie beginning of April it was ploughed across and harrowed, and afterwards was cultivated with re- peated harrowings and rollings, to clean and ])ulverize it. On the 6lh of May, thirty carts, equal to about twenty-five loads per acre of good /arm-yard manure was set on, and ploughed in immediately, also across ; tlio haid rolled down and left, both for the manure to incoiporate, and also to encourage the growth of any annualsnot destroyed by the jirevious cultivation. On the 22nd and 23rd June, the land was drawn out in ten-furrow work of ninety inches, ploughed, rolled to keep in the moisture, and on the following day the seed was drilled, four rows on the ten- furrow ridge, the cups in the drill for each row being fed with different seed; and as this part of tbe operation was done bv wiyself, I can Kpeak to its accuracy. The first and third rows were drilled with Skirving's purple Swede, the second with Matson's yellow, and the fourth with Matson's purple; thus, each had precisely an e()ual cliance, because, in the next ridge when the drill returned, JMatson's were first and third, and Skirving's second and fourth ; the rows of turnips were twenty inches apart, and fifteen inches on each side of the outer row, to the centre of the furrow. The plants came up vrell, were carefullii hoed out at a distance of fourteen inches from each other, and were afterwards horse-hoed and received the usual summer cultivation ; they vi'ere never attacked by the fly, nor leceived any checks, except from the dry weather, which, from the nature of the soil affected them less than it did the general crop of turnips in the neighbourhood, and they entirely escaped the mildew, which in the month of September so seriously aflPected the early sown turnips. Thus, everything promised well for a great crop, and I consider it equal, if not sujierior to any I ever grevv. The turnips were taken up in the first week in December, each row by itself, carefully cleaned, topped and tailed, so that the weight obtained was the actual amount of profitable food. I did not weigh an acre, but a smaller portion of the field, selecting a fair average, which, from the regularity of plant, 1 had no difficulty in doing. I confess that it would be always more satisfactory to bring the whole acre to the scale, hut the trouble of ko doing- is great, and an average portion of it, fairly selected, is sufficient for most purposes. Toiis.CVt.Qrs.Ib-.. One acre of Matson's green-topped Swede weighed 19 2 3 12 One acre of Matson's purple, do.. 19 14 1 4 One acre of Skirving's purple, do.. 2.5 11 1 20 The average weight of Alatson's two 19 i] 2 S Short of Skirving's by 6 2 3 12 Mr. Matson's turnips were of beautiful ((uality, the yellow-topped in particular, with which 1 won a jirize at a local sweepstakes ; but if 1 might venture to give a hint to so experienced a root grower as Mr. Matson, I should say that they have been rather over cultivated, and have scarcely sufficient top ; a coarse-nocked large topped turnip no one would like ; but there is anothrr extreme, and query if Mr. Matson's celebrated stock be not ap- proaching it! 'I'his with all due humility! I have not given this statement with any view of showing the superiority of one kind over another, but of proving the immense diff'erence which may exist in the produce of different varieties; and chiefly also to show the still greater discrep-incy THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 between a great crop in one district, and a great crop in another. I li;\ve been tedious in the details of soil, culliva- tion, &C., becuuse I am persuaded that to errors iu the latter must the diSerence in crop be triiced, and because it is on tliat point 1 wish to be instructed. The piece ot'land in question, bein^ far above the averaoe of the neighbourhood in quality, and liaving peculiar ;ulvantages as regards manure, does, I have litlle doubt, grow :is much corn per aero as tlie land in Kent, on which such heavy crops of roots are pro- duced. Why should it not yield an equal weight of turnips? 'i'he answer, to me, is obvious; because it is not properly cultivated for this crop, so as to call forth all its powers. 1 am aware that Mr, Matson's system oi autumn cultivation is preferable, l)ecause it is very successfully practised ©n a wet stubboin soil near me — and indeed for beet is gene- rally adopted ; but I cannot attribute ail the dif- ference to that. Another objection which will probably be made. I will allude to, viz., the late sowing ; here local experience alone can avail, and evidence to any extent cm be produced, that on those lauds in this district which are kind to turnips, you can never succeed better than to sow your Swedes in the middle of June, the nearer the longest day the better, and your common turnips in the last week of the same month. On heavy soils, unconge- nial to the growth of roots, they are usually sown a month earlier. I must now, Sir, apologize for occu- pying so much of your space; my object has been, by setting an example of exposing whiit I feel to be deficient cultivation, to obtain knowledge on this interesting subject, and also to add my mite of in- formation towards settling the knotty point iit ))re- sent in dispute amongst root-growers. Believe me, Sir, your obedient servant, RusTicus, P.S. As Mr. Matson thinks me an " ajit scholar," I hope, should he not Iiave already replied to Mr. 'I'vlilen's enquiries in this week's Express, that he will take my " rude cultivation" as his text, and I can assure iiim most honestly, that if he will teach, bis pupil will endeavour not to forfeit the good opi- nion he has expressed of his aptitude to learn. Se- riously, I shall be gratified by any criticisms upon it^ either from iiim, or from your Lancashire corres- pondent. Sir, — Having been struck with surprise that any intelligent agriculturist of the present day, could for a moment doubt Mr. JNIatson's assertion, that forty tons of turnips have been raised on an acre of his farm, I bethought me of a statement in my possession, drawn up some years since by Mr. James Gordon, one of our most spirited agri- culturists in this quarter, and to ^vholn the country is deeply indebted for the great improve- ment which that gentleman effected in turnip- seed, after much labour and expense. Mr. (iordon is now upwards cf eighty years of age ; but still takes as much interest as ever in all agri- cultural improvements. From the statement under his hand, which I now enclose, you will observe that fifty-four tons have been produced jier acre ; this, however, be it remembered is the Scottish acre — still, allowing for the difference, you have a ])ro(lncc exceeding forty tons ; indeed, now-adays, few of our farmers in this q.iarter would think lorty-eight tons per Scots acre (equal to forty English), anything to Orai/ of. These statements, I doubt not, will be confirmed by many farmers, North of the 'J'weed. Yours, most obediently, Amicus. N.15. — We subjoin this statement. DALE'S HYBRID— SPLENDID CROP. We have repeatedly called attention (o Dale's Hybii I, a turnqj which cocnbines in a great degrpp the (|ualities of the Globe and Rutabaga, and aia glad to learn that its culture is gradually extending. In proof of this, we make the lollovving quotation from ii letter just received from Sanquhar: — " A gentleman in this neighbourhood has a crop of Dale's Hybrid, which, from the experiments already made, will yield a return of not less than 25 tons per acre. Nothing like etjualling or npiiroaching to this has been known in tliis country. The bulbs are at once large and solid ; and two of them have been sent to Messrs. P. Law.snn and Son, to be shown as an agricultural curiosity." — -Dumfries Courier. The above is inserted in tiie Aberdeen Herald of 30th November, 1834. " Gigantic turnip carried to the Scotsman Office, Edinburgh, and of tlie White Globe species, ami afterwards deposited in Mr. Lawson's Museum in Edinburgh, as a remarkable and rare vegetable curiosity. Dimensions of the said turnip — it meaures cylindrically 43 inches, and in transverse circumference, 58^ inches — weisjht, 24 lb. 10 oz." (See Aberdeen Herald of the 6th December, 1834.) 'The following is an account of gigantic turnips, the produce of the farm of Drinnies, at Pit'our, of the Green-topped Y'ellow species, croj) 1834, culti- vated by Mr. John Murray, and originally pro- pagated by Mr. James Gordon, in Mains of Orrok, by artificial means. One turnip weighed 28ll)S. another turnip "weighed I2lh., tuo weighfd 2t)lb, each) and other two turnips wniglied 191bs. each. The cause of Mr. ftlurray having ascertained ttie weight of a few of the turnips singly, was this, per Mr. Murray's letter. " A gentleman farmer in the parish of New Deer, observing to me that he had very fine turnips on bis farm, in said parish, which would weigh 12lbs. regretted that he had not taken some ef tiieni to the show at Aberdeen. I obierved to him, that I would produce to him turnips ihat would weigh from SOlbs. to 211bs. each. He laid a wager that 1 could not. The consequence was, that six turnips were taken from the field, and weighed separately, and their weights were as before stated- (Signed) Joim Murray." And upon the 17th day of December, 1834, the weight of the said field ©f turnips, at Drinnies, per acre, was ascertained, and which amounted to 37 tons, 1.5 cwt. The laud which |)roduced this crop of turnips got no more than a fairallovvance of dung. And, upon the said 17th day of December, 1834, the weight of some liutabaga, and Turnips, belong- ing to Mr. William Mundie, in Mains of liruxie, in the district of Buchan, were ascertained, per acre, and found to weigh as after stated : — 2\>ns. Cwis. Qis. Lbs. Rutabaga 54 5 2 24 jier acre. lled-topjied yellow turni]) 54 5 2 24 do. Golden Yellow tur- nip 4(j 14 1 4 do. Green-topped Ye\- low 'J'lirnip .. . , 52 i^ 1 20 do. 'I'he land which produced the said Rutabaga and Turnips, on Mains of Bruxie, got no more than a 142 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fair allovs^ance of dung; and the turnips were all raised from the new kinds, orio;inally propagated by artificial means by Mr. James (jordon, in Mains of Orrok. Mr. Mundie's drills were thicker than Mr. Murray's drills, as 5 to 6. — The above accounts are accompanied with ample certificates. The persons who attended the measuring of the land, and weighing of the turnips, in the cases be- fore mentioned, at Urinnies and Mains of Bruxie, state in writing, that tlie turnips had lost their leaves, and the bulbs were in some degree wasted, before the time of weighing the turnips. " Dale's Hybrid was only brought to the per&e- tion -vvhicb it is now said to possess, by doubly im- pregnating this turnip with Rutabaga in the year 1827 or 1828." — (See Mr. Lawson's printed pam- phlet on this subject.) It may be proper to state and bring into view some other great crops of turnips, of tlie white fleshed varieties, propagated by tlie said Mr. Jarnes Gordon, in Mains of Orrok, by artificial means, which yield a most abundant produce on every kind of soil, and are particularly adapted for the thin dry gravelly lands on the banks of the river Dee. In the year 1814, George Thomson, Esq., the great land valuator, applied to Mr. Gordon for the seed of one of these white-fleshed kinds, which he sowed in the lands of Alilltimber of C'ulter, in the parish of Peterculter, a farm lying on the side of the river Dee ; and ]\Ir. Thomson let some acres of the turnips, from the seed which be pi-ocured from the said James Gordon, crop 1814, to two eminent fleshers in Aberdeen — namely Messrs. Williamsoa and Reid, at the rate of 12/. sterling the acre, to be consumed on the farm. Mr. Thomson let part of this field of turnips at the rate of 25/. per acre, to be carried off the farm. These are much higher prices than is commonly paid for turnips in Aberdeen- shire. And Sir. John Stuart, a respectable and well in- formed agriculturist, in Nether Anguston of Cnlter, in the said parish, in consequence of the prodigious crop raised by Mr. Thomson, applied to Mr. Gor- don, in Mains of Ov ok, for three different sorts of the seed of t'lis newiy-propagated white-flesbed va- rieties, wliicb Mr. Stuart sowed on his farm of Nether Anguston, wliich is thin dry soil, not far dis- tant from the side of the rivei* Dee, crop 1815. Mr. Stuart ascertained the weight per acre of all these three difi'erent sorts of turnips, late in the winter of 1815-16, fa very severe season) after the turnips bad lost tlieir leaves, and a great decline in the bulbs; yet the produce was most extriiordinary. One sort weighed at the rate of sixty-six tons per acre; another, fifty-one tons, seventeen hundred weight, sixteen pounds, per acre ; and the third kind weighed at the rate of fifty tons, eight hundred weight, one quarter, and twelve pounds per acre. The two last-mentioned cases of Mr. Thomson and Mr. Stuart's produce of turnips are also supported bv written vouchers. And, at a later period. Miss Wilson of Auchin- cleck, in the parish of Skene, let some acres of the Green-topped Yellow Turnip, one of the new varie- ties of turnips, propagated by tlie said James Gordon, to two respectable fleshers, to be consumed on the farm, at the rate of 14/. sterling, per acre. Aberdeen, 8th Jan, J as, Gordon. mark that great doubt may exist in nny person's mind, as to any land beingcapableof producingsuch a crop, and I should not liave ventured to introduce a line into any public journal, had I not felt a joint interest with other agriculturists on this subject. Mr. Matson offers a wager of 50/., that be will produce a similar weiglit on an acre of land this year ; now, the Norfolk farmers, who I ma)' truly say bestow the greatest exertions to secure this valuable crop, have been sadly thwarted by seasons, and the position of the county may act greatly against tbem, but I must add that the same uncertainty may exist in Mr. Matsoti's county, and thatbis confidence of growing a similar crop this year, ma.j from like reasons, meet with disappointment. Alluding to Norfolk farmers, as I am possessed of land generally considered to be good, I suppose I must include myself amongst them, and I will pass over the various observations made by Mr. Matson, of tlieir not availing themselves of proper instructions to secure the turnip crop, and I will only add, that t shall be happy to have the opportunity of partici- pating in Mr. Matson's extraordinary discovery of production on this bead, and this, possible, may only be effected by his consent to send me a small portion of bis seed (which I will appoint payment for at any place Mr. Matson may name), and I will preserve it with the strictest care, and the produce therefrom 1 will make report at a future day, through your valuable paper. Trusting these few lines may claim insertion therein, I remain, your obedient servant, Richard Crawshay, Jun, Rockland, St, Mary, Norwich, Jan. 13th, 1841. Sir, — Observing in your paper of January 4tb, a letter from Mr. Matson, adverting to the growth of a crop of Swede turnips on bis farm, to the great weight of 40 tons per acre, I cannot help making the re- TO SIR JOHN MAXWELL TYLDEN. Sir, — I knew that you had left the field of fame for patrimonial fields, and turned your good sword into a ploughshare; hut I did not know that a part of the same trusty steel had been turned into a tur- nip-cutter, until I read the letter you did me the honour of addressing to me in the Mark Lane Express — so that in war or peace your arms are employed in good service. Nothing is more encouraging than to hear gen- tlemen of high standing avow their belief, that England can double her agricultural produce, be- cause nothing is more likely to hasten its realiza- tion. Tlierc is, indeed, much to unlearn, for pre- judice is a weed of early growth, with deep and tough roots ; so that nothing but improving culti- vation will choke it, or prevent successional crops. If, in answering your queries, I fall short of your expectations, it may set abler pens a-going, and that would be doing no small service ; as, witness the turnip question, which, partly in consequence of my giving tongue, has received moi'e attention of late than ever it did, since its formal introduction to boiled mutton and caper-sauce. 1. After Wheat generally — not always. 2. The purple-top variety for quantity and qua- lity ; although the common varieties are better suited to very poor soils, and, if not sown too early, will better Ijrave the winter, and are excellent I'ood for ewes and lamlis. 3. I invariably drill on the ])lain surface : I nevertheless think most favourably of the ridge system, so successfully pursued at Wye by Captain Davis, who has never, I believe, missed growing from my seed a heavy crop of Swedes. He is de- cidedly the most skilful and best cultivator within my experience or knowledge, and I have seen on his farm the best and heaviest crops I ever saw. I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 143 have often haard him say, that he generally grows tVoni 35 to 45 tons per statute acre, and he has kindly given me permission to state it publicly. (Captain Davis's character as a farmer stands high, and as a gentleman it is of the higliest. 4. Forty tons and upwards of well decomposoil farm-yard manure (and on the ))urning sands a small fjuautity of bone-dust drilled in with the seed), the proportion of course being regulated by the quality and condition of the land. Everything I can collect to increase or improve this manure is thrown into the yard, well trampled by sheep and cattle previous to its being carted out. 5. Varies from excessive heavy lands to a burn- ing sand. , 0. Wheat every other year on some land, but I observe no invariable course of cropping, and I should be sorry to liave my hands so tied up. There may bo certain soils whereon restrictions might be advisable, but not, I think, in this part of the coun- ty, where the difl'erences of soil are so very great. In many cases, to be forced to adliere to a particu- lar rotation, Avould be a serious bar to improvement on the part of an enterprising tenant. 7. The weather being particularly iine after the last harvest, I broadshared the land for turnips, as well as other lands, four times over — but this applies to only last year : I generally broadshare all my lands twice over, let them be ever so clean — well harrowed it, well rolled it, and thou carted the couch grass and the roots of the stubble into a himp in the field to decompose, by repeated turn- ings, into a fine vegetable mould. The land is then ploughed up very deep, and harrowed and rolled into such a state, as not to knead or become too dry. I am of opinion, that if land be in a good state, the less it is ploughed the better ; the dung may be carted out in May or June, at all events in dry weather, and that the land should bo put in a fit state for drilling in the seeds towards the end of .June or thereaway. Jfy purple variety does not recpiiro sowing so soon as the coarser sorts, for it is similar to the new Leicester sheeii in coming to early maturity. 8. From my usual heavy crop, I cart off half to feed in pastures and yards, the other half is fed ofl' upon the land. 9. Barley is best hereabouts, in other parts wheat is sown, but many farmers grow oats, where the soils are less kindly for barley. 10. From ten to twenty acres ; the latter part of this question would be more fair to put after the tithes are finally commuted. Besides it is only when one has the best of landlords, that it is cpiite safe to speak out on all occasions, but as I am most fortunate in this respect, I have no objection to say that I consider the average produce per acre to be from twenty-five to thirty tons. As you mention wheat, I have already trespassed too long on your patience, but if you wish it, I will state to you the system I adopt on my sandy lands wherein I have doubled and trebled my crops of wheat, and ei'adi- cated the poppy, mountain flax, yellow and blue huddle, three latter entirely, and the former scarcely one to be seen, I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, Robekt Matson. Wingham, Jan. 15. 9N TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. -The article of Mr. Eillington on Hedgerow Timber, re- minds us that this is the season in which large trees are generally transplanted— at all events in which they are transplanted with success ; for we must he allowed to say, that the successcontemplatedby the transplant- ers does not always attend thii measure. The practice was old even in Evelyn's time. It was revived, or rather perhaps brought into particular notice by the late Sir H. Stewart, who, living in a cold moist cli- mate, possessed great advantages for pprforming this operation, so ilattering to men of wealth, with effect. On the whole, however, we do not think it is worth much in England ; and certainly it is of little or no avail in dry and warm climates like that of France. In all countries it may be practised occasionally for extraordinary purposes ; and it has been done for some years past, in such a manner as to excite our utmost astonishment and admiration, by Mr. Barron, at the Earl of Harrington's, at Elvaston Castle, near Derby. Mr. Barron, like a wise man, has chiefly confined his operations to trees which spread their roots along the surface, and moreover which have numerous fibrous roots confined v.itliiu a little space. He has trans- planted many Spruce Firs nearly 100 feet in height ; and scores of Yew trees from thirty feet to fifty feet in height, and from 50 to 200 years of age. Of the Spruce Firs scarcely any have failed, and of the nume- rous Yews there is not, we believe, an instance of one having died. Some of them have been brought from ten, twenty, and thirty miles distance, with masses of earth containing all the roots ; and tkey have been set on the surface of the ground and the earth heaped up around them, so as to give the trees the appearance of standing on little hills, and not a single stake, or rope, or other means has been used for preventing them from being blown over by the wind. The tall Spruce Firs have, however, been kept in their places by guy ropes. In no place that we know of ii.i England has the trans- planting of large trees been carried to such an extent, and with such complete success. Some of our readers may know of other places where the same practice has been equally extensive and successful ; and, if so, this is the season of the year that they ought to let us hear from them. — Gardener's Gazette, No. IS, CURIOUS MODE OF CATCHING CROWS IN ITALY. — A traveller sives the following remark- able account of crow-shooting- in Italy. — Being called up (says the author) early in the morning, a few days after Cliristraas, we proceeded with two servants about a mile from the city of MilaH,and entered a large meadow covered with hoar-frost, when my friends con- ducted me to a cottage a little on one side cf the mea- dow, where we found five or six peasants, with u good fire, several fowling-pieces, and abundance of ammu- nition in readiness. Being told that everything was prepared, we drank Gotlee, till tlie peasants, who had left us about an hour, returned and informed us we might proceed a* soon as we pleased. We, however, advanced no farther than the porch of the hou-^e, where, as we waited some time without the appearance of any crows, 1 was eager to lire at them, but my friend checked my ardour. " Stay," said he, they will descend presently, and approach so near to us that we may shoot them without trouble." Soon after, to my utter as- tonishment, I observed them, stop their ooufse all at once, take several circuits round the meadow, and afterwards descend, a lew at a time, upon tlie ground upon which we were waiting tlieir appearance. Not knowing the secret, my curiosity still increased, espe- cially as I ob';erved that the wliole of them not only descended, but that they seemed to have stationed them- selves as it were in various parts of the field. But this was not all, for upon a closer inspection I found their heads were absolutely fixed in liie ground, from whence after a struggle of some duration I saw them succes- sively rising, and apparently with a white cap on their heads, which I soon perceived to be made of strong cartridge paper. It vvas now that tiiis comedy com- menced, and began to take a tragical turn; for the crows, to liberate themselves, putting tliemselves in a number of laughable attitudes, brought forward the peasants, who, clapping their hands, and setting up a loud cry, the motion of the crows became the most 144 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. confused imaginable. Fligrlit, if such an awkvyard movement deserve the name, was in all directions, striking- against each other witli such force as frequently to bring them to the ground. It should be observed that the noise of their talons scratching upon the thick paper caps tliat inclosed their lieads, hud no small efleet, till in the end, taking- to our fire-arms, we were employed near an honr in shooting them ; at the terminalioii of which I was intbrmtd by my friends that holes being purposely dug in the ground, and filled with paper of a conical form, the narrow extremities of the latter containing each a. piece of raw meat, it was the smell of the meat that brought the crows to the spot. It is further to be observed, that the inside of this cap was copiously larded with bird-lime, aitached so much the closer by the pressure of the crows' heads after the meat, that it was impossible for them to disengage themselves. THE EPIDEMIC AMONGST CAT- TLE, AND THE GROWTH OF TURNIPS. Kendal Fair, November 8th, is the time I usually purchase what cattle I may want to make up my winter feeding stock — thirty-five to forty in number for beef for the spring markets ; but the day previous to the fair being in Kendal, seeing the dealers drive their cattle through the town to pasture, I perceived several with great quantities of saliva falling from their mouths, and some lame ; I then determined to purchase none, I only warned about fitteen to make up my usual quantity ; however, the epidemic was the cause of a very bad market for the sellers ; and 1 was induced to pur- chase two cows, wliich I learned aftciward« were taken out of a drove in a field in which was the epidemic; as a proof, fifteen were so bad that they could not be exposed for sale in the market. I let my two continue ten dnys in some aftermath I had near Kendal ; and then, not daring to bring them home amongst my other cattle, I sent them by u. circuitous route to an out-barn and cow-house, where was only a labourer's cow ; they continued there doing well, till this week, and have now taken the epidemic. After Kendal Fair, I was a little fearful of taking- the epidemic amongst my cattle. I took what I considered a prudent pre- caution with tny stock ; 1 gave all my cattle, except the cows in-calf, a dose of Epsom salts, the summer calves, 4 oz., the yearlings, j lb., and all of a greater age, 1 lb. each, in about three quarts to four quarts of luke-waruj water to each pound of salts ; the greater quantity of water given in the salts the better, as the whole stomach of the animal then gets its effects. In about a fortnight afterwards 1 repeated the dose, but in rather less quantities ; my cattle continued in e.'ccellcnt health till about the 14tli December, when my favourite bull (Westmoreland) ap])eared stiff in his limbs. I ordered him a jiound of salts, the next day his hind heels cracked ; they were bound up with common sheep's salve, such as is used in this wet and mountainous district to salve the sheep with, which is kept as a standing stock ; it is made in the proportion of l(i lbs. of butter to a gallon of tar; the bull never blistered on hia tongue or mouth, and was quite well in a few days ; another bull began about three days afterwards, with dreadful tenderness in his fore feet, ulcerated round the hoofs, and a suppuration under the heels, with sore mouth and blistered tongue, quitting an extraordinary quantity of white frotliy saliva ; he had the same medicine given him, and is now as healthy as possible. I have, since the 14th of December, had about sixty in the disease ; those which had the salts, two doses each, previous to taking the epidemic, suffered by far the least, and speedily recovered. After the two first, 1 gave as medicine to about a dozen young cattle, by re- commendation of a friend, the followingdose : — ilb. salts, three teaspoonsful of saltpetre, four tea- spoonsful of ginger, and four teaspoonsful of carbonate of soda : this mode I discontinued ; I perceived it took more hold of the cattle than I liked, as they had it three times a day. I then continued to give them only the salts, namely : — 1 lb. to a full grown beast, ij lb. to a yearling, and four to six ounces to a calf, according to size and constitution, and rubbing round and between the hoofs the following- mixture — sheep salve four lbs., with i lb. red precipitate mixed therewith. All have done and are doing re- markably well, except two or three which are suffering from their feet; these are very fat oxen, but are recovering fast. Some of the milch cows suffered in the udder, but by fomentations of warm water, 1 think now all are got round ; and during the time the cows were afiected, the milk was boiled for the calves, also for family use — but, be it remembered, the milk was not used from those which had the udder swollen till after it was re- duced to its natural state. As food, the best hay in small quantities, sliced turnips, and also for the cows and fat oxen, linseed and oatmeal-gruel ; some of the cattle are very fond of it ; their appetite is generally good after the second day's illness ; but when the mouth and tongue are sore, it is not good to give them too much hay : turnips are better, as ruminating animals chew their cuil, and owing to the soreness of the mouth they are pre- vented doing so for a few days ; above all, keep them clean with dry litter, wash theirraouthswithsaltand water, and their feet with warm water once a day, previous to rubbing the sheep-salve on their feet. After a few of my cattle had taken the epidemic and i)romised to do so well towards recovery, I then felt anxious for my others taking it, and my wish at my home-farm has been pretty well realized. Fat cattle and milch cows suffer the most ; of course the condition is reduced, but after they get rid of it, I -tim persuaded they grow very fast ; if a second dose is requisite, salts are a safe medicine. 1 believe many cattle have suffered by having too inach medicine administered ; salt in troughs or laid before them in lumps to lick is desirable. I have a lot of bulls and bullocks at a farm about four miles distance, which have not yet taken it ; this severe frosty weather may be a means of clearing it away ; it is extremely desirable that the cattle sheds or houses should be well ventilated ; lean sheep soon recover, but fat sheep suffer much, and lose a deal of flesh ; salt to lick is useful. Pigs will take salts with their food — a fortunate circumstance, as they are unruly members to administer medicine to. A word respecting Mr. Matson's turnip crops : he may get 40 tons on an acre, but wl-.at will his average he, and what proportion of turnips has ho in proportion to his white crop ? Mr. Ogilvie, I know, is a first-rate turnip grower, and at thelNIan- chester agricultural meeting, 1 heard the weight he had produced ; but in awarding prizes for tur- nips, the quality of the soil ought always to he taken into consideration if merit is to be rewarded ; Ibelieve Mr. Ogilvie acted strictly to the rules of the society. A Mr. Long talks of (>0 tons an acre, in Scotland and he was much applauded, but by whom ! THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 145 I am suic not by practical agiiculttirists ; making such assertions docs no good ; be liad better men- tion the iilcntica! place where tliey are growing ; who will believe that 30 acres in Ireland average 00 tons an acre ; it is an old saying, that some will shoot with a long bow, and I tliinlc it is now veri- fied. A word for myself: within the last 25 years 1 have won no less than fifteen .silver cups from Kendal and Lancaster Agricultural Societies, for turnip premiums; the greatest crop 1 ever had was 37 tons the acre, and that on only a few acres (Swedes). I began with 10 acres, and have by degrees extended the growth of turnips to 50 acres and upwards. I hare turnijis on all kinds of soils that arc dry, from the HazeJl loom to alluvial and reclaimed peat bog ; the latter will grow the great- est weight, but my crop altogether I believe never averaged 25 tons the acre, statute measure. I have used nearly all kinds of manure, but I will ven- ture to say, that if yon manure your land to ex- cess, that you w'ill lose more by the lodging of the grain crops, which follow the turnips, than you gain by your extraordinary turnip crop ; however, farmers are not very gui!ty of ovei'-tilling, yet there arc instances, where pride has prompted. A few solitary instances of over-pro- duction must not be a guide; there is not the least doubt but the product of the soil may be such bj' improved cultivation, as to yield more than sufficient, both in bread and animal food, for the consumption of our increasing population ; if we get but remunerating prices, we can do a deal, but let us not go to extremes at once. See what Mr. Blacker has done in Ireland — see what a kind and genero'is landlord, with an intelligent and en- lightened agent, can accomplish on those small holdings, yet such a ])lan would never be practi- cably advantageous in England. Before I con- clude, 1 will give Mr. Matson this advice — not to bet any wagers, either as to weight of turnips or size ; he runs a great risk of losing both, I assure him ; Skirving's Swedes are bad to beat ; at Liver- pool agricultural meeting in 1839, Mr. Skirving gave me three Swedes, one weighed 2ribs., one 23^1bs., and one 22;\lbs. I am not aware that I have said any thing that Mr. IMatson can be of- fended at ; I am convinced he is a very excellent farmer, and I beg to conclude by wishing him every success. Mr. editor, my fire has got low, and the clock near 12; it only now remains for me to say, that the perusal of the Mark Lane Esj/resi- affords both amusement and instruction in agricultural pursuits. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Sizergh, near Kendal, Jan. 8. W. Ellison. The subjoined is a statement of the system of ma- nagement pursued by a farmer who had been the winner of a prize for the best cultivated farm, both from the Liverpool and Manchester Agri- cultural Societies, written by himself : — Premium Second for the hest Cultivated Farm. — This farm is 160 statute acres, and when we inspected it, was bearing the following crops, viz., 6§ acres in pasture, 2i acres in meadow land, 48 acres wheat after potatoes, 6.^ acres oats, 6J acres clover and ■vetches used for stall feeding, 35 acres potatoes, 2 acres turnips and carrots, 1 acre mangel, 3^ acres orchard and gardens. This claimant's customary rotation is potaloe?, wheat and clover ; turnips are sown after vetches taken off in stall-feeding. This claimant has SSa acres clover, which, he has mown for hay ; the same land he intends mowing a second time for hay also. The stock on this farm consists of 12 farm-horses, and in summer these are kept in the stable on green food, and employed for no other purposes but culti- vating this farm, carrying to market and bringing manure. Claimant's other stock are, 7 colts, 6 dairy cows, 4 heifers, and 11 pigs. This farm is a light soil, approaching to peat, and nearly — acres of it have lieen reclaimed from a bog ; within the last 20 years, the whole farm has been effectually drained with tiles and bricks at claimant's own cost. Claimant marls 10 or 12 acres every year, and buys never le«s than 1,000 tons of horse dung, 1,000 tons of small dung, night soil, &c., besides tioiled bones 10 tons ; these manures he mixes toc;et]ier, and applies to different crops, except meadow land, which is covered over every other year with another compost to improve the light texture of the soil. The wheat we saw growing is all as good as it could be, and these observations apply to his potatoe crops, his clover, oats, &r;, indeed to every other description of produce on this fnrm. The ditches and water courses are cleaned out annuallv, and the fences trimmed in the neatest manner. The roads, gates, stiles, orchard and garden attracted the inspec- tor's notice particularly, on account of their excellent condition. Taking claimant's farm altogether, it is highly complimentary to the industry, sound judg- ment, and enterprise of its tenant ; and we beg further to observe, that in our opinion this land does not ad- mit of further imprevement. THE ADVANTAGES OF LIFE AS- SURANCE. (from the LONDON JOIIRN.XL Or COMMERCE.) We have before observed, that the benefit of provi- sion, by life .issurance, must he self-evident, and wc feci it our province to pointouttwo j)rinciple.s which should guide fdl parties in assuring their lives. 'These arc safety and economy. The large sums by way of bonus, added to the suin a?.sured by some of the old oflSces — for instance, the Equitable— are so enormous, as at once to convince us, that the premiums chBrgcd by this society and other in- stitutions, whose rates are similar, :ire most ittinece.ssa- rill/ liigh. The premiums charged by the Equitable office are, according to the law of mortality shown by the Noi-thampton tables, at 3 per cent, interest, and the additions made to the early policies have,iu someca.«es, amounted to 600 per cent. 'I'his excess of premium has happily now become obsolete, and a true premium based upon actual experience i.- offered to the public, at which assurances can be safely and economically made. The experience of the Equitable assurance office, and also the law of mortality shown by INIr, Finlayson, in his reports to the Hou'^e of Commons, derived from government life annuitants and tontines, afford data from which tables are calculated, showinsr the true value of life — alfording every security, and allowing the assurer at once the benefit of a-sourance, at really the lowest possible rate, and giving lliem the immediate be- nefit of a low premium. Other offices are established which require the purchase of future reduced premiums, by a payment for a certain number of years of propor- tionately high ones ; but it appears to us that, having obtained the true and lowest premium, it is fairer, or, at least, will meet the convenience of the majority of as- surers, to afford them the means of at once realising the object of assurance at the lowest safe rate, rather than requiring them to purchase at a high cost, a deterred, and, in some ca?e.«, an uncertain benefit — as offices of- fering these advantages, by their rules, require that the assurance should have been in existence a certain num- ber of yeais before it is entitled either to bonus or re- duction of premium. [This is exactly the principle upon which the premiums charged by the Farmers' Insurance In- stitution are calculated. — Ed.] 146 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE HOOSE IN CALVES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir,— With pleasure I taLe the first opportunit)', through the valuable leaves of your excellent Maga- zine, to i'ulfil the request of an individual who signs himself" A Norfolk Steward," touching the treat- ment of the hoose in calves (arising from worms in the windpipe); and also a cutaneous disease of a frequent occurrence in yearlings. I will not occupy much space, or waste the pages of your journal uu- profitably, by giving a full detail of the primary cause of these parasites in the air passages of calves ; but will refer you to an ably written paper on this disease by Mr. Blayer, V.S., of Newcastle, which apjjeared in a few numbers since : but I will detail to }'ou the most successful method I have found in expelling these thread-like worms from the air tubes and windpipe. In the tirst place, I do not rely much on the internal exhibition of any medicament, as it must travel the round of the circulation of tiie blood before it can reach the part occupied by these troublesome little parasitical insects — the effect of which would be, either rendering the agent employed too inactive, or not of sufficient power to exert any influence when thrown out by the exhalents of the air passages on them, impacted as the}^ are, and en- veloped in the mucus secretions of the respiratory tubes. The method I have adopted for the last 15 years with great success (and it is of a frequent occurrence in my neighbourhood) is inhalation — that is, making the animals respire or breathe cer- tain exhalations given off from medicinal substances in a state of vaporisation, vphereby it comes into direct contact with the parts in which these little insectile bodies are lodged ; my first plan of proceed- ing is, when you have a number of calves with the lioose (arising from worms in the windpipe) well defined, and not caused from catarrh, or an inflam- matory action of these parts — to pour into the nos- trils of each, two tea-spoonsful of ,the following mixture, first elevating the nose in an horizontal position — sulphuric Kther, '2 oz, ; rectified oil of amber, 1 drachm. You may occasionally vary this by adding, instead of oil of amber, the same proportion of oil of turpentine, or oil of tar; repeat this every second or third dav for three or four several times : the modus operandi of this compound is from the heat of the nasal tube evaporating the mixture, and by respiration it is conveyed into the air passages. 1 have seen calves worn down to almost perfect skele- tons irom the irritation produced from this distress- ing malady, yet have soon recovered from only one or two applications of the before mentioned mixture. The second plan is that of putting any number of calves into a close house, and allow them to inhale the fumes of tar or the smoke of tobacco in the following manner ; make a fire shovel to a dull red heat, enter the house in which the animals are con- fined, pour some tar on the hot iron gradually from a cup, and fill the house with the vapour of the same, and as soon as it excites sneeaing or coughing, leave it off, shut the door, and confine the calves there for an hour; repeat this every day for several times. I hare added also occasionally a small portion of sul- phur with the tar, which I think has increased its eflicacy ; this has often in my practice proved an effectual cure : it is easily to be done, and of but lit- tle expense; sometimes, do what you will, it is at- tended with only a little benefit. I have known them to as quickly disappear from their habitation in those animals as they have appeared, from some unknown cause. The internal medicine I am in the habit of administering is the spirit of turpentine mixed in thick gruel, in doses of one or two ounces occasion- ally, but my chief reliance is on inhalation. The cutaneous disease with which your yearlings are labouring under, I have frequently seen. You have called ic the ringworm ; 1 do not know that you could have called it a more apt term; it occurs in various parts of the body, more especially about the sides of the face, neck-, and shoulders ; the ap- pearance of the patches may be seen at some distance from the animal, in the form of circular and oval rings, having a dry branny look, thin, and nearly devoid of hair; your treatment should consist of the internal ex- hibition of sulphur, and daily to anoint the bald places with an unguent, composed of one pound of common tar, half a jiound of hog's lard, and two" ounces of oil of turpentine. Melt the tar and lard together ; when nearly cold, add the turpentine ; do not apply strong solutions of mercury — they are injurious; I have known animals killed by it, from being washed with lotions compounded of it : as the spring advances, a bite of good young grass will expedite the cure by restoring the functions of the skin. I have no doubt of its contagious character, from its commencing generally with one or two, and then running through any number of animals confined with them; the houses or sheds in which they are confined, I gene* rally have well washed with lime, as a further means of prevention. Can you but glean only a mite of information from the perusal of these few lines, it will afford me a pleasurable satisfaction. I shall be always ready to answer, as far as my humble abilities will permit, any request from any individual, through the means of this excellent journal, that will promote the interest of the agriculturist. I remain, yours, respectfully, Crediton, Jan. 8th. Robert Read, V. S. LINSEED AND RAPESEED. TO THE EDITOR OF THE CUEL3ISF0RD CHRONICLE. Sir, — Upon enquiry I find, that it is not custo- mary throughout your important county for farmers to give their milch cows linseed cake daily. The richness which it adds to the milk for suckling calves has been fully proved by some practical far- mers, who for some time past have adopted the sys- tem, as icell us oilier advantages derived therefrom. Upon an average four pounds per day for each cow is found sufficient. In Holland the farmers have for many years pursued this course ; the superiority of their butter in the London market pretty well tes- tifies the advantages obtained from it. In Holland, also, they feed their cows to a considerable extent upon rape-cake, although so disagreeable in flavour; but this can only be accomplished by training the calves to partake of it when very young. The rape- cake is not allowed to improve the quality of the milk, but adds materially to quantity, which serves for family and other purposes. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, London, Jan, 12. A Traveller. HIGHEST PRICE OF WHEAT IN ENG- LAND, AND LOWEST PRICE ON THE CON- 'J'INENT. — The highest annual average price of wheat in England since the passing of the Corn-laws, was in 1(317, namely, ninety-four shillings per quarter. The lowest price, being also the average of the year, in Rus- sia Proper, was in 1825, nearly sixteen shillings and nine-pence per quarter. — Return moved for by Sir C. Lemon, and ordered to be printed, dOth March, 1840. No. 177, Wheat. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 GYPSUM. I should feel obliged to I\Ir. Geo. Brabyn, of "\Yadebridp;o, if he will give me the following par- ticulars, through the uiodiuni of your paper : — How much gypsum should be applied to a large farm-yard tilled with cattle ? and how often, to pre- vent the ammonia evaporating ? In order to make the yard complete, I intend putting shutes to the eaves of the buildings, to carry the water out of the yard, and making a tank or reservoir in the middle of the yard, which lays hollow, to receive the water, which drains from tlie manure. How sliould this liquid be made effectual as a manure ; whether it should be put on the ground by a liquid manure cart when full, or over the dung in the yard, or on the mixens already made in the fields? Whether it should remain in tlie tank any- time before taking out, or taken out of the tank as it fills ? And how should the tank be made to be large enough and convenient? By Mr. Brabyn answering the above questions, he will greatly oblige the farmers generally, as there appears great ignorance among them in these matters ; and if anything else is wanting to make the farm-yard quite complete in making ma- nure, by |Mr. Brabyn informing us of tlie same, he will greatly oblige Your obedient servant, A.J. TO THE EDITOH, OF TtlE FARMEr's MAGAZINE. Sir, — In your number for this month is a letter from a " Devonshire Farmer," referring to my letter, addressed to you, of the 14th of November last, requesting me to inform him, through the same medium, how he should make gypsum. I would say in reply that, tliough easy made, it is much more economical to buy it in London, as it occurs in nature (at 38s. per ton, as advertised in your Magazine,) than to make it ; yet I will in- form your correspondent, to the best of my abili- ties, how it may be easily made. Let him take 1501bs. of pounded chalk, put it in a vessel capable of holding six or eight times the quantity, pour upon it 3001bs. of water, then take lOOlbs.of sulphuric acid, and pour upon it at seve- ral different times, say eight or ten, till the whole is poured in. He can best judge the length of intervals between the pourings in by the slackening of efliervescence. (Here the chalk is in excess, for we can hardly suppose it to be pure carbonate of lime, and it is more economical for it to be in excess than the acid.) After this is done, let it stand three or four days, stirring it once a day; thenlet.it settle down, and pour off the water, and you will have 1721bs. of gj'psnm, mixed with SOlbs. of chalk or other earths. If chalk cannot be got, limestone, broken small, will produce the same results ; but I think it advisable to leave the liquid a little longer on it. Or easier still would be — to take 8 libs, of new burnt lime, put it in a vessel and pour water upon it as before; as soon as slaked, ])our all the acid upon it at once — there will be no effervescence here — stir it up ; let it settle down, and it is done. Here you will have l/21bs. of gypsum as before, mixed with 281bs. of caustic lime and other earths, which the original limestone contained. But the produce of this last method will not do for the purpose mentioned in my letter of the !l4th of November, as it contains caustic lime, which is injurious to all animal ma- nures, I hope this will l/e jjer/ectlj/ understood. I know it is a custom with landlords in some parts of Cornwall and Devon, to bind their tenants to carry a certain quantity of burnt lime on tlicir estates when they prepare for ullage, without re ference to how it is to be used ; but if they would consider its chemical action, they would also bind them not to mix it with animal mar.ures. As carbonate of lime is a necessary constituent of the soil, if it does not already exist in sufficient quantity, it must be carried ; and the most con- venient method of reducing it to a pulverulent form is by burning : yet we should be cautious not to apply it to manures, nor to the soil, if the farm be in a high state of cultivation, till it be returned to its carbonated state. Caustic lime is valuable only to peaty lands, and such as contain a superabundance of inert vegetable matter. This latter part will appear irrelevant to the answer, yet I thought it might not be out of place. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Gregory Brabyn. Wadel/ridgc, Jan, 8, 1841. THE EPIDEMIC. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — With the assistance of Mr. Skellett's excel- lent work, I have some time been my own medical practitioner on my cattle, and as 1 have just bad to contend with the prevailing epidemic through all my stock, I think it right to add my small experience to that of others of far greater weight, and if all would contribute tho results, however trifling, they might lead to some important conclusion. The disease first made its appearance with me in some stock I had sent to a distant agricultural exhibition ; I could not trace it as proceeding from coming in contact with infection, nor do I think such was the case; from atmospheric or other causes not within our comprehension, there is undoubtedly a predisposi- tion to (lie malady, and either fatigue or cold, or whatever tends to debilitate the system, will bring it into action, and I cannot avoid thinking the idea that it is conveyed through the country by infected cattle being moved from one part of the kingdom to another is erroneous, but there is no doubt that the fact of their being driven long distances is calculated to produce it, and of course wilt be likely to infect others that are in a state to take infection, which is not always the case. A neighbour whose land joins mine had the distemper last spring, ; my cattle, from the fences being in a bad state, repeatedly got in amongst his that were suifering, and never took the complaint; I attributed their escape, at that time, to their being in excellent condition and full of health, jMy stock as I suppose in all instances were tirst affected with lameness, which continued for a day or two before the mouth and tongue participated ; these were attended with general febrile symptoms, but with no indication of active inflammation ; under these circumstances I administered a simple tonic with the apeiient, thinking it would have a favour- able influence on the digestive organs. I gave the following in linseed gruel : — 1 lb. Salts. 4 oz. Sulphur. 1 Nitre. 1 Gentian. 1 Ginger. In several cases this was sufficient, in those that did not readily yield to this dose after its operation. 148 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I ilioui^htit desiiiihls lo use Hipans likely to act on tlie skin, and iit tiie same time stimulate healthy secretions in tiie sioniach and bowels, in order to accomplish tiiis, I gare — 4 oz. Sulpher. 1 Nitre. 1 Gentian. 1 Ginger. 2 Castile Soap. 1 dram Opium. '2 Cara))hor. And in one severe case, I added to the above a few grains of Emetic Tartar, and I think ivith advan- tage ; these remedies elfected a speedy recovery. I must not however attribute convalescence entirely to the means used, as T hear some persons have escaped fatal consequences without taking any means to relieve tlie disease. I certainly cannot coincide with this plan, belinving it always desirable to as- sist nature where we can, and the more so in these particular cases, as although the complaint is seldom fatal, it may leave very unpleasant traces behind it, and wherever there exists any latent tendency to disease it will bring it into action. I lost one calf with the murrain during its progress through my slock, wliich is a malady I never was troubled with hel'ore, and I do not think it would liave shown it- sell' now, had it not been aroused bj^ the other dis- order acting on the system. As a further proof of this tendency in the epidemic, 1 may mention that one of my cows, which along time since liad reco- vered from inflammation in the udder, has now a return of it in a more violent degree ; the neighbour of mine I have before alluded to, lost two cows dur- ing its attack on his stock with inlUimmation of tlie lungs ; no doubt in these eases there was latent in- ilammatory action existing in theconstitution, which was brought into active operation b\' the cause I Jiav-e assigned ; under such circumstances it must be important to clear the system of the poison as spee- dily and effectually as possible. Yours truly, EDWij. BowLv. EdiUngtoii, Ci re n center, Dec. 26. Slit, — As your correspondent " W. Karreck" has requested some of his Ijrother farmers to answer cer- tain queries named in his letter, I beg to subjoin the following statement, froni which he can draw such inferences as occur to him on reading it. On the 6th of November last I purchased at Mid- dleham Moor 30 Highland heifers ; they had been summered on a very high moor in the vicinity, and only travelled twenty miles to the fair. I put them into the hands of a tried and trusty driver to take Jiome, giving him strict orders not to lodge them in any grass in which other cattle had been. I fully believe he strictly obeyed my orders, and brought them safely home (90 miles) on the evening of thpi lOtb. I pu> them in pasture by themselves, and had them frequently looked at. On the 14tb, one of them was observed to be in what IMr. Karreck very pro- jierly calls the " hot fit." 1 immediately gave the animal a strong purging drink, washed her mouth ( which was slightly blistered) and bar feet (which were not at all affected) with astringents, and shut her in a large open shed, with plenty of dry bedding. On the following day ten more were brought home with a " sick ticket," and during the three following days all the others arrived under similar circumstan- ces. They were all treated in the manner before des- cribed, care being taken to keep them warm and dry. To four of them only 1 had to administer food in the form of gruel and only one remained long in hand with bad feet. I began to turn the healthiest of them out to pasture on the fifth day after the outbrake of the disease and cantinuad turning them out daily until the tenth day, when all except two vsere cured; one of these had a dreadfully ulcerated mouth, and the other, as before mentioned, with bad feet. These two were three weeks under the " Hospital Surgeon," and were then restored to their former companions per- fectlii cured. They have up to this time continued in a very healthy state ; they were however excessively reduced in condition, although I consider them to liave had the disease in a very mild form. One thing I would remark — one of the heifers al- though never separated from the rest, did not take the complaint. 1 should state that the mouths and feet of the diseased animals were regularly washed with lotions every morning until perfectly cured and in no case was bleeding resorted to, nor were the purging drinks given more than twice, and in the greater number of cases one only was found suffi- cient; warmth, and frequently repeated additions of dry bedding, greatly accelerated in my opinion their recover}'. The man who attends the milking cows on the farm, attended these sick cattle constantly, but the cows have hitherto escaped the disorder, and cattle which vreie in fields adjoining the one in which the Highlanders were first attacked have all escaped the complaint. A great number of milk cows in this neighbour- hood have during the last summer been subject to this disorder, but it is remarkable that those animals which have had fur rubbed over their faces and fore legs at intervals, have, with very feiv exceptions, remained healthy. To the 11.56 of tar as above described, I attribute the safety of m}"- milk cows ; for, as I before stated, the same person attended both the well and the sick cattle. 1 have heard tar as a preventive much ridi- culed, and perhaps deservedly so, but until we are in a condition to disprove its usefulness, possessing already evidence of its apparent efficacy, 1 think we should display more wisdom were we to turn our attention, and call that of men of science to the fact, thereby perhaps detecting the cause, which if once clearly established, the disorder would soon give way before the veterinary skill'at the present day in prac- tice. You will observe, Sir, I have not answered Mr. Karreck's queries in the precise order in which they stand, nor have I the least pretension of throwing any new light on a subject already so ably discussed, but as his aim appeais to be directed to the acquisi- tion of facts on which to found correct data, I trust you will excuse the loose manner in w-hich I have strung together the few in my possession. And if in the exercise of your excellent judgment you do not deem mv communication sufficiently interesting, you can replenish your fire with it, a fate perhaps pro- ductive of more real usefulness in this very severe weather, than its publication would probably be. lam, Sir, your obedient servant, Ltime Cheshire. C. R. Bradv. We are requested to state tliat Sir Thomas Goocli, Bart., has consented to act as Honorary Director of the Farmer's Insurance Institution for the county of Suffolk. ■vTlIE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. •149 ITHE TURiNIP QUESTION. TO Mlt/MATSOX. ^ ' SiK, — I request you to accept iny tlianlis for t!ie auswcrs you havetjiivcn to the questions 'I pro- ]i()uii(led, and for tlie liautlsonie mauucr in wliieh yon prefaced tlieni ; 1)ut I fear that I am about to verify the old adagci' " the more you get the 'more you want," for^I Mnt'ist still a'sTv yoii one or two questions more ; and I do this the more readily from the handsome offer you have made, to afford every information in' your power. As your average growth of turnips appears to fall considerably short of that whicli you have said you can gi'ow, namely,' 40 tons per acre, will you have the kindness to state-^ i 1. Whether such a large crop is owing to a more cxjiensive cultivation ? or, ■i. To a superior soil than the average soil of your farm? and ' ' . , 3. If the crop is produced by a superior and more expensive method, M'hat is that method ? or 4. If owing to a superior soil, what is the nature of the soil? I have asked these questions with a two-fold view: the first, to ascertain whether the expense may not be greater than the i-cturn ; for it may hap]icn, as in fatting l)easts for show, where in a great many instances, if a balance was struck, we should find that such' experiment may be carried too far, because I consider that the great object of a farmer is to obtain the largest profit at the smallest cost, for a continued series of crops.-: The second is suggested by your remarks relative to a certain course of crops ; for. I think'we ai'e too much bound down by custom-, in « this respect, and that instead of making the land subservient to our crops, we should make our crops subservient to our land ; but understand me — I do not think that it will do to work haphazard ; on the contrary, it is abso- lutely necessary for a good farmer to have such an arrangement regarding crops, that he may always be prepared beforehand. But we know that there is scarcely any district— nay, any farm of 300 acres, that has not some variety of soil; and one of the improvements which we require — an improvement you seem to have discovered and practi.sed — is so to arrange our crops, that on each variety of soil such crops should be grown as may be found by experience to be best suited to it : and this, I think, will be one of the first steps towards " doubling the present j)roduce of the country." You are kind enough to say that, if I wi.sh it, yon will explain your method of growing good crops of wheat on your " burning sands." I certainly do wish it ; because, from my previous avocations, I have yet much' to learn, and any hint from so able a master will be Avelcome and valuable. Believe me, yours, truly obliged, J(in. ilst, 1841. John Maxwell Tylden. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS, Sir, — If you think the following statement of facts of the smallest value in the turnip question, it is much at your service. ■ A field of 4 A. 1 r. 20 1>. of a yellow sandyish clay soil, of which bricks have been made, was in I83(i clover, in 1837 wheat, yielding of the New Red Norfolk, or Hicklings, at the rate of 10 sacks per acre, and of Chidhams at the rate of 7 sacks per acre. The stubble was ploughed, and tj-ifolium ia- carnatmn sown, wliicli was fed oH' hy slic(')>. A' I'aiJ' cn))iofred round turniiis I'ollowcil inli^:')!^. Then it was sown wiMi seven varieties of wheat, of which t'oloncl Le Contenr's 8 Trit. Koelin, or White Downy, yiehU'd at the rate of 10 sacks per acre in 183!). " As soon as the wheat was carried the field was under-drained, and as fast as the draining Avas finished, the stublile, after having Tjeen weeded of tlie polygonum persicaria and aviculare, and of the stinking may-weed, was ploughed in deep, and so the field remained until March 23, 1840, when it was cross-ploughed, harrowed, rolled, drag-har- rowed, and then dressed, at the rate of less than six loads per acre, with dung from one of Coke's " Norfolk pressed pies" made in the field, and the dressing ploughed in April 2.5. This was on tho eastern half of the field. On the western half, after the rolling, half a load per acre of turf ashes Avas spread, and then the ground stirred nine or ten inches deep with a machine like Biddell's scarihci-, only neater and simpler, and then the dung was ploughed in. The field, being as fine as an onion- bed, was sown, JMay 25, broadcast, withR. Matson's purple-topped Swede, got directly from himself^ It was twice hoed, leaving above twelve inches be- tween the plants, and afterwards hand-M'eeded of the polygonum persicaria. On Nov. 12, a rod on the western lialf was measured, and the turnips being topped and tailed were weighed, and found to amount to 4001bs., being at the rate of 28 tons, 11 cwt. 1 qr. 201bs. the acre; and this notwithstand- ing they were mildewed Aug. 8, proljably from being- sown so early, and that some of them were going iu the middle. On the eastern half of the field tho turnips are neither so thick nor so large, but arc sounder, and fifty of the largest weighed 2495lbs., and the produce of a rod measured and weighed yesterday, amounted to 3241bs., or at the rate of 23 tons, 2 cwt. 3qrs. 121bs. per acre. Between 78 and 90 West Down wethers have been feeding on the field since Oct. 20, and have done very well, and there is a month's feed still. In the next field, which is not drained, a rod of the yellow Swede was measured, and the produce weighed Jan. 2, 1841, and yielded 3001bs., or at the rate of 21 tons, 8 cwt. 2qrs. 81bs. the acre. An Experimentali.-st. CobJta?n, Surrey, Jan. 21, 1841. Sir, — Seeing no good reason that the humblest pens should not accept your invitation in the " Mark Lane Express" of the I8th instant, to contribute such facts as come within the writer's own practical knowledge, and bearing on " the turnip question" now in vogue, I place at your service as mucli of the following as you think will augment, by ever so small a tittle, the " amount of evidence " you seek for ; although I fear that mine will not go further than to show that in one case, unsparing intercul- ture does, of itself, greatly increase a growing crop; leaving room for inference that the result has beau sweetened by more than a proportionate increase ia the returns. ' June 6th, 1840, I began to sow nine acres, (after wheat) with ]\Ir. Mat-son's pur])!e-top Swede, in fur- rows[twelve to the rod on three acres, and ten to tho. rod on six acres, all in one field of stiff claye/ land, which holds water like a, pan, and into vvIiicJi one' sinks above ankle-deep, after heavy rains; very short and rich farm-yard manure was put on, in baulk, at the rate of twenty-six loads per acre. The wliole had been ploughed in Dec. 1839. 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In clue time the plants were tbinned out ten inclies apart in the row. Those in the ten furrow rods came up the strongest, and kept a-head for awhile ; hut were overtaken and beaten by the twelve-furrow rods, in consequence of the latter being hand hoed three times, instead of being thinned as the ten fur- row rods were, three times also. The plant was struck for a few days, and perhaps never entirely recovered from the diseases which stunted or destroyed almost every other for miles around. My crop excited attention in all its stages, and on coming to maturity, its weight was estimated by difterent experienced farmers so variously as to surprise me, who am young at farming, more than a little. One laid it at [20, others at 30, and one at 40 tons per acre, to say nothing of intermediate cal- culations. Having determined to sell half, I measured an average looking perch, with more than common pains; for it has often occurred to me, that by measuring in both outside rows and each extreme end of the perch, growers do sometimes deceive themselves, and un- intentionally mislead others. In weighing I did not go to a greater nicety than to regulate my deal with purchasers on the give- and-take principle, not foreseeing that I should ever feel inclined to speak in print on the subject. The produce, as well as I can judge, was 23 tons per acre. From the random guesses above mentioned, you will admit that it is not easy to give the average crop of the neighbourhood, as you require ; nor is it very pleasant to make comparisons, yet I venture to say that there was a very great difference between my crop, and that in an adjacent field (sown also with Matsonian purple-tops), belonging to an out-going tenant ; for, if I may so express it, he grew apple- dumplings, whilst I grew plum-puddings. You complain that, with two or three exceptions, turnip growers maintain a " dogged silence," but, acquiescing in your observations with regard to the improving understanding between landlord and tenant, let me remind you that there is, everywhere, a CO-LANDLORD, who, Dowherc, is inore talkative about the expenses of growing heavy crops, than he is of the net proceeds, accruing to him in the shape of small tithes. Should you deem this homely trifle admissible, I beg you will freely point out the defective parts of it, for the guidance of many who feel heartily willing to appear, with their separate mite of information, amongst your minor correspondents, who stand in need of a little patient training from you, who must know that it is not easy for us small fry to clearly put, in a few words, the simplest details in husban- dry.— I am, &c., Hand-Hoe. Jan. 21, 1841. Sir, — 1 am afraid you will think me becoming troublesome, but in the hope that you will excuse and accept me this time, I sit down to communicate a few more remarks on turnip husbandry, and other matters connected with general cultivation ; but in the first place, let me correct your published report of the farm manag'ement which had successfully competed for the Manchester Agricultural Society's prize, and the Liverpool Society's prize also.* In your paper of the 11th current, it is stated that the course of management as detailed was written by the occupier. This you will find not to be the case ; by referring' more minutely to the manuscript I sent, you find that the * Prize first for tlie best cultivated fanu, as tenant and occupier, farm in question is in the occupation of a mere prac- tical man, one who commonly holds his own plouprh, and could scarcely give a written description of his own course of husbandry. Now a few lines on turnip cul- ture, referring to the given weight of crops I had in- spected, and which you obligingly published, you say that tliese being grown ■ptcrpasely for competition must not be regarded as a sample ef general crops, but rather like prize fed oxen, as compared with the ordinary fat cattle sold in Smithfield market. Now, Sir, this is a plausible comparison, and yet a very wide difference, for the turnip hobby will pay for his corn ; I will not say so much for prize-fed oxen. Allow me a little more space and I have done. We read that bone dust, and also lime are found injurious to some soils, but this is h circumstance which never yet came under ray observa- tion ; notwithstanding' I have for some years traversed a great part of the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire upon a mission of inquiry, to determine the usefulness of bones as manure, also the same in respect to lime. I certainly have seen some lands much more improved than others by an application of either of the substances named. This has been the case in lands of difterent mixtures, and indeed of the same apparent character. Thus I have seen tenacious soils improved six times their original value by one top-dressing of bones ; I have also seen soils of like character, whereon equal quantities have been used, not benefited to half the same purpose. Similar results have come under my observation where bones have been tried on light land, but I have never seen or heard of any case in my district where land had been made less productive either by bones or lime. Therefore, Mr. Editor, if you, or any of your intelligent readers, will give publicity to an instance, stating under what circumstances, and to what extent land has been injured by the substances in question, I shall feel much obhged for the information. I am. Sir, yours respe'ctfully, A Lancashire Agriculturist, NEAR Manchester. THE TURNIP CONTROVERSY. Believing that our columns cannot be better occu- pied than in pursuino the discussion of the "Turnip (iuestion," we sliall offer no apology for again re- curring to it at some length. We have not yet obtained such an amount of evidence as we had hoped to have received ere this, but we still feel a confidence that we liave readers in every county in England who will not suffer such an important and interesting question to remain undecided, merely because they will not trouble themselves to put pen to paper. A long and laboured com- munication is not needed ; all that is required is a brief, plain statement of the actual quantity grown upon some occasion, when proper means were taken to ascertain the weight accurately, and of the relation which that particular crop bears to the average crops of the farm and neighbourhood, assuming, as to the last point, that the land in the district is fahly cultivated. We are well aware of tlie old prejudice existing in the minds of many farmers, against communicating to their landlords the amount of produce which could be raised upon the land, lest it should induce them to in- crease the rent. This prejudice is fast disappear- ing. Landlords and tenants have been alike ignorant of their own real interests, and we much doubt whether, if the spirit of se//-improvement, which is now extending itself throughout the country, shall continue to advance with vigour, the tenant will not take the lead, and force the THE TARMEll'S MAGAZINE. 151 laiidloirlij into a beller sj'slcni of maiiagenieiit of their estates. With some noble exceptions, where extensive landowners are assisted and will be ad- vised by ail intelligent agent, the conditions of letting farms, as regards cultivation, and tiie cus- toms, as between outgoing and incoming tenants, are such as no skilful and spirited farmer of the present day would submit to. It is, however, gratifying to know that the interests of landlord and tenant in respect to eacli other are better un- derstood, and that the shyness, and even hostility, which in many cases existed, are now giving way to belter and kindlier feelings. As regards the " Turnip Question," however, from which we have somewhat digressed, the prejudice to which we !)a':c adverted cannot have the efi'ect of sealing the li|)s of the tenant farmer ; it siiould rather have the contrary effect. An assertion is made tiiat from forty to forty-tivc tons of Swede turnips per English acre can be grown, and although it is not stated in terms, still it has been inferred in a manner which cannot be mistaken, that by some im- proved system of cultivation the general crop of the country may be made to reacii that average ; and yet it is well known that the average growth at present does not reach twenty-five tons per acre. Here, then, we have Kent against all England — aye, and Scotland too ; yet weeks have passed, and, with two or three exceptions, the turnip- growers have maintained a dogged silence, and not a voice has been heard from the best turnip counties in England. Were a judge called upon to decide in the present state of the evidence, but for a circumstance which we shall notice hereafter, his decision must be in favour of the forty to forty- five tons of Swedes per acre. In our remarks upon this subject, on the 4th and and 11th of this month, we adverted to a statement made by Mr, Long, at the meeting of the Chippenham Agricul- tural Society, that sixty tons per acre had been grown in Scotland. As soon as our remarks met his eye, Mr. Long very kindly favoured us with a communication on the subject, in which he says that the statement he made was founded upon the recollection of what he had seen in Scot- land some six or seven years ago, on the estates of gentlemen, whose names he mentions, and who are well known to the agricultural world as the first farmers of the day, and also upon the faith of answers to his enquiries as to the weight of the crnps which he saw. Mr. Long states, however, that he never saw any crop weighed, and therefore cannot say of his own knowledge whether the weight were sixty, fifty, or forty tons per acre. The following remarks in Mr. Long's letter bear so strongly upon the question, that we trust he will excuse our giving them here ." — *' I certainly have seen such crops of turnips there, as I never &aw in any part of this country, and have always attributed it to the ridge system, which they in- variably adopt. Dumbartonshire is a county with ■which I am much connected, and on examining the crops of turnips in shooting over the ground, I have frequently asked the question as to the calculated weight, and the answer has often been as much as sixty tons per acre. You are, no doubt, aware of the very large quantity of manure applied, viz., sixty cart loads, about a ton each, of good manure, which they usually obtain from Glasgow at 4s. per cart-load, and, in addition, lime, to the amount of about 3^ per acre, milking altogether au expenditure of 15/. per acre for manure ; but they have leases of nineteen years, and conbider that by so doing, they get tlieir land into good heart for their turn. I am speaking now of tennuts, and as the result of such expenditure, I liave known eighteen sacks of wheat (per Scotch acre) to be produced the farm round. This woukl astonish some of your readers, but I saw it on the farmer's books after the corn had been thrashed and sent to market." This statement upon the weight per acre, simply resolves itself into this, — an " opinion of the pro- bable weight of the crop per Scotch acre, given upon mere observation, untested by weighing, including tops and tails, and raised upon land in the highest possible state of cultivation, on which manure, at an expense of 15/. per acre, may have been applied." Mr. Long's statement is, however, strongly sup- ported by a communication from a correspondent at Aberdeen, who signs himself " Amicus," and who has given us his name and address. He says — " few of our farmers in this quarter would think forty tons per English acre much to brag of. These statements, I doubt not, will be confirmed by many farmers North of the Tweed." We trust that the appeal we made to our readers North of the Tweed, a fortnight since, and which we now repeat, will not be made in vain. " Amicus" en- closed a printed statement, headed " Dale's Hybrid," the perusal of which we earnestly recom- mend to our readers. From this statement it ap- pears, setting the " Hybrid" and other sorts out of the question, that upwards of fifty-four tons per acre of Swedes were grown in December 1834, upon land which " got no more than a fair allow- ance of dung!" Now, fifty-four tons per Scotch acre, would be about forty-five tons per English acre, and it is pretty clear from the observations afterwards made, that they were weighed with tops and tails, which, we should estimate, at a rough guess, not less than nine tons per acre ; thus re- ducing this extraordinary crop to about thirty-six tons yer acre. We have, moreover, no account in what manner the meumrlng and weighing took place, a most important, but, too frequently in- uccurutely performed operation, in ascertaining the weight of a standing field of turnips. We refer with much pleasure to the letter of our friend " Rusticus" in this paper, in which he ac- curately details an experiment made for the pur- pose of testing the merits of the seed of different growers, and at the same time ascertaining the weight per acre. His figures, it will be seen, fell far short of the extraord'mari/ crops to which we have now, and heretofore alluded. Of the corres- pondents whose communications upon this sub- ject are now before us, there is but one other to which we deem it necessary to advert, namely, that of Mr. Matson himself, the originator of this important discussion. It afforded us much pleasure to have the oppor- tunity of giving insertion, last week, to a letter from Sir J. Tylden, Bart., addressed to Mr. Matson, and containing ten important questions, clear and satisfactory replies to which cannot fail, if Mr. Matson's system by which he is enabled to grow forty to forty-five tons of Swedes per acre be new and unknown, to confer invaluable benefit upon the whole agricultural community. Mr. Matson has responded to the call of Sir J. Tylden, and his M 2 152 THE i'armjlR'3 magazine. answers to the] queries will ho toiuid in aiiollicr part of tins paper. 1 pass over the answers to the nine first queries, and co;ne to the tentk and last. " How many acres of turnips do yon generally sow, and what do you consider to be the average quantity grown ?" [Answer — " From ten to twenty acres, and 1 consider the average pro- duce, per acre, to be from tu'enty-jive to tldrty tons per acre." We know not what our readers may think but we are of opinion that Mr. Matson has answered himself. We trust, however, that the subject will not be suffered to rest here, we still hope to receive further information from correspondents; but, above all, we earnestly entreat the attention of Farmers' Clubs to this question. Farmers' Clubs are established in different places throughout the whole country, from North to South, and from East to West, although more thickly in some districts than in others ; a noble opportunity now offers for proving the value of these institutions, by each making arrangements, through some of its mem- bers, for trying experiments on the growth of turnips in the ensuing season. An accurate ac- count should be kept of every step ; the prepara- tion of the land, the nature and quantity of manure applied, the time when sown, the man- ner of sowing, the cultivation during the growth, &c. The report should also set forth the nature of the preceding crops, the character of the soil, and such other details as a riiQlure consideration will suggest. If such a course were adopted, even by some two or three members of each of the Farmers' Clubs in England, now numbering upwards of fifty, what a valuable body of information would be obtained on this all-important subject. Five hundred thousand pounds embarked in experi- mental farms in different parts of the country, would not produce a result half so satisfactory. We have ever been most sanguine in our expecta- tions of the good results which may be produced through the medium of Farmers' Clubs, and we now most earnestly entreat the members of all to take this question into their serious consideration. — Mark Lane Express. LORD WESTERN'S SYSTEM OF DRILLING. to THE EDITOR OF THE CHELMSFORD CHRONICLE. Sir, — In your Chronicle of the week before last, you have given insertion to a long letter from Lord Western, the main object of which seems to be, to press upon the farmers, as he has done on several previous occasions, his views and opinions in favour of a lar(/e quandfi/ of seed, and wide drilUny, for ivlieat ; and, as a long time must ne- cessarily elapse before the rerurn of the wheat- sowing season, it may be well to invite discussion upon so important a matter from your experienced and practical readers ; so that if his ]ordshii)'s views are proved to be correct, they may he move widely disseminated, and on the contrary, if they shall be found untenable, and not founded on sound principles, they may be abandoned in time to prevent individual and public loss. The enquiry as to the quantity of seed neces- sary for a given space of gromid, is first of all an important one for the public. The ditterence of a bushel, or even half a bushel per acre, is a mo- mentous affair in a country depending upon im- ports for a considerable proportion of its bread ; and it really does seem to me that his lordship's statement, unsupported as it is by comparative trials, is anything but conclusive. His reasons for nine-inch drilling, with so large a quantity as three bushels per acre, are even less satisfactory, because they are opposed to all re- cognised and well known laws of vegetable life, as well as to the every-day experience of the farmer. If the precise number of plants, for a given space, could be got at, the skilful cultivator would look for success from their being placed as separate as possible, that they might each and separately dra(v from the soil and air the nourishment neces- sary for their perfection. His lordship's reason for crowding wheat plants together would apply to other plants as well, and it is quite unnecessary for me to describe what would be the result. The only circumstances which, in my opinion, admit of a maximum quantity of seed, are those in which the land is highly cultivated, and where the soil is largely mixed with manure fitted for the in- tended plant ; for the soil can only promote growth or mature seed, in proportion to the quality and quantity, and of its nourishing proper- ties. I know that his lordship's plan has been tried by other farmers, and found wanting ; but I shall content myself bj'' adducing the following testimony against it, and which inaj' be found in the third part of the English Agricultural Society's Journal. The rigid accuracy of Mr. Robert Dixon no one who knows him will be inclined to question, or that he is a first-rate farmer, and desirous on all occasions to give information or to answer any enquiries. Hi?, comparative (and without co?«^a?'a- tive facts we cannot arrive at satisfactory conclu- sions) experiments between wide and narrow drilling^are as follows : — Trial of narrow and wide drilling of wheat sown on the 16th of October, 183:1 : — the quantity of land drilled was 3 roods and o7 poles, half of which was drilled with 13 rows on a stetch 10 feet wide, the other half with 19 rows on the stetch, the land being divided into four stetches. The same quantity of seed was used, viz., at the rate of three bushels per acre, which produced, from the BUS, PKS. ST. LI!S. 19 rows, 348 sheaves. . 23 1| weigliing (net) 106 8 13 tows, 374 sheaves., 21 0 J weighing' (net) 90 8 Dlffference, buslieJs, 2 1 stones, 10 0 Here is a fact, carefully and clearly brought be- fore public notice, telling against his lordship's practice by no less than four bushels and a half an acre. It shows also, that by both ways Mr, Dixon produced a good crop; and I have no doubt that during the eight years of his lordship's stated wheat crops, Mr, Dixon could furnish a much higher average, not only of wheat but other grain. I am rather surprised that his lordship should de- cry what he is pleased to caX\ 2)etty experiments on the part of young farmers. It is natural to aim at distinction, and if failure more frequently occurs than success, still inquiry and perseverance are the basis of all improvement — schemes seldom benefit themselves, but they frequently clear away the rubbish which encumbers the road to know- ledge, and make the path easier for those who follow. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 The late Sir Humpiirey Davy began liis extra- ordinary discoveries in a very petti/ way ; for while a youth, and the ajjprcntice of an apotliecary at the Lands-End, he with a few gallii)ots, crucibles, and a retort or two, either in his garret or by the kitchen fire (when the cook fcould spare it), com- menced a series of chemical experiments, which, in their result, have immortalized his name ; and to the science of agriculture he gave shape, and character, and Hglit, which it never possessed before. His lectures on " Agricultural Chemistry" will long remain as the text-book for the scientific cultivators of the soil. I fear it is but too true that the usual education given to the sons of the soil is ill adapted to their calling in life ; better days I trust are dawning upon them, in which useful, scientific, and practical knoivledge, will be cultivated. It is, however, equally true, that the sons of birth and fortune are no better off at l-'ton, the Charter House, or the Universities. The aristocratic idler is of all created beings the moKt unfit for close and vigilant enquiry. I will follow the example of his lordship, in a quotation, not from Mr. Burke, but from Sir H. Davy, with which I will conclude this letter — " It is more laborious to accumulate facts than to reason con- cerning them ; but one good experiment is of more value than the ingenuity of a brain like Newton's." Your obedient servant, December 12, 1840. A Rivenhall FaRiMer. A FURTHER ACCOUNT OF WEIGHTS OF ANIMALS EXHI- BITED AT THE SMITPIFIELD CATTLE SHOW. Class I. Mr. J. F, Senior, near Aylesbury, 4 yrss. 8 mouths Herelord Ox ; dead weight, 198st. Class II. Mr. Cowper, Thorpe Mandeville, 3 yrs. 9 months Herftloi'd ox ; dead weight, IBost. 4lb. Air. Wrati»law, Ilugby, 3 yrs. 11 months Durham Steer; deadweight, lOOst. Class V. Mr. B. E, Bennett, Marston House, Market Harboro', pained the premium of 5 sovs., 3 yrs. 8 months Durham and Hereford Ox; dead weight, 152st.; loose fat, 16st. Class VIII. Mr. Wratislaw of Rugby, Warwickshire, gained the premium of 5 sovs., 4 yrs. 8 montlis Durham Heifer ; dead weijjfht, 159st. Mr. John Beasley, Chapel Brampton, 4 yrs. 7 months Shon-iiorned ; dead weight, I45st. Mr. John Kidd, Turner Hall, '3 yrs. ,8 months Dur- ham and Aberdeen heifer ; dead weight, 1448t. ; loose fat, 18st. ]\Ir. John BuUin, Biggin Grange, near Omale, 4 yrs. 7 months Short-hovned heifer; dead weight, 156st. 31b.; loose tut, 16.st. Class IX. The Ki^ht Hon. Earl Spencer, VViseton, gained the prertiiura of 20 sjovs., 8 yrs. 8 months Durham Cow ; de.i(J vvpight, loost. Mr. Mc Grisold, Mallington', 11 yrs. 9 months Here- ford cow ; dead weiarht, 190sf. ; loose iat, 18st. Clas.s XVI. ]Mr. \V. Ilobraan, Ewell, near Epsom, three "29 weeks and 2 days Neapolitan and Norfolk pigs; dead wefjrht, 37st. 41b. each. Class XII. Mr. J. S. Burgess, Holme Pierrepoiut, three 20 months long-wooUed sheep; dead weight, 18ft. 71b.; IQst. lib. ;|19st. 6ib. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. ON CORN MILLS FOR THE FARMER'S USE, AND ON MOWING WHEAT. Sir, — Living four miles from the miller, I find the inconvenience to be very great. I wish through the medium of your Magazine to ask, if you can infornx me whether there ever has been a mill invented for the use of farmers to grind corn for cattle, which can be worked by one horse ; and if so, where are such articles manufactured, and what is the price? It has always appeared to be a great misfortune that such a piece of mechanism has not found its way, in these days of the " march of intellect ;" at the same time, the cost price should be borno in mind, as that would deter many farmers from availing them- selves of the opportunity of using their offal corn to advantage. In answer to the enquiry by your Bedfordshire correspondent, as to the difference of price between " mown and shorn" wheat, I pay one penny per bushel more for mown than for shorn wheat. I con- sider the extra price paid for thrashing " mown wheat," balanced by the lesser price paid in harvest- ing— so that the onlv advantage in mowing is getting- more ground cleared in a given time, and also in- creising the lump of manure ; but, at the same time, strong- land does not receive so much heneiit from the frost when the land has been mown, on account of its lying too close and sad. I am, yours &c. A SuESCniBF.R. J) — , near Barmley, Jan. 8lli. ON A DISEASE IN CATTLE. Sir, — Seeing one of my heifers has broken out in blotches all over her bod}', (resembling the shah iu sheep) I should feel obliged if you, or any of your numerous correspondents, would inform me through the medium of your valuable Magazine whether cattle that have had the distemper are liable to that disease, and also the best means of etfectiag a cure? By inserting- this in your next number, you will much oblige. Yours, respectfully, Kent, Jan. 13. T. B. WHICH IS THE BEST BREED OF COWS FOR DAIRY PURPOSES ? Sir,— I should be greatly obliged if you would in- sert in your next number the following inquiry ; and I should also be much indebted to any experienced prac- tical man who will kindly furnish me with an answer, t feel assured, however much of prejudice there may exist with different breeders in favour of their iiarticu- lar breed, there are amongst your numerous readers many who will afford me the iaformatioa I desire, as the result of their own actual experience. I am desir- ous to know which of the various breeds of cows may be mo.-t relied on for dairy purposes only, and which are the usual markets where such may be purcliased iu February or March, just before calving ; or I should be glad if any gentleman would favour me with his address, who can supply me with 10 or 15 cows, really godd milkers, which would probably secure me as an annual customer, provided more than a fair market price was not required, as I parposebuyioginnnd selling out every year, instead of keeping a winter stock. I would only add, that 1 am desirous of securing animals of some 154 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. particular breed or first cross, ratlier than a mixed let. Trusting to your kindness to insert this in your number for February, I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Berkshire, J an. 12, ISll. A " Querist." WATER FROM MALT CISTERNS. Sir, — If any of your readers will give information as to how Water from Malt Cisterns can be applied to a useful purpose for cattle, manure, or any otlier purpose, they will be doing an essential service to the public. That this liquid contains a considerable portion of spirit from the Barley is evident, but how to turn it to a useful purpose is but little known. Yours respectfully, .7an»21, 1841. An Enquirer. " A Kentish Farmer" enquires what soil is best adapted for the white carrots, the process in sowing:, and what manure is best calculated for tiicm, the time of sowing', and wliat is the best manner of layinf? them up, and whether they are better adapted for falteningr li<--ast<; than Swede turnips, and the crop most proper to follow them. " A Constant Reader" enquires whether corns in horses' hoofs are capable of permanent cure, and if so, what is the process necessary. ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. "A Correspondent," wishing information on the best and most practical way of furrow-draining, should read Mr. Smith, of Deaaston's, pamphlet on the sub- ject, published by Drummond and Sons, Agricultural Museum, Stirling. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE FOR FEBRUARY. Nothing is more closely allied to gardening than the science of Meteorology — it bears upon every branch of the art, and its phenomena are, directly or indirectly, connected with the development and growth of every plant. We are particularly called upon to advert to the subject at this period, because the public journals teem with notices wiiich appear to be erroneous, and very likely to mislead ; we read of extraordinary rigour — of intense frost — of a season of severity which has not been experienced since 1814! Now reiUly, in sober earnest, this ap- pears very inconsequent, to say nothing worse of it ; for who, pretending to any observation or memory at all, can recur to January and February of 1838, without feeling assured that the present season is one of comparative mildness? If the average of three diurnal observations be taken of
rinrili/, though others claim the palm of now advocating that which we suggested. Itis well, because the work progresses — the momentum is given, be the impelling cause what and where it may : and our agriculture, horticulture, and philosophic meteorology, will ere long be aided by eflicient seminaries, wheiein theory will be sup- ported and elucidated by practical facts. The weather having now become mild, and the ground, though swamped, open, as our spade has proved, to the depth of a good parsnip, the gardener may think of being able, by the first of February, to attend to — 1. The VEGliTABLD GAnDEN. The ground, we presume, has been so far prepared by trenching, ridging, double digging, and common turning of surface, as to be easily reduced, made level, and in free working condition to receive seeds of several vegetables. Sow in rows, drills, or appro- priate beds, early feas, long-pod heans, horn carrot, lettuce, leek, Deptford onion, parsnip, radish, round- spinach, savoys, for the first crops : also in vineries, or over gentle heat, jyeas for transplanting, celery in boxes. Place the earliest potatoes on the floor to excite the eyes. Force asparagus in beds, small rhubarb plants, and sea kale, under pots. riant out more cabbages from the seed-beds ; gar- lic, shallot, and onions for a summer crop ; the pro- cess is very curious, and must be described, it will lend to elucidate the physiology of bulbs. Prepare a plot, open to the sun, of free- working loam ; trench it 18 inches deep, manuring the bottom, and inter- mixing the moved soil with wood ashes — these contain carbonate of potass, and much carbonate of lime — sprinkling nitrate of soda to the extent of Ijilb. to a square rod or perch (SOJ square yards) of ground. Kake the surface perfectly, and the work being done early, let the bed be quite ready by the 21st. Select any number of the smai/ bulbs from among the true Spanish onions, that grow to the largest size; these small bulbs should be about an inch across, or rather more, well-formed, sound, and in every res- pect good, excepting size. Beat the surface of the bed till it be level, and pretty solid, and lay it out in squares six or seven Indies across, either by means of two lines or poles. These squares may alternate as chequers, or quin- cunx, if preferred. Scratch tiie surface, merely to mark the squares, and press an onion-root, downward of course, precisely at the corner or point of each in- tersection, to the half of its depth. Sprinkle soot nnd air-slaked lime, as " dusting," over the spaces occasionally, to repel worms; and also to act as a stimulating dress to the surface. Spring advancing the roots will develop, and with them the shoot, which in this case, by the law of its structure, will be a flower-stem and not a leaf. If this proceed, all the energy of the bulb will be devoted to the produce of fruit, therefore the slioot must be immediately snapped, or cut oft. Another effort to jiroduce a flower will be made, which must again be frustrated ; and thus to the end. By degrees, and almost insen- sibly, it will be api)arent, that two, three, or four perfect new bidbs, have been developed ; and many of these vsrill, by June and July, attain twice and three times the size of the bulb planted. In the latter month, according to the season, the crop will be ready for drying oft", and prove an early and most seasonable supply. fhiut department. Melons and Cucumbers prepare for, by mixing the best stable manure two parts, with one part or third of the best tree leaves (oak if possible) that can be procured. Rake great heaps, and as heat arises,^ fork them over, to mellow. In all cases, prefer, if possible, to have open hollow beds, or pits, using the ferment as " linings," not as solid beds, according to the old practice; four or six stout posts, a few strong cross-bars, and a flooring of stout slabs, will consti- tute the frame-work of a bed, for any two or three- light frame ; a great economy of manure is thus effected, a moist genial atmosphere is created, and the roots trace among pure soil, and not into rank half- formed " humus." The Soil for Melons may be pure, velvetty maiden loam, with one-third leaf-mould, the bottom of the bed next the slabs being the inverted leaves of the same loam. For Cucumbers, four or five-year-old couch grass roots, reduced to loam, constitute the best medium, one without a rival. Sow the seeds of Cucumber at any time, but defer the Melon-sowiag till the middle of March. The Vinery of early grapes is now in rapid action, fruit set, and enlarging. It ought, while the blo^s- som expands, to be kept moist, vapourous, and at 70 by fire ; the clusters then draw out, the footstalk of the blossoms being lengthened and widely detached. This is one of the critical periods wherein equability of temperature is productive of great advantage. When the blossom has expanded, moisture may bo abated, and sprinkling "should be discontinued, otherwise the farina will be washed away. High night temperature is perhaps of no use after the fruit is safely set and the figure of the bunch formed. The later vinery should be set to work about the end of the second week ; every process of thia house will advance under improving influences, and with comparative facility. Peach and Nectarine trees swell their buds. Apri- cot trees sometimes precede them. When this en- largement is observed, un-nail, and prune the trees at groioing buds, shortening according to approved rules, and laying in, with the greatest order, a quantity of fruitful wood, so as to be " green quite home," that is, to have no long barren branches without verdure or bloom. Prune all the berry-bearing shrubs. Spur currants close ; leave gooseberry bushes open, abounding witii strong, well arranged shoots of the wood of last year; cut back raspberry canes to a bud, at that point where the shoot takes a curve, leaving it straight, erect, and not very numerous. Prune the spur-bearing trees, — apple, pear, plum and cherry. Cut out clean all thH wood shoots that emerge among the spurs, leaving the fruit eyes per- fect. If one, preserve (/mt carefully; two or three fruit-buds form a compact and suflicient spur, but more lead to crowding. Every spur should be kept a5a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. short, and close seated on the wood. If the woolly aphis called American blight he present, the liquid milphuretofiime, recommended hy Lindley, furnishes a useful wiish : it is made readily by taking lib. of the freshest quicklime, and 2oz. flower of sulphur; sprinkle a little water over the two, in a pan or tin, so as parti}' to slake the lime, and make it intermix with the sulphur ; stir tliem well, and when both are intimately blended, pour by degrees a gallon of boil- ing- water pn the materials, constantly stirring; vio- lent action and solution will take place, nnd a yellow liquor will be the retiult ; this must be brushed on the infected parts, and over the roots, by the collar also if required. It is a capital wash for vines — none better ; but the air speedily decomposes it. The limy sediment also may be applied as white- wash for flues and walls. Plant stove and propagation-house, keep at 55 to 60; begin to re-pot; the growing plants, to sow a great variety of seeds, and to take the first cuttings. In great collections it is usual to plant numbers in the* same propagation pot, and dexterous operators will pot oft' successfully, and almost without failure ; "la- bor iraprobus omniffi vincit." There are men who, like the late JMr. Sweet, " hold, as it were, the reins of nature in their hands," — all that they touch suc- ceeds; but alas ! for the poor amateur" — he must jiurchase his exjierience in perplexity and disap- pointment; therefore we recommend that he have a large stock of the smaller or " tJjumb pots," and always plant one cutting in one pot ; if it succeed, he has a ball of roots ready formed, which, when the plant recpiircs shifting, will enable him to remove it without dangerous disturbance. Before we close, it will be right to mention that, on the third day of the thaw, the wind bus veered to North East, bringing hints of snow, and a reduction of 15" in the temperature; this is the third recur- rence of a t'iree days' thaw, after about 14 days of frost. . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY. It has been a general subject of observation, that the extreme fluctuations in the weather throughout England, have been scarcely, if ever, equalled, and certainly never surpassed, at any previous corres- ponding period of the year since 1814, than those experienced during the month forming the subject of this report. From its commencement until about its middle, the frost — especially on one or two oc- casions— exceeded in severity that ever before remem- bered, which, together with the heavy falls of snow, had the effect of rendering inland navigation wholly impracticable, and producing a temporary suspension of the usual routine of business operations ; wiiich cir- cumstance, notwithstanding the rapid thaw which commenced on the 15th, and effected a speedy clear- ance of the principal rivers, caused considerable inconvenience to those engaged in the transmission of grain to the various markets. The rapidity with which the snow and ice dissolved on the 16th, 17th, and 18th, has been, we regret to state, productive of the most disastrous consequences, in the destruc- tion of property by floods; indeed, scarcely ever have we been called upon to record such appalling disas- ters, arising from inundations, as those which oc- curred in several districts. During the last week of the month, we had alternations of frost and rain, with a great diversity of climate ; while the soil 'con- tinued in such a sloppy and tender coniJition that the utmost difficulty was experienced in getting upon the land ; hence out-door farm labours have, with a i'ew trifling exceptions, scarcely progressed beyond that position in which they remained at the latter 'end of December. Still, it is acknowledged that they are in a sufficiently forward state. At one time there were rumours afloat that the young wheat plants had received considerable injury from the sharp frosts: Credence was given to these rumours, even by wheat growers themselves ; but being aware of the hardy nature of those plants, we bad our doubts as to' the' correctness of the informa- tion transmitted to us, to' the above effect. And biiving had since the disappearance of the snow ample opportunities of closely inspecting the plant in i;Gveral important counties, we can, without the l>^ast fear of cwniradiction; state that, taken as a whole, tbe- wheat;? have wKhatood the late seyere trial exceedingly well, and only require a tew days of genial weather to put them all to rights. We do not mean to assert that casualties have not occurred, but that no serious ground of complaint can be made respecting them. To those engaged in farming, to the landowner, and to the thinking portion of the community at large, the present is an era of no mean importance, botli as regards their present condition and future prospects. If we reflect for one moment upon the extraordinary exertions which have been made by the anti-corn-law league in order to obtain a repeal of the corn laws, and the undue influence which has been had recourse to, that repealers may be returned in the various pending elections, we think it is full time, since the crisis is fast arriving, that the great body of farmers' should be up and stirring to meet their avowed and deadly enemies, and not to shrink from the important duty they owe to themselves of defending their just rights and privileges. Our opinions are too well known on this question to require a recapitulation here, yet we cannot help observing that had the same active measures so skilfully carried out by the league,' been had recourse to, in order to counteract its baneful influence, by the agriculturists, the position of these levellers would have been widely different from what it is at present. But even now it is not too late to adopt measures to make the corn law op- ponents " sink into their own littleness ;" and we most fervently hope that these i'ew hints will not be lost sight of. Of late the subject of dibbling corn has met with considerable attention from various influential noble- inenand gentlemen engaged in agricultural pursuits; but though the superiority of this over the systems of sowing niostlj' in vogue have been readily ac- knowledged, doubts appear to have sprung up as to the possibility of superseding the broadcast and drill systems. An immense quantity of fodder has been ' con- sumed by the fattening stock in the course of the inontli, and the increase in the graziers' outlay caused by this circumstance, as well as the continu- ance of the epidemic, has been truly alarming. Is if, then, a matter of surprise that the prices of beef continue to rule unusually high ? The general condition of both beasts and sheep, in our great braisirtgdislricts, is by no means so tine ss Ve have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.'' 157 frequently bad occasion to notice at tliis season, yet we hear very few well grounded complaints of the sheep rot ; nevertheless, more than a moiety of the beasts wliich liave reached the metropolis froin lAn- colnshire and Leicestershire have been more or less infected with the prevailing disease. , Throughout our provinces, the supplies of wlieat offering have been, comparatively speaking, trifling, and of middling and! inferior quality. The uncer- tainty of deliveries has induced the millers and others to refrain from purcliasing only lo meet tlieir immediate wants ; hence the trade, with even the finest descriptions of both red and white wheat, of home produce, has been in a very depressed state, at, in some instances, drooping currencies. The best foreign, on which duty has been i)aid, has freely maintained its position; but other kinds have been a mere drug. The receipts of barley having been on the increase, that article has sold heavily at an abatement of from Is. to 2s, per qr. In malt, no alteration of moment. Fair average arrivals of oats have been reported, and the trade with them must be considered steady, at full prices. In Scotland, the weather appears to have been less severe than with us, but several' deep falls of snow took place between the l,ith and 'J-nd. (Jur accounts thence are tolerably satisfactory, both as re- spects the corn plants and the supplies of wheat in the hands of the growers. The dilFerent markets have been moderately well supplied with wheat, the demand for which, as well as other grain, has proved heavy, at but little lluctuation in the quota- tions. Throughout Ireland, the earlj' sown wheats are presenting a favourable aspect ; and the present position of farm labours is very satisfactory. Most of the principal markets have exhibited very limited supplies of wheat, yet the enquiry for it has proved heavy, at late rates. The value of oats has some- what increased, with extensive shipments to England. The following is our usual monthlv statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield cattle market. The former have consisted of 11,140 beasts, 98,412 sheep, 800 calves, and "i, 120 pigs ; while .the latter have.ranged as be-, neath stated. Beef, from. 3s. 4d. to '>s;;"nmtton,- OS. (id. to 5s. '■2s.; veal, 5s. to 6s.; pork, 4s. to ,'js. per 8!b. to sink the offals. At least four-filths of the supply of beasts on each market-dav, having come to hand in bad condition, and the attendance of both London and country buyers having been numerous, the primest Scots, Devons, runts, and Herefords, liave sold briskly at full prices, while good clearances have been effected in other breeds. The mutton trade has proved linn, at unaltered rates. \^eal has readily made (is. for the best description. No alteration in pork, with little doin;^- : — A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, January 27th, 1840, and Monday, January 25th, 1841. At per Slbs.to sink the offals, Jiin. 27, 1840. .Jan. 25, 1841. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferiorBeasts 2 10to3 2 .. 3 2to3 4 Second quality do 3 4 3 6 .. 3 6 3 lO' Prime large Oxen 3 S 4 0 . . 4 0*4 8 Prime Scots, &c 4 2 4 6 .. 4 10 5 0 Coarse & inferior Sheep 2 10 3 4 .. 3 6 3 1ft' Second quality do 36 4 0.40 42 Prime coarse woolled do, 4 2 4 8 .. 4 8 i:4 10 Prime Southdown do.. 4 10 5 0 . 4 10 ,5, .0 Large coarse Calves .. 4 10 5 2 .. 5 0 -5 '6 Prime small ditto 5 4 5 8 .. 5 8 6 0. Large Hogs 40 48. .42 4 0 Neat small Porkers .,4 10 5 0.. 4 8 5 0 SUPPLIES. Jan. 27, 1840. Jan. 25, 1841. Beasts 2,812 2,573 Sheep and Lambs .... 21,000 18,830 Calves 130 43. Pigs 412 314 : The supplies of slaughtered meat received from Scotland and various distant parts of England, up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, have been somewhat extensive, whilst the demand has proved heavy, at about stationary prices. REVIEW OK the; CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JANUARY. . The corn trade since our last review has been unusually languid, and that improvement in prices which generally occurs at the turn of each year has not this seasgn as yet taken place. The severity of the weather however was a sufficient, indeed we may say, the only cause of this effect ; for the general iiUerruption which it at the time occasioned to inland navigation, not only pre- vented the usual supplies from being forwarded to the large markets of consumption, but limited the operations of buyers of all descriptions of grain to the lowest scale possible. In the wheat trade this was more particularly observable, and, as the millers were in many quarters deprived of the means of grinding, they of course now wait a perfect change of weather before they can venture to increase their stock of wheat ; and, in the mean time, they supply the bakers from their existing stocks of flour. When a complete change in the weather however does occur, the supply of wheat either must be very greatly increased to meet the demand, (for there is not any decrease in the ,aptiial consumption of bread, and the exhausted state of the flour trade uuist then be made good). else a considerable improvement in its value must be the consequencs of the present veiy inanimate- state of the wheat market. During the last (quarter of 1840, field operations prevented the" fai-mers from forwarding their wheats so freely to' market as under other circumstances they no doubt would have been induced to have done, but any deficiency which resulted from this cause was most amply made good by an increased supply of' Iree foreign wheats. A considerable impression on the quantity of foreign free wheats has con- sequently been already made, and not much of really fine quality now remains on hand. This has liberated a large capital, which had been absorbed in the importation of wheats and flour from foreign nations; and no doubt can reasonably be entertained, that much of this capital is even already employed in furnishing productive labour to numerous industrious families, in extending improvements at home. The consumption, there- fore, of all the necessaries and of many of the lux- uries of life, it is bnt fair to presume, must, durini^ this year, be maintained, and the wealth bf t'he' empire must thereJty lie proportionably iijcreased. 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. All our predictions relative to the benefits which the last abundant crop must confer on the com- munity at large, will eventually be in their fullest extent fulfilled ; indeed, already is increased im- provement m the circumstances of the operative classes of British society abundantly obvious, for certainly at this season of the year seldom have all classes been so ])roductivelyemployed as they are at the present moment. This demandfor all descriptions of manufactured goods, and for our mineral pro- ducts, does not originate in any increased consump- tion ofthem amongst those nations and communities from whence we have imported so much foreign grain latterly,but it mainly has been occasioned by the improved circumstances of our home market, arising from that moderate degree of prosperity which the late bountiful harvest has even already conferred on the agricultural interest. This most propitious state of the commercial interest has been attended by the payment of adequate wages to all the productive classes, and the money at present paid by them for food remains in active circulation at home, and is not, as has been the case for the last two or three years, remitted to Europe and America for the encouragement of foreign agriculture to the detriment of our own. A good crop at home, therefore, such as the last one undoubtedly has been, is even more advan- tageous to the commercial interest than it is to that of agriculture itself ; for it is universally at- tended by the receipt of excellent wages by all the ranks of industry, thereby increasing the means of comfort and contentment amongst them all. In this satisfactor}'' state of British society, when all have as much to do as they possibly can desire, it is certainly not very wonderful that the Anti-Corn-Law League is daily, we may say, rendering themselves more and more ridiculous in the eyes of the community ; and that the assemblies collected by the lecturers against the bread tax, as they are pleased to call the wholesome protection which the law at present extends to British and Irish agricultural pursuits, are periodically be- coming more and more contemptible, even in the manufacturing districts themselves. The operatives are wide awake to the objects of the repealers, and they know well that the reduction of the value of the necessaries and luxuries of life, would not only be followed by a more than corresponding reduction in the wages and rewards of labour, but also by what is of far greater importance to them — a destructive deficiency in the quantity of productive employment itself, which is at present so extensive, and also so valuable to every interest throughout the British empire. Like Mr. Canning's knife-grinder, they are i)erfectly in- sensible to their own wrongs ; nor did they feel, nor even know of any bread-tax being in existence, until they were told so by these enlightening philosophers. It is not an easy task to convince them, at the present day, however, that generally their wages are not at least equal to their wants ; and they prefer certain prosperity to ideal changes for the better, in their condition of life. They know well enough, that dearness and cheapness are relative terms only; and that, though bread in Paris would be dear at 2d. per lb., in London it is moderate at the same figure, and the reason for this fact is perfectly obvious — the means in Paris amongst the people to jmy behu/ at least one-half iiiferio)' to those possessed bii the inhabitants of Lon- don. In Poland, where the wheat crop is universally so abundant, as well in quantit}'^ as in quality, the serfs by whom it isproduced cannot aiford the general use of wbeaten bread at all, where it is so extremelj' cheap, comparatively, because their wages for agricultural labour are far too low to admit of such extravagance; and yet the object of the members of the Anti-Corn-Law League is to place the inhabitants of England on a footing with those on the continents of America, and of Europe. The unrestricted importation of foreign grain would soon be followed by the decay of agriculture at home, and eventually by the total annihilation of that vital interest in the British empire. During the last three years we have seen, in but too great abundance, evils which resulted from the heavy importatations of foreign grain, which the state of our crops at home in that period rendered necessary. The consumption of these foreign wheats did not in any visible manner increfise our foreign export trade. On the contrary, they rendered an immense exportation of the precious metals absolutely necessary, in payment for our foreign grain importations. Gold consequently became dear and scarce, and many public improve- ments were entirely dropped, or, at all events, postponed in consequence of this ruinous circum- stance. The home market for British industry was thus, not only injured by the unsatisfactory position in which bad crops had placed our agricultural in- terest, but likewise much more materially by the deep blow which scarce and dear money inflicted on the enterprise of the capitalist. To purchase all the necessaries of life either from our home or our Colonial producers, must always retain within the empire an immense sura of money, which, under an unlimited free corn system, would be remitted to foreigners in exchange for their agricultural pro- ducts. The money thus paid to our own agricul- tural interest is never for one moment in a state of inactivity, but it continues to circulate, as it were in an under current, amongst all classes of the community, until eventually it returns into the coflFers of those capitalists who originally put it in motion, with more than compound interest. On the contrary, money paid away for foreign food is an absolute loss to everj' person in the British em- pire. It never returns to this country in exchange for labour of any description. It is the real cause of dear money and low wages ; it puts a stop to speculative and enterprising operations ; it re- duces very materially the profits of productive em- ployment, which in a difl'erent distribution of our money would be annually adding to the wealth of all the industrious classes, but which, when ab- stracted from them for foreign purposes, re- duces numerous families to actual destitution. It is really amusing to attend to the speeches of the wandering orators, who are paid for their labour out of the subscribed funds of the Anti-Corn-Law league. Their plans, if enforced, would undoubt- edly make food nominally much cheaper, but on the subject of wages they maintain a most digni- fied silence ; that the reduction of wages, however, is the principal, indeed, we may with much truth say, the only object of those cotton lords who pa- tronize with their purses this anti-national league, is very frequently made manifest by their actions. Only a few months ago, the prospect of an abun- dant harvest itself caused an attempt to be made in the most considerable of the manufacturing dis- tricts to reduce the wages of labour by fifteen \>cv cent ; and the natural consequence of this attempt was, the most proper expulsion of the league ora- tors from the town of Blackburn and other ma- nufacturing places by those workmen themselves, whose cause they affected to advocate, but whose THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 159 eyes had been previously opened to the injuries which would be inflicted on their wages and on their means of support by cheap bread, which, for two or three years at the utmost, the total repeal of the corn laws would procure for them. They would, under the proposed free importation of foreign grain, be deprived of at least one half of tho pro- ductive emjdoyment which they obtain under the existing system, and their wages would likewise be reduced much more considerably than the ex- pences of living would be. The agriculturists of the United States of Ame- rica could even already, was the corn trade entirely free, annually exchange with us their wheat for forty millions of our dollars ; and employment of this description would be so popular amongst them, that, should our supply of dollars continue, they would in a few years save our agricultural labourers the trouble of even cultivating our own fields. By legislation of this description no doubt many master manufacturers would gain more than princely fortunes, but those by whose toil they exist would be reduced to a deplorable degree of poverty and wretchedness. In the present state of civilized society, founded as it is entirely on art, the prosperity of one link in its arch cannot be injured without shaking the whole system from the very foundation itself. In British and Irish society, agriculture is by far the prin- cipal interest ; and its destruction, which most assuredly the repeal of the corn laws would even- tually effect, would destroy the whole community. And for evils of so much magnitude, a few princely fortunes are to be obtained 1 III fares that. Innd, to leugtliened ills ;i prey, Where wealth accinnulates and men decay; Princes and lords may flourish or may fade, A breath can make them, as a breath has made ; But a bold peasantry, their country's pride. If once destroyed can never be supplied. But the age is far too enlightened for such dogmas as the Anti-Corn-Law Society teaches. The people of this country know well the practical woi'kings of the existing agricultural system. They are perfectly aware that to this cause is commerce indebted for her high prosperity ; and the empire herself owes her true greatness to similar principles. The doctrines of theorists cannot prevail over those of practice and of truth in the minds of the enlightened inhabitants of the United Kingdom; and as the sciences of geology and farming progress, on the firmer foundation must the necessity for cultivating our fields at home he placed, and the reliance on foreign nations for food be entirely repudiated by all right thinking !men. There is, at all events, a fair prospect at the present period, that for some time now to come no necessity will exist for ex- porting money to any extent in exchange for foreign grain. The crop of last season is on all hands allowed to have been a large one, and as yet the delivery of wheat by the farmers has not been unusually large. The trifling improvement of about two shillings per quarter, on the finest qualities, which has taken place since our last re- view of the state and prospects of the wheat trade, has not been sufficiently extensive to induce the farmers to send the last crop very freely to market ; and it is not, therefore, very probable that any material alteration in wheat prices can now occur before the summer months, when its value will be entirely regulated by appearances in the fields. The markets in the mean time will be supplied with wheats of British growth, in proportion to the consumption, and with the foreign free wheat not already brought into con- sinnption ; the probability is, that at the close of this corn season a considerable quantity of the last wheat crop will remain in the growers' pos- session. A better seed-time than the last for the winter wheats has seldom indeed been experi- enced ; and when the severe weather began, the young- plants were healthy and vigorous in their appearance. Should, therefore, the remainder of this season be as favoural)lc to vegetation as that part of it has been which has now passed, we may promise ourselves the enjoyment of another boun- tiful crop of wheat, and a material degree of relief from the consequences of exporting in large (piantities the in-ecious metals, in exchange for foreign produced food. Since the partial disap- pearance of the snow and ice, there is not the slightest appearance of any damage having been done to the young wheat plants ; on the contrary, they have been strengthened at the roots, and vegetation generally has received a very seasonable check at this early ])eriod of the season, the bene- ficial consequences of which will be abundantly ex- I)erienced hereafter. With prospects foi the future, therefore, in every way so propitious to the best interests of the community, we may fairly indulge in the hope, that the importation of any very large (juantity of foreign wheat will not be necessary during this year at all events ; and that commer- cial operations, and the productive employment of all the industrious classes of British society, will not be interrupted by the exportation of the precious metals, rendering money again both scarce and dear, which an unlimited importation of fo- reign wheat most assuredly would do, and which would be the fatal consequence of an entirely open trade in grain with foreign nations. It has fre- quently been our duty to call the attention of our readers to the nearly boundless resources for agri- cultural improvements, which are most abundantly to be found in the United Kingdom. Almost everywhere an immense quantity of excellent land still remains in a perfect state of nature, and it only requires labour and capital to bring the great proportion of ii forward into cultivation and usefulness. The money necessary for this purpose cannot, however, be embarked in opera- tions so truly national, so long as foreign agricul- tural produce comes into the country almost free of duty, and so long as the fair profit of the Bri- tish agriculturist is permitted to depend on low prices, preventing heavy importations of agricul- tural produce from abroad. That, by the rapid progress now making in the science of tillage, and by tbe conversion of waste lands into productive fields, the crops of all descriptions in this empire may be at least doubled, admits not of even the slightest doubt; and this circumstance is fully as much in the favour of trade and commerce as it is of agriculture. It will in the residt render us perfectly independent, at all times and in all sea- sons, of foreign grain, and our Colonial posses" sions and other southern states will take off the surplus of each harvest, and repay us for it, either in the precious metals, or in some valuable articles of southern production. There is no reason what- ever for making England the great ivorkmr/ shop for the universe. The inhabitants possess within themselves industry in great abundance, and that is the only wealth of a well-ordered com- munity. Agricultural pursuits are by far the most important occupations in which mankind can be engaged, and all other interests must 160s THITFARMER'S MAGAZINE. eventually be- regulated by the tillage of the fields. When agriculture is prosperous, everything else flourishes, and when the elements damage the far- mer's crops, every interest in the state suffers by the circumstance. The anti-corn law advocates tell the manufacturers and artisans of the United Kingdom, that foreigners will give them their food so long as they will work for them. A horse obtains his food on the same principle; but we are not so entirely Avithout the means of obtaining agricultural produce ut home, as to render degradation of this nature ne- cessary to the labouring classes in this country; and besides, foreign nations would only supply us with grain so long as they found their interest in so doing. The people in all of them generally consume already as many British manufactures and products as they conveniently can pay for, and no exportation of grain on their part would increase their present consump- tion. There, the crops in almost all cases belong to the nobility, and the slaves and serfs, who labour in the fields, have not the smallest interest in the crops; they care not whether they be good or bad, nor is the amount of money obtained for the produce of their labour of the smallest consequence to their future prosperity ;iud comfort. They gain not one additional coat by a good crop, nor are they deprived of one by any calamity which may happen to the har- vest. The case in this country is the reverse of this ; for there is not one individual in the united king- dom, who isnot, either directly or indirectly, deeply interested in the produce of the fields, and whose prosperity will not be proportionably increased by the increase of the means now existing for agricul- tural improvement. The prospects of future pros- perity are therefore increased by the present appear- ances of the corn trade. The jiroduce of the late abundant harvest will now be gradually converted into money, and as the winter wheats look favourably at the present moment in the fields, little prospect exists, as we have frequentlv s;iid, of any great drain of money beini^ requisite this season for the payment of foreign agricultural produce. As our own crops, therefore, are converted into monev, this money, in every probability, will be immediately again em- barked in some internal improvement or other, and tLus give ample eu.ployment to the people. Waste lands have now for several years attracted the atten- tion of capitalists, and money applied to their culti- vation will be equally productive with that which Jatterly has been so advantageously invested in rail- ways. There are several millions of acres of^Jaud, as we 'Jiave frequently mentioned, which at pres(k)t produce nothing valuable, but which are perfectly capable of being highly cultivated, and towards which improve- ment in them, it is likely that part of that capital which must now for sometime be in cireulation • amongst the home producers of grain, wilt even- itually be applied. ()perations of this description ■must add very largely to the landed wealth \i the '-British empiie — must increase the present amount of .productive labour amongst the people, which ist^ieir property ; and must, eventually, very materially rf^d to the present means of supporting- the community • within the limits of the United Kingdom in a far suv ^perior way than can be done at present, however-, -comfortable it mav now appear to be. The inhabi- ' -tants-may be double the present number, and yet internal improvements will furnish them in great abundance with all the necessaries, and with many o( the luxuries of life. These prospective advan- 't,iges depend solely on the prosperity of agriculture, . and on. the property to be created by agricultural la- ; boar and science, but legislati veiprQtejslion is abso- lutely necessary to the production of such important national benefits ; no person, therefore, who really understands the public good, would ever dream about a repeal of the corn laws ; on the contrary, agricul- ture, and every other interest in the empire, should receive fair and equitable protection in our great markets of consumption, against articles of the same description produced or manufactured in foreign na- tions. This is the truly legitimate, if not the only way of increasing the wealth of nations; it afibrds productive employment in sufficient abundance to the people, and it gives its due reward to the labours and prudence of the industriously disposed members of the community. For the dulness during the last month in the wheat trade, there exist several very legitimate reasons; but for the dulness in the barley trade, which has been more than proportionably ex()erienced during the same ])eriod, there is no good cause whatever ; the supplies in all the markets of consumption have not been large since our last review, but the quality generally has been excellent, still the demand has been only to a limited extent ; and not- withstanding the superior description of the far- mer's sarnjjles, to effect sales at the present time, prices below its intrinsic value must be sub- mitted to. For the breadth sown last spring with barley, we have had numerous opportunities afforded us already of stating that the produce was unusually large, and the quality of the best description ; still we do not find that the consumption of the extracts of barley have been in any material degree increased by these fortunate and favourable circumstances. 1 he people cannot find to themselves the means of ])aying for any extraordinary addition:cl consumption of barley, and the growers are at the present moment depiived of that free market for the sale of their pro- duce, to which tlje real wants of the people so emi- nently entitle them. AVhen we reflect, however, on tlie fact of duties, amounting- aunuidly to twelve mil- lions sterling, being ]r? aO? 71?a3? 55? aO? 52?a0? 35?aG? 3(i?a7? 24? aO? 123? 131? 16? aO? 35-J-?aO? 10^?alli 14?por ct 14?pcr ct 5s per sli 1? per sh 2J? 4? per sh 9J?per ct 9|?per ct 9|?per ct 2? persh 5? per ct 8? per sh l|?persh 2? laspsh 14?per sh 2?2spsh 8? per ct 25? pd Ditto New 10? sh Union Bank of Australia.. 25? sli Ditto New 25? sh 5? pd Union Bk. of London 50? sli 10? pd West of England and South Wales 'District Bank . .20? sh 12i? pd 44?a0? ■ 17,i?al8? 33|?a4? Il|?a0? 10?aO? 6? per ct 8? per ct 6? per ct 5? per c*, 6? per ct 6? per ct 6? per ct 8? per ct 8? per ct 50s pr sh 5? per ct 6? per ct Shares. 1 t 1 *.ooo ; 1,000 10,000 33742; 10,000" •; 8,000 2,000 1,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 ■11,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 9,204 5,730 5,000 14,400 17,066 10,000 28,267 5,281 8,957 ► MINES. ■ ■' t ' : . : t Alten '..-.'.: 50? sh 12J-?i pd ;Dit;to"Neiv .'. . ;?. '. .':i5?;sh"'0L2r]?lpd Angl^' Mexican (isis. 5? pui) 100? sli Ditto Subscription 25? sh Ditto' Mint . . ''•. .' 25? sh 10? pd iBlai'iinvonIron*S?Coali50?sh*4.5ipd lioUinoes 150? sh Ditto, New '...50? sh.20? pd Ditto' Scrip '. .'..'. 25? sli Bolivar Copper Company '. . 15? sli l?a-J? Ditto' Ditto Scrip . New . . 3? sh 3?a4? Brazilian Imperial 35? sh 20? pd iss. 5? pm 10?al2? Ditto St. John Del Rev 20) sh 14^ pd lii?a2? British Iron Comp. 100? sh 55? pd Candbnga 20? sh 8J ? pd Copiapo 20? sh 121? pd lOZ Hibernian '....'SO? sh lia; pd2i?a3? Mexican Company 100? sh .58? pd 2?a0? Minas Geraes . . . .' 20? sh 12? pd Real'del Monte registered Av. I si Ditto Ditto unregistered Ditto Loan (Notes) .... 150? sh Rhymney Iron 50? sh United Jloxican 40^ sh 40? pd. . iss. 2? pm 2j?aJ? Ditto Scrip 2/ pd. . 3^?a4i Ditto ditto (New) 5? pd I MISCELLANEOUS. 10,000 5,000 2,700 Dividend 10,000 'Anti Dry Rot Company . . ISJ? sh 10,000 lAssamTea Company 5b?shl2J? pd 1,080 [Auction Mart 50? sh 20? 10,000 Australian (Agricultural) 100? sh 28?2spd! 8,600 Isritish Rock and Patent Salt i iJO? sh 3.5? pd,13? Canada Company (Chartered) 1 100?sh 32J-? pd'31^?a0? Droitwicli Patent Salt 25? sh|21? Equitable Reversionary Interest Society 100? sh 60? pd 20,000 I General Steam Navigation Com- pany 15? sh 14? pd 25ja0? 1,800 'Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25? sh 1,800 Ditto New (Chartered) 25? sh 2,100 Hungerford Market 100? pd 32? 24,800 Ditto Debentures (var. amounts). . 5,000 London Cemetery (Chartered) | 20? shl20?a0? 1,800 London Corn Exchange 37^? pd 20-J-?a0? 2,000 London Commercial Sale Rooms Average 75? sh,24? 2,400 London and Westminster Steam I Boat Company 10? sh 20,000 Mexican and South American Conipanv 10? sh 7? pdi 20,000 New Brunswick LandlOO? sh 60? pd 4,000 New Zealand Company 25? sh 25?a0? 5,.387 Reversionary Int. Society. . 100? shllOH? 14,400 S. Australian Comp. 25? sli 20? pdl 3,000 South Metropolitan Cemeterv I (Chartered) 25? shj 4,000 Tliames Tunnel „ . .50? sh I0?aj? 200,000? Upper Canada'Lo.-iii ...'...; 200,000? Ditto : 10,000? Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char- , teied 100/ sh 18? pd 8?a9? 5,000 West London ' and Westriiiuster Cemetery 25rsh 22? pd 20s pr sh 30s pr sh \l 6? per ct 26s pr sli 4? per ct l?8sprsh 6? iier ct 6? per ct 20s pr sh 5? per ct 4? per ct 1? persh 5Z per ct 10s 5? |ier ct 5? per sh 6? per ct 5? ])er ct 5? per ct Ss persh Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London. \ f-k\ Xi' <;v(i.U«tf 1 S5 ■t^ ^ f^ ^ ^ 1 ^ 1 1 ^ THE FARMERS S MAGAZINE. MARCH, 1841 No. 3.— Vol. III.] [Second Series. PLATE I. The subject of the first Plate is a Bull of the Sussex breed, bred by and the property of Mr. Piitland, of West Firle, Sussex. This animal was exhibited at the meetino- of the Royal Agricultural Society at Cambridge, in July last, and obtained a Prize of Thirty Sovereigns as the licst Bull in Class 4, for cattle not qualified to compete in the Classes for Siiort-horns, Herefords, or Devons. Mr. Putland is an eminent breeder of Sussex stock, and on the above occasion was extraordinarily successful, having carried off no less than five prizes. PLATE II. The subject of the second Plate is a Boar of the Essex breed, the property of E. G. Barnard, Esq., M.P., to whom a Prize of Ten Sovereigns was awarded at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Cambridire, in July last. The Boar Avas from the stock of Mr. W. F. Hobbs, of Mai-ks Hall, Essex. FRAMLINGHAM CLUB. FARMERS' FIRST ANNUAL REPORT. Your CommiUee appointed to prepare the animal statement of the proceedings of the Frauilingbam Farmers' Club during the past year, beg Jt-ave to preface their Report with tl«e foUoiving observa- tions : — Many persons in this neighbourhood liaving received information during the year 18 59, of tlie successrul proceedings of the Yoxfoid and Harleston Farmers' Clubs, and finding that similar Societies were spring- ing up around, were desirous that the Framlingliam district should keep pace with its neighbours in the acquirement of knowledf^e in agricultural pursuits, determined at the commencement of 1840 to establish a Club for this town and neighbourhood. At first, members joined slowly: but ■,\ftertwo or three monthly meetings our numbers rapidly in- creased, it becoming manifest that, if no better mode of tillage or management of our lands was to be brought forth immediately, as some had anticipated, still much, very much benefit arose during the discussion of subjects before the Club — each member stating his own ideas and practices on the particular matters under debate; and seeing, by such discussions, erro- neous opinions giving way to sound practical informa- tion : and your Committee have pleasure in saying, that there are nearly one hundred members in the Club. With regard to the hour of meeting on Club even- ings, your Committee wish to observe, it would be very desirable that greater punctuality should be ob- tained, as it is almost impossible to proceed regu- OLD SERIES.'] larly with the discussion whilst members are con- stantly coming in. And also your Committee would recommend, that greater care should be taken to arrange with some member or members, at the previous monthly meeting (or, if possible, at the present time,) to introduce the subjects for discussion at the monthly meetings. Your Committee suggest the propriety of the subjects for discussion during the ensuing year being immediately determined upon, and the days for each fixed, and printed circulars to that effect forwarded to all the members. Your Committee, in alluding to the liberality of the winners of th.e Sweepstakes during the past year, who so handsomelv returned the amount to the Club, beg to suggest tliat, in their opinion, it would be desirable for the future, to expend such winnings in some experiment upon their lands or stock, and report tlie result to the Club. The subjects discussed during the past year were as follows : — In February. — Club formed, and arrangements made. March. — Subject was, Top Dressing Wheat and Layers. Resolved, — That there are several artificial ma- nures applicable as top dressings for wheat, clover, and grasses, which deserve the serious attention of the Club, and recommend its members to testexperi- ments with as many of such manures as convenient, and report the same at some future meeting. April. — Subject: Best varieties of Root, and best culture thereof. 1st. IMangel Wurzel. Carried by a majority of one, t© be dibble.l on the ridge ; the minority being ia favour of drilling on the ridge. The last fortnight N [No. 3.— VOL. XIV. 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in April tlie best time for putting iu the seed. The manual labour of one acre of beet root was stated at 4/. 2s. 9d., and manual, with horse 1 ibour included, 7/.ls. 9d. Subject adjourned. Sweepstakes entered into for roots to be shewn at the November meeting. May. — Adjourned subject : For the distance which mangel wurzel should be planted apart upon the ridge, such ridges being about 3-2 inches distant. There were 2 votes for 14 inches, 7 for 16 inches, 6 for 18 inches, and 3 for 20 inches. 2ad. Swede Turnips. The best time for sowing, last fortnight in May. Common Turnips, if for grazing, last fortnight in June. If for cows, first week in July. The turnips to be sown on the stetch. Sweepstakes closed for roots. June. — The best mode of making Summer fallows. 1st. The best period for turning in heavy lands. 7 votes for November, 6 for the Spring. 2nd. Supposing a piece of land very foul with spear grass, when ought it to be turned in? 5 votes for November, 8 for the Spring. Resolved, — In making a long fallow, six earths are required ; 6 inches the best depth to plough. Whether tlie long fallows should be kept cloddy, or pulverised as soon as possible. 10 votes for cloddy, 3 pulverised. July. — Mowing Wheat and Harvesting Corn. Resolved, — That not having a sufficient number of members present, who had tried the mowing system, the Club could not with propriety come to any decision thereon ; but those members who had tried it, stated it was their intention to repeat it. Resolved, — Ten sheaves in a shock was the best number. In gavelling barley, the fork was better than the rake. In harvesting beans, the best plan was to use the sickle. That it was better to put the harvest work out by the task, than by the week. 13 votes for, 3 against. August. — No subject, on account of harvest. September. — The best mode of dressing or pre- paring Seed Wheat, and best mode of putting in Wheat. 1st. Which is the best Wheat for Seed as to quality, say 28s. per coomb, ho vote ; 32s. 6d. per coomb, 6 votes ; 35s. per coomb, 2 votes ; shewing, in the opinion of the Club, it was not necessary to plant the finest quality of Wheat. Resolved, — The best time of putting in Wheat, the last week in October and first fortnight in No- vember. The drilling system is best for any de- scription of land. With regard to preparing Wheat for Seed, three plans were proposed. 2 votes for steeping in salt water and limed. 3 votes for a solution of wood ashes, with 1^ lb. of arsenic, in 16 pails of water, and then limed. 7 votes for its being thoroughly wetted with water and afterwards arsenic and limed. October. — The best manner of Storing Roots. Resolved, — To clamp mangel wurael. 2§ yards is sufficient width for the clamp. That a thin cover- ing of straw should be first shaken over the clamp, then 9 inches of earth, leaving the top open two or three weeks, or till the approach of frosty weather, and then to close over with earth entirely. Subject adjourned. Judges appointed for next meeting. November. — Shew of roots. Judges' award : To Mr. Harsant Sutton, for 3 best red beet, weighed 23§ lbs., without the tops, 21 lbs.; to ditto, 3 best yellow beet root, with the tops, 19^ lbs. ; to Mr. George Scotcbmer, 3 best Swede turnips, the largest of which weighed 7i lbs., and measured 25^ inches in circumference ; to Mr. Goodwyn Goodwyn, 3 best white round turnips, weighed 23 lbs. j to ditto, 3 best pudding, weighed 342lbs, The Judges also called the attention of the Club to the fine specimen of horned beet exhibited, (con- sidering the unfavourableness of the season,) as being in cultivation less injurious to the soil. Adjourned debate resumed- Resolved, — That the best mode of storing Swede Turnips was to have them topped, and then clamped with tlieir tails on, about 2 feet thick, and only covered over with straw. Sweepstakes entered into for the best samples of Wheat, Barley, Beans, Peas, and Oats, to be shewn in February, December. — Subject : The best Cattle, and best manner of Grazing Cattle. Resolved, — That it is not so much the kind as the quality of the cattle. That cattle whilst grazing should be kept warm. That with root, oil cake, and bean meal together, in preference to eitlier separately, was the best description of food, and that cattle should always have water by them. Resolved, — By a majority of 6 votes : That cattle should have all the food given to them to eat, that they would e;it up clean. The minority being of opinion that they should have regular quantities, and given to them at regular hours. As to whether 1000 of oil cake, or 17 coombs of beans, were best for grazing. 10 votes for beans — 5 votes for oil cake. Resolved, — That clover was better than hay for grazing. January. — Subject : The best manner of Feeding Cart Horses. Resolved, — That the best manner of feeding cart horses, is to allow them not less than 9 stone of hay per week, witii one bushel of corn — which bushel should be equivalent to 2 pecks of oats, and 2 pecks of beans. To feed in summer with tares in yard, and to lodge them in a yard rather than confine in the stables. With regard to the average expense of keeping a cart horse, there were 9 votes for 18^. per year ; 5 votes for 19/.; 6 votes for 20Z. — Judges appointed for next meeting. The Treasurer's Account is as follow — from l7th February, 1840, to 2nd February, 1841 : Dr. £ s. To 93 subscrip- tions at 2s. 6d. 11 12 Cash received for sweepstakes for Roots at meeting, 14th April, 1/. 10s.; dittol9thMav, 14s .'.2 4 0 Cash received for sweepstakes for Corn at meeting, Nov. 10th, 1/. 18s. ; ditto Dec. 8th, 10s 1 18 0 Cash presented to the Club, by Mr. Scotcb- mer, 10th Nov., 13s. ; ditto by Mr. H.Sutton 11. 2s.; ditto bv Mr. G. G'oodwyn, 93. 2 4 0 £17 18 6 Cr. £ 6. d. By Secretary's bill for books, ol. l3s. 6d.; do. for print- ing, advertise- ments, &c. 31. 19s. lOd 7 13 4 By sweepstakes paid to Mr. G. Scotcbmer, on Nov. 10th, 13s. ; do. Mr. H. Sutton, 11. 2s. ; do. Mr. G. Goodwyn, 9s 2 4 0 Cash retained for paying sweep- stakes, on the 2d February 1 18 0 Balance in Trea- surer's hands 6 3 2 ^17 18 6 Till': rAUMER'S MAGAZINE. 167 'J'liut your Committee cannot retrain from ciillin^ (o your notice, llie intimate connection wliich subsists l)t!l\vecn the Fanner and Labourer, and ask, wbethcr it would not be a desirable addition to tbe useful- ness of ibe Clul), if prizes could be given to Cottagers for tbe best vegetable productions of tbeir gardens, and whicb luigbt be adjudged at tbe same time as tbe sweepstakes for roots, belonging to tbe members'! Your Committee are desirous of testifying- their acknowledgments to the cheerlul and pleasant man- ner in which many persons have joined them, who are not actually engaged in the cultivation of tbe soil ; and they beg to return their thanks, for tbe co-opera- lion and assistance iliey have given them. Your (Committee, in conclusion, cannot refrain from stating, ibat they are well aware institutions of this kind are more likely to flourish during agricultural success ; but tbey wish to impress on tbe iMembers of the Club, that no time is better for trying ex- periments and new modes of farming than such periods : and tlicy would further observe, that when- ever such prosperity should not continue, tliey would , whilst placing tbeir reliance on Divine Providence, be more likely to be prepaied and aided in meeting such reverses, by a thorough and proved practical knowlcdt;e of the best systems of culture and general management of tbeir lands and stock. John Peirson, G. Edwards, James Barker, Jeptha Wightman, John Edwards, Edward Gooch. goodwyn goodwyn, The Club then proceeded to elect tbeir officers for tbe ensuing year, when Mr. Peirson was unanimously re-elected President, and his health being proposed, ■was drank by the company with four times four, upon which he returned thanks in a very appropriate and animated speech, fllr. il. Clutten, ot Framling- ham, was appointed Secretary, on the resignation of Mr. R. Green, who severally addressed the company. Other toasts were given, which called forth several gentlemen, and particularly Air. Mosely, who, one and all, advocated in tbe strongest terms tbe advan- tages of such institutions ; and the evening was spent to the great delight of every one present, in harmony and social mirth. A band of music, whicb was stationed in tbe gallery, played several selected pieces during dinner, and two or three gentlemen favoured tbe company, at intervals, with some excellent songs. The Club now consists of 110 members. ON THE FOUR-COURSE SYSTEM OF HUSBANDRY, WITH HINTS ON ITS ADVANTAGES AND DEFECTS. By Mr. Matthew lMAUMADUKEMiLBunN,Thorpfield, Tbirsk. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) Some few years ago the four-course system was considered the perfection of the art of cultivation on light soils. The perfect alternation of green and white crops, and the combination of return to the cultivator in the shape of grain and stock which it embraced, induced the belief that it was the ultimatum of improvement, and every descrip- tion of soil which could be made to bend to it, was rapidly cultivated on its principles. Tw recommendations it possessed which were certain to render it a favourite amongst the farmtrs ; it prevented the necessity for a naked fallow, and was, perhaps, as far as can be expected, nearly a self-supplying system. It required the addition fif manure but once in four years, and then required a quantity of extraneous manure but little com- pared witii the usual modes of management at tbe time it was introduced. Prior to the e.xistence of s>/sfem in farm-management, husbandry consisted of ploujjhing up the sward and cropping so long as the soil would i)r()duc3any grain crop, and then allowing it to lay itself with weeds, and " rest" until it was again broken up for the same purpose; and this was a rotation — primitive and Kini|)le, it is true, but still a complete rotation. The decom- posed vegetable matter accumulated during the existence of the sward, — formed the nourishment for the grain crops which followed,— and when they had exhausted it, a growth of indigenous plants succeed, which would exist with a less por- tion of nutriment than any exotic could : these grew and decay for a time, and again furnish a supply of matter fit for the foot of a succession of e.xotics. The next step in improvement is the interposition of fallow, which allows the soil to derive all the benefit from the action of the sun and air, as well as of thoroughly clearing it of weeds ; and, added to this, the return of a portion of the crop in the shape of decomposed vegetable (manure) to sup- ply the place of that abstracted from the soil by cropping. The next step is the intervention of green crops consumed by stock, and this com- prises the " Norfolk," or four-course system. This, closely pursued, is the following : — 1. Turnips (manured), consumed upon the land. 2. Barley, sown with cloverseeds. 3. Clover and other artificial grasses, mown or depastured. 4. Wheat, sown upon clover lea, which closes the course. To shew the adaptation of these crops, they shall pass rapidly in review, seriatim. 1. Turnips. — For these, it is necessary to have the land thoroughly cleaned. The time of sowing, about the commencement of summer, gives the farmer, in ordinary seasons, an opportunity of thoroughly cleaning the land, and the subsequent hoeings and weedings completely accomplish the purpose. To obtain this crop, a great deal of manure is necessary ; but when supplied, its effects are felt, directly or indirectly, for the three subsequent years. It is essential to the full de- velopment of the system that these turnips should be consumed upon the land ; for this great quan- tity of vegetation produced would, if taken from the soil, rob it of more nutriment than the manure would supidy ( 1 am speaking of light soils;. The mode of consuming the turnips should be noticed ; it is such as to supply the principles necessary to vegetation in the most complete manner. First, a considerable portion of the leaves, roots, and skins of the turnips are wasted, and decompose; then the constant droppings from the fleeces, with the excrement of the sheep, which is greater or less in proportion to the heaviness of the crop ; and hence the necessity of endeavouring to obtain a full crop of turnips. Another advantage is the compression of the loose earth, and perhaps more than all, there is the carbonic acid gas which the animals evolve while consuming the plants, and which is absorbed by the soil. A firm, rich, seed-bed is thus furnished to a grain crop, and generally barley is selected, not N 2 168 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. because it is best adapted to follow turnips, for wheat seems to be mdre successful, but because the tuniips are consumed in time tora spriiip: crop, and as iiaric)- is generally more valuable- than any other, it is generally sown. The face is, the soil !•; tio much compressed, and too adhesive for the growth of bailey : it ^vonld generally succeed better as the last crop of the rotation, but com nionly it is impracticable. Cloverseeds do not come to perfection in the year in which they are sown. 'Ibey require a whole summer and a whole winter before they are at all useful either for the scythe or the stock. Hence, if sown alone, it would require two years' use of the land for one crop.^ By sowing; them with the barley, this is obviated, and the seeds are arriving at a due degree of maturity while the crop is ;irowing without materially injuring either crop. When the clover is depastured, the same process gots one, but to a much smaller extent tlian duiing the consumption oftuinips. There is the same compression of the soil — the gas — the droppings from the animals — but there is not neai- the decomposition which occurs in the turnip crop, and greater evaporaiion of the droppings tnkes place. The quantity of stock fed pei- acre be'ug much less than on turnips, the treading of the soil is considerably leas. An anomaly, however, exists in the mowing of clover. It is universally agreed, that when a first crop of (redj clover is mown, and the second crop depastured, the soil is in as good condition fur a subsequent crop, as if the whole had been depastured. Doubtless, the circumstance of the clover deriving a great portion of its nutriment from the air, as well as its leaves shielding the ground from eva- poration of the nutritive matter in the soil, tends to produce this effect. I am willing to admit that this does nut seem fully to explain the fact; but if it weie a^ked why the soil was more fertile after growing a bean crop than bef .re, probably much the same answer would have to be given. The depasturation of the second crop of clover, at a pel iod, too, when evaporation goes on hut slowly, ma^ be added to the above causes. Two objects are thus served by the clover crop; the soil is again compressed, and an additional quantity of nutritive matter is supplied to the subsequent wheat crop, of which the roots of the clover form no inconsiderable part. By the time the wheat is cut on most soils, there is a formidable array of root weeds to extetminate. This evil might, doubtless, be lessened, if the hoe were more generally and frequently set to woik. No good reason can be urged why it should not be used twice in the tpring. It was rem-uked above that the wheat required a firm seed-bed ; and that if it could come immediately after the turnips were consumed, it would be an advantage, be- because it required a firmer soil than barley. To obviate this difficulty, a variety of means have been adopted. The newest invention is thepvesser, which follows the plough, and compresses the interstices of the plough seam, on which the seed is sown broadcast. In some cases the land is trodden with cattle after being sown ; but in most cases rolling the surface in spring is adopted, and gene- rally succeeds sufficiently for all practical purposes. To shew the complete adaptation of the system to the wants of the crops, it need only be men- tioned, that the third crop ot the course is con- sumed before the preparation for the fourth is necessary, and this applies to every crop in the rotation. It has been, and is still asserted, that, under the four-cour?e system, a constant iinpiovement in the fertility of the soil will take place. This, how- ever, is not the case, for although it is perhaps as perfect an alternation of exhausting and fertilizing crops as c;in be devised, still it is not a rotation of sufficient length to oi)tain every crop in its greatest jjerfeciinn. Our turnip crops and our clover are nothing compared with what they once were ; they are more difficult to obtain, and less full and luxuriant when obtained, than they were formerly. So much is this beginning to be felt, that some very excellent farmers contend that the intervention of a fallow occasionally is necessary to keep the soil in that full state of ])roductiveness which it ought to be the object of evet y farmer to secuie. I pretend not to say whether this state of things proceeds from radical exudations, or from each i)lant extracting its peculiar ])riiiciple from the soil, but the fact is incontestible. A fallow, however, sadly interfetes with almost e^'ery de- siiable quality in the system, and is but a robber, because it adds nothing either to the manure heap or the pocket. Gardens which always produce a crop, and occasionally two crops in the year, are never fallovveil ; nor is any fallow really necessary On dry minageable soils. By fallow, I mean the conipiete suspension of all crops fur on; full year. If a partial or " bastard" fallow can be introduced between an\' crops, there can be no doubt it will be found useful. From experience it apjjcars, therefore, t'at the four-course system, — the system of chunye. in a long course of years, requires a change itself. The ttirn'ps and the clover, the mainsprings of the system, are the crops where the deterioration is |)rincipally detected, — fail these, and away goes every recoinmeridation of the system ; they are the very foundntions on which it is built. i'wo little illustrations of the course of de- teiioration occurred under my own observation last j'ear, which sufficiently establish the fact, that fertility of the soil will not altogether overcome the frequeut recurrence of the same crops. A turnip-field at Thorpfield was bisected by the Great North of England Railway. The crop was sown with well rotted farm-yard manure, and twehe bushels of hrdf-iticb bones per acre. The land was worth about two pounds ten shillings I)er acre to rent, and had been many years under the four-course system. A corner of the field had to be laid to an adjoining one, intended for turnips. The turriijis were pulled off the corner, and the quickwood-fence s^as levelled, and the roots grubbed up. I conceived, after the dressing above alluded to, it was in much better condition for a crop than the adjoining, now united, field. The whole was sown with turnips, and with the same dressing per acre as above stated, and all treated exactly in the same way. The corner which had been turnips the jireceding year, exhibited a poor, dwarfish, unhealthy crop, the bulbs small, and the foliage yellow; the rest of the field good; but the patch where the hedge had been, and which had had no manure for years, but, as we should suppose, was exhausted by the fibres of the thorns, on this spot the turnips were luxuriant to a degree far beyond the best ordinary crop of turnips in the district. I was travelling in the course of the present spring (May 5th), and met with a farmer who was busily engaged in ploughing over an eaten-off tur- nip field ; 1 enquired what he was doing at that late period not to have it sown, as the turnips had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 evidently been eaten off for many weeks. He i-e- plied, the field was out of heart, and he was going to make tuini])S of it again. I rei)lied, 1 shnuhl not be surprised if his crop failed. He looked in- credulous, but I pointed to a half broken up field of clover opposite, sown with beans, and asked how these beans came to be there.' He said, be- cause the clover bad gone off; it was clover-sick. Yes, I replied ; and if yon had taken a crop of beans between your turnip crops, you might pre- vent this field from being turnip-sick. I saw the field in September, and it is a very inferior crop, even in this excellent turnip season ; and on land too for which I would give two pounds ten shil- lings per acre. Another instance I will give of clover. From the difficulty of obtaining it, I limed a piece of the best land I have, worth per- haps two pounds per acre, and also manured it, for turnips. I he turnips were good, and eaten on the land. The biuley was very good. The clover was uncommonly well set, and looked exceedingly well, even ni) to April, and when th*^ frosts were over. One piece I sowed with gypsum. The whole went off partially, and I had little else but the rye-grass with which it was mixed, to mow for fodder. If a digression may be pardoned, 1 think this goes far to prove the truth of the radicle- exudation theory. The land was rich : infertility was not the cause of failure. It was limed and gypsumed ; principles, therefore, necessary to the gro^\th of clover were supplied, but it went off; nor was frost the cause. Could it he anything but radicle-exudation .' The clovers seem to suffer more from the assi- duous pursuit of the four-course system than any other crop. This is easily accounted fjr ; they are growing two years out of ihe four. The remedies for these evils are of two kinds. The first is an extension of the rotation ; to make the various crojjs less frequent of occurrence, by the addition of a bean (manured) and oat crop, or others, to the end of the course. This, however, is a virtual abandonment of the system, deranges the " hather" of the faim, is accom- panied by difficulties of cleaning, &c., and seldom produces a crop at all comniensnrate with the ex- pense of manure, labour, and outlay, as well as often exhausting the soil so far as to render it problematical whether better green crops will be produced than uiuler the evils of the four-course system. I'he next remedy is a modification of the sys- tem; and it is one which admits of modificarion to a very considerable extent without materially infringing on any of its distinguishing character- istics. A few hints of the leading features of these shall close this paper. A section of the land intended for turnips, for instance, may be sown with rape, a hectinn with Swedes, another with spring turnips, as the yellow Aberdeen, &c., and another with winter turnips. The next time the rotation occurs, the Swede and rape pieces should be made yellow arid white turnips, and vice versa.* In the barleys, suppose chevalier aiul country to be sowu, the chevalier piece should be made country, and the country piece chevalier in the next rotation. I have not suggested the sulistitution of another grain crop for b irley, because it seems to suffer least by rejietitiou. 'J'he clovers may beclia;igcdiu a sim lar manner ; _ * And a section of potatoes mav -.dteruaie with one of any of the Icmds of turnips. — Eniron. red for white, and white for red. My practice, and that of iny father, on my little farm at Thorp- field, has been so invariably ; yet we cannot obtain a crop of red clover, and our small seeds (white clover, trefoil, &c.,j are by no means good, though the corn crops are improvii\g annually. Tares may be substituted for clover for one course. If they are for eatage, winter tares may be sown in the autumn, eaten off in April, a ploughing given, an 1 sjjring tares sown for summer eating; or the tares may be depastured or folded through the season ; in the former case they will not carry so much stock as the small seeds. For mowing, winter tares may be sown and secured for fodder, say in July. The ground may then be broken up, a ploughing or two given, and thus the land have ail the benefits of a bastard fallow ; or when a grass field can be mown for foilder, a bean crop may be grown between the barley and wheat with great profit, and also with advantage to the soil, if tliis be adopted but in one course, it throws the clovers four years more apart. Of wheats, the different vaiietlesmay have almost infinitesimal changes ran upon then; but. if serious defects seem to arise in the wheat croj), it is perfectly easy to substitute a crop of oats or peas. An almost endless variety of changes may thus be cautiously introduced "ithout a'teri: g the principal featuies of the system, which should always be regulated by the wants of the farm and the prices at which the substituted articles sell in the market. Suggestions have been made of allowing the land to remain two or three years under the arti- ficial grasses. As the deficiency complained of is principally in these, it must lie clear, that the more the land is put under them, the greater will be the evil.* It is not in the corn crops yet, that * From the tenor of the foregoing remarks re- garding thf failure of the clover crop, this is a very natural, though it happens to be not a quite conect, inloience, inaimuch as it is not supported bv ex- perience. We shall tell the results of ex|ierience on this subject m Scoiland. The lailure of the clovt-r crop has long been ielt a grievance in iliis counirv, and many devices, as may readiU be believed, have been adopted to recover its sormer state ot luxuri- ance. These devices have con>isied of three kods. 1st — ! he postponement of ilie recurrence of clover in the rctaiion is one. Clover was u.'uallv taken once in four years ; but now it returns once in five, or even eight year.s. This plan lias been chief! » tried on farms in the iujinediate viiinity of lan^e towns, where green crops of all kinds aie in constant demand, and where the exisiing varieties of green crojis have enabled the experiment to be tried. Tur- nips and potatoes meet with a very ready sale in their respective Si^asons in such a localitv ; and altbrugh clover is there also sougiit after with as much eager- ness as any of these green crops, yet, as it is only in summer it is an article ol food, a substitute mav be found fur it in summer, in summer tares — winier ta'es not being suii;ible to this cliinat? ; and as the making of clover lur, may be . asily abandoned for a season, it is ill the ; Ovver nf the taTiier 'o disp, ns- with the appearance of clover in the roiaion utitil such time it may be thought probable that the l.nnl has recovered iis sickness by tdovtr. Hence chver may be dispensed with for a tuiie in the vicinliy o\ large towns, though neither turnips nor potatoes can; and this plan has succeeded m pai- lallv recovrrn g the former InxiriiiiM-. of ilie clover ci"p there, w!it-re it may now be seen in preity good state on mu.-t 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the evil is principally felt. I do not say that they will never deteriorate, though I believe there is less liability in theiri than in green crops ; but hitherto their detects are not a matter of com- plaint. farms. But the same plan, it is clear, cannot be adopted at a distance from large towns, where stock must be kept to consume the green crops. I'bere stock become tlie substitute for the consumption of large towns, and they cannot be maintained at all in summer without grass. Stock, it is true, ma)' be purchased for the express purpose of consuming the winter green crop on a farm ; but were such a [)rac- tice to become universal, there would be no brei'ders of stock on farms in the low country where only artificial clover can be cultivated ; and where could all the feeders of stock, who are raisers of turnips, find stock in sufficient numbers to consume their green crops ? It might be suggested, that the whole stock may be bred on the old grass of tl;e country; but this plan would be impracticable in a country ■where no old grass-land is preserved in the arable districts, and where the stock must be maintained on the sown grasses, and where those grasses must therefore constitute part of the usual rotation of croj>s, and in which, of course, they must occur as frequently as the rest of the crops. 2;id — Ano- ther plan for recovering the luxuriance of tlie clover crop is by manuring the land much more liberally than formerly ; and as this has been efl'ected, to a certain extent, in every part of the country, the clover crop has been found to improve in conse- quence of the more liberal treatment it receives, and especiallv in the neighbourhood of large towns, in conjunction with the plan detailed above. Srd — But the third plan is that which has succeeded most efi'ec- tually at a distance from towns, where green crops cannot be sent to market, and where large quantities of extraneous manures cannot be easily obtained, to recover the luxuriance of the clover crop ; and this plan is iLat which Mr. Milburn deprecates, namely, the i)utting theland longer under the artificial grasses. At a distance from towns, two years were a verv com- mon period for the grass division of the rotation to remain, and on many farms it is so still ; but from three to five years are now found by breeders of slock to be a much more eligible period. It is found that land becomes more ameliorated — that is, more fresh, more fertile, more rested — by being a longer time under the grass division than one year, or even two yea' s ; by being kept, in fact, a longer time from the disturbance of tbe plough. What may be the true reason that may be assigned for the amelioration of land by grass, it is not easy to discover. The theory of exudation from the roots will not of itself explain it, as why should clover thrive better on land that Las been a long time than a short time iu grass"! But whatever theory may explain it, there is no doubt of the fact. However paradoxical it may seem to state it, as a general principle, that the re- petition, or rather duration, of a crop which the land is tired of growing, is the best means of inducing that land to grow it the more luxuriantly, there is no denying the soundness of the ]irinciple in regard to clover ; there is no denying that, where the experi- ment of allowing clover to remain for a number of years — that is, white clover, for red clover is only available for one year — to be depastured by stock, has been tried, there the growth of red clover has bfoonip almost certain. And we would say that it is well for the country that this result hat; hajijiened ; for, MOW that the rearing and feeding of stock ])ay tlie farmer much better than the raising of white THE SUBSOIL PLOUGH NOT A NEW IMPLEMENT. Sir, — It may not be entirely uninteresting to your readers on agricultural matters, to know that the subsoil plough lately introduced lay J\Ir. Smith, of Deanston, and so deservedly and justly recom- mended on many soils, ■'.vas in use in tliis county nearly 50 years ago, as the following extract from Holt's View of the Agriculture of Lancashire, publish- ed in London, 1795, page 33 will prove: — "Another instrument lias been lately introduced, which IMr. Eccleston witli propriety calls the Miner ; which is a plough-share fixed on a strong beam, without mould-boards, and drawn by four or more horses, and follows in the furrow the plougVi has just made, and without turning up the substratum jienetrates into and loosens the soil from eight to tYvfelve inches deeper than the plough had before gone ; which operation, besides draining the land, causes the water to carry away with it any vitriolic or other noxious matters. I5y the substratum thus loosened the roots of plants may penetrate deeper, and in course of time that which is but a barren substance may beconre fertile soil.'' In the many recent notices made in the various agricultural publications, I have never seen the above reference to the antiquity of the subsoil Ijlough, all dating it from its first use by Mr. Smith of Deanston. If you consider this notice worthy a place in your widely extended journal, I will thank you to insert it. I am, Sir, your obedt. servant, Lancaster, Feb. 11. Rich. Hinde. crops, it is for his interest to retain as much of his larm under grass 8s will suffice to supply his stock with a sufficient quantity of provender, and thereby always retain in bis land a fresh store of fertility. ^Vitll regard to the four-course rotation — that is, the raising of a white crop every other year — what- ever tlie climate of England may be able to do in support of it, it is one which that of this country cannot support on any farm, however good, situated at a distance from a large town — tbe source of un- limited supplies of extraneous manures. Where manure to the extent of from sixteen tons to thirty- two tons per imperial acre may be applied — and that is the rate of dunging m the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh and other large towns, it is quite possible to pursue it, but no farm of this country could practise it on its own resources. The straw off two acres will not sufficiently manure one, and that being the case, without extraneous assistance the fallow division of a four-course shi(t cannot be manured as it ought to be. We may mention, in conclusion, that the alter- nation of cro]s on the same part of the land is rigidly followed in this countiy — that is to say, care is always taken, in the repetition of ciops on tlie same ground, to vary them, by havii^g Swedes on land that had in the former course raised white turnips, or potatoes, or beans, or tares, as the case may be, and so with barley and wheat; and yet, with all these precautions, red clover became a worthless crop, and would no doubt have continued to be so, had not tbe plans detailed above been tried as expe- dients ; and fortunately, in the hands of skilful farmers, tliey have proved successful to a certain de- gree. But no doubt the time will arrive when these new expedients will also fail to produce the effects they are now doing, and thea the farmer's ingenuity will again have to be taxed lo devise others in con- formity with the circumstances of tbe times. — EnnoR. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 ON SOWING WHEAT AFTER TURNIPS, SUCKLING CALVES,&c. Sir, — A corres|)ondent in your January number, sisjning himself "Addis Jackson," asks it" it is advi- sable to sow the laud on which your first turnips are fed off, with wheat? As far as injuiy to the land goes, I do not think, on so small a proportion of his farm as it would amount to, it would much signify ; but as a principle I think it is wrong, for this reason — the risk of a plant is great, and even if you over- come that, the chance is, that the crop would be the worst on your farm. On light land (and of course only on light land would it be done) most likely it would cause ]>oppy and Rlayweed to be a trouble to you for \ears after. As to the " pity the land should lay bare'' — none need be felt ,• no manure need be lost. As the sheep finish the turnips, comb or bout the land, and the dressing lies as snug as possible till seed time ar- rives ; and nine times out of ten that will be the farmer's best crop of barley. From what JMr. Addis Jackson says after that,itseems his course is — turnips, barle)', clover, wheat, turnips, barley, tares, wheat. For light land cropping, I differ from him very much in thinking that a good succession, for this reason — tares are too profitless to be grown elsewhere than on a fallow — his oats he has all to buy, and a fourth of his land he has to manure every year; now with two acres of straw (one barley, one wheat) I maintain he cannot make manure enough for one acre of turni])S. In Hertfordshire the rule is, to sow oats after clover ley wheat, and very good crops they grow — the exception is not to do it ; the farmer then grows one-fifth turnips, and he has three instead of two acres of straw to manure them with : as that extends the interval of his seeds to four years, he always sows — 10 lbs. red clover, 6 lbs. trefoil, 4 lbs. white with his barlev, sometimes adding 1 bushel rye grass; and if they miss, he then sows peas. But on that land a ley is so far su])erior to any other preparation for ivheat, that he thinks the risk of gaining a plant of seeds is always worth run- ning— and so do I. Turnips, barley, seeds, when missed peas, wheat, oats, white Tartarian, I like best. IMr. Jackson also enquires wlio can show a profit by suckling ? Not having lately taken stock at the end of my suckling year, I can only show an old account of a bad year with very middling cows ; but I know I always have made them pay better than any other sort of cattle stock. I like them (especially on poor rough grass land^ for these reasons : — The money quickly turns — you buy a down calver for 12/. in September, and in two months her calf is worth i'rom 51. to 61. — of course the price varies — but gene- rally the expence of keej) varies in the same ratio; because any sort of milk producing food may be given to them, without regard to its effect on flavour of milk; because if you only wish to consume your straw with a profit, they will do it, and be very saleable in s[)ring as barreners — whereas the beasts bought in in October are very often sold in April at the same price ; because a little something else, with good straw, as 1 bushel grains, or 2 bushels turnips, or two cakes per day, will produce a good bag of milk. The very farmers who suckle the least, I think ought to suckle the most, viz., turnip land farmers, becau.-ie suckling ])ays best in winter ; and it is only in winter they want cattle, as on light land farms you will seldom find any grass good lor feeding. A friend of mine bought a lot of down calving York heifers a couple of years ago in October} they all calved within a fortnight, and they were all fed through the winter in the straw-yard, with the ad- dition of one bushel of grains mixed in some cliali" per day ; he kept rather more than one calf to a cow on the average, each calf being kept only eight weeks ; 16 ' stone calves are large enough — and they paid quite 8s. each per week, including loss by scouring, &c. Had he sold all these heifers as barreners in Spring, 1 am sure they would have fetched all they cost — leas the value of their own calves, say 1/. each. But I should prefer cows to heifers, and the two busiiels white turnips to the one bushel grains, and the cost would not be more. I always consider if a calf pays per week in Summer 6s., and in Winter from 8s. to lOs., it is doing well ; and I have always done that, being particular in describing each calf when entered in my book as baught, so as to know it again when sold ; and then, in a separate column, mark the profit per week. On referring back to 1834, I find my 53 Sticklers bought £75 17 C Cows to bull .... 17 11 Cow-tloctor .... 3 13 0 account was thus— . 1S33. N0V.2S. Prolltoncalf when half fat. £1 10 0 Dec. 11. Do 3 0 0 " 28. Sold a calf. . 3 5 0 1834. Jan. Do. 5 do 21 7 c Feb. 13. Do. 3 do 13 0 0 March. Do. 5 do 14 1 6 April. Do. 2 do 9 10 0 " Do. Iweaner.. 1 5 0 May. Do. 4 calves. . 14 12 0 June. Do. 10 do 31 7 6 July. Do. 6 do 20 3 0 Aug. Do. 5 do 23 0 0 Sept. Do. 9 do 31 13 0 Value of 13 calves Sept. 29 32 10 6 Profit 137 16 7 £218 5 0 3 heifers calved in Oct. 1 aged cow do. in Nov. 2 do. do. in Dec. 5 heifers do. in the Spring, and three fatted from Midsummer. 3 aged cows do. in Spring. 1 two-year-old heifer in Aug. 15 They were all small — heifers and cows, and it was not a good year for suckling ; on an average, the fifteen (as I do not reckon the three fatted at IMidsummer) were only in milk seven months, which is each cow, per week, 6s. 6d. It is against them, that they were mostly at work in Summer — with no artificial food in the Winter — only- thin grass, with straw-yard at night, and a very- little hay while milking ; but it is in their favour, that all their own calves came in this account, though they only averaged seven months' milking — so diflicult is it from farmer's accounts to make a fair statement ; but if I cut off the account on both sides previous to January 1, 1834 — carry it on to January 1, 1835, and deduct the value of the 13 calves at Alichaelmas, which all went by Christmas, — I find each cow paid 8/. Is. net for her year's keep. Good York cotvs would have paid with good keep quite double. I should like to see the result of some good Yorkxows, bought in in October, kept on grass till November (-according to the weather) ; then fed gradually higher, till sold fat the middle of May, being suckled till nearly the last. I think it would show a good profit ; and hope I may shortly try it. I should takethe York or Hereford breed for that ; but for low keep, none are preferable to the Welsh. From Sir, your humble servant, Jean de Veau. 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE RACKHEATH SUB-TURF PLOUGH. By Sir Edward Stracey, Baht, F.R.S. (From the Jottrnal of the Royal Agrlcaltitrul Society of England.) The Rackheath Sub-Turf Plough : invented by Sir Edward Stracey, (Manufactured by Barnard and Joy, Norwich.) To THE Secretary. Sir, — In consequence of the applications of many of my friends for a sl-etcb of my Sub-Turf Plouub, I send you herewith such sketch. I have bnd it made as plain and as clear as I possibly could : I trust tlierefore that there will be no difficulty at- tending the making of other ploughs from it, if re- quired. From the above sketch of the Sub-Turf Plough, it will easily be seen that it differs but little from the plough commonly in use in this county. The chief difference consists in the share having two wings instead of one wing, and in the absence of the mould-board or breast. Very little have I to add respecting the method of using, or the advan- tages derived from the use of the plough, to those •which I stated in my letter to the Royal Agricul- tural Society (see Third Part of Journal, p. 256), excepting that, after an experience of nearly two years, it has fully answered mj' expectations ; and I can give no better proofs of its merits than by the extensive adoption of it by my neighbours, in sub- soiling their meadows and pastures ; and so per- fectly satisfied am I with the results arising from the use of the plough, that I have despatched one of the ploughs to sub-turf some meadow and marsh lands, about twelve miles from this place ; and hope to have about 120 acres sub-turfed between this tiaie and the ensuing spring. I send you also two sketches ; one of an imple- ment which I call the Pig's Head (from its shape 3 in. potaioes out of the ground, instead of forking ; and when attached to the plough for that purpose, the coulter must, in the first place, be removed ; and the plough, with the coulter thus removed and the pig's-head attached, will, with two horses and the driver, if properly worked ten inches deep, employ eight women or lads in gathering an average crop of potatoes : and the other is a sketch of the Iron Hands, for finding the potatoes when turned out by the plough. Iron Hand. The pig's-head plough, with the coulter removed from the sub-turf plough, and the pig's head attach- ed, is woiked by two horses abreast, and one man conducting it. No two adjoining rows of potatoes should be ploughed consecutively, lest the pickers should not have suflicient time allowed them to re- move tlie notatoes thrown out [by the plough) of the preceding adjoining row, before tht-y are covered by the potatoes and soil of the succeeding row. The •iploughing, therefore, should be thus conducted ; the perpendicular lines represent the rows of pota- toes : — No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 0. 18 inches. Pig's Head. being similar to the head of that animal), for the purpose, when attached to the plough, of throwing Sub-Turf Plough with the Pig's-Head attached. Go down row 1, up 3, down 5, up 2, down 4, and up 6, and so on through the field. The eight THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 women or luds aye so placed in four divisions on the most convenient parts of the two rows to be next ploupflied, one in eacli division carrying' an iron hmid to scratcli out the potatoes removed by the ])lougli, and tha other carrying- a basket into which they are to be gathered. 'I'vvo men are also to be employed, each with a basket, to take away the filled briskets, to replace thoso filled witli empty baskets, and to carry the filled baskets to the carts prepared for tlieii- recejjtion. Hard frosts have commenced very early this sea- son ; but by this ])lougl), and the gatherers above Stated, I have been enabled to clear 1§ acre of land each day, and to secure the potatoes from the eftects of the frost; of the great saving in the expense of getting I say nothing, as every potato-grower can calculate that. 1 am, Sir, yours, &c., liackheaih Hall, near Norwich, E. Stracey. 30th Nov., 1840. MEETING IN FAVOUR OF AGRI- CULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS. We have great pleasure in inserting a report from the Dublin Evening Packet of the proceed- ings at a meeting for establishing an Agricultural Society in Dublin, upon an extensive scale, after the example of the Iligiihind Agricultural Society, and the Royal Agricultural Society of England. A numerous and highly respectable meeting of the nobility, gentry, and resident landlords of Ire- land, was held, Feb. 18, in the lloyal Exchange, for the purpose of taking steps to promote agricultural employment in Ireland, and for the general im- provement of husbandry. Among those present, were noticed his Grace the Duke of Lelnstcr, the Earl of Kildare, Lord Carew, Baron Roebcck, 8ir Michael Bellew, the Provost, S. F. Ponsonby, E>:q., Mr. Finn, Mr. W. Sliarman Crawford, Captain Pollock, Castlewilder ; Dr. Litton, Dean Vignolles, Hon. Mr. Lawless, Mr. Michael Thunder, Hon. F. Ponsonby, Mr. Naper, Loughcrew ; Messrs. Carew, D. LaTouche, R. Phillips," H. Phillips, John O'Connell, M. Staunton, D. M'Crummer, Larkhill ; James Watt, Queen's Proctor, Tighe, of Woodstock; Thomas B. Dancer, of Modreny House, county of Tipperary, &c. &c. On the motion of Lord Carew, his Grace the Duke of Leinster M'as called to the chair, and Mr. Naper proposed that Mr. Peter Purcell be requested to act as secretary, which proposition being seconded by l\Ir. Henry Grattan, M.P., was passed with ac- clamation. Mr. PuKCELL said he felt honoured by the ap- pointment, which he thought one of the most im- portant connected with the objects of the meeting. His numerous avocations would prevent his con- tinuing permanently to act ; but an efficient secre- tary would shortly be appointed, and, until then, he would attend to all communications that might be addressed to him. Mr. Purcell then read letters from the following noblemen and gentlemen, apo- logising for their absence, and expressing their entire concurrence in the objects of the meeting. He also stated that, notwithstanding the numerous circulars he had issued, he did not receive a single reply (hssenting from their propositions. The first letter was from the Duke of Richmond, president of tlie Royal Chartered Agricultural So- ciety, recommending strongly the entire exclusion of politics from their proceedings. Letters were also read from the Marquess of Lansdowne, Ilenrv Herbert, Esq., of Muckross ; Lord Gosfo'rd, tlie Roman Catholic Prinuite of Ireland; Lord Arran, George Alexander Hamilton, Esq.; the Bishop of Kildare, Right. Hon. Arthur Moore, Edward Lit- ton, Esq., M.P.; Arthur Henry, Esq.; Thomas Hutton, Esq., M.P.; J. Talbot, Esq., M.P. ; An- thony Richard Blake. Esq.; Mr. Blacker, Market- hill ; the agents of the IMar.piess of Waterford and Marquess of Conyngham ; Colonel Creightou, Sir S. O'Malley, Robert Fowler, Esq., son of the Bishop of Ossory, .'tc, &c. The first resolution was projiosed by the Mar- quess of Kildare. It was to the effect that, not- withstanding the natural capabilities of Ireland her soil remained unimproved, and was not cultivated after the manner of England and Scotland. Mr. Napeu seconded the resolution. He con- gratulated the meeting on the appearance of the Marquess of Kildare in his right place, as the i)ro- poser of a resolution, having for its object the amelioration of the humbler classes. He hailed it as an omen that the landlords of Irelan.d were about to do their duty, and assured the meeting that the best way to forward the movement for Irish manu- facture was to improve the condition of the agricul- tural laliourer. (Cheers.) Lord Cakew proposed the second resolution, stating that from the defective system of husbandry the general produce of Ireland is unequal to what might be expected from the richness of her soil, and the fertihty of her climate. Sir Michael Bellew, in seconding this resolu- tion, hoped that all political and sectarian differ- ences would be forgotten in this movement, and that Irishmen of all creeds and classes would join heart and hand in the present noble effort for the amelioration of their common country The third resolution was proposed by Baron Roe- beck, stating that in order to improve the condi- tion of Ireland, a central association should be formed in Dul)lin, to be called the Irish Agricul- tural Association, to wdiich all communications and suggestions might be arldressed connected with their objects, and that same should be modelled as closely as possible on the principle of the chartered associations of England and Scotland. This resolu- tion was briefly seconded by Sir George Hod.?on. The fourth resolution was proposed by the Rev. Dr. Sadleir, Provost of Trinity College. It moved the formation of committeesin counties, by Avhom all information that could lead to the im- provement of their several districts should be ob- tained and transmitted to the central association. Capt. Dunne, son of General Dunne, seconded it. Mr. Sharman Crawford was about to propose the fifth resolution wdien our reporter left. The subscriptions received amounted to 1,5001. Of this the Duke of Leinster contributed 200^., the Marquess of Kildare 50/., Mr. Purcell lOOZ., Lord Cloncurry 100/., and Lord Carew 2o/. The following is tlie committee appointed at the meeting : — The Cliairman, the Marquis of Kildare, Lord Charlemont, Lord Arran, Lord Gosford, Lord Fitz- gerald, Lord Mountcashel, Lord Boyle, Lord Milton, Lord Clonbrock, Lord Dunally, Lord Ashtown, James Redmond Barry, Esq., Roscarbcrry ; Wil- liam Blacker, Esq., Armagh; Thomas George French, Esq., Marino, county Cork; iMichael Fur- nell, Esq., county Limerick; George Meara, Esq., AYaterford; The Provost, Trinity College; James Naper, Esq., Loughcrew ; Captain Dunne ; Richard Bourke, Esq.; Right Hon. A. R. Blake; John 174 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Codding-toii, Esq. ; Gustavus Lambert, Esq. ; George Ensor, Esq. ; Charles Roper, Esq., Fairfield ; George A. Hamilton, Esq. ; Cliarles W. Hamilton, Esq. • Robert Latouche, Esq. ; C. D. Latouche, Esq.; David Sherrard, Esq., Thorndale ; Robert Challoner, Esq., Coolatin ; John R. Price, Esq., Monntrath ; Hugh M'Cartiicy, Esq., Lissanane Castle; W. S. Crawford, Esq.; Hon. Edward Law- less; Christopher Fitzsimon, Glancullen ; W. F. Finn, Esq., county Kilkenny ; Sir Samuel O'Malley; Sir Hugh D. Massey ; and Pierce Mahony, Esq. THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. BY MR. W. F. KARKEEK, V.S., TRURO. (From the Veterinarian.) Mr. Saull's elucidations proceed regularly from a fundamental principle as a basis, that the granite is the most ancient stratum, for on this all the other beds are successively deposited ; and he is confirmed in this o|)iQion by observaiions made in different parts of the eiirth, which tend to prove that such is the case, for not only in both Americas, but speci- mens have recently been brought from Australia, which exactly resemble the granites found in Devon- shire, in Scotland, &c., &c. Having established a basis, he then proceeds to chemical analysis, which proves that this rock is composed of quartz, raica, and felspar, in the latter of which only is contuined a small ijuantity of cal- careous matter, probably not more than two or three per cent.; but that this is the germ, as it were of production, of the shell, the fibre, and, ultimately, the bone, flesh, and food, so necessary for the sup- port of organized beings when they come to be de- veloped on the surface of our planet. He then arrives at this conclusion, — that, by tlie action of water and the atmospliere, this bard sub- stance is ])ulverized and decomposed, and in that state — when the circumstances are favourable, viz., under a tropical climate, and also saline waters — corallines would germinate from the root or basis before-mentioned : these being reduced to powder by t!ie action of the element in which they grew, would in their turn, reproduce more, and thus the fertilizing ))rinciple would continue progressing ; and so it is found on anal>zatiou of all the primai-y rocks, which exhibit a gradual increase of this neces- sary material in the ascending order. Now, as this material is found to germinate spon- taneous!}', as it were, in hot climates onlv, the author deduces some original conclusions, which are of grpat value and importance, with reference to the etfects on our planet. 1st. That matter and motion are universal, and that nothing whatever can be completely passive or at rest. 2nd, That the revolution of a planetary body on its axis, and in its orbit round the sun as a primary body, being universal also, definite ett'ects are tliereby produced. 3rd. That these effects are, a priori, light diffused, which light being atomical, ahhougli immeasurably minute, the excitation of the atoms being greatest where the recipient body revolves most rapidly, or traverses the greater medium in sjiace, namely, the equatorial parts ; hence it follows, as a necessary consequence, that the greater heat will be difl'used on its central or equatorial zones, gradually de- creasins,- towards both poles, where the motion of course is slower. 4th. That all parts of tlie earth's surface partake of the genial influence (so to speak) in regular suc- cessive order, requiring immense periods of time to accomplish it; and that our planet is, therefore, constantly and universally progressing, with refer- ence to beings existing on its surface. 5th. That the elevation and depression of the oceanic waters in both hemispheres are also regular and constant, and most probably the effect of motion, although it may be distinct and subject to other laws than the changes of climate before alluded to. 6lh. From these facts the conclusion naturally follows, — tbat our planet is regularly changing its position, en masse, with reference to the centre of the system, the sun; that is, although polar axes will always exist, yet that their position cannot be constant, but variable, producing those great changes of position, and consequently of temperature — re- quiring periods of time almost beyond our calcula- tions, but which, by astronomical investigation, will no doubt ultimately be established. These are the principles on which Mr. Saull es- tablishes his theory, and which he satisfactorily proves by examining the various strata of the earth. Through all the primitive rocks, from the granite up to the clay state inclusive, no organic remains are found — hence their term protuzoic, that is, before life ; but the calcareous matter lias gone on increas- ing, and in the next stage, in what was heretofore called granwacke, but now the upper silurian, we find life first developed in a few varieties of shell fish only : other beds intervene, almost destitute of organic remains, succeeded by strata of great thick- ness, containing corals in abundance, and exhibiting for the first time, their masses in the form and pat- tern as they grew, with trilobites, orthroceratites, leptera. cyatbrocrinites, orphis, euomphalus, &c., &;c. Abundance of other fossils are found in these beds, indicative of a tropical climate and the pre- ponderance of saline waters. Above this appears the old red sandstone, in some places upwards of 3000 feet thick, in which are no corals and but few fishes and shells, which he considers to be proof that a cold northern climate then prevailed, and the structure of this great forma- tion shews it to be marine. Above the old red sandstone is the mountain lime- stone, in which the abundance of what was animated life strikes us with astonishment. We discern, for the first time, the nautilus, with much larger orthro- ceratites than before, accompanied with spirifera, producta, bellerophon, crinoidea, with an immense numbsr of corals, of innumerable varieties of species, and of the greatest beauty, — the clear indications of a very hot climate, and also the prevalence of the oceanic waters. Next in the ascending order is the millstone grit, the greater part of which is destitute of organic re- mains. Now, although this formation appears to be oceanic, yet there are many stems of vegetables found in it, which most probably, by some of the violent perturbations of the surface by volcanic or igneous action, have been forced into it, seeing that these stems of plants are all filled up vvit!) sea sand. A limestone bed succeeds, in which we trace scales, jaws, and teeth of many species of reptile fish, with marine or fucoid plants, which is considered by the author as a convincing proof of the gradual increas- ing heat of the climate during this period, and as preparing for the next most important epoch, — namely, that of the great coal formation. Here it is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 175 evident that tLe oceanic waters bad receded from the nortlieru liemispbere, and tbe surface was covered with miignilicent i)lunts, with palms, palmacites, shrubs, and arborescent ferns, with reeds in places of thirty or forty i'eet in height ! — and it appears the atmosjjhere was replate with moisture as well as the surface of the earth. Baron Humboldt considers that at this jieriod our climate resembled the hottest ]iart of South America, whence some of the tributa- ries of the greatest river of the Amazons Hows, which be graphically describes thus : — Fresh water streams running in every direction; vej^etation in places absolutely impenetrable; the moist humid atmos- phere producing rapid decom])Osition of the vegeta- tion, and on the otiier hand, forcing it like a hot-bed, so that some shrubs grow more than twenty feet high in one year : hence we naturally account for tiie vast quantity of bituminous cual, which is clearly proved to be of vegetable origin. After this period the saline waters appear to pre- ponderate, since the stems of the plants, &:c., are all tilled up with sea sand; and the proofs appear complete, that the temperature v.-as gradually grow- ing colder, since, in the next beds, the fossils are less numerous, but they clearly indicate their marine origin. In the ascending order he now arrives at the new red sand-stone, and this he finds almost a repetition of the old red so much below it. In its sandv and frequently finely laiiiellated structure there is abun- dant proof of oceanic action, and deposition. There are but very few fossils imbedded in it, vet small fossil fish are numerous towards the upiier part of this bed : parts of the stems of trees are occasionally found, but they are completely filled up with silica. Now, as these could not liave grown in the ocean, they must have become imbedded in this mass by other circumstances, probably volcanic action. The great masses of rock salt in this country are a'so found in this formation, which is a complete proof of its marine origin, and moat probably those depo- sitions and incrustations took place dui'ing the gra- dual decrease of the oceanic waters. The author assumes tliat the temperature now in- creased in warmth, since in the lias formation, which succeeds the new red sandstone, the remains of cro- codiles, icthyosaurus, and plesiosaurus, are found for the first time, with large nautilus; and ammo- nites of a tjreat variety of species, with a vast abun- dance of fishes covered with scales, an infinite variety of shell fish, Crustacea and testacea. Corals are also abundant in this bed. Immediately above this, in the marlstone beds, he traces the impressions of plants, most of which re- semble those of the southern tropics of the present day. Again a change, and the oceanic waters pre- ponderate. In the lower oolite the fossils are prin- cijially marine, and perhaps these lived under a colder clime ; but the fossil remains are now go nu- merous and intermixed, that Mr. Saull cannot dis- cover those broad and well-markedlinesof distinction which he has so clearly pointed out heretofore. The coral rag exhibits an amazing growth of corals, many of them of the species growing at the ptesent day in tropical seas. In the upper oolite he finds evidences of a warm climate, with its corres- ])onding fossils ; the most remarkable of which are those resembling the zamia or Cycadtoidea of the prnsent forests of Africa, with large fossil trees. Again, we arrive at I'resh water and mixed beds, in one of which, the Wealden, are found the remains of the Tguanodon, so admirably described by Dr. Mantell. This amphioioiis repiil*^ must have been, when at full growth, not less than eiglity feet in length. Mr. SauU's museum is rich in the number of bones it contains of this most extraordinary beino-. There are vertebra; resembling those of a iish. more than eigUt inches in diameter ; jjortions of the femur larger than those of the ele]ihant of the present day; one immense claw, weighing nearl)' three pounds ; and several pelvis, and metatarsal, and metacarpal bones, with many otliers. In the green saiul, and in the gault, he is of opi- nion that the climate was again cooler; but in the next beds, the chalk, tlie temperature unquestion- ably was hot; the fossils and even the strata itself, being entirely of marine origin. At the period of the London clay, he supposes the waters gradually retiring. Then all the valleys were tidal lakes, as evidenced by the remains, which consist of crocodile, niiutilus, turtles, Crustacea, and testacea; and as tlie hills wtjre uncovered veoeta- tion succeeded, consisting ot plants, the seeds and fruits of which are analogous to those growing in much warmer latitudes than ours at the present day, perhaps resemblingthat of Southern Africa. Thence he infers that the evidence bears out or supports the conclusions at which ho arrives, namely, that with the decrease of the level of the waters, the heat of the climite increased, until in the succeeding period, when the first of mammalia or hot-blooded animals appeared ; these are the pala3othcrium, anoplothe- rium, chiropotherium, lophiodon, &c., mostly re- sembling the tapir of the present day. Again a change : the ocean returned. ]\Iarine beings innu- merable are found at this epoch, with the bones of the walrus and tlie whale. This in regular sequence again changed. The waters receded, and we then recognise that interesting period when the huge mastodon, the noble elephant, the rhinoceros, hippo- potamus, hyena, tiger, boar, bear, wolf, deer, and horse, were the inhabitants of our now northern clime.* I have already illustrated in this paper the change from tliis epodi to the present, in attempting to un- ravel the history of the horse. The remarkable change of character in the British strata has for a long period attracted great attention with geologists ; but no ono has brought forward such an interesting and satisfactory theory as Mr. Saull. He considers also that, in astronomy, he has both an explanation and a proof of his views, that, in the northern and southern hemispheres there is an alternate increase and diminution of the wafers of the earth in successive periods of 25,800 years, being those of the precession of the e([uinoses, and arising from the same cause ; and he has satis- factorily established the proof of the change of situa- tion in the pole of the earth by a number of places, wliich iiave changed their latitude and longitude within the last 200 years. It would bo foreign to the subject to enter into the astronomical calculations by which Mr. Saull so easily solves enigmas that have for a long time em- barrassed the geological world ; for it must be con- fessed that tiiey account for, and are fully equal to ex- plain, all the geological phenomena — all the forma- tions, all the variety of strata, all the fossil remains, and all those circumstances which are inexplicable without it. The motions of the earth are still going on silently around us, like those that have passed ; and the fair regions which we now inhabit must, in the regular course of nature, be covered again by the ocean. * Mr Saull's interesting museum, supposed to contain the largest private eollection of iossil remains in the kingdom, is lihorally opened to tlie public every Thursday morning at eleven o'clock : no introduction whatever is required. 176 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. New layers of marine productions, of sand, gravel, and broken mouniains, will overwhelm tbe soil to which we now feel such lively attachment ; and, iinall}-, new countries, or arrangements of land, will again rise in due course on those mundane sites which, at present, aie occupied by civilized Europe, and by the nortliern parts of Asia and America. For ray own pait, I see no moral evil to deplore in tliese changes. Nothing is effected abruptly, and man and animals are gradually warned to seek new habitations. The notices are slow, but uner- ring ; and ihe human race will find fresh and reno- vated countries prepared for their subsistence, and abundaatly fitted for their enjoyment, by these grand operations. I have already adduced sufficient evidence that the sea has covered the land at different periods; and any one who views the interior of our country must be sensible that its swelling hills and low valli'-s, leading to the sea, must have been produced by the action of the oceanic waters. Volcanic agency from below has also produced many great and important changes in modifying and re-arranging the surface of the earth. We will now endeavour to apply the knowledge we have ohtained to investigate farther the ancient history of tije hor.se. Arabia has been frequently deseribpd by natural historians, from the very superior breed of horses found there from the earliest recorded times, to be tlie soil that gave birth to the primitive horse. I confess that at one ])eriod I entertained a similar opinion, and indulged my fancyflight in imagining the first pair of horses located on some verdant plain in Arabia the Happy, and bearing a strong resem- blance to the war horse described so empliaticallv in the Book of) Job : " Hast thou given the horse strength] hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoicelh in his strength : he goeth forth to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he his back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness anti rage ; neither believeth be that it is the sound of the trumpet. He sayeth among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thurider of the captains, and the shoutings.'' This is a magnificent description of a war charger, — but, splendid as it is, it will equally suit tbe horses liitrnessed to the war chariot of Queen Boadicea, which spread dismay and death in the breasts of the Roman legions, when Caisar first invaded the shores of Britain. I do not by this remark mean to throw any doubt on the superiority of the Arabian breed of horses, but merely introduce it to shew (hat Great Britain also possessed a very superior breed at this early period. We have already seen that they existed on our island long before man was created ; and the probability is, that the breed which the aneifnt Britons then possessed were descendants of the olden race, — modified greatly, of course, in conspquence of the change of clim.\te which had oiadually taken place duriiiq: an immense period of time. Whether the peninsula ©f Arabia possessed horses, at the epoch to wiiich our history refers, which we are certain that our country did, we have not the means of clearly- ascertaining ; the ])robability is, that she did not. We find Arabia to be an elevated table land, sloping on the north gently towards the Syrian desert, and encircled along the sea coast with a belt of fiat sandy ground. The soil of this fiat countr)', from its re- gular inclination towards the sea, as well as from the large beds of salt and maiine exuvite with which it is interspersed, appears to have been at no great geological period a part of the bed of the ocean. This flat country produces the principal pas- turage, and contains rich groves of dates and other fruits. The interior of the country is chiefly burning sandy deserts, lying under a sky almost perpetually without clouds, and stretching into immense and boundless plains, where the eye meets nothing but the uniform horizon of a wild and dreary waste. It is observed, that the sea, particularly on its western coast, still continues to recede. The reefs of madrepore and coral which abound in the Arabian Gulph, and in some parts rise several fathoms above the sea, are increasing and coming nearer the shore. Thus this flat fertile part of the country is constantly extending its limits. Muza is mentioned by Arrian as a sea-port of Arabia Felix; we now find it at a distance of several miles from the sea. In the southern part of the Arabian Gulph the sea is also receding from the land. From these facts we come to the conclusion, that, at the period when horses were freely ranging throughout the continent of Europe, the present flat fertile land of Arabia, if not the whole peninsula, was covered with sea ; and it appears altogether ab- surd to suppose that Nature would have placed her first-born pair of horses on such a desolate and sandy soil, even if it were not so. That Great Britain wns once connected with France there can scarcely be a doubt. The nature of the cliffs, similarit\f of strata, and other circum- stances, sufficiently prove this; and all tends to in- crease the opinion, that Great Britain has as good a rigrht to be considered as the primaeval birth place of this noble animal as any other country on the globe. It is true, that the present state of our knowledge is not such as to warrant us in coming to any certainty on the subject, but, on the whole, I consider it to be verv probable. The earliest historical account of the horse comes from Arabia. Tbe author of the Book of Job is sup- posed by Dr. Hales to have lived 184 yeais befoie the birth of Abraham. The scene of the poem is laid in the land of Uz, which Bishop Lovvfh has slipwn to be Idumea. The Arabs also themselves trace the genealogy of their Nedjyds up to the time of Abra- ])am ; and when we consider the almost religious zpal with which the preservation of tlii-ir pedigrees has ever been regarded, and the rigorous enactments which have been resorted to in erder to preserve the purity of their breed, we c rtainly must give them some credit for their statement. The Nedjyd breed, so serviceable in the cause of Islam, is supposed by the Arai)s to have obtained, through Mahomet, the prophet of God, an occult capacity to read or repeat, tacitly, every day some verses of the Koran, (t was one of their old pro- verbs— that, after man, the most eminent creature is the horse — the best employment is that of rearing it — the most delightful posture is that of sitting on ifs back — the most meritorious of domestic actions is that of feeding it; and they were taught by the prophet to believe that it was origina'lv ptedestined for their special service. "When God," said he, " wished to create it, he called tbe south wind, and said, ' I desire todraw from out ofth(-e a new being. Condense thyself, liy parting with fluidity :' and he was obeyed. He then took a handful of the element, now become tangible, and blew u|)ou it, and the horse was produced. ' I hou shalt be for man,' said the Lord, 'a source of happiness and wealth; he will render himself illustrious by ascending thee.' " THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 'I'o tbose who deliglit to study man in bis pastoral simplicity — to moralize on the destiny of nations, or the rise and fall of empires — the history of Arabia cannot fail to be attractive. From time immemorial it has been celebrated for its precious productions, and distinguisheil as the home cf liberty and inde- pendence ; and the only land in all antiquity that never bowed to the yoke of a foreign conqueror. The history of antiquity is not without traces of the early influence of the Arabs on the condition of neifihbouring' nations. The book of Genesis men- tions Nimrod as the founder of the Bvibylonian em- pire, and we think we recognise in the mightv hunter an Ar'bian chieftain, like the modern sheiks of the Bedouins. To the Arabian, principally, England is indebted for her improved and unrivalled breed of horses for the turf, the field, and tbe road ; and it is in conse- quencrt of their very superior qualities that the honour has been given to Arabia, as being the coun- try that cradled the first-born courser. Hut the superiority of tlie breed may be easily accounted fur without this. the singular local situation of the country, the inequalities in the nature of the soil and climate, anci the peculiar method and religious care with which the horse is reared there, are alone suffi- cient to account for their very peculiar organization. ']'he same observations will apply to their human population, being one of the most ancient people in the world, and, like tlieir horses, having a physiog- nomy and character which are quite peculiar, and which distinguishes them generally from those which belong to the other parts of the globe. Their manners still present that mixture of rude freedom and patriarchal simplicity which w.; find in the in- fiincy of society ; and in the ])ortraits of tlie modern Bedouins we niay trace the features of their ancestors, who, in the age of Abraham or JMahoraet, dwelt under sinailar tents, and conducted their horses to tbe same springs and the same pasturage. There is a very important and interesting argument which presents itself from this geological inquiry, and which may be very properly consi>lered as the theological history of ihe horse. It is very generally believed, that, previous to the fall of man, death was not known in th« world, and consequently the brute creation must have suffered a change in their nature and instincts since that time. Thus we read in Milton— "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of tliat forbidden tree, whose mortiil taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe." And again — " Discord, first Daushter of Sin, amonj^ tli' irrational Death introduced through fierce antipatliy : Beast now with beast 'i,'an war, and fowl with fowl, And flsh with fish ; to graze the herb, all leaving. Devoured each otlier." It certainly can scarcely require any argument to repudiate such ridiculous nonsense: Milton was a beautiful poet, but a very bad theologian ; and I should not have noticed the subject here, had not those opinions been but lately introduced to the world sanctioned by the highest authority. I allude to the Rev. \Vm. Kirby's Bridgewater Treatise, and the Rev. John Styles's splendid nonsense, which obtained the prize of one hundred guiyieas for the best Essay on the obligations of humanity as due to the brute creation. Both these authors are of opinion that the different orders of animals originated in one quarter of the g'lobe, and from which they subsequently spread themselves, according to circumstances, over the rest of the surface J and to support this argument, they alter the natural instinct of the greater part of them. The ferocious hyiena, the savage lion, the treacherous tigt^r, and the -whole race of carnivorous animals, are turned into herbivorous and ruminating heas's! 1 need scarcely tell you, that those opinions are as much opposed to tlieology as they are to philosophy, since the sacred writings give no sanction for the belief that animals were included in the sentence of death pronounced upon the fall of man. No one, who attributes the origin of the world to tbe power and fiat of the Almighty, can fail to admit that all natural phenomena, and the laws that regu- late the material universe, are manifestations of the will of the same Creator; " fire and hail, snow and vapours, wind and storm fulfilling iiis word ; moun- tains and all cedars, beasts and all cattle, worms and feathered fowls." No consistent believer, therefore, should be apprehensive of any discrepancy between those unwritten manifestations of his power and god- head, and the written revelation he has vouchsafed to us in his holy word. The same universal lavs* which now governs our planet and its innumerable inhabitants, ruled when they were first created — when angels' harps rolled their deed notes over our world, as it sprung forth in its young and peerless beauty from the hands of the Deity. On every hand were exhibited the bright evidences of its Maker's mysterious power, then, as now ; and all the func- tions of life, and all the orders of animated existences, obeyed their Creator's fiat, 'ihe finger which first gave to them their unalterable law has never touched them since : they have never had but one [irinciple to govern tliem — one law to guide. There cannot be a doubt, then, that the instincts and habits of the inferior animals have never been altered, and that they were all created in their differ- ent localities, on soils and in climates well and wisely adapted to their various constitutions. LORD WESTERN'S LETTER ON SOWING WHEAT. Sir, — In the Fiirmer^s Magazine for the present month, there is a letter from Lord Western on sowing wheat ; a portion of which appears so extraordinary, tiiat with your permission, I shall make a few observations on it, though I am far more at liome when directing a plough than a pen, but must be as intelligible in my new occupation as my command of language will permit me. His lordshi]) lays a great stress upon wide drilling, and a large quantity of seed, and ascribes his su- jjerior crops to those causes. Now certainly, where tiie greatest quantity of seed of any sort is sown, there will the greatest quantity of plants be ; but that the greatest quantity of plants jier acre will insure the greatest crop, is what I am very much disposed to question, especially when they are crowded together, unless I know all the peculiarities of the situation ; and the reason for so doing, I will explain as well as I can. If I recollect aright, in a letter of bis lordship's of a )'ear or two ago on the same subject, he inci- dentally mentioned that he farmed high ; now when a nobleman says so himself, depend upon it, bis land is more inclined to plethora than exhaustion, and when heavy land in first-rate condition is sown with wheat, it would be surprising indeed if it did not produce a good crop ; this, in my opinion, is the mainspring of his success, in spite of thick sowing, and not ia consequence oiit. 178 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Some years ago, I was ono of those petty ex- periinentalizers wLom his lordsliip disposes of so unceremoniously; the first trial was in a two-years seeds ley, plouglied in furrows of the exact width of his drills, pressed with the land-presser, and sown broad-cast ; the field was sown at the rate of three bushels per acre, in the second week in October. As I knew the hnd was pretty certain to plant well, I resolved lo sow a "land'' at the rate of six pecks per acre, which I accordingly did, to tlie annoyance of my two labourers, who were not slow in observing- — " it was a jjity to waste such a feat bit of land," as it was " sure to be good to nought." When the field was in green blade, tljat part did not look so gay as the rest, by far ; and in the spring, when the field began to grow up, it grew sideways, and tillered most villainously ; but when it did look up, there was no inferiority then ; the same men reaped the field at harvest, and acknowledged that it was not only equal, but superior to any other part of the field ; there was a good crop on the whole, but the stocks on that lanaking use of them, 1 conceive lliey would have so greata tendency to make a cow slip her calf, that I should be very sorry to allow them to be employed with any cow of mine whiclj 1 valued. The result, therefore, of my experience is, that no man can be certain that a cow is in calf until be can, feel the calf by what is called punching the cow in her flank — an operation which is perfectly safe, unless performed with most extraordinary and unnecessary violence. I'ut as this cannot be done until the cow has beeu pregnant at least six raontiis, and in cows in good condition sometimes till much later, the value of this mode of ascertaining the pregnancy of a cow to breeders of cattle or purchasers at sales is not very great. Although I thus failed in effecting the object which 1 had in view when [ commenced the series of ob- servations which I am about to state, they have led to results which I find very useful. The mode I adopted was this : I noted each cow in succession who had not returned to the bull at the end of six weeks, and when 50 were so noted I commenced a fresh series. I then noted how many of each ;50 went 7, 8, 9 weeks, and so on to 21 weeks, before they returned to the bull, and how many proved in calf, together with the number of live calves which they produced. 1 have now the results of 8 of these series, of 400 cows, who Ijave gone 6 weeks before returning to the bull. I here insert the different series, together with the sum total of their results : — ■"•oT- 6 50 7 8 41 9 39 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 30 17 29 18 21 28 45 38 37 34 33 32 32 29 26 26 50 44 S9 35 33 32 30 28 27 27 27 26 26 26 25 23 50 41 38 36 31 31 30 29 28 27 27 27 27 26 23 17 50 45 41 36 34 31 30 27 26 26 26 26 26 24 20 16 50 47 44 43 43 '±3 42 40 39 39 37 36 36 35 33 31 50 45 42 36 35 34 32 30 26 24 24 24 24 23 20 18 50 42 41 39 37 36 35 32 31 30 SO 30 30 28 26 24 50 400 48 3o7 47 333 41 305 41 292 39 283 39 272 36 255 36 245 36 34 34 232 34 31 29 26 241 235 232 221 202 181 It will be seen from this table, that the variations between the different series are not very great, and that a man applying a calculation founded upon the sum-totals of them to any one would not err more than must always be the case in any calculation founded upon probabilities. Having found this to be so with respect to cows who had not returned to the y bull for 6 weeks, I applied the same principle to all the cows who were bulled, in order to ascertain what was the probability of each cow bulled going six weeks. This I began doing in the commencement of the year 1838. I have now taken notes for this object with respect to 1000 cows bulled, and 1 hero subjoin a table taking the series at 200 cows in each, which will show the results of my observations: — Bulled. 3 weeks. 4 weeks. 5 WReks. 6 weeks. 200 158 115 107 87 200 137 92 85 71 200 142 87 80 72 200 148 94 81 78 200 139 87 74 63 1000 724 475 427 371 182 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The smiill variation between the different series in this table is very remarkable, I liaving expected that it would be much greater than in the former one. By the means of these tables, I have now the opportunity of calculating— first, the probable num- ber of cows who have not gone six weeks, who will go that time ; and of those who have gone six weeks, the probable number who will prove in calf. Although therefore, as I have said, I am not able to arrive at anything like a certainty with respect to any individual cow proving in calf, I have been able to calculate the number of calves I shall have from all or any given number of the cows bulled with much greater accuracy than I expected. In order, however, to make this calculation, it is necessary to make an allowance for the number of pregnant cows who may either slip their calves or produce dead calves at their full time. Not having any data at the time I began these observations on which to ground this allowance, I took it at one in eight, which proves to be too great ; for, as it will have heen seen from the first table which I have inserted, I have had 181 live calves from 202 cows in calf, and consequently I ought only to have deducted one in ten, instead of one in eight ; and therefore the re- sults of my calculations of the probable number of calves I should have in any given period have gene- rally proved rather too low. In order to show that th^e principles which I have adopted may be practi- cally applied, I will state several of the trials which I have made of my calculation. On the 22nd of October, 1838, 1 calculated that I should have 48 live calves previous to the 1st of August, 1839. I had 49. On the 24th of January, 1839, 1 calculated that I should have 33 live calves previous to the 1st of November, 1839. I had 55. On the 18th of August, 1839, I calculated that I should have 37 live calves previous to the 25th of May, 1840. I had 41. On the 21st of October,' 1839, I calculated that I should have 40 live calves previous to the 1st of August, 1840. I had 48. I have made several other calculations of the same kind to test my principle, but it would be tedious to state any more of them. This last is the one in which the event has differed the most from the expected result. It will be seen that in all these trials of my system I must have included in my calculation all the cows bulled up to the day of making it, for the period over which the calculation extends equals the ordinary time of the gestation of a cow ; and therefore I think the accuracy with which the result of the cal- culations has agreed with the event proves that a table of odds may be constructed, which upon any given number of cows will prove tolerably correct. It is so obvious that it is hardly necessary to state how I make these calculations. Taking the first table I have given, for instance, I divide the sum total of the numbers in each of the previous columns, and the decimals which will be the product of such divisions, will show the probability of a cow proving in calf who shall not have returned to the bull at the end of each week respectively. This pro- cess I apply to ascertain the probabilities in the other table. I then multiply the number of cows who have gone 21 weeks by the decimal belonging to this column; the number who have gone 18 weeks and not 21, the number who have gone 17 and not 18, and so on, by the decimals respectively belong- ing to these columns. I add the products of these multiplications together, and the sum total gives the probability of the whole list : I mean, it gives the probable number of cows who will prove in calf. From this must be deducted the number who will probably not produce live calves, according to the allowance to which I have referred above. With respect to the other table, I treat it in the same man- ner, and assume the probable number of cows to go six weeks as if they had actually gone that period, and add it to the first column of the first mentioned table. If I thought that the observations which I have made would apply to cattle generally, as well as they appear to have done to my own herd, I should think them of considerable use ; but I do not think this is likely to be the case. My object in breeding is to breed bulls, and lam therefore constantly in the habit of persevering in the attempt to procure calves from cows, and by "bulls who are so uncertain as breeders that a farmer in ordinary circumstances would have put them to feed and have sold them to a butcher long before I do. But I think that, if any breeder will take the trouble to make the same sort of obser- vations with respect to his herd which I have with respect to mine, he will very soon arrive at full as great accuracy in the results as myself. I am very desirous that breeders should attempt this, and for this reason it is that I have prepared this paper. Because, if it should prove, by a number of breeders being induced to give the result of their observations so made to our Society, that a table of probabilities applicable to cattle generally can be established, it appears to me that it will be a discovery of great value. ON BURNING SOILS FOR TUR- NIPS. TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — " A Wiltshire Farmer," in your last, wishes to draw attention to the practice of burning of soils for turnips, and being an advocate for it on certain soih myself, I would state a practice that appears to me to be very judicious. In burning soils, persons acquainted with chemistry will admit that the chief components of the clay ;ind sand cannot be evapo- rated ; the sand remains the same, and the water which the clay held in affinity will be evaporated, by which it will lose about half its weight ; what will evaporate will be a portion of the organic manure — all the animal, and part of the vegetable manure. Then, to avoid this, let there be little in the soil at that time. Our summer tills are generally made on heavy lands in Suffolk, after wheat ; then let the manure be applied to the crop preceding the wheat, and but little will remain after the wheat. There is always some inert vegetable fibre in the soil, which, by the process of burning, will be rendered food for plants. I think applying the manure for the crop preceding the wheat, on clay lands, is of double im- portance, as we generally get a good crop of beans or clover, which ensures a crop of wheat. The leaf of the bean, as said by Sir Humphrey Davy, contains azote, or something analagous to it ; the plant thus makes more leaves, which drop directly available for the wheat-plant. As much may be said of clover, as increasing the quantity of available manure, and then for the soil, when it is burnt, it is porous in texture, and ready to receive air and water to con- vey food readily to the plant. Burning the soil is an alterative; it does not add a source of riches to the soil, but renders a part of what is there, and what is applied, available. I do not agree with "A Wiltshire Farmer," that the barleyis generally better, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 183 as well after tlie turnips ; tlie turnips are frequently better after burnini?, but tlie barley is not so good as where we apply farm-yard manure for the turnips. My practice is to burn a light coat, about 20 chaldron loads per acre, and tlien carry on about 13 loads of manure raw from tbe farm-yard; this long manure will not be much benefit to the turnips, but will be ready for the barley ; tlius each crop will have its share of food. Tlius hoping, PJr. Editor, if you in- sert this, it is only expressing- my humble opinions to my brother tillers of the soil. Jan, 2\; A Suffolk Farmer. THE ADVANTAGES OF STORING SWEDES AND TURNIPS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE LINCOLNSHIRE CHRONICLE. Sir, — As this is a season in which I fear the turnips and Swedes on many farms will suffer from the severe f^ost, I am desirous of making known a system I have for some years practised. Immediately the Swedes and turnips have done growing, I pick them out of the ground, and stack them in small heaps straight up the lands, and cover them with mould. I then run the Biddle's harrow through the ground to clean the land and move the soil, and sometimes I shallow-plough the land between the heaps, and when the fold is put upon the land, the shepherd has only to move the soil from the heaps and strew the Swedes about, unless it is considered preferable to cut the Swedes, which I always do for my teggs and fatting sheep wit!) the Banbury machine. Thus I consider I keep my land fresii, and save a great quantity of labour and food from waste, especially in a season like the present. My sheep have consumed and made good work of the usual quantity of turnips and Swedes given to them, but my neighbours, who do not adopt this system, have had extra quantity of ground allotted to the sheep daily, but they only consume the part of the Swede that grows out of the ground, the remainder being so far under ground that the shepherd finds it impossible to pick it out, and therefore it is left to rot in the ground. 'J'he expense of getting the turnips up and moulding the heaps round is from 5s. 6d. to 6s. per acre. I consider by this system I grow more barley to the acre, as we are all aware that a crop of Swedes, after a certain time, draws the land as much, if not more, than a w liite crop. No game can get to the crop, but I see my neighbour's crops are very much de- stroyed by the hares, rooks, wood-pigeons, &C. More- over, it matters not if the hounds run over my farm. I live in a sporting country, and the fox hounds are often across my farm, for I am situated between two large covers. In fact, the Swedes and turnip crops are the only crops I consider can be damaged by a field of horsemen riding over. The first year I was on my farm, the hounds were frequently crossing my wheat-field, and as the season was very wet, and the field of horsemen in this neighbourhood generally consists of from 200 to 300 horsemen, I considered the prospect of my wheat crop completely destroyed ; but my neigh- bours seeing my distress, and having experienced the same thing repeatedly themselves, they told me not to think any thing more about it, they fancied I should not see any difference in the harvest. To my surprise and delight I found them quite right, as the field alluded to, produced me quite as good a crop of grain, as any other on my farm. I am now always glad to see the hounds about, knowing the immense benefit we farmers all de- rive from an establishment of fox hounds iathe country. You may rely upon it the Swedes and turnips are the only crops the tread of horses do damage to through the winter. I cannot help congratulating myself on having my Swedes all stacked, and my land turned up to take the benefit of this fine and healthy weather. In the hope that this plan may be adopted more gene- rally, I am, Mr. Editor, yours obediently, A Lincolnshire Farmer; ON THE EARLY HORN CARROT. By Lord Ducie. My dear Pusey, — I send you, as you desired, an account of the early horn-carrots grown on my Hill farm, at Woodchester. The land on which they were grown is a stone brach, on the table- land at the top of Frocester Hill, and certainly not land apparently likely to grow carrots of any sort. I should first state, that the early horn-carrots are about five or six inches long, and as thick as a man's fist, and have been generally grown only as garden carrots. The field in which they were grown was a clean wheat-stubble, which was ploughed five inches deep (the full depth of the soil,) in December ; a Biddle's scarifier was put over the land twice previous to the seed being sown on the 22nd of March, without any manure. The seed was well mixed with two or three bushels of ashes, and sown with a Suffolk drill, with twelve inches between the rows. The quantity produced was 263 lbs. a perch ; or 18 tons, 15 cwt. per acre. The expense of cultiva- tion and harvesting amounted to about Gl. per acre. The land on which these carrots were grown will not, with the best cultivation, bear on an average so much as 14 tons of Swedes to the acre. Carrots are this year worth more than '61. a load in this neighbourhood : 21. is their general price. They are undoubtedly an excellent food for fatting sheep, particularly when used with bean-meal. I am therefore so satisfied with the early horn-carrots that I shall grow them more extensively next year- I should add, that a few drills of Altringhams were sown, which broke in the harvesting, and did not produce so much by 7 lbs. a perch.— Be- lieve me, yours trqly, Ducie. Ampne;/, Dec. 4. (Frcm the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.) SHEEP-FARMING UPONTHIRDSIN SOUTH AFRICA.— The following note is taken from a recent Cape paper. We have several times been asked if the practice existed there (as it does extensively in New South Wales) of being a sleeping partner in a wool- farm. This paragraph answers the question satis- factorily :— " One-third of the profits of a capital of l.OOOL laid out in furnishing 1,000 sheep, as a sleeping partner in a sheep-farm : — 1st year £5 5 0 2nd do 25 0 0 3rd do 105 0 0 4th do 140 0 0 5th do 310 0 0 6lh do 560 0 0 Total amountofinterestduring six years.£l,145 5 0 At the end of six years the original amount, viz., l.OOOL to be withdrawn from the flock ; and the re- mainder of the flock— consistins of 4,000 sheep— to be equally divided between the partners. This statement shows (as near as it can be brought) what will be the thirds of the profits during six years— supposing the in- dividual, who furnishes the 1,000/., has no trouble, and provides no land ; whilst the acting partner lives on the farm, purchases the land, and attends to the manage- ment of the flocks. The same sum, laid out in the 3J per cents., would give, at the end of six years, not more than 210/., or 35/. per annum, leaving a balance, in favour of shecp-farming, of 935i. 5s.; besides having a stock of nearly 2,000 sheep to commence farramg on one's own account, with the original capital, 1,000/. withdrawn."— Extract /ro7« Capt.Botfs Letter, o 2 184 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE CORN LAWS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE BRIGHTON GAZETTE AND LEWES OBSERVER. Sir, — Parliament being' about to meet for the dispatch of business, and Mr. Villiers standing' pledged at the commencement of the Session to bring' forward ag'aia the subject of the Corn Laws, I beg to send you the accompanying communication on that subject, louring the recess, tiie manutacturinfj and commercial interest have been incessantly occupied in endeavouring, by the means of itinerant orators hired for that purpose, to raise an outcry against the agriculturist ; first, by asserting that the landlords as legislators have placed heavy taxation on all classes of the community but themselves, who, these orators state, are but slightly affected by the burden ; secondly, these same orators, during their perambulation through tlie kingdom, have most perseveringly incul- cated the false doctrine, that none but the landowners will be prejudiced by the repeal of the Corn Laws. In answer to the first assertion, let us take the county of Sussex as the touchstone. This county, with the ex- ception of Brighton, Hastings, and Worthing, must be deemed entirely agricultural. It contains a population as expressed in Table 1 ; the superfices arc 625,000 acres of cultivated land, the uncultivated 311,300 ; total 936,320 statute acres, the rental of which, including the tithes, at 19s. 7d. per acre for the cultivated portion, gives £611,980 as the annual value. This same land is subject to the annual charge for land tax, £60,047 ; poor- rates, £179,200 ; highway, £25,053 ; county, £15,963 ; and church-rates, £9,329 ; total, £289,592. The charge for the Rural Police being not yet arrived at maturity is omitted ; it may, perhaps, be estimated after a time at about 25,000 per annum ; but leaving this out of the calculation, the landlord's rental is absorbed once in every three years and a few months. This is a rather awkward proof of partial taxation. With regard to the statement that none but the landlords will be prejudiced by a repeal of the Corn Laws, may I beg those who may be inclined to this opinion to peruse impartially the enumeration of the retail tradesmen of the county of Sussex ■? Much stress has been laid by these hired itinerant orators upon the immense capital employed by the cotton manufacturers. Assertions at all times are not facts. Perhaps the comparative statement of capital employed by the agriculturists of Sussex and the whole of the cotton manufacturers of Great Britain may create some surprise, but I believe it will bear a strict examination as to the truth. The 625,000 acres of cultivated land, upon an average, will require £8 per acre for the cultivation by the tenant ; this will give a total of £5,200,000 ; the rental of the freehold being £611,980, at 30 years' purchase, would require a capital from the purchasers of £18,359,400 ; total capital employed by the agriculturists of Sussex, £23,559,400. The cotton mills and factories in Great Britain in 1835 were 1304. Admitting each mill and factory to employ a capital of £18,000, the total of 1304 would, in that case, nearly approximate to the capital employed by the agricultural body in Sussex. To the advocates for free trade, I present the amount of manual labour lost to the country by the importation of agricultural produce in the last year only. If, Mr. Editor, your space will admit the insertion of this communi- cation, you will oblige your most obedient servant, JMichael Irish. London, lAth January, 184L Population of Sussex, 1831, Brijihton, Hastings, and Worthing excluded, — Males 20 years of age, — Male servants under 30 years of age, and female servants. Agricultural. Proprietors of land and tithes 3,180 Occupiers, employ- ing labourers .. 3,160 Ditto, not employ- ing labourers .. 1,330 Labourers 26,125 Totals 33,795 ManvfactMrcrs As masters or work- men 69 Wholesale mer- chants, bankers, &c., &c 1,779 Labourers, fisher- men, navigators, &c., &c 4,277 6,056 Retail tradesmen of every descrip- tion, and their workmen .... 1 1,244 11,244 Male servants, 20 years of age .... Ditto, under 20 years Female servants , 1,184 725 9,050 10,959 E numeration of the 11,244 RetailTradesmen and their Workmen. Traders in Articles lelwlly the Produce of Sussex. Traders in Articles jiartlu t/ir Produce of Sussex, and jjartlii of other counties and countries. Traders in Articles 1 the Produce of other ties and countries. 'holli/ comi- Basket maker. 52 Auctioneer or appraiser. 48 Blacksmith, 918 Total, 1st class 3,710 Brewer, 110 Block-maker, 1 Bookbinder, 19 " 2d class 5,395 Baker and pastry-cook. 313 Boot & shoe -maker. 1,556 Bookseller, 15 " 3d class 2,139 Brick-maker, 256 Bricklayer, 931 Brazier, 22 Broom-maker, 68 Broker, 16 Breeches-maker, 2 Total retail traders & ) jj 044 their workmen .... J '" Butcher, 455 Builder, 49 Caulker, 1 Chimney-sweep, 30 Cattle-dealer, 3 Carver & gilder, 8 Corn-dealer, 41 Carpenter, 1,518 Cheesemonger, 16 Fish-dealer, 49 Carrier, 327 Chemist & druggist, 42 Fellmonger, Flax-dresser, Flour-dealer, Farrier, 45 1 85 Coach proprietor or dri- ver. Cooper, Currier, 105 97 75 Clock & watchmaker silversmith &; jeweller Clothier or salesman, Coachniaker, 88 18 56 " Which of these tradesmen can say, if the landlord and farmer is injured, I shall go free from damage 1" Green-grocer & gardenei , 219 Earthenware & china Casement-maker, 61 Hoop-shaver, Lath-render, Maltster, Mealman, Milkman, Miller, 16 19 92 88 536 dealer, Fruiterer, Glover, Horsedealer& hackney- man. Huckster, 28 21 36 71 31 Copper-plate printer, Cork-cutter, Cutler, Dyer, Feather-dresser, Furrier, 2 12 11 " From what source does the tradesman get the moans to purchase the goods required from the manufacturers and commercial, — class 2 and 3 '.'" Mop-maker, 1 Hair-dresser, 81 Saddler, &:c.. 92 Poulterer, 18 Lime-burner, 60 Slater, 7 Publican & beer-seller. 654 Land-jobber, 4 Spirit-dealer & wine- Rake-makeu, 3 Mason, 134 merchant. 15 Straw-platter, 6 Millwright, 38 Stay-maker, 1 Scavenger, 8 Plasterer, 30 Tailor, 688 Tanner, 101 Patten-maker, 1 Tea-dealer, 46 Wharfinger, 9 Sawyer, 72 Tinman, 45 Whip-stick-dresser, 7 Shipwright, 62 Truss-maker, 2 ^^ool- ''omber 14 Tallow-chandler, 30 Wool-sorter, 1 Turner, 62 Total, Sd class.. 2139 Wool-dealer, 1 Timber-dealer, 2 Wheelwright, 457 Yeast-dealer, 0 Total, 2a class . . 5395 Total, 1st class. . 3710 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 The mercenary portion of the manufacturers and commercial men complain tlieir trade is sliackled, inasmuch that if tliey could exclianse tlie soods for corn, it would be the cause of a great increase of trade. This is contrary to the evi- dence of tlie late Mr. RotlischilJ, who stated in evidence before a committee of Parliament, tliat the only fjoods you could excliange for corn was gold. One would think the goods we take from foreigners, and wliieli could be raised in this countiy amount to a pretty considerable sum, as the following pai)ers will shew. Tliese are cn])ied from the Customs' return to Parliament. Whicli of the tradesmen above or their workmen but would have been benetitted, if £18,238,980 of agricultural produce liad been raised in the kingdom at a cliarge for manual labour of £8,.'J70,370 'J Taule 3. — Grain and other produce of tlie soil Imported and Entered for Home Consumption for tlio year 1839, ending for drain, the 5th October, for otlier Produce, the .5th .January. Ghaik. Wheat andflo\ir. Barley Oats 1 Kye Peas Beans Ueer bigs, &c... Imperial quarters imported Sc entered for home consump- tion. 2,583,198 823,243 671,33<3 5,452 172,934 182,589 12,925 Total 4,451,627 Seeds. Clover Lin. and flax seed Kaiie Total 23,970 399,777 89,244 535,982' Average price per quarter. £ s. d. 3 10 0 I 18 0 1 5 0 2 10 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 18 0 Total amount. Calcula- ted pro- duce per icre. £ 9,041,193 1,564,101 839,195 13,080 345,868 305,078 24,5. 12,193,732 14 0 0 3 0 0 1 10 0 335,580 799,554 133,860 1,269,000 3 qrs. Quantity of acres re quired for tiie pro duce. 861,006 182,942 134,26' l,8r 57,644 60,846 2,872 1,301,454 Quarters of seed, corn, &c., re- quired. .322,899 114,338 100,700 908 30,027 38,07 1,795 Quantity per acre sown. 614,7191 4 47,940 99,944 24,311 1,872 24,444 0,077 32,393 21 gals. 2 bush. Quantity of acres required for seed corn. 107,033 25,408 20,140 302 12,009 12,690 398 Total quarters. 2,906,097 937,501 772,036 6,360 208,961 220,611 14,720 5,066,346 Total quantity of acres. 968,699 208,350 154,407 2,119 69,653 73,536 3,270 3,744 0,111 1,519 11,374 25,842 424,221 95,321 545,384 1,480,034 51,084 106,055 25,830 Provisions. Butter Clieese Eggs Hams and pork . . . . Total 253,149cwt 115,121cwt 84,000,000 11,000 cwt. 7 14 cwt 2 13 cwt 20 for Is 2 10 cwt 1,437,098 305,070 210,000 30,800 1,982,968 157,419 cows) 2 acres eacli cow. 183,569 314,838 314,838 ]\f ISCELLAN EOUS . Tallow Hides , Skins Hemp ' Flax Timber ■ Bark Tobacco "Wool 1,166,177 cwt 2 12 0 4,462,682 st. 0 2 6 275,388 doz 1 0 0 81,237 ton 40 0 0 38,897 ton 30 0 0 881,155 Id. 5 0 0 1,728 Id. 7 0 0 23,356,2401bs 0 0 9 56,734,6251bs 0 1 4 3,032 557. 275, 3,249. 1,555, 4,405. 31 875, 4,255 18,238,980 (stone of 81b.) (per dozen.) J -J ton per acre (load 45 cwt.) J ton per acre. 14,183,656 sheep, average 41b. tn each sheep, and three sheep to an acre. 220,263 20,853 4,727,885 4,969,006 SUMMARY. Amount paid for Agricultural Produce imported and entered for Home Consumption for tlie vear 1839. £ Grain 12,193,7.32 Seeds 1,269,000 Provisions 1,982,968 Miscellaneous produce 18,238,980 Total amount 33,684,080 Estimated number of Acres required to raise the Produce imported and entered for Home Consumption for the year 1839. Grain of all species 1,480,034 Seeds 183,569 Provision carried out 314,858 Miscellaneous carried out 4,969,006 Provision&miscellaneous not carried out estimated at 70,000 Total acres 7,017,467 Table H. — Uncultivated Land in the Imperial Kingdom. England 9,133,600 acres Wales 1,318,174 Scotland 13,900,550 Ireland 5,796,135 Total 30,148,519 acres Table 3. — Estimated number of Agricultural Labourers that wouldbe required to cultivate 7,017,467 acres of land in tillage, with a calculation of the amount of wages for a year. Reaping — 968,699 acres, wheat, 12s. 70,174 parcels of land, con- taining 100 acres each parcel ; labourers, 1 head carter, at 12s. per week, 1 under carter at 9s. per week, and 1 odd man at 10s. per week, 1 boy at 3s. jier week, with one sliepherd at 15s. per week, for evei'y 500 acres, 1 dairy woman to every 8 cows, at 7s. per week. (h) Total persons.... 814,807 Wages as above for 1 year £7,124,938 SCMMART.— Weekly wages £7,124,923 | Reaping £718,792 | Thrashing £726,650 \ Total wages .... £8,570,370 ^08,350 154,407 2,119 69,653 73,530 3,270 barley, 5s. oats, 4s. rye, 10.';. peas, 6s. 8d. beans, 6s. 8d. beer or bigs, 5s. £ 586,219 52,087 30,881 1,0.59 23,21 24,512 81 Total £718,792 Tlirasliing— 2,906,097 qrs, 937,501 " " 772,036 " 6,300 " " 208,901 " " 2-J0,6U " " 14,720 " £ wheat, 3s. 4d. 484,349 Lirley, 2s. 6d. 117,195 oats, 'is, 6d. 57,903 rye, 3s. 954 peas, 3s. 31,344 beans, 3s. 33,091 beer or bigs, 3s. 1,815 Total £726,650 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE EPIDEMIC, AND THE IN- FLUENZA AMONGST SHEEP. SiiJ, — At the same period when the epidemic pervaded the cattle of this district, it gradually de- veloped itself amongst the flocks of sheep, to the serious cost and disappointment of the farmer. It was a singular circumstance, that at the time when it was raging as an epidemic down in Che- shire and up in Derbyshire, bordering on the nor- thern part of Staffordshire, we had not a solitary case in the neighbourhood, and had a sanitary cordon been di'awn around us, it would not have been more efifectually shutout ; nor was it till some of those inexplicable mysterious and inscrutable changes occurred in our atmosphere as autumn approached, (and which set at defiance all the re- sources of science for detection and a satisfactory explanation,) that the disease assumed its epidemic character. These atmospheric influences operate powerfully upon the animal economy, tending to change the healthy action of the system, and de- stroy its delicately and wonderfully balanced operations, and thus predispose the body to take on disease. The symptoms of the disease in sheep corres- pond exactly with those in the cow and pigs, but they suffered more severely in their feet than the pigs, and equally as much as the cattle, the hoofs coming off jnore extensively than in either of the other two. The disease pursued equally the same course as in cattle, commencing in their feet. In one large flock, the influenza broke out amongst them, accompanied with an afi"ection of the feet similar to what occurred in the epidemic, but they had none of the other characteristic symptoms of the latter disease ; we therefore considered it as arising out of having travelled 3 or 400 miles into this dis- trict, from its occurring in the feet immediately afterwards ; but the influenza did not occur amongst them till some weeks after their arrival. Whilst this flock of poor sheep were labouring under the influenza,another flock of fattened sheep, resident upon the same domain but kept quite distinct, commenced with all the characterized symptoms of the epidemic. The influenza evinced itself at first by a boose or cough, heaviness and running of the eyes and nose; as the disease advanced, they lost their appe- tite, retired apart from the flock, constantly lying down , the bowels became constipated, and the breathing quick, and if not timely relieved by proper remedial means they soon died. I have understood vast ravages were committed amongst the Lincolnshire flocks, accompanied with great fatality ; it must, I think, have been this disease, and which probably was treated upon the same principles as the epidemic of cattle ; if so, it would be sure to be attended with fatal consequences. On a post-mortem examination, you found genei-al inflammation throughout all the viscera of the chest and abdomen, but more particularly upon the lungs and air passages ; the heart and pericardium were in some cases much inflamed, accompanied with an eff"usion of bloody serum into the heart bag ; in others, effusion of water, or matter, occurred in the cavities of the chest ; in some there were extensive adhesions of the lungs to the pleura lining the ribs ; in other cases the disease terminated in a gangrenous state of the lungs, the liver being also much implicated in the general mass of dis- ease, and all the mucous membranes of the bowels were much inflamed. On taking the skin ofl' the animal, there were erysipelatous patches and lines of inflammation running up the limbs, along the sides and under the belly, accompanied with tcclema or swelling, presenting just the appearance of what we find in calves that are struck. The caul, in some, was like a mass, or layer of black coagulated blood, diffused over the surface of the intestines. In a few cases, the heart was much softened, and very flabby, readily accounting for the sudden manner in which some died. It was no unusual thing for the shepherd to leave his flock in the morning free, to appeaiancp. from any immediate danger, and to find, on his return in the afternoon two, or three dead ; or perhaps he might be standing amongst his flock when first turned out in the morning to range the pastures, and suddenly his attention would be arrested by one or two of the sheep reeling and staggering along a few paces, and dropping down dead, no doubt from an affection of the heart. Treatment. — At first they were treated upon the same principle as the cattle and pigs, but the salts ijroved very injurious, and too cold, occa- sioning in some instances a metastasis, or change of attack on the part of the disease to the heart, followed by immediate death; or else, if purging took place, they sunk away rapidly ; we were therefore compelled to modify the general treat- ment, which then answered very well, both as regards the epidemic as well as the influenza. Instead of purging salts, we administered to each sheep from half a drachm to a drachm of saltpetre, dissolved in a wine-glass of water, daily, to which was added a wine-glass of cold-drawn linseed oil ; the n^outh and feet were treated the same as in cattle. In cases of influenza, where there is quickness of breathing, half a pint of blood should be abstracted, and repeated the next day if neces- sary, either by bleeding at the nostrils, or under the eyes, or else at the jugular vein. Should the linseed oil not be adequate to remove the consti- pation of the bowels, ten grains of rhubarb might be added to the other medicine, and repeated every other day, or according to circumstances ; but purging must be avoided, as it either, when once set in, becomes uncontrollable, or else the animal rapidly sinks under the debilitating effects of it. The most simple way of regulating the doses of saltpetre is, by putting into a quart bottle of water one ounce of saltpetre for half-drachm doses, orelse two ounces of it for drachm doses, dividing the quart mixture into sixteen doses. The above treatment will be found safe and effectual in the epidemic, and as successful as any in influenza ; but the latter disease is of a more complicated and dangerous nature, and there will be cases which will baflle all treatment. Where, in influenza, there is a discbarge like glue sticking to the nostrils, and very fetid, twenty drops of sweet spirits of nitre should be added to the daily dose of the mixture; if diarrhoea occurs, it must be stopped by giving wheat-flour gruel, thickened with starch, to which may be added chalk and a little cinnamon. The sheep should be penned at night, or put under airy sheds, so as to be kept dry and comfortable, with plenty of fresh dry straw under them ; they should be foddered with good choice hay, and those that will not eat must be kept upon oatmeal gruel horned into them. When fine, they must be turned out, but not till the frost or dew is off the ground, and the sun well up, taking care to pen them up early in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 187 afternoon, as soon as the sun is sinking down in the west. I forgot to state in my paper on cattle, that they should be dieted with nice choice hay, or, accord- ing to the season of the year, grass or young clover, cut turnips, and bran mashes ; but when their mouths are so bad as to prevent their feed- ing, they must be nursed with oatmeal gruel and linseed tea, giving them oatmeal to drink in their water. In conclusion, allow me to return you thanks for your kind insertion of my papers in your valu- able journal. I trust they may be found of service to the parties they are intended for ; at any rate, I have had the pleasing task of attempting to do that duty which our profession owes to the agri- cultural community in their hour of need, and at a time when the interests of the agriculturist and the veterinary surgeon are annually becoming more blended. I remain, dear Sir, yours, most respectfully, Tnos. Mayer, Sen., V. S. Newcastle-under-1/yne, Jan. 28, 1841. P.S. I observe two errors committed by you in my last paper, viz., — my having professional en- gagements should read my heavy professional, &c., and instead of the living membranes of the mouth, &c., it should have been lining membranes, &c. VALUE OF CHEMISTRY TO AGRICULTURE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Fully concurring with you in the remarks contained in the leading article of your valuable journal of Dec. 14th, on the utility of the connexion of science with agriculture, I tnke the liberty of sending for the perusal of your readers an extract from a very inte- resting pamphlet, written by a Mr. Burden, on " the Necessity of the Study of Chemistry as a branch of General Education, and published by Baynes, 28, Paternoster-row, at the price of one shilling only. After a few observations on the necessity of the agri- culturist being acquainted with the principles of che- mistry, the author coes on to say — "To give an in- stance of the great utility of the application of chemis- try to agriculture, and consequently of its being made a branch of the education of those destined to agricul- tural pursuits, it may be mentioned, that it has been proved by well directed experiments, that the chemical constitution of wheat, for instance, is materially al- tered by the nature of the manure applied to the land in which it is sown ; in fact, most astonishin£;:ly so. Now the principal constituents of wheat-flour, are starch and gluten. The manufacturer of starch would prefer a sample of wheat containing the largest amount of starch; the manufacturer of verniecelli would prefer the sample containing the largest amouut of gluten. Now supposing a farmer to have two good customers for his wheat, the one a manu- facturer of sturch, the other cf vermeeelli, he would "f course be desirous of accommodating both. Supposing also, for the sake of illustration, he has but one kiad of seed to snw, and all his land is of the same quality, what would chemistry, in such an emergency, teach him to do ? To divide his land into two parts, sow the same seed in each, lout apply different manure to each division. Experiment has proved that one portion of the land shall produce wheat containing a larger proportion of starch than was contained in the seed sown, and consequently better fitted for the pur- pose of the starch-manufacturer : whilst the other portion of the laud shall produce wheat containing a larger amount of gluten than existed in the sample sown, and therefore better adapted for the use of the vermecelli-maker : and thus with the aid of chemistry, the farmer would be enabled to please both his custom- ers, though possessing even but one field, and one kind of wheat for seed, and though the wants of each cus- tomer were directly the opposite of the other." I would observe that the sample of wheat which contains the most gluten will produce the most nutri- tious bread, gluten being the nutritive principle of wheaten flour. Again — " Lavoisier, the French chemist, cultivated 240 acres of land in La Vendee on chemical principles, in order to set a good example to the farmers ; and his mode ef culture was attended with so much success that he obtained a third more of crop than was procured by the usual method, and in nine years his annual pro- duce was doubled. Agriculture is indeed even now in its infancy ; the general application of chemistry to agriculture would produce incalculable benefits, and would, no doubt, enable us from our own soil to pro- duce food enough for fifty millions, instead of being obliged to import from foreign countries to make up the quantity requisite for the supply of our present population of twenty- six millions." Jiecommending to yonr readers a speedy perusal of this little work, I am. Sir, yours sincerely, A Friend to the Improvement Bee. 1'^ih. OF Agriculture. VERYAN FARMERS' CLUB.— On the 1 1th Jan. the anniversary of this club was celebrated by a ploughing match, which was very numerously attended. In the afternoon, the members and their friends dined together ; and in the evening a lecture was dehvered by Mr. W. F. Karkeek, of Truro, on the horse, his origin, breed, education, and man's obligations toward? him. The lecturer, after a short introduction, entered into very interesting details connected with the earliest history of the horse, proving that it existed in this country with the elephant, rhinoceros, and also the megatherion mastador, and other extinct arumals. He next spoke of the influence of breeding in various ways, with the mischief arising from inattention to this par- ticular ; and then noticed feeding, the changes caused by heat, soil, and variableness of clime, adducing as a proof the difference of size, symmetry, and courage of the horse in various parts of the globe. After a great deal of other valuable matter, the lecturer gave his opinion on the best method of breeding either hacks, hunters, or working horses, throwing out many very useful and practical hints on the subject, and also on the time of taking in hand colts, the manner of treat- ment, and the food and work necessary for them during their tender years. Towards the close the lecturer showed the obligation of man to this noble but ill- treated animal, and pleaded his cause with great feeling. We regret that we are unable to do justice to this ad- mirable lecture, which reflected great credit on the head and heart of Mr. Karkeek, and was listened to with great attention. At the close a vote of thaidis was unanimously passed to the lecturer, which was conveyed to him in a most pleasing manner by John Gwatkin, Esq., who acted as chairman on the occasion. The meeting then separated, highly pleased with the rich treat. INDIGO ]\IADE FROM SAWDUST.-The In- dustriel Ahacien states that the attention of the manu- facturing community of Mulhausea has been lately occupied by the announcement of a discsvery, which, if it can be practically realised, promises to be of im- mense importance : it is nothing less than the manufac- ture ot indigo from oak sawdust, by means of certain chemical preparations. The experiments have been made in a village in the environs of Altkirch, and the first results are stated lo be very conclusive. It is affirmed that a piece oi this indigenous indigo, extracted from the sweepings of the timber-yard, has been ana- lysed, and that it presented all the coustituents of tiie real indigo. 188 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON DIFFERENT VARIETIES TURNIPS. OF Sir, — Having last year drawn up for jjrivate cir- culation, among the friends and customers of a firm dealing in agricultural seeds, with which I am connected, a descriptive catalogue of most of the varieties and sub-vaiietics of turnips cultivated in this country and in Scotland, I beg leave to offer the same for your accejitance, with the expectation tliat it may not be altogether uninteresting to vour readers, nor alien to the subject of the controversy at present so ably carried on in your columns. For some of the historical details and descriptions I am indebted to that excellent work " The Agri- culturist's Manual," by jMessrs. Peter Lawson and Son, seedsmen to the Highland Society of Scotland. In the cases of varieties of more recent introduction, I obtained, in the first instance, descri})tious from the original introducers, which I afterwards verified by trial, I have the honour to be, Sir, Your very obedient and humble servant, William Ellis, L.L.D. Caistor, Liiicalnshire, Jan. 30, 1841. SWEDISH TURNIPS. The Swedish turnip is hardier than any of the common sorts, and in addition to its being more esteemed as food for horses throughout the turnip season, is better adapted for spring feeding generallv. It however requires a somewhat deeper and superior class of soils, together with a greater allowance of manure. Swedish turnips are generally sown from about the middle to the end of May, and two to two- and-a-half pounds of seed per imperial acre are, tinder ordinary circumstances, considered sufficient. They possess an advantage over the others in beino- easily transplanted, so that the blanks in the rows, either of the Swedes, or other sorts (when they occur) are by that means easily filled up. Skirvinfj:'s New Improved Parple-Topped Swede. — Mr. William Skirving, of Walton nursery, near Liverpool, who has for many years directed his attention to the improvement of agricultural roots and plants, and for which he lias obtained the medals of the Highland Society of Scotland and of the Liverpool Agricultural Society, introduced lust season, for the first time, the above highly popular variety. From comparison with every known variety of turnips which JMr. Skirving has been at pains to collect from all quarters, botii in tliis country and the continent, it has shown itself to possess all the good qualities of a turnip in a greater degree than any other sort. It gives a greater weight per acre of sound nutritive bulb, and from having a finer root impoverishes the soil less : it is also hardier, and keeps longer than any other variety. The above is an abridgment of the description communicated to me by Mr. Skirving, accompanied with six very fine specimens, weighing from sixteen to eighteen pounds each. We met with a large demand for the seed, and in every instance that has come to our knowledge the produce gave the utmost satisfaction to the growers, and we are sorry that Mr. Skirving Las been able this year to place but a very limited quantity of seed at our disposal. The leaves of Mr. Skirving's Swede appear to me to partake consider- ably of the character of those of the common turnips, being less smooth and more serrated at the edges, and deficient in thatglaucous bloom which distinguishes the leaves of the genuine Swedish turnip, which leads me to suspect that he has at- tained the size by hybridizing with some of the larger varieties of yellow turnips. BnlLintiine's New hiiprored Purple-Topped Siuede. — This improved variety takes its name from its original introducer, Mr. Rullantyne', nursery and seedsman, Dalkeith. It is, for symmetry of shnpe, equality of size, and for the uniform deep purple colour of its top — unsurpassed by any other variety which has come under our notice. In point of size — although some single roots in our experimental ground attained a weight equal to the heaviest we raised from Mr. Skirving's seed, with precisely the same treatment — vre understand, from some of our customers whom we supplied with it last year, that in ordinary field culture it comes short of Mr. Skirving's in that particular. It was however highly approved by all who grew it. Scott's Piize Purple-Topped Swede. — The in- troducer of this approved variety, Mr. Scott, of Southend, near Tranent, in East Lothian, who, since the retirement of his late partner Mr. Cleghorn, carries on the business of the old established firm of Thomas Cleghorn and Co., nursery and seedsmen, of Edinburgh, is deservedly celebrated for his success as an improver and care as a grower of turnip seed. For this and other kinds of turnips he has obtained prizes from local agricultural societies, as well as from the Highland Society of Scotland, It is ox-heart shaped, purple above ground, and yellow fleshed, with a small top. Laing's New Purple-Topped Swede, is a decidedly distinct variety. It has a leaf something like that of a lettuce. The leaves are so inserted in the top of the turnip as to give it much the appearance of that of a pine apple. It grows to a good size, keeps well, and bears a very Jiigh character among the agriculturists of Berwickshire and Northumberland, where it is extensively cultivated. It has not been introduced into this neighbourhood. We grow a portion of it in our experimental ground, the seed of which was sent us last year by Messrs. Peter Lawson and Son, of Edinburgh. The crop had a most beautiful appearance, when in full leaf, and was a very good one. New Pink-Topped Swede, and new Earlu Pink- Topped Victoria Swede. — Messrs. Lawson sent us two parcels of seed named as above : the produce of both was good. The latter certainly grew faster than most of the other varieties of Swedes, and seems to merit its name of early. Green-Topped Yelloiv Swede. — This variety, is of longer standing than the Purple-Topped, since the introduction of which, less attention has been bestowed by cultivators in procuring improved stocks of the Green-Topped Swede, which has on that account fallen somewhat in the estimation of growers ; but, where the same care is taken in selecting the roots grown for seed, the green-topped may be considered as being equal in merit to the purple. Scott's Prize Green-Topped Yelloiu Swede is an improved variety of the above. The Purple- Topped Swedes are at present more popular, as we before mentioned ; but where, as is the case with Mr. Scott's, equal care has been bestowed on the selection of stocks, and in the subsequent manage- ment, the green is in no way inferior to the purple- topped variety. Hillyard's Thorpeland Swede. — This variety was introduced some years ago by Mr. Hillyard, with whose exertions in the cause of agricultural improve- ment every reader of your Journal is familiar, and has been cultivated by hira ever since. Mr. Hillyard THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 189 had the kindness to send me a portion of the seed last year, which we grew with a number of other varieties in our experimental ground. It has the appearance of a true Swedish turnip, and closely resembles some which I saw two or three years ago, the produce of seed procured from the Botanic Garden at Upsal. It is said to be more nutritive, bulk for bulk, tlian some of the larger varieties, which may or may r.ot be the case, lis dwariish size, and the impossibility of raising any great weight of food per acre from it, must, notwithstanding its other merits, be a great obstacle to its making its way among the larger sorts which now invite the at- tention of cultivators. Cox's New Imperial Swede. — This variety may be considered as intermediate in colour between the purple and green-topped sorts ; its roots often attain a large size, but are rather irregular, and of a some- what coarse-like qu;dit3\ White Swede. — The roots of this turnip are very irregularly shaped, witli numberless fangs. They are wiiite under the surface of the ground, and greenish above. W'e grew two varieties in our ex- perimental ground, one of which was strongly re- commended to us, and stated to be highly improved. Although it was sown rather late, very few of the plants bulbed at all, but ran to seed prematurely. 'I'he crop looked more like a bad crop of rape than of turnips. The produce of the other parcel of seed, procured from another quarter, although not so bad was still very inferior. It is impossible lo say what improvement may do for even this kind, but at present we are acquainted with no variety of white Swede worthy of cultivation. YELLOW AND WHITE TURNIPS. Common turnips are divided into two important classes, viz., the white and yellow-rooted ; the former comprehending those which ore most tender and arrive soonest at maturity, and which are best fitted for using during the earlier ]vart of the season ; and the latter, with trifling exceptions, such as from their hardiness and period of arriving at perfection, are intermediate between the white sorts and the Swedes, and, like the latter, require a somewhat superior soil and an additional allowance of manure. The period of sowing common turnips should be regulated according to the length of time that the vnriety to be grown requircjs to arrive at maturity ; for when allowed to remain in the ground in what may be termed growing weather, or before winter sots in, after they attain to a full size, they become soft, spongy, and of inferior quality. A general rule, however, is, to commence with the yellow sorts about a ibrtnight after the Swedes, or about the beginning of June, and to follow with the white sorts from the middle till towards the end of that month. YELLOW TUKNIPS. AUriiigham Yellow. — This turnip — although from its being rather below the medium size attained by yellow turnips in general, it is more particularly suited for garden culture — is also in good repute in some quarters as a field turnip. It is recommended for its fine globular shape, and the superior soliditv of its flesh. It has a light greenish top, very small neclv, and tap-root. Aberdeenshire Sugar Yellow. — This is a very hardy turnip ; it buries itself considerably in the ground ; it is highly nutritious, and is one of the most approved of the varieties lately introduced by us into this neighbourhood. Border Imperial Purple-Topped Yellow, — This variety was first introduced by Mr. R. Hogg, nursery and seedsman, of Dunse, in Berwickshire. The following particulars respecting it are given by ]Mr. Hogg : — " This turnip possesses all the qualities of tlie Swedish, witli the advantage of being a much freer grower. It succeeds well on every variety of turnip soil, produces a larger crop than the white globe, is a good feeder, and stands the winter better than any of the common yellows. It is in full per- fection for using in February, and continues for as long a period as the Swedes, and should tho latter fail, the Border Imperial being sown as late as the month of June, will yield a crop equal, if not superior, to what might have been expected from the Swedes, had thev succeeded." Green-Topped linllock-Yellow, — This turnip at- tains a medium size. Its shape is globular, or somewhat flattened, with a very small tap-root ; it is an old variety, and is held in deserved estimation. Purple-Topped Bullock- Yellow. — ^ Tliis variety differs from the former, chiefly in the colour of the top ; the size, shape, and quality of the roots being pretty nearly the same. This variety is also highly esteemed, and is considered by some to come nearest to the Swedes in hardiness and solidity of texture. Skir ring's Improved Purple-Topped Bullock- Yellow. — This improved variety of the above obtained for its introducer — Mr. William Skirving, of Liverpool — the medal of the Highland Society of Scotland. It has been generally grown for a number of years by the first agriculturists in Lancashire and the north-western counties. Green and Purple-Topped Yellow Scotch — differ but little in any of their essential ])roperties from green and jiurple-topped bullock-yellow. The roots are flatter and grow more in the ground. Ox-Heart Yellow — is an excellent turnip ; although it comes early to maturity, and attains a considerable size, it is by no means deficient in hardiness. Yellow Globe. — This is a superior turnip, both for field and garden culture. Its roots are of medium size, globular, and always nearly under the surface of the ground, top greenish, leaves rather small and spre-ading, Yellow Sone. — This'variety differs from the last in growing more out of the ground, and having- a greener top ; in other respects it is pretty similar. Brown-'Topped Tankard- Yellow. — Root bright yellow, with a purple or brownish top, of a some- what irreguliir long or tankard shape. This variety is in great repute in Aberdeenshire, and is one of the most approved of those which we have lately in- troduced into this neighbourhood. A sub-variety, of not so very long a shape, is preferred by some growers. They are both excellent turnips. Green-Topped Tankard-Yellow — differs from the above chiefly in the colour of the top. Of this, there is also a sub-variety of a flatter shape. I^arge Laurencekirk Yellow- Tankard, — introduced by Mr. Robert Scott, of Laurencekirk. — It resembles Dale's Hybrid in many particulars, like which it grows a good deal out of the ground, but is dis- tinguished by its more oblong and more uniformly shaped roots. Like Dale's Hybrid it arrives early at maturity, but is generally considered as rather less hardy and, like it, also yields a bulky crop. Dale's Hybrid. — This highly esteemed variety, which is a cross between the green-topped Swede and white globe, ])rocured by repeated impregnations, was first raised and brouglit into notice by Mr. Robert Dale, an intelligent farmer, at Liberton Mains, near Edinburgh. Mr. Dale obtained a few ounces of the seed of a new hybridal variety from Berwick- shire, but which is supposed to have found its way 190 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thitber from Aberdeenshire, from the stock of that indefatigable veteran improver of turnips, Mr. Gordon, of Orrok. Its most distinguishing charac- teristics are as follow : — foliage strong and luxuriant, roots of a large size, oblong shape, and of a lightish yellow colour, with light gretn top, having also a smalt neck and tap-root. The shape of the root however, although generally oblong, is rather apt to vary, beiug sometimes almost globular, butits more material characteristics, of large sizeand luxuriance of growth, are always the same. Com- pared with any other of the yellow field sorts, it is found to arrive sooner at maturity, and consequently may be sown at a later jieriod of the season, while at the same time it is equally hardy, or at least has been found sufficiently so, to witi)stand the severest winters, which have occurred since its introduction. Gin-don's Yellow. — This very superior variety derives its name from Mr. Gordon, of Orrok, the father of turnip husbiUidry in Aberdeensliire. It.is of a rather oblong shape, deep green colour on the top, which is generallv verv slightly tinged with red. Ir is very nearly allied to Dale's hybrid, being a cross between the Aberdeenshire bullock-yellow and the Swede. Sir F. A. Mackenzie, Bart., upon whose extreme accuracy as an experimentalist the utmost reliance may be placed, grew last season a con- siderable number of the most approved kinds of turnips, on his farm at Conan Mains, near Dingwall, in Ross-shire, with the view of selecting such as might be found most worthy of being kept in cul- tivation, as best suited to the soil and climate of Ross-shire. Sir Francis had the kindness to com- municate the result of his experiments to me, which was, that of Swedes, Skirving's is decidedly the best, Gordon's yellow the best of the yellow- fleshed, and Scott's purple-topped hybrid and the old white globe, of the white fleshed kinds, which coincided very nearly with the result of our own experiments, with a considerably larger number of kinds, we having found none superior, and but few equal, to them in their respective classes. Hood's tieiu hirge Yellow — is a very icuperior, large, globularly shaped, hardy turnip, remarkably perfect in symmetry, and has rather a lightish green top. It was introduced by Charles flood, Esq., an eminent farmer at Inverbrora, Sutherlandshire, a gentleman who has devoted much attention to the cultivation and improvement of field turnips gene- rally. Jones' Yellow. — 'I'his variety originated in the neighbourhood of Stirling, where it is still culti- vated to some extent. Polleijen Yellow. — This turnip derives its name from its introducer, Thomas Poilexfen, J'^sq., of Cair- ston, collector of Her Majesty's Customs, Orkney ; a gentleman in high repute as an agriculturist. From his peculiar method of selecting and transplanting the bulbs, as well as of stacking and preserving the seed, the turnip seed of Mr. Pollexfen's growth has long- been held in deserved estimation in Scotland, and has'commanded the highest prices. The insular situation of Orkney, although in latitude 59° north, renders its climate less e.^posed to the extremes of heat and cold than in more continental situations farther south, the winters being mild and the frost so gentle, that the ice is seldom sufliciently strong to sustain the weight of a man. Its climate is on that account peculiarly favourable to the growth of tur- nips, and turnip seed grown in Orkney is accor- dingly highly prized by the Scotch farmers. The Poilexfen yellow is a green-topped turnip of a large size, rather flattish in shape, skin very smooth and thin ; the flesh is firm and nutritious, being slightly impregnated with the green-topped Swedish. It is adapted for winter aud spring feeding, and is not liable to injury from frost. This turnip obtained the prize at the meeting of the Highland and Agri- cultural Society of Scotland held at Inverness the year before last, in the report of which it is highly commended. WHITE TURNIPS. White Globe. — Roots globular ; skin smooth and perfectly white, neck and tap-root small. Although the above description embraces the principal charac- teristics of the white globe turnip, yet there is a considerable variety in those to which the name is applied, arising from the degree of care and attention bestowed by growers in selecting their seed-roots ; and the shape is often not a little affected by the kind and state of the soil in which they are grown. Thus globes of any kind, and particularly the variety here mentioned, when gropvn on a very superior rich soil, may be said to he forced beyond their natu- ral size, and thereby acquire somewhat of a monstrous or overgrown appearance, losing in a great measure their natural symmetry of shape. Pomeranian Globe. — This variety was introduced some 3'ears since from Pomerania, and may be con- sidered the most perfect globe turnip in shape, as well as the most regular or uniform grower. Its skin is of a smooth white, and somewhat shining or transparent-like in appearance ; leaves smoothish, of a dark green colour with whitish nerves. Green Globe. — Roots of a fine globular shape, with a small neck and tap root ; very white under, and green above the surface of the ground, of me- dium size, hardy and firm of texture, but scarcely so much so as the green round, than which it arrives at maturity rather earlier. Stone Globe. — This is consideredjtobe the hardiest of all the entire white globe turnips. It grows natu- rally deeper in the soil than the others, and has stronger and darker green foliage. Bed Globe. — Roots medium sized, globularly shaped and firm in texture. This is an old and in some districts a pretty extensively cultivated variety. It is medium early, and generally allowed to be par- ticularly well suited for light soils and exposed ele- vated situations. White Round. — is known in this'neighbourhood by the name of Spring White. It is the largest of the round turnips, and at the same tim» the softest and most irregular in shape. It is generally hollowed towards the neck, and being so, is apt to be injured by retaining moisture which renders ii unfit for using, except in the beginning of the winter season. Green Round. — The round turnips are all of a pe- culiar flattish shape, rather hollowed towards their neck as also on their under side, and when grown to a large size, they become more or less of an irregular round or somewhat cornered shape. The green- topped variety possesses these characters in a less degree than the former, and is generallv of a pretty regular round shape, flattened, but not much hol- lowed on the upper and under surface, the former of which is of a green colour and the latter white. It is also the hardiest of the round turnips. Red Round. — This sort is inferior in size to the two former, but rather firmer in texture and more regular in shape. It should also be used in the early part of the season. White Tankard. — The tankards, like the three pre- ceding kinds, are unsuitable for winter feeding ; not so much on account of their softness, as from their standing mostly above ground and being thereby much exposed to frost. They are generally earlier in arriving at maturity than the others. Tiie white THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 191 taakard has its roots more than half out of the ground, oblong or tankard shape, but often bent or crooked. It is the largest of the tankards, but is also softer in texture than eitlier red or green ; its leaves are large and luxuriant : it is the earliest in maturing of any, but will not stand the frost. Green Tankard. — Its roots are also more than half above ground ; of a greenish colour, except on the under surface, which is white. Bed Tankard. — In size, shape, and texture, this variety may be considered as occupying aa interme- diate place between tbe white and green tankard. It is of a bright red clover on the upper surface, and white on the untler. Lawstmon Hiibrid. — This variety, which was raised by James Wright, Esq., of Lawstown, near Perth, may be considered as bearing the same relation to the Swede as Dale's liybrid. Its leaves are darkish green, rather small and snaoothish, roots roundish or somewhat heart-shaped, being often tapered on the under side ; white below and green above the surface of tlie ground. They are possessed of more solidity and lirmness of texture than most of the white sorts. Scott's Improved Purple-T,ipped Hybrid. — This variety, which obtained the prize of the Highland Society of Scotland at the meeting at Glasgow, in 1839, owes its origin to the exertions of Mr. Scott, of Southend, near Tranent. For a white-fleshed tur- nip it is remarkably solid, and attains a great size. This turnip was decidedly the best in point of size, symmetry of shape, uniformity of growth, and quality of flesh, of all tbe wbite-fleshed varieties grown by us last season in our experimental ground. It occu- pied the same pre-eminent place among those made trial of by Sir F. A. Mackenzie, Bart., whose care in experimenting and perspicuity in describing the re- sults of his experiments, have been of great service to the cause of agriculture, and entitle him to a dis- tinguished place among the most eminent promoters of agricultural improvements of the present time. Lewiahani Green-Topped Ox-heart. — This is an excellent variety, grown in some of the southern districts of England and in Scotland. It acquired this name fromhaving been first introduced by Messrs. Willmctt and Co. of Levrishain. In colour and shape, it very much resembles tbe Lawtowa hybrid, but is somewhat softer in texture and has larger and lighter green coloured leaves. Autumii, Stubble, or Six Weeks.- — T^oots much above ground, rather large, of an irregular globular shape, or in form between the white globe and white round, and rather soft. This sort arrives sooner atma- turity than any of the others, tlie tankard turnips per- haps excepted ; and from its natural softness of tex- ture, should always be sown late, and used before the severe frosts set in. As descriptive of its earli- ness, it has received the abovenaoies, it being suited for sowing in early situations in autumn after the corn crop has been removed, and it is also valuable for making up blanks in turnip fields, where tlie first sowiiig may have partially failed. NEW PATENT.— William Palmer, of Fdtwell, Koilolk, blacksmith, for certain improvements in ploughs,— lloUs' Chapel Office, January 8, ia41.— These improvements in ploughs are desig'ned to reduce the friciion of draught ; to enable the plough to accom- modate itself to any required depth of cutting- ; and to aflord a more certain and accurate means of direciinsj its course. These objects are effected by dispensing with the sole or slade, and cauvins" the hinder part of the plousrij to be supported by and run upon a wheel behind the breast, which wheel is mounted in adjustable bearings, so that by its position the share may be made to cut into the earth to a greater or lesser depth, as cir- cumstances or the nature of the ground may require, Tlie draught of the ploug-his also capable of resiulalion by the adjustment of the drag-ciiain attached to a pecu- liar construction of '' hake" at the head of the beam, and the coulter so connected to the beam that it may be readily set to any depth or anfrle, according to the required work and direction. The general construction of this plough does not difiTer materially from those already in use — that is to say, it consists of a beam, bracings, and frame ; a breast attached to the frame with a share affixed thereto ; handles for guiding, a coulter for directing, and a hake for attaching the drag- chain. The peculiar feature of novelty consists in a running wheel, about eighteen inches in diameter, being altacheil by a pin or axle to a saddle iron ; from the upper part of which saddle iron a perpendicular rod extends, havin;4' a worm or screw cut upon it. A bridge afrixed to the beam and to the handles iias an aperture tlirough which the pin passes, and the pin with tlie sad- dle iron and wheel, is hyld up by a screw nut on the top. The bracing is a plate of iron, about half an inch thick, having three arms, the upper two of which are securely fixe I to the beam and to the handles by bolts, and the lower arm has a long slot in it, throuch which the axle of the wheel passes. The situation of the breast or mould board ol the plough is immediately before the wheel, and the frame behind it, and the wheel by mov- ing in the furrow keeps the under part of the breast and of the frame from coming in contact with the ground, and therefore a sole or slade, as in other ploughs, is un- necessary. According to the depth to which the share is wished to cut into the ground, the running wheel is raised or lowered by turning the screw nut on the top of the pin. The hake at the end of the beam is formed by a frame which carries two perpendicular pins, the one being plain, the other having a screw cut upon it. A socket piece has an eye to which the draught chain is attached ; through this socket piece both the pins pass, and it slides freely on the foremost plain pin, while the screwed pin holds it at any required point. In order, therefore, to raise or depress the drag-chain, the screw pin must be turned round, which regulates the position of the draught. 'l"he coulter has a wedge-shaped cut- ting blade at the lower part, but is cyhndrical above, passing through a cylindrical socket on the side of the beam. This socket forms the end of a bolt passed through the beam and through two disc plates, with a mit and screw at its reverse end, which being turned draws the coulter and the discs tight against the beam. This mode of fixing the coulter allows it to be placed at any desired depth ; the inner disc plate is loose upon the pin, and can be turned round ; it is made thicker on one side than on the other, that is, its sides are not par- rallel but of a wedge forwi. Hence, by turning the inner disc plate round, the direction of the cutting part of the coulter may be varied so as to suit the angle of direction required, HOW TO DESTROY RATS AND MICE IN CORN STACKS,— The following sure method was adopted by the late J\Ir. John Gibson, ofMillbeck Hall, Keswick, and is still continued by his son Mr. Joseph Gibson, of the same place, with never-failin,? success. It is accomplished by simply driving in a few hedge- stakes, at about four feet distance, round tlie stack in- tended to be housed, and having a woollen or linen web, of about six 4ths or seven 4ths wide, upon the stakes, so as to be perfectly close at the bottom, of which particular care must be taken, in order that none of the vermin may creep under the folds. It is certain that none will attempt to climb over the top, and it matters not whe- ther there are fifty or five hundred within the enclosed area. They will all be quite fafe. An active lad and a dog may easily destroy any ordinary number, and he must be a clumsy fellow if he lose one out of a hundred. A few neighbours, by subscribing about 2s. 6d. each, might get an article at lOd. a yard that would serve them all for twenty years. If the above simple method were generally adopted for a short time, those destruc- tive enemies to the stack-yard would soon be considera- bly reduced. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON TRAIN OIL AS MANURE. Sir, — Little did I think, when speaking at the market-table of the great advantage in using oil for the growth of turnips, my name would have ap- peared in your valuable paper. As it is so, I will give you mv experiment with oil. I'he soil is a poor gravel,— the fsirm in the parish of Edwinsiow, and. inclosed oft' the old Forest, near to Thorseby Park, the seat of Earl Man vers, who, [ am happy to say, I farm under. My attention was drawn to the use of oil, in con- sequence of the serious expence (from 31. to 4/. per acre) I was obliged to go to in bones and rape dust, for I never use yard manure for turnips, as the soil is so poor. I cannot get wheat without manure ; 1 therefore save it all for wheat. Mv lirst trial was in l8.'59, on 2 acres, in a 9-acre field, and nearly iu the middle of it. I give you the cost of 1 acre — 5 strike of half-inch hones, the dust in, (2s. Tgd. per strike,) per acre 0 13 3 gallons of train-oil, at 2s. 6d. per gallon 0 7 10 strike of coal ashes 0 0 0 1 0 7J Remainder of the field as below. 16 strike of bones, as above, at 2s. 7^d. per strike 2 2 0 5 hundred of rape-dust, at 6s. 9d. per hundred 1 13 9 3 1.=) 9 WithOi! 1 0 7> Balance in favour of oil 2 15 IJ- The oil turnips were as good as the remainder of the field ; and all as good as 1 could wish, for the land. The barley as good — and the clover is now as good. I beg to refer any of your readers to W. Simpson, Esq., 29, Saville Row, London, late agent to Earl Manvers, who saw the crop in all its stages. My ne."ct trial in 1840, on 9 acres — 11 strike of half-inch bones, dust in, at 2s. 6d. per strike, per acre 1 7 6 3 gallons of train-oil, at 2s. 6d. per gallon 0 7 6 1 15 0 11 acres, dressed as below, is a trial against oil. 16 strike of bones, at 2s. 6d. per sti-ike, ]ier acre 1 17 6 5 hundred of rape-dust, at 6s, 9d. per hundred 1 13 9 16 strike of pigeon manure, at Is. 6d. per strike 1 4 0 4 15 3 With oil 1 15 0 Balance in favour of oil 3 0 3 1 think the 9 acres with oil rather the best field, and they are decidedly the best turnips ; for this experiment I beg to refer you to W. Glutton, I'lsq., Edwinstow, Ollerton, Notts, agent to Earl Manvers, who has seen the crop in all its stages, and to Mr. J. Hole, of Caunton, Newark. The rape-dust 1 sow broadcast, on the surface ; it is then drawn in its pro- per place by ridging ; I then drill my bones on the ridges 22 inches apart — the turnips were white tops. I do not like the ashes mixed with tlie oil ; it makes it dirty and bad to drill ; the 11 strike of bones carefully mixed will absorb the oil, so as to drill excellent. I let them lay about two days after mixing. I know your readers will say, how is bar- ley grown after so light a dressing? I answer — with my feeding sheep I use oilcake, and with my store sheep malt coombs, and the straw in the yard is all consumed — with oilcake I take my seeds up for wheat. I beg to apologize for the length of this letter. — I am, Sir, your obedient servant, W. Sharp. Scarthing Moor, Feb. 3rd, 1841. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I shall feel obliged if in your next you will correct a statement of mine, relative to a bet madeby Mr. Esam, of Sutton-on-Kent. The tops ivere to be weif^hed, and the bottoms vi-ere to be cut off. A very able and temperate rebuke — for such I con- sider it, and such I hope some of your correspondents will consider it — was in your last, administered by Mr. Jemmett to those who are in the habit of placing the theorv and practice of farming in a position of regular antagonism ; but who shall undertake to arbi- trate, when practice is actually opposed to practicel I know of no better course to recommend than this — that each practitioner shall give an exact and faithful exposition of his plans in your paper, with a minute and impartial statement of the results, and then a valuable and important end will be arrived at; sooner or later the truth will appear if men will see it. I have been led to make these remarks, in conse- quence of reading tlie letter of Mr. John Wreford. 1 had thought that the question on which he remarks had been jiretty generally settled in favour of the opposite plan to that which he recommends. With- out going particularly into my reasons at this time — for the post is just leaving, and I must therefore be brief — 1 have no hesitation in saying that I am whollv in favour of taking drains down a declivity, but nevertheless I am very thankful that your corres- pondent has given, with so much propriety, his views and practice ; as I was particularly anxious to hear what is the practice on the strong land in the county of Kent ; I hope that other gentlemen in that county will follow the example of Mr. Wreford, and it is impossible that good should not arise out of it. Before concluding, 1 would just remark, that I do not quite understand the principle which Mr. Wre- ford appears to have laid down for himself; his draining is not deep draining, nor can it possibly be called shallow draining. Without further informa- tion, I should be compelled to conclude, that he has been at a great expence, and has thrown away the advantages of both. It would serve to render his practice clearer, if he would be good enough to state the exact quality of his soil and subsoil, and the rea- son why he dug his drains so deep, and yet filled them so very near the tot) as eight inches. With drains so deep as his, I should have recommended, if it be of the right liind, that the subsoil should have been stirred to the depth of at least eight inches be- low the working soil. In great haste, I am, yours truly, Collivgham, Jan. 20. J.^West. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 ON A PRINCIPLE OF FENCING, FORMED ACCORDING TO THE LAWS OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Al a recent meeting' of tlie Botanical Society of Lon- don, thn foliovvinu account was griven by Mr. Daniel Cooper, tiie curator, of a mode of forming' a fence- work to plantations, &c., of ii very economical and rustic kind, and which may be termed with all pro- priety a " Natural living Fence." We are induced to prive a full abstract of the communication, (from the first part of tlie Society's Proceedings), as we think tiie sugg'estion mi<^ht offer some points of interest to our country reader*. Tlie natural living fence consists simply of planting' lor the i)urpose trees or shoots of the same species, or species of tlie same genus, or genera of the same natural family, and causing them to unite by means of the i)ro- cess of " grafting by apprflnch or inarching," a process well understood by gardeners and horticulturists. 'I'he fact liaving been briefly stated, it is necessary, in the next place, to enter more fully into an explanation of tlie plan to be adopted. In the first instance it is re- quisite to cultivate a portion of land, for the purpose of rearing the shoots intended for forming the fence. Those which I had the opportunity of observing (on the estate of Sir Thomas Neaves, Dagram Park, Essex, constructed by his gardener and planter Mr. Breese), were formed of ash, but of course any other tree v;ould similarly unite and answer the end required. 'J'he faster the tree grows, and produces new wood, the stronger and better the fence necessarily becomes. The shoots orsmall trees are run up (as termed by gardeners), and kept trimmed so as to produce stems as straight as pos- sible. Tiiese are trained to the heights required, de- pending upon the intended height of the fence. As soon as they have acquired sufficient age they are carefully transplanted, a trench of two feet in width being pre- viously made in the line of the intended fence, it being found necessary to surround the roots, with earth of a I'lcher nature than that usually met with, where fences are to be placed, such as the outskirts of woods, plan- tations, parks, &c. The trench having been made and prepared, the stems are then carefully removed; one sot being planted at the required distance, a foot for instance from each other, tho:«e we may suppo«.e to slope to the north ; the other set, for example, are planted sloping towards the south, at the same distance from each other, so that when the shoots proceed from the ground, they are in contact by their internal part. The several stems having been thus arranged, the next and most important step is that of causing them to unite ; this of course is requisite in order to produce strength, and is accomplished by the process oi grafting by approach, or, what is the same thing, that of inarch- ing. For this purpose it is necessary to remove a small plate of bark at the proper season, on each stem where their inner portions are in contact; this having been carefully performed, approximate the two stem-:, so tiiat the denuded portions of each shall exactly meet ; tie the stems together at these places, and keep them for a short time from the action of the atmosphere by means of a piece of clay. In the course of a few weeks, if these precautions have been attended to, adhesion takes place, and the result is, that a natural living fence has been formed, having openings of a diamond shape, which may be made of course of any size that may be required; it being only requisite to place the stems in the earth at a greater or less distance from each other. The adhesion takes place in the following manner ac- cording to the laws of vegetable physiology. The plates of bark being removed on each stem, and the stems approximated to each other at that part, it follows that as the fluids rise in the stems of exogenous (out- growing) trees, within the woody portion of the trunk and descend within the bark^ — that the stems being closely tied to each other, and kept at their point of union from the action of the air, the cambium (proper or ela- borate juice) exudes, forms new wood, and the stems unite by the natural process. The advantages which Mr. Cooper considers this kind of fencing to po,*sess over that in ordinary use, arc the following : — 1st. That it is rustic, and has not the hard and stiff appearance of the fencing made by carpenters. 2d. That so long as the trees of which it is formed are alive, it never requires to be in any way repaired, as living wood resists the action of the weather. 'The young shoots, should any spring fortli, are to be removed by the pruning knife. 3d. That it may be carried to any heiglit without ad- dition'.\l expense, by training or running up the stcuis to the required height. 4th. That it acquires strength and thickness by the deposition of new wood aniuially ; so, that in the course of years, when the steins have acquired the greatest degree of thickness, and have obliterated the openings, in the first instance made, a complete solid living wall will be result. 5th. That owing to the well-known durability and power of resisting the action of the weather of the bark, and external portions of living trees, a fence made on this plan does not require to be covered with tar, or any other preparations, requiring much time, labour, ex- pense, and annoyance in tlie operation. 6th. That the first expense is the last, and is much cheaper also, in the first instance, to the ordinary kind of fencing employed, not requiring an annual expendi- ture to keep it in order ; living wood, as before ob- served, withstanding the effects of the weather to a much greaterextent than dead wood. 7lh. That a fence to orchards may be formed of fruit trees of the same genus, or in the same natural family ; the lower portions or stems of which form the fence, (and may be carried, as before observed, to the requisite height), whilst the upper part may be allowed to send forth its shoots and bear fruit. 8th. That owing to the open nature of this kind of fence (which openings may be formed of any size), shrubs and other plants usually planted close up to fencework, for the purpose ot concealing it, will receive a larger proportion of air and light, so necessary to the growth of vegetables, which cannot be the case with the ordinary method of enclosing parks, &c., with palings. 9th. That should one of the bars by any cause become dead or destroyed, th« circulation is carried on by the continuous bar or stem ; so that if a bar dies it still remains in its situation, although it does not increase in thickness as takes place in those around it ; this dead bar may then be compared as to durability, to the fencing until the present time formed of dead wood. From the well-known nature and structure of wood, I consider the application of the process of grafting by approach, or inarching, in the construction of fences of nil descriptions, to be one of the leading improvements of rate years made in the science of gardening ; and as such shoulil strongly recommend its adoption to those individuals possessing landed property, and also to the directors of railroads and other undertakings, where both man and cattle are intended to be kept off, and which might more effectually be accomplished by the judicious selection of stems armed with prickles, &c. PHOSPHORESCENT PLANTS.-In looking over an old newspaper the other day, I met with the following curious account of luminous plants: — The most remarkable cases of phosphorescence among veg- etables are to be found in those curious plants called rhizomorphas — plants which botanists seem pretty well agreed upon referring to fungi. They are found most commonly hanging down from the fizzures in vaults and cellars, where they have a sub-cylindrical form, and when their luminous qualities are very feeble. But it is in the furthest recesses of coal'mines, at many hun- dred feet distance from the action of light or atmosphe- ric air, and in places were humidity is almost unknown, 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that their sin2;ular qualities are most remarkable. In .such places they divide into multitudes of branches of the texture of f^-o'ssamer, and of the most dazzling' white- ness. With these th^y form a sort of natural drapery to the coal-mines ; and by the intertexture of their amor- phous branches create forms of the most grotesque ap- ])earance, which almost give truth to the wildest pictures of eastern fable, and -which are all lighted up by their own internal fires. These statements referred, I believe, to the coal-mines of Germany. Can any of your corespondents point out similar instances in this covintiy 1— CorresponJent of the Gardener's Chronicle. DESTRUCTION OF SPARROWS. Wc hear much of the necessity which more than ever exists for destroying sparrows ; and have lately read, in several periodicals, lamenta- tions over the devastation they cause to the crops of the farmer; and appeals to parish officers, be- seeching them to grant their aid to effect an ex- termination of the marauders, by inciting the youths of their districts to catch them and bring their offending heads, to be paid for at so much per dozen. We used to deem with Pope, that " whatever is, is right," and firmly believed that he who made the wheat and the sparrows, knew best how to portion production to consumption; and, vice versa, the consumers to the produce. We were accustomed to consider it just, that, out of the fulness of the farmers' barns, the birds which at one season devoured the grubs and caterpillars that would have destroyed his crops, merited their daily rations of grain from their garnered stores which they had assisted to save. We loved to reflect that all living— aye, even ungrateful men — were created to be happy, and liked to watch the wanton freal1 X M X i«1 1 1 ■ • ■ • I 1 1 1 1 . . 1 : : : : : • . , ^ • • • en v- •-« >«J XI •< p< M >< >i i«) I I I I I I I . •^ 00 00 CO 00 00 00 . t "J "« ►< -t 1 1 lO»*.tOC0^J60^tOtOH-i— trtOO^tOGO^JOJ— K-o i(^f-'COIsl*>--IC0001l>9CCO>b3lOOO^OCntai'iO Oit^«;ibOt3lOOOOCnOOOfOtOOO^IOo2 l-I- lOIOtOhSWM&JCiiCOWWbOtOtObSt-'i-'H'bOtOtS I— »-Ii— ifiOOOlMOi*»i-'CnOlWtOi-'C7>^OOOiOlW 2. ^ ^ ^ h3 w 0 ..^ a«?^ ^I 00 to o> O) w £* g:^p •O- ^I w i;' 01 bS i_ t-< U' >(- (O to 00 Mi S"^ *- bO If' 0 r*" r--.!? K^ 1.^ ,_< ,^ t^ 00 en ^J i-rf 1-* S k^H tOH I3IH "<^^'^ s «^ >m30 " •1 £2,^ In examining the above account, it will be seen that the average per cent, of loose fat to the dead weight in the Durham and Hereford oxen is lljlb.; Sussex, I7i; in the Durham and Hereford heifers, 15 ; aud in the Sussex cows, 18. The Sussex oxen of Mr. Selmes' breed, and fattened by him, were all seen in yoke in September, 1839 Cthe period at which that gentleman shewed 100 beasts against 100 of Earl Spencer-'s_), and continued to work up to November, 1839. That of Mr. Hammond's worked up to .January, 1840. The Sussex cows of Mr. Thorpe reared a calf in 1840. For very many years the Sussex oxen have been deemed ineligible at ihe shows in London, in consequence of their age when fattened, or perhaps their unwor- tliiness ; but if their dead weight is nearly equal to the average of first-rate herds sliown there, and per centage of loose fat greater, surelv there can be no just reason why this distinction should any longer continue ; but, on the contrary, that they may be considered justly entitled to be placed in compe- tition with oxen of other counties at the next show, and that the circumstance of the Sussex beasts hav- ing worked up to seven years old, and still rptaining the property to fatti'ii, may henceforth be placed to the credit, and not to the debit, of the breed. I am, sir, your obedient servant, East Simex, Jan. 27. A Sussex Farmer. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — Whenever your correspondents deviate in their communications from the customary courtesy of gentlemen, they present a fatal ob- stacle to the dissemination of knowledge, and give a " heavy blow" to the public exchange of thought and opinion ; for educated and scientific men will shrink from the arena of controversy when their contributions are met by vulgar sarcasm, or by broad inferences of the writer being influenced by ignorance or prejudice. I am induced, as an old subscriber, to address you upon this subject, thinking that a recent letter in your September number, from Mr. Dandy Sharwood, in reply to Mr. Smart's essay on " the plough," is deficient in courtesy, as the following I trust will exemplify : — " Sir, — In your Journal of the 29th June, appears an essay on the power and construction of ploughs, by one William Smart, of Rainham, a farmer," &c., &c. I am not singular in disliking the general tone of the said letter ; but will illustrate my ideas of the above extract by supposing the following dia- logue to occur between two coal whippers, who meeting near Waterloo bridge, when preparation was making for that exhibition which ended so fatally, the one enquires — " Why, I say Bill, what's up to-day ?" and the rejoinder is given, " why, they say, Dick, that one Sara Scott, a diver," &c., &c. No exception can here be justly taken, because the scene of action, the persons engaged, and the language used in the description, are all in har- mony; but when a gentleman from Suff"olk is describing in the Farmer's Magazine a man of Kent, universally esteemed for his high character as a gentleman, then the use of the same language creates a discord, against the repetition of which I raise my feeble protest. I have not the honour of Mr. Smart's acquaint- ance, yet few in Kent are ignorant of his success- ful practice as a grazier, farmer, and horticul- turist, and of his readiness to extend to others that knowledge which has proved the basis of his own reputation ; and as he is fully able to cope with Mr. Sherwood in defence of his " A, B, C, D, theorem" (which is the usual method of explana- tion ), I shall not enter into the controversy, fearing to exemplify the maxim, " that fools rush ia where wise men fear to tread," — yet cannot 196 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. resist acknowledging the pleasure derived by read- ing in your last number the letter of " Cultor" on " ploughs and ploughing," who, possessing a thorough knowledge of his subject, has put " hors de combat" all the little host of utilitarians, who, because they possess an efficient instrument for tlieir own locality, rather dogmatically assume that, but for " prejudice," it might be univcrsall}' used. It has been wisely sung, that "a little knowledge is a dangerous thing," and the maxim is equally true when applied to agriculture. I am, Sir, your obedient seri^ant, IshofSheppy, Kknt, Junior. Jan. l&th, 184 i. HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB. THIRD ANNUAL REPORT, 1840. Whether much or little information be contained in the proceedings of a farmers' club, it is desirable annually to place that information, in a brief com- pass, in each member's hands, — not a mere register of the resolutions passed on each subject discussed, but containing also, as a guide to future improve- ment, some of the evidence and arguments by which those results were obtained. Such was the object of our first annual report, a precedent suc- cessfully followed by the numerous clubs since established, and such the motive, M'liich, at the close of our third year, induces your cemmittee to lay before you a digest of the minutes of each dis- cussion which has taken place during the past season. The first meeting, as usual, was occupied with the annual business of the club, viz. passin,'? the report of the pi evious year, and electing officers for the ensuing. At the second meeting, on the ^oth February, a series of questions on " cuttinc turnips for SHEEP," from Sir Charles Mentcath, of Closeburn Hall, in Scotland, forwarded to our club through Mr. J. A. Ransome, were taken into consider- ation. These questions had been received during the former year, and your committee regrets that other subjects, to which the club was previously engaged, prevented their being entertained at an earlier period ; when, as far as our experience on the sub- ject warranted, the information sought by Sir Charles might have been afforded Lim at the time he required it. That time having elapsed, it was yet thought unadvisable that so interesting a sub- ject should be erased from our notice book, par- ticularlj"- as, like Sir C. Menteath, we were requir- ing information on the matter, rather than in a con- dition to impart it. The fjtcesimis are as follow : — upon each of them a discussion arose and information was obtained from all those members present who had adopted the plan, — but, in estimating the value of that in- formation, it must be remembered, that this is more of a sheep breeding than sheep gi-azing dis- trict, and therefore, as before observed, we were on this subject rather learners than teachers. 1. What is the best turnip cutter for sheep ? The Banbury cutter. 2. At what season of the winter or spring, do they begin to cut the turnips for sheep ? As soon as they begin to consume them. 3. Whether the turnips be taken up and pitted ia different places of the turnip field ready to be cut ? and in what way arc tlie turnips to be covered over to preserve them from the frost .' It is usual to draw deep furrows at regular in- tervals, in which to set turnijis up carefully, with the tops and tails on, and to mould them up with the plough. 4. For how many sheep per day can a man and a stout lad cut turni])s — can they supply three hundred in a day ? A man and a stout lad, with the Banburj'' ma- chine, can cut turnips inhich have been previously clea7ied, for from three to four hundred hoggetts in a day. 5. What are the dimensions of tlie wooden troughs in which the cut turnips are consumed ? The following troughs are recommended as being light and easily moved — a great advantage — as otherwise the land will not, in all j)robability, be so equally manured. Light deal troughs, ten feet long, six inches deep, and nine wide, set on strong cross pieces, with a hand rail on the top to move them b)'', and also to keep tlie sheep from jumping over. G. Do the sheep receive any other food with the cut turnips ; as oil-cake, salt, chopped hay or straw, linseed, oats, peas or beans ; and the quan- tities of each variety, for each sheep per dajr ? Ojitional with the feeder, who is governed by the time at which he wishes to return the sheep ; but feeding with cut hay only, is ])erhaps the most usual practice in this district ; if oil-cake be used, a pound of it for each sheep per day is a liberal allowance, or if oats be used, a pint at least must be given. 7. Are the young sheep, that is unshorn sheep, made fat on cut turnips, and sold off to the butcher without being turned out to grass to finish off? No, except when corn is also given them. 8. State all other advantages that arise from feeding sheep in this new Vi'ay from cut turnips, as to making the food go further, distributing ma- nure, treading the field, &c. — and to what extent is it practiced in your district ? The principal advantage is the economy of food. The manure, with great care in frequently moving the troughs and spreading the oftal, may be as equally distributed : — it is not considered that the land usually fed with sheep in this district is bene- fitted by treading. 9. Suppose any given number of sheep ; — one lot to be put to turnips, folded in the old way, and the sheep to eat them off on the ground in the best way they can, and to have oil-cake, cut hay, and salt ; another lot of the same age to be fed with cut turnips in troughs, with the same quan- tities of artificial food : how much per head would the latter be worth more than the former, after being kept the usual number of weeks ? The sheep being fed with cut turnips would be worth the most money, but our experience is not sufficient to state the exact difference. In the same evening was introduced the question, of " What is the best cultivation for barley .' but time did not serve lor a full discussion of the sub- ject, it was therefore adjourned to the Third Meeting, on the loth March. It would be impossible to introduce here all the arguments and opinions that were advanced on this common but important part of Norfolk hus- bandry ; a few only of the principal points ma)' be alluded to. All present agreed, that it was highly desirable to plough the land intended for barley as early as possible, to plough once only after a crop THE FAUMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 of roots, except under a few i);u(ici!l;ir cases ; such •as fecdinp; the turnips ofV with sheep on ve-y liglit l;i!i(i, wlieii some thought it a better practice to scale in the tathe, and then plough again, hut deeper for the crop. Much discussion arose on the well-known circumstance of the farmers on tiie other side of the county always ploughing three times for this croj) after turnips, whether the lat- ter be fed off or not ; it was difficult to reconcile this method of cultiviition with that successfully practiced on some apjjarenthj similar soils in this district, and the only feasible way of accounting for such different plans prevailing at a distance of forty or fifty miles only, was the supposition, that although the upper soil might be similar, the sub- soil was probably very different. The next point of debate was, " \Vhcther the SEEDS for the following year's crop of artificial grass, should be sown with the carlev, orafter it was up ? the former had the most advocates, but the latter secm^ed to be an increasing opinion. All agieed on the advantages of selecting the best samples of seed, and also that it should be deposi- ted as fleet as possible in a finely pulverized soil. it api)eared from the discussion, that very little barley was now sown by hand in this district, perhaps not above a tenth part of the crop, but in proof of the great importance of depositing the seed fleet, one or two members, otherwise great friends to the drill, stated that when the land was very line, tbey preferred broad-casting, as they had suffered from the drill putting the barley in too deep, even when worked without weights. 'i'he discussion was closed by the following REPORT. " That, in the cultivation for barley in this dis- trict, it is desirable ; first — To plough as early as possible, and only once. Second — To sow very early if on heavy land, three bushels per acre be- ing the usual quantity. Third — To deposit the seed as fleet as possible, whether by drill or broad- cast, the former being recommended. Fourth — To divide the seed minutely, by having the drills very close, or by sowing part : — and lastly — To select the best seed, changing it frequently from light to heavy land, and vice versa." At the Fourth Meeting, on the 16th April, the subject of " bone dust as a manure for turnips," stood first on the books ; but before en- tering upon it, some little time was taken up in examining a simple macLinc for dibbling turnips on ridges, brought to the meeting by Mr. Fuller, of Topcroft ; it consisted of a light box with a pole handle, the former perforated at the bottom, atthe l)roper distance for the plants to stand, through which the seed escaped from the jar occasioned by strikingtheboxon the ridge — one was to be can led in each hand, and thus two ridges would be planted at the same time. As drilling turnips, if the land be ridged, is universally practised in this district, it was not considered probable that the machine would come into much use ; but it was so hand- somely offered to the meeting by Mr. Fuller, who agreed to leave it that any member of the club might have a pair made from it, that the thanks of the club were unanimously voted to him. Although no member of the Harleston Farmers' Club, who had ever patronized its library could be ignorant of the extraordinary effects wrought hy bones in various parts of the kingdom ; yet bone manure was a subject but little understood in a neighbourhood where artiiicial manure of any kind is rarely applied direct to the crop— for although a laii;e (pi.-uitity of oil -cake i.< brought into this district, it is chiefly consmned by stock, and thus comes on the land in the farm-yard nia- nuro. Much interest therefore was attached to the able exposition of the nature and properties of bones ; their utility as a manure, and the proper soils and crops on which to apply them, given by the member who introduced the question. Some discussion afterwards ensued, as to their advanta- geous ajiplication to our heavy soils — but from the nature of the subject, and it having assumed so much the form of a lecture, no report was proposed; — as, however, the debate has led to the trial of bones against farm-yard manure on heavy land, theclub will probably, another year, be put in possession of evidence which will approve or condemn their use in this district. In ])ursuanceof a resolution carried this evening, no meetings took place during the months of May, June, July, and August: — the experience of the previous year liad shown, that, during the summer months, the farmer was so much engaged out of doors, that but few members had leisure to attend the club, excepting at a later hour than it was desirable to meet — audit was therefore thought better to decline assembling in the summer, rather than discuss interesting subjects with a limited number of members; — the club, in the interim, would not be forgotten, as the advantages of the library would still be going on. This arrangement will no doubt work well next year; but unfortu- nately, in consequence of the long vacation, so much business accumulated, that the Fifth Meeting, on the Wth of September, was totally occupied in dispatching arrears, and in selecting subjects for the ensuing meetings — and more particularly in making arrangements for the show of roots in November. The committee does not, to prevent such an oc- currence in future, recommend the plan adopted by some clubs, of choosing all the subjects at the commencement of the year, as many questions require but a short time for discussion, whilst others are necessarily adjourned to the next meeting, and thus great inconvenience ensues ; but it suggests, that one of the subjects remaining on the notice book in May, be then appointed for the September meeting, and thus no time will he lost. After this digrcosion, we come to the Sixth Meeting, on the 9th of October. It has been the practice of the club not to pass resolutions upon any subject founded upon opin- ions alone, however feasible; but to adjourn such question till the stamp of practical evidence can be affixed to it. At the September meeting last year, the subject discussed was, " The selection of seed wheat, and the best method of planting it." Many points connected with that question, recommended by the introducer of it, were unanimously agreed to ; but one, viz. " to plant less seed than was usual in this district,'' met with considerable opposition ; — no positive evidence was, however, brought forward either way— and it was therefore "unanimously agreed, Cwe quote from your last year's report, page 14) that experiments alone could enable the club to come to anv satisfactory decision on the merits of 'thick or 'thin planting. Following up this view it was su,<,'gested, that some of the members ishould make tiial of a small portion of thin i)Ianted wheat, which was consented to by several, who 1U8 THE FAUMEIl'S AIAGAZINE. in-omiscd to plant one acre each, with half the usual quantity of seed, and report the result this time twelvemonth." In pursuance of the above engagement, many experiments were last year made, and the same subject was named for debate this evening, that the evidence thus obtained might be laid before the club. It will be necessary to state, that two bushels of wheat p^r acre is the usual seed for this dis- trict, almost the only variation being a reduction in the case of early sowing : the experiments, with one exception, were all tried with that quan- tity, against half of it. The results were singular, inasmuch as there was a remarkable difference, and at the same time a remarkable coincidence, in the evidence ; — a difference, because there were as many experiments decided in favour of thick as of thin planting — a coincidence, because all the experiments tried with the dibble had one result ■ — all those made with the drill a totally opposite one ; the former gave from two to four bushels per acre produce in favour of thin seeding, the latter a similar increase from the thick plant. The excepted case alluded to above, was three pecks only, dibbled against five, but with a similar result, as the yield from the former exceeded the latter by three bushels ! As regards straw, there was a trifling increased quantity from the greater seed, both dibbled and drilled, but it did not stand up so well as the crop from the lesser seed, and the latter had also the advantage in the qua- lity of the sample. Although we cannot congratulate the club on having settled the question, which it was the ob- ject of the experiments to decide, viz., " whether thick or thin planting of wheat be more advanta- geous," yet most convincing testimony has \jecn added to what was generally before understood, that much less seed is required with the dibble than with the drill, to produce tha same or even a greater crop. Numerous unsatisfactory experi- ments have been tried with the dibble against the drill, in the same field, with a similar quantity of seed ; — unsatisfactory, because the results have been frequently in favour of one, frequently in favour of the other; and still more often, there has been no difference : — but here is unanimous testimony, that with half the quantity of seed, the produce will be as great as from the dibble ; — and when the number of acres of land annually under cultivation with wheat in Great Britain is consi- dered, one bushel per acre saved from the seed would be no unimportant addition to the stock for consumption. The Seventh Meeting, on the 6th November, was allotted to the Show of Roots, and the dis- cussion in the evening fixed to take place, " On the best method of preparing the land for the future Root Crops." The exhibition was not so large as had been an- ticipated, owing perhaps to the very unfavourable state of the weather, not only on that but on the Ijreceding days ; the quality, however, of many was very excellent, particularly for a bad season, and in variety of specimens, the show was cer- tainly rich. Thomas Lombe Taylor, Esq., sent not less than fifteen different varieties of beet, Swede, and common turnips, all marked and named, for which a vote of thanks was unani- mously accorded to him. We regret that this exhibition did not excite more interest; for, as the difference in produce is very great between a good and bad stock of turnips, it is only by a comparison of the different varieties that the best can be selected. All those members who were present could not but be struck with the difl'erence in quality between the best and worst specimens exhibited ;and, in proof of tbe im- portance of growing the very best kind that can be obtained, the following experiment was related in the evening bj' one of the members. Three different varieties of Swede turnips were drilled in alternate rows across a field, on the same da)', and were all taken up and carefully weighed also at the same time ; the produce of one of them was upwards of six tons per acre more than either of the others'. The subject for discussion, this evening, was interesting, and it attracted a large body of the members of the club, all of whom, we are per- suaded, would agree with your committee, that it was a meeting of which the club might justly feel proud — whether from the spirited manner in which the debate was kept up, or from the infor- mation elicited by it. The question chiefly turned on the best method of cultivating heavy land and soils uncongenial to the growth of turnips, the meeting justly consi- dering, that but little difficulty existed in pi-e- paring light or what are termed turnip lands. The advantages of growing a good crop of roots on heavy land (if it can be done without injury to the future crops, and of which there is no danger if a good tilth be obtained for the roots) are so great, that the meeting entered with much spirit upon the subject. The discussion commenced with the successful competitors of the day, de- claring the mode of cultivation by which they had obtained such excellent roots, but it soon became general. One member then detailed a plan he had successfully followed, of cultivating his wheat stub bios as soon as possible after harvest, with liiddeirs scarifier, using no other implement till the land was ready for tlie manure, when he lidged it with the donble-breasted plough, com- pleting the tillage without once using the common plough. This somewhat new method was highly approved offer heavy land, but it led to a digres- sion on the landlord's power, under the usual leases and agreements iii this district, of com- pelling a stated number of ploughings andharrow- ings. As this part of the question was highly interest- ing, and appeared likely to trespass too long on the original subject, it was stopped, by an understand- ing, that at the first open meeting the question of the" utility of the comjjulsoiy ciiltivation clauses in leases" should be brought before the club. The discussion on root tillage was again renewed, and continued at the express wish of the members, beyond the usual hour for closing the meetings. After viewing the matter in all its bearings, and hearing a great deal of valuable practical evi- dence, the subject was at length terminated by the unanimous adoption of the following REPORT. " Commencing with the wheat stubble, it is recommended to take the earliest opportunity of breaking it up in dry tveatJier, either by the plough or by some other implement, such as Biddell's scarifier — the former can often be used with great success in dry weather, by taking the breast oflT, when with the breast on it could not be got through the land — but the scarifier was generally recommended. This system of autumn cultivation THE FARMEH'S MAGAZINE. 199 is to be pursued as frcqueiitl}' as possible, by which means the land will be ready for the ma niire in the winter, or as soon as the latter can bo obtained. The manure is recommended to be aj)i)licd on the ridge system, and immediately covered up by splitting the balks, leaving nothinsj to b'j done ia the spi'ing but drilling the seed ; but where the manure has been applied and covered up very early, it is advisable to lay ojjen the ridge, and turn it back again, before sowing : seed of the very best variety should be selected, and not sown sparingly, a little being added for the Hj', as that visitor may ahvays be expected early in the season, and on heavy lands it is use- less to sow late. As soon as the ])laiits arc visible, tlie horse-hoe should go to work, and be freely applied all summer when required ; not eartliiiig the ])lants up, but rather pulling the mould away from them — the latter remark more particularly applying to mangel wurzel. The foregoing report applies exclusively to the cultivation of heavy land, but in the show of roots this day, ])rnof was afforded of the value of deep tillage to light land, by the exhibition of a turnij) grown on gravelly land subs(nled, with a tap-root upwards of twenty-eight inches long. Ninth Meeting, on the 4 fh of Decemljer. The early part of this evening was taken up in making arrangements for the annual meeting in January. After which the su')iect appointed for discussion was commenced, \'iz., " the compara- tive advantages of thrashing corn and seeds with the FLAIL or by machinery." Wheat was the first grain mentioned, but on this there was no debate, all i)re=ent agreeing that it was decidedly advantageous to use machinery for thrashing wheat. As regards barley, there was much variety of opinion, and the discussion chiefly turned on this grain. The advocates for the flail contended that it was cheaper, that the corn was brought in a better state to market, and that the straw from it was more valuable — three important points. On the other hand, the aar- ticular places from tiie Cpunty Town of the County in which they are respectively situated : As, forinstance, part of the county of Wilts,, althoug-h only ten miles from Reading, is upwards of sixty from Salisbury and Devizes. " That parts of the county of Hertford, altiiouprh thirty miles from Hertford, are not more than sir viites from Aylesbury. "That parts of the county of Buckingham, altiioug'li only ten miles from the town of Northampton, are more than thirty miles from the borough of Aylesbury. "That p.irt of the county of Northampton, allhoiifjh only ten miles from Oakham, is upwards of thirty miles from Northampton ; and part of the county of Lincoln, alihoug'h upwards of fifty miles from Lincoln, is only ten miles from the town of Oakham ; and the town of Strabane, beinff in the county Tyrone, nearly thirty miles frovi Omagh, and only one mile from the town of Lifford. That part of the county of Donegal, being' distant from the town of Lifford forty miles, i-? only te)i miles from the city of Derry ; and there are also many otiier places simdarly situated, too numerous to mention, causing great expcnce, inconvenience, and loss of time, both in the conveyance of prisoners and attendance of witnesses t.ind jurors. And whei'eas a great saving of both time andexpence would be effected by such placts, towns, &c., as aforesaid, us well as otheis similarly circumstanced, being allowed to com- mit their prisoners to the nearest county gaol, and like- wise that witnesses and jurymen should also attend there. And in addition great inconvenience and loss of time arises where particular countries are so divided that the Assizes are held in two different places, by jurors being summoned to attend at those Assizes held at the greatest distance from their place of residence; for instance, nniny jurymen in the county of Suffolk are summoned to attend at Bi(7-i/, a distance of upwards of twenty-four miles, although residing only eight miles from the borough of Ipsivich. Had Mr. Houghton merely called attention to the subject by pointing out the evils of the system wliicli are productive of serious inconvenience and loss to many persons, and more especially to the agiicultural class, he would have well earned their grateful acknowledgements ; but he has gone further, he has suggested the remedy — simple, and effective. We give it in his own words, as expressed in the petition. *' Your petitioner therefore most humbly prays, that it may be hereafter enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for any parish, township, or place being so situated as to be nearer some other county gaol than the one in which county such parish, township, or place are situated, to call a meeting of the inhabitants thereof; and if a majority iu number of such inhahi- tanta, being owners and occupiers resident therein, liable to serve on jurie.^, shall be of opinion that it would be more convenient for such parish, township, or place, to join some other county gaol, or another di- vision of the county, if the county should have two assize tovvns, so that no person should be compelled to attend as jurymen but at the assizes, &c., held at the town, &c., nearest to his residence, provided they so petition as aforesaid. That in such case they shall pe- tition the Secretary of State for the Home Department for the time being, who shall issue an order to the governor of such county gaols respectively, to admit the prisoners from such parish, township, or place, into sucli county gaol. The expence of maintenance of such prisoners, and also the conveyance of such pri- soners to such goal, and the expeuces of such trial shall be made out and sent to the Clerk of the Peace for such county where such parishes, townships, or places are situate, who shall repay the same to the Clerk of the Peace for the county that may have in- curred such expence. " And your petitioner further prays, that it may be enacted. That all persons liable to serve on juries in such parishes, townships, or places, petitioning as aforesaid, shall have their nar.ies sent to the county Sheriff, &e., nearest to their place of abode, who shall summon them as jurymen accordingly for such county or division, &c., thereof, instead of their beinu' liable to serve as heretofore under the now existing laws and regulations. "And also that it may bs further enacted, That nothing in the alterations your petitioner humbly prays may be effected, shall be considered to interfere with the Civil Law. " And your petitioner as in duty bound will ever pray, &c.'' Having clearly pointed out the evils of the ex- isting system, and prescribed the lemedy, he thus pithily assigns his " reasons" for proposing the alteration : — 1st. — The immense saving that will be made in the county rates, in the conveyance of prisoners and witnesses. 2nd. — The great saving of time both to witnesses and jurors, and preventing the compounding of felony for petty offences. 3rd. — The great benefit it will give to the prisoner by being nearer to his home and his friends, thus afford- ing him a much better opportunity for preparing hi« defence. We trust that a proposition calculated to effect so much good will not be lost sight of atiiid tlie squabbles of party. It is a subject with which almost every member of both Houses of Parlia- ment, from his experience in county business, is well acquainted ; and none more so than his Grace the Duke of Buckingham and Mr. Hand- ley, who have taken charge of the petition. In their hands we are content to leave it, knowing well tiieir devotion to the agricultural class, and their ability to bring the matter to a successful issue. ON UNDER-DRAINING. Sir, — In the Mark Lane Erpress of the 18th inst., you were kind enough to insert a few remarks of mine, on the subject of under-draining of land; it was endeavoured therein to prove a former corres- pondent of yours, who recommended the drains to be cut up and down the field intended to be drained, instead of across it, to be erroneous in principle, and incapable of producing but little benefit to the land. Intending- to have submitted a few additional remarks to my former observations on the subject, I Jiave purposely deferred them until now, in order to see if any practical agriculturist would endeavour to iiave proved my system was incorrect, and produced his reason for his dissent from them. Not finding that the reason, I am inclined to jmpe a few further remarks on the subject may not lie felt obtrusive. Without farther apology, I beg to ibtnte what sea.son of the year, and succeeding what crop, in arable land, will be found the most convenient. It will be found the autumn of the year, and after a wheat crop, decidedly the best period for several reasons, viz., it often happens, thatthe field intended to be drained, is only partially wet, in spots dispersed over various parts of it, and other parts as dry as can be wished ; in order, therefore, to place your drains only where they are needed, they should bo marked out in the month of March, precedino- the time of draining, when after a few dry days every 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wet part will appear so clearly as to show exactly wore the drains should bo pliiced, and which should bo denoted by stakes driven in (irmly, to renmin lunil the iiutuinii followiiii;-. I shall onl\' make one more remark on the subject at pres'-nt, ami which will be I'ound highlv iiecessarv lo complete draininn;, viz., that tlie top drain should beat tl;e very highest part of every wet part, as it does not drain the land above it ; and if so, the water will flow over the drain be- low it. I must apologize for having trespassed too much on your valuable space. I am, Sir, most respectfully, Your obliged humble servant, John Whkiord. Bi'oughlon House, Jan. 29tb. LETTERS OUT OF A BARN. No. I. TO THE EDITOE OF HIE LEEDS WEDNESDAY JOUIINAL. Mister Editor, — Did you ever, or will you, insert a letter out of a barn ? Or are you so entirely in love with mills, as to quite reject anything- that cames from so dusty, — illiterate, ignorant looking- place as a barn ? Let me tell you, Sir, however, that a barn is quite as im- portant, and more necessary, than even a mill, i\len might hve and thrive, and newspapers might be printed and read, if there were no steam spinninj^r jennies — but no barn ! and tiie mouth is stopped — all will soon be silent. I speak not to disparage Vour manufacture*. I want the barn not to frown at the mill, nor the mill to despise tiie barn. We shall live and prosper so long ai we go hand in hand, as we have done for some years ; but if any man, or set of men, disunite us, he or they ought to be beheaded for a base, selfish, rebel and traitor. Were you ever, Sir, in Bilsdale? If not, and any body were to set you down in it blindfold, you would never get out. It is a deep cold valley on the top of the Hambleton hills, almost out of the world, and where " 'Tis as cauld as ice, T'yattest* day i'suminer." Well, Sir, we pay ten shillings an acre for our land, lose one crop in seven years, and are often harvesting- at Christmas ! We have a hnwker who comes once -a. quarter, and he told us they were going to let foreign corn come in free, and bread would be very cheap. Why, Sir, it set us all in a sad stew, lor our rents are so low, our landlords cannot lower them, and if corn is to be so very cheap, we must give up. We saw nothing but coming to Leeds, Sir, leaving our bgrns, and asking eillier for employment or keep at the mills. Well, Sir, I determined I would see how things were going.aad if I ceuld learn a little milling before this came to pass ; so, Sir, I set off to Leeds to see if I could make any thing out. I called at a little alehouse as soon as I got in— it was on a Tuesday, for what is the use of going- to a town off" the market-d-.iy, when nobody's there ? Some dark looking men crime in, and said they were going to the Cloth Halls. Cloth Halls thought I — why there must be some tents put up, wlitre all the-^e mill folks meet to make cloth in, so Isliall see the whole at work. Well, Sir, I follows tiiem, and came to some long rooms, longer than any I ever saw at any of the great inns, and here were hundreds of folks standing behind little stalls, selling cloth— but not a spuming jenny could I sec. I looked on a bit, for there was nothing to pay, and at lasi my eyes fixed on two persens making a bargain, so I went to listen as we do at fairs, and put in a word if 1 could. Wei), Sir, who in all the world should it be * Hottest. who was buying tlse cloth, but old Tom Tape, the quaker shopkeeper at our market town, who was pur- chasing the whole of his cloth for ready money, to the extent of about one hundred and seventy pounds. The bargain was immediately struck, and the old quaker simpered awfully to see me there. Dear me. Sir, I begun to wonder where the old codger got all hi?! rendy cash ; but 1 soon reflected how the farmers, after they had sold their corn, tripped awuy to his shoi), and purchased woollens, linens, or cottons— more and better, if the corn sold well ; less and interior, if it sold lo«-. I exp'cted your great cloth market would have been by the side of a wharf, and all the shipping busi'y en- gaged in carrying the cloth uv/ay to foreign countries. Uninarclu-of-intellcct as I am, Sir, I could not but sen how vastly better it is for Tape to come and buy cloth, and pay for, and give it to the waggoner, than for men, and ship*:, and porters, and wharhngers.and commission dealers, and dangers, and risks, and money long out of pocket, to be faced, and all a i«peculation after ail ! Law, thought I? and what will becotne of the hun- dred and seventy pounds ! Why it will go to ]v,>.y more wages and set hands to work to get more cloth ready against next market-day. The men get good wages, if the markets be good ; they go and purchase bread cheap. It is not so cheap, they say, as it is in Poland ; but who cares? they liavepl<-nty to spend in it ; and if it were ever so cheap, whose benefit would it be if tliero was no money to buy it with 1 Sir, I ihonsrht, come ! if these Leedsers be sensible men, tlu-y will not wish to banish their home customers, and let eo a bird in the hand for the chance of catching two in the bush. If ye can do with this rum stuff. Til write another letter or tvvo, telling you all I saw — as soon as a little straw and chaff is got out of my Isarn ; and I remain, your obedient servant, Christopher Clodiiopi'er. Bilsdale, Jan. 21. MR. CHAMBERLAIN'S (OF DES- FORD) PRIZE CATTLE, to the editor of the LEICESTER JOURNAL. Sir, — Havmg just noticed in your Journal of the 15th ult. the weights of I\Ir. Chamberlain's (of Desford ) sheep, sho-.vn in classes 10 and V2 at the late Smithfield Club Show, I am induced, through the medium of your Journal, to inquire if the weights there given are cor- rect ; it appearing that the sheep shown in class 10, fed upon vegetable food only, are much heavier than those fed upon oil cake and peas in class ]-2 : and as you give the weight of my sheep also in those classes, perhaps it will be as well to give an abstract of them all, from your Journal of that date. Cluis 10. — For vegetabh fed sheep. St. lb. St. lb. St. lb. Mr. Chamberlain's,. 13 4.. 16 7.. 16 2 Mr. Painter's 15 6.. 16 4.. 17 6 Class 1-?. — For cake fed sheep. ]\rr. Chamberlain's.. 14 2i. 14 6.. 15 2 Mr. Painter's 20 2 . . 20 4 ., 22 0 By the above it will be seen, that there is a great dif- ference of weight between the sheep shewn in class 12 by myself; therefore, I am willing to think that there must have been some error in year report as regards the weight of Mr. Chamberlain's sheep, which 1 have no doubt jMr. C. will be glaJ to explain. The above remark? are offered, with a view to set at rest the constant inquiry that is being made to me in my neighbourhood, tiud not, I assure you, with the sliijhiest motive of calling into question the meriis of our animals, I remain. Sir, yours respectfully, JniiN Paintir, Biirleij, Oahhum, Jav. 30, 1841. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 WOOL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE SUFFOLK CHRONICLE. Si II — f laving giviin my opinion as to the future prospects of the wool growers, I proceed to state the reason why I suspect the price will be still lower, and in the end g-ravitule to the lowest price the colonial or foreign g'rowers will supply n* at ; as the prices of all things are reduced to the minimum at whicii they cun be supplied with profit wlien competition exists. The annual value of wool grown in En!>'land in 1815, was estimated at one-fifth of the rental of land, and in 1820 at but one-eig-hth of the rental, but by adding the value of wool imported, the whole value was found to be one-fifth as in 1815, bui the home growers had loit the difference. 'i'hus, as the rental was estimated at forty millions, the value of wool in 1815 was eight millions sterling, and but five millions in 1820; the receii)ls of the home growers were reduced three millions by the immense import of wool in 1818. The national stock of slipep in Groat Britain was estimated in 1818 by Arthur Young at thirty millions, and the produce of wool at 120 million pounds. The quantity of wool imported in 1818 was equal to one-fourth of our annual orrowth ; and our own growth, w ih a comparative small import of foreign, and very small supply from our Colonies;, had previou»ly sup- plied the demand. 'i'lie consumption of Wool no doubt is increased, but liovvever g'reat it may be, or become hereafter, the sup- ply must eventually exceed the demand, as there is an almost unlimited extent of pasture yet unappro- pjiated in our colonies and other countries. The stock of Sheep is rapidly increasing on the conti- nent, and the same progressive increase has continued in Australia and Tasmania up to the present time, as from 1829 to 38; and we may expect that the supply from thence and the Cape may be treble in a few years, to what it was in 1838. Our national stock of Sheep may now be equal to what it was in 1818, and from selection and superior management, the produce of Wool is supposed to be increased one pound per sheep on half the flocks in the kingdom. I'he import of Foreign Wool in 1813 was 7^ million lbs., of Colonial one million, and our own growth about 120 millions of lbs. i he import of Foreign wool in the year ending Jan. 5th, 1841, and entered for home consumption, was 56,734,025 lbs., at an averaije of Is, 4d. per lb., and total cost of 4.255,596?. (See Mark Lane Express of last week.) Thus it appears, that the importof Foieiirn and Colonial is near 8 times as much as in 1813, whilst our own produce has increased but 10 per cent., and that from extra cost in keep and attendance oa the same number of sheep. Thus the Foreign flocks seem to be increased 13 millions; the Australian, Tasmanian, and South African, 3 millions ; whilst our own flocks have barely been increased to the amount of reduction in 1821, and following years, from the low |)rice of wool and mutton ; and the fatal destruction of sheep by the rot alterwaids. The reason why the Foreign and Colonial flocks in- crease so fast is, because wool is their main object ; lew lambs are killed ; and ewe lambs never. Old sheep supply the demand lor mutton, and in some parts so glut the iiiarkets as to be but Id, per lb,; but in Eng- land, wool, tallow, fat, lamb, and mutton combined; ewe and wether lambs are slaughtered indiscriminately, ii fat enough to sell ; and numbers of ewes and welhers at eighteen months old. Thus, when our sheep stock are reduced, it takes a long lime to replenish the stock, as wiilidrawing the ewes and ewe lambs from market, reduce the supply of lamb and mutton, and cause a rise in price so as to induce a sale, and check the increase of st( ck. Such has been our case ; the cause of whicli I must leave for a chapter of accidents. I remain, your humble servant, CiiAS, Poppy. IVilnesliam, Jan. 27. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. TO THE EDITOIl OF THE MAKK LANE EXPIIESS'. Sir — 111 the last number of your valuable jour- nal, I observe a letter on agricultural implements, signed "P." In which the following i)arag-rap!i oc- curs : — " The next implement I shall mention is tlio lighter of the two double ploughs shown by the Messrs, Ransome, It was made, as they inform mo, at tlic suggestion of Mr, Pusey. Two liorses can draw it wil;hout difficulty in moderately free stubble, and I am now working it with three horses, in an old grass ley ; therefore, by means of this plough, as much work can be done by one man and two, or at most, three horses, as both single ploughs by two men and four horses ;" and further on it says — " it was proved by a dynamometer, that two liorses were pulling a weight of 20 stone when they drew a Scotch single plough, and three horses drew only a weight of 2G stone, when it was changed to one of Ransome's double ones," Now, Mr, Editor, I think it quite impossible that you can render a greater service to the readers ofyoiir valuable paper, and to the agricultural world in general, than by inquiring as to the merits of this newly invented plough, and informing them as to the practicability of substituting it for the common plough ; also as to its price, where it is to be got, &c,, &c. If it be found to answer well, it will be the greatest im- provement that has ever been made on the construc- tion of the plough ; for it will at once diminish, by one-third, the heaviest item of our farm accounts, viz., the keeping of farm horses. If ever we are to have cheap corn in Britain, without injuring the grower, it will be by means of such inventions as these which tend to diminish the cost of produc- tion,— I am. Sir, your obedient servant, A Constant Reader of yotjr Valuable Paper. Ross-shire, Jan. 23. TITHE COMMUTATION. The following is the average of wheat, barley, and oats for the last seven years, up to Christmas last, by which, according to the Tithe Coramutatioa Act, rent-charges are regulated : — AVERAGE PRICES FOR SEVEN YEARS PER IMPERIAL BUSHEL, FROM THE LONDON GAZETTE. Wheat, Barley. Oats. S, D. S, D. S. D. To Christmas, 1835 . , 7 01 3 111 2 9 t8S6 . . 6 8| 3 llf 2 9 1837 . , 6 6f 3 111 2 8| 1838.. 6 6i 3 9| 2 8 1839 .. 6 9 3 111 2 91 1840 .. 6 llf 4 1 2 lOf And the amount to be received for the year 1841, for every lOOZ. of rent-charge will be 102/. 12s. 5|d. or rather more than three and three-quarters per cent, above the amount of last year. BONE DRILLS. Sir, — Can you inform me through your paper where the best and cheapest bone drills are manufac- tured, and the cost price ; capable of drilling- two rows of turnip ground at once, twenty seven inches apart 1 I am, your obedient servant, Feb. 4, 1841. A Subscriber. 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON CORNS IN HORSES' FEET. Sir, — Jn a late publication of yours, the question is asked, "is tbere any cure ibr corns iu horses' feet, and what is it?" I beg leave to offer tlie following- remarks : — This disease is produced always by some hard substance pressing on the sole at the quarteis, chiefly shoes left too long on, till the heels become buried in the hoof, the fibrous substance which lies between the sensible foot and the absolute horny hoof becomes inflamed by the pressure, and the in- flammation produces a hardness of the spot, similar, if I may so express it, to a knot in a piece of soft timber. When this is pressed on, it has all the effect of a bit of gravel or some foreign substance lodged in the part, and the action of the pressure causes it to irritate the surrounding parts, which are very sensible, and the horse cannot bear firmly on the foot. When this lump or hardness is wholly or par- tially cut away by the draw-knife, some relief is obtained ; but the knife, in removing the corn, wounds, in some degree, the surrounding soft parts, and the disease is reproduced, — for after a while it is found to be as bad as ever ; and this is sure to he the case when any cautery, either the hot iron or burning stimulants, are applied, as one or other al- ways are, or perhaps both. These shrivel up and convolute the fibrous texture, and quickly form a new corn, for they actually produce an artificial one, but the removal of so much born as has necessarily been affiected in the operation, in order to get at the seat of the disease, prevents any immediate pressure on it ; because, so large an excavation hav- ing been made, the part is left hollow, the cavity being generally filled up with some substance, either soft, or " intended to be so" — tow, smeared with va- rious quack preparations mixed in grease, or, in place of tow, wool, which is better, or sponge. The heel of the shoe is thinned opposite to the place, or the shoe is cut short, so as not to cover it at all, or a bar shoe is applied. The latter is ia itself a source of lameness ; the thinned shoe bends, and so makes the matter worse ; and the short shoe aff'ords no pro- tection— the stuffing, be it made of wha^t it may, gets beaten into a hard mass, and becomes itself an injurious lump, and the disease is constantly repro- duced. The most judicious remedies are therefoi-e only palliative while the horse is employed at his ordinary duties, or kept in a stable where his feet are dry and the hoof bard ; no — the hoof must be diluted and softened by constant moisture, all irri- tating pressure must be avoided ; and under these and only these cirqumstances, nature will work the cure, by letting the injured part grow out of the foot ; and let no injury or pressure come at it till the then existing hoof is quite grown away and a new one formed. Therefore my answer to the question is — palliate the evil as well as you can, by keepino- tlie hoof constantly pared away between the corn and the ground, but do not wound, in your rain en- deavours to cut it out ; avoid the hot irons, &c. above mentioned ; keep a bit of sponge softly put in, merely to keep out gravel and keep the spot moist ; and when the season arrives, turn him out without any shoes, into a soft marshy place, where his feet must be in a constant moist state for three months, at least: by that time the hoof will be altoo-ether re- newed— the diseased part will have grown out— and if there is no new injury, there will be no new corn ; in short, the cure will be perfect. I would not pre- sume to put forward this if it was mere theory — a habit but too common among agricultural writers which only hare the effect of amusing and leading their readers astray. The above suggestions are, I assure you, the result of practical experience. While on this subject, I beg to ofl'er :i word on the subject of the feet of horses and cattle in gene- ral. Dry standing is the ])rolific source of man}' of their diseases ; the effect of long continued drougljt is, to contract hoof of every kind, 'i'he foot of a hoofed beast is an extremely tender and sensible member, inclosed in a hard insensible box. If this box is large enough, the foot is at ease ; but if it is contracted in its dimensions and shrunk up by drought, it becomes a shoe that pinches; the sensible foot gets inflamed and uneasy; preternatural activity in the secreting vessels (always the consequence of inflammation) takes place; unusual secretions are produced, which cannot be evacuated thiough the shrunken pores of the hardened hoof; these secretioiis become morbid, and must force their way out some- how— thus thrushes, contracted feet, decayed frog, &c. Grease is often applied by way of softening the hoof — this has quite the contrary effect ; it fills up and obstructs the pores that yet remain unclosed, effectually preventing exudation from within, and the absorption of moisture from without. It is a re- mark often made with regard to stall-feeding cattle, " that beast won't stand the stall — he gets tender on the feet." This is from the dryness of the stand- ing ; the hoofs get contracted, the beast stands in pain and cannot thrive, and the time and feeding are thrown away. I lately saw two very fine bul- locks, in the county Galwa\', which could not be fattened to near the weight they otherwise might, from this cause ; under a mistaken idea, their feet ■were well greased ; but if they had the advantage of a sol't poultice, sufficiently often allowed them, the object would have been much better attained. J\Iois- ture, I repeat, is the thing for diseased hoof, if the disease, as in nine cases out of ten, originates in dryness. I am. Sir, yours, E. Maunsell. P. S. Let it not be inferred from anything herein, that I would have cattle kept standing in dirt. ON THE QUARTER EVIL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — As I conceive it the duty of everj' one to give any information which may prove useful to his neighbour, I beg to give the following in answer to an enquiry made by your correspondent " A Subscriber," page 74, in your first number for 1841, who has been so unfortunate as to lose several of his cattle by a disease called Quarter Evil, or inflammatory fever. The first step to be taken, immediately on perceiving the animal ill, is to bleed freely from the neck vein, until it has the appearance of being sick, and after bleeding to administer a dose of Epsom salts ; and thirdly, in- sert a rowel in the dewlap : the bleeding and physicking to be repeated every twelve hours, until the animal seems relieved. I myself have cured several cases amongst my own cattle by the aViOve treatment, in some of which the disease has been so far advanced as to yield a sort of crackling noise when j)ressed with the finger upon the quarter affected. The animal to be taken under cover, and fed upon oatmeal gruel. I remain, your humble servant, A Northumberland Farmer. Newcastle, Jan, 22. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 ON DRAINING AND SUBSOILING HEAVY LAND. Altliough siibsoiling has been, for some time past, stronglv recommendeil by expefienced agriculturists, — and there can be little doubt of the benefits that would accrue from the use of the subsoil-plough on aluminous soils where the substrata is usually hard and retentive of water — yet it must strike an ob- server how slow the system is progressing; on these heavy soils. The question will then suggest itself, " What is the reason that the strong land farmer does not generally avail himself of this great im- provement in agriculture?" I shall endeavour to answer this question by showing that the system recommended for using the Deanston plough can- not be ])ractised, to any advantage, on a great portion of the wheat and bean soils of England, and that a different method must be pursued on these soils before any advantage from subsoil-ploughing will show itself, so as to induce others to imitate the few who are trying it as an experiment. Heavy or strong land (the finest wheat and bean soils} has been for generations past, and is at the present time, cultivated in high ridges, or lands, as they are called here ; this was necessary before furrow-draiuing com- menced, to get rid of the superfluous water which would destroy the crop on such soils, and even if furrow-draining is resorted to, it must take considera- ble time to reduce these ridges to the flat, for unless it be done gradually, the subsoil of this kind of land will (if brought to the surface in too large quantities) make it barren and unproductive for some years. This is well known to practical farmers on these soils, and often prevents them from ploughing even so deep as to keep up the necessary staple of the soil. Now to use the subsoil-plough beneficially, the land of this description should, in the first place, be thoroughly drained, or otherwise the additional depth gained by that plough would only contain an additional quantity of moisture, which would starve instead of nourish the plants on the surface. Tt is also requisite, in using the subsoil-plough, that it should go in the contrary direction to the drains, for all kind of ploughs, more or less leave a serrated surface underneath the soil, the worst ploughmen leaving the deepest marks. The water percolating tJirough the surface soil will flow along these marks, or ridg- lets, and consequently the drains should be at an angle, to receive, as quickly as possii)le, the water flowing from them. Some writers say, the drain and subsoil-furrow ought to cross at right angles, but I cannot conceive this is absolutely necessary, for an acute angle will catch the furrow equally well. It follows, from what has been last stated, if a field IS furrow- drained, the subsoil-plough should be used in the contrary direction, across the ridges; but here arises the difficulty on the soils I have de- scribed, and the reason why the subsoil-plough is thrown aside as a useless implement. From the ne- cessary length of the plough-share, and the imple- ment itself, no man can hold it to an equal depth over the tops of the ridges and through the furrows, for it will draw in too deep in the one case, and too light in the other, and it will be given up in despair, 'J'hey may then probably subsoil a little in the same direction as the drains, as an experiment, and finding very little or no benefit to the succeeding crop, abandon the system altogether as unsuitable to their soil. The method I adopt on heavy land then, is this: — Carry main drains, where necessary, up the furrows in the lowest parts of the field ; from these, mark oft" transverse drains at two perches or eleven yards distance from each other, branching right and left; the inclination given to the transverse drains must dejjend on the rise or fall of the surface, so that ihe water may flow freely into the jnains. If the trans- verse drains are of considerable lenoth, it may be necessary to put a main up two adjoining fur- rows, the one to receive the small drains from the right, the other from the left. If the field have different levels and inequalities of surface, the main drains must cross some of the ridges to get into the hollows, but having reached them, must still be carried in the direction of the furrows with the small drains crossing the ridges at the distances stated be- fore. To prevent the water flowing down the furrows (in hasty showers) from running over the transverse drains, by becoming puddled or hard, I put into each furrow on the upper side of the transverse drain, and opening into it, a drain of one yard in length ; this sinks the water immediately, if running ever so rapid or in any quantity. Having thus drained the field, the subsoil-plough can be used lengthways, and may be held to its proper depth without chafing men or horses, as would be the case, crossing ridges where the work cannot be done properly or eflfectually. There are also ad- vantages attending this mode of draining on tenacious soils ; the drains being across the usual way of the plough, are not so liable to get puddled up, as in furrow-draining, where the horses walk on the top of every drain, but in this case step over often without treading on them. Another advantage will be the saving in tiles, as fewer are required to drain an acre transversely, than a drain up every furrow. It will require the drains to be cut deeper in passing through the ridges, but I find an average of two feet a sufficient depth. The expense is as follows : — £ s. d. *2064 drain-tiles at 40s. per thousand ... 4 2 6 Cutting, laying tiles, and filling in 688 yards at ^ per yard 1 8 8 Total per acre 5 11 2 Worcester, February, 1841. R.S. GYPSUM. TO THE KDITOK OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sill, — An amateur farming correspondent having written to me for information on gypsum, as I have never made use of any, I should be obliged to any of the readers of your paper who have, testate, through its medium, for the benefit of my correspondent and for the public, the nature of the soil he applied it to, for what crops, the quantity per acre, the eff'ects pro- duceil, its cost, and where it can be purchased. I'he chief information I have ever obtained on gypsum, was from a German Baron, — an occupier of an immense tract of land in his country, who did me the honour of inspecting my fa:-m two or three years ago ; he informed me that he could not possibly get clover without it ; 1 think, therefore, that its best eff'ects in this country may probably be produced in the growth of clover. I remain, yours, &c.. Thorpelands, Jan, 22. C. HiLLYARD. * The drain-tiles used are lubes. Arch-tiles, with soles, would be 50g. per thouisand here, not making a superior drain to the other. 206 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. GLOSTER FARMERS' CLUB. Established, February, 1840. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT. In presenting this, their first annual report, your committee cannot but notice with pleasure the spirit of improvement that has lately sprung lip, and is now spreading through the length and hrer.dth ofthe land. A few short years ago, the establishment of a farmers' club — an agricultural debating society — would have been considered impossible : the farmers in one neighbourhood were but little aware of the systems of husbandry practised in another, and each supposing his own plan to be the best, they werecontented to remain in comparative ignorance. But now the case is altered, the agriculturists of England are rising from their lethargy, farmers' clubs are springing lip in every direction, and the effect i)roduced by the free interchange of opinions, is visible in the improved and still improving practice of the sur- rounding districts. The Gloucester club was established in Febru- ary last, and at its first meeting between thirty and forty members were enrolled : it now numbers one hundred and thirtii, with every prospect of a continued accession to its list; and this, notwith- standing the deep-rooted prejudice that unfortu- nately prevails in this county against the estab- lishment of such societies. Your committee would here express their thanks to the few landed proprietors who ha\'e patronised them hitherto, and their earnest hope that they may be more generally supported by them during the coming year. Thinking that it would be a very great accom- modation 10 the members if there were a room in Gloucester open to them on market days, where the books might be kept, and where they might find the Mark Lane Express and such other agri- cultural periodicals as might be taken in, your committee have a])plied to the trustees of the savings bank for the use of their rooms, and they are happy to add tliat their request has been ac- ceded to in the most handsome manner. The advantages of this arrangement will be great and the expense trifling. Finding that considerable inconvenience has arisen, and much time has been lost in fixing upon subjects for discussion at each monthly meeting, a list of subjects has been drawn up for the whole ofthe ensuing year ; it is, however, open to a ma- jority of the members present at any meeting to substitute any other subject that may seem more suitable to the circumstances of the time. As the funds of the club are not sufficient to afford prizes for the best samples of roots and seeds, your committee strongly recommend that sweepstakes shall be extensively entered into among the members to be decided at the next an- nual meeting : they would, however, advise that the stakes should be as low as possible, in order that none of the competitors may lose to any considerable amount. As one main object in the establishment of far- mers' clubs is the general diffusion of agricultural information, your committee cannot but think it would he very desirable to encourage an extensive correspondence with similar clubs elsewhere ; they hope that this will not be neglected during the coming year. At one of your monthly meetings, an addition was unanimously made to your rules, by which the son of any member, being under twenty-one years of age, will be allowed to attend and hear all future discussions. This will materially extend the usefulness of the club. First Meeting, March 14th. The following subject was discussed — "The hest metJipdof preparing the land and depositing the seed for a crop of barley." Introduced by Mr. S — , who, after premising that it was impossible to lay down any fixed sys- tem, which could be followed without variation in all seasons, proceeded to treat the subject. First, with reference to heavy or clay soils ; Secondly, as regarded light or turnip soils. With respect to the first description of land, there were four preparations, all of which he had seen tried with success. The first was a naked summer fallow; he was aware that this was more usually followed by wheat, but where there was a good understanding between landlord and tenant, he thought that in most cases it would pay to sub- stitute barley for the wheat. Secondly, where the land was in good condi- tion, and therefore would seldom require summer fallows, a crop of vetches, for which the ground had been ])reviously manured, or which had been fed off by sheep, would form a good preparation for the barley crop. As the vetches would all be eaten oft' by the end of August at the latest, ample time would remain for ridging up the field for the winter. Thirdly, the land might be manured for beans, and after the removal of the crop it might be breast-i)loughcd, previous to landing up. The fourth method was one which he had only seen tried by one person, and which was in direct opposition to the usual practice, but on the farm alluded to, it had certainly answered exceedingly well. Turnips were grown as if on a light soil, they were fed off by sheep, even though the ground was in such a state as to be completely jiuddled by the feet of the animals, which were not removed until the middle or end of March. The land, instead of beingploughed, was then skimmed over, for which operation five horses harnessed at length were required ; it was afterwai'ds scuflfled in a contrary direction to the depth of about four inches, and upon this the seed was sown broad- cast. By this system very large crops had been obtained. (It was observed by another member, that the farm alluded to had been thoroughly drained.) In the three first methods of preparation, the groimd should of course be ridged up into lands sufficiently round to carry off the water, in which state it should lie until the spring, when it ought on no account to be touched, until the period ar- rived for sowing the barley. The land should then be scuffled once, and, if requisite, twice : the personal inspection ofthe farmer himself was ab- solutely necessary to decide whether this last scuffling was wanted, or whether it could be dis- jjcnsed with. It would be mo?t j)ernicious to jdough the land at this season of the year, — the fine mould obtained bj'^ the action of a winter's frost would be lost, and the field would be covered with clods as hard as brick-bats. One, or at most two, scufBings would raise as much mould as would be necessary, and would ])erl'cctly prepare the ground for the reception of the seed. As to the method of depositing the seed, he had tried drilling and sowing, and his decided opinion was in favour of the latter. With most other crops he preferred the drill, but in the case of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 barley he found tliat it crowded the seed so closely together as to be injurious to the plant. If, however, the soil was very fine, and the seed, if sown, could not be cfFectna'lly covered, recourse must be had to the drill, but in that case he should cross the iield with a pair of very heavy har- rows, so as to separate the seed as much as pos- sible. As regarded i'hjht land, there could be no doubt that the best crops of barley were obtained after turnips, for which the land had been manured, and which were fed off by sheep. On this des- cription of soil, he thought it was a good practice to give a very light ploughing in the spring, for the sake of covering the dung left by the sheep. A scufilcr would then ])nlverize the land suffici- ently to receive the seed, which he would sow broad-cast for the reason stated above. Mr. K — (the member alluded to by Mr. S— , as preparing his land according to the fourth me- thod described) confirmed what had been said as to his mode of cultivation ; the land he occupied was of a very binding nature, although full of stones and gravel ; he had tried jjloughing and skimming side by side,andhad found a very great diflerence in the crop in favour of the latter; he had also tried drilling and sowing broadcast in the same way, and the advantage of the latter was evident. He had pursued this system now for several years, and had found his crops average considerably move than before. He had used the subsoil plough on about two acres of his land, but did not find that the barley succeeded better there than elsewhere, j\Ir. J. S — gave an account of an e.^perimerit which he had tried to determine whether deep or light ploughing was most advantageous for this crop. For this purpose he liad ploughed an acre five inches deep, and another acre an inch and a half deep, in a Iield the soil of which was snndy, and where a fair proportion of Swedes had been consumed by sheep : no difference was percep- tible in the succeeding croj). He was a decided advocate for drilling, and always made use of the Suffolk drill. He was also in favour of early sowing, and had once grown a very large crop on forty acres of land, the seed for which had been drilled by the fourth of iMarch, althougii a heavy fall of snow completely hid the blade for nearly a fortnight. Several members having expressed their opinion on the vaiious plans proposed, it seemed to be the opinion of a majority of the club, that heivy land intended to be sown with barley should be ridged uj) previous to winter, that it should lie in that state until the spring weather permitted the use of the scugier, which would generally hap- pen some time in March, and that that tool would be in almost every .jase sufiicient to ptdve- rize the land for the reception of the seed. That on light soils, a crop of turnips fed oft" by sheep would form the best preparation for barley ; alight ploughing for the sake of turning in the manure would be useful, after which the scuffler would be used till the requisite depth of good mould could be obtained. Further experiments are necessary to prove the comparative advantages of the drill and broadcast systems as regards barley. Second RIeeting, April 11th. Subject, " The cultivation of Swedes and Tur- nips.' Mr. J. S said that in the four-course system, turnips succeeded a crop of wheat. Immediately after harvest, the land should be breast-ploughed and harrowed, and after lying some time in order to encourage tlic vegetation of weeds and to clear the surface, it should be ploughed to the depth of nine inches, and left through the winter. As soon as barley-sowing was concluded, the furrows should l)e reversed, and the ground ])erfectly cleaned and pulverized by means of scuffling, harrowing, and rolling. About a fortnight before the time of l)lanting, the field should once more be ploughed nine inches deep, and again harrowed and rolled. TheNc operations would prepare the land for the manure, upon the nature and quality of which the success of the crop would mainly dc])end. Farm- yard manure, being always at hand, is that upon which the greatest reliance is to be placed. In the course of the winter, it should be carted out into the field, and placed in mixens : turning it once ubout a month before spreading, will gene- rally fit it for use. The quantitv must of course vary with circumstances, but about twenty cart- loads for Swedes, and twelve or fourteen for tur- nips, may be about an average. Lime is also useful in bringing into action any dung or vegetable matter in the soil : one hundred and forty bushels per acre, unslaked, would be a good quaritity. Rones he had tried three years with success ; be had generally used three quarters per acre, but this year he intended to use two only. The benefit of this manure extended to succeeding crops, v'hich were invariably good. He had drilled soot and ashes with the seed, and found them use- ful. Soaper's ashes had no visible effect upon the crop. He thought the early part of June was thefittest time for sowing Swedes. The purple-top was the most valuable kind, both on account of its weight and quality. AZINE 209 well drained with siul'acc-ilrains dug three feet deep, and filled with stones to within nine inches of the surface. Tiic course of crops which he had adoitted since the year 1814, was as follows : — First year — Swedes, turnips, or mangold wurtzel, well limed and dunged, and cultivated on the ridge system. Second year — Barley sown hroadcast. Third year — Clover mown and afterwards seeded. Fourth year — Wheat drilled on a stale furrow. Fifth year — A'etchcs fed off, and the land then cleaned and dunged. Sixth year — Wheat dialled and sown with mixed seeds. Seventh year — Seeds grazed till ,luly, the land then fallowed and limed. Eighth year — Wheat drilled. jVinth year — Beans set, well manured with long dung. Tenth year — Wheat. Thus four-tenths of the farm were always in wheat, and the whole of the land was manured three times with farm-yard manure, and twice with lime, during the course. He did not find that his crops of wheat fell off at all, and they were in general quite as good as those grown in the neighbourhood. Mr. W. W thought that' wheat was taken too often according to the above rotation, and suggested that it would be an improvement if oats or barley were substituted in the sixth year, as the seeds would probabl}'" succeed better. I\lr. L , with some others, disapproved of applying dung and lime at the same time : he thought that the one would injure the other, and that though the effect might be more apparent at the time, it would not be so permanent. Fifth Meeting, July 11th. Subject, " The best breed of cattle for dairi/ pur- jwscs, and the most jjrofitable tiianagement of them." Mr. L said that the various circumstances of different districts rendered it quite impossible to fix upon any one breed of cattle, and say that it ought to be universally adopted for dairy pur- poses : one would answer best in one situation, and another in another ; but there were two breeds which, as he considered, were superior to all others, viz., the Gloucestershires and the Short- horns. It is much to be regretted that it is now so difficult to meet with a pure specimen of the former. They were originally of AVelch origin, much improved by admixture with other breeds : they are small in the bone, and light in the carcase, seldom weighing more than nine or ten scores per quarter when fat : they are a hardy useful breed, well suited to the climate, and answering the pur- pose both of the dairyman and grazier. The short-horns, combining as they do, fine frames, showy colours, and the most exquisite quality, present themselves to our notice under circumstances of peculiar interest. From the earliest periods, the counties of Durham and York have been celebrated as possessing a breed of cattle surpassing all others in the quality and quantity of their milk. The first improvers, in their anxiety to obtain early maturity and aptitude to fatten, lost sight of this important point: in consequence of which, the cattle were beginning to lose their milking properties ; and hence arose the general opinion, that a disposition to lay on flesh could seldom exist in a good milker. However, some of the later and more intelligent breeders having crossed an improved Short- horn bull with some of the old Yorkshires, have at length obtained a race of cattle little inferior to the new breed in their grazing pro- perties, and at the same time retaining, with little diminution, the value of the original breed for the dairy. Thus wc have now a breed of milking short-horns surpassing every variety of cattle in the kingdom, and entitled to be considered the best breed for dairy purposes. With a view to the dairy only, a cow may be milked with profit for ten or twelve years, but this cannot be done without considerably lessening her valu3 as grazing stock ; perhaps, therefore, it would be more profitable, on the whole, to turn ihem off at the end of about five years. If well kept, a cow may safely be milked forty- four weeks in the year ; but if, as is not uncommon in Gloucestershire, they are wintered chiefly on straw, it will be necessary to dry them at least three months before calving, the last six weeks of which they should he kept on good hay. I'his practice is by no means to be recommended, as the cattle become poor, and do not milk so well the following season. Heifers ought never to be put to the bull under two years' old, as it very much impedes their growth, and in many cases makes them prove out of season the following year. The beginning of May is the most advantageous time for them to come in, whether for the dairy or market. Mr. J.B thoughtthat by careful breeding, any race of cattle might become good milkers ; and, indeed, that any other desirable quality might be obtained in the same way. The Dishley sheep were originally alike, and continued so as long as they remained under Bakewell's management ; hut no sooner did they get into the hands of different breeders, than their forms altered in various ways, according to the plans of their owners, and they are now quite different from the old stock. The short-horns were very good milkers, but they were delicate, and required ex- pensive buildings : when put upon good keep, they recover condition in a short time. On the other hand, it was contended that the short-horns did not require more care than other breeds. They were the common stock of the vale of Berkeley, and the buildings and other con- veniences of that district were by no means good ; a great deal of the land was also very wet, and required draining. They united the qualities of milking and feeding more than any other race of cattle. The long-horns and Herefords had also their advocates, while it was thought by many members that much more depended upon the breeding than upon the breed, that is to say, that almost any race of cattle would become good milkers, if they were managed through a series of generations with that object in view. Subject, ' horses," Mr. G.S- SixTH Meeting, Aug. 5th. The best breed and management of cart- thought that the cart-horses of Gloucestershire, if properly selected and carefully bred, would be quite as good as those used in any other part of England : the land was for the most part heavy, and therefore a heavy description of horse was necessary. On light soils, activity and a quick step were desirable, but in ploughing a stiff clay, the weight which a horse could throw into the collar, was quite as important as the muscular power he was capable of exerting. The main defect of Gloucestershire breeding was that sufficient care was not taketi in the selection of brood mares: it seemed to be the common idea, that if from disease or any other cause, a mare 210 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was unrated for farm laboiu', this was the most profitable use to which she could be applied j under such management it was no wonder that the breed did not iuiprove. It was the common, and upon the whole the most profitable, practice to have the foals dropped in May, as that was the time when the labour of the marc could best be spared ; but if the object was to obtain the best horse, August would be a better period of the year : the foal would then be allowed to run with the mother all the winter, and it would be weaned in the spring when grass was becoming ])]enty. Cart-hcrses should be kept in yards, winter and suinmer, as under this management they were more free from disease than when confined in warm stables. Mr. G. S 's team was com- posed chiefly of young horses, as he found it most profitable to sell them out as they became fit for the market : he kept them through the winter ii|)on hay, with brewers' grains, but a change of food might be useful to keep them in better health, and it would be economical to have the hay cut into chaff. Mr. B considered the Gloucestershire race of horses to be the worst of all the breeds with which he was acquainted. The Clevelands were equal to any kind of farm work, and their superior activity enabled them to go through it in a much shorter time. He had more than once proved this by experiment. Horses should be fed according to their work, and should always be kept in good condition : two quarters of oats, and fourteen pounds of hay i)er day, together with a little straw, cut into chaff, would be amply sufficient for this purpose, — this feeding would cost at average prices about five shillings and sixpendie per week. A sack of potatoes a-week, with no hay or corn, but witlr a moderate al- lowance of straw cut into chaff, had also been found a cheap and good food. Great care was necessary not to allow the potatoes to remain longer than a day after they were steamed, as fermentation would come on rapidly, and in that case they became very unwholesome, for this reason they can only be used during the winter months. It would effect a great saving in the consumption of the hay, if it were regularly weighed out to the carters, and a^vays cut into chaff. Rock salt should constantly be kept in the mangers, it was a preservative against many dis- eases. Each horse should be bled, and have two doses of physic, wlien taken up from grass, or if constantly kept in the stable, towards the end of September. Mr. S said that he allowed a bushel of split beans and one hundred weight of bran among six hoi'ses per week. Seventh Meeting, September oth. Subject, " The most profitable management of stock in winter on lands unsuitable to turnips." In consequence of the harvest, the attendance of members was very small, and the discussion short. Mr. B said that the subject might be divided into two parts, and considered, first, as regarded the stock itself; and, secondly, with a view to the manure. The better cattle were kept during the winter the more valuable they would prove in the follow- ing spring, and for this reason he thought it would pay to give them much better food than was generally afforded them ; where it was possi- ble to keep them upon seed hay without straw, it would be found the most profitable practice ; he had heard of oil-cake, linseed jelly, and steamed hay with a few beans, being given to store cattle, but never having tried these e.'speriments, he was not able to say wh.ethcr the expense of their food would be repaid by their improved condition. They should be tied up in open sheds, which would sufficiently protect them from the inclemencies of the weather, and each beast would receive its due proportion of food, and no more. Calves might be kept in yards with sheds. In Essex, where large numbers are annually fed for the London market, they are let out morning and evening to suck the mothers, and pieces of salt and chalk are constantly kept within their leach — this latter custom was especially deserving of imitation. Horses should, if possible, be kept in open yards with sheds ; but where they are necessarily confined to stables, the greatest possible attention should be paid to ventilation. Store sheep and breeding ewes might be allowed to run in dry pastures during the winter; some clover or other hay should be given them daily. The practice of Iffeeping lambs and feeding sheep in yards, and giving them corn, has been proved to be profitable ; the only objection to the sys- tem is their liability to the foot-rot. As regarded the manure, its strength and quality, as well as quantity, would depend very much upon the method of keeping the cattle; the better the food and the higher their condition, the stronger would the manure be. The common method of littering down a whole yard with a thick coat of straw, and turning the beasts loose into it, was a verv vvasteful one ; the quantity of rain which would be absorbed by the straw would render the manure weak and unprofitable ; whereas, if the cattle were tied up in stalls, the dung might be carefully removed to a pit, into which the urine might also be conducted, while much of the rain water might be carried away by spouts round the building, and thus all the valuable part of the ma- nure would be preserved; by this method also, earth, vegetable substances &c. might be mixed with the heap. i\Ir. F said that a thick layer of sand or earth spread over a yard under the straw, before the cattle were turned in, would be very useful in absorbing the moisture ; whereas, if earth were mixed with the dung, the fermentation would be checked to an injurious extent. He did not like the ])ractice of tying up store cattle — they did not thrive so well as when Joose. Eighth Meeting, October IOtu. Subject. " The cultivation of tvheat." jNlr. A. B stated that he generally planted his wheat either on a clover lay or a bean stubble. The first crop of clover was mown early in June, and made into hay ; the second was generally ready to fold the sheep upon about the 10th or loth of July ; they were mowed morning and even- ing, so that the whole field might be manured as equally as possible. This crop was generally con- sumed by the middle or end of August, when the part where they begun to be folded was generally ready to begin upon again, which was done pre- cisely as before. As fast as this last crop was fed off, the land was ploughed, always using a skim or flay to the plough. It was material that a clover lay should be made as firm as possible, and for this purpose he had occasionally used the harrows ten times over the same ground; when the land was not too wet, a heavy cast-iron roller might be used with good effect. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 211 With the bean stubble quite a different mctliod was adopted, not using a common plough at all, but a skim plough, which does not turn the fur- rows, but passing under at any required depth, and taking about two feet eight inches of ground, cuts the weeds off effectually. By means of drags and harrows, all the filth is then drawn into heaps, and immediately burnt by women and children. He was aware that this could not be done where the land was full of couch, but this, he contended, ought not to be there; the soil was incapable of l)roducing two good crops at once, and a man that suffers his farm to be overgrown with weeds, is neither doing his duty to himself or his country. There are also seasons — such as the last (1839) — when the plan cannot be adopted ; but at such times thestiffer lands ought not to be planted with wheat in the autumn, as a failure would almost in- evitably follow. It would he far better to plough the ground before the winter, and let it lie till the spring, when a more favourable o])portuiiity of de- positing the seed might be expected. On a clay soil, a crop of vetches fed off by sheep in time to fallow the land afterwards, forms mucli the best preparation for wheat ; it tnight be said that a sufficient number of sheep would not be kept on such a farm, but the neighbouring flocks should be borrowed rather than that the vetches should get too old before they are fed oft". Wheat should always be deposited in the ground by means of a drill, and he should prefer the Suffolk drill, as it dropped the seed most equally, and at the most uniform depth ; the exact quantity to be sown might also be adjusted, which was not the case with any other drill. The distance between the rows should be eight inches, which leaves am- ple room for the use of the hoe, and from six to eight pecks per acre, according to the condition of the land and the time of sowing, was sufficient. The seed-time was from the middle of October to the middle of November. In order to prevent the smut, he always obtained the seed from the chalk, and prepared it with vitriol, before sowing. Mr. AV. W objected to the Suffolk drill for wheat : it crowded the seed too much in the rows, and by means of a table which he had drawn up, ("and which will be found below) the required quantity of seed might be deposited with the com- mon three-furrow drill with equal accuracy. Mr. A gave an account of some experiments that had been tried by a relation of his upon a dry soil with a marl bottom. To ascertain the best time of sowing, two lands were selected and drilled, orie October 29th, and the other November 20th, and treated alike in other respects ; the re- sult was in favour of the later sown to the extent of three or four bushels i)er acre. Other experi- ments, made with great care and accuracy, tended to prove that three bushels i)cr acre was the best (juantity of seed, and th;it the produce of red wheat would, in the average of seasons, exceed that of white by about two or three l)usl;els per acre. Mr. L agreed in thinking that November was the best month for planting wheat ; he was in the habit of i)loughing all the land intended for that crop, and drilling the seed as soon as the ground would work. Five to six pecks, in rows eight inches apart, he thought amply sufficient. As there was a great difference of opinion as to whether the seed should be sown on a fresh or stale furrow, and also as to the dejith at which it should be dejiosited, Mr. L , at the request of the club, tindertook to try an ex])eriment for the purpose of throwing light upon the fi>st point, and to report the result. Mr. ^V read a paper advocating the use of the hoe in jdanting wheat on clay soils, which, as he contended, h.ul the following advantages : — First — The seed is equally deposited at the re- quired depth. Secondly — The treading of the land by horses is avoided. Thirdly — A smaller quantity of seed is sufficient. Fourthly — The wider inter- vals (from nine to twelve inches) admits the earlier and more frequent use of the hoe. The quantity of seed he was in the habit of using varied from five pecks to two bushels, ac- cording to circumstances. The exi)ense was about si.x shillings per acre, besides drink. It was suggested that the distance between the rows was a material objection to the system, as it encouraged late tillering, and tims injured the quality of the produce; but Mr. W asserted that so far from this being the case, he found that the samples of corn grown in this way were very su])crior to tliose obtained either from drilled or sown wheat. After this point had been discussed at some length, Mr. W consented to try an experiment tills year, to ascertain, as far as possible, the rOMPAKATIVE MERITS OV THE DRILL AND THE TIOE. Detailed particulars of an experiment made by Mr. Wm. Woodward, of Bredon's A'ortoii, near Tewkesbury, to ascertain the difference in pro- duce of nine varieties of wheat, upon nine half- acres of land, planted the 2nd and 3rd of Decem- ber, 1839, and cut between the 7th and Loth of August, 1840. A bushel and a half of seed was drilled at six inches apart on each of the following half-acres. No. of each Lot. Names of Varieties Drilled. Produce of Grain from each Half-acre. Produce of Straw from each Half-acre. Best Wheat. Wheat per Bush. Tail end. Boltings. Short Straw. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Brown's White Prolific. Brown's Bed Prolific . . Scotch White Taunton Wliite Sicilian White Whittington White Old Herts White Golden Drop Bed . . . . Creeping Wheat Red . . bus. pec. 24 1| 23 1 21 2 21 2 20 O.i 24 O' 23 0 24 2 23 Oi lbs. 62 601 61i 62 62J 59 61 61 J 62^ pec. 2 5 2 3 0\ 4 3 3 n cwt. qr. lb. 14 2 0 13 3 12 14 0 0 14 1 16 12 1 0 17 0 16 14 1 12 10 3 17 13 3 12 cwt. qr. lb. 6 10 6 0 8 6 3 4 7 0 10 6 1 12 7 2 0 6 3 24 7 1 14 6 2 22 cwt. qr. lb. 20 3 0 19 3 20 20 3 4 21 1 26 18 2 12 24 2 16 21 1 8 18 1 3 20 2 6 212 THE VARMER'S MAGAZINE. N.B. The above were planted on a gravelly loan tive when the season suits it, the flour inferior, (clover lay) in a high state of cultivation. The Nos. 4 and 7 have much degenerated, now nearly lots were measured and staked out across the red, from having been grown without change of field without taking in the outside lands, or head- seed for so many years in the neighbourhood, lands. Neither lot was affected by trees or hedges. Nos. 1, 3, and (5, are well calculated for sowing The land varied but little in quality. Nos. 8 and early in the spring. There were but a few days [) were on the ^art not quite so good ; and in No. 5 difference in the time of ripening, the less on having a drain burst, the wet destroyed a patch account of the dryness of the season. No. 7 the which may have produced nearly one bushel. The earliest, No. ?> next, Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5, next, No. crop was all bagged or cut close to the ground, 6 a little later, and 8 and 9 the latest and least but the exact length of straw was not taken. No. ripe when cut. WiM. Woodward. 6 was the longest ; Nos. 1, 2, 3 5, and 7. the Memorandum of the produce of six varieties of shortest. The samples were not fine, owing to an ^,^^^^ .,^ ^^^ ^^^.^ ^f ,^,, ^ j, j^j^^ p^^„. attackbythewheat-flyofthe yellow maggot (or ^j^ Woodward on his farm at Bricklehampton, red-gum) which also lessened the produce, home j^ ^.j^^ ^^^, -^^.^^ *^ varieties were attacked more than others. No. 5 / ' .o n i. i was the finest sample, and No. (i the worst. Nos. tobhani, one aci-e. 42 Bushels 1, 2, 6, 7. and 8, were the most, and Nos. 3, 4, 5, Brown s Wlnte Chevalier. ...... 44 and 9, the least attacked by the wheat-fly. I con- ^ ^llow Chevalier, or White Straw sider Nos. 1 and 8 the most desirable and produc- ixru- • i\Vu' "Ici tive on soils of best quality, in a good state of ;) hiitington White Mj . . cultivation. Nos. 3 and "5 producing the best Hertfordshire White o9 quality of flour, and calculated for gravelly and ^JOlden Drop 40 sandy soils; and Nos. 6 and 9 the best calculated The above were grown on a field after peas, for inferior or 2>oor land. No. 2 is very produc- which I consider a bad preparation for wheat. Table slieiclng the distance each foot of a Drill Plough should go to deliver a half -pint of seed. Distance Quantity of E'lch Hopper to . Distance Quantity of Each Hopper to apart in each seed per acre deliver half a apart in each seed per acre deliver half a row. required. pint of seed in going. row. required. pint of seed in going. Inches. Pecks. Yards. Inches. Pecks. Yards. 6 8 1131 8 16 421 6 10 90f 8 20 34 6 12 7 3 A- 8 9 24 28i 6 14 64-J 8 ^H 6 16 56i 9 10 60^ 6 20 4.5i 9 12 50k 6 24 37f 9 14 43i 7 8 97\ 9 16 •■571 7 10 7?| 9 20 30'- 7 12 64i 9 24 2.5^- 7 14 .")5§ 10 8 68 7 16 48i 10 10 54^ 7 20 38f 10 12 45 J 7 24 m 10 14 39 8 8 85 10 16 34 8 10 68 10 20 27J 8 12 .361 10 24 22A 8 14 48i The above table was calculated by me when the three-furrow drills were generally used, in order that my men when drilling may take a proper half-pint measure into the field, and by putting that quantity into one hopper, and mea- suring or stepping the number of yards I had di- rected them, according to the seed to be planted, ascertain thereby if they were doing their work correctly. In drilling wheat if it is wished to put eight pecks upon an acre, and the liming, or pick- ling increases the eight to ten pecks, the drill must of course be set to drill the latter quantity, Wm. Woodwakd. Ninth Meeting, November 7th. Subject, " Ihe use of Nitrate of Soda as a ma- nure." Mr. H— , after having made some preliminary observations on the advantages to be derived from agricultural experiments when carefully tried on a moderate scale, as they afforded the farmer a mean of satisfying himself as to the beneficial results of any new manure or mode of cultivation before he expended much of his capital upon it, proceeded to give a detail of certain experiments which he had tried this year, to ascertain the effect of nitrate of soda as a manure for wheat. The soil is what is commonly termed a stone- brash upon the upper Oolite formation, containing much alkali, and therefore at first sight unlikely to suit this manure, which is also an alkali. The land was in good condition and quite clean ; it had been well manured in 1838, and had produced good crop of Sw edes, one fourth of which were fed off by sheep on the land. In 1839, spring vetches had been sown, and about one-third of them were also sheep-fed. It was ploughed and prepared for wheat the end of September and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 early part of October, and on the 2(;th of that month, two pounds of white Sicilian wheat per acre were drilled in. The nitrate at the rate of one cwt. per acre was sown on the whole field, with the exception of two square pieces, which \yere left for com])arison. 'J'he weather at this time was very dry, and no difference in the crop was perceptible till after some moderate rain, which fell about the 8th of May, when the nitrated part of the field ti)ok the lead, becoming much better in the straw, and of a moreluxnriant tureen colour, which difference continued during the fu- ture progress of the crop ; it was however attacked in every part by a disease called red-rust, in con- sequence of which, the leaves became marked with blotches of a dingy colour. All parts of the field came into ear alike about June 8th, and into blossom about July 2nd. As the crop advanced to maturitv, the difference in colour became less remarkable, and at last disap- l)eared. About July 20th, the nitrated part, which still rook the lead in strength, became mildewed both in straw and ear, nor did it afterwards ripen so etpially as the rest. As however it is well Lnown that the most luxuriant crops are the most subject to this disease, it cannot in this case be attributed to the nitrate. The crop was reaped August 2:)th, and soon after thrashed out, when it was found that the nitrated wheat produced an inferior sample weighing sixty pounds per bushel, and valued at eight shillings, while the unma- nured wheat weighed sixty- one pounds, and was valued at eight shillings and threepence. The ([iiantity of tail corn on the nitrated part was t\vice as much as that on the part that had not been manured ; it weighed fifty pounds, and was valued at five shillings per bushel. Produce. Measure per acre. Value per acre. | j^^itrated. Without JN.| Excess. Nitrated. Without. •Excess. Clean Corn. raiiCorn. . IJ. p. PTS. 37 3 4 5 3 7 B. p. PTS. 30 2 11 2 3 11 B. P. PTS. 7 0 «) 2 3 12 £ s. d. 15 2 6 1 0 2 £ s. d. 12 13 0 0 14 7 £ s. d. 2 9 6 0 14 7 Total Corn . 43 2 11 33 2 6 10 0 5 16 11 8 13 7 7 15 14 6 3 4 1 4 0 2 Straw. . . T. C. QR. LB. 1 11 2 3 T. C. QR. LB. 1 3 1 21 T. C. QR. LB. 0 8 0 10 19 14 8 Cost of Nitrate on the ground .... Net Profit .... 1 3 0 2 17 2 It had been supposed that this manure, although beneficial to the crop to which it was apjilied, might be only a powerful stimulant, bringing into immediate action the vegetable nutriment already in the soil, and in this case would probably prove permanently injurious to the land. This was pos- sible, but there were no decisive grounds for sup- posing so, and at all events he had obtained a clear surplus profit of 21. 17s. 2d., which would go a long way towards restoring the land to its for- mer condition. He had also tried nitrate upon grass and Swedes, but the experiments were not satisfactory ; as far as they went however, they tended to prove that the increased produce was not sufficient to pay the expense of the manure. It is of the greatest importance, in trying expe- riments of this kind, to bring every thing to the test of weight and measure, as appearances in the field are frequently deceptive even to the most ex- perienced eye, and thus opinions are formed upon false, or at the least inadequate, grounds. The most trivial circumstances in appearance ought also to be carefully observed, as they may have important effects upon the result of the experi- ment. Mr. W. J stated that last spring he had a thin piece of wheat, and having selected the two worst acres, he sowed the nitrate upon them, the improvement was visible almost immediately, *'and the produce exceeded that of the remainder of the field by five or six bushels per acre. The soil was a stiff clay. Several other members had also tried the nitrate upon various crops, and their experience tended to corroborate all that had been said by the mem- ber who introduced the subject. It was a very valuable manure for white straw crops, but when applied to green crops the benefit was not suffi- ciently great to counterbalance the expense. Tenth Meeting, December 5tii. Subject, " T/ie best method of making cider." Considerable difficulty was experienced in find- ing any member who would undertake the intro- duction of this subject, until, at the eleventh hour, Mr. S kindly consented to do so. The discus- sion, however, was short. The main points considered by the meeting as essential to the manufacture of good cider, were — First — A good kind of fruit ; the following sorts were recommended : — the Skyrme's Kernel — the IMargill — the Ribstone Pippin — the Anselm — and the Duke. Secondly — That the apples should be perfectly ri])e. Thirdly — That the weather at the time of grind- ing should be clear and cold. After grinding, the liquor should be placed in an open hogshead and left to itself, when, if the weather be favourable, it will probably drop fine in a short time, but if this should not be the case, recourse must be had to filtering it through linen bags. This, however, should be avoided, if pos- sible, as the cider is never so good as when it has dropped fine of itself. Having thus concluded their brief account of the subjects brought under discussion during the past year, your committee now resign into j'our hands the trust you have reposed in them. They cannot, however, do this without expressing their 214 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. earnest wishes for the future welfare of this club ; may it go on and prosper ; may every month add to the number of its members, and may the gene- ral improvement visible upon their farms prove to the most prejudiced that its meetings have not been attended in vain. For the Committee, Lloyd B. Walrond, Honorary Secretary. Immediately after the passmg of the above Re^mrt, thcfollowinff resolutions were carried xmanimously : — 1st. — That three hundred copies of the report just read be printed for the use of the members and for distribution by the committee. 2nd. — That the secretary be instructed to pre- sent a copy of our report to other farmers' clubs, with a request that if they also print a report, they will favour this club with a copy of it in return. 3rd. — That the Mark Lane Express be taken in from this time, and that it belaid every week upon the table in the reading room for the use of the members, together with any other agricultural periodical that the committee may think advisable from time to time. And that the committee be empowered to oi-der sucli books as they shall think fit for the use of the club to an amount not exceeding fifteen pounds. SALTING AND CURING MEAT. A new discovery has lately been patented for the •' salting' and curiHg" of animal substances," v/hich de- serves to be made universally known. The process is extremely simple, economical and efficacious. The re- sults are thus stated in a circular from the patentee, Mr. Payne : — " 1. The whole process of curing' effectually the animal substance does not occupy more than one quarter of an hour, economising thereby labour and tune, to a very great extent. " 2. At any season of the year, and in any temperature, even under the influence of a tropical sun, the process is effective, and may be used with perfect safety. " 3. The materials employed are the same as hitherto used, but less than one-third of the usual quantity is consumed. " 4. Any desired flavour, and any degree of saltness may be communicated, the process being thus equally applicable to hams, tongues, spiced meats, and other pre- parations, as to plain salting:. Fish, poultry, &c., may also be treated with equal advantage. " 5. By this process the nutritious elements of the animal substance are all preserved in it, which, by the old mode of curing are necessarilly much deteriorated. '* 6. By this process hides can be prepared for pack- ing with great advantage, occupying much less space, thoroughly preserved, and rendered fitter for the tan- ning process." These important results are attained by means of a machine of very simple construction and action, whereby the two greatest powers in nature are brought into operation, namely, exhaustion and pressure — the one to prepare the animal substance to receive the an- tiseptic or preservative fluid, and the other to secure its equal and effective distribution. The materials used are the same hitherto employed in salting meat ; but the great saving of labour and time, as well as of the quan- tity of the materials consumed, together with the perfect certainty of the operation being effective, under any dis- advantage of temperature or other atmospheric influ- ence (hitherto so utterly destructive to the process of preservation), and also the all-important fact that by this new process the whole nutritious elements of the animal substance are retained in it, form the principal features and unquestionable advantages of this new discovery. Now, how important to the human race are the con- sequences deducible from these facts ! In the first place, we must view the matter as connected with the preservation of human food throughout the world. The bounty of Providence has covered the face of the earth and the waters under the earth with all that c^n ad- minister to the wants of mankind, but the influences of climate and other inimical causes, in many of the most productive quarters of the globe, interfere and render useless those blessings. In the tropical climates at all times, and during the summer and autumn month? of colder regions, all animal substances (which it may be said comprise the most important portion of human sustenance) have hitherto been incapable of being pre- served, decomposition commencing almost immediately alter the extinction of life, and thereby preventing the succe«$ful application of any antiseptic ; for the mstant decomposition begins in any animal substance, impure gases are evolved, which destroy the fibres of the substance, and occupying the various vessels, necessarily prevent the admission of any other body — this being the cause of what butchers generally term the "salt not striking." The simple fact of witiidrawing these gases, andintroducingimmediately after the antiseptic in vacuo, must at once carry the conviction, that if the substance is capable of being preserved at any time, or under any circumstances, it must be so then. How important must fhis be to those extensive regions within and approaching to the tropics, abounding as they do with all animal pro- ducts, which have hitherto been turned to little account in their own locality, and to no account for the rest of the world. But we must view the matter yet closer, and as it more immediately and domestically concerns ourselves. The quantity of human food, fish, flesh, and fowl, annually lost during the hot weather in this country is enormous, besides which there is much in a bad and unhealthy condition that is sold at under rates of price and with the most baneful effects, to the poorer classes. Butchers, curers, and others know this well, and to their cost. Hereafter there will be no excuse for any tradesman offering for sale impure meat; for as soon as he finds it in any way turneil, by adopting this process he can perfectly save it, even though decomposition has partially commenced. To families wishing to cure their own meat or fi«li, and prepare hams, tongues, or spiced meats, to public institutions, large farmers, and numerous other classes, it must prove invaluable. In a mercantile point of view it is of the utmost importance, in countries where hitherto curing has been imprac- ticable, a new and most valuable trade may be ex- pected to spring up ; and from tiie quantity that will be produced,the world will be supplied with the necessaries of life at a greatly reduced cost. For the curing of fish the process is admirably adapted, and must be of in- calculable benefit to the Newfoundland trade, and to fisheries in general. In the article of hides, a great im- provement takes place in their fitness for the tanning process, with the great advantag:e of rendering them unassailable by worms, and capable of being packed in one-third the compass formerly occupied. During the hot season is the best period for killing cattle for their tallow, but the other portion of the carcase is then, of course, lost. Not so now. In any temperature, under any clime, and at any season, the animal substance can now be saved and secured. In a political point of view this matter is not less important. The contracts for the supply of the navy, hitherto such a considerable item in the expenditure of the state, how greatly will they be reduced ! and at the same time how much more healthy and nutritious will the food be ! A vessel furnished with one of these machines, and on a foreign station, must not hereafter be compelled to look to home for her supplies, but at the nearest and cheapest point can supply herself. The Admiralty, we understand, have already ordered a quantity of beef and pork for inspection and trial. The expense entailed on patent processes generally much diminishes their value in a public point of view ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 l>ut the patentees of thin important discovery have wiisely (leterinined to impose so trilling a chargre lor tiicir own remuneration thai no obstacle of this kind will interfere with its universal and profitable adoption. In fine, we conceive that this discovery is calcHlutcd to create a great and most beneficial revolution in matters of the highest importance to mankind throughout the world. ON PLANTING POTATOES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — I perceive in your numher of last month, a letter of mine, on planting potatoes, copied from the York Herald, and also a short notice of a similar experiment, signed " Ue Rohan." I have been favoured by a letter from " De Rohan," desiring me, if possible, to account for the dissimilarity in our conclusions thereon, which I think is quite possible to do, if dissimilar our conclusions are ; but I ap- prehend they are not so much so as " De Rohan" at present believes. You will observe, sir, that " De Rohan" takes a gallon of potatoes, which he divides into two parts; the first part often potatoes he plants whole, at two feet apart ; of course, that portion of his seed covers a space of 20 feet. The other moiety he cuts into 51 sets, 'which lie plants one foot apart, and will, therefore, cover a space of O'l feet. The produce of 20 feet, planted with whole tubers, is 89lbs. We may therefore reduce the experiment to a simple rule-of- three sum, as follows, discarding fractions : — If 20 feet produce 89 lbs., what should 54 produce? The answer will be, 240 lbs. The next consideration is, the greater weight of seed the whole tubers would require, and would amount, by " De Rohan's" statement, to about 45lhs. more in 54 feet, which, being deducted from 2401bs., would leave 235pbs. Now as " De Rohan's" produce was only 2221bs. on 54 feet, by sliced sets, the balance would be in favour of whole tubers, by lo§lbs. If the potatoes planted had been moderate sized, the whole tubers would probably have gone nearly as far in propor- tion as the sliced ones. Undoubtedly " De Ro- han's" experiment was not so favourable to whole tubers as mine; but, allowing it so, it bears out my conjectures as stated in my last notice, that the same favourable results would not be found in garden ground, or new soils apt to produce too much haulm, as, of course, those soils would do their office with a lighter bodied seed ; and that " De Rohan's" soil is rich, we may gather from the fact of his unex- ampled produce — amounting, by my calculation, to nearly 800 imperial bushels per acre ; and the weight of his single potatoes so great as we, in the " far north," have never seen. The variety of seed " De Rohan" planted I am unacquainted with, at least by that name ; it must be eminently productive. The variety I used in my experiment was, what we in our neighbourhood know by the name of " the poor man's friend," being very productive, hardy, and a good keeper ; it is a pretty good sized, unevenly- shaped red potatoe. I did not discover any marked distinction in the produce, in the size of the tubers, between the cut and the uncut sets ; the quality I did not try, as they were mixed with others, after being measured. The tubers I planted whole were promiscuously taken, large and small; "De Rohan" selected the smallest. A question might here arise, which would be most efficient"? which I am at pre- sent unable to answer, but may be ascertained by farther experiments. Another consideration is the climate, or rather the weather, last summer. In the south it was very productive, warm, and dry — ia the north, the wettest, coldest, most ungenial ever remembered ; and there is no doubt a great portion of the potatoe seed perished for want of body, which would not have happened if the seed had been planted whole : but as I have elsewhere remarked, these experiments, (like many other agricultural operations,) will be found to have different results in diflerent soils and climate, and more particularly perhaps in the difference in the fertility of the sea- sons. I cannot conclude without begging" De Rohan's" pardon for the liberty I have taken with his article ; but as he appears to be' a gentleman only desirous of arriving at the truth, that must be the excuse for my freedom, recommending him to try his next ex- periments in the open fields, and on exactly equal portions of land, as that is the only way to find the comparative amount of produce, and at the same time measuring or weighing his seed ; he will then arrive at correct conclusions. I am, sir, yours respectfully, R. C. Weatherill. Hall Garth Farm, Kildale, Feb. 8, 1841. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — In your January number, page 13, is a letter from Mr. Addis Jackson, who is surprised at the small allowance of hay considered sufficient for four cart-horses, per week, by the Chartham Club ; and well he may be, with the little corn they add to it. I know nota subject more worthy of discussion by farmers' clubs, than the best and cheapest mode of keeping working horses, which, on arable land, is fully equal to the rent, and nearly equal to the labour. But correctness should of all things be attended to ; without it, what is the use of their decision — and surely our Chartham friends must be in error. We usually give our horses 2 bushels of oats, and 2| trusses (541bs. each) of hay, per week; but a winter or two back, having much very heavy carting, and long hours, from half-past six to five o'clock, I gave my horses half a bushel each, per day, of oats, and no hay, but barn chaflT of course, ad libitum — and well they did on it ; they kept up their flesh, their coats shone, and not one out of a dozen was sick or sorry one day for months. A neighbour, whose horses are large, gives his three bushels of oats each, per week, and one truss of hay. Circum- stances and locality would of course guide a man in his choice of these very different plans — as, for instance, where hay is plentiful and cheap, the first would be preferred ; where it is scarce, and the cattle large, more corn and less hay is better. The comparison of expence stands thus, for three horses for a week : — £ s. d. 6 bushels of oats at 28s. per qr 110 7^ trusses of hay at 63s. per load 0 13 1^ 1 14 1| 10| bushels of oats at 28s. per qr 116 9 No hay 0 0 0 1 16 9 9 bushels of oats at 28s. per qr 1 11 6 3 trusses of hay at 63s. per load 0 5 3 1 16 9 Q 2 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, In neitber Lave I cLarg-ed the barn-cbafF, and in the two latter plans of course much more of it would be consumed ; but it is not a very expensive article — and how mucb better would be their condition, and the dung they made, aud how much more work would they do if required. For a whole year, I think the following a fairer calculation than that received from Cbartham. — For four horses : — From Oct. 1st to June loth, each s. d. £ s. d. liorse to have, per week 2 bush, oats 7 0 ^ bush, beans 2 6 2 trusses hay 3 6 96 4 0 Not knowing what to say for barn- chaff, I put nil 00 0 0 0 From June 15th to Oct. 1st, each horse to have, per week 1 bush, oats 3 6 1 peck beans 13 14 5 0 2 acres winter tares, grown on fallow for turnips, cost2Z., allowance for turnips not being so good after them, 4Z 6 0 0 1 acre second crop clover 2 10 0 1 acre of after-grass to Oct. 1st 0 5 0 Cost of food 119 4 0 2 ploughmen by the year 10s. per week 52 0 0 Blacksmith by contract 3 0 0 Collar maker do 3 0 0 Interest on capital, 4 horses at 25i., good second hand harness at 2L, 108/. at 5 per cent 5 8 0 Wear and tear of horses Is. each per week 10 8 0 Farrier 3 0 0 Total £196 0 0 Our totals do not vary much, but some of our items do considerably ; as certainly their allowance of corn and hay is not near enough for horses in full work. This 501. per annum per horse sounds large ; but I do not believe it can be done properly for less. Some feed with bran, thinking they then eat less hay and chaff; but death from gripes is often caused by that, and their condition is very inferior. I apportion these four horses in two ploughs to do the work on 100 acres, arable turnip land (l-5th turnips) or 150 acres heavy (but two-horse plough- ing) land — which difference is caused by the fallows in one requiring to be finished by July 15, while the whole summer is allowed on the other. This is, supposing they never go off the farm, except with corn. Trusting the Cbartham gentlemen will revise their decision, and that some experienced horse proprietor will show us a more economical system than mine, — I am, Sir, your humble servant, W. W. We learn from our correspondent ''Amicus," that excellent agricultural lectures, combined with geology and chemistry, are delivered at Aberdeen, and that they are well attended. This is an an- nouncement which will be hailed with gratification by our readers, as an additional effort in the ad- vancement of agricultural knowledge. THE TURNIP QUESTION. TO SIK JOHN M. TYLDEN. Sir, — Having answered your ell-long string of questions, you favour me with a modest additional inch, to which I shall now pay my respects ; — not from my having leisure to become a weekly corre- spondent, but from a willingness to lend my very limited support to any landowner who, like you, have the agricultural good of the country at heart — and who, like you, does not disdain to glean from the humblest sources whatever can, by more influen- tial means than appertain to my position, be espe- cially directed towards agricultural weal. It seems that we are agreed that England can be made to produce double the present yield of food. To put the proposition in fewer words, I would say that the country is 7wt half cultivated ; for which there are many reasons, and I will, with your per- mission, notice two or three of them, in the hope of bringing out abler correspondents on the same subject. Landlords, as a body, do not often attend to the farming qualifications of an incoming tenant, but most times select from a host of applicants the apparently surest or most monied man, heedless whether the land be only " half cultivated,'' or even riui ou(, provided he is in punctual attendance on rent day. Others eagerly close with the applicant who offers a sum beyond the Hve-and-let-livc rent ; but this endeavour to get blood out of a stone fre- quently meets with its own reward — that is, in get- ing no rent at all after the first few years. We all know of the competition that prevails whenever a tolerably good piece of land is to be let, and of the tendency of such competition to keep up rents : but with that I have now nothing to do. I will not ask if the landed interests be thereby per- manently benefitted, and will only ask whether the doubling of old England's produce is facilitated by that competition ? That is the only point I have just now to do. It will, perhaps, be said that landlords are not always competent judges in this case, and therefore leave such matters to their stewards. The answer to this would lead to a new question, which I shall dismiss by observing that the penny-wise system, w hich doles out a bare subsistence to stewards, never contemplates paying for resptmsibility ; consequently, landlords have no more right to expect to have the ablest or safest advisers, than they have to expect the first-rate legal or medical advice from unpaid, or un- repaid professional men. But the crowning bar to the fostering of skilful husbandry is the almost uniform excommunication of the luckless tenant, who dares think aloud and act upon political principles differing from those of his landlord. As an applicant he gets no hearing, and if in possession he becomes a marked man, and is ousted at the first convenient opportunity to make room for somepliantsuccessor, just knowing enough to keep the land " half cultivated." Cowpers, Rich- monds. Cokes, and Westerns are not sufficiently common. The landlords have an undoubted right to make the most of their patrimony, but if they exact the uttermost farthing of its fair value, they lose in one way what they gain ia another. Their ancestors derived a legitimate influence from those kindly feelings, which flowed from generation to generation amongst the easy-rented yeomen of old. If modern landlords consent to receive the utmost value in cash, then do they forfeit the claim to enthral their tenantry as to politics, unless indeed such landlords make a corresponding abatement in the yearly rent. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 In addressing a landowner, I have ventured to touch upon points most likelv to escape ihe atten- tion of that class, when it is much occupied in par- rying; the heavy blows aimed at agriculture from powerful combinations ; but I do think when tenants have an opportunit}' of speaking, they ought to be en- couraged to speak out, because many a good landlord occasionally errs from a want of the knowledge of the whole truth. Besides, no stone, little or big, should be left unturned in these times to keep toil- ing agriculture chin above water. I now proceed to answer your last questions: — 1. I (/() consider that such crops are owing to ex- pensive cultivation, including, of course, the au- tumnal preparation, but I find tbat the increased ex- pense is more than proportionably repaid by the increased crop. 2. I grow the best and heaviest crops of turnips on my sands, made good by sheep and high farming, and in laying on certain admixtures of different soils ; for instance, chalk, clay, marl, heavy land mould, &c. 3. For answer to this, vide my letters dated 20th January, and 17th .Tuly, 1840, in the Mark Lane Express of that time. 4. Answered in No. 2. My method of growing good crops of wheat on my " burning sands," is as follows: — After turnips comes barley, then clover, then wheat, tliat is to say, when I do not cross lilth, which I frequently do. As a general rule, I plough the clover-ley as soon after harvest as possible, say about Michaelmas, in order that the land may settle down^rm, to lessen labour by treading it by means of horses and sheep. As I can get upon these sands in almost all weathers, I prefer drilling in the wheat as late as December. I begin by harrovving and treading by sheep until the land becomes as firm as it can be made. 'I'hree bushels of seed per acre is then drilled in rows at nine inches apart, then harrowed lightly with a one-horse harrow, so as just to cover the seed. About the first or second week in March the small owma/,*, particularly the poppy, make tlieir appearance; but these, in their infant state, are easily destroyed by repeated harrowings, on an even surface, if performed in dry weather. My work is then done until harvest time, except the cutting out of the thistles, which, however, have been almost extirpated on my land. I compress these light lands as much as I can with a heavy roller ; but compression is not the only principle adopted by this, and the admixture of soils. I have grown 8 qrs. of wheat per acre where only 2 qrs. were previously grown, at a cost of 40s. an acre for summer weedings, whereas now the expense of weeding may be rather under than over sixpence per acre. I must now take my leave, Sir John, and until I can find a pen that will go by steam, and by itself, I had better give my ramblesome goose-quill a holi- day, otherwise my mangle-wurzel concern may be sadly mangled, and my turnip turn up a blank. I am. Sir, your most obedient humble servant, Wiugham, Jan. 29t/i. Robert AIatson. In the first place, I am one of those who think of- fering bets is not a mark of wisdom, and consequently accepting them must be better avoided. I have been a turnip grower for twenty years, but have never been so fortunate as to grow forty tons an acre, as stated by ftlr. Matson, and I quite agree with your correspondent Rusticus, that a much greater weight may be grown per acre of Skirving's than of Mat- son's; although the latter are a beautiful quality, they do not run to size, and are not calculated to produce a heavy crop. I have grown them on highly cultivated land together, and find a difl^erence of from 4 to 5 tons per acre, the greatest weight being twenty-eight tons ; tliey are grown on the flat, and area fine piece of Swedes. I am aware, errors are frequently made unintentionally, and however much one may be inclined to doubt the accuracy of Mr. Matson's statement as to his growth of turnips, I was much more surprised at his following crops, namely, wheat, beans and wheat. I am not at the moment, able to put my hand no your paper con- taining the quantity grovrn per acre, but shall feel greatly obliged by your again stating it. 1 am glad, to hear Mr. M. has so good a landlord, as he cer- tainly must be a first-rate farmer, and must have a good farm; at the same time I think he ought to con- sider all tenants are not so blessed, and that perhaps other landlords may be led to think their lands pro- duce the same heavy crops ; at all events, I consi- der his statements calculated to do much injury, and certainly very little good. I am. Sir. yours respectfully, An Old Subscriber. Brown's Hotel, Palaa Yard, Jan. 28. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — As your columns have of late been much filled on the subject of turnip growing, and as many doubts must have arisen in the minds of your readers acquainted with the usual produce and cultivation of Swedish turnips, I am induced to make a few obser- vations on the subject, which, if you think worthy, you may introduce iu your valuable journal. Sir, — Although there may be some of your readers who think that the " Turnip Question" has already occupied too much of your space, this will not be the opinion of those who are impressed with a true sense of the value of the turnip crop to the farmer. I venture to address you on the subject with a view to throw out a few hints which I hope may have the eiFect of calling into the field some gentlemen in this county whose experience will enable them to ofter information of immense importance. I would, if it were necessary, apologise to these gentlemen, whose names I take the liberty of using, but I am quite sure they possess too much public spirit to demand or expect it. I begin, then, with John Parkinson, Esq., of Ley- Fields, who this year gained a prize for the best crop of turnips within a certain distance of OUerton, and who has, for many years, been one of the most successful cultivators of the best kind of turnips in this well-cultivated district. Secondly — Richard Milward, Esq., of Hexgreave, — but I cannot stop, I find, particularly to remark on what has been done by all the superior cultivators of turnips in that part of Notts included in the circle extending ten or fifteen miles round OUerton ; I must, therefore con- tent myself with expressing a hope that every indi- vidual amongst them who has any useful information to give, will ccrae forward and cheerfully render it, for the benefit of his brother farmers ; for in this way, better than any other, may it be shown how, in any and every locality, the best crops and the best varieties may be grown. Much good may arise out of the discussion, if those who are in the several turnip districts the most successful growers v,-i\\ freely communicate their plans, and the results. 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Some plan might be adopted by luhkh the aggregate experience of all the best turnip grmvers icould be brought together in one vieiv. The idea of a prize essay at once presents itself, but does not seem so fitting as the delegation of some one or tu-o individuals for the pur- pose would be, inasmuch as the time and energies of many different persons would be expended in a case where one or two, if duly qualified, would do the work quite as well — what has been done resolving- itself more into a question o( fact than of science. Nothing can be more perfectly clear, than that the same labour and expense may be bestowed on the same quality of land, by two different persons, and tUe result will be, that one shall have, in some cases, 10 tons per acre more than the other from having a better variety. Again, it is very evident that tlie time nf soio- i'lg is a vital question, and at present but imperfectly understood. It now varies in different neiEhbourhood*, as much as six loeeks ; but how much of this discre- pancy arises from the non-adaptation of the hind to the particular locality, it is impossible, with our present information, to say. It is satisfactory to know, as this important question has been started, that it is in the right hands, if they will but do justice to it. If the idea which I have sutrgested should be taken up, I should think that the fifty Far- mers' Clubs which are established in the kingdom, would readily subscribe their two to five pounds each for such an object. It is not possible to withhold an expression of regret and surprise when exaggerated statements are put forth, as they do not tend to elicit truth when brouylit to the test of a sober examination ; it is to be hoped, however, that they will not be allowed to enter into this question. Mr. Matson must be a fortunate roan in having such a supply of manure ! I can tell him of a friend of mine, Mr. Sharpe, of Scarthing JMoor, near Tuxford, who has grown fine turnips this year on land which was originally hardly worth half a crown an acre, with- out any fold-yard manure. I hope that Mr. Sharpe will send you a particular history of his crop. I am yours truly, J. West. Collingham, Jan. 22. could have been effected by additional manure, a more suited soil, &c. I therefore hope, and indeed have no doubt, Mr. Matson will succeed in his chal- lenge and undertaking, and am, Sir, Your most obedient servant, Joseph LARinF.nT. Broohhilt, Claremonis, County Mayo, Ireland. Sir, — Finding by the editorial article of the Murh Lane Express of the I8th Jan. inst., that you are desirous of obtaining evidence, and every informa- tion as to the Turnip question, and that you not only encourage the farmers of England and Scotland in particular to come forward with evidence on the subject, but taunt them with "having maintained a dogged silence," now I do not see why the Green Isle should be excluded from the competition, al- though behind hand (as it must be admitted] in agricultural improvement ; but the day is not far distant, when Ireland will take her place in agricul- tural science, and I hope I may not be accused with the too sanguine temperament of my countrymen, when I assert than the dawn of a glorious sunshine, (such as Scotland witnessed about forty years ago) has more than already commenced with us. But to return to the question in support of Mr. Matson's assertion, that he has grown forty tons of Swede turnip to the acre, I am humbly of opinion that it is quite possible for him to do so, as I have lately ascertained that I have myself grown forty-one ton ("topped and tailed ) on the Irish acre, in a soil only of moderate quality for the growth of turnip, and only moderately manured, and under the disad- vantage of the bulbs beingcoarse and ill-shaped from the quality of the seed ; and I am pretty sure, had I procured Mr. Skirving's or Mr. Matson's improved purple variety, that it alone would have gone a good way towards making up the difference, besides what Sir, — I have observed in your valuable paper, a great deal has been written under the head of " the Turnip Question.'' I beg to remark on that most useful root, the Swede turnip, it must be obvious to every person, that good land, well cultivated, will grow a good sort of Swede to its best perfection, but a bad one will, bv the same means, be forced into its worst character ; it therefore proves the necessity of obtaining a good, but hardy, useful sort of Swede — not too tender in its nature, or the most handsome, as I have seen some. 1 have had some considerable experience in the saving of seeds of many kinds, and I am satisfied that as, by neglect, the sort will degenerate, also by taking the utmost pains, the sort will become very handsome, — scarce any top, with a small tap root, similar to a six week's turnip, and less hardy than the Swede — and that by judicious saving between the two extremes may be attained, the hardiness of the Swede being one of its most desirable objects. I have seen the weight of Mr. Deacon Skirving's sort, and some of Mr. Matson's, as grown by thiit gentleman, in Kent ; I cannot find any that have, this season, attained the weight (in 50 turnii)s) that Joslin's improved sort of Swede have ; they were grown by Mr. R. Pocock, of Hedges Farm, near St. Alban's, who kindly allowed me to take fifty of them to the following show ; and I must remark, that some of the most influential farmers of this neighbourhood have been looking to your paper for an impartial statement of the result of the late Tring Turnip Show. Tlie following you may rely upon as being correct : — • Mr. Houghtori's 50 Swedes, 33 libs. Do. do., 3211bs. Do. do., 2841bs. Do, do., 242lbs. Mr. Hart's do., 405§lbs. Mr. Tliomiis Woodman's do., 2691bs. Mr. Little's do., 34l5lbs. Sir. J. Woodman's do., :2.581bs. Mr. Deacon Skirving's sort, 33llbs. Mr. R. Pocock's Josling's improved, 4'i91hs. Mr. Matson's, (8 of his largest weighed aSlbs.,) 50 of that size would weigh 362^1bs. ]\Ir. Brown showed 50, which weighed 4961bs. ; they, when rejected, being a bad sort of white- fleshed Swede. If this would not take up too much space in your columns, the insertion of it would much oblige your humble servant, W, JosoNG, seedsman, St. Alban's. February -Uh. Sir, — I am a constant reader of your intelligent paper, and seeing of late many remarks on the culture and produce of the Swedish turnip in England, I had the curiosity to try the weight per iinperial acre of three fields, containing together upwards of ninety acres, all sown with purple top Swedes, and I beg leave to state the result as under, viz. : — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 First field sown lath May last, per im- perial acre 35 tons. Second field, sown from 'iOtli to 26th May, per ditto 29f do. Third field, sown first week in June . . 28 J do. Tops, roots, and clay, cleanly taken ofT. I may add, that I had my seed from Messrs. Lawson and Sons of Edinburgh. A worthy ncighljour sent me a return of his crop at 32 tons jior iHii)crial acre. All the above were grown on drills 27 inches apart. You are at liberty to use the above facts as you may think proper. An Ikisii Fakjiek. SiK, — I have, for a considerable time, been watch- ing the correspondence in your valuable journal on the growth of roots, and have been much surprised at the statements made by Mr. Matson and others, being able to grow so much weight per acre. In your postscript, January 18th, you so earnestly seek discussion, the good results of which I so fully believe in, being myself a member of the North Walsham Farmers' Club, a meeting of which, held December 10th, it was proposed to ascertain the greatest weight of Swedish turnips per acre, grown on 27 inch, and 24 inch ridges, and 18 inch flat work *. Should you consider the result worthy a place in your columns, I beg of you to insert it. I ought, perhaps, to attempt a description of the soil and tillage, although I fear it will be an im- perfect one. The soil on which I made the trial is deep mixed loam, not wet to require draining, and never scalds, naturally kind for turnips, grows good ■wheat, clover, and barley. Having five times ph)ughed, and thoroughly pulverized by scarifying, harrowing, and rolling, the seed was drilled, June 12th, having set on about 20 tons per acre of manure made from bullocks, fed on turnips and oilcake. As soon as possible after the turnips were up, the liorse-hoe was carefully used, then hand-hoed with eight inch hoes three times, and slightly moulded lip in August. The result was as follows : — Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. On 24 inches 18 8 2 8 On 27 do l(i 2 3 12 Flat 18 do 15 10 0 0 I must confess myself to have been miserably dis- appointed at the general weight, although I believe our turnips to be considerably under an average crop. I should not have been so particular in the detail as to tillage, but to prove they were not much neglected ; the weight proving I have much to learn and nothing to teach others. Mr. Matson, in answer to Sir John Maxwell Tylden's 4th question, states, he applies upwards of 40 tons of well fermented manure per acre. I am at a loss to know how so much mamn-e could be found for turnips, as if eitlier one-fourth or fifth of his farm be sown with turnips manured at tliat rate, it must consume all that can be made ; and it is a mystery to me, after applying such quantity, that it sliould be necessary to consume half tlu; crop on the land. As it is desirable to produce something more than twenty shillings for a pound expended, I think Mr. Matson should have given the expense at which he grows his turnips. It may be his object to excel in growing them at the loss of his other crops; I calculate that much is to be done by * The object being to ascertain tlio best widtli, oi- if ridgo or flat work produced ragst weight. change of seed, I have already procured some of ]\Ir. Skirving's, and should feel much obliged if Mr. Matson would forward me a peck of liis ; and I will remit the money to any place named by him, and ho may depend they shall have a fair trial. I am, yours respectfully, Georcje Gowek. Dilhfim, near Worsted, Norfolk, Feb. I, 1841. P. S. — I am not vahi enough to suppose that much information is conveyed in the above remarks, and shall leave you to decide if they are worthy a place in your paper; but I feel certain their con- veying to you the information that a Farmers' Club has been established at North Walsham, under very promising prospects of success, which already numlicrs more than 50 members of the principal gentry, yeomen, and farmers in the district, will be sufficient excuse for troubling you with this. Sill, — In consequence of a former letter that I wrote to you relative to the growth of Swedish turnips, and the weight per acre I bad grown here, I have had several letters requesting me to state the method adopted by me in obtaining what the ap- plicants call " enorn\Dus crops." I am always glad to give any information I am possessed of, for the benefit of agriculturists ; and in reply, therefore, to the different qiterie put to me, I may state generally, that the field from which I had upwards of forty three tons of Swedish turnips per statute acre, in 1840, is what I call a clayey loam, with a retentive subsoil. It was dramed with tiles some years ago etfectually, by cutting the drains, not more than from five to six yards apart. In 1839 it was broken up from pasture for ofats ; the crop was good, and so soon as the oats weie cut and removed from the field, I bad the stubble skira-ploughed, say from three to four inches deep, and in that state I allowed the field to remain a month or five weeks, and then I had it ploughed from sixteen to eighteen inches deep with Smith's subsoil-plough. After this operation, the field was not more disturbed until the spring of 1840, when I had it harrowed so soon as it was sufficiently dry. Between the end of iMarch and the third week of May, I had it ploughed and harrowed three different times. From the subsoil-ploughing in the autumn, the ground was very mellow in the spring ; and after it was three different times ploughed and harrowed, the soil was very fine. The next operation was forming the drills, which were about thirty inches apart. While this was gomg on, I had the dung in a inoist state carted out and spread in the hollow between thedrills, with some bone-dust sown over it, and covered in immediately (to prevent evapnration) by having the drills split out over them. The quantity of dung per statute acre applied, was about from twenty-six to twenty- eight tons, and over this dung I had sown with the hand, about half a ton of the best raw bone- dust per statute acre. After the dung and bone-dust were covered in, say about from two to three inches from the surface, by the splitting of the drills, I immediately, while the dung and ground wei'e moist, had the seed sown by a machine, at the rate of about three pounds weight per statute acre, taking care that it was deposited in the dung ; and thus by being so deposited, it vegetated immediately, and grew out of the way of the fly in course of eight or ten days. The moisture of the dung and soil, and the heat oc- casioned by their admixture with the bone-dust, forced the plants for the first fortnight the same as they had been in a hot-bed — at the end of this period 220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, the plants were almost ready for singling out, which as soon as they would bear the operation, I had done with the hand boe from fourteen to sixteen inches apart. The above is the method that I have adopted at this place for these hist eigliteen years, and I have never once missed a crop ; and I believe the lightest crop I have ever had during that period has exceeded tliirty-six tons per statute acre. I never sow later than the last week in Mav. If weight of crop is wanted, it is absolutelii necessary to sow in May. As I stated in my former letter, I Lave always had the seed from Mr. Skirving, of Liverpool ; and I consider the turnip growers ia England more indebted to that gentleman than to any other individual, for the improved species of Swedish turnip which have for a number of years been known and successfully cultivated in this neighbourhood. I am satisfied that I should not have had more than two-thirds the weight of crop, had I trusted to the seed whicii is generally sold to the poor farmer, as the improved Swede! ! I ought to have stated that the turnips were twice horse-hoed, and once hand-hoed after singling. I had last season, all the crop removed from the ground by the latter end of October, and had tlie whole ground ploughed and sown with wheat during the first week of November. Until the estate agents in England are capable of acting as tutors to the tenantry and able counsellors to the landlords, we never can progress rapidly in agricultural improvements. Leases of fifteen or twenty-one years are also necessary for the prosperity of the landed proprietors, as well as for that of their tenantry. Alexander Ogilvii:. Mere, near KnutsforJ, Feb, 6, A Correspondent of the Mark Lane Express doubts a statetneat taken from the We.iford Independent, that Mr. Cliffe, of Belvien, had 30 acres of turnips last sea- son, of the average produce of 50 tons to tlie acre— say- ing' t\\!jtt " cows afar off have long horns." I have the honour of knowing the gentleman who conducts the Wexford Independent, and I am sure he would not state what he did not believe to be a fact. But English far- mers may not be a>vare, that our Iri«h acre is one-third more than their English statute acre. Many of them doubt Mr. Matson's statement, that he grew 45 tons to tile English acre, on which the discussion on " the tur- nip question, "in the Mark Lane Express arose. In corroboration of the statement in the Wexford Inde- pendent on the subject of Mr. Cliffe's turnips, I liave the authority of Mr. Ryan, of Kilfera, near Kilkenny, for stating that lie got a surveyor to measure an acre of his Swedes of the average quality of the field, and this acre produced last November 50 tons,2 cwt. Now what will the correspondent of the Mark Lane Express say to this statement, which can be verified on the most re- spectable testimony 1 Will he say " that cows afar off have long horns ?" However, as truth and not de- ception, is our object, it may be necessary to state, that our plantation acre contains 160 perches of 49 square yards to the perch, while the English statute acre contains only the same number of perches at 30] square yards to the perch. The soil is gravelly calca- reous (limestone gravel). Mr. Ryan did not cultivate his turnips with the view of obtaining any prize ; he cultivated them in the usual way. The land had grown ley oats the previous year ; it was manured with dung, for the turnips were sown ih drills 27 inches asunder, the 10th of May, and thinned at 10 or 12 inches apart. The land is now sown with drilled Wheat. The turnip seed was bought of Skirving, of Liverpool. So much for the " turnip question," which I hope to find revived next season. M. Dwyer. Barrowmount, Jan. 30. Sir, — I consider it a great privilege, and calcu- lated to improve the system of agriculture in various parts of the kingdom, to be permitted, through your widely-circulated journid, to give publicitv to any experiments which we have tried, and to nsk ques- tions from your more experienced correspondents. Nothing can be more interesting than eliciting in- formation upon the turnip question, the foundiition crop of all others. But such over-statements as Mr. Matson's — 1 quite agree with " An Old Sub- scriber"— is calculated to do much harm. Let every man, when he states what he grows, mention the number of acres, and the expense of his crop. I can make a hotbed and grow cucumbers, and sell them at a price which would realize a large sum per acre ; but where on a farm could I raise or procure a sufficient quantity o! manure to do it? Mr. Mat- son can put nearly all his manure upon a few acres, and raise great crops of turnips; but where would liis average be upon a farm of 700 or 800 acres? I saw in Oxfordshire, last summer, some striking ex- periments : the land was very poor — of what is called a dead, or foxy earth. 1'he turnips were all sown the same day upon the ridge system ; at first they used pig manure, then rich horse manure, then bone-dust and ashes fl do not recollect the exact proportions), and afterwards put, with every large shovel-full of ashes and bone-dust, a double hand-full, first of saltpetre, then of soda ; the biggest turnips would, with their leaves, cover a space about the size of the crown of a hat ; tliere was no difference between the soda and saltpetre ; but these were much the strongest and the largest turnips, whereas those with ashes and bone-dust alone were unhealthy- looking, and not bigger than a crown-piece ; next to the soda and saltf.etre came the pig manure, nearly as large, but not so healthy-looking; those M'ith horse manure less so. I could easily ascertain the after-growth, if required, but this is satisfactory as far as it goes. But perhaps on other soils the result might be very different. Believe me, Your's, very truly, T. B. Browne. ON THE USE OF LIME AND SALT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE TARMEr's MAGAZINE. Sin, — As I intend, when the spring season for sowing arrives, to trj' the effect of lime and salt upon a field of eight acres, which has hitherto defied all my efforts to procure a good crop, in consequence of the wire worm having devoured it — I shall feel obliged by being informed in your March number, whether drilling the lime and salt with the oats is likely to be injurious to the seed, either in germinat- ing or in its after growth ? I am somewhat afraid that so large a quantity as fifty bushels per acre of this manure, one-third of which is salt, may have a serious effect upon the young oats, from coming so directly in contact with them. I shall feel much obliged to you, Mr. Editor, to obtain for me an an- swer to the above enquiry in your next month's number; and should this meet the eye of C. W. Johnson, Esq., or anv other intelligent reader of your most valuable Magazine, I trust they will favour me with their opinion upon the subject. 1 am, Sir, your obedient servant, Feb. i 0th, 1841. Enquirer. P.S. — Where can any printed explanation of the system of suspension bridge building, discovered by Mr. Dredge, be obtained (as mentioned by Lord Western in this month's magazine, page 135) ? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 QUERIES AND ANSWERS RE- LATING TO THE AGRICUL- TURE OF CHESHIRE, 1838. Q. Is the agriculture better or worse than tliat of other counties, such as Yorksliire or the Eastern counties .' A. Mucli worse; owing partly to the tenants be- ing more ignorant and more, as it were (from want of leases) in a state of vassalage, and jiartly owing to the landed proprietors not wishing to have Gen- tlemen Farmers on their estates, (many of them persisting in the icorse than antiquated notion that their religious creed must be the true test of their agricultural knowledge) and partly to most of the persons having the charge of landed property in this county, being incompetent to judge? what sort of management is best for the ultimate and permanent benefit of the estates. Schools where a liberal edu- cation, including physical and moral, as well as intelleetuul, [for the agricultural pojiulation are much wanted, and until these are supplied, the agriculturists never will be what they ought to be in point of intelligence. Q. What is the usual management of heavy soils fit for Wheat and Eeans I A. Summer fallow from Ley, Wheat second year without any manure, Oats third year, Summer fallow the fourth year. Wheat fifth year, Oats with grass and clover seeds sixth year, Hay seventh year, afterwards pasture until the ground has so long- rested as to be considei'ed able to bear another such rotation ! Q. What for Turnip land ? A. Similar to No. 2, except substituting Pota- toes or Turnips, or some such fallow crop for a naked fallov/. Q. How often do naked fallows recur ? A. Answered in No. 2. Q. How many times are they ploughed ? A. Sometimes four, five, or six times, according to circumstances ; but, generally speaking, the last two plougliings ai'e so late in the season, say the end of August or September, that they are of little effect in either cleansing or mellowing the ground. Q. Is the long fallow for Barley, including two Winters, ever introduced? A. Never practised in this county. Q. What kinds of Ploughs are generally used ? A. Generally the common Cheshire plough, but many of the better farmers arc now adopting the Scotch iron swing plough. Q. How many horses to each ? A. Often three or four in a trip, i. c, one before the other ; but such farmers as have adopted the Scotch swing plough, now plough with two horses abreast. Q. Are Oxen much used for the plough ? A. Never. Q. How are they yoked ? A. Answered by No. 9. Q. Do they harrow the land very fine before and after sowing? A. Generally speaking moderately fine, but not too much so. Q. Is the drill husbandry in use for green crops — are they horse-hoed ? A. Amongst the better farmers, such as have adopted the iron plough, the drill husbandry for green crops is beginning to be practised on a small scale. Q. What is the average quantity of Wheat per acre sown, and what reaped on land of moderate fertility ? A. About two bushels (of 701bs. to the bushel) sown on a statute acre, and amongst the ordinary class of farmers about eighteen or twenty bushels such weight of jiroduce is considerefl a good crop ! Amongst the best farmers (owing to superior ma- nagement) thirty-five or forty bushels is considered to be only a fair average crop. Q. What is the rent (rates andtitlies included) of such land ? J /These vary from 30s. to 4ijs. per statute acre, according to circumstances, and the distance from a town, the facility of getting manure, &c. The tithe everywhere is hated, and is a great drawback to improvements in agriculture. Q. Is much clover sown, or other artificial grasses ? A. Much more than formerly, but still amongst most farmers the practice of sowing hay-seeds, full of all sorts of bad seeds, is but too ])rcvalent. Q. When grass land is broken up, is it usually fallowed the second year ? A. Usually fallowed the first year, except by good farmers (who are but few in number) who lay their land down to grass in good heart, i. e., full of manure. They have generally Oats the first year of breaking up, and green crop in drill the second year, the third year Wheat sown with perennial Rye-grass and Cloverseeds, in the fourth year hay, fifth year pasture, &c. Q. When land is laid down, is it clean and in good heart ? A. This is answered in No. 2 ■ such a system as is there stated, land cannot be laid down in good heart — it must be what the farmers call " in land- lord's condition." Q. How many white crops succeed each other on newly broken up grass land ? A. This is answered in No. 2. Q. Are Beans generally cultivated ? A. Very few are cultivated. Q. Are they drilled or dibbled, and at what dis- tance ? A. Generally dibbled, what are sown. Q. How many times horse-hoed or hand-hoed ? A. Perhaps once hand-hoed, but often never touched after being sown. Q. Are Turnips raised in rows or broadcast ? ^•1. Generally speaking broadcast by the common farmers, but the best farmers now sow them in rows of about 27 to 30 inches apart. Q. Are they fed off by sheep, or drawn for the cattle ? A, Almost never fed off by sheep, generally drawn for cattle. Q. Are there any late improvements in the dairy, or breed of Cows ? A. The breed of Cows is much improved within these last ten years ; the short-horn Durham, or a cross of the short-horn, is now preferred almost everywhere iu the county. Q. What is the average produce of a Cow in But- ter or Cheese 1 A. About 3601bs. of Cheese, or about ISOlbs. of Butter. Q. What is the rent of good grass land? A. This varies from 35s. to 100s. per statute acre. Q. Are many Sheep kept, and what breed? A. Very few Sheep are kept, and what are kept are generally Cheviot, or a cross between the Cheviot and Leicester, or South Down. -222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Q. Is there a spirit of improvement in any but the Gentlemen of property ? A. The spirit of improvement seems to be nearly as slovr amongst jnost Gentlemen of landed property, as amongst tlic tenantry of the county ; perhaps partly owing to the want of funds, but more, I should imagine, from the want of respectable and exi)erienced men, in whom they can place unlimited confidence, to manage the whole detail of the various departments of their landed estates. It cannot be expected that improvements should be judiciously made by men who (whatever their talents in their own profession may be) are practising as lawyers, or by men taken from some menial office, such as an old Groom., a butler, or gardener, and placed at the head of all the departments. It might as well be expected that the whole of a large and compli- cated building is to be properly and economically built by a common bricksettcr or stone-mason, or that any piece of complicated machinery is to be constructed and worked by any common blacksmith, who might be able with much labour to make one or more of tlie simplest wheels, as that the manage- ment and improvement of an extensive landed estate is to be conducted by any others than men educated for the business, and cajmhle of seeing at one (jlunce whether the whole of the complicated maciiinery is working well or not. Merchants and manufac- turers, Avho are men of business themselves, always take care to have proper persons to conduct their husiness, however high the remuneration may be for their services. I may add that were two or tliree hundred respectable estate agents who have been liberally educated, and in every way properly trained to the profession, placed on two or three hundred of the best estates in England, they would do ten times more for the improvement "of agri- culture, during these next ten years, than all the agricultural societies that now are or may be esta- bhshed in the kingdom, or the united wisdom of both Houses of Parliament could accomplish for these next ffty years. If s^ich persons were to be appointed the responsible manaciers of all lands belonging to the Crown, I should think that tlieir present revenue would be at least quadrupled in less ' than twenty years ; and if such gentlemen were {o be appointed by the Government, or by the Lord Chancellor, inspectors over all the landed estates under the control of the Court of Chancery, and report annually to his lordship, as to the condition of the lands, and necessary repair of the buildings, &c., they would be the means of preventing nuich serious waste on such estates, and consequent loss and misery to many of those who afterwards may jiossess them. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir,— Many old Farmers in this part, are in the habit of laying manure on stubble, and tben plou<'lj- ing the land once over in December, or the beo-m- ning of January, and letting it lay until spring," for Swede turnips. It is then worked, and manure put into tlie rows in the usual way. Should any of your correspondents have the goodness to make any re- marks respecting the first manuring, it would greatlv oblige, sir, with great respect, your constant reader, F^^' 1841. YonKSHiRE. ON DRAINING. Sir, — In the Mark Lane Express of the 18th of January, I observed a letter on Draining, signed ,'*John SVreford.Broughton House, Kent," regarding which, if you will grant me permission, I beg, through the medium of your paper, to offer a few remarks, being fully convinced that it is of great consequence that a proper mode of draining should be pursued — at the same time cordially concurring with your correspondent, " that, when it is ju- diciously done, no outlay of capital can be more ad- vantageously made." I trust, iherefore, that any observations I may make, will be looked upon as of- fered with a view to discover, if possible, the proper mode. Mr. Wreford observes, that the right method of draining a field, "is to observe where the highest part of the field or piece of land is situated, and cut your drains as nearly across that part of it as will admit of a drop, in every rod, of about two inches ;" and then mentions, that tlie main drain should be made directly up and down the declivity, stating, at the same time, that he has pursued this plan with great success for at least forty years. I should like, however, to know whether or not this system of cross-draining has been followed by your correspon- dent on a variety of soils, or has been confined to land with a subsoil of chalk, of which description T am aware there is a great abundance in Kent. If it has been confined to that kind of soil, Mr. Wreford may be quite right. I can say nothing to the con- trary, never having had any experience in that de- scription of soil ; but that the cross system of drain- ing is preferable, or at all equal to the upright sys- tem upon a great majority of soils — -indeed, on any with which I am acquainted, — is decidedly contrary to my experience ; — of which I maybe allowed to have considerable — when I mention the fact, that for fourteen years I have been draining on a great variety of soils, and in different parts of the country ; and that within the last four years, I have put into my farm nearly 100 miles of drain with perfect suc- cess. If your correspondent was right in the sup- position that water has passed down the hills for ages in veins and fissures, then his method of cross- draining might be correct ; but the reverse I find to be the case in all the substrata of this part of the country, which generally consist of alternate layers of loose and of retentive soils, lying in nearly a hori- zontal direction, from between which the water con- sequently oozes in lines crossing the face of the field, so that by laying off the drains in a vertical direction, the diflerent strata are infallibly cut across at right angles. But whatever may be the cause of the superiority of upright over cross drains, of this I am convinced, — land is much more effectually and permanently drained by the upright mode than any other ; and I. caQ assure your correspondent that all my fields drained on the one plan, are decidedly drier than those drained on the other. Mr. Wreford, also, I think is in error when he re- commends the drains to be filled within eight inches of the top, as I conceive that they never ought to be filled nearer the surface than fourteen inches, for the purpose of permitting the subsoil plough to work — an implement whicli I conceive ought to be used on all thorough drained land ; and which, were it done so, I am convinced, would assist greatly m making the land of this country produce double wliat it does at present. I ara, Sir, your most obedient servant, A Farmer Noktu of the Tweed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 LONDON SUPPLIES OF WHEAT, AND AVERAGE PRICES. The tollowing document was, on Fridiiy, laid on the table of the House of Lords : — A Retuhn of the Quantities of Wheat as purchased in the Market ol London ; with the Avekage PftiCE thereof for i;ac:ii \Vi;i;k durintr the months of July, August, and September, in the Years 1820, 1830, and 1840, as returned to the Inspector of Corn Returns. Weeks ended. Qrs. Avei'ase. Week ended. Qrs. Avrs. 1820 : s. d. 1830 c ont. s. d. 1st July .. 4028 73 1 13th Aug. .. 3554 74 7 8th — . . 6885 74 4 20th — . . 3255 72 1 loth — . . 5408 74 9 27th — . . 3023 71 10 22nd — .. 5033 78 5 3rd Sept. . . 2478 67 6 29th — . , 6706 79 6 10th — ,. 3888 64 U 5th Aug. .. 8005 80 3 17fli — . . 5290 60 9 12th — .. 4844 70 5 24tli — .. 3420 61 4 19th — .. 5860 70 2 1840: 26th — . . 6322 77 6 3i-d July .. 8813 73 11 2nd Sept. . . 6202 76 9 loth — • , . 9552 74 6 9th — . . 3852 74 8 17tli — . , 9596 75 8 16th — .. 4851 72 3 24tli — , . . 11235 79 4 23rd — .. 6450 71 1 31st _ .. 14968 80 5 30th — .. 6043 66 1 7th Aug. .. 19500 80 2 1830: 14th — ., 12613 74 5 2nd Jul)' . . 4107 72 7 21st — , , 15703 78 10 0th — .. 5342 72 3 28tli — .. 15437 79 6 lOtli — . . 4212 72 3 4th Sept. .', 8000 74 7 23rd — .. 3633 74 9 11th — . . 5097 OS 8 30th — . , 5158 70 0 18th — .. 4629 68 1 6tli Aug. . . 8007 T _ - 76 /-I 0 25th _ _ r rN _ 5010 06 1 VVm. Jacob, Comptroller of Corn Returns. Corn Department, Board nf Trade, Feb. 8, 1841. BIRMINGHAM. We have delayed our annual circular later than usual, hoping to be able to furnish our statistical information complete to the end of the year, but we are sorry to say we have not succeeded. In adverting to the state of the corn trade durin;^ the past year, we have to notice a considerable reductian, considering the very superior quality of this year's growth, in the value of most kinds of grain, as compared with th -j correspond- ing period in 1840 ; the average prices of the kingdom being respectively as follows:— 1st month, 1840,— Wheat, 65s. 5d. ; Barley, 39s. 2d, ; Beans, 40s. 4d. ; Peas, 40s. Id.; Rye, 37s. Ud. ; Oats, 23s. lOd. 1st month, 1841.— Wheat, 6ls. Sd. ; Barley, 33s. 2d. ; Beans, 40s, ; Peas, 39s. lid.; Rye, 33s. lid. ; Oats, 213. 7d. A variety of circumstances have contributed to this result, especially as regards Wheat. The estimated quantity of free Wheat and Fiour, at the commence- ment of last year, was 550,000 quarters, and there was entered for home consumption during the year 2,463,0 13 quarters, making a total of 3,013,013 quarters. The stock at the end of 1840 is supposed not to have ex- ceeded 450,000 quarters, leaving 2,563,013 quarters as the quantity gone into consumption in addition to our growth. The state of our monetary affairs, and the failure of one or two considerable speculators in grain, within the last few months, has probably caused more of the Foreign Wheat to be pressed on the mar- ket than would otherwise have been the case. 'J'he crop of 1840, there is reason to believe, proves to be more nearly an average one than, considering the very ungenial weather during part of last summer, might have been expected, especially in most of the eastern, midland, and western districis of the kingdom. Neither the stocks of free Fureign Wheat, or of those in the hands of the farmers, however, make it probable that we shall have a low range of prices during the present year; but whether they may be at all equal to 1840, will in a great degree depend upon how far our absurd legislation— directly tending, as it most powerfully does, to deprive the labouring population of a profitable application of their industry, and consequently their means of a comfortable subsistence — may force them to the use of cheaper food, such as Potatoes, &c,, as a substitute for bread. Should the consumption of Wheat still keep pace with the increase of our popu- lation, as it doubtless would under a system of free trade, we may expect a considerable advance before next harvest. There is one feature in the imports of Wheat to which we alluded in our circular of last year, that we think has not been sufficiently considered by tho>e who have turned their attention to our probable future demiind for Wheat from Foreign countries. In the year 1833 the export of Wlieat and Flour from Ire- land reached its maximum, and amounted to 541,475 (|uarters of Wheat, and 1,059,587 cwls. of Flour. Since that period it has gradually and uniformly de- creased, and last year was only 59,522 quarters of Wheat, and 180,476 cwts. of Flour, to the 5th of 10th month ; while during the 'ame period nearly double that quantity was imported into Ireland Irom English or Foreign ports. This is a gratifying indication of the improving condition of the people of that part of the British Empire ; but it deprives England of two or three weeks' consumption, wliile her population is in- creasing at a rate without any former parallel. It is obvious, therefore, that a very large annual supply of Wheat will in future be required, unless the deficiency i< met by the increased breadth of land sown with Wheat, by the improvements iu agriculture, by which a larger quantity per acre is produced, or by the in- creased poverty of the people, and the enhanced price checking the consumption. The extent of the opera- iotn of either of these causes upon our supply and de- mand, of course it is impossible correctly to estimate. The duties on Foreign Wheat have fluctuated during last year from 2s. Sd, per quarter to 27s. 8il., while the average duty paid on the whole that has been libe- rated for home consumption is 7s. 2d. per qr. It will be seen from the annexed, that the price of Wheat in some of the Foreign Ports, as compared with the cor- responding period of the previous year, is very much reduced ; this, however, has not yet led to much specu- lation, though a few purchases, chiefly on Irish account, for spring shipment, have been made. Our stocks of free Wheat (mostly of secondary quality) in Gloucester are 19,570 quarters ;— 9,370 of Odessa and Banuat ; 5,100 Lower Baltic; 1,800 Spanish ; and 3,300 Dant- zig : of bonded 5,055 quarters. Oar present prices are — English red, 7s. 6d. to 8s. 2d,; while, 7s. 8d, to 8s. 4d, per 6l2bs. here. Dantzig, 8?. l^d. to 8s. 6d. ; Spanish, 7s. lOd. to 8s. 2d.; soft Odessa, 7s. to 7s. 4^d. — hard, 6--. lOM. to 7s. 3d. per 60lb. at Gloucester. The crop of Byrley is generally admitted to have proved above an average in c^antity, though very various in quality, and the price, as compared with this time last year> of best descriptions is as 38>. to 50s., and upon inferior as 263, to 33s. per quarter. We believe no import of this grain will be required this sea- son ; indeed some quaniity of old Foreign remains in the hands of importers, for which there is little present prospect of sale, unless a demand for Wales should spring up for Barley bread, which is sometimes con- sumed there to a large extent. The crop of Oats in this district is said to be very good, but the limited extent to which they are grown makes it of little importance, as our prices are almost entirely regulated by the supply from Ireland ; and al- though it is the generfd testimony that the crop there has proved above an average, the quantity imported into Gloucester has not been larger than usual, and the demand more than equal to that of corresponding periods in former years. Our present stock of this grain does not, we believe, exceed 6,000 quarters, and though the rapid accessions to the societies in Ireland for the promotion of abstinence from all intoxicating drinks has greatly lessened the demand for Oats for distilling, it is supposed that tiie surplus arising from this cause will be absorbed by the increased consump- tion of Oatmeal, Our present prices in Gloucester, as compared with the corresponding period last year, are 21s. to 22s. against 27s. to 28s. per 3121b';. Although the crop of Beans is reported to be an average one, the quantity of last year's growth ia hand 224 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was so small, that they have borne a high relative value, which may in some degree be attributed to their excellent quality. Present prices— new, I6s. to 173. ; old, 18s. to 19s. per 196lbs. here. We have had much less demand for Peas than usual this year, and our arrivals have been small. They are nominally worth for grinding 15s. to 16s. 6d. per 196 lbs., and for boiling 5s. 6d. to 6s. per imperial bushel here ; the consumption of the latter does not appear to be increased by the relatively high price of Potatoes. Old Foreign Spring Vetches have realised 6s. 9d. to 8s. 3d., and New, 8s. 6d. per imperial bushel. Joseph and Charles Sturge. 2nd Month, Srrf, 1841. 00 •" • Ht2 a'* m '5 I J g2 I'M X ^ .- «0 M lO t-*o CO o •< Ct *^ »^ O C-* o w ^* tc (M ir^ l>* cl 00 ^i" o rD i--^ ^< c !» CO « <>• ^ to 00 ?.^* ^ ^ ^ --• (N i^ C5 — O »0 w tN, CO . o * g f. 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'^^ K, -« — . -— ^ w_ rsi r*-( (^ ir- t^ m rM /s^ o o < CO -**< ^ ' lO ^ ■— I iC -^ to CO ^-^ ?: CO >o 00 ic CO 1^ o ft^ •< IN 00 i>.r> -* •* o S M ■T,*"^OOIMOil^ S ii 2 CO c 1^2 -* «■> >> •_ . -uo — t>.in — t>.o t? •'*' — vnci-* — — iO "e w ^"n C-. oi to -o o -i; :^ "^C^in c^ \>*0D — --O to « _^ ^.""^ ti .tN^roo-^c^-^rO S > .<^ '"i'-iS-O'OO g jjj M loiN ca- 1 .n ^ ^- CO O C^ »fl "^ Q^CiGr.-^rJ'tNlMtOCOO^'^ySCOaHMCO S-. o »* *^ -- "*• o »C Ol >1 o o o o o ^*^ S ^00 -^ ©iN-lN^rM^lM OCT. G^^ O -N ^l> Tj^'^J'COCO^iOi-O'^COG^fNIN »>»a)OiO^'7icO'»QOcrso (MtM'NCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO''?' OOODQOCOOOOOOD'XiaOQOCOGOGOOO != f-H CO t^ CO 52 wo — L^ "'.-ooo- 2 = 2J? IS r^ f'eoii^lN.co.— -^o '^__0^.,j^^co-g- • t; ■ . CO ts CO O O -r" to fC H — 00 — U^ODO>2 ^ ^ ."Xtooi-^oooco r •< JT,- CO — Tj< oi — ^ -^o !N iNCoeo'co ^ c^ «o Tt< eo CO W to M »>* CO lo Si o *> »n S "COCOiOI-^COOOCS ^J^^^^coco — c^ '> Or w In, lo o ^ C-1 iM Tf "<^ to In, 00 Ci O CO CO CO CO CO CO *«« CC 00 CO -X CO GO ai All Account of the Com, Grain, and Flour, imported into Great Britain in each year, from 1st Jan» 1815, to 1840. Imported Imported Imported from irom the from all Total Year. Ireland. B. N. A. Colonies. other parts. Imported. Qrs. Qis. Qrs. Qrs. 1815 821192 25 333041 1154258 1816 873865 3 319203 1193071 1SI7 699809 25877 17/5353 2501039 IS 18 1207851 56618 3474051 4738r.20 1819 967861 14257 1693255 2675373 1820 1417120 40897 1300953 2758970 1821 1822816 40916 216738 2080470 1822 1063089 23439 102365 11S8S93 1823 1528153 209 53432 1581794 1824 1634024 891 609147 2244062 1825 2203962 95059 9G271S 3261739 1826 1693391 30500 2218830 3912721 1827 283^1314 61035 2550310 5441659 1828 2826988 21600 1272396 41209S4 1829 2307817 7335 2680414 4995566 1830 2215549 79634 2355412 4C50595 1831 2466/21 225240 3310760 6008721 1832 3026541 129476 668422 3S24439 1833 2700375 117745 336524 315)644 183t 2740098 66829 492071 329499S 1835 2655799 25016 296189 2977004 1836 2S47800 1S561 625032 3491349 1837 2938519 lOOTO 1306870 4264449 1838 3150852 19479 1515250 4685581 1839 1916043 1743S 4573660 6507142 1840 2030067 1/8828 3S11964 5209343 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 225 Corn, Meal, and FLmr imported, entered for home con- sumption, and duty paid since 1823 inclusive, the first year it ivas levied on corn. Qrs. Qrs. for Duty Paul. Impoitcrt. Home Cons. ^• s. (1. 1823 53866 12362 10310 4 3 1821 612594 677105 176383 15 6 1825 1060837 834425 .304919 15 5 1826 2252271 2098944 442755 14 9 1S27 2622283 2998866 792934 15 8 1S28 1294378 1237494 196834 0 2 1829 2694432 1959355 907320 5 5 J 830 2691884 2649348 790877 0 0 1831 3570569 2265392 547S09 0 0 1832 668422 475680 309676 0 0 1833 481506 112408 36252 0 0 1831 560056 236902 99416 0 0 1835 321206 439988 201673 0 0 1836 643592 408217 152791 4 0 1837 1325930 842326 589200 0 0 1838 1534730 1960475 183000 (1 0 1839 4591099 4657146 1115461 0 0 1840 3990522 3903518 1159000 0 0 'l'I:e Hver.ij^e Duty paid on the 11,318,549 qis. of Foieifru Wheat imported and entered for home consumption, since the present Corn Law came into operation, up to the 5th ultimo, is 03, Sd. per qr. Average Price of Grairi per quarter in England and Wales, for twenty years, ending 1840. 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1S26 1827 182S 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 56 2 25 0 19 6 30 11 44 7 21 11 18 2 24 6 ' 53 5 31 7 22 11 33 1 '• 64 0 36 5 24 10 40 10 1 68 7 40 1 25 8 42 10 58 9 34 5 26 9 44 3 56 9 36 6 27 4 47 7 60 5 32 10 22 6 38 4 66 3 32 6 22 9 36 8 64 3 32 7 24 5 36 1 66 4 38 0 25 4 39 10 58 8 33 1 20 5 36 5 52 11 27 6 18 5 35 1 46 2 29 0 20 11 36 7 39 4 29 11 22 0 30 0 48 9 33 2 23 1 38 4 55 10 30 4 23 1 38 7 64 4 31 5 22 5 37 4 70 6 39 1 26 6 41 3 ' 66 6 36 3 25 9 43 6 1 Peas. s. d. 32 9 26 5 35 0 40 8 45 5 47 8 47 7 40 6 36 S 39 2 41 11 37 0 37 0 33 0 30 3 37 3 37 9 36 a 41 I 42 TO THE EDITOR OF THE MER'S MAGAZINE. FAR- Sir, — Allow me to enquire through the medium of your JMagazine, whether any of your readers have tried the Prickly Cumfrey (symphitu7n aspeirmum) for soiling, on such a scale as to be able to giv-e any information as to how it will answer for that purpose 1 I have a few plants of it and find it exceed- ingly productive, having cut 14lbs. of green food at a time from one root ; and I know of no plant that would answer so well, if cattle would like it, and thrive upon it. I have no doubt that on good land it would pro- duce 40 tons per acre per annum, with little or no expense in the culture ; but I should like to know how cattle would do upon it before giving up much ground to it. Theydo not appear to be fond of it, but that may beowingto not having enough to give it a fair trial ; as many sortsof food are not eaten by cattle readily at first, which they are fond of when used to. There ap- pears to be a large quantity of mucilage in ihe plant, from which I should suppose it would be nutritious. Any information from any one who grows enough to keep stock upon it for any length of lime, will be thankfully received. Id. ANSWER TO QUERY RESPECT- ING CORN-MILLS FOR PRIVATE USE. Sir, — In answer to the questions of a " Constant Header," upon the use ef Corn Wills for the Farmer's use, I be^ to say that I have had one in use for the last three years, upon so simple a plan, that I think I may say it has not cost more than 1/. per year for accidents, and 1/. per year for dressinpr the stones in grinding' 100 qrs. of corn annually, made by Bewlcy, of Chelmsford, and the cost, including every tiling, about 701. • it has a pair of French stones, 38 inches high, worked by three horses ; it was originally made for two horses, but find- ing it rather hard work, I had an additional shaft put for another herse, which will grind two bushels per hour, being only exercise for the horses ; and if I want an extra supply, I can grind three bushels per hour by making the horses go a little faster, and feeding the hop- per a little more ; and, from the benefit I have expe- rienced from its use, I would not be without it for double its cost, although 1 live within a mile of three mills, for the following reasons : — Hi, I can always have a supply of meal, without being dependent on any one, never being short of wind or water. 2nd, I can grind all the rubbish of tail corn, which is not worth 6(T. per bushel for grinding, and if thrown down fowls will not eat, but if ground makes fair meal for lean pigs, &c. 3rdly, I always can find employment for three horses whenever it happens to be wet, and can find nothing- else to set them about ; and as I never want my meal only in the winter, I am very glad to get them out of the way. 4th, I always have the same weight back again, al- lowing for a trifling loss; but if sent to a mill, the allowance for waste is 2lbs. per bushel. 5th, It is upon so simple a plan, that all the attend- ance required is, a man occasionally going in to put corn into the hopper, leaving a boy to see that the horses keep a regular pace; and any common labourer in the yard can superintend the working of it. Should a " Constant Reader, or any other person who may happen to see this, have any idea of fixing one, an observation or two, taken from practice, may be useful to them ;— I would suggest that the stones are 30 inches high, instead of 38, as a few inches make a vast differ- ence in the labour of working them, and the large wheel over the horses should be seven feet, mine being only five feet, made of cast iron ; with the above alterations I think two horses would do the same work it now takes three to. Should you think the lines 1 have written will answer the questions of a " Constant Reader," you will much oblige me by an insertion of them in your widely-circulated Journal. I remain. Sir, yours respectfully, B.B.S. H. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— I occupy a light sandy farm, and the moles are so numerous that every year they do me a serious injury. Please permit me, through the medium of your journal, to ask some of your readers to acquaint me with the best method of destroying them. I also beg to be informed, by the kindness of some of your readers, the cheapest and best method to make a pond on a dry sandy substratum ; and also how many bushels of wood ashes, per acre, without any other manure, is considered a sufficient dressing for Swedish turnips. Hoping the above questions may not be of too little importance to occupy a space in your columns, I am. Sir, yours obliged, Heavitree, Feb. 11, 1841. J. S. 226' THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. POOR LAW RETURNS. i * it 00 00 OO COCO 03 CO OS W C5 CO W cn *- ik cb CO -Ij 05 Ui CO CO CO Amount of Money Expended and for other purposes (e Acts), during the years end decrease per cent, in each also the rate per head of Ex the average price of Wheat £ -■ ^ 4a. 4^ •*^.>'^P' ij O N3 rf»- — t^ a> a;co_4i.jJ_05 Id 'to en '^"o: 4^ CD "co "(O en 4^ op? g- ° ? 0- JO CO CO CO ^o 1-' oooc;i05aico • Decrease per cent, compared with 1833-4. ? 5 H CO a- Rate per Head of Expenditure on Population, 1831. .D ^:' t-'"2. w re _ re c- ~ 5 • • -J 0 ><; 0- i-'t-hS o^c^co to <1 o -J CO CO ai MJ:-3 60 — COOi COtO o to w ^ I-" -J to en po m ^^IClOlCOtO rfi. C!) 4^ — 00 lO : Decrease per cent, cam pared with 1833-4. -.o.en' » ^ w - p _, *« 2 f° £■ 0. g Jk *». Cn Oi 00 CO OsCS O CO to CO OICO^^-JOOO' CTi'-j'tDO'tOW CO O «0 -li —• CT cooo^oco^5►- CO "2 * C ., X S =" = re (Ti o. « 1 to 0- oi*x j^co^.f- o^ioitoio • : Decrease per cent, compared with 1833-4. "o 3 --^ 2 E.^3 CO '- r* 52" u-H tn ji. 4^ *.. m o> "-."co'-JCoVjai ^- C7) to O ^^ O) O 4^ tn_COCO_4^ *o oV» ■^"tO CO (XHO >-i CO ^ O CO lo en oi lo *.. en ^5.c.£. CO C»? =7- 1 «> ►.-CD 0 r-O P » CO » ?^ CO CO CO CO to — to *^ ■^ Oi *- '-' Decrease per cent, comnared with 1833-4. §-a.Sh3§ M 05 C) C;" Ol CO 4^ as CO en to CO 42. O)4^cooicnb3 2 Average Price '^ of Wheat per Ji quarter. £ »= ? ^ ^ cr-. m S-- Soo oooooooo CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 -^l 03 en 4i- i.. CO CO e deep and lively interest he should continue to entertain to- wards the society on returning: to America, and hi* desire to promote, by every opportunity which mig^ht present itself, the g-reat cause of a 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. modation the town itself would aftbrd for the pur- poses of the Meelins'. „,-i,- Mr. Hayter, M.P., read a letter from Mr, William Miles, M.P., of King's Weston, near Bristol, invitinff the Society to hold its Meetinsf of 1842 in that city, and detailing' the numerous imporiant advantages possessed by Bristol over every other town within the range of the Hereford district ; and Mr. Sanford, M.P., fully corroborated the views of Mr. Miles, and urged the Council to adopt his lordship's motion ; both expressing their conviction of the stimulus to improvement which would result from the Society's Meeting being iield in that part of the country. The Resolution proposed by Earl Spencer, and seconded by the Duke of Ilichmond, was carried una- nimously. AWARDS FOR IMPLEMENTS. It was resolved, that the Judges of Implements at the Cambridge Meeting should be requested to appor- tion the 50gs, offered that year by the Society, among the persons whom they recommended in their Report as the most successful exhibitors; and that, at the next monthly meeting, the Council should take into con- sideration the distribution of the 200gs. voted this year as the amount of awards for Agricultural Implements. society's medal. The Secretary was directed to apply to Mr. Wyon, Chief Medallist at the Mint, and beg distinct informa- tion as to the time when the Society would be put in possession of their Medals, for transmission to the successful candidates to whom they had been awarded. specimens of wheat. The President read a letter from Professor Henslow, on the iubject of his proposed plan for the mode in which it would be desirable that the specimens should be selected and packed, and of his intention of pro- posing for the Society a collection and arrangement of the Weeds of Agriculture. PRIZES FOR HORSES. The Duke of Richmond gave notice of his intention to propose at the next Monthly Council, the suspension of the Bye-Law, limiting the time at which new prizes should be considered, for the purpose of proposing ad- ditional Prizes to be given for Horses, Mares, &c. at the Liverpool Meeting. DAYS OF EXHIBITIOM. Mr, C. Fisher Hobbs gave notice of his intention to bring forward, at the next Monthly Council in March, the question of extending the time of exhibition from one to two days. REGULATIONS OF LIVERPOOL BIEETING. On the motion of Earl Spencer the following Com- mittee was appointed to take into consideration and arrange the Regulations for the Show of Stock, Imple- ments, &c., at the Liverpool Meeting: — Duke of Ilichmond. Earl Spencer. H.Handley,E!.q.,M.P. Humphrey Gibbs, Esq. W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq, Samuel Jonas, Esq. Communications were received from the Rev. J. IM. King, of Dunster, Somersetshire, on the Society's Model Experiment ; from Mr. Nash of Foulmire, near Royston, on the application of a new manure ; and Mr. Joseph Yorke of Tewkesbury, on the Society's prize for a draining plough. At a Council held on Wednesday, Feb. 10— present Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in the Chair ; Hon. Robert H. Clive, M.P. ; T. French Uuriie, Esq. ; Humplirey Gibbs, Esq.; John Kinder, Esq.; William Miles, Esq., M.P. ; W. Woods Page, Esq. ; and Ed- ward Ayshford Sanford, Esq., M.P. Frederick Twynam, Esq., of Bishop's Stoke, Hamp- shire, was elected a Governor, and the following gen- tlemen Members of the Society :— Whitehead, Richard, West Farleigh, Maidstone, Kent Baroby, Christopher, Baldersby, near Ripon, York- shire Cresswell, Robert, Idridgehay, near Worksworth, Derbyshire Solly, Edward, jun., 33, Bedford-row Warburton, Rowland E. E,, Arley Hall, near North- wich, Cheshire Verelst, Rev. William, Grayingham, Kirton-in-Lind- sey, Lincolnsliire Harrison, James, Lowfieldj, Kirkby Lonsdale, West- moreland Humphries, Firmin, Aveley, Romford, Essex James, John, Burnville Lodge, Tavistock, Devon Maxwell, J.G., Coham, Black Torrington, Devon Walker, Thomas, Berryholm, Sizergh, Kendal Smith, J. G. S., Melton Wood, Brigg, Lincolnshire West, John, Collingham, near Newark, Nottingham- shire Shooter, James, Kintbury, Newbury, Berkshire Phipps, John Lewis, Doe Park, Liverpool Phipps, Charles Paul, Doe Park, Liverpool Smith, John, Springfields, Newcastle, Staffordshire Bennett, Luke, Dimordale Hall, Newcastle, Stafford- shire Bell, John, Trent Vale, Newcastle, Staffordshire Gwyn, Richard Hodges, Astbury Hall, Bridgenorth, Shropshire Dickinson, W., 7, Curzon-street, Mayfair Adair, Alexander, Heatherton Park, Wellington, Somersetshire Rogers, Edward M., Beyton House, Bury St. Ed- mund's Fox, George Lane, M. P., Bramham Park, Wetherby, Yorkshire Clayton, Richard Clayton Brown, Adlington Hall, Wigan, Lancashire Darby, William Joseph, Green Hill, Halesowen, Shropshire Meade, Hon. General, 48, Bryanstone-square Mawe, Lister, Haxey, Isle of Axholme, Lincolnshire Hector, C. J., M.P., Petersfield, Hampshire Syer, Rev. Thomas, Little Rolton, Clare, Suffolk Everitt, Joseph, Feeriiig, Kelvedon, Essex Fairhead, John,Totham, Maldon, Essex Saunders, John E., Glanrhwdw, Carmarthen, S. W. Allen, Henry, juu,, Oakfield, Hay, Brecon, S, W. Lowndet, Richard Charles, Low Hill, Liverpool Cowan, Dr., Toxteth Lodge, Liverpool. INFLUENZA AMON(; HORSES. Mr. Greaves, of Bakewell, Derbyshire, communicated to the Society a statement of the symptoms and success- ful mode of treatment in the case of thirty of his horses, which had been suddenly seized with the influenza during the previous week. The symptoms of the dis- order began with loss of appetite and immediate pros- tration of strength, fwllowed by a quick debilitated pulse, the eyes swelling out to an enormous size, (caHs- ing temporary blindness), and in some cases the throat being sore. As soon as the horse.-; were attacked, he gave each of them a quart of good ale, and the same quantity of meal gruel, along with half an ounce of ground ginger ; kept their bodies warm with dry clothing, admitted ])lenty of fresh air into the stable, using linseed and bran mashes, and giving night and morning the following ball : — Emetic tartar, five ounces; saltpetre, five pounds ; camphor, ten ounces; soft-soap, six ounces; fenugreek, four ounces; linseed meal, four ounces ; and Armenian bole, two ounces. The whole to be beat into a mass with treacle, and divided into balls weighing two ounces each. He states that he in no case bled the horse-s ; and that he found them require nothing further than good nursing for a short time, taking the chill off the water given them to drink, bathing their eyes several times a day witli nothing more than warm water, and in the case of sore throat blistering immediately. Mr. Greaves found that by this mode of treatment a perfect recovery was in every case effected in the course of five or six days. Mr. Miles, M.P., remarked, that with regard to the question of bleeding in these inflammatory disorders, he had always found in his own extensive experience that he never witnessed a case among: his own stud, in whicli the intiammatory action was not checked if taken at once, anil in tlie earliest stage &( the complaint, giving' every night a mash with an eunce of saltpetre. EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE. Mr. Miles also stated the singular efFcct of the epi- demic among his cattle (introduced by some sheep bought at a fair), the eyes swelling to a preternatural size, discharging an acrid humour, nnd producing a painful irritation to the animals, wliicli in every c^i.^e lost thoir coats by the attack. He also remarkcl that the epiilemic had assumed a milder form in the West of England, with the exception of a single district, and that warm clulhing and warn drenches had been iouiid most s-ucccssliil in the treatment of lh(/ stock. The Hen. Robert Clive, iM.F., iiitonned the Council of the mea^url:S he had taken to get for the Society authentic statements of the ejiidemic in Shropshire, where no serious cases had however occurred. 'I'o the circum*lance of his not purchasing new cattl(\ and in- troiludnir them among Ins other stock, he attributed his own entire exemption from the disorder on his estate. MEDAL OF THE SOCIETY. Mr. Wyon informed the Council that the dies of the Aledal for the Society were in a state of great forward- ness at the Royal Mint, Hit Majesty's head being finished for the obverse, and the whole would be com- pletud by the ftlay meeting of the Society, and at an eailier date if required, 'ilie Council decided that Mr. Wyon should be reque;t«;d to eom])lcte tlie execution of the medals by the monthly Council on the 7th of April next. The Rev. George F. Halcomb, of Briiikley Rectory, Cambridgesi'ire, communicated to the Society his suc- cessful mode of cullivaiing heavy land ; an(-l Mr. JMaehin, of Guteford Hill, Worksop, his process for preventing smut in his wheat. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Camhridge Prize. /, i 229 At a Council held on Wcduesday, February the 17th, present, His Grace the Duke of Richmond, in the chair; Thomas Raymoud Barker, Esq.; James Dean, Esq.; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.; William Goodenough Hayter,Esq., M.P. ; Sir Charles Lemou, IJart., M.P'. ; William INIiles, Esq., M.P. ; William Woods Page, Esq., and William Shavv, Esq. The following gentlemen were elected Members of the Society : — Hill, Sir Robert Chambre, Knight, Press Hall, Shrews- bury Hill, The Rev. John, the Citadel, Hawkestone, Shrewes'ury Egerton, Colonel Richard, Eaton Banks, 'i'arporley, Cheshire Stanbrougli, Chailes Henry, Islcworth, Middlesex Harman, Edward, Sun Firc-oriice, Cornhill, and En- field, Middlesex Lawrence, Charles, Gloucester Sandle, Williain, North Oekendon, Romford, Essex I'ownley, Chnrles, Townley, IJurnley, Lancashire Walters, JohnThnmas, Rugeley, Staflbrdshirc Pye, Henry J., Clifton Hall, Tamworth Bell, Samuel, Newhouse, JNcwport, Shropshire Tombs, Joseph, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire Carew, Lord, Castleborough, VVexford Wood, John, Brownhills, Stoke-upon-Trent, Stafford- shire Littledale, Henry, Cardington, near Bedford, 33, Har- ^ ley-street King, Richard King Meade, North Petherton Rectory, Brid,,evvater Dening, John, Pitt, Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire IViilson, Robert, Halewood, I^iverpool Ellis, John, Liverpool Eyton, William, Gonsall, Shrewsbury Beddoes, George, Brunslow, Bishop's Castle, Shrop- shire Bartlett, Henry Albert, Flint House, East Hading, Norfolk Ramsay, Alexander, Balmain, N. B. A communication was received from Mr. Joseph Bennett, of Terapsford, in reference to the prize of 10/. awarded to an animal, the property of his brother, Mr. William Bennett, but transmitted to him by mistake, informing the council of his haviug remitted the amount, through Francis Pym, Esq., one of the stewards of the yard at Cambridge. The council resolved, that this amount should be carried to the general funds of the society, and a new cheque be drawn for the prize in question, and transmitted direct to Mr. William Ben- nett, the real owuer of the animal. Camtridge Dinner Tickets. A letter was read from Mr. George Basevi, jun., of Saville Row, London, requesting that his name might be takiu oli" the li-~t of intinbers, as he did not consider himself au annual merabtrpf the society, having merely become a member at Cambridge, for the purpose of ob- taining dinner tickets on that occasion. The council haviug taken this communication into their considera- tion, unanimously resolved, that the secretary write to Wr. Ba-tevi, and inform him that his name will be with- drawn from the society on his paying his sut)scriptioa for the present year. Fatal Disorder among Bullocks. Mr. Georgi; Sexton, of Wherstesd, near Ipswich, communicated to the society a new form of epidemic, prevalent during the last few weeks in that part of SaflFolk. The disorder began with a shivering fit, at- tacking those animals which were highest in condition ; one builock being seized at nine in the morning, and dead at tour in the afternoon of the same day, and another expiring after a quarter of an liour's iliness. On being opened, the intestines, heart, and milt were found to be much inflamed, the milts weighing upward of a stone and a half each. The animals in question were two years old, and had suffered from the epidemic in spring, but had quite recovered from that complaint, and had been fed regularly upon Swedish turnips and oil -cake. Several of the other bullocks appeared un- well, aiul refused their food, but recovered after being taken up anil bled. Sir. Sexton reported, further, that several other cases of the same kind had occurred in his neighbourhood. General Epidemic. The Duke of Richmond was requested by the Council to select some medical practitioner, of exten- sive experience in the nature of epidemic complaints affecting the human species — to draw up a report to the society on the peculiarity of the prevailing epidemic among cattle ; and Mr. Miles, M.P., was requested to obtain a medical report, on some interesting cases which had presented themselves in his own neighbour- hood in Somersetshire. Mr. Hyett, of Painswick, in Gloucestershire, sug- gested the probability of the present epidemic leading to similar results wiih those quoted by Professor Hen- slow (Journal, vol. ii., part I, pages 16 & 17J, as the consequence of ergot of rye being taken as food ; and thought it highly desirable that facts should be ob- tained on the possible influence of impure food, such as mildewed turnips or grass, smutty straw, or mouldy hay, on the cattle fed upon them. His Grace the Duke of Rutland, having circulated the Society's Queries very extensively am^ng his te- nantry in the neighbourhood of Belvoir, in the coun- ties of Leicester and Lincoln, informed the Council of his intention to present in a short time a satisfactory- report of the result of these inquiries to the Society. Mr. Hardman, Secretary of the Royal Dublin So- ciety, informed the Council that he understood the disease had at length reached Ireland, and requested a further supply ot the Society's Circulars. The Council directed that an immediate supply of 50 copies of the Mode of Treatment, along with the same number of copies of the Queries, should be transmitted both to the Royal Dublin Society of Ireland and the Highland Society of Scotland. The Secretary laid before the Council 108 Reports on the Epidemic, received from Members in \arious R 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. parts of the kingdom during the past -week. These originHl and authentic docuraents were ress''all feel obliged if, through your excel- lent, paper, any of your readers could inform me wliether pigeons' dung can be used for the purpose of manuring land; in what quantities per acre to be ttsed, and whether better adapted for grass, or land under tillage ; and for what crop, or whether it ought to be mixed with any other substance ? I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Feb. 16, 1841. A Constant Reader. Sir, — Being a subscriber to, and constant reader of, your Magazine, I have, upon several occasions, perused the accounts of experiments relative to tiie stall-feeding of bullocks and sheep ; — the latter to me is certainly new, although I have no doubt of its practicability. The immense quantity of food stated to be con- sumed by the animals, cannot, if I am right in my calculation, possibly pay the cultivator, who is sup- posed to be remunerated in some way. It would, R 2 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. therefijre, be conferring- a great favour to mnuy in- dividuils, if the ex|iences of sucli metbods were piiMisbetl witli the stvJteraents ; and to none more tLini), vour buir.blo servant. Rustic. Maidstone, Feb. 8. Sir, — I should feel extremely obliged if yon would faviiut me with a reply to the following queries in your next piiper, viz : — " How much wheat is it computed that England, Ireland, and Scotland coasumes per day, or per week, iu qr «. ?■' Also, " What quantity nf wheat is called a fair average crop?'' Waiting your reply, Sir, your obedient servant, Mark-lane, Feb. 18. G J P. If you could favour me with the quantities of quarters con-iunned of barley and oats, and what is called a lair average crop, I would feel obliged. SUDBURY FARMERS' CLUB. VVe stated in our last week's paper that the in- trgductory lecture on land-draining was delivered at the T )wn Hall, Siidburj', on Thursda)', the 4th instant, by Mr. Thomas Hawkins, of Assington. The following is the substance of that gentleman's observations : — As a good deal of discussion is going on amongst farmers as to the best methoil of drain- ing land, I am anxious to have the opinion of the club whether we might not use tile instead of haulm atid straw in constructing the drains; and if I can show, as I thin'< I can, the little differ- ence in a pecuniary point of view, and the great advantage in every other relation, it may not be undeserving the attention of the meeting. Ill speaking upon this subject, my observations will apply strictly to the surface water; as, where land is wet from springs, the drains often require to be cut in a different direction. The plan I have adopted is, to get all the pa- rallel drains I possibly can into one main or lead- ing draiti ; next, to get a good fall for the water, having the ground perfectly level between the drains, which I think of great importance in faci- litating an equal draught ; otherwise, if the land inclines, the surface soon becomes upon a level with the bottom of the drains, and the water only filters from one drain to another, instead of drain- ing equally from the centre. UpoM this principle, I think the direction of the drain-i ought to vary as the field inclines ; and not along the side of the hills, unless there are some geological formations in the soil. The main or itadiiig drains ought to be two or three inches be- low the others : in fitting the two together, the par-dlel ought to curve a yard or two in the di- rection of the current in the main, and by cutting a corner off two tiles, they will fit as nicely as the leading into the main pipe of the gas-works here. There is a new system exciting some interest ati.ongst agriculturists, called fiurow-draining, which I think can only be practised where the sinface is fiat, or whe-c the land all slopes one way ; but the unsightly appearance of high- hacked ridges or stetches would not be tolerated by the Suffolk farmer, to say nothing of heaj)- ing the soil on the middle by a continual gather- ing of the stetch in ploughing. In comparing straw and tile draining, I shall take the one most in use out ot the number I have mentioned this evening ; which is, to dig one spit with the bro.id and one with the narrow spade, filling the narrow about five inches with straw or haulm, leaving six inches at the bottom for the water to run in, which I shall estimate as follows, at 160 rods per acre : — Digging 8 score rods 20 inches deep and 5 yards apnrt, at 4s. per score 112 0 Haulm or straw for filling the same. ... 1 0 0 £2 12 0 Digging 4 score rods 36 inches deep and 10 yards apatt, at 7s. per score 18 0 1,200'tiles and soles 116 0 £3 4 0 Difference 0 12 0 In estimating the expense of tiles. I think I have a right to assume Mr. 15eart's price, as I am sure tiles can be made as cheap in this neigh- bourhood as at Godmanchester — I think cheaper. If we look at the permanency of the tile, I need not trespass n])on your time in ])roving the 12s. per acre well laid out. The other continually wants patching, and generally requires to be com- pletely re-drained every ten or twehe years ; the drought often cracking the land below them in summer, which, after rain, holds a great deal of stagnant water in the soil, and the perishable ma- terial used in filling causes them to decay, parti- cularly where there is hut little fall. As to (he deep working of the soil, I am of opi- nion that nothing would increase its ))roductive- ness and alter its texture in this neighbourhood, more than subsoil ploughing and deep draining. (Objections have been made to the latter, by sup- posing the land would cap over them, and, from their depth, the water not percolating freely to the drains. This, I am sure, is an erroneous idea ; as I can prove that land will dry quicker where the drains are 36 inches deep and ten yards apart, than where only 20 inches and five yards. In speaking of the subsoil plough, although I have now been at it four years, I cannot make up my mind which is the most perfect method of performing it ; on heavy land it ought to ba done across the drains, when there is some diffi- culty in shutting up the furrows, and some lifile expense in levelling the land afterwards, which ought not to be incurred. Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich, have recently improved the Kent turnwrist plough, making it both simple and easier of draught, but sufficiently strong to plough any of our land. I have asked them to be kind enough to send me one which, by turning the furrows all one way, leaves the land level, saving those little items ; and which appears to be a more correct plan. When I have tried it, I shall be happy to report faeveow,— Essex Standard. THRASHING MACHINES. -The question as to whether thrashing machines are exempt from toll, h&% very often been brousrht before the magistrates and decided m the affirmative. At the Wellington (Salop) petty sessions last week, however, the matter was placed inasomewhat newlig'ht. Richard Astley, the collector of tolls at the Walton giite, appeiired to answer a sum- mons for dcMandin*' and taking toll, for a thrashing- maciiine, from William Jebb. Mr. F. Webb, of Shrewsbury, the lessee of the s:ate, attended on behalf of the collector, and produced the opinion of Mr. Blick, of ihe Middle Temple, in which he says that a thrashing THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. 233 machine is not an impXament '^ ejusdem generis'" with plougrhs and harrows, witliui iht- meanini; i>i the exeni|>l in^-- clause i i lh<- tfi-neral turnpike aci. JMr. Webb like- wise relerred ihe iTirti^-^is rates to the clause stating: that no exemption sh-.ilt be claimed or .•allowed unless the whtfcls are 4.^- inches or upwards, I'lie magistrate was ol opinio.! that no person was itntitled to the exemption unless the wlieels were 4.j inches and upwards, and accordingly dismissed the case. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MER'S MAGAZINE. FAR- Sir, — Mv letter, ])ublishe(l in the Farmer's Maga- zine, December, 18:-9, has been the cause of several applications tor an account of the breed of cattle called short-honis. Instead, therefore, of writing to each individual enqitirer, 1 take the liberty ot requesting your publication of the accoin- ])anyiiis: account, which has been obtained by ine from what 1 have considered the most authentic sources, and, if incorrect, the public as well as myself will be greatly obliged by other and more extensive information. ]Mr. Geo. Coates is now about publishing a fourth volume of the herd-book — of the improved short- horned cattle — and it is hoped and trusted that the pedigrees sent him will be true and genuine, for it is well known that cattle are fudged on the jiub- lie as such, when they have little pretensions to derivation from the originals, or the herds of Messrs. Collings. I am, Sir, yours obediently, Henhy Cottrell. RJwdyaie Lodge, Congresbury, Bristol, 1841. That the short-horns are not " a breed of yes- terday," it is very evident from the best authori- ties. Mr. Bates informs us that St. Hugh Smyth- son's family, the predecessors of the fir«t Uuke of Northumberland, who li\ed at Stanwix, Yorkshire, near the lees, were eminent for their cattle two- hundred years bach. The late Laily Collingwood's grandfr.thei- pos- sessed this breed of cattle at Newby, near Ripon, Yorkshire, and they /vcre also eminent two cen- turies back, and that it was from this stock Sir William St. Quintin, of Scampston, near Malton, Yorkshire, began his breed. I'he bulls, called the Studley bull, JMasterman's bull. Lakeland's bull, and ^Ir. James Brown's red bull, were directly descended from this tribe. Mr. IMichrcl Dobinson, of Whitton Castle, had this breed of cattle above one-hundred years ago, as reported by Mr. George Cully in his treatise on domestic animals, and as the best in his early days. Wherefore, surely, the title of short-horns has been long enough in possession, to make it a good niark'etable. as well as a holding title. Many years back there was gi eat emulation in the breeders of short-horns, and amongst them Mr. Millbank, Sir William St. Quintiii, Sir James Pennyman, and others were great enthusiasts, but it is supposed Sir William St. Quintin was then the giea' cause of improvi-ment, having made seve- ral experiments with cattle, apparently of the same species, which he cawseil to be impoited from Hoi- stein, and it is believed that the bull Hubback sprang from these siiccesslul experim.ents, being bred from Sir James Pennyman's stock, derived from Sir William Si. Quintin's, and alihoiigli doubts, surmises, stigmas, and other suchlike va- luable inuendos have been cast at the purity of th's bull's short horn blood, yet it was the firm ojdnion of Mr. Ch oles Colling that he possessed not one drop of Kyloe or other blood, but i hat of pure short-horn, for such was the llulstein in.i portation. And now we come to the period of the C illings. About the year 1783, Mr. Chat les Colling, pie- suming it would be a good speculation to introduce an improved herd of cattle, he industriously set about selectini4 the best he could meet with, viz.. Favourite or Lady JMaynaid, Young Strawberry, Duchess, Hanghton, the grandam of Cherry, the I)re(lecessor ol Old Daisy, Magdalena and some others ; and by reference, to his pedigrees, we may judge their offspring, Foljambe and Phoeni.x, he then considered his superiors. His brother, Mr. Robert Ceiling's here was also either directly or remotely from this same grand source— Hubback. Mr. Charles Colling announced his intention of selling off, and by auction on the 11th October, 1810, the average amount thereof was about 1 iS/. His bull Comet fetching the great price of 1000 gs. Mr. Robert Coiling, finding this sa e turn to so good an account, deteimined to follow his bro- ther's example, and in 1818 he had his final sale, the average of which was about 127/. By the prices given at Mr. Charles Colling's sale, it appears the pub ic estimation was in favour of Ai* cattle, and it is believed it happened fiom his acute and su|)erior skill in adopting a cross with this very excellent selection, and it was thus made. Mr. George Coates, the late author of the herd-book, with whom Mr. Charles Colling was intiirate, inf nmed him that he had purchased for Col. O'Callaghan of ileighington, near Darlington, two Galloway polled cows, one of wbich was af- terwards put to a bull of Mr. C. Colling's, called Bolinghroke, and in due time produced a bull calf (called O'Callaj^han's son of BolingbroUe) which, when a few da\s old, became the [jroperty of Mr. C. Colling, and was eventually put to Old Johanna, one of bis short horn-cows, am! she had a bull calfwhich was named grandson of Boiing- hroke. From this grandson of Bolinghroke and his cow Phoenix, a daughter of the before named favourite, or La y Manard, was bred 'he celehrateii cow Lady, who at 16 years old was sold for 206 guineas, with her daiighter Countess. 9 ye^rs old, for 400 guineas; another daughter, Laura, 4 years old, lor .310 guineas ; her grandaughter, Celina, 5 years old, out of Countess, for 200 guineas ; and another grandaughter, Cora, 4 years old, out ot Countess, for 70 guineas ; and her son Major, 3 years old, for 200 guineas. And so confident was Mr. C. Colling of the superiority of Mi* tribe, that he offered, in conjunc- tion with Mr. Booth, to show for 1000 guineas, Lady Celina and Countess, against any three cows in the kingdom. The celebrity of this tribe is still as high in the estimation ot the public, for at sales in 1_839 nine cov\s average! 9.t guineas, one of them 320 gui- nea^ ; filteen cows averaged 99 guineas, one of them 200 guineas; and twelve cows avi-iagcd 106 guineas, one ot them 300 guineas — all full of this cross. These cattle are perhaj)s erroneously called Diiihan;s. Mr. Chnrhs Colling did nut adopt any local name, but ci n-idered his whole herd short- hi rns improved; wbeielore the uldesi breedns from him have thought the most appropiiate ap- l)ellaii(.n to be, improved shoi t-iiorns. 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR FEBRUARY. In most pievieus corresponding periods of the year, we have called the attention of our readers to the steidy fulfilment of the " fill ditch" notoriety ot the second month in the Calends ; but, on the pre- sent occasion, we have to notice as great a nuniber of violent and extreme atmospheric changes as ever fell to our lot to record. At tlie commencement of the mouth, the frost throughout the United Kingdom was almost unprecedentedly severe ; so much so, in- deed, that inland navigation was rendered impos- sible, while travelling on common roads, from the immense quantities of snow which had fallen, was not performed without the utmost difficulty ; hence, the farmers, and most other chisses of tlie commu- nity, had to contend with a combination of circum- stances which were productive in some instances of seiious inconvenience. However, the wind, which for nearly three weeks had blown from the north- east and east, suddenly veered round to the south- ward on the morning of the 11th, which speedily produced a very rapid thaw in all quarters, and has been of great advantage to agriculturists in general. The fine genial rains which have since falleia have Lad a most extraordinary effect in causing a speedy dissolution of the snow, and likewise greatly benefit- ting the whole vegetable creation, which is now rapidly assuming its so much wanted appearance. In taking a retrospective glance at the young wljeats, we liave much gratification in being enabled to allay those fears which were at one period entertained respecting them ; and the importance of the subject havmg induced us, as is our invariable custom, to make a personal examination of them in most of our great wheat growing counties, we have arrived at certain conclusions, upon wbich the most implicit contidence may be placed. Throughout Essex and a large portion of Kent, including Sussex, the ap- pearance of the fields now is that, to use a technical phrase, of a " newly mown lawn,'' and even in those situations generally considered unfavourable for this valuable descrijition of produce, not a single well- grounded complaint can by possibility be made ; but in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Noithamptonshire, and Norfolk, a slight deficiency of plants has been found to exist on those lowlands which were inundated by the floods a short time since. From our western and midland districts, but more particularly from Warwickshire and Devon- shire, our accounts are of an equally satisfactory nature: hence, it may be safely inferred, taken as a whole, that the vague rumours which have been set afloat have no real foundation, and that the future prospects of our farmers are quite as cheering as could be reasonably anticipated. As to ourselves, we never had any serious misgivings as to the wheats, notwithstanding the almost unusual severity of the weather during the winter, from tlie well-attested fact of the plants being the most hardy of any de- scription of corn ; besides, whilst the cold winds prevailed, they were mostly covered to the depth of from three to nine inches by the heavy falls of snow, which latter were of immense advantage to the growers. Suffice it, therefore, for us to add, that when we compare the appearance of the crops with that noticed last season, we honestly and candidly confess the balance is decidedly in favour of those which have now claimed our attention. The proceedings in the fields during the mouth's conclusion were marked by those of extreme bustle and activity, and much greater progress was made in ploughing than is ordinarily observed. Gene- rally speaking, this department of rural economy is extremely backward, but not more so than is war- ranted by the obstacles with which those immediately connected with it have had to contend. The soil has been found in a high state of culture, and has worked remarkably well both in the highland and lowland districts. No intimation has reached us of any grain having been as yet sown, either broadcast or by the drill system ; vet there is ample time for its conclusion, the time allotted for which not being until the latter end of JMarch, The great question, whether the stocks of wheat of home produce in the hands of our growers will ])rove sufficiently extensive to meet the wants of the consumers, without any larger imports from abroad, until the harvest be gathered, has been again mooted. Aware, as we are, that an attempt has been made to underrate its quantity, we have studiously endea- voured to collect the best information respecting it; and we can readily affirm that the supplies are more extensive, by fully one month's consumption, than in Februarj^ 1840, while there are nearly 200,000 qrs. of free foreign in warehouse in the various outports, most of which is of very superior quality. Again, it should be borne in mind, that the excess of oats and barley, most of tlie latter of which is available for bread, is acknowledged to be great. As to any scarcity, we are not under the least apprehen- sion respecting it, and moreover conceive that spe- culation in foreign corn for British consumption, will not be carried to that extent as we have had frequent occasions to notice. It is also to be observed with great pleasure, that thecultureof wheat in this country has been progressively on the increase since 1838 ; while it is admitted on all hands, that the number of acres under that culture is greater this year than during the whole of the present century. What grounds, then, we will venture to ask, can be found for even surmising that any deficiency exists, or that prices will be materially higher? Again, is it to be supposed for one moment, that were there any pros- jiect of any decided improvement, that our foreign advic3S would continue so uninteresting as those ■which are almost daily coming to hand? The un- deniable fact is, that scarcely any room is left for speculation, and that much caution will of necessity be observed by parties engaged in the corn trade. The intelligence from our [irovinces intimates that in some of the principal markets unusually ! igh currencies have been demanded for the finest parcels of foreign wheat, free of duty, owing to some of the holders being of opinion that enhanced rates will be realized a short time hence. With regard to English wheat, this article has been in increased inquiry, and the best qualities of both red and white have fully commanded an improvement of from'Js. to 4s. per (juartf-r, and most of the samples have been cleared ofl" speedily after coming to markt-t. There has also been a better inquiry for the middling sorts, at a rise of from Is. to 2s, per quarter. Bonded wheat the supply of which has been scanty, has ex- perienced scarcely any attention, and its prices have remained next to nominal, ^'ery little barley has been brought forwards, yet the trade with all, except the best malting, has been in a dejiressed state, at barely, but at nothing (juotable beneath, late rates. Superfine malt has been in free sale, while all other sorts have proved a mere drug. The great dispro- portion between the value of barley and malt is now THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 attracting tbe attention of tlie dealers, and an equa- lization is looked forward to. The limited state of the supplies of oats has produced a slight re-aclion in the demand for them, and an improv^ement of from (jd. to Is. per quarter has been obtained for the best descriptions of Polands and feeds. It is also the generally received opinion that as the shipments from the different Irish ports to England have been very small for some time past, and as sufficient quantities cannot be received during the next fortnight to kee]) pace with the demand, an additional advance, though not of any moment, will take place. The besthaid beans and boiling ])eas have gone off freely ; but other kinds have barely maintained their jiosition. An advance of 3s. per t'SOlbs. has taken place in the value of the best flour, with aready inquirv. We regret to learn tl)at the e[)idemic has beeti raging with the utmost violence amongst the cattle in different quarters, and many graziei's and flock- masters have sufl'ered the most severe losses. The early lambing season, notwithstanding the severity of the weatlier, has been (productive of a line f:dl of strong lambs, and scarcel)' any losses, from the great precaution taken by the owners, have been noticed. In Scotland thrashing has gone on briskly, and most of the markets have been well supplied with grail), mostly of good quality, while extensive breadths of land have been ploughed up. An active demand has existed for wheat and oats, and the quotations have improved from 6d. to Is. per quarter, but in other corn no alteration has been noticed. Quotations of wheat keep up in Ireland, and the low value of oats at JNIark Lane have materially checked the inquiry for most grain, but the jirices have been well maintained. The following is our usual monthly statement of the sup[>lies and prices of fat stock, exhibited and sold in Smithfield cattle market. On most occasions the receipts of good beasts and sheep have been very scanty, and the inquiry for them has been steady, at high prices ; while the out-of-condition sorts of beef and mutton have commanded scarcely any attention, with a numerous attendance of buyers. The supplies of beasts Lave amounted to 11,230, of sheep and lambs, 94,100; of calves, S2S ; and of pigs, 2,380 ; while the prices have ranged as fol- lows : — Beef, from 3s. to 5s.; Mutton, 3s. 4d. to 5s. 4d.; Lamb, 5s. 6d, to 6s. 4d. ; Veal, 5s. to 6s. 2d. ; and Pork, 4s. to 5s. per 81bs. to sink the offals. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, February 21tli, 1810, and Monday .February 22, 1841. At per 8tbs. to sink the offals. l-'eb. 24, 1840. Feb. 22, 1841. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferiorI3easts3 0to3 2.. 3 4to3 6 Second quality do 3 6 3 8.. 3 8 3 10 Prime large Oxen 3 10 4 0 .. 4 0 4 6 Prime Scots, &c 42 48. .48 50 Coarse & inferior Sheep 32 36. .38 40 Second quality do 38 42.42 46 Prime coarse woolled da. 44 46. .48 50 Prime Southdown do.. 48 50.52 54 Lambs — — ..5 8 6 4 Large coarse Calves ..48 50. .50 54 Prime small ditto 5 2 5 6.. 5 6 5 8 Large Hogs 40 48. .42 46 Neat small Porkers .,4 10 5 0.. 4 8 5 0 airppjLiES. Feb. 24, 1840. Fob. 22, 1S41. Beasts 2,940 2,209 Sheep and Lambs .... 19,200 17,190 Calves 170 51 Pigs 412 603 The arrivals of slaughtered meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets from Scotland and different partsof England liavc been on the increase, they having comprised from the 1st to tlie 22ud, 190 car- casses of beef,l,3()0 dittoof mutton, 210 ditto of veal, 2,140 ditto of i)ork. 'i'rade with all kinds of meat has ruled heavy, at the following prices, viz. : — Beef, from lis. 2d. to 4d.; Mutton, 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d.; Veal, 5s. 4d.toGs.i and Pork 4s. to 5s. per 8lbs. by the carcass. DURHAM. The weather for the last two months has been re- markable for its severity, attcndeil with heavy falls of snow. The sudden thaw on the Loth and 1 8th ult. has done considerable damage in this county ; the shipping interest has sustained serious losses, from the accumulation of ice and floods, but the low grounds were not flooded to that extent which we have frequently witnessed. Notwithstanding the extreme severity of the frost, the young wheats assumed (at the disappearance of the snow) a most vigorous and healthy appearance ; since then the weather has been of that severe character, with a strong piercing easterly wind, which deprived and drifted that covering of snow from the fields so essential for the preservation of wheat, turnips, and clover. We are sorry in having to observe that wheats are presenting a very opiiosite appearance than what they were a month ago ; turnips have also suffered severely in exposed situations. The frost has iienetrated into many situations to pota- toes where they were supposed to be in security, and large ciuantitics have been rotted by the severity of this visitation. The plough has been impeded for an unusual length of time ; this important ope- ration is very far in arrear, and strong clayey stiff soils Avill scarcely have sufficient time to mellow and pulverise for the reception of the seed. The winter has been exceedingly tavoiirable for manur- ing grass land, carting manure, stones, &c. Fodder has been in great request, and disappeared very rapidly. The thrashing mills have been kept in motion, notwithstanding markets have been scantily supplied with grain; stackyards look thin; the wheat turns out a very short crop, but fine in qua- lity. The rot amongst sheep is very prevalent, many extensive graziers are compelled to slaughter the whole of their breeding ewes. This disease may be dated from the extreme wetness of the summer and autumn in 1 839. \Vc are sorry in having to report that the epidemic amongst cattle, sheep, and l)igs, is still prevalent; sheep that have been affected this most inclement season have literally gone to bones ; they ought to be kept in sheds, well bedded, and turnips cut for them, small slices ought to be put in their mouths ; this remark also applies to cattle. We are of opinion that tar will not prevent this disease, for we had out of forty- eight short-horned cattle, forty-seven of which took the epidemic, notwithstanding tar was rubbed down ther noses every other morning ; about one- half of this number had medicine at the hrst ap- pearance of the disease, the remainder had none ; we were not able to distinguish any difference whatever with regard to their recovery : we found in byers that ventilation and cleanliness were very essential in the disease. It has seldom proved fatal where animals have had dry and warm lodging, and severe pui;gatives avoided. From the incle- mency of the season a great deal of out-door work has been suspended, aiul numbers of hands have been out of work, and in many instances suffered great privations ; the railways have been laid in, 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. but since the thaw they are beginning to resume their labours. The corn markets are advancing. Wheat, 7s. to 8s. Gd. per bush.; Barley, 3s. 6d. to 4s. 3d.; Oiits, 2s. 9d. to 3s. Gd. The fat stock markets keep up. Beef, 7s. to 7s. (5d. per stone ; Wutton, Gd. to 7d. per lb. Lean stock it is ex- pected will be high, from the scarcity of store cattle in the country. — Feb. 17. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE FOR MARCH. What we said in our last calendar, at page 15,}, we might now repeat, that " the weather having now become niiltl," there is hope by the 1st of March of " ieiny ahle" to set to work in the garden. As a matter of instructive chronology. It should be remembered that, after the mild interval ■which commenced about the middle of January and continued to its close, frost returned, and the 4th of February witnessed a great depression of tem- perature ; this, in some parts of Surry, as a horticultural friend assured us, amounted to 2(j degrees, that is, the mercury fell to (J° of Fahren- heit. Our own instruments west of London marked oidy 13° of frost — the minimum of the 3rd at London is quoted at 18'^ of Fahrenheit. But the most serious visitation of the season was the prodigiously violent and parching wind, east to north, which blew unceasingly, much to the perplexity of the gardener, who had all his cover- ings driven oif without the power to replace them. Thus temperature was reduced ten degrees in stoves, vineries, and pits. Snow was a concomitant in the east ; but in Berkshire, and other parts west of the metropolis, the mere sprinkling which occurred on the 2n(l February vanished, and left the crops undefended. The most curious phenomenon of the winter was the perfect glazing of the ground during four entire successive days ; this had its origin in a small shower early in the morning of the 8th, with five degrees of frost, and, as low temperature continued till the 11th, every road, ])ath, or gravel walk continued glazed. We should like to know whether this was generally observed. The frost ceased on the 11th, after a dense haze, and change of wind to south and south- west. The first rain of any consequence com- menced on the evening of the 15th. As yet, we have observed no destruction of the roses, laures- tinus, arbutus, &c., among shrubs; or of broccoli, cabbage, and other greens, among vegetubles : and now we have a right to hope that, the remainder of February proving rainy — according to the good Old saying — March will be introduced with drying airs, and welcome our readers with those jirognos- tics which afford promise of a genial spring — alter- nations of fructifying showers and warm sun. Of late years we have experienced parcliing and burn- ing days, and cold frosty nights, quite inimical to horticulture. March is, or ought to be, one of the busiest months of the year ; but time is not lost if most of the great operations for the summer be deferred till the equinox—the free working con- dition of the land being the best director. IN TUE VEGETABLE GAIIDEN Sow Beans; long-pod. Sandwich, and Windsor, in the first and third weeks. — Peas : early Warwick, Charlton, Prussian-blue, dwarf imperial, and Woodford's, — the scimitar at the close. Sow Lettuce : where intended to remain, and to be thinned to proper distances; first, the hardy cos, andat the end the grandadmirable, or union cab- bage. — Radish : the salmon, short-top, red and white turnif} varieties — the two last the latest. — Small salad : some on the floor, or in boxes of the vinery, others in the open ground. It is a good plan when sowing under glass, to scatter the seeds thickly on a moist surface, and to i)rcss them with a board eveidy, giving them a sprinkling of water. They will vegetate very soon : after the plants are fairly ui^, a little fine earth, sifted over them to the depth of l-Stli ofan inch, will secure the position, strengthen vege- tation, and oh viate that disagreeablecircumstance which almost always results from covering the seed : close matted as they are, the plants raise a mass of earth, which it requires nice manipu- lation to remove. Sow spinage of both sorts : but, if it be liked, prefer the white or sea-kale beet ; the green membrane of the leaf becomes a delicious vegetable, and the stalks boil well, but the heart shoots are very fine. — Parsley : the best double curled, — twice or three times. • — Asparagus : for permanent beds ; or thickly, for raising forcing plants. — Sweet-herbs : chirvil, basil, fennel, thyme, late ill the month. — All thespindle-rooted phmts: red beet, the small deep purine is the best ; hollow-crown parsnip, early horn, white rooted, and Surrey carrots. — Turnips : the Dutch and early stone — mere sprinklings of either or both. — Onions: the Reading or Spanish, Strasburg, &c., and London leaks. — Sea kale : in sandy deep earth, slightly ma- nured with wood-ashes and common salt. — Cabbage : for summer — savoy for autumn, a little broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. Of the last, the most delicious of proliferous brassia;, we must cite a few original remarks. Brussels sprouts — a sub-variety of the open- headed sprouting cabbages, much cultivated in Brussels, and rendered famous by the description given of them by Dr. Van Mons, who, Cin Vol. III. of the Hoiticultural Transactions) says : — " If this vegetable be compared with any other which occu- pies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well in situations generally considered unfavourable — such as between rows of potatoes, scarlet runners, or among young trees, it must be considered superior to most others." Van Mons further says — " The seed is sown in Spring, and on a frame, so as to bring the plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open border, with a good aspect," and b\' successive sowings they contrive, in Belgium, to supply them- selves with this delicious vegetable full ten months in the year. In SI word, by three sowings and six transplant- ings, that is, by removing half the plants at a time, successional supplies may be had for many months. In general, it is customary to take off the central head, in order to bring forward the small lateral heads, and this practice will answer in the growing months ; but late in autumn, and throughout the winter, it is more prudent to strip the stalks for use, leaving the central sprout at top untouched, in order to ])reserve the plant ; finally, when the centre is cut, the plant is de- stroyed, and should be removed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 Plant beds of horse-raddish and Jerusalem arti- choke; this vegetable may be continued on the same ground, hut it onyht to be entirely digged up yearly and repianteil, otherwise the plantation will not be retained within !, lavender, rosemary, sage, rue, should be planted ; also the bulbs of shallot and garlic, and little onions, raised expressly in the last year, to strengthen by a second year's course : do this early. Transplant seedling cabbages sown in August ; this is the last removal from that sowing. Earth up all growing croj)s ; level and dress arti- choke plantations, and make the ground every- where orderly and neat; fork and rake asparagus beds. FRUIT-GARDEN, &C. The season, notwithstanding the severity of the ■winter for so long a period, promises to be early; therefore, we presume that the regulation of cur- rant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, has been performed in February. Vet if any remain un- touched, one of the first operations should be, to prune all the berry-bearing plants, as directed in our last ; and then to dust them well by means of a tin dredger, with a mixture consisting of three parts powdered quick-lime, and one pp.rt of dry coal soot : these will cleanse the branches. The surface soils shoidd then be raised by the spade, (pushed almost horizontally) and turned over. Some persons lay three inches of reduced compost dung, from the linings of hot beds, over the sur- face, with good effect ; but we would prefer to do this in autumn, turning it in at this time, but never digging the soil decjdy. A scattering of common salt and soot would now he more iinmical to insects. Strawberry beds and rmui, should be cleared of the old leaves — first by cutting, and then by a wooden rake ; after which, the ground may be evened by scattering fine soft loam, mixed with a sixth ])art of wood ashes, sufficient to fill up the inequalities ; the young roots will be encouraged directly, and the ground will thus receive a permanent supply of mild vegetable alkali. 1 his is the best season to make new plantations of strawberries in all aspects, in order to provide successional crops, from the end of May to that of July. By referring to our Calendar of September, (). 226, concise directions will be found for the preparation of the beds ; but the system of planting remains to be noticed. A three years' course is the best ; it secures the finest quality of iruit, and presents means to kee;) the ground in fitting con- dition. In the first year, plant, at proper distances, the strongest runner-plants of last summer; and do not suffer one of them to expand a blossom : call these No. 1. Prepare as many beds, or rows, as the prospective consumption shall indicate. Every year, at this season, or in September, re- peat the planting in the same manner for Nos. 2 and 3. In the second S[)ring No. 1 will blossom and bear ; again in the third Spring. This set is to be obliterated, and the ground planted with some vegetable till Septeml)er, or the following March ; thus it will be purified, and prepared for stiaw- berries again. Prcjceeding in this way with three sets of plants, fruit of the fiist quality the season and land will permit, may always be at command. Every year a new plantation will be made, and one set of the three years* course will be obliterated. FORCING DEPARTMENT. Vinery. The fruit of the fit st in action will be completely set, and the berries as large as peas, by the commencement of March ; each cluster should he carefully but boldly, thinned with sharp pointed scissors. The hand must be steady, and the eye correct; but there is not that danger of obliterating the bloom which many apprehend. We doubt much, also, the value of the high tempe- rature by night ((i8" to /")") kept up by some ; the educated habits of the tree possess great in- fluence, and certain it is that a vine accustomed to high moist tem[)i.rature is more in danger from a sudden depression, than one which, by habit, will develope its buds at .50° by the 1st of January. The second vinery, excited in mid-fenruary, should be kept moist and warm till the fruit is fairly set; Nature «ill then perform the greater part of the remaining duty ; for, after equinox, few morn- ing fires will be required. Piiie stove and pits. This is the season of dis- rooting, and re-potting successions ; high, moist temperature (never permitting a check; is tlie element of the pine-apple. FLORAL DEPARTMENT. Prune shrubs and clear away litter ; place every portion of the ground in neat and trim condition, sweep lawns, clean and roll gravel walks, renewing the box- edgings. Sow all the semi-tctider annuals in gentle heat ; also the best of the hardy annuals, under glass, as time will be gained and less danger of injury from insects incurred. ■ The young scarlet geraniums, in propagation pots, should be potted single in loam and leaf-mould, placing them in frames to harden. Dig the quarters, and replant or renew herbaceous plants, leaving spaces for the annuals. Prune roses to well selected low buds ; the moss rose, if in loam, wliich it affects, will frequently produce one straight stem, five or six feet high ; and thus, by pro])er shortening, a handsome standard can be foimed. The greenhouse will require air, and the plants more water ; many should he repotted as soon as growth shall commence. The young verbenas (rooted cuttings) ought to be potted, and protected in frames, pievious to bedding out : so should all the parterre plants. It will be recollected, that half the best greenhouse plants display themselves in parterre ; these departments should always be prepared for them. Where soft fresh loam is plentiful, the plots should be utterly renewed with it. Fuchsia beds ouglit to be cleared of old stems, and refreshed with a dressing of turfy loam, and leaf-mould. F. J ulyens s^uccceds admirably; and so will, no doubt, the new " Corymbijiora." MOWING MACHINE, to A. N.— I have had a mowing machine in use for four years : when sent to me from the ironmonger's it would not cut. I sent it back to the ironmonger's, saw his scissors-grinder, and desired him to put it in order, and it has never re- quired any repair since. Mine is a 16 inch, which is quite large enough for one man to use. I could not return to the scythe ; I feel it would be like discarding the fork fur the fingers. A common labourer has used mine ever since I have bad it: the great ri.sk is, people not understanding them, and setting them to cut them- selves— not the grass. Let A. N. get a scissors grinder to put his in order, not a man that travels the country, but one who can use a file. If the manufacturers had only taken the trouble to instruct purchasers in the use of this instrument, it would not be in such dis- repute. A labourer iu my garden does in two hours ■what u:itli the hireling: judge prevenis the laws, Wealth heaped on wealth, nor truth, nor safety buys. The dangers gather as the treasures rite." And these are the pleasures which the master manufacturers anticipate from repeal of the corn- laws. ^Vealth is the only objectof their ambition, and they think, not of the general distress which this mode of obtaining it woidd sjjread amongst tiieir countrymen, nor of the final disappointment which the acquisition of it would intail on them- selves. The Anti-Corn-Law-Leaguers have, how- ever, since our last review, had abundance of evi- dence to convince them of their rapidly declining influence amongst their countrymen themselves. Their talents and their time would be far more pro- fitably for the country, and also more pleasantly for themselves, employed, did they direct them to the cultivation of the fields at home, and to the internal improvement ot the empire. Here they have an ample and most patriotic field opened for their best exertions, and from sources of this description alone can the people in future be well and productively employed. Here they will find practical quarters for the employment of their minds, and theory will , no longer render their labours ridiculous in the eves of the right-think- ing part of the community. The uncultivated ])ortion of the land, chiefly in Ireland, may give food and employment to, we may almost say, double our present population, but for the pro- duction of this unbounded advantage legal ])rotec- tion to ])roperty, talent, and industry embarked in agricultural pursuits, is absolutely necessary, and herein the corn laws off'er not only present, but idso great prospective, advantages to the entire po])nlation of the United Kingdom. Under their fostering care, capital, to a large amount, is re- tained at home, which, were the corn laws re- ])ealed, would, as long as it lasted, be annually remitted to foreign nations and to foreign states, in exchange for wheat and other necessaries of life, from v^hence it would never return, even in payment for British manufactured ^oods. This money — during the remainder of this corn season, at all events — will be paid to British farmers for the last year's crop, will be kept in continual cir- culation at home, from the landlord and farmer to the British manufacturer, and from him to the operative and artizan, until it finds its wa)' into the coffers of the capitalist;, by whom it will be again embarked in railways, field cultivation, and many other departments of industry, thereby improving the public wealth, and increasing, in a most abundant manner, the productive employ- ment of the entire population. To place a trifling addition to our present foreign export trade in manufactured goods — were any addition possible from the repeal of the corn laws, which all expe- rience heretofore completely contradicts, in oppo- sition to advantages so splendid as home improve- ments must spread among the entire mass of the I'eople— is in every way ])nerile, if not perfectly absurd, for manufactures speedily jierish — indeed, a breath of fashion fVcquctiily destroys them — whilst the improvement of the field endures for centuries, and blesses the human race for ages. The Drainage Bill for Ireland, now under the con- sideration of Parliament, will do more real good to the inhabitants ot that portion of the empire than any act which ever passed the Irish or British Legislation. It will bring into cultivation hun- dreds of thousands of acres of table land, now useless to tlie ])eo])le ; and the produce of these lands will, before long, render emigration to any extent perfectly unnecessary. The banks of the Shannon are already affording productive employ- ment to the i)eopIe, and here, as in many other rivers, lochs, and bays, a vast quantity of excellent cropping lands must eventually be reclaimed from the waters. Manufactures must progress with these agricultural improvements, and thus afford another most satisfactory illustration of the great advantage which agricultural prosperity at home universally confers on commerce of every descrip- tion. In Great Britain likewise a great deal of land still remains in a perfect state of nature, and is consequently entirely useless tn the community. Capital alone is requitite for the cultivation of these wastes, and capital will not be wanted if confidence can be placed in its investment being protected by law against its produce being here- after interfered with l)y similar products of foreign growth. For these purpo.ses the corn laws are most admirably formed, 'i'hey afford a fair, and certainly no excessive, protection to grain produced within the United Kingdom, and when, by the elements, any deficiency occurs in our crops, they have the admirable quality of, we may say, repeal- ing themselves, and of admitting foreign grain to the extent which our deficiency at home renders necessary ; thus universally preventing the con- sumers from being- sutjjocted either to extra- vagant prices, or to that allowance of the actual necessaries of life. This is practically the state of the wheat trade at the present moment. Prices are sufficiently moderate for the interests of the great body of consumers, and also sufficiently re- munerating- to the cultivators of the fields through- out the United Kingdom. The corn laws., in con- sequence of these circumatances, protect the in- terests of agriculture by a fair rate of duty now, as they lately did the interests of the consumers hy a nominal one. Although two-thirds of the malting season have passed away, still, during that period, very little animation has been observable in the barley trade. The demand, in general, has not equalled the supply, and droo|)ing prices have been the natural consequence of this state of the barley market. The cause of the effect we have fre- quently alluded to, but till now we have not taken sufficient notice of the yearly falling away, which is taking place in the manufacture of malt itself. This is but too unfortunately the case, and unless some remedy or other be applied to the evil, it must continue to increase, until its extent becomes of serious consequence to the revenue itself. The quantity of malt consumed by the public brewers 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. is now very little more than four millions of quarters annually, and amongst thirty millions of people in the thiee kingdoms, the portion of this small quantity to each individual is trifling indeed. In fact, two-thirds of the popniation cannot afford the use of wholesome beer at all, in consequence of the extiaviigant expense occasioned by its manufacture ; and adulteration consequently be- comes not onlj' profitable, but in many cases ab- solutely necessary, for the due prosecution of their trade, amongst a vast number of the inferior orders of beer retailers. The almost daily con- victions for this offence, which are occuriing in all parts of England, sufficiently establish the alarming length to which adulteration has been, and now is, prosecuted ; nor is there any possi. bility of putting any effectual stop to it, save by a considerable reduction in the malt d'.ty, for this alone can render these vicious practices not pro- fitable. The injury done to the health of the con- sumers of deteriorated beer is of very serious importance ; hut, f<)r the prosperity of the revenue itself, an alteration in the mode of collection, and in the manner of imposing, the malt duty, is be- coming absolutely necessary ; nor can the Chan- cellor of the Exchequer much longer delay a full enquiry into the nature and extent of the too- rapiilly growing evils in the barley trade generally. Half a quarter of malt would not be a very extra- vagant consumption to each of the inhabitants of the United Kingdom, and this, at a duty of even ten shillings per quarter, would bring the treasury at least three millions sterling more than can be obtained from the malt duty at its existing most extiavagant charge. But if any alteration of this description be of so much importance to the re- venue, how valuable must it not be to the great body of beer consumers themselves, and to the pro- prietors and tenants of light lands, which are best suited to barley cropping. In this latter instance, it would open a wide field for the proper culti- vation of large districts of this description of land, which cannot be converted, under the present system, to any useful purpose. To reclaim these lands uoulJ increase the general wealth of the empire so considerably, that, after ])aying for the increased sum paid into the treasury as malt duty, and also paying the full expense, which the in- creased consumption of beer would render ne- cessary, the landlords and tenants would find their profits am[ily sufficient to rei)ay themselves large profits also on the capital, talent, and indus- try which they may have been induced to embark in the increased production of barley. The many thousands of families whom the reduction of the malt duty would place into full and productive em- ployment, but who are now in want of work in many of the agricultural districts, would be rendered active and useful members of society, would be enabled by their increased means of pay- ment to give additional employment to the trading interests, and a general benefit would thus be spread throughout the empire. The production of two-thirds more barley than the maltsters now can use would add largely to the national wealth. It would, as we have said very frequently, give work to three times tlie number of labourers now employed in barley growing, and thus make them independent in their circumstances, and render them valuable members of the community. I'he money received by the landlords and farmers for this large additional quantity of barley would be circulated amongst all the industrious classes, would be thus increasing their yearly incomes, and increasing the consumption of every article, whether it be the produce of the fields, or the handicraft of the manufacturer. In fact, the re- duction of the malt duty would he of immense im- portance to all classes — would improve tlie re- venue at present collected on that Tirticle ; and, unless to the beer adulterator, it would not ihjure one interest, nor even one individual in the state. In all financial operations it is a well established fact, that too heavy duties are injurious to the j)urposes for which they were chiefly imposed. la the malt duty this fact has, in a very particular manner, been proved by the late practice in its workings. When the duty on this most necessaiy article of consumption was 34s. lOd. per qr., the amount collected from this source of revenue never reached three millions sterling in one year. Two years after the duty was reduced to 20s. per qr., nearly si.x millions sterling were collected within the twelve months. Within the last two or three years, the malt duty has been again gra- dually increased lo 23s. per qr., and the conse- quence even already is that little more than five millions of quarters of barley are now manufac- tured into malt annually, of which the consump- tion of the public brewers requires very litile above four millions of quarters of malt annually, as we have already stated above. In the collection of the British spirit duty the same causes have always produced similar consequences, to the par- ticulars of which it is not necessary to our pre- sent purposes to revert, beyond the fwct, that in Scotland and in Ireland, where the charge on each g;dlon is moderate, the duties are collected on every gallon of spirits consumed in those two portions of the United Kingdom ; whilst in Eng- land, where the duty is outrageously high, being not less than 7s. lOd. per gallon, at least one- half of the quantity consumed is supplied by those pests of society, the smuggle.'-s of spurious French and Spanish brandies, and of Dutch gin of the worst quality possible. By this system of extra- vagant spirit-duty we are compelled lo pay a great sum of cash annually to foreign distillers for bad spirits, and the health of the community is fre- quently ])ut at hazard by their consumption. The revenue is also defrauded by their illegal impor- ters, and the English agricultural interest is de- prived of an increased market for the ccmsump- tion of at least one-half a million of quarters of barley above the quantity now used in the opera- tions of the distillers within the British Empire. To reduce the duty now levied on spirits manu- factured in England to 5s., and that on West India rum to (Js. 6d. per gallon, would, in a ma- terial degree, remedy the injury which smuggling inflicts on the property of the country ; and would likewise com])letely put a stop to the im- morality, which this most debasing custom spreads amongst a vast mass of the people. To permit the rectifiers to use their talents and capital to the best advantage, would also be attended by consequences as imjiortant as they would be ad- vantagc'us to the British community. Were the rectifiers of neutral spirit into brandies permitted to make their article of any strength, a doubt cannot be entertained that British brandies would equal in flavoui' the best descriptions of French brandies — would excel them far in wlndesomeness, and eventually would reduce xery largely the consu;iiption of Foreign spiiits in the Biitisii mar- kets. This, taken in conjunution with ihe reduc- tion in the duties now levied on Colonial spirits, would, in a most eminent manner, strengthen the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 241 frreat cause of temperance amongst the people. It would speedily render the vice of drunkenness conteinptilik', and the equallj' destructive vice of teetotalisin ridiculous. It would advance the vo- taiie's of the nicdiuui system betwixt these two vices, to a solid mode of action, and it would ina- teiiaily improve the health and add to the happi- ness of the people generally. We have the means of supplying within our- selves ail the spirits which the nation requires, and our distillers, by a small alteration in the pre- sent Excise Laws, profess the art of making their spirits equal in flav'our to any manufacUired abroid, and far superior to them in wholesomeness. it is to over taxation entirely that the barley growers in the United Kingdom are indebted for the small- ness of the quantity of their produce which is now consumed in the home markets, and it is to the same cause alone that ihey can attribute the diilness which is now experienced in the sales of bailey. To .'ttempt to grow more than the mar- ket can takeaway would be an useless expenditure of capital and of time. The heavy state of the bar- ley market at the present moment is partly occa- sioned, therefore, by the extensive manner in which beer is now adulterated, and partly by the large quantities of foreign spirits whii.di are illicitly admitted into consumption. So long as the same causes exist must the same effects be experienced, and tiiere is no other remedy which can be applied to this great agricultural evil, than the reduction of the present rate of malt duty by one-half, and the reduction in proportion of the duties nov/ charged on colonial and English spirits. An im- provement iti the revenue must be the certain con- sequence, and the consuiuption of barley may thereby be doubled, or even tripled. The consumption of oats, occasioned parti}' by the severity of the weather, was again unusually large during last month ; but the supplies having been likewise large during the same period, the increased demand was fully satisfied by the in- creased quantities which were sent forward for sale in the different markets throughout the king- dom, and prices have consequently rather de- clined than thecontrary. Throughout Ireland and Scotland last season, the crop of this article was exceedingly plentiful, and the quality uncommonly fine, and the different markets in England have been chiefly supplied with oats from these two districts of the United Kingdom. The progress which agriculture is every where so very rapidly making, and the large districts of waste lands which are now annually brought forward into cultivation, must gradually increase the growth of oats, and eventually rei?der us, under every circumstance, entirely independent of any exten- sive foreign importation of this most necessary article of consumption. Under the influence of the corn laws, and the Irish drainage act, which is at the present time on its passage through the legislature, the future improvements in agricul- ture in Ireland must be most important indeed ; for they will not only provide for the whole of the population labour, productive of most favourable consequences to the general good of the commu- nity, l)ut they will likewise furnish them with wages for their labour, sufficiently large to meet their annual expenditure, and to induce them to remain contentedly in their native country. It has long been a general complaint amongst all the productive labourers in Great Britain, and particularly amongst that portion of them who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, that fair wages for their labour were periodically interfered with by the large influx of labourers from the sister kingdom, who were unable to find eitijiloy- ment at home, and who consequently were com- ])elled to find thtir bread anywhere, and to accept of any rate of wages which they could obtain from those who were inclineil to employ them. Of this prejudicial system the British workmen had ihost iujt reasons "to complain, for in too many instances "the wages for their labour were reduced consider- ably under their instrinsic value, and clieii families suffered the consequences of this unnatural state of society. By the ra])id improvements, however, which are now beginning to shew their important corjsequcnces to Irish agriculture, under that most wise degree of protection which the corn laws afford to every department of landed operations, the British labourers may, with great confidence, now look for speedy relief from this interference with their employment, which is their real propcrtt/, and from the great changes which it is periodically causing in their wages. Abundance of productive labour will in future present itself at home to Irish industry, and no man there, under such circumstances, will leave his home to labour in England or Scotland for half wages. These ad- vantages are prospective chiefly, but there are other benefits springing- from Irish improvements, which Great Britain already is rapidly reaping, amongst which there is not one more important than the very abundant manner in which Ireland is now supplying with oats the British great markets of consumption. It is an established fact, that for many years now, Great Britain has not been able to produce oats equal to the increased consump- tion of them ; and, had the deficiency not been, to a certain degree, supplied by Ireland, wo must have imported largely from foreign nations, and paid them for their agricultural product in the jjiecious metals, which are the standard of our circulating medium, ftloney is already scarce enough, and quite dear enough, but had the whole quantity of oats, requisite to supply the deficiency in our growth, been imported from abroad, instead of partly from Ireland as has been the case, it is not possible to calculate the extent of evil which would have resulted from this circumstance. En- terprise would have been paralyzed, jjioductive la- bour for the great mass of the people would have been proportionably limited, and wages would have been reduced far beneath their standard value. There are, however, plenty of means in Ireland to make good the deficiency between our consump- tion and our growth at home, of oats during, at all events, the remainder of this corn season, and prices thereby will, in every probability, be kept so moderate as to continue the duty on their im- portation at prohibitory rates, and thus to render specie remittances to the continent, to a certain degree, unnecessary during the same period. The corn laws are thus certainly of much more impor- tance to the working classes, than they are to those connected with agriculture itself ; for on their pro- tective influence depend those means, by which they are enabled to obtain living wages ; whilst the agriculturist can always raise from the fields themselves, at all events, quite enough to support himself, even were these laws repealed. We re- peat, therefore, that there is not one individual in the empire who reaps not great advantages from agricultural protection, and none are more aware of this fact than the operative classes themselves. The information received from the various corn districts in the Continent of Europe, respecting the 242 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. state of the corn trade in each of them, is in due course of post, and, generally, is not very interesting, at this moment, to the corn trade in this country. The complaint universally continued to be made of a great want of animation in the corn markets, though, at the same time, prices had not declined to those quotations which would encourage specu- lative purchases with a view to the British mar- kets. At Daritzig, Elbing, and Konisberg, this was more particularly the case, for the stacks of Polish wheats, at all of them, were unusually small, and generally they were in the hands of capitalists, who had the means in abundance to hold them, for what the trade called better times. The corn trade is proverbially uncertain, and the foreign speculators, in wheat in particular, may prove right in their conjectures of the import duties becoming so moderate, during the next summer months, as to admit the entry of a con- siderable quantity of foreign wheat for consumption here, at saving prices, and they consequently are unwilling to part with their property at prices, which would admit of its entry here on the pay- ment of the present rates of import duty. That these rates may be more moderate before next crop can be brought foward into our markets for consumption, is exceedingly possible, even should the coming wheat crop be as abundant as the last one most undoubtedly was, and this opinion is formed in the trade, on the presumption of a want of fine old wheats sufficient for the purposes of mixture with the new samples, being about that period experienced. The deficiency in old wheats, which the two bad crops of I808 and 1839 have occasioned, cannot be made good by one large and good crop, and therefore a quantity of the best description of foreign may possibly be wanted, let the coming crop be as fine and as abundant as it can be by any possibility. The British corn merchants who employ their capital in operations of this description are, however, not sanguine of the duty being, at that period, so materially reduced, as to permit purchases being made abroad at the latest quotations, and accordingly, as we have already stated, no extensive purchases have, as yet, been made by them ; nor in the face of favourable appearances in our fields, is it likely that any large transactions will be entered into by them, unless encourage- ment for so doing be held out to them, — not by improved prices and falling duties on this side of the water, but by a material reduction occurring in the prices of grain generally, on the continent of Europe. The quantity of bonded grain and flour here at present is small, and therefore it is not very probable that any speculation will this season be made for the purpose of operating on the rates of duty, which consequently can only be regulated by supply and actual consumption this summer, and not by fictitious sales and purchases, as was the case during the last three summers, and of which the Chancellor of the Exchequer had at the time such strong reasons to complain in the small amount of duty collected on the im- mense quantities of foreign grain of all descrip- tions then entered for home use, which ought to have, each of these seasons, put into the Treasury three times more money than they actually did, and might thus have assisted considerably our public expenditure. The temptation now to repeat operations of this description does not exist, and it is not likely, therefore, that any pecuniary effort will be made to reduce the rates of duty during this season. From the United States of North America the advices are dated early in thelast month, but they communicate very little news of importance to the corn trade here. The letters on this subject con- tinue to be filled with numerouscomplaints against our corn law system, by which we prefer grain grown at home to that of Foreign production. Our transatlantic brethren are concerned for the injury which we do to ourselves by not throwing our own fields out of cultivation, and our own workmen out of wages. They can abundantly sup- ply us with wheat and flour so long as we can sup- ply them with the precious metals in exchange for food. Money however is far scarcer with them than corn is with us, and accordingly shipments of flour continued to be made, for the benefit, no doubt, of John Bull, even without a repeal of his corn laws, and it is not improbable that ship- ments will continue to be made for the same reasons, though they cannot be to any great ex- tent. CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE. Fed. 22. Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex and Kent, red .. 04 68 White.. 68 70 76 Irish GO 62 Do 64 74 Old, red 62 74 Do 66 70 Rye, old 36 38 New 88 41 Barley, Grinding 28 30 32 Malting 34 86 Clieralier — 38 Irish 27 28 Bere ... 24 25 Malt, Suttblk and Norfolk 64 70 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware .... 64 68 Chevalier 68 — Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnsh., feed 24 26 Potato.. 25 26 VouKliall and Cork black 22 23 Cork, white 22 24 Dublin 21 22 23 Westport 23 24 Waterford, white 21 22 23 Black.. 22 23 Newry 24 26 Galway 18 19 20 — Scotch feud 25 26 Potato.. 25 Clonmel 23 24 Limerick 22 Londonderry 23 24 Sligg 23 23 Beans, Tick, new 38 40 Old.. 42 44 Peas, Grey 36 S8 40 Maple.. 40 White 38 40 Boilers. 40 Seed, Rape 961. 40/. Irish.. 32/. 34/. per last. Linseed 41 46 English Red Clover, fine, 70 80 90 per cwt. Flour, Town-made 55 — Suffolk 44 46 pr sk. of 2S0 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk, 44 45 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Hamburs: 40 18 22 30 42 21 24 Feed. .. 10 18 Beans 30 28 Flour, American, pei brl — Baltic . . 23 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Wheat. iBarley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Peas. Week endinsr Jan. 8th .. 61 9 83 6 21 6 32 6 39 10 39 11 15th .. 01 7 32 10 21 8 35 5 40 3 89 11 22nd .. 60 9 32 11 21 4 34 1 39 7 38 10 20th .. 60 9 32 3 21 7 31 5 39 4 39 3 Feb. 5th . . 60 7 31 11 21 7 28 11 39 6 39 10 12th . . 61 1 31 10 22 8 34 3 40 0 39 6 AcrgregateAverage of tlie six weeks which regulates the duty 61 1 33 6 21 8 32 9 30 9 39 6 Duties pavable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Ontports till the arrival ef the mail of tliat day from London 25 8 13 10 15 3 21 a 11 0 U 0 Do. on grain from British posses- sions out of Eu- rope 5 0 0 6 2 0 3 0 0 6 0 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Fob. lOth, 1841. s. d. Wheat (U 1 Barlev 31 10 Oats 22 3 Rye 34 3 Beans 40 0 Peas 39 6 AVERAGES from the corres- pondiiis Giuette in llic lll^l, year, Friday, Feb.)4tli,ly4u. Wheat 65 Barley 38 Oats 2t Rtb.,.. 3« Beans 39 Peas 40 PRICES OF SEEDS. Feb. 22. We still continue to be very indifferently supplied with English Cloverseed, whilst from abroad scarcely any has yet been received. To-ilay there was an im- proved inquiry for the article, and superior qualities brought very high rates. There was very litHe Canaryseed offering, and higher prices were generally asked. Tares brought fully ln?t Monday's currency. Linseed was the turn cheaper. Kapeseed maintained its previous high value, la other articles no alteration occurred. Linseed, Eriglisli, sowing 54 59 Baltic — — crushing 44 49 per qr. Mediter. & Odessa 45 51 Ilempseed, small 84 36 large.. 38 40 Coriander 10 16 old.... 18 20 per cwt. Mustard, brown, new ..16 21 white.. 13 13 pr. bush. Turnip Seed, new Swedes — — 10 18 Trefoil 16 28 fine new38 44 Rapeseed, English 3il. 38?. foreign — f. — I. per last. Rye Grass, English .30 42 Scotch 18 40 Tares, winter — — Spring 9 10 Large, foreign.... — — 8 9 Clover, English, red .... 58 90 white 48 60 por cwt. Flemish 40 68 do.. 45 48 ■- New Hamburgh ..52 65 do.. 46 60 =: Old do 35 60 do.. — — £ French 50 63 do.. - — g Old do 40 54 Canary, new 84 86 extra 88 89 Carraway, old 50 54 new 48 .53 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Fed. 22. There is a slight demand for Yearlings and Hops of the growth of 1840, but the holders are not disposed to sell at these rates. East Mid. I Weald „ Farn- Kent. Kent, of Kent ='"*'*•''*• ham. Bags, Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. 1836 1836 1837 1837 1838 1838 1839 1839 1840 1840 45 to 65 43 . . 75 none 80, 85. 110. 150. 140, 140. , 105 , 115 , 150 190 ,300 320 45 to 65 45.. 75 none 45 to 56 45 . . 65 none 80.. 105 75.. 85 85.. 115 84.. lO.: 110.. 150 100.. 120 150.. 190 110... 150 135.. 290 — 140.. 3201 120.. 200 — to — 45.. 63 nonii 105 . . 1.30 120.. 180 240, 300 290, 353 to 450 POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE. Feb. 22. The supply of Potatoes received at the Waterside during the past week, coastwise and from the Channel Islands, is as follows— viz., from Yorkshire 203 tons ; Scotland, 370 , Jersey and Guernsey, 400 ; Devons, 60; Kent and Esssx, 230;— total, 1,272 tons. The above is but a limited supply in the present clear state of the market, at d good samples free from frost met with ready sale. York Reds — s. to 120s. per ton. Scotch do — s. to 100s. „ , Devons — s. to 100s. „ Jersey and Guernsey Blues — s. to 90s. „ Kent & Essex Whites.. 85s. to 90s. WOOL MARKET. BRITISH. Feb. 22. There lia.s been more business doing the past week, and more confidence shewn in llie stability of the trade. s. d. s. d. Down Teggs 1 3itoI 4 Half-bred Hogs 1 3 1 4 Ewes and Wethers 1 OJ 1 1^ Flannel do 10 12 Blanket Wool 0 6 0 9 Skin, Combing 0 lOj 10 LIVERPOOL, Fkb. 20. SCOTCH. — We have agnin to report another quiet week in the demand for Laid Highland Wool, butllie few tran'^actions have been at our quotations ; the stock being low the holders are firm. There has been some demand for both good crossed and Cheviot at about our quotations; all kintls of low and heavy laid are ne- glected. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 10 0 tolO 6 White do. do 00 0 00 0 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 10 9 11 6 Do. washed do 11 9 12 6 Do. Cheviot unwashed do 11 6 14 0 Do. washed 15 0 19 0 Cheviot white, washed 24 0 26 0 FOREIGN. Feu. 22. The imports into the port of London during the past week were 1238 bales, ot which 615 were from Sydney, 447 from Spain, 128 from tiie Cape of Good Hope, and 48 from Bombay. We have advices to t!ie 15th of October from New South Wales. The Australian Auction Company had held some most extensive sales oflive stock, comprising 2041 ewes, 1350 wethers, 124 rams and 3315 sheep with lamb, all at the average price of 14s. per head. The accounts .=peak generally in favourable terms of the weather in the interior, by which the condition of the flocivs appears to have been materially benefitted, so that we may reckon upon a further supply of the staple, more free from those defects wjiich were so much complained of by the trade at the auctions last year. At the Cape of Good Hope, Wool was quoted on the 20ih of December last at 4d. to Is. Id. per Ib.f In the Hamburgh wool market during the present month, several offers have been made for parcels fit for caiding, but which had led to no sales of importance. It was generally thought that a good business would be done when the navigation is free again, and this keeps prices firm, but they are not e.xpected to go higher. Fine Saxony, Silesian, and Prussian qualities were at 223. to 27s., mid, at 19s. to 21s., mid. Polish, at 16s. to I8«.,good ord.,at 14s. to ISs., fine ]\Iecklenburgh at 22s. to 25s., lambs at 20s, to 24«,; and fine Austrian and Bohemian at 18s. to 20s. PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of manure : — Bone-dust, 21s, per qr. of 8 bushels. Half-inch ditto, 20s, per qr. do. Rape-dust, 6/. 15s, per ton. Rags, 4/. to 41. 10s. per ton. Graves, 51. to 51. IDs. per ton. Gypsum, 38s. pet ton. Salt, 2l. 5s. dirty, 2l. 15s. clean, per ton. Lance's Carbon, 12s, Od. per qr. ,, Humus, 14s, Od, „ Soap ashes, 10s, per ton. Artificial Manure, 12s, per qr. Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, I3s, 6d. per qr. Nitrate of Soda, 22s. 6d. to 23s. Od. per cwt. Nitrate of Potash or Saltpetre, 26s. to 31s, Od.percwtt 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. No. of Shares. 6,300 y,50() 15,000 9,300 7,500 5,000 3,000 8,000 64,000 64,000 1«,000 10,918 10,918 10,918 10,000 25,000 25,000 87,500 8,000 36,000 20,666 6,834 20,000 9,000 80,000i. 24,000 1,500 2,100 15,100 11,475 7,968 36,000 6,000 25,000 25,000 31,250 13,000 13,000 30,000 16,714 10,000 10,000 15,000 15,000 12,000 3,762 1,000 28,000 6,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 2000 4,000 80,000 60,000 12,432 20,000 10,000 7,739 20,000 4,000 20,000 l--',000 6,000 50,000 IRON RAILWAYS. Bii-minBfhani & Derby June. lOOZ sli Ditto ;\ shares 25^ sli 10/ pd Ditto iind Gloucester 100/ sh Bristol and Exeter.. 100/ sh 60/ pd Ditto and Gloiieci. . 50/ sh 21/ pd Cheltenham *: Great West. Union 100/ sh 62^/ pd Chester aiid Crewe . . 50/ sh ... Clarence (Dnrhapi) 100/ sh Dublin and Kilkenny 100/ sh 2^/ pd Eastern Counties 25/ sh 23/ pd Ditto Debentures.. 8/ 6s 8d..2/ pd Edinburgh i; Glasgow .50/ sh 35/ pd Grand Junetion 100/ sli Ditto Half Shares.... 50/ sh 40/ pd Ditto Quarter Shares . .25/ sli pd Great N. nf Enslaiid 100/ sh 80/ pd Great Western 100/ sh 65/ pd Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 4/ pd Hull and Selby 50/ sh London and Brighton 50/ sh London & Croydon. .Av. 14/ 18s 6d Ditto Script 9/ sh London and Greenwich ....20/sh Ditto New IC/ sh Ditto Debentures (various amounts) Ditto Script . . , . 6^/ each 3/ pd London & blaekwall 25/ sh 22^/ pd Leicester and Swannington. .50/sh Leeds and Selby 100/ sli Liverpool and Manchester. . 100/ sh Ditto Qtiarter Shares .... 25/ sh Ditto Half Shares 50/sh London 6c S. Western, late London and Southanii]ton Av. 38/ 17s 9d Do.Portsmouth Branch .50/jh 40/pd London & Birminsh. 100/sh90/pd Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh 5/ pd Ditto New 32/ sh Manchester & Leeds 100/ sh 70/ pd Ditto Half Shares . . 50/ sh 25/ pd Manchester feBirming. 70/ sh 40/ i>d Ditto ditto Extension 70/ sh 7/ pd Midland Counties 100/ si Ditto l-Shares of 25/ . .5/ pd North Midland 100/ sh Ditto Half Shares.. 40/ sh 40/ pd Northern & Eastern 100/ sh 40/ pd Severn and Wye . . Average 27/ sh Stockton and Darlington. .Average 106/ 13s 4d S. Eastern and Dover 50/ sh 33/ pd York& North Midland 50/sli JOINT STOCK BANKS. Australasia Bank(Chartered)40/sh 53/ Ditto New(Chartered)40/ sh .. . SOJ/al^Z BankofCcylon(Chart.)25/sh 10/ pd Bank of B. N. America (Chart.) 50/ sh 40/ pd Colonial Bank (Chart.)lOO/ sh 25/ pd Com. Bk. of London 1000/ sh 100/ pd Ionian State (Chart.) 25/ sh 15/ pd 11/ London and Westminster Bank 100/ sh 20/ pd 24/ a^/ London Joint Stock Bank 50/ sh 10/ pd 125/ al3^ Do New,issuedatl/pm 50/sh 10/ \>r} National Bank of Ireland. .50/ sh 17i/ pd 16? Do. Provincial Bank of England 100/ sh 35/ pd 35/ Do. New 20/ sh issued at 2/ 10s pin 10/ pd 10/aO/ Provincial Bank of Ireland 100/ sh 25/ pd 43/ Ditto New 10/ sh 171/ Union Bank of Australia.. 25/ sh -Si/aSi Ditto New 25/ sh 5/ pd lUaJ/ Union Bk. of London 50/sh 10/ pd 9|/al0/ West of England and South Wales District Bank . .20/ sh 12^/ pd Price Div. per per Share Share. per Ann. ;0/a2/ 80/a] / 30/al/ 27.1/80/ 521/aO/ 30/ 8/al/ 4i/aS/ 28 /aO/ 212/aO/ 14/per ct 95/ 4Zper ct 28/aO/ [I 63/aO/ 88i/9^/ 60^/ aU 9/al/ 43/a4/ 421/ aj/ 12/a^/ 12/ al/ 8i/a9/ 7s per sh 17/aOl/ 1/ per sh 4a; aO/ 171/aO/ 55/ 2J/ 4/ per sh 182/ qi/per ct 45/ g.J/per ct 89/a90/ a^/per ct 57/a8/ 2/ persh 451/ a6i/ 5/ per ct 169/a7l/ 8/ per sh 27l/a8^!. l^/pei'sh 57^/ am 74/a6/ 27/a8/ 25/aO/ 3/aO/ 78/a80/ f)i/alO/ 73/a5/ 36/a7/ 45/ 2/12spsh 2.50/ llZper sh 17/ a 0/ 74/a6/ 2/2spsh 8/ per ct 6/ per ct 8/ per ct 6/ per ct 5/ per ct 61 per ct 6/ per ct 6/ per ct 8/ per ct 8/ per ct 50s pr sh 5/ per ct 61 per ct Shares. 4,000 1,000 10,000 337421 10,000" 8,000 2,000 1,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 11,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 9,204 5,7.39 5,000 14,460 17,066 10,000 28,267 5,281 8,957 10,000 10,000 1,080 10,000 8,600 10,000 5,000 2,700 20,000 1,800 1,800 2,100 MINES. Alten .50/sh 121/ pd Ditto New 15/ sh 12^/ pd Anglo Mexican (iss. 5/ pm) 100/ sh Ditto Subscription 25/ sh Ditto Mint 25/ sh 10/ pd Blaenavon Iron &: Coal 50/ sh 45/ pd Bolanoes 150/ sh Ditto New 50/ sh 20/ pd Ditto Scrip 25/ sh Bolivar Copper Company . . 15/ sh Ditto Ditto Scrip New . . 3/ sh Brazilian Imperial 35/ sh 20/ pd. . iss. 5/ pm Ditto St.. John Del Rev20/sh 141/ pd British Iron Comji. 100/ sh 5.57 pd Candonga 20/ sh 8^/ pd Copiapo 90/ sh 13J/ pd Hibernian 60/ sh 11^/ pd Mexican Company 100/ sh 58/ pd Minas Geraes 20/sh 12/ pd Real del Monte registered Av. /sh Ditto Ditto unregistered Ditto Loan (Notes) 150/ sh Rhymney Iron 50/ sh Unite 1 Mexican 40/ sh 40/ pd iss. 2/ pm Ditto Scrip 2/pd.. Ditto ditto (New) 5/ pd Dividend 1/aO/ 3/aO/ 10/al2/ ia/a2/ 10/ 3/aO/ 2iai/ 25/aO/ 2/aJ/ 3i/a0/ S^/aO/ MISCELLANEOUS. Anti Dry Rot Company . . 18j/ shj Assam Tea Company 50/ sh 12^/ pd Auction Mart ". 50/ sh 20/ Australian (Agricultural) 100/ shl 28/2spd39/a40/ British Rock and Patent Salt 50/ sh 35/ pd Canada Oompany (Chartered) 100/ sh 32.1/ pj Droitwich Patent Salt .... 25/ sh Equitable Reversionary Interest Society 100/ sh 60/ pd General Steam Navigation Com- pany 15/ sh 14/ pd Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Ditto New (Chartered) 25/ sh Hungerford Market 100/ pd 13/ 30/a2/ 21/ 25lal/ 321 24,800 [Ditto Debentures (var. amounts). 5,000 1,800 2,000 2,400 20,000 20,000 4,000 5,387 14,400 3,000 4,000 200,000/ 200,000/ 10,000/ 5,000 London Cemetery (Chartered) 20/ sh London Corn Exchange . . . .37|/ pd London Commercial Sale Rooms Average 75/ si London and Westminster Steam Boat Comjiany 10/ sh Mexican and South American Company 10/ sh 7/ pd New Brunswick Land 100/ sh 60/ pd New Zealand Company . . . .25/ sh Reversionary Int. Society. .100/ si Australian Comp. 25/ sh 20/ pdilS/al9/ South Metropolitan Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Thames Tunnel 50/ sh Upiier Canada Loan Ditto Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char- tered 100/ sh 18/ pd West London and Westminster Cemetery 25/ sh 22/ pd 20/aO/ 201/aO/ 24/ 2/ 25/aO/ 108/ ex d lOlall 8/ag/ 20s pr sh 35s pr sh 1/ 6/ per ct 25s 4/ per ct l/8sprsh 6/ per ct 6/ per ct 20s pr sh 5/ per ct 4/ per ct 1/ per sh 1/ 5/ per ct 10s 5/ per ct 5/ per sh 6/ per ct 5/ per ct 5/ per ct 6s persh Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London. ^^ ^fe. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. APRIL, 1841, No. 4.— Vol. III.] [Second Series. PLATE I. The subject of the first Plate is an Aberdeenshire Horned Bull, the property of Mr nth, of Nelhcrthird, for which a Prize of Fifteen Soverei!>ns was awarded at th( Keith Highland and Agricultural Society's Show, held at Aberdeen, in October, 1840. the PLATE II. PRINCE ALBERT. (For Sketch of, see page 257.J REPORT BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE AYRSHIRE AGRICUL- TURAL ASSOCIATION ON THE EXPERIMEISTS CONDUCTED AT ROZELLE, WITH A VILWTO DKTERMINii THE DRAUGHT AND OTHER QUALITIES 01 VAItlOUS I'LOUGIIS AND OTHER IMPLE- MENTS. The directors of the Ayrshire Agricultural As- sociation, impresscfl with the great importance of encouraging improvements in agricultural imple- ments, and being particularly anxious to ascer- tain the merits, in point of 'easiness of draught and suijcriority of work, of the different forms of jiloughs usually employed in tiie county, and of some obtained from England, resolved that com- parative trials should be made of as inanv agricul- tural implements as could be obtainedl Notice was therefore given to the gentlemen and fiirmers. and also to iiupjement makers, of the intended trial, and thcit machines and im()lement5 of every kind were admissible for exhibition and trial. It wasalso judged expedient to request Mr. Slight, of {Edinburgh, curator of the Highland and Agri- (•ultural Society's models and machines, to attend the meeting, and 1,0 afiord the benefit of his expc- I ience in such matters, together with the use of his properly attested instruments for measuring draught. A deputation of the directors and a great con- course of very skilful agriculturists accordingly met at Rozelle (by the kind permission of Mr. Hamilton, oiCarcluie), on the 28th and 'i'.Hh of October last. Mr. Slight also attended, and brought with him the dynamometer of llegnier, or force-measurer. J'here appeared a very considerable number of implements. The ground chosen for the experi- ments was a two-vear-old gvajs field, consisting of a strong clay loam, resting on a subsoil of naturally stubborn clay, but which had been tho- rough-drainc.l and subsoil ploughed ; also a bean OLD 6£'«i£.b'.]' Stubble field of a much lighter soil. The ploughs brought for the trial of draught were the fol- lowing : — 1. A Wilkie's swing plough, furnished by Mr. Hamilton, Rozelle. 2. A Wilkie's swing plough, furnished by Mr. George Dunn, Blairston Mains. 3. A Wilkie's swing plough, furnished by Mr. Struthers, Slaphouse. 4. A Ransom's F. F. plough, made by Ransoms, Ipswich, and furnished by Mr. Slight, Edinburgh. 5 A Palmer's patent plough, furnished by Mr. Alexander, Southbar. 6. A plough made by Mr. Paton, Star Foundry, London, furnished by Mr. Hamilton, Rozelle. 7. A Sussex turn-wrest i)lough, furnished by Mr. Hamilton, Rozelle. 8. A Wilkie's turn- wrest plough, made by Mr. James Wallace, Galston, and exhibited by Mr. Hume, Holmes. It may here be remarked that Nos. 1, 2, .'5, and 8, were iron ploughs ; and Nos. 4, .i, 6, 7, were of wood, with cast iron mounting ; No. 4 having a wheel under the fore part of the beam ; No. 5 having the same, besides a wheel in the heel. The ploughs having been all weighed and numbered, the deputation appointed judges to superintend the indications of the dynamometer, and to observe the depth and breadth of furrow, and the general working of the ploughs — the di- mensions of the furrow were fixed at !) inches wide and (i inches deep, to be ascertained by a furrow gauge. It was also arranged that each plough should go at least two bouts, in order that when its draught was taken, the plough might be following its own furrow. The last bout was, therefore, the one judged from. It was likewise deemed expedient, as the best means of giving equal justice to all, that one ploughman and one ])air of horses should work all the ploughs ; and for this purpose a man of known character was appointed. The lea field was chosen for the com- mencement of the operations, chiefly because the jirevious night and morning had been wet ; and the bean stubble was not in such good condition S {No. 4.— VOL. XIF. 246 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. for ploughing. The different ploughs followed in the order of the preceding list ; and the particu- lars and results of the experiments made will be easily comprehended from the following table : — Dviscription of Ploug-hs. 1. Wilkie's Swing Plough 2. Do. Do. 3. Do. Do. 4. Ransom's F.F. wheel do. Do. wheel removed 5. Palmer's Patent,2 wheels Do. wheels removed 6. Swing' Ploug'h ., 7. Sussex Turn-wrest . , . 8. Wilkie's Do. * »■ • ^ c .2 ° -c a 2 5 qj5 o — '-' 3 Tc-c 'S sc 5^ c Ph 38 23 175 37 24 196 40 159 32^ 21 161 321 20 155 40 22 231 . . ! 20| 225 40 ' 22 189 48 : .. .. 46 •• 203 Makers' naujes, &c. Ransom's, Ipswich. Do. London. Wallace, Galston. Comparing these results as exhibited in the ta- ble, three things are observable — First — That the resistance or draught of the ploughs bears no relation to the absolute weight; for, in the le.i ploughing, No. 3 is 21bs. lighter in absolute weight than No. 4, but it is /i stoneshea- yier in draught; and again, though the same No. 3 is 37 lbs. lighter in absolute weight than No. 2, it is 3 stone heavier in draught; hence it is inferred that no advantage towards lightenino- horse labour •will follow any reduction in absolute weight of a pl'iugh, unless that reduction is combined with Other properties in the construction of the plough. Second— Com\)AY\x)^ the results of any given plough, in lea and in stubble land, the discrepan- cies arc striking. Take No. 4 again ; its draught in stubble land is nearly two-thirds only of that in lea, while the druught of No. 5 in stubble land is little more than one half of its draught in lea ; and upon the whole, though the discrepancies are great in the lea ploughing, there is a great assimi- lation in the stubble; No. 4 having greatly the ad- vantage in the lea, but being approached in the stubble land within half a stone by one of the hea- viest draught^i in the field in the lea ploughing. These are interesting tacts, and seem to point out that certain ploughs may be well adapted for ploughing stnlihle or red land, while they are in- differently so fir lea ploughing. It was remarked by the judges that No. 4 did not lay the lea furrow -well down— it was not sufficiently turned over or pressed home to the Jast sice ; hence, very proba- bly arose its lightness of draught in that kind of land. Third— The remarkable though by no means unlooked-for result was ascertained— ^namely, that the wheel ploughs were actually lighter in draught when deprived of their wheels than with them,' in the stubble land, though the difference -.vas not perceptible in the lea. In the results of the turn-wrest ploughs there is a remarkable and apparently utiaccouutable anomaly, more especially as reg;irds 'Wilkie's. This j)Iougli, when actually in the ground, would appear to have nothiiig that could produce re- sistance beyoiui that of any common plough of that maker, or of his pattern ; yet the draught of the turn-wrest i)lnugh, No. 8, is 9 stone greater than that of Wilkie's swing plough. No. 2, although the difference of absolute weight is onlj' 7 lbs. It is difiicidt to form any definite opinion as to the cause of this great difference ; but this being pro- bably the first time that the draught of M'ilkie's turn-wrest has been tested, the obscurity must re- main until farther experiments shall have produc- ed more satisfactory d?.ta by which some light may be thrown upon it. Nothing having been shown against the Sussex turn-wrest plough, there could be no comparison. But it may he remarked that the plough of this kind exhibited is an extremely simple implement, composed almost entirely of wood, and with a plain straight bar of that material, in place of a mould board, which bar is with surprising facility shifted from one side to the other at every turn, being simply placed on two projecting pins or bolts. With this simple arrangement this plough lays over a furrow not greatly inferior to more highly wrought implements. In reference to the working of the different ploughs, the Judges have to remark that the Eng- lish ploughs were all less or more dcfecti\e in the work they produced on the lea land, which was ascribed to the want of spread in the mould board behind and at the upper edge. Iii the stubble land it was again remarked of thern that in consequence of their beams being low at the insertion of the coulter, they have a tendency to get choked there by the collecting of stubble, weeds, &c. Paton's Plough, made at the Star Foundry iu the Burgh, London, has been in constant work at Rozelle for two years, and has been by several good ploughmen d^■cidlHily preferred to Wilkie's, (the common Ayrshire plough) for s'.ubbie or red land, being easier of driinght, easier held, and ca- pable of making better work ; but this plough has been found uusuitabJc for lea land. It does not lay the slice sufficiently over to jiack it well, and make a good seed furrow, in conseiiuence, as ap- peared, of the wrest lifting the furrow too far out below, and being hence unable to twist and turn it over. Besides the leading experiiTients, as above de- tailed, a variety of other injplements were com- pared, some of them perhaps of not less importance than the former. 1. IMr. Hamilton of Rozelle's Trench Plough, with four horses, making a funow of 9 inches deep — maker, IMr. M'Gill, Sundrum. 2. Mr. Hamilton's Subsoil Plough (four horses), going I(J inches deep from the surface. 3. Sir C. D. Fergussou's Subsoil Plough (three horses) 16 inches deep— maker, Mr. T. Itierry, Smith, at Kilkerran. 4. Mr. Hamilton's Common Plough (No. 1, found in table) as a Trench Plough, with three horses, 10 inches deep. With these ploughs the results obtained are ex- hibited in the following table. No. 2 : — Owners of Plouglis. 1. V.Y. Haiiiilton's Trench Plough 2. BIr. Hamilton's Subsoil Plouyli 3. Sir V. D. Frrgussou's Do. i. Mv. Hiuuilton's Xn. 1 s =« 2 b ^ " , ■s-s -S " oj *^ c V. C , to D 5-2 '3 ix "S. g-felK (14 9 4 H(l IG 4 yu IG o C8 10 ! 3 THE FAIIMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 These expcvitnents were made to determine the draught of the different tiloughs, it having been supposed that those with three hox'ses were lighter of draught tlian those with four. It was also in view to ascertain whether a common plough, goinj; nine or ten inches deep, offers any ads'antage, or otherwigc, over a plough constructed solely lor trenching, going to a like depth. The subsoil ploughs followed in the common furrow of a com- mon plough, and as will be seen in the table, their actual draughts were exactly alike, though the one was drawn by four, and the other by three horses — thus showing that in land of this kind three horses nuist be overworked in drawing a subsoil plough, seeing that each has to exert a force of 26'^ stones, whereas 20 stones may be held as a sutlicient draught for one horse. From the com- parisons of the Trench ploughs, it is to be inferred that cither of these implements come within the power of three horses, being little more at nine inches deep, than 20 stones to each horse. The substitution of the Trench for tlie common Plough, as preparatory to the Subsoil Plough, is considered an improvement. The Common Plough is not nearly so capable of turning out and laying over the soil, and the consequence is that when the subsoil plough follows that plough, the two soils are very injuriously mixed together. This is entirely obviated by the Trench jjlough, which throws over the soil in such a way as to prevent any mixture, laying it entirely out of the reach of the subsoil, by which every part of that soil is always kept below. There is also this additional advant:ige in the use of the Trench plough, used on this occasion, that the horses drawing it aie all on the white land, and not treading in the subsoil in the furrow. In treating on the draught of horses, it may be useful to notice an expedient that was adoi)ted to measure heavy implements requiring a draught of 80 stones, while the scale of the dynamometers individually extended to only TO stones. The horses were yoked two and two to the ends of a runner chain, which was passed round an iron sheave attached to the plough's bridle. The hind pair of horses were yoked to the short end of the chain, while the foremost jjair were yoked to the other end, lengthened out sufficiently to give free- dom of action, and each pair drawing by a set of common swingtrees, with an instrument (dyna- mometer) placed in each set of trees. In this manner the two dynamooietcrs were found, to indicate with all the precision that could be de- sired, that cqnal force was exerted by each pair of horses, the sum of the force being the real draught of the implement. This method of yoking four horses, be it observed, is one of the best now em- ployed. It is simple and effective, equalizing the draught to the whole four, in a manner as perfect as it is possible to approach. Of other tillage implements that were tried, it seems only necessary to report as follows : — 1. A drain plough made by Mr. M'Gill, Sun- drum, and exhibited by Mr. Grieve, drawn by 8 horses, but which was in consequence of a frac- ture in some of its parts, rendered at first not available. This plough v.-as, however, subse- quently tried before Mr. Strnthers and Mr. Ral- ston, a Subcommittee named for the purpose, and the Committee have reported very favourably of the operations. With six horses, the])lougli opens ten acres in a day, to the depth of Y.i inches, or l'*J when soil is stiff and retentive. Drains 15 feet apart. These drains can afterwards be cleaned out and the tiles laid for lU]. per Scots fall of 18^ feet, so that upon the wiiole there is a considerable saving of expense. 2. A self-cleaifing i?rill Grubber, made by Mr. Wallace, Cross Roads, Kilmaurs.. and exhibited by Mr. Strnthers, Slaphousc, drawn by two horses, acted very efficiently, going to the depth of 12 inches. .'>. A drill plough with Scuflier made and ex- hibited by Mr. Hctrick, Culroy, Maybolc. This implement was also separately tried before the Sub-Committee, and approved of with some few alterations. 4. A Drill harrow, made by Blr. Hetrick. 5. A Drill plough and harrow for raising pota- toes, exhibited by Mr. Fulton, Balig. 6. An improved Finiayson's harrow, made by Mr. M'Gill, blacksmith, Sundrum. 7. A set of three horse Swingktrees, of Iron, adjusted to equalize the draught to three horses, made by Mr. Donaldson of Paisley, and exhibited by W. M. Alexander, Es(i., of Southbar. 8. A set of whet land harrows, admitting the horses to walk in the furrows, made by Mr. Donaldson of Paisley, and exhibited by \V. M. Alexander, Esq., of Southbar. 9. A scufHer for drill crops, made by Mr. Tenant, AHoway, and exhibited by Mr. W.M'Creath, Fore- hill. These implements not being adapted for com- parison of draught, were only partially tried with the measuring instruments, and the results being thus isolated, are of little importance; but in jus- tice to the exhibitors, the deputation cannot allow this opportunity to pass of expressing their appro- bation of the workmanship and construction of the implements exhibited. In articles of machinery, there were also exhibi- ted— 1. Gardner's Patent Turnip Cutter, by Mr. Imrie, a machine admirably adapted for cutting for sheep- feeding, though deficient as a slicer for cattle. 2. Crosskill's Patent Clod-crusher, exhibited by Rlr. Hamilton, a machine well adapted for pulve- rising obdurate clay soils, when imperfectly drained. .3. A very efficient Oil Cake Crusher, constructed by Robert Walls, Farm Overseer at Rozelle. ^Vith this machine, two men crush a ton of cake in two hours. 4. A Bone and Turnip Sower, made and exhibi- ted by R. Walls, Overseer at Rozelle. 5. Presser for pressing ploughed land, exhibited by Mr. Hamilton. (). A hand Carrot Sower, made and exhibited by IMr. John Dunlin, Gardener, Doonholm. In concluding the report, the deputation regret the few varieties of Scotch ploughs brought to the trial — there being many others extensively em- ployed in Scotland, of wliich a comparison in work- ing would have been both interesting and useful. But while they regret this circumstance, the depu- tation feel happy in congratulating the association upon the successful manner in which the experi- ments,so far gone into, were conducted ; and which may be considered as one step towards the solution of an important problem, namely, of determining the best form and construction of the plough. '1 he de])utation beg further to state, that the association is very mucii indebted to JMr. Hamil- ton, of Carcluie, for the great trouble he has taken, and the kindness shown by him to all concerned in the business of the meeting. The deputation also report, that the thanks of the Association are due to Mr. Slight, for the valu^ S 2 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. able assistance afforded by him on the occasion of the trials, and also in the preparation of this re- port. They have only farther to state, that the Secre- tary is in possession of, and will be happy to give access to, minute explanations of the following implements, iScc, kindly furnished by the exhibi- tors after named, viz. : — 1. Explanations of three-horse Swingletrees and Land Harrows, and Palmer's Patent English Plough by Ml-. I'ordyce, overseer at iSouthbar. 2. Explanations of improvements on the Finlay- son Harrow, by Blr. M'Gill, smith, Sundrum. 3. Explanations on Turn-wrest Plough, by Mr. James Wallace, smith, Galston. 4. Explanations on Scuffler for drill crops, by j\lr. M'Creath, Forehill. 5. Explanations on Drill Plough with Scnftlcr and Harrow, by Mr. Robert Hettrick, smith, Cul- roy. 6. Explanations onDrainPlough, by Mr. Grieve, Whitehill. 7. Explanations on Turnip Cutter, by Mr, Tho- mas Imrie, seed merchant, Ayr. Humbly reported to the Directors of the General Agricultural Association, by The Deputation of Directors. APPENDIX. Reports on Implemenls tried at Crossburn and Slew- arfon, in presence of Committees appointed ly the Associalion, viz, .- — 1. Report by Mr. Hay lioyd, of Townend ; Mr. Cuthrie, Auchans ; and Mr. Bruce, Langholmi Drill Harrow, as improved by INIr . David Wharrie, blacksmith, Taputta. Crossburn, 26th October, 1840. The undersigned members of the General Agri- cultural Association of Ayrshire, having been re- (juested by the directors to report on the drill bar- row, as improved by Mr. David Wharrie, black- smith, Taputta, near Riccarton, from having ex- tensively used it this past season, have expe- rienced the advantage of it, and can coniidently recommend it to the most favourable notice of the Society, as deserving a premium. (Signed) William Hay Boyd. RoBT. Guthrie. Wm. Bruce. 2. Report by Committee (of which Colonel C. S. Mac Allester, of Kennos, was Convener) upon an improved Thrashing Mill, lately made by Mr. David Craig, wright, Craigton, Stewarton. The Committe beg leave to report that the im- ])roveraent is erected on a common thrashing mill atThornhill, Stewarton, on the estate of Andrew Brown Esq., of Millhonse, and consists of an ad- dition made to the common thrashing-mill upon the oft' side and above the mill, whereby the grain is first riddled, and the sand and black tick so injurious to meal and seed corn, sifted out, and then raised from below the mill, and there win- nowed by double fanners, and afterwards run oft' into a sack, fit for mill or market. The whole machinery is driven by a pair of horses, and the additional propelling power required for this ad- dition is only 2olbs. more than what is required lo drive the thrashing mill. The mill and the ad- dition, thrash and winnow from six to eight bolls of grain in the hour, according to the length of the straw and -atense'),vamt (^Mentha viridis), beans, parsley, and beet. The remaining fifteen beds receive in turn the same crops, but each year a different one is in- troduced ; so that by comparing the amount of produce obtained each year from the first and second class of beds — those in which the crop is permanent, and those in which it is made to shift about— we may be enabled to learn, how much of any actual diminution ought to be attributed to the season, and how much to a deterioration or exhaustion of the soil. As it is scarcely five years since the experiments were commenced, the progress made has not yet been sufficient to render the results worth quoting ; but should life and leisure be allowed me for bringing them to a conclusion, I trust some inferences may hereafter be deduced of utility to future husbandmen ; although 1 should be far more sanguine with respect to the benefit that would accrue, if a piece of ground of greater extent were set apart for such experiments, as, under the auspices of any of our great agricultural societies, it m.ight not he difficult to effect. ^ Should science, indeed, succeci in settling the true cause of the deterioration of crops, and the most advantageous order of their succession, it is unnecessary for me to point out how important a boon she would confer upon the agriculturist. So extremely various indeed are the systems upon which the rotation is carried on in different countries, that no fixed princi|)le would appear to regulate them, and the whole may he considered, as being founded much more upon the authority of long usage and tradition, than upon any actual c imparison of the relative advantages of those re>;orted to in various places. This inquiry may therefore be pointed out, as being one of those lines of investigation, in pro- secuting which the scientific chemist may be expected to benefit the practical farmer. And there are many other such lines of re- search-for, indeed, the relations of climate to vegetation, including under the former term the subtle influences of light and electricity, of v\hich we are hardly yet fully cognisant, but which operate powerfully in many ways upon the vegetable, as they do upon the animal kingdom, require for their elucidation the assistance both of the chemist and of the natural philosopher. I have shewn, in my experiments respecting the influence of light upon plants,* that, up to a certain point, and with reterence to certain functions of the vegetable economy, the stimulus of heat admits of being substituted for that of liffht. and it has recently been suggested, that the want of solarinfluence upon tropical plants, during the winter months, might possibly be supplied by artificial illumination. It is evident, indeed, that different kinds of plants are differently affected by the stimulus of light, since in the gloomy forests of the tropics, the leaves of epiphytal Orcbideas discharge the same functions, as those of the loftier trees which are exposed to the full blaze of the sun. Such circumstances i-equire to be taken into the account, in considering the practical subject of climatization. On the other hand, the difficulty of successfully cultivating certain plants seeras at present im- perfectly understood. Is it the fact, for example, that the vine cannot find a climate exactly suited to it, throughout the wide range of latitude included by the United States ? or does its lailure arise merely from the attention of the husbandman having been hitherto directed to more essential, or more profitable kinds of culture ? If the former be the true solution, what are the circumstances in the condition of the atmosphere, which render the climate of North America unfit for its production ? Auuales de Cheiuie, 1839. * Philosophical Transactions, 1836. 2o2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Again, how far does the limitation of particular species within a certain geographical range, depend upon their peculiar adaptation to the climate, and in what degree may we account for it, by the theory of certain foci of vegetation ? These are practical subjects, upon which I shall have occasion to enter more fully in my succeed- ing lectures. In the present, enough, I trust, has already been said to convince you, thateven without much practical acquaintance with the details of agri- culture, it may be possible for me to offer from time to time to my audience certain hints on the subject of Rural Economy, which, if taken up afterwards by the experienced farmer, may form the basis of improvements in his existing system of cultivation. If such a hope be indulged, it will be perhaps regarded as a fortunate conjuncture of circum- stances, that the first establishment of this Pro- fessorship should have taken place, not only at a period of peculiar excitement in the agricultural world, when the farmer seems to be awakened to the necessity of endeavouring to rival the manu- facturer in enterprise and in invention, but also — as regards the local circumstances of the University in which it has been founded — at a time, when, as I am inclined to flatter myself, an increasing sense seems to be entertained of the duty imposed upon us, of rendering available, for the purposes of instruction, the lectures of the public professors, conjointly with those of the tutors of colleges. The erection of a Chair of Rural Economy in this University, has filled up the last blank which existed in the series of our professorships, having insured the delivery of lectures, on perhaps the only important branch of human knowledge, which had previously been left unprovided for. I trust, therefore, that the beneficent intentions of its founder will not be frustrated by a neglect of the means of instruction which he has furnished ; for although I do not mean to claim for Rural Economy that same degree of importance that I attach to another science which it is my duty to teach, or conceive, that like Chemistry, it ought to be considered an essential ingredient of a liberal education ; yet when I recollect how large a proportion of the youth who resort to Oxford arc likely hereafter to fix their abode in the country, I confidently expect, that there will be always some amongst us, to whom the science of Rural Economy may present attractions. Should such turn out to be the case, I can assure you, that it will be my earnest endeavour, not only to put before you, in my succeeding lectures all such facts and principles of modern science, as may seem to bear in any degree on the details of husbandry, but also to impart that practical information, which may be gleaned from time to time either from books, or from the obliging communications of those who are actually embarked in agricultural pursuits. FAIRFORD FARMERS' CLUB. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT. The Committee of Management of the Fairford Farmei's' Club, in presenting the first Annual Report, consider themselves called on to discharge a gratifying part of their duty, in briefly reviewing the proceedings of the club, during the short period it has been established. Your committee were much pleased on the formation of the club, in observing the interest evinced in its progress, and the increase in the number of its members ; and they cannot but express their satisfaction in remarking that societies of a similiar character have been daily rising into notice in all parts of the country. The desire thus manifested of associating with the view of advancing a common interest, by freely com- municating and exchanging the results of in- dividual observation and experience, for the purpose of promoting improvement in the manage- ment and cultivation of the soil, forcibly strengthens and confirms the general opinion of the great utility and advantage of farmers' clubs. The objects of such societies in collecting, diffusing, and discussing information on agri- cultural subjects, tends to promote a union amongst agriculturists, from which your com- mittee are of opinion many important advantages must necessarily arise. The want of such societies has been long admitted, and made the subject of remark and regret, particularly when contrasted with the activity displayed by the manufacturing and trading interests, in forming societies for uniting those classes, and thereby affording means and opportunities of frequent correspondence and communication on matters relative to their respective interests. In the discussion of the different subjects selected, your committee have the satisfaction of remarking that the attention of the members has been directed towards contributing information upon topics possessing an interest and im- portance, not only to themselves, but also to the community at large, which have been suc- cessively introduced, thereby effectually further- ing the object which induced the formation of the society, and which, since its establishment has been kept in view. Your committee now proceed to lay before you a brief account of the transactions of the society during the past year, in the order in which they have occurred. At the meeting in January, being the first after the formation of the club, the attention of the members was directed to an inquiry and discussion " On the Culture of Tionips." Much interest was taken in the debate on this subject by the club generally, and more particularl}"^ by some members, from its turning on the point as to the utility and advantage of the practice of breast-ploughing and burning, now and for many years past so general in the management of the thin and light soils known as Stonebrash, in the districts forming the Cotswold Hills, ex- tending over nearly two-thirds of the county of Gloucester, and divided into farms, varying in extent from 300 to 1200 acres. The advantage of this process, in the management of Stone- brash, moor, and peat soils, from universal practice, has been so long admitted, as to become almost indisputable in the preparation for the turnip crop, when the difficulty, or rather impossibility of collecting a sufficient quantity of yard manure, and the labour of carting it, if in such situations it could possibly be collected, would become insuperable obstacles, and consequently prevent the fertilizing of the outlying lands in any other way than by paring and burning. The discussion, therefore, resting on this part of the subject, after an interesting THE FARMEPt'S MAGAZINE. 253 debate, the follouing resolution was agreed to: — "That it is the unanimous oijinion of tliis meeting-, that breast-ploughing ami burning are of the greatest benefit for the production of Swedes and turnips, on Stonebrash, moor, and peat soils." The subject fixed on for discussion at the February meeting was, " The propriety or im- propriety of any Alteration in the exi.itiny Corn Lawn." This subject was introduced by the member proposing it, with some apiiropriate remarks on the probable effect of a change, and the danger to be apprehended to the agricultural interest from a repeal of the existing law. In the debate which followed, a statement was given by a very intelligent member, of the prices of corn at different foreign ports, with the expense of freight to this country, for the purpose of supporting bis view of the cjuestion that the original cost and necessary expenses wotdd prevent the importation and sale of foreign corn at a price injurious to the home cultivator, in the event of an open or un- restricted trade. Another member, in remarking on the effect upon the currency to be apprehended from a change, looking at the experience of former years, observed — that a free trade in corn would be attended with most disastrous con- sequences, both to the manufacturer and agri- culturist, as gold, in such case?, would be taken from this country to pay for labour in others. That it would be permitting an importation of labour whilst we were complaining of a redun- dancy, from inability to find profitable em- ployment, at an adequate rate of wages for the labourers' subsistence. That, in consequence of some of the indirect taxes IVJling so heavily on that particular class, a labouring man's familj% consisting of himself, his wife, and three children, were paying as much, in taxes alone, as was paid to the continental labourer for his work ; and he asked how, then, it was possible for the working class of this to enter into competition with any foreign country, in regard to labour.'' That, if the amount of taxes were added to the price of labour, it would be but fair for the agriculturist to expect that the articles produced by such labour should bear a corresponding value. That the high price of corn was not to be considered as having been caused by the operation of the corn laws, but by an extension of the currency — the means then resorted to for meeting the increasing taxation of the country. That the agricultural distress, which had subsequently prevailed, was not to be attributed to a redundant population or over production, as had been asserted by some of the political economists of the day, but principally to the contraction of the currency, without a corresponding decrease of taxes, which pressed so heavily on the working class. That if the manufacturers had not been bliiuled by prejudice, they would have petitioned for the repeal of those taxes, namely, on tea, sugar, soap, and such other articles as formed a great part of a poor man's necessaries, rather than for the unrestricted ad- mission of foreign corn. That the reduction of such taxes would have enabled the working class to have rendered their labour beneficially cheaper, and that labour, consequently, would have become more productive, because an increase of employ- ment would have been found, and a reduction in the price of provisions would then naturally have ensued. The object of the manufacturers would then have been gained, creditably to themselves and satisfactorily to the community. That, on the other hand, an unrestricted admission of foreign corn most certainly would have aggra- vated the evil, by robbing our working class of employment, and causing, in the payment for foreign labour, an efflux of our capital, which, of all things, we should he most careful to retain. That the circulation of the country is the pivot upon which our whole mercantile, manufacturing, and agricultural machinery re- volves— the political barometer, that speedily, and with great certainty, indicates a change or variation in the prices of both labour and pro- duce— a light-house for the merchant, and a gauge for the statesman, whereby to measure the existing amount of national prosperity or distress. The remarks of tliememherabovealluded to, and those from other members also, causing the debate to turn chiefly on the ruinous consequences to the landed interest, both owners and occupiers, to be apprehended from the removal of the present dutv, and the opinion of the meeting being unanimous (with the exception of one dissentient voice\ in • favour of the law at present regulating the admis- sion of foreign corn into the English market; at the close of the discussion the following resolution was adopted : — " That in the opinion of this meet- ing, any alteration in the existing corn laws would be injurious to the landed and farming interests, and to the country altogether." Your committee would here wish to remark, that they have ever considered this a question of great moment and concern, not merely involving the claim of the home cultivator to that preference in the market which he is rightly entitled to over the foreigner, and a fair remuneration, also, for his skill, capital, and labour, devoted to the pro- duction of food for the community; hut, in fact, nothing less than his future existence and preser- vation from ruin. And, therefore, coinciding iu the opinion expressed iu the foregoing resolution, they are induced to condemn a course of jjolicy that would tend to annihilate that interest which they believe to he the basis of our national i)ros- perity, and inseparably connected with trade and commerce. The subject chosen for discussion at the meet- ing in iNIarch was " The most approved mode of mi- derdraininij , and the benefits to hederired tlierefrom." The member proposing this subject, introduced it with some very judicious remarks on the material points to be attended to in laying out drains, and on the construction, width, and depth of stone drains, and expense of materials and labour re- quired in forming them. In the discussion which then followed, particulars were given relative to the practice of tile draining, and a calculation of the expenses attending it, with observations on the different modes of stone, tile, clay, and turf draining in various situations and soils, and the comparative expenses of each. In this case an interesting debate enstied, and the subject being viewed as one of decided importance, from such great and permanent improvement having been invariably effected in those situations where it has been found desirable to have recourse to the ])ractice of draining. And, as to the mode deemed to be the best and most approved, the opinion of the meeting appeared to be that the locality and nature of the soil influence the cultivator so much in the choice of materials and shajje of his drain, that the mode of draining, liica many other prac- tices, adopted in different districts, may, in prin- ciple, be founded on sound reason with reference 254 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to the peculiar localitj', although admitting, proba- bly, of much improvement. Voiir committee would here remark, that they cannot too forcibly express their opinion in favour of draining generally, or too strongly recommend it to the consideration of both landowner and oc- cupier, for more general adoption. At the meeting in April, the nttention of the members was drawn totlie subject o'i " The different mannrenfor tuniips, adapted to the different sort ft of soils." In the discussion which tlien took place, the qualities of manures came under consider- ation, with the practice generally adopted in their application. The experience of different members in the use of bone-dust, wood and turf ashes, soot, and yard manure, was stated with the results. Some experiments tried last autumn, on a small scale, with barilla, soda, and saltpetre, were also mentioned; but, from the extreme wetness of the season, the effects of these as manures could not be satisfactorily observed, so as to ground any useful remarks upon them. On this occision, the subject haying been fully discussed, it appeared to be the opinion of the meeting that it was generally more desirable to apply the manure i)revious to winter, than immediately before planting in the spring. "The advantage of soiliiig cattle in yards or sheds during the summer, and the best method of obtaining food for such puiyose,"\vs.s introduced at the meet- ing in May. The consideration and discussion on this subject, by those members present, rested principally on statements from authors who have treated thereon, rather than from personal know- ledge and experience, and therefore the meeting could not come to a decidedly practical opinion on it. The remarks made in the course of the discus- sion, on the advantages of soiling in summer, were in a great measure founded on quotations from Dixon's Agriculture, and other autiiors, and but few arising from actual experience. It was suggested that the practice was better adapted for grass land than arable, and therefore not likely to be brought into general use in this part of the country, from the small proportion of pasture in comparison to the arable land. The meeting being strongly impressed with the advantages arising from soiling in those situations where it could be adopted, although few present could speak in its favour from actual exjierience, canie to the fol- lowing resolution: — "That, as soiling cattle in yards or sheds during the summer, appears not to have been much practised by the members of the club, they are unable to give information founded on their own observation and experience, and therefore the remarks adduced have been, for the most ])art, from the works of writers on the subject. It is, however, the opinion of this meeting, that the subject is an important one, and the practice of soiling to be recommended on account of its ufiliiy and advantage, in those cases where it can be adopted." Tlie subject which occupied the attention of the meeting in June was, " The best method of -preser- ving the turnip and Swede plrint from the jiy or other insect; and also the best methodof feeding or using the crop when procured." On the ititroduction of this subject, allusion was made to the numerous ])lans recommended for preventing the ravages of the fly which had not been found to succeed, and the attention of the meeting drawn to the formidable and destructive attacks of the grub, at a more ad- vanced stage of the turnip plant. It was remarked, that the successful culture of the thin and light soils on the Cctswold Hills depended so much on the renovating nature of the turnip crop, that it was most desirable to secure it from the destruc- tive attacks to which it was exposed from the fly and grub, and to adopt also the best method of consuming it when procured. In the discussion which followed, some experiments with different manures, tried by some of the members, were de- tailed, in which the result appeared favourable in those cases where soot had been used; and, in considering that part of the subject relative to the best method of feeding or using the crop, the com- parative advantage of drawing the turnips off, and feeding sheep u])on the land, was much discussed ; and, opinions unanimously prevailing in favour of the latter practice, the meeting adopted the follow- ing resolution : — " That, with regai'd to the pre- servation of the turnip and Swede plant from the destructive ravages of the fly, the use of soot was very desirable for such purpose ; and, that as to turnip land generally, it was most desirable to feed the crop upon the land, in preference to taking the turnips off for the purpose of feeding stock in yards or sheds." The meeting in July was engaged in discussing " The best time for cutting corn tvith reference to its state of maturity, and the best method of doing so." On this subject being introduced, the mate- rial point on which the discussion turned was, as to the particular stage of growth at which it was most advantageous to the farmer to cut the diffe- rent sorts of grain : and, in reference to wheat, as the most important, several members stated their o|)inions and experience to be in favour of cutting it in a green state, from the improvement of the quality, the advantage of an earlier commence- ment of the harvest, and thereby preventing the loss occasionally sustained by the crop standing till over ripe, for want of hands to cut it, and the benefit derived in a wet season from so doing. Barley it was considered desirable to cut when out of red-streak, and oats in a less ripened state. And with regard to the best method of cutting corn, the o[)inion of the meeting appeared to be unfavourable to mowing wheat, but the practice of bagging, as adopted in some districts in Devon- shire and Berkshire, was highly spoken of, from the advantage of securing an additional quantity of straw, and pi'eventiug any waste of the crop. The subject having had much consideration from the meeting, the resolution agreed to was : — " That, in the opinion of this meeting, it is desi- rable that wheat should be cut as soon as it can be after it is out of the milk ; bailey, after being completely out of red-streak ; and oats, in a less ripened state : and that, with regard to the best method of cutting corn, it would be very desi- rable to introduce the practice of bagging into this neighbourhood, it being an important object in harvesting corn, to prevent any waste of straw or loss of grain ; and, by adopting this mode of cutting the crop low, it is believed these advan- tages are in a great measure secured." The meetings in August and September were thinly attended, in consequence of the members being then very generally engaged in the imj)or- tant business of the harvest. JVo subject was therefore entered upon for discussion at either of those meetings. At the October meeting, the subject for discus- sion was " The cultivation ofvheat, as regards the time and mode of planting , quantity of seed, and the manures most ft." It was proposed, on this sub- ject being introduced, that it should be discussed with reference to the different descriptions of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 255 soil ; and, as the members present were mo?t ac- customed to light soils, of the nature of stone- brash, the remarks of those who took part in the discussion were therefore confined principally to soils of that dcscrii)tion. On the one hand it was observed that, on the Cotswold Hills, it was desi- rable to break up land in course for wheat, after being down two j'eavs in seeds, by breast-plough- ing or ristbaulking. That, after having been dragged, and harrowed down, and ploughed, the land should be planted, allowing an interval of about a fortnight between the ristbaulking and harrowing, ami tlie same space of time previously to planting. That the best time was about the last week in August, or the fust week in Septem- ber, and the quantity of seed nine or ten ])eclcs per acre not too much ; that (hilling was to be preferred, and in some cases the plant had been found too thin from drilling two bushels per acre. Some members difi'ering in opinion on a few of these points, on the other haiul, considered it more desirable the land should be broken up after one year's seeds, the wheat plant being nearer to the turnip manure and deriving more benefit from it. That, as to the time, local situation and cir- cumstances rendered it necessary to vary the planting from September to the middle of Novem- ber, and the quantity of seed, also, from two bushels to two bushels and a half per acre. And, with regard to the depth of planting, some advo- cated putting in the seed near the surface, and others deep ploughing; one member, in parti- cular, of much ex[)erience, adducing instances of the successful results, in had seasons, of deep planting, and attributing the strength of the crop, when ripening, in resisting the eflects of wind and rain, to this practice, which he uniforml)' adopted. The subject having been fully dis- cussed, with reference to stonebrash and light soils, it was agreed that it should be adjourned for consideration at the next meeting, with refe- rence to heavy and moory soils. 'i'he following meeting, in November, accord- ingly resumed the further consideration of " The cultivation of icheat, with reference to heavy and 'moory soils." This part of the subject had not mucli discussion, from the circun)stance of the descri|)tion of soil alluded to not prevailing to any very considerable extent in this district. As re- garded the depth of planting" on heavy soils, the meeting did not consider deep j)lanting desirable, especially on cold clay soils, from the danger of the seed perishing in such cases. And, as to the management of moory soils, it appeared to be the general opinion that the best mode was, after p;irint( and burning, aiul ]>]oughing lightly, to plant near the surface ; and in the remarks on the best course to he observed, cases were mentioned of wheat succeeding well after turnips, on moor land. There was no attendance at the twelfth meeting, on the third of IDecember, the annual meeting of the Cirencester Agricultural Society occurring on the same day. On the subject of the library, your committee remark, that the state of the funds having ad- mitted of the purchase of several useful works, proposed liy different members, it now consists of thirty volumes on agricultural subjects, and conti- nues to I'eccive the addition of the Eiiylish Ayri- cultiiral Society's Journal, the Quarterly Journal of Ayrictilture, ami the I'armer's Magazine. Your comnnttee trust the Society will be enabled to im- prove the library, and they wish to direct the attention of the club particularly to tliis point, tiiat the members may have an increased facility of reference to useful agricultural works. Having examined the treasurer's account for the past year, your connuittee find tliat the neces- sary expenditure on the establishment of the society, with the purchase of bonks, and the cur- rent expenses, have exhausted tlic subscriptions for the past year, leaving no surplus in the hands of the treasurer. Your committee having thus given a brief state- ment of the transactions of the society, in the order in which they have occin-red, feel sanguine in the opinion they entertain, that the future discussions will possess an increased degree of interest; and, in concluding their report, de- sire to express their sincere wish for the pros- ])crous continuance of the Fairford Farmers' Club. For the Committee, W. Cuoucu, Secretary. ON SALT AS A PREVENTIVE OF DISEASE IN HORSES, CATTLE, AND SHEEP. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — My stock having escaped the prevailing epidemic that has been general in this neighbour- hood for the last six months, not a single case having occurred among a considerable quantity of horses, cattle and sheep, although grazing in fields adjoining to where diseased stock was depastured, separated by hedges only, and also adjoining a turnpike-road where stock affected with the comi)laint were constantly travelling; I shall therefore give to the public my impression of the reasons I conceive that exemption is owing to, hoping that others may benefit from the same practice, should my o[)inion ])rove correct. The practice alluded to is, to jilace plenty of salt within reach of every species of stock, so that they may at all times have it in their power to gratify their appetite for this condiment, of which they are very fond, and consume some quantity, ])articular!y stock that have been accustomed to it, for on putting them into a fresh pasture or yard where there is no salt, on returning to the field or place where they had been used to find it, (even after some time has elajjsed) they will im- mediately mate for the spot iu search of it. 1 am aware that salt is strongly recommended by many writers on agriculture, but is not so generally used as it deserves ; one reason may be, the difficulty of keeping u|) a sujiidy where it is exposed to the atmos|)here, as in damp weather it dissolves quickly, and often requires to be renewed. The best salt for stock (which I make use ofj is called at the works, Pickings ; it is in flat pieces, varying from one inch to two and a half inches in thickness, extremely hard and pure ; it is an incrustation from the brine adhering to the bottom of the^^aw or boiler, in which the brine is evaporated, reciuiring great labour to separate it from the pan with sharp mattocks ; it is usually ground between rollers by steam-power, and is then called agricultural salt, and is used to a con- siderable extent on the light blowing sands for tuinips and clover. These cakes or pickings will remain undissolved when exposed to the weather for a length of time 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. from its hardness and fineness of the grain, which gives it the appearance of marble when licked by the stock. The best way is to place it in small stone- troughs, in conspicuous parts of the fields, also in the yards, stable-mangers and feeding-stalls. 'J'he price I give for it at Droitwich, is five-shillings per ton, which quantity will supply a great stock for many months. I think it right to add, that the situation of my farm is high and exposed to the winds, the pastures being large and open ; this may, in some degree, secure the stock from infection ; but, as I have stated before, they were contiguous to a public road, and also to infected stock ; I can, therefore, only account for my perfect exemption from the disease in the liberal use of salt. I am, Sir, j'ours, faithfully, Richard Smith. Upper Hall Farm, near Droitwich, Worcestershire. ALFORD AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY ; FOR PROMOTINOr GOOD CONDUCT, SKILL, AND INDUSTRY AMONGST LABOURERS AND SERVANTS, The above society held their Third Annual Meet- ing on Friday, 5th inst., when an immense con- course of spectators assembled, amongst whom were most of the principal gentry in the neigh- bourhood : many ladies also graced the meeting \y)th their presence. All seemed to be highly gra- tified, and to take a lively interest in the very ani- mating scene, which was produced by such a very numerous competition, 'i'here were 7?> ploughs, 2') underdrainers and 12 hedgers at work, and the performances on the whole, were of a very excel- lent character. The society has been established only a short time, but it has increased very rapidly in importance, and from the very spirited and persevering manner in which it is conducted, and the very general support it has received by the owners and occupiers of land in the neighbour- hood, it bids fair to rival any similar society in the kingdom. It is only justice to say that the beneficial effects of the society are already very evident, and have been generally acknowledged by the farmers in the neighbourhood. About 4 o'clock the members and their friends sat down to dinner at the Windmill Inn, Alford. Tlie chair on the occasion, was taken by Wm. Loft, Esq., of Trusthorpe, the president of the society. Amongst the company we noticed R. A. Christopher, Esq., Bloxholm Hall ; Captain Erskine; W. S, Welfitt, Esq., Manby Hall ; Dr. Holland, Sheffield ; Capt. Wansol, Well Vale; G. W. Maddison. Esq., Part- ney; W. Toir, Esq., Riby; J, Higgins, Esq,, Alford; J. lies, Esq., IMnbrook; T. K. Short, Esq., Martin; Samuel \'essy, Esq., Halton ; J. Lister, Esq., Saleby ; the Rev, Messrs. Dawson, Vicar of Alford ; F. Laurent, Alford ; and A. Veitch, Horncastle, &c., &c., &c. The usual toasts having been drank and responded to, the Chairman in a complimentary speech proposed the held of Dr. Holland : he stated, that although Dr. Holland was personally a stranger, his works were well known amongst them, and he was also well-known to them by character, as being a very able and uncompromising advocate of the farmers' interests amongst their unjust and clamorous enemie^ in the manufacturing districts. He thanked him in the name of the society — and the toast was drank with rounds of applause. Dr. Holland then returned thanks in his usual masterly manner, exposing the fallacy of the anti-corn law theorists, and expressing his determination to persevere in advocating the farmers' rights, as he considered they were founded on equity and justice, and that it was only through hypocrisy and falsehood that a few speculators were endeavouring to enrich themselves by not only ruining the Britisli farmer, but by pauperizing at the same time the whole of the labouring classes. The successful candidates then entered the room, and the Chairman proceeded to present to each their respective prizes, accompanying them witli appropriate observations on their various merits and performances. In addressing the farmers' sons, the Chairman said, "That it was witli much pleasure that he had witnessed so much competi- tion for the cup. It had been doubted whether any sons of farmers occupying- upwards of 200 acres ever handled the plough, but he was glad to find, from the numerous competition there had been that day, and the masterly manner in which the work had been ])erformed, that such an idea was an erroneous one. The performance was certaiidy a great credit to the neighbourhood, for, in his opinion, it was too much the practice with young men of the present day, to fancy that if they could only handle a gun well, have a brace of dogs at their Leels, and ride well up to hounds, that they were very good farmers ; and above all, if by good luck they could manage to cut a good figure at a steeple chase, why then their education was quite complete. The object of this premium was to in- duce young men to turn their attention to business, to make themselves practical men, as theory and practice must be combined if they expected to farm to any advantage. Mr, Charles North, the treasurer, then made a statement of the funds of the society, which were found to be in a very flourishing condition — up- wards of 40 new members having joined the so- ciety, which now numbers more than 200 mem- bers. About LSO gentlemen sat down to dinner. Several toasts were drank and responded to, and the harmony of the evening was kept uj) until a late hour. Thejudges of the ploughing were Mr, R. Epton, Langton; Mr. W. Hofi", Halton 3 and Mr, G, E.xley, Legbourne. Thejudges of underdraining and hedging- were Mr. W. Raithby, Grainthorpe ; Mr, R, Sharpley, Carlton; and Mr, T.Noble, Reston. Class 1, To the farmer's son, not being in busi- ness for himself, living on a farm of not less than 200 acres, \»-ho shall plough iu the best manner half an acre of land within four hours, the furrows not to average more than nine inches wide or less than four inches deep — a silver cup, value .5/., first prize, to Henry Hand, of Burwell; a silver medal, value 1/,, to John Richardson, Sturton. 2. To the servant or labourer of any age, who shall plough best as above — first prize, three sovs,, to George Hewson, servant to Mr. llpton, of Raithby ; 2d ditto, two sovs., to Thos. Brougbton, servant to Mr, Edw. Gray, Calceby ; 3d ditto, one sov., to William Vickeis, servant to ]\lr. D. Briggs, Ox- comb. 3, To the servant under 2.5 years of age, and not having won a tirst prize at any ploughing meeting, - who shall plough best as above— 1st prize, three .sovs., to Josh, Parsons, servant to Mr. J. T. Mac- '^y-x-' ar J- Sn^aved. by K ifZcptza J- JnAiJ'iJ^asJmi h^- Jou'epk Ttb^ersjn, S'rjrji folio Sn ■- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 257 kinder, Beileau ; '2il ditto, two sovs., to Edmund Stamp, servant to Mr. T.Jackson, Belleau ; 3d ditto, one so v., to Kicliard Odling, servant to Rlr. R. Odling, Burwell. '1. To tbe plougb-boy, under 17 years of age, who shall plough in the best manner as above — 1st prize, two sovs., to Elvin, IlatlifFe, servant to ]Mr. Thos. Moses, of Stenigot ; 2d ditto, one sov., to Philip Butters, servant to Mr. William Parr, Walmsgate ; .Sd ditto, 10s., to Josh. Fetherby, servant to Mr. J3avid Briggs,ot' Oxcomb. To the best plougher in classes 2, S, and 4, a silver medal, value 1/., to George llewson, servant to Mr. Upton, of Raithby. ■1. To the labourer who shall bank, cut, and lay J 4 yards of quickset fence in the best manner within four hours — 1st prize, three sovs,, to Wra. Peall, Bluckton J 9d ditto, two sovs,, to Joseph Riiodes, Swaby ; 3d ditto, one sov., to Richard Burton, Bel ell ford. <3. To the labourer who shall cut 33 yards of under- gripping not less than 22 inches deep, in a manner best adapted lor wedge, sod, or brick, within three hours — 1st prize, three sovs., to Joseph Greenfield, of Willoughby ; 2d ditto, two sovs., to John Bon- toft, Strubby ; 3d ditto, one sov., to William Thomp- son, of VVilsby. 7. To the shepherd who shall have reared up to the 1st July last, the greatest proportionate number of lambs from not less than 100 ewes put to the ram, with the least loss of ewes — 1st prize, three sovs., to Francis Tuxford, shepherd to Mr. Hall, Sauce- thorpe, 367 lambs from 272 ewes ; 2d ])rize, two sovs., to Joseph Wass, shepherd to iNIr. A\'right, Hough, 424 lambs from 317 ewes ; 3d prize, one sov., to John Lowden, shepherd to Mr. Empering- liam, Salmonby, 360 lambs from 280 ewes. 8. To the waggoner who shall have driven his master's team the greatest number of years, in the fewest servitudes, without having been seen intoxi- cated whilstso engaged, and producing a testimonial from each master or mistress — 1st prize, two sovs., to Edward Wright, servant to Mrs. Trolove, 25 years ; 2d ditto, one sov., to Joseph Stamp, servant to Roger Sharpley, 24 years. 9. 'J'o the labourer in husbandry, of good charac- ter, who shall have brought up, or is now bringing- up, by his own industry, the largest family without parochial relief, except in case of long illness or mis- fortune, and not having occupied more than one acre of land — 1st prize, four sovs., to James Howden, Hagworthinghani, who has brought up 11 children, eldest 41 years old, youngest 14 years; 2d ditto, two sovs., to Charles Chatterton, of Cawtborpe, having brought up 11 children, eldest 23 years old, youngest five years. 11. To the servant in husbandry (being a single man) who shall have lived the greatest number of years in the fewest servitudes, and producing a satisfactory character from each master or mistress — 1st prize, two sovs., to Martin Jackson, having lived with Mr. Abbott, of Belchford, 13 years in one ser- vice ; 2d ditto, one sov., to Charles Harrison, having lived with Mr. Brooks, of Well, 3 years, and 17 years in nine servitudes. 12. To the servant (being a single woman) who has lived the greatest number of years in the fewest servitudes, and producing a satisfactory character from each master or mistress — 1st prize, 2 sovs., to Mary Holmes, servant to Mr. Mawer, of Partney, having lived 26 years in two servitudes ; 2d ditto, 1 sov., to Lucy Teesdale, servant to Mr. Richard VVilley, of Cumberworth, having lived 26 years in two servitudes. 13. To the labourer or servant, who shall be a depositor for the greatest length of time in a savings' bank— 1st prize, 2 sovs., to fohn Bonner, of Bur- well, having been a depositor 23 years in the Louth Savini^s' Bank ; 2d ditto, 1 sov., to .Susannah Need- ham, of Mumby, having been a depositor 15 years in the Alford Savings' Bank. PRINCE ALBERT; OF SAXE (JOBUUO AND GOTHA. We need not inform our readers that the illus- trious subject of the accompanying embellishment is the second son of the reigning Duke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha, and that he is the nephew of the King of the Belgians. It may not he iinwortliy of remark, however, that his Royal Highness stands at this moment in the position his uncle Jjeopold would have done, had it pleased the Almighty Disposer of human events to have spared the life of the lamented Princess Charlotte. The restrictions imposed upon Royalty, so far as their matrimonial arrangenjents are concerned, almost preclude the possibility of the feelings being consulted in their unions. The case nnder consideration, however, forms a happy exception to this rigorous rule. In the instance of our young and lovely Oueen, her wishes were con- sulted, and Her Rlajesty was enabled to wed the husband of her choice. After undergoing a careful preliminary schooling in his birth-place, the Castle of Ehrenburg, under masters selected from the College of Coburg, in whom his talents created the most favourable im- pressions, he was sent to England, where he con- tinued his studies at Kensington and Claremont, chiefly in the society of his future consort. Here he remained from the age of eleven for nearly a year and a half. On returning to his own country, his education was carried on with that vigour and comprehensiveness that so peculiarly mark a scholastic course in Germany ; and with such ex- cellent result, that at seventeen he passed the ex- amination which precedes the entrance of a stu- dent to the University of Bonn, in a manner which elicited the most marked commendation. A\"hilc remaining here, Prince Albert's progress was rapid in every branch of human learning — and these were by no means few, or easy of acquirement, that entered within the scope of his study. His scholastic attainments excited the admiration of the professors ; but to such pursuits he united, with all the enthusiasm of a German scholar, a love for others more graceful in their influence. Although his labours were more immediately directed to literary acquiiements, poetry, music, and painting engrossed his entire offectioiis during the latter portion of his college career ; and since then, in his travels to Italy, and to other countries that aftbrded him the best means of fostering and improving his natural taste for these delightful arts, he has employed all his leisure in their fasci- nating study. This taste he seems to have shared in an extraordinary yet very pleasing manner with his brother. Prince Ernest ; the latter being gifted with similar talents, they have been much in the habit of exercising their accomplishments conjointly—Prince Albert illustrating with a pencil the poetical ideas of his elder brother, or seeking to give the other's poetry a musical interpretation. Thus they were at once artists, jioets, and mu- sicians. Of their skill in painting we have only 258 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. heaiinion that the cost per acre would be not more than 9r,d- or lOd. The expense of all the implements (including blocks or plugs) would certainly not ex- ceed a sovereign. Any fanning man could become an adept in the plan in two hours. In another part of the kingdom (we believe Gloucestershire), ]Mr. Pickering stated that he had gono over 100 acres of land ou which tins plan had been adopted 1.5 years atro, and where the drains were yet perfect and efKcient: it was vellow clay with chalkstone. He recommended that the clay should not be rammed too hard over the plugs, as if so, it might render the clay impervious to the water. Models of the plugs were produced : the drain formed of them would be of about 25 cubit inches in extent. Hedge-ciitting. — An interesting conversation then took place on this subject, in which Mr. R. Smith and Mr. Heale}^ jun., took part. Mr. Smith laid before the meeting a plan for the renovation of old hedges, which would |)revcnt the evil now com- plained of, of occasional gaps. The plan was to cut the outer side of the edge, which was to be protected by a quick-set ; and three 3-ears afterwards, the inner side was also to he cut, and the wood taken off to form a protection in the nature of a back-fence. — I\Ir. Heale.y was of opinion that if the hedge was cut from the land side, there would soon be no hedge at all. He (Rlr. flealey) had seen a hedge at Ashwell very successfullv treated, by double digging, re- moving the old iion-stone and rubbish for about two £eet, and filling in new raould.s and manure, in which the young quick was planted. — Mr. Smith recuraniended the phm of cutting the hedges cone- form, slanting to a point towards the top, whereby all the lower branches equally obtained the benefit of the sun and air; but by cutting them square at top, they generally bulged and overhung the lower parts, which were thus weakened, moss formed, &:c. A lengthened conversation ensued, which led to no further results. The best Hotation of Croi-s for Clay Soils. — This subject, which had been fixed for discussion at this meeting, was now introduced by the Chair- man (Mr. P. Hawley) in a most able and intelligent manner. It was a very remarkable fact (he observed) that while the lighter soils throughout the country, had of late years been brought into a high state of cultivation, the heavy lands or clays had been com- parativelyneglected. Theintroduction of the turnip husbandry was the principal cause of this; and it must be admitted, that the cultivation of this root to perfection, as well as the use of two-horse ploughs, were quite impracticable on a clay soil : but, on the other hand, there were green crops, which such a soil was eminently calculated to produce, such as tares, clover, and beans ; and by means of these, much good might be effected. If they ob.->erved the practice of turnip growers, they found that they ap- plied a large quantitv of manure, and used everv ex- ertion to secure a full crop of that valuable root, well knowing that the larger the crop, the more is re- turned to the soil in consuming it. The clay land farmer, on the contrary, applies the whole of his manure to exhausting crops, and indeed, in some instances, only sows clover or tares when the land has been completely worn out by a repetition of the former : thus the green crops which should be fertilizers of the soil, became worse than useless, while, if the same pains were taken to secure a large crop of them which are bestowed upon the turnips, it is reasonable to suppose that equall}' beneficial efFects would follow. It would ultimately effect a radical improvement in the texture of this stubborn soil, by keeping up a supply of vegetable matter in it, thus preventing cohesion of its parts, and rendering cultivation comparatively easy. A rotation, then, however varied in other respects, siiould always be so continued, that a white straw should follow a green crop, the land having been previously manured for the latter. Landlords miglit very materially assist their tenants, if they would thoroughly drain their farms, divide the arable land by straight fences into fields suitable to the size of the farms, and lastly, if they would grant long leases. To this, and this alone, is to be ascrii)ed the superiority of Scotch and Norfolk agriculture. He (Mr. Hawley) recom- mended the following course of crops: — First Year — Fallow Manured. Second ditto — Wheat. Third ditto — Tares manured and sheep fed. Fourth ditto — Wheat. Fifth ditto — Beans heavily manured with long dung Sixth ditto — Oats. Seventh ditto — Clover, top dressed. Eighth— Wheat. Ninth — Beans manured with long dung^. Tenth— Wheat. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 Tbus, on 100 acres of land, there would be every year 40 ;icres of wheat, 'iO of beans, 10 of oats, 10 of clover, 10 of tares, and ten of fallow. On examinitu; tlie above course, it would be observed, that the prcjiarntion for or plantino; of one crop, would not intfrfere with another, so that the labour throughout the year would fall in regularly. JJe always turned up his lands in the autumn, in order that they may receive the full benefit of the wii:ttr's frost. If the horses were left entirely upon the arable land, that is, u])on oafs, clover and tares, the expense would be counterbalanced by the sale of a good cart horse now and then — bv the additional quantity of manure they return if well kept, and more than all, by being able to do that in a vi'celc, which, had it taken nine days, might never have been accomplished. It is an excellent nia.xim in farming, that anything to be done to advantage must be none well. — Mr. Hawley's remarks were received with much ap- ])robiti()n. A very interesting discussion took place, which our limits do not permit us to tran- scribe : the opinion expressed by the members, how- ever, appsared to be decidedlv in favour of a live- course system. 'I'lie thanks of the meeting liavingbeen voted to the chairman for his efficient conduct in the chair, it was announced that the subject for discussion at the next meeting would be, " On the best rotation of crops on light soils," to be introduced by IMr. Burgess, of Kidlington. ON THICK SOWING. Sir, — About six months ago, I read Mr. Hill- yard's book on " Practical Farming and Grazinn," with which, on the whole, I was very much pleased, although in one important point I did not agree with Mr. II. I have expected some one would take this ques- tion up ; but as no one (so far as I know) has done so, I think I ought no longer to remain silent. Mr. H. has published his opinions, therefore I suppose any one is at liberty publicly to discuss them ; especially when they involve a most im- portant question to mankind in general. On " Sowing," page 14, ]\Ir. Hillyard says — " Different descriptions of land require such diffe- rent quantities of seed, that no one can lay down any general rule for this important part of farm- ing." It is generally admitted " that for most soils it is unwise to be saving in seed, and that the ■poorer the laud the greater the quantity of seed is necessary." If Mr. II. would alter the word '•poorer" to richer, I should then fully agree with him so far as I have (|uoted fi-om his book ; but as it is, there is a wide difference betwixt our opinions ; at any rate, as regards light soils, — my experience being derived from such. INIr. 11. gives so many strong proofs of his good sense and close observation, that I would not ven- ture to say positively, that he is wrong as regards Ids own soil, but T have doubts of his being right there, so certain am I that his general rule is wrong. Eighteen years have now passed over since I began to think, that corn ought to be sown thicker than it usually was ; and, that the richer the land was, the more seed ought to he sown on it. I at first was repeatedly told by one of my friends, that my opinions were quite contrary to those of all icrUers on agriculture, "from Arthur Young of old, to 3Ir. Coke of the (then) present day." I could now name many lirst-ratc agriculturists who agree with me in both the above opinions ; and Lord ■\Vestern- in forms us that even the Earl of Leicester is now an advocate for thicker sowiun-. I ])roved the truth of my system to the satisfaction of myself and friends repeatedly. I will relate one experi- ment. In 1831 one of the fields I had to sow with barley, was in every way calculated to test my system. Pa^t of it was level land, but as a valley ran through another jjart, there was of course very rich soil in that valley, and the hill sides were pro- portionably poor. That year I had a most excel- lent sower, able and wishful to obey my directions nmst strictly ; which were, that he should sow the level land with full 4 bushels per acre, the hill sides with from '^ to 3| bushels (according to the soil), and the valley he was to sow twice, so as to get at least 0 bushels per acre on it. The crop jiroved good in every part, but that in the valley was wonderful, — it was so thick, it could not get, "laid" or " lodged," and the soil was so rich as to prevent its being " prick-eared" (which is the symptom of being too thick); there was a fair pro- portion of corn to the straw, and there were the most sheaves for the quantity of ground that I had ever seen : besides this, there were healthy (though but short) grass seeds at the bottom of the barlev, although it is usual for corn in valleys to destroy the seeds by getting laid. I am afraid of encroaching too mucli on your space, therefore I will merely say for the present, that in sowing corn I think we ought to sow so much seed as to prevent the crop from getting " laid," but not' so much as to make the crop " prick-eared ;" in other words, sow as much as the land will sujiport. It is rather difficult to know how much the land will support, seasons vary so much, but the above medium will, I think, l)e found a more i)roff table point to aim at, than the rule laid down by Mr. Hillyard, whose error (as I think it) has, I suppose, arisen from his experience being de- rived from a peculiar soil. Mine was derived from light soil of indifferent quality, l)ut highly culti- vated and well manured with bones, &c. I am, Sir, your very obedient servant, A StlBSCIlIIiliK. (Once a farmer on the Wolds of Yorkshire.) London, Blarch 3rd, 1841. DE BEN HAM FARMERS' CLUB, 1841. -Pre- sident, Mi. Thomas Pctiit ; Vice President, Mr. Geo. Wuodard ; Treas'irer and Librarian, Mr. Samuel Dove ; Secretary, Mr. WiiJiam Green. — Meetings tn 1841. Subjects for discussion : — FRIDAY. April 2'2nd.— On the cultivation of the root crop generally, > May 7th. — The best mode of cleaning land, hoeing or weeding ; also, on clod and border burning. June 11th. — The best method of making and securing hay and clover ; alio, on the best general manage- ment of pasture land. July 9th. — Mowing or reaping wheat, and barvestiug corn. August 27th.— No meeting. fcEPTEMBER 21th. — On the best manner of winur- pose of testing their merits on the point of producing the most mutton and wool, in value, upon a given quantity of ibod, against as many other lots of dif- ferent breeds as might be deemed advisable for de- termining the point; to thnt offer I received no answer — but still full)' convinced it is eijually impor- tant to the agriculturist to be satislied what breed of sheep will consume his produce most profitably, as it is for him to know the most nutritious and produc- tive description of Swede or turni]), I now beg to repeat that offer, on the terms and conditions men- tioned in the article of December, 18j1>, with this variation only — that it may be optional with me to supply lambs, the produce of my r;?iiis, from a neigh- bour's flock, or of my own breeding ; myreason for making this reservation is, that being in the habit of saving ram or tup-lambs, too many of inv best may be so reserved as not to leave me a fair selection af- tervvaids from tlie wethsis. I contei;d that the result of a competition of this description, will tend more sutisfactorily to confirm the public mind, than cijallenges to exhi- bit cattle or sheep against each other, afwr theii have becone fat ; in the latter case the cost, situation, attention bestowed, time occupied, in feeding, can never be correctly ascertained, con- sequently the comparative merits of the different breeds must retnain undecided as ever; but when ])laced under the same management, the attendance equ.il, and an exact account kept of tlie food con- sumed, the animals shorn (if sheep), and slaughtered at the same time, and the fleece and carcase disposed of in the same market, the result can scarcely be other than conclusive as to which ought to bear away the palm of victory : and I am humblv of oj)i- nion that such incontrovertible authority would operate most powerfully in dethroning that old despot. Bigotry, who has held the minds and ener- gies of tiie agricultural world subject to her iron rule for so many ages, with so fatal an influence on the well-being of the nation, and the individual pros- perity of its inhabitants. My sheep originated in the cross of the Cotswold Kam and Down lOwe. Having said much about this cross in former communications, I shall content my- self with observing, tliat my object in perpetuating it has been to produce an improved sheep, contem- porary with the green-crop improved system of arable land farming — a sheep which in its lean state will bear well all the folding on a farm, and also the travelling which the improved culture has so much diininished, and which, in a grazing character, will turn to most advantage the increased produce, by the early maturity of a carcase, and the production of a fleece combining the most striking and approved points of the two valuable breeds from which it sprang. Apologizing for this too great trespass on your pages, 1 conclude with the hope, that should the lloyal Society be as yet unprepared to entertain my suggestion, it will be pleased to consider the pro- priety of adopting some such plan, as soon as proper arrangements can be made for carrying it on witli efficiency. I am. Sir, yours respectfully, J. T. Tw VNAM. II hitchurch Farm, Hunts., March, P. S. — What clashing opinions between your cor- respondents on the weight of Swedes, per acre ! 1 have little doubt but that Rlr. iMatson can grow Lis 40 tons per acre, with his 40 tons of nranure; lor curiosity, 1 have just topped, tailed, and weighed a ]iole, sown after the winter Biirley, ted oft' in May (not the way to get large crops of Swedes I admit), with only ten cart-loads of stablo nianuie to the acre — quantity, ','8 tons, 10 cwt. per acre. WhatMi . Matson facetiously observes in respect lo the rooks, rabbits, haies, and pigeons, is true lo the letter. 1 sowed a strip in the middle of a field of his Swedes, last year, with other sorts each side ; the hares came through several ridges without touciiing one, until they arrived at the " Matsons," which they nearly devoured. iMy lambs also shewed the sume decided preference; the only fault 1 find with them is, that they are a little too high-bred. FAR- TO THE EDITOR OF THE MER'S MAGAZINE. Silt, — Being a constant reader of your valuable publication, and not having met with any experi- ment made wir.h Clarke's Desiccated Compost, Poil- tevin's Disinfected Manure, Carbon, and Artificial Blanure, I think it would be very much for the ad- vi'ntage of the sellers, and for the agricultural inter- est, if some persons of agricultural character, who may have used them, would give the results through your Magazine. I remain. Sir, yours. An Irish Tunxip Grower. March 6th, 1841. THE FAUIMEirS MAGAZINE. 261 SHEEP BREEDING. TIIK 1\-ANI)-]N SYSTEM CONSIDER (CD. J3v " Practical," Northampton. A rerv clever piiinplilet hiis just been put forth by !i gentleman of Nortliampton, or it$ neigliliour- liood.to remove tlio prejudices gent-niliy entertiiined iij^ainst that peculiar system of sheep husbandry familiarly called " In-and-in Breeding. It has been, and still is, the fashion to prognos- ticate all sorts of evils from the prnctice of this system, though, judging from what our author says on the subject, these evils are perfectly groundless. For proof of which, the very powerful examjjle of Mr. Balcewell is adduced, " to whom,'' as is very justly remarked, all England is indebted for nu- merous invaluable discoveries in agriculture, and fill- creating a new breed of cattle" His plan was this: — " He made excursions to various parts of Eng- land, inspected the different breeds of cattle and sheep, ascertaining those which were best of their kinds, and most valuable for his purpose. Tliese lie purchased wherever they could be found, and this selection was the original stock from which he propagated his own. In tlie animals thus selected, it is to be presumed that much excellence must have existed, yet, to improve upon that best stock, and amalgamate it into one blood, was a merit at that time peculiar to iMr. Bakewell. And as he approx- imated to the desired point, liis animals (sheep especially) evinced so much superiority in wool, symmetry, and constitutional excellence, that he certainly could not with propriety use any stock but his own ; for, having attained this elevated po- sition for stock character, he thereby became and continued an in-nnd-in breeder, as, evidently, any other course would have been wilfully and ridicu- lously to court retro-gradation. And having so bred for a great number of years, he thereby obtained a new and superior race of sheep, from which he as vigilantly weeded defects, so that at last he could give such a character and warranty to his flock that no contemporary could venture to do. And those few liock-masters who liiive judiciously possessed themselves of his pure breed, and kept it uncor- rupted by meaner blood, have now the finest and healthiest flocks in England, with an uninterrupted period and qualification for halfa century." Of the correctness of the above statement we happen to have a most satisfactory means of judging, from our own persona! observation and experience of a flock in our immediate neighbourhood ; and we hope we shall bo excused by the respectable pro- prietors, Messrs. Joseph and Thomas Brown, of Denver, for this pointed allusion to their laudable and very successful exertions in the great cause of which Bakewell was so strenuous an advocate, and they such skilful and indefatigable disciples, as their admirable flock abundantly testifies. Thej and their predecessors in the farm have been at the work be- tween 40 and r>Q years, never having departed from the in-and-in system during all that period. In fact, were Bakewell himself now to rise from the dead and behold this flock, he would recognize his own original stock, only improved by the increased skill and experience of those into whose hands they have fallen. The contrast between this and the general system of sheep management is admirably shewn in the following passages, which we select, not less for their truth than their force. " A farmer rides a day's journey to a sheep-let- tinij^, where he sees a number of animals of vaiioiis ])ri-tensions, fetching, to worth or fancy, from fifty shillings to nearly as many pounds. Mow this motley patch of varying priced rams have all been bred in the same bungling way, from the same flock, and by the same males. And the sheep that is now making- twenty pounds is by the same sire as he that but climbs to fifty shillings, the highest priced one being but a chance bit of comeliness, without system in liis production, or certainty of what may be his progeny. ""it could not have happened otherwise, for had those individual sheep been bred with any science or method at all, there could not have been that de- gradina- disparity in the produce of the same flock. But suck a ram-breeder has nn help in him, for he also yearly goes as far off for his males, (there is a charm in great distances) where he has picked out one, but also without character or pedigree, with nothing but present external appearances, and a smell of oilcake to recommend him, no one being able to predict whether his offspring will be ring- streaked, speckled, or spotted; whether their faces will be black, grev, or white. At such a market, the obtaining a showy sheep is all that can be ex- pected or giiaranteed ; all the rest is clouds, dark- ness, and uncertainty, and probably the next crop of lambs may shew patches of as many breeds, and as many contradictory defects, as there are counties in England. " therefore, it cannot be too urgently pressed oa tiie attention of sheep-breeders, that in hiring rams, a first consideration should be to select from such tup-masters only, as have pedigree, uniformity, and character, superadded to a goodly appearance in their general flock. To those farmers who are un- decided from whence to have their next male sheep, 1 respectfully submit, do not be satisfied with merely- seeing a score or two of the firstlings of the flock penned up for display. Quietly go over the whole farm, (our worthy friend Brown's to wit), and after allowance for variety of pasturage and shelter, see whether there isj an uniformity in the flock, — • whether any promiscuous two or three score of them present such an identity as to render it difficult for individuals to be distinguished from each other. See that the males are masculine, and the females feminine, with an harmonious family likeness run- ning through the whole." With the following quotation we conclude our notice of the very shrewd remarks by " Practical." "1 therefore most anxiously press upon the se- rious attention of the noble president and members of the Royal Agricultural Society, and stock mas- ters generally, to award prizes and encouragement to such animals only as have right form and consti- tution, not estimated by mere mountains of fat; and above all, avoid being led away by capricious fashion ; for remember, there virtually is but one standard of excellence, and never can be two. Do not be satisfied by hearing your neighbours crying, lohere! and lo there! this is a good sheep, and that is a fine ram. If he has not anatomical perfec- tion, he will lack constitution, and assuredly his progeny, even to the third and fourth generation, will be amiss and prone to disease. Are we not continually hearing that Mr. A. has had bad luck with his lambs, that Mr. B's tegs do not thrive, or that Mr. C's ewes are falling off? And wo indo- lently attributing all this to seasons, pasturage, or faulty shejdierding— without ever seeking for the truth, which, like Bnnquo's ghost, would have started up at a single question, that of what rams have Messrs. A., B., and C, been using for the last, T 262 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. three or four years? — for tbere it is, and in a nut- shell. Would you employ as your builder the man who cannot map a roof or draw a stair-case"? Will he ever shine as a marine architect, who could care- lessly regard the skeleton and sailing- qualities of a herring? Neither will that man ever leave a lasting name as a breeder who thinks lightly of the anatomy of the animal. You may contend till doomsday about points, weight, and wool ; there is but one form, be it light or heavy, — but one internal struc- ture and formation that admits of health, stamina, and constitution. Yet these obvious and all-im- portant facts are sadly under-rated by many of our tup-breeders. " Neither can I sufficiently deprecate the unpa- triotic, unhealthy, and uneconomical practice of artificial feeding. Close confinement and artificial foreign food injure the health of all animals, and are hurtful in an especial manner to sheep, which by nature are of a roving disposition, and exceed- ingly fond of liberty. Let us see what a perverted mode of feeding has done for us in the article of wool alone. Mr. Nottage states, of the Western Down Sheep, that he used to get one-eighth part of the finest English wool from each fleece ; but that now the quantity of fine is so small, that be does not take the trouble to throw it out — he does not set a basket for it at all. jMr. Sutcliffe says, thirty years ago there was in some Southdown flocks nearly as good wool grown as the fine German that now comes into our country. Mr. Varley states, that he used in sorting his wool to make ten sorts, but now the qualities are getting so low, that he has quite lost the two upper casts. Mr. Fison says, of the Norfolks, that in 1780, 420 lbs. of clothing wool would produce 200 lbs. prime ; in 1835 it would only produce 14 lbs. These are the eflfects on the fleece of artificial food and coarse breeding. Therefore, to the tup-master who persists in arti- ficially feeding his breeding animals, 1 would say, lay not the flattering unction to your soul that you can ever be mistaken for an honourable man, while you are entailing on society stealthily, but surely, a jumbled race of animals that were erroneously propagated, deceptively disposed of, and will be unsatisfactory and unprofitable in their progeny. A tup so bred, and so fed, when reduced to ordinary circumstances, will become disarranged and inept in himself, and degenerate in his oflTspring, with foundation laid for the long list of diseases inci- dent to the species. While a sheep with a correct skeleton, where the lungs have free space to oxyge- nize the blood, on which vitality depends, and all the viscera unconfined and unobstructed, that all the food be assimilated and converted into healthy chyle, then we are sure of a vigorous, healthy, and well developed animal, and which (especially if bred and treated according to nature) when making up for the shambles, and placed side by side with one of helerogeneous breed, incorrect form, and pampered constitution, will fatten on less food, in two-thirds of the time, and arrive at greater weight; or, if both are confined to quantity of food, will produce finer meat, more profit to the feeder, more credit to the butcher, and satisfaction to the con- consumer. Before I close this subject, I beg to observe to you who take the trouble of thinking for yourselves — be not deceived with the vain idea that because you have got a lump of fat, that you there- fore have secured a good or even a profitnble sheep. Be assured that without pedigree, without form, or without constitution, you will never pass, with the thinking, for a scientific sheep-breeder." T. — Correspondent of Bury Post, TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I have just read Lord Western's letter in the Mark Lane Express of Jan. 25, and quite agree with him in the inexpediency of substituting Foreign for English wheat. I am therefore sorry to see in the following article on the " Corn Laws," from the Brighton Gazette, that under the present protecting duties on corn, the importation of wheat in 1839 was 2,583,198 qrs., which at 70s. per qr. must have cost £9,041,193 ; but as Foreign wheat sells usually at 10s. more than English, the gold exported to pay for it was probably upwards of ten millions sterling ; whereas in 1836, according to the parliamentary report, called " Local Taxation," the average price of wheat being only 39s. 5d., English farmers had the supply of their own markets. And why do they not still keep out foreign grain by raising enough at home? The reply will probably be found in the report on " Local Taxation," from which the follow- ing is copied. POOR-RATE ASSESSMENT. 1834. 8338079 Price of s. d. Wheat. 51 11 1536. 1837. 1838. 6354538 5294566 51863S9 s. d. 39 5 s. d. 52 6 s. d. 55 3 1S39. 5866000 s. d. 69 4 And the 6th Poor Law Report, at page 5, says — " We are sensible of the evil of the omission of the comparative statement of the rates for 1840, but we are enabled to state the expenditure for the paro- chial year, which terminated the '25th of March, 1840, is GREATER than of the preceding year, which EXCEEDED that of the year ending 25th of March, 1837." The commissioners promised to give the amount of the rates for 1840 in a supplement, but the year closed without the publication. What can be the reason of the concealment of the amount of poor rates for the year ending March 1840, but that the commissioners are not aware of the cause of their increase? It was expected that the high price of wheat would have lessened the poor rates, by en- couraging English farmers to employ more labour in its production, but the reverse has been the case ; for the great renting farmers finding fewer quarters of grain paid their rent at 70s. than at 40s. a qr., would not take the trouble of raising more. The new poor law was enacted on the supposition that there was a deficiency oi industry in the cultivators of the soil ; and this was true in respect to one class of them, but reminds me of the physician, who, being called in to a case of inflammation of the lungs, ordered a blister for the chest, but the blister having been applied to the oak chest instead of the human chest, the patient kept getting worse and worse ; and so it is with England — a stimulus to agricultural exertions was wanting, but failed, because it was misapplied to labourers instead of to their em- ployers, supposing English labowers really pre- f erred starving to earning their bread; whereas the evil rested with the great renting farmers, who, having their land under its value, preferred hunting and shooting to looking after enough men to weed and well cultivate their land, and so they complained that at 40s. a quarter they could not pay their rents, and called for parliamentary enquiry — when the Scotch farmers gave in evidence that by im- ])roved agriculture they, at 40s. per qr. in a worse climate, were making handsome profits j but THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 tbis cannot be expected in England wbilst our agricultural tenants are lured to their ruin by liaving Fortunatus' purse put in tbeir hands — tliat is, liaving llie power under the denoiuiniition of guardians, of keeping their farming men in wi'ifer in the iLTiion houses at their landlords' and neighbours' expense, including the shop-keepers, clergy, and all trades and professions who really furnish the rates they pay. Whereas agricultural tenants all acknowledge that the rates t/iei; /xit/ havirn^ been allowed for before they agreed for rent, it is really their landlords, and not themselves, who furnish these rates. Though stewards and butlers pay their employers' bills, who ever supposed they fmnisbed the sums which pass through their hands, or that agricultural tenants could pay the rates if they gave xhefidl value of the landwilhoutrates? For example — if a farm with- out rates would be worth 3001. a year, and 100^ is levied in rates, how can they give more than 200/. rent? — and this has been proved beyond doubt by no one having claimed the 50/. offered in the Mark Lane Ex- press for the first proof that any agricultural tenant furnishes the poor rates be pays, except rates rise under lease. Then why should those who do not contribute to the rates, have by law an}- vote in the disposal ()/' them, any more than thev have in the disposal of the land tax"? Wiiereas bq the new law almost the ulwle of the rates are managed in the south of England by renting farmers ; for in 1834, in ten out of fourteen parishes of the East Bourn Union, not a single owner occu,pying so much as 251, a year was to be found, and therefore renting farmers, who own they never contributed towards the rates, tvere hi) law the only persons eligible for the office of guardians, and have acted as wolves in sheep's clothing, devouring both sheep and shepherds ; that is, labour- ers and landlords. For how many landlords have been reduced to sell the patrimonies of their fore- fatliers from the neglect of their tenants in manuring and weeding their land ; who, for vrant of due cul- ture, could not pay a fair rent, and so the lands were sold, and sold under their value : and the great tenants must have successlullv deeeived the commissioners who were the appointed guardians of the fold, or they long since would have made known to Parliament their inability to do good, whilst the majority of those who have to execute their ordersjare interested in counter- acting the spirit of them. Dut if the qualification of occupying 2.5/. a year was repealed, and the rates necessarily levied on the occupiers of the land were openly deducted from the owners of it, like the land tax, and that the owners of tithes, houses, and land, alone had the ajipointment of the relieving officers with power of changing them if requisite under the poor law commissioners, the rates would fall to the amount north of the Tweed ; for rather than pay the able-bodied for standing still in the union houses, what landlord but would put them to drain, or other- wise improve their land ; and if no work was needed, by letting every man with a family from one to three acres of land, he might maintain his family, as J. Dumbrell has done, send much produce to market, and the poor rates sink to the mere support of the impotent, which is trifling indeed. Landlords, in letting land to serve the labouring class, may also serve themselves, by learning what tbeir land is capable of producing ; and as an in- stance may be acceptable to those not conversant with the allotment system, the following account is given of a cottager's produce on the South Downs, ■where much land is let at only four shillings per acre. And of allotments of land, the good Bishop of Bath and Wells says, after thirty years' experience, he has found in them " unmixed good." J. Dum- brell,of Javington,near East Bourn, an infirm man, rents three acres ; and from two cows, in nine months and a half, from the Ibth of January to the 2(;th October, made 400^ Ibs.of butter, which at 1 s. prr lb. amounts to £-0 ^ ^ The cow, all the year stall-fed, yielding a third more than the other, which grazed half an acre. And their two calves sold for 5 18 0 25 18 0 The skim milk, at three pints a penny, or given to the pigs, is estimated at .... 10 0 0 On one quarter uf an acre he grew eighteen bushels of oats, which, at 4s. a bushel, amounts to 3 12 0 3'J 10 0 And on 88 poles, that is, little more than half an acre, he grew thirty-two bushels of wheat, worth, at 8s. a bushel .... 12 16 0 Which is equal to the consumption of himself, his wife, and three infant children. Besides pigs, potatoes, vegetables, and the butter to be expected till the end of the year, which may fairly be estimated on the whole at £60 6 0 or £20 an acre. Out of which he paid- Rent, rates, tithes, and taxes of one acre 1 7 0~) Rent of one acre and half ... 7 0 0 j Rent of 5 acre of grass 2 10 0 j Lodge in it 1 0 0 )- 16 12 0 Rates, tithes, & taxes 0 15 2—4 5 0 | Hired labour 2 0 0] Seed corn 2 0 Oj Leaving ,. . 43 8 0 to pay Dumbrell and his wife for their labour, who sav without these three acres they must have gone into the East Bourn Union house ; where they and 3 children, at 3s. per head, would have co.st I5s. per week, or 39/. a year, useless and tinhappy, whereas now, besides maintaining themselves, they have paid in rent, rates, and taxes, 12/. 12s., and ceintributed by the butter, calves and oafs, sold, towards feeding others, full 30/., or ten pounds per acre, which may surprise those who have been accustomed to hear that great farms produce most for town population, till we recollect it is the cottiers of Ireland who sup- ply us with Irish bacon, Irish butter, and Irish linen, who furnish the navy with salted beef, and help to man it too. The smaller and more populous island thus helping to feed and defend the larger, but, less populous, and showing what English labourers would gladly do, if they could but hire, even at high rents, small portions of what is often called worthless land. The truth of the above statement of Dumbrell 's produce was put beyond doubt, by \V. Blacker, Esq., visiting the crops after the great aj^ricultural meet- ing at Cambridge, who was agreeably surprised at finding they were the result of following the direc- tions in his " Essay on Green Crops and House- feeding thereon," by which the Earl of Gosford's tenants, in the county of Armagh, had been enabled to pay ofl" their arrears of rent. — The ofliciaiing Mi- nister of Javington, will confirm this account. A Member of the Royal English Agricultural Society. T 2 264 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE USE OF LINSEED OIL IN FEEDING CATTLE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In your paper of this week, you inform your readers tliat a new mode of using linseed oil as food for cattle, horses, and sheep, had been dis- covered, which promises to be of great value; and you farther say, that, with the cxcejition of oil- cake, you are not aware of any existing mode by which the oil itself is employed in the feeding of animals. I beg to acquaint you that in the years 1820-27, and 28, when I stall-fed, on the yearly average, one hundred and fifty oxen, and did not like the then price of linseed- ca*ke,I fed them with cut hay and barley or hcan-mcal, mixed with linseed oil, which appear to be the ingredients of the patent cake ; besides this mixture of food, one bushel and a half daily, in three feeds, of cut Swedes or mangel- wurzel, and racked up at night with hay. 1 had moulds made to make my mixture into cakes, to be dried in an oven ; but finding this troublesome, I had only a batch or two of them, and gave the mixture to the beasts without drying, Avhich they readily eat, and no doubt did them as much good as if it had been dried. I believe you to be under a mistake in saying, that it is perfectly understood that the fattening quality of oil-cake consists in the oil it contains. There is some saccharine matter in the husk which I believe to be fattening, and gives a flavour to the cakes which the beasts much like. It is well known that no food will feed so rapidly as oil-cake. There is none I like better — I may say, so well : there is no trouble with it; no miller's toll, as there is in ground barley or beans ; but from its high ])rice for some years past, I have consumed but very little of it ; and fed according to the weekly feeding, JVo. 3, iu my book on Practical Farming and Grazing, which is there stated to be half a bushel of boiled linseed, three gallons of beau or barley-meal, one and a quarter hundred-weight of cut and uncut hay, and ten bushels and a half of Swede turnips. Excepting on poor low-rented soils, there must be a great loss in feeding beasts with oil-cake at its present price. Your correspondeut says — " He calculates that 15 cwt. of barley oil-cake will feed equal to 20 cwt. of the best linseed oil-cake, and that the bar- ley oil-cake costs only 4Z. 10s. per ton." This proved, the stall-feeder who afterwards feeds his beasts with oiLcake, costing about Wl. or 12/. per ton — the present price, without any expense of carriage — must be a man against whom his friends should take out a statute of lunacy. Linseed oil may be profitably consumed by store beasts, mixed with cut straw, at the rate of three quarters of a pint a day to each beast. I have now thirty steers in the straw-yard, chiefly Devons,Mdiich have gone on all winter as well as could be expected with barley-straw only, and uncut. I intended to hare given them some Swede turnips, but have had none to spare. In another month, when the straw has got drier, the weather milder, and the appetites of the beasts not so keen, I shall give them, till the 4th May — Northampton Fair — cut straw, with linseed oil. Of course the quality of the duno- inade by tliese beasts, will be inferior to the dun"- made by the forty-four beasts I have this year stall-fed, and consuming only one thousand of lin- seed oil-cake, i have deviated from a determina- tion, some tune ago made, of leaving letter-writing in your paper to younger men, who Iiave less mat- ters tiuin I hav(; to attend to ; but I could luit refrain from making oliservations on the rejiorted extraordinary fattening qualities of the 4/. 10s. per ton patent l)ar]ey oil-cake. I remain, yours, Sic, C. HlLLTAKD. Thorjjehmds, near Northampton, Feb. 2o, 1841. P.S. — Although you hnve lately had a great denl about turnips, having pen in hand, I am h^d lo give you, in a posisciijjt, a little more on the suhjecr. Having had for a number of years past, what I thought, and my neighbours around ine, capital crops of Swedish turnijis, I confess that many of the weights of the crops reported in your paper, so much astonish me, tiiat should there be next autumn any such extraordinary crop within a reasonable distance, I, accompanied by a fnend, without doubting the ve- racity of your correspondents, would take the trouble of going to view it. I am well aware that, by being at the expense of using bone dust with the manure madeon my farm, I most likelv should increase the weight of my turnip crops; therefore, although I never boui»ht manure of any kind, I probably mav tliis si)ring purchase some bona dust, to prove its effects on my land. When the weight of a turnip crop is reported, it should be of one not less than five acres, and in the usual course of husbandry, after a crop of white graiii. In computing the weight it should he done, as it has been for ver.rs for the sweepstakes in this country, by three judj^es, who fix on two yjarts of the crop, which they believe to be a fair average of the whole; eleven varls square, the fortieth part of an acre, is measured out in two places, and the turnips to be topped, tailed, and dirt scraped off well. I moulded up, t\\o. latter end of November, about six acres of ridped Swedes. All are now j)erfect!y sound ; but liaving been frozen they are not juicy, like those which have been securely pitted all winter; neither shee|) or beasts therefore like them so well, nor can thev be so good for them. Althougli there may not be so severe a winter as tlie last for some ye-'irs to come, farmers every autumn should do all in their power to be prepared for such. I thprefore here rejieat my recommendation of gelling up Swed- ish turnips the latterend of November ; having them topped and tailed ; those intended for early uso in stall i'eeding, stored iu some out-hou*es ; those for consumption by sheep after Christmas, to be se- curely pitted in the field, and those for beasts, pitted near to tiie place of feeding. WOOL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE SUFFOLK CHRONICLE. Sir,— In reference to my former letters, on the proba- ble future price of wool, I stated my opinion as to cause and effect. The increase of import of wool from 1813 to 19, so glutted ihe market and reduced the price, as to induce many small farmers to giva up the breeding lambs or keeping' sheep, and fatten off' their stock, and this in- creased the supply and reduced the price of multon, which led more and more to pursue the same course, and still more reduced the price, and by this means the national stock ot sheep were reduced some two or three millions; when during several years following' the rot carried oft' eight millions ot sheep, and which combined v/ith the previous reduction, caused a deficiency iu the growth of wool (being chiefly long-woolled sheep^ to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 265 the araount of some 40 millions of lbs. at first, and much onwards for years, and thus caused a rise in the price of wool, after the surplus of foreig-n in hand, and the home-growth held by the o!)ulent farmers had been exhausted. The duty imposed of 6d. per lb. had little effect, as the low price of wool prevented import, and it was repealed when the price rose. 'I'lie rise of price in wool and mutton, and reductd stock of sheep, caused a great demand and rise in price of ewe lambs, ewe lio?r-ets, and cronfis, to replenish anil set stocks, whiclt rtiluced the supply of fat lamb and mutton, and raised the price more still, and induced a sale, and retarded the progrress of increase of stock sheep, and supply of home yrown wool. It is to be observed that a pri'eat portion of the loss sustaineil by the farmers arose from the immense import of toreig'n wool, pievious to 1820, under a free Inule system, as it led to the reiluction of the national stock of sheep previous to the loss by rot, as it look treble the time to replace those destroyed, becituse the same quality of lamb and mutton had to be supplied from two or thiee millions less in number. If a duty on foreign wool had been imposed as soon as the war ceased, it v/ould have prevented gambling' speculations and excessive import in 1818, and prevented the reduction of the national stock of sheep previous to the loss b\j rot, and by so much less tlie reduction in the produ(!c of wool, and prevented the rise in tlie price of mutton to a higher rate than the natural price, and (or a much long'er period than the low piice occasioned by the s;\[it existed, and by which rise the consumers have been injured. I am not about to propose that a duty should now he imposed on wool, but en the present time. My opinion is tliat it would not, as our national stock of sheep were reduced eight miUions by the rot, and the crowth of wool 32 millions of lbs. from the same cause, the supply would not have equalled the demand, and the price would have ruled high. The practical effect of a duty on import is, that with a free trade wool will cease te be exported to this coun- try when the price is so low as not to pay a remune- rating' price over and above the cost of freight, commis- sion, 6ic., or brin*' less vet profit than can be obtained elsewhere ; but if a duty is imposed, import will cease at a price as much higher as the amount of duty ; thus the foreig'n growers would have paid the duty, and it is only when the price of wool i* so low as to ktop in)port that the price is rai'ed by the efi'ect of a duty, viz., at that point protection be^'ins to affect price. As our national stock of sheep is supposed now to be replenished and increasinsr, and in all other countries twice as fast, we may look forward to a continued re- duction in the price of wool. 'Che present produce of wool supplies all the world, and if our manufacturers monopolize the trade by underscllinprtheSwiiJs, Saxons, Italiuas, &c. (as llity wish to do), ihii must be the only market for the surplus wool over and above what other countries manufacture ior then- own use. Our colonies have no other market, and manufacture none; and the cost of treight, commission, &:c,, from tlience beinjf !id. per lb. more tiian from Northern {'Europe, of course, if our own growth and foreign im- port supply our demand, the colonial wool growers will be shut out from this market. Competition must cea*e between the colonial and foreign wool growers at some jvoini. The British wool growers obtaining a profit by sale of Carcass and value of manure, would only be effected to the amount of reduction in value of the wonl, and this ])robably twice as much on carding as on combing wool. Here all ground of calculation is arrested, as a new tardl' of import duties is proposed by a committee of the House of Commons, aadmay be ado))led, viz., that slieep may be imported at a duty of 2s. (id. per head, all butchers' meat at 125. per cwt., and horned cattle at 10s. per head. Thus, if these measures be adopted, a revo- lution in the affairs of breeders and graziers will take place; the effect of which it would be tolly to attempt to predict, but was estimated by one of the persons ex- amined that if the tarilf was adopted, it wtmid reduce the price of meat one penny j)er pound. The diseu'sion on this proposed tariff in Parliament, when Mr. Villiers brings it forward, will require the most serious consi- deration. I remain your humble servant, CiiAS. Poppy. ]l'itiiesham, February 10. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — I am a farmer residing in a small town in an agricultural district. Within the last year or two, about one-tenth of the population have adopted the j)rincipli.-s of tee-totalism ; and as the numbers conti- nue gradually increasing, I have of course watched its progress -attentively, as it is probable that, if it becomes .general, it must have some important effect upon the agricultural interest. Mow, after watching its effects for above a year, I am come to the con- clusion, that it would be so far from being an injury to us, that I believe it would be an immense benefit. The tirst article that it may be at all likely to affect would be barley ; but I find that when a labouring man has left oft" drinking, be generally purchases a pig, and bestows more barley upon thatin the course of the year than he would consume himself in the shape of malt. In fact, if the labouring classes spend nothing for drink, nearlyall that they earn is laid out for food ; and thus every sixpence comes back to the farmer immediately, without perhaps more than one penny being deducted for a profit for the butcher or baker ; but if the same sixpence is spent at the pub- lic house, not more than three-halfpence of that comes back to the barley grower. Then, again, a sober man has more money to lay out, because he is earning money whilst his neighbour who frequents the i)ublic house is idle, and nearly all that he earns is laid out upon some production of the soil. I be- lieve in no way that a working man can spend Lis monev, does it return with so little profit to the cul- tivator of the soil, as if he lays it out upon beer. Think, Mr. Editor, of the demand we should have for beef, mutton, and dairy produce, if the manufac- turing classes had money to pay for them ; instead of spending the first day or two in the week in drunkenness, and the last two or three without a suflficiency of food. Again, look at the enormous amount of county rates", and police expences— of which, by the parlia- mentary returns, not much less than nine-tenths are thedlre'ct or indirect effects of drunkenness— besides a very heavy addition in the shape of poor rates. I should not have troubled you with these remarks, had not one of your correspondents, in last month's magazine, spoke of the vice of tee-totalism, as if it were an enemy to the agriculturist — calling it a vice, for a man to lay out his money as he thinks most to his own advantage, is too absurd to be worth fur- ther notice"; but I only wish to call the attention of the agricultural world to the subject. As far as I haveljeen able to ascertain, all those that have fairly e.xamined the question, are satisfied that the change that is now going on will be greatly to our advan- tage. I remain, very respectfully, A Farmer. 2G6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE PRIZES OFFERED BY THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND rOR IMPROVEMENT IN THE BREED OF HORSES. As Liverpool — the place of meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England this year — affords such peculiar facilities for liie conveyance of ani- mals to the show by steam, we here note particu- larly, for the information of those who may not be thoroughly acquainted with the constitution of the society, that the premiums are open to all the World. We anticipate a competition from the breeders of cattle in Scotland and Ireland. If there were a tempting prize for a good roadster, trotting action to be taken into consideration in making the award, we should be inclined to " ccdcu- hite" upon a visit from brother " Jonailian," w!io has regularly given us the " go by" in the produc- tion of that useful sort of horse. We very much regret to notice the little importance — if we may judge from the amount of prizes oH'ered — which the Royal Agricultural Society seems to attach to the breeding of horses. We are fully sensible of the importance to the pecuniary interest of the farmer, that he should possess a good breed of cattle and sheep ; but we are scarcely prepared to concede, that a good breed of horses for agricultural purposes is of secondary importance. Although horse power is more used in some branches of farming than in others, still we know of no lands upon wliich it is not needed, more or less, unless it be the mere slieep-walk. It is par- tially required on the richest grazing laud, and forms a heavy item in all cultivated soils, whether in the preparation of the soil for the production of grain, the harvesting and taking it to market, or in producing artificial grasses, green crops, carrying manure, and various other operations. Economy of horse keep, and economy of horse labour, are held to be important objects, and we presume it ■will readily be admitted, that the frame and make of the animal are material ingredients in effecting these desirable objects. As an ox or sheep, which is deficient in those good points which indicate an aptitude to fatten, will not pay as much for the food consumed as one possessing the requisite good points, so neither will an ill-shapen horse make as good a return in the shape of labour for his keep, as one of good shape and make. We feel persuaded, that agriculture experiences as great an amount of loss annually, from the use of ill-shapen horses, and from the mode of using them in work, and ignorance in adapting the im- plements used to the size of the animal, as it does by the rearing and feeding of the shapeless cattle and sheep which may be seen spread over a very large surface of the country. If this view of the subject be correct, and we think we shall be borne out in it by the opinions of practical men, we trust that next year, if it be too late this year, the Council of the Royal Agricultuial Society will be more liberal in the encouragement offered to improvement in the breed of horses, for agricul- tural purposes especially. It has been sug- gested that there should be two classes of prizes, one for agricultural horses adapted to heavy lands. and another for those adapted to light soils. To this proposition it is objected, that there is a growing disposition to use animals of a lighter character, and that the use of the old heavy cart- horse will in course of time be altogether discon- tinued. Now it appears to us that diis objection is not valid. There is equally a disposition on the part of the cultivators of light soils to use a lighter sort of horse, it being found that a clean-legged quick-stepping animal will do much more work on land of this description than a heavier, although a light sort of cart horse. The advantage of this change of system is seen in both heavy and liglit lands, and it will goon to a certain point, but until heavy clay can be converted into light loam, there will be a proportionate difference in the character of the horse which may be beneficially employed upon each sort of land. It will not be irrelevant to notice here, that at a meeting held at Rugeley in January last, some ob- servations were made on the expediency of plough- ing the stiff clay soil of that district with two horses abreast instead of three or four at length, when a re- solution was passed " that it is desirable to ascer- tain if two horses abreast can plough half an acre of strong hind as easily as three horses at lengtii, in not exceeding three hours." A subscription was at' once entered into, and certain prizes ofieied. Tiie competition took place on the 22nd ult, a re- port of which, extracted from the Stuffordahh'e Advertiser, will be found in another part of this paper, A correspondent says, " I was present during the time the ploughing was in opeiation, and I am quite certain that the horses in the pair- horse plough were not nearly so much distressed as those in the ploughs drawn by three at length. The field chosen was a stiff clay soil on two year old turf." — Murk Lane Express. HEREFORDSHIRE CATTLE. The following- lists of Prizes are not only inter- estintf, but hio;hly bonourahle to the breeders of Herefordshire Cattle, as they show their superiority, when exhibited against stock from all parts of the world : — LEICESTERSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. List of Premiums or Prizes gained by Mr. Henry Chamberlain, of Desford, for Cattle, SlIKEP, &C., IN THE following YeARS In what Year Class in which gained. Amount, gained. £. s. 1034 Best pen of three, under 34 months old, long-woolled fat Wether Sheep .... a 0 1835 Best pair of Heifers under "2 years old ; pair of Flereford Heifers 3 0 Best Bull under 12 months old ; Here- ford Bull 5 0 • Best pen of four Leicester Breeding Ewes 4 0 1835 Best Ox under 4 years old ; Hereford Ox ri 0 Bestpair of, under 3 years old, in-calved Heifers; pair of Hereford Heifers 3 0 Best pen of four Leicester Breeding Ewes 4 0 1837 Best Ox under 4 years old (breeding open|to all counties) ; Hereford Ox 5 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 £ s. 1837 Best Ox under 4 years old (bred and fed in the county^ ; Hereford Ox.. 5 0 Best Dairy Cow in milk, Sic; Here- ford Cow 5 0 — — Best pair of Heifers under 2 years old ; pair of Hereford Heifers 3 0 Best pen of four Leicester Breeding Ewes 4 0 Best pen of four ditto Theaves 4 0 Best pen of 3 Sheep, exhibited as ex- tra stock ; pen of Leicester Ewes — a silver cup, value 5 5 1838 Best Ox under 5 years old, of any breed or weight, open to all counties ; Hereford Ox — a silver tankard, value 13/. [ol. extra having been added) 13 0 Best Ox of any breed, age, or weight, bred and fed in the county; Here- ford Ox — a silver cup, value 10 0 Best Ox under 5 years old, bred and fed in the county ; Hereford Ox . . 5 0 Best Ox, under 4 years old, bred and fed in the county; Hereford Ox.. 5 0 Best pair of Heifers under 2 years old ; pair of Hereford Heifers 3 0 An extra premium this year for the best Beast in the yard ; Hereford Ox in class 1 5 0 Best pen of three, under 22 months old, long-woolled fat wether Sheep .... 5 0 Best pen of four Leicester Breeding Ewes 4 0 Best pen of four ditto Theaves 4 0 Best pen of Sheep, exhibited as extra stock ; pen of three Leicester We- thers— a silver cup, value 5 5 A silver medal for the best single Sheep, shown as extra stock ; a fat Leices- ter Ewe. ■ A silver medal for the best Pig, shown as extra stock. 1839 Best Ox under 5 years old, of aziy breed or weight, open to all counties; Hereford Ox — a silver tankard, value 10 0 Best Ox, of any breed, age, or weight, bred and fed in the county ; Here- ford Ox — a silver cup, value .... 10 0 — — Best Ox under 5 years old, bred and fed in the county ; Hereford Ox . , 5 0 Best Ox under 4 years old, bred and fed in the county; Hereford and Durham Ox 5 0 ■ Best Dairy Cow, in Milk, &c., Here- ford Cow 5 0 — — Best pair of Heifers under 2 years old ; pairof Hereford Heifers 3 0 Best pen of three long-woolled fat We- ther Sheep, under 22 months old . . 4 0 Best pen of four Leicester breeding Ewes 4 0 Best Ox, shown as extra stock ; Here- ford Ox — a silver cup, value 5 5 Best pen of Sheep, sliown as extra stock ; three Leicester Wethers — a silver cup, value 5 3 1810 Best Ox under 5 years old, bred and fed in the county ; Hereford and Durham Ox 5 0 — — Best Ox under 4 years old, bred and fed ia the county ; Hereford Ox . . 5 0 1840 Second-best pen of three long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, under 22 mouths old , 3 Best pen of three long-woolled fat We- ther Sheep, under 22 months old '. . 5 Best pen of four Leicester Breeding Ewes 4 Best Beast, shown as extra stock ; Hereford Ox — a silver cup, value 5 £ 8. £203 5 SMITHFIELD CLUB SHOW. List of Premiums and Medals gained ny Me. H. ClIAMBEni.AIN, OF DeSFORD, IN THE COUNTY OF Leipester, for Cattle and Sheep in the fol- lowing Years ; — In what Amount Year Class in which gained. of gained. Premiums. £ s. 1838 Class 1. For Oxen under 5 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, the first premium of 20 0 And a silver medal as the breeder. Class 9. For long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, without restric- tions as to feeding, the 1st premium of 15 0 A silver medal as the breeder; and the gold medal, as being the best pen of long-woolled Sheep in the yard. 1839 Class 1. For Oxen under 5 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, the 3rd premium of 5 0 Class 2. For Oxen under 6 years old, weight 90 stone and upwards, witii restrictions as to feeding, the 1st premium of 30 0 And a silver medal as breedei-. Class 3. For Oxen under 5 years old, under 90 and above 70 stone weight, with restrictions as to feeding, the 2nd premium of lO 0 . Class 9. For long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, with restrictions , as to feeding, the 1st premium of, . 10 0 And a silver medal as breeder. — — Class 10. For long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, without restric- tions as to feeding, the 1st premium of 15 0 A silver medal as breeder; and the gold medal, as the best pen of long-woolled Sheep in the yard. 1840 Class 3. For Oxen under 5 years old, under 90 and above 70 stone weight, with restrictions as to feeding, the 1st premium of . . .^ 15 0 And a silver medal as breeder. Class 10. For long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, with restrictions as to feeding, the 1st premium of. . 10 0 And a silver medal as the breeder. Extra Stock. For the best Beast, shown as Extra Stock, the silver medal Total (exclusive of medals) ...£l30 0 2G8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Considering the Murli. Lane Express to liave become a sort of Btoadslieet Clnbroom, open, like the country meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society, to all the world, I venture to make a few observations suggested by the idea I entertain that Great Britain has already entered upon the first stage of an agrarian revolution, of the most bene- ficial character and tendency, in which scientific theory and practice start hand in hand, for the first time in husbandry, and which, I submit, ought to be carried on in the right direction by good- humoured discussion. To Mr. Matson belongs the merit of liaving origi- nated " the Turnip question," that has advantage- ously brought out, into your columns, a numlier of practical men, who have thrown considerable light upon the subject; but it has done more, for a scat- tered host of unseen farmers, ^yho shrink from a display of rural pencraft, have set themselves tu work in recording, for their own information, tlie progress, cost, and produce of a crop which did not heretofore occupy their attention in the same de- tailed way. Amongst these now silent workers are probably many young men, just bursting from the shell of some farmer's club or another, and who may before long become efficient contributors to your Editorshop. But the point to which I feel rather desirous of in- viting public attention, is the one which arose in- cidentally out of the " turnip question." Mr. ^Mat- son having, with his forty -ton-pen, asserted that England could be made to produce double her pre- sent quantities of food, the assertion was patriotically taken up by Sir John Tylden, and I do not think it ought to be allowed to die away in an echo. Leaving, then, the "turnip question" for continued debate upon its own merits, I beg leave to make a remark or two upon that which might, for brevity's sake, be called the "Tylden question," if it may be done without giving umbrage. The affirmative of the question is most apparent to such as can remember forty or fifty years, and compare the produce with any one parish in the present day, with its produce fifty years ago, in corn and meat. Only let this question be heartily taken up by gentlemen of leisure, information, and zeal, and they will find a sufficiency of mind amongst the yeomanry, as your columns abundantly testify, for them to work upon, for the general good ; only let the question be carried out in a fair spirit to its fullest extent, and it would be seen, in far less than half a life-time, that agriculture might well afford to make a present of its " bread-tax" laws to the anti corn league, to make a bonfire of them, inasmuch as there would then be no more occasion for such protective enactments than there is now for an act of parliament to prevent coals from being carried to Newcastle ! It is by reflecting upon what 7/^^ been done, that we can best foretell what can be done. The increased productiveness of our native island, within the memory of man, is the surest guarantee that a further proportionate I'eward awaits improving skill, thriving under a fair rental, the landlords taking care, whenever they meet their tenantry, to add to their list of standing toasts—" Easy Rents THE MOTHEK OP PUNCTUAL PAYMENTS." If we extend our view to other countries, we shall frequently see how promptly nature, kindlv or un- kindly, relays the efforts' of art in husbandry. Look to ampliibious Holland, where the very soil has been rescued from the waters, which still flow lazily above the cultivated levels. Look to sandy Belgium, which art has rendered capable of main- taining a population more dense than is to be found in any other part of Europe, of similar extent. Look to Malta, whose rocky surface has been lined witlx mould, brought from Sicily ; but above all, look to China, where art enables her to feed her teeming myriads, her hundreds of millions, and where such a thing as a square quarter of a mile of waste land is almost unknown. To reverse the picture — let us turn to Spain, and shew, by an historical example, how a fer- tile country, blest with a happy clime, can ho un- done by its own mismanagement of its own great resources, seconded by fanaticism. Spain, once reckoned to contain a sober, flourishing popu- lation of twenty millions, saw it reduced, in a cen- tury and a half, ending about the year 1700, to six millions — the people impoverished, the government enfeebled, and the nation altogether lowered from the highest influence and power in the European community to the lowest — to the very shadow of its former self. The following extract from the history of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic, from the classic and plulosophic pen of "William H. Pres- cott, of Boston, Massachusetts, may serve as a warn- ing to Englishmen : — " It it here (in the code ' Leyes de Tore,' compiled 1505), tliat the omiaou* term ' niayorazgo' may be saiti ti) liave been naturalized in Cajtiliun jurisprudence. 1'he peculiar features of these laws of entail is the fa- cility wliich r.nnks them among' the most efficient ag'ents ef the decay of hutbandry, and tlie general impoverish- ment of the country" (vol. iii. 449'!. * * * " Extensive distncU, now smitten with the curse of barrenness, where the traveller scarce discerns the ve^tig'e of a road or of a human habitation, but which then (the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella) teemed with idl that was requisite to the sustenance of the populous cities m their neighbourliood." (Vol. iii. p. 461. * » » * # " Compare, for example, the accounts of the environs of Toledo and Madrid, the two most considerable cities in Castile, by ancient and modern travellers. One of the most intellijirent and ncent of the latter, in his jour- ney between these two capitals, remarks — ' There is sometimes a visible track, and sometimes none; most commonly we passed over wide sands. The country between Madrid and Toledo, I need scai'cely say, xn ill peopled and ill cultivated, for it is all a part of the same arid plain, that stretche* on every side around the capital, nud which is bounded on this side by the Ta;4us. The whole of the way to Toledo I pussed through only four inconsiderable villages, and taw two others at a distance. A K^eat part ef the Und is uncultivated, covered with furze and aromatic plants; but here and there some corn-land is to be seen.' " — Inglia's Spain in 1830, vol. i. page 366. " What a contrast does all this present to the lan- guag:e of the Italians — Navag-iero, a noble Venetian, born 1483, died 1529, and Marineo, a Sicilian, who died 1539 — in whose time the country around I'oledo ' surpassed all other districts of Spain, in the excellence and truitfulne«s of the soil,' which 'skilfully irri- gated by the water* of the Tag^us, and minutely culii- vatud, furnished every variety of fruit and vegetable produce to the neighbouring city ;' while instead of the sunburnt plains around Madrid, it is described as situated 'in the bosom of a fair country, with an ample territory, yielding rich harvests of corn and wine, and all the other aliments of life.' '' — Coms Memnrubles, fot. }2,\3.—Biag8io,fol.7,8. The last extracts refer to a district as large as a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 269 sixth-rate English county, and Sir John TyUU-n must have marched over the same j^roinid in tlie c!Oin-sc of his distinguished career. At all events, its present condition is well known to all such as have approached Madrid from the " lordly" Toledo, or from any other side, and furnishes an impressive h'Hstni, not likely to he thrown away upon British yeomen now more than ever occupied in seeking their own and their country's welfare, by the un- frequented ])ath of self-improvement.— I am. Sir, your very obedient servant, Nonnington. Febniunj, 1841. REPORT OF THE TITHE COM- MISSIONERS FOR ENGLAND AND WALES. TO THE MOST NOBLE THE MARQUIS OF NORMANEV. Tithe Commission-ojfice, Feb. 9, 1841. My lord, — It is our duty to report to your lordship the progress of the commutation of titiie in England and Wales to the close of tiie year 1840. We iiave received notices that voluntary proceeding's have commenced in 9197 tithe districts. We have received 5906 agreements, aiad confirmed 513tj ; of these 913 have been received, and 1156 con- firmed, during' the year 1840. We have received 821 drafts of compulsory awards, and confirmed 560 ; of these 407 have been received, and 382 confirmed, during tlie year 1840. The work of apportioning still proceeds more slowly than, with reference to the wishes and convenience of some of the parties, it might be desirable it should. We have, however, the gratification of repeating' a statement which appears in former reports, that tliis part of our work proceeds harmoniously, and, on the wiiole, very satisfactorily. The apportionments still, indeed, follow both agree- ments and awards, alter a con«ic!erably greater interval of time than that contemplated by the original act ; but making allowance f©r that interval, they are now com- ing in steadily and rapidly. We have received 3688 apportionments, and have confirmed 2632, and of these 1504 iiave been received, and 1475 confirmed during the year 1840. But few circumstances have occurred during the year whicli require any remark from us. 'i'here are, however, some points connected witli the roups attached to tlie apportionments to vvhicii we tiiink it expedient to draw your lordsliip's attention. When the commission bcL-an its labours we were, as we continue to be, deeply indebted to the Government find the Board of Ordnance, for allowing Csptnin Dawson, of the royal engineers, to assi*t us in this de- partment. He at once devised a system of checks, by which all tlie involuntary mistakes of tlie mapper* and measurers miglit be detected at this ofKce ; thut is, all the mistakes of which the mappers are not them.<.el»es conscious. In a single map 400 such errors have been pointed out and admitted, and like cases, on a some- what smaller scale, are numerous. W^e regret to stale, hov»ever, that maps are sometime* sent iiere containing errors of which the mappers are conscious, and the existence of which they attempt to conceal, by tamjiering with and making compensating errors in the field books, or original records of admea- surement which they are required to send with the maps. No examination in this otlice can enable us to detect here wilful and fraudulent errors of this descrip- tion. 'I'here are two mode* by wliich the landowners can be protected against them. One is contemplated by the Tithe Act. 'J'he map is deposited in the pwrish before confirmation for 21 days, during which it is open to the inspection of the landowners and their agents, and sucii an insi)eclion, carefully made, would neces- sarily lead, as it has led, to the detection of errors. An assistant conamissioner attends at the end of the 21 days, to whom such errors may be pointed out, and whose business is to see them coirecteil. 'J'he fact, however, is, we fear, tiiat such an inspection is not ordinarily very carefully made, antance of three miles and back. Now a farrier attends twice a-week, and the horses are only kept out of their stable while their .shoes are being fixed. The patentee of this very clever invention is Mr. Cherry ( I presume the veterinary sur- geon of Oapliam), and his apparatus, if more exten- sively known, would, I am sure, soon be in much more general use, as its utility in very many situations must be apparent. — Sporting Mugazine. 270 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. BONE-DUST TURNIP v. DUNGED TURNIP. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,—" a Turnip Valuator," in alale No. of your paper, states that be never found any clauses in the minutes of taclcs restricting the value, £vC. ; and that a fair proportion of the land must he in fallow or green crop. This information will be very important to young farmers, and sheep feeders who may wish to become farmers ; but ihe averments were neither affirmed nor denied by me. Next he ex- hibits an alternate position, which, be alleges, would he worse than upon the supjiosition of an equality of value. This still leaves my original position un- touched. Lastly, be pleads that, if such a mode were acted on, there would bo a positive loss in growing green crops ; indeed, the gain in most cases is too small ; and it frequently happens on farms remote from dung, that the crop is given to villagers for the dung which they apply for raising the same — a fact which must have come under the judicial notice of the " Turnip Valuator," in his official excursion through the two counties. Next we have " Z. Z." gravely saying that ig- norance does not exist upon the point at issue. It may be so ; but if it be known, it is not admitted by many. He farther says that n;iturally-chosen arbiters liave no right to make any distinction in the di- versely raised turnij). I beg to refer him to my letter, and put his finger upon the place where I affirm that such a right is within the province of an arbiter's award ; indeed, the whole argument in his production seems to me to be founded on this mis- take, and of course goes for nothing. As to his second letter in reply to "J. Justice," it is such a failure that I would strongly recommend him to give place to his former leader, the " Turnip-Valuator," who I fear had carried the ammunition with him when he left the held.— But not to leave him thus defenceless and alone, in case he should have to en- counter another opponent, I have manufactured some weapons for his use, nnfetteredwhh the outer armour of tacks, minutes, or submissions, comprised in the following statement, with which I take leave of him ; That no farmer, situate in a district remote from duno", can be bound to apply more of it to his farm than is made thereon each year; consequently a re- moving tenant cannot be bound to dung any part of the farm to his successor, on the year and crop after Lis removal. X. \ . in error. In the third case, I think the valuators, who put 61, an acre on manure turnips, and 4/. 10s. on bone-dust turnips of equally good quality, acted upon a wrong principle. If the manured turnips were worth 61. and the bone-dust turnips were equally good, then surely they were worth 6/. too. It signifies nothing that the landlord chose to let five acres of the latter to be ate up on the ground at 41. per acre — he does this in order to manure his land. Had he chosen to have made the most of them, he could have got 61. per acre for them, as readily as for the manured turnips ; and the reduction of price which he submits to, to attain a Separate object, no more concerns the valuators, than does the excess of price which he gets for selling part of them oflf the farm, which was his privilege, but not the tenant's, to do. It was no part of the out-going tenant's duty to manure the turnip land for future crops. All his concern is to raise a crop of turnips, and he does this by using the bone-dust, leaving the incoming tenant to look to the sufficiency of the land for a future crop as he best can. As your correspondent seems to he fond of ex- amples, I shall refer him to what actually happened, during last autumn, not one hundred miles to the north oj Brechin, where, of two fields of turnips on adjoining farms, one crop was raised by court-yard manure, and the other with bones. The former, in the opinion of competent judges (farmers), was con- sidered to be, if anything, better than the other, yet arbiters appointed to value them decreed the price of both to be the same — viz., 45s. per Scotch acre. The valuations were made by different parties; thus proving that, although Mr. " J. J." is of a different opinion, still there are some who would not scruple to put a value upon turnips raised with bones, equal to that raised by country manure. If "J. J. wishes to be made acquainted with the parties, I will con- sult them, and have not the least doubt of obtaining their names and corroboration to my statements. Both judgments, by my reasoning, are perfectly cor- rect, although I think the bone-dust ones rather too high — being, if anything, rather a worse crop; but by " J. J.'s" reasoning, they would be worth very little— as I heard a very respectable farmer and sheep feeder declare, he would not not give 10s. an acre for them, to be ate on the ground. Now, would any person run the risk of raising turnips with bones upon inferior soil, if they could only obtain a price equal to that which can be got for eating off with sheep, and which would not pay the labour, much less the bone manure, and never both? Z.Z. BONE-DUST TURNIPS, &c. Sir,— Your correspondent, " J. J." blames me for not answering the different queries in his former letter ; but, if he had carefully perused my former letters, and that signed " A Turnip-Valuator," I think he would have found little to complain of on that score. If not answered categorically, I think he will at least find them answered in substance. But as he puts more queries to me in his last, I shall endeavour to prevent further complaint, by answering them specifically. And first, 1 think the valuators, in the first case he instances, who valued turnips which the tenant had liberty to sell oft" at the .same price, whether raised by bone dust or by manure, acted on a proper principle. In the second case, I think the oversman, who put the same value on turnips equally good, whether raised by manure or by bone dust, which the tenant had not liberty to sell off, acted on a proper principle ; and the valua- tor who wished a different principle adopted, acted FARMERS' CLUB. Sir,— Will you have the goodness to insert, in your next paper, the following regulations for the circulation and management of books in Agricul- tural libraries, which it is most important to con- nect with Farmers' Clubs, to which I have recently called the attention of your readers ? I would by no means wish to dictate, but I thought they might prove useful in the establishment of these valuable institutions. I remain. Sir, your obedient servant, Feb. 23, 1841. Agricola. Bedfoediensis. Rule I. That the first member who applies for any book shall have the first claim to it. II, That any member, wishing for a work already taken by another, shall signify the same to the Libra- rian*, who shall enter his name as the next applicant, * Or Assistant Secretary of the Club. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 271 and 111 at prioiity of application shall give priority of claim. III. That no member shall retain any book longer than tliree weeki;, and that in failure of its being pro- duced ut the expiration of that time, one shillinfr forfeit siinll be levied on the retainer of the same, which shall entitle hicn to hold it one week lonarer, with a fine of an additionrtl isixpence for every day after that period. IV. That no member shall renew any book, until it has lain in the JJbniry days. V. 'J'hat any memlier whose name stands as the pro- poser of a subject, for the succeeding meeting, Khali be t:ntitled to take tiie precedence of any oth(dr member in the perusal ot any work, having: immcdiale reference to the subject to be introduced by him. V'l. If any book be written in, or the leaf of a book torn or damaged, while in the possession of a member, suchbook.or the set towhich it belongs, shall be paid for. no draining whatever. Now, by nmninft- the rtrains in the direction of the wet stripes, you would effectually drain lliem, and save the tinnccessary cxpence of placing drains on the dry land, wbicli of course nuist lie the case if they ran across both the stripes of Avet and dry land. Having endea- voured to prove that vertical draining has, for at least forty years past, been superseded "by horizon- tal draining— from the latter being found incom- parably more effective and economical— I shall take my leave of the subject, fully assuring my North Briton opponent, although' advocating a contrary system to mine, I give' him ciedit for having precisely the same motive as I have, viz., to " discover truth." I am. Sir, most respectfully, Your obedient servant, John Wreford. BroKghlon, Feb. 25th. ON DRAINING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — On the 18th of January last, you kindly inserted a few remarks of mine in the "■ Mark Lane Express," on under-draining of land, which wore intended to prove a correspondent of yours " North of the Tweed" to be in error, by his recommending the drains should be cut up and down, instead of across the declivity of the land. On the 15th inst. the same gentleman, above-mentioned, still per- sists in declaring the vertical mode of draining is preferable to the horizontal, and wislies to be informed if my method of cross-draining has been followed on a variety of soils, or has been confined to where the subsoil is chalk? — If so, I may be right. To this I beg leave to reply, by saying it has been done on various water has passed down the hills for ages in veins or fissures, tlien my method of cross-draining might be right ; but the reverse, he says, is the case." He then proceeds to say — " In all the substrata in this part of the country, I find alternate layers of loose and retentive soils, lying in nearly an horizontal direction, from between which the water conse- quently oozes, in lines crossing the face of the field ; so that, by laying off the drains in a vertical direc- tion, the different strata are infallibly cut across at right angles." I beg leave to remark, that nothing is more common than the alternate stripes of the substrata described above. I also admit that those stripes almost uniformly run in a horizontal direction, and that the .tnme water that rises at the top of the field, sinks down out of sight in the loose soil, and rises again to the surface wlien it comes in contact witli the fclay, or a retentive subsoil ; and this will take place as often as the different substrata occurs, until it reaches the bottom of the field. I have also known it to occur, by cross-draining the upper part of tlie field in one or two of the stripes only ; the remaining part of the field below has, although it was previously very wet, been thereby rendered dry. Now I beg leave respectfully to submit to the practical agriculturist, that nothing can prove more clearly that water, in land-springs, always flows down the hill, if not impeded by some obstruction, instead of escaping in a horizontal direction, as my North Briton opponent supposes. I mvist beg leave further to lemark, respecting the stripy land above described, viz. : — It may be supposed, in a field of that description, that one-half of it should be perfectly dry, and consequently would require ON TKE IMPORTANCE OF AGRI- CULTURE, AND THE BKST MEANS OF PROMOTINa AND RECORDING ITS IMPROVEMENT. nv MR. JOriN UANNAM, NORTH DEIGHTOX, YORK- SHIRE. (Frotn the Quarterly Jotirnal of Agrievliure.) It is customary for those who intend giving to the world any suggestions, in the outset to set forth the importance of the subject which they iiitend to illustrate, in order that the ptiblic may give that attention to their suggestions which the importance of the subject d'eserves, and that credit to the writer which an attempt, if it be nothing more, to illustrate such will always secure. Attended by such advantages I shall, in this case, follow the beaten path, and attempt to set before my readers the value of agriculture, and the comeque.nt importance of promoting its progress, before I oifer any suggestions for that purpose. Fortunately this is no difficult task : ancient history and modern experience equally proving the truth of Cicero's maxim, that " nothing is worthy of more estimation than agriculture,"— ("Nihil est agriculturu melius.") If, indeed, we look to the past, v.hether we turn to Asia, to Africa, or to Europe ; whether wc trust to sacred or profane history, we shall not dare to question the truth of what must have been considered a self-evident axiom, by the very high estimation in which we find agriculture, as a science, and its cultivators, as a class, were held by the public. Thus, Holy Writ tells us that David, both before and after he was anointed king, employed himself in husbandry, and made a feast at the sheep-shearing ; and that Rachel kept her father's flock. Speaking on this subject, the Abbe Henry, in his " Manners of the Israelites," says, "Gideon was thrashing corn when the angel told him that be should deliver his people (Judges vi. 11.); Ruth got into the good graces of Boaz l)y gleaning at his harvest; and Saul, though a king, was driving oxen when he received the news of the danger Jabesh-Gilead was in (1 Sam. xi. 5). Elisha was called to be a prophet as he drove one of his father's twelve ploughs (1 Kings xix. I'J.) ; the child that he brought to life again was with his 272 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. father at the harvest when it fell sick (2 Kings, iv, 18.); and Judith's husband, though very rich, got the illness of which he died on the like oc- casion (Judith, vii. 3)." Turning to profane records, we not only find this primeval regard for husbandry countenanced by individuals, but by nations ; not only by ignorant and isolated people in remote regions, but by the most enlightened statesmen and rulers wherever the germs of national greatness began to appear. Thus, in Persia and Assyria, not oulv were the satrapa;, or lieutenants of the provinces, pro- moters of agriculture, but they were themselves answerable to the supreme powers for the management of their respective districts, and were consequentlj' punished or rewarded as the case might justify. In Egypt legislation was always conducted with a special regard to the interests, present and future, of agriculture ; and JVIago, the founder of Carthaginian greatness, wrote twenty-eight volumes on the subject of husbandry, which were held in such high estimation, that when Scipio sacked Carthage they were preserved, and presented to the Roman senate, who, bi/ a special decree, ordered them to be translated into Latin ; and the Romans consulted the writings with greater earnestness than the prophecies of the Sibyls. They were also translated into Greek by Cassias Dionysius of Utica. Turn now to Europe. In Greece we have an Alexander growing his own wool, and wearing clothes woven from it by the hands of his empress. In Rome, when a monarchy, we find Numa Pompilius dividing the country into cantons, and keeping a register of the agricultural management of each, and a list of the most scientific farmers ; whilst his grandson, Ancus Martins, not only carried out Numa's designs, but extended them, rewarding and punishing his subjects according to their merits an farmers ; and entreating them to study the science of agriculture with greater zeal than any thing except religion. In the golden age of the republic, too, have we a Cincinnatus, a Curius (speaking of whom Pliny says, " ipsorum manibus imperatorum colebantur agri"), and an Atilius Colatinus, who, twice con- sul and once dictator, " uno ore plurimai conseu- tinnt gentes primariuui populi fuisse virum,"' (Ci- cero \7S. De Senec. and Orat. Rose), brought from the plough to the helm of state ; and a Fa- bricius and a Camillus, trained to perseverance and honour by the severe labour of an hereditary farm, (Horace, Lib. i. Od. 12.) And, at the most glorious period of its history, when all its riches and powers were united in one gigantic empire, we have the master spirit of the times, and who has given his name to the age, \ugustus, employed himself, his family, and his people, in the pleasing, and, in a national point of view, profitable cares of agriculture. But it is iiseless to attempt to particularize all those lumi- naries of ancient days who have encouraged ag- riculture. A volume, much less this short sketch, would be very insufficient for this purpose, it will be allowed, when it is considered that the subject has been illustrated b)' the precepts and the prac- tice of the founders of three of the most cele- brated monarchies the world ever saw, and of above twenty Jcings ; and when such men as Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle, Hesiod, Theocritus, Pliny, Cato, Columella, Palladius, Varro, Virgil, Cicero, Horace, 6ic., delighted to employ their pens in elucidating its practice, or in singing its praises. Cicero (De Senec. cap. 15) says, that with the study he is " wonderfully delighted," because it is one that suits the philosopher ; for he holds com- mune with an agent, the nature and properties of which may teach him many things in natural phi- losophy; but which, as it always re^wnis with in- terest what it receives, may also give him as use- ful a lesson in moral philosophy. Xenophon, (OEcon. 1-12), long before this, alludes to the same ; and Hesiod, probably the most ancient Greek poet, even anticipates liim, telling us that we ought to draw a useful moral from the example of just gratitude with which the earth returns fa- vours, giving more than she receives. Pittacus, one of the seven sages of Greece, seems to have looked with the same eye of fa- vour upon agriculture, for, when asked, " What is most faithful'!'' he replied, "The earth." — " What is most faithless.'" "The sea." And, impressed with the same feeling, we find Virgil exclaiming, in a fine burst of poetry, (Georgics, 2.240.) "O fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint Agii^olas, quibus ipsa, yrociil discordibus aiTnis, I'lmdit Iiuino facilem v'wtvmix just issima tcUus." In ages then, when kings, rulers, soldiers, states- men, scholars, poets, and philosophers, united in encouraging agriculture, it is needless to add that peersand peasants would entertain similar feelings. Reason says that in all cases it would — it must be so; andhistory proves that in this it wa« so. Thus Xenophon records, and Cicero quotes with admi- ration, how Cyrus, when Lysander the Lacedaemo- nian came to him at Sardis, shewed him his trees, his flowers, and his fields, all laid out and culti- vated with his own hand. Columella tells us, in the preface to his work on agriculture, that at onetime the chief men resided on their country farms, and, when the public busi- ness required them, they were called from their rural employment into the senate. From his own writings we know how Cato (whose high estima- tion, or indeed passionate attachment to agricul- ture, is a matter of history) first became ena- moured of the study, by walking over the farms of his neighbours, Manlius Curius Dentatus and Valerius Flaccus, and observing how these great men — the former of whom was the contiueror of Pyrrhus and three times consul, and the latter the conqueror of the Insubres and Boil, and Cato's own fellow consul — employed themselves. Allud- ing no doubt to these, as well as others, Cicero (Ch. 7. De Senectute) makes Cato say, that amongst his friends and neighbours were several men of advanced age, who pursued the study of agriculture with such zeal, that they never per- mitted any of the more important works to be done unless they were present to superintend the same. But, had we not these written evidences of the attention of eminent individuals to agriculture, had we not so man)' men of the highest abilities, who appear to have devoted much of their time to the elucidation of agriculture, to prove that the subject must have been a very popular one, there arc other sources from which we might have con- cluded that agriculture was not neglected. Thus, we learn that the small island of Sicily, both when in possession of the Greeks, the Carthagi- nians, and the Romans, was so fruitful that it yielded to the husbandman a hundred-fold return for his labour (Pliny), from which fertility it was called the granary of Italy, Whence, without any THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 273 further evidence, we might Iiavc concUulcil tluit asriciiltuve was there, at least , in an advanced state. And this conclusion would liave l)cen right, for Ilicro, second kiiij^ of Sicily, not onl)' promoted the practice of agriculture by his powers as a monarch, but also as an author; for he wrote a work on aEjriculture much esteemed by his con- temporaries. In the same manner, the fertility of 'I'lirace, which sent to Athens annually 2,400,000 bushels of com, and which is now almost barren, would have sufficed to shew that there, at least, agriculture must also have been esteemed and practised. The same conclusion might he deduce:! from the present and ancient fertility of I'^gypt ; for we arc told, that from the plains which are now almost barren, Rome, when she degenerated and neglected her own agriculture, was annually sup- plied with an immense quantity of grain. To what, in all these cases, can we impute this ])roductivcness, but to the high estimation of agri- culture, and the consequent great attention that was paid to it at that time; for, says Columella, when alluding to the decay of Roman fertility, " we ought not to imagine that the earth, which the great Architect of Nature has gifted with a ])erpetual fecundity, is liable to the disease of biirrenness, after having received from its master an immortal youth, which has obtained for it the name of the common mother of all things." After telling us to what we should not impute this " fall- ing off," he tells us to what we should. " It is neither," says he, " to the foulness of the atmos- phere, nor to length of time, that the sterility of our lands is to be imputed, but to our own mis- management and neglect. We should blame our- selves, who trust to the charge of servants and slaves those lands which were, in the days of our forefathers, cultivated by the hands of the most noble and illustrious Romans!" But let us turn from the past to the present. Such was once the estimation of agriculture ; is it the same ttowj' Alas, no 1 At the present time it is the fashion to decry agriculture, as a stum- bling-block to the prosperity of the country; and the sole business of thousands to instil into the ])ublic mind a contempt of the landowners and farmers of England, as an insignificant class, whose property and interests ought (England they say, being a manufacturing country, and not an agricultural onej to be sacrificed to foster the march of manufacture; and, sorry I am to add, so indefatigable have been their efTorts, and so spe- ciously have their arguments been calculated to arouse the self-interest of their auditors, that thousands of intelligent and influential men have become so infected with their pernicious princi- ples, as to petition Parliament to recognise their illiberal dogmas, and to commence a new system of legislation upon them ; i. e. to give all protec- tion to manufactures, and none to agriculture. As a first step to this, they would repeal those laws which protected the landowner, the farmer, and the labourer, from that ruin which a free com- petition with the untaxed foreigner must produce; but would retain all those restrictions of the revenue upon those articles of foreign manufac- ture,— the hats, caps, ribbons, laces, boots, stock- ings, gloves, cloths, calicoes, chintzes, and, in- deed, the every thing requisite for the rigging out of the outer man, — which the French, the Ger- mans, and the Swiss, can supply us with cheaper than they can. If it be said that agriculture has lost all claims to such estimation as it formerly was held in, I deny it ! If that the claims which might be valid in other days arc frivolous whi-n compared with tliose of modern manufactures, I deny it as roundly; and one argument will justify me. Ag- riculture yields to the nation, annuaily, 250,000,000 of produce, and upon it 1,800,000 families de- pend for su))i)ort ; while numufacturc produces only 150,000,000, of which only 50,000,000 is sold to foreigners. Thus, not only is agriculture the most productive, but it consumes (including what the mantifacturcrs themselves use) two-thirds of their produce. Again, for the 150,000,000 which manufacture does produce it is indebted to agri- culture, since the articles ])roduced by manufac- ture are merely modifications or combinations of the products of agriculture. Whence Gibbon (De- cline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chaj). 2), says, " Agriculture is the foundation of manufac- ture ; for the products of nature are the materials of art." Iwen the all-potent argument, that scarcity, which strikes home to the poor man and makes many an abolitionist he knows not what of, is not insurmountable. It is in our power to destroy the tree by removing the root, — to silence the complaint by removing the cause ; and the way to do this is expressed in two words, — improve agriculture! Give to the science that legislative protection, that popular estimation, and that in- dividual attention which it deserves, and we shall soon be able to prove, and to practical demonstra- tion, that England can jiroduce bread, beer, and beef, sufficient to satisfy every hungry aboli- tionist in the kingdom. This is not visionary dreaming ; for, though the agriculturist docs greatly depend upon the seasons, it is possible, by the spread of agricultural science over the diffe- rent soils of England, to mulify, in a great mea- sure, their disastrous effects, and, setting aside any special visitation of Providence, to attain that uniform plentiful supply which must effectually silence discontented destructives. The same means have attained the same end ; for we have it as a historical fact, that, in the time of Tiberius, when agriculture was at its zenith of prosperity, and prince and peer joined in j)romoting its best interests, ihe populous aiid powerful Roman empire never experienced those famines which otten afflicted the infant republic. That " nothing is better than agricidture," as I at first asserted, and, consequentlj', that nothing is of more importance than its im2)rovement, will not, I think, now be questioned ; for, if ancient example be not sufficient precedent, the wealth it annually produces, and its capability of thus ren- dering us independent of those who are aliens to ns in name and in interests/or y'ooi, and of se- curing us from the ruinous designs of wrong- thinking countrymen, will be an all-powerful talisman in making all who love their country, and regard as sacred the boundaries of property, not only agree to the ancient sentiments but en- deavour, to the utmost of their abilities, to work out the modern corollary — to improve it. " What shall / do V I hope some friend to agriculture, who, till now, has slumbered at his post, will ask or think. " AVhat shall / do ?" The answer is : Give your immediate and earnest support to every thing that will tend to improve the practice, or diffuse the science of agriculture. Foster thespirit, which is nowbeginningto spread, of scientific theory; for if we look to the history of ma.iutacf.ure3 for the last century, — if we see 274 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ■whRt it has done for them, we shall not donbt its capability of benefiting any practice to which it is applied ; and if we look at what it has done within a much shorter period for agriculture, — the hand tillages which it has taught us to use, and the im- plements which it lias produced, we may hope — si ex pede Herculem — great things for the future. It may again be said : " I know this — I allow that we ought to support this spirit ; but the question is, how arc we to do so?" Support the means which have already been publicly pro- pounded. They are three: l*;', To found an ag- ricultural professorship at our universities. '2d, To establish agricultural schools or lectureships throughout the country. M, To form agricultural societies and farmers' clubs in every principal market town. To support one or all of these every one can do something; and, doing this, he is doing something towards promoting the improve- ment of agriculture ; for each suggestion, if carried out, contains the seed of much good. Thus, Istly,^ By founding a professorship at all our universities, we shall not only be affording gentle- men an opportunity of obtaining a knowledge of the principles of agriculture— and if gentlemen becorne good farmers, they will be good landlords, and if they be both, their tenants will soon be good farmers too— but we shall secure to the cause of scientific agriculture the labours of at least three or four men of first-rate abilities. And there are plenty of practicalists who will test their theories. 2dly, If a college and model farm be established, though the common class of farmers will be de- barred from participating in the course of studies, the knowledge instilled into the/e?f will.in a<;hnrt time, be spread amongst the many ; while all the experiments carried on, and improvements made in management of the model farm, will be open to the eye of the world. If, however, the theoretical knowledge is given in a similar manner to what - knowledge is imparted at our scientific and me- chanics' institutes, — if, in fact, there can be a lectureship established, at which the middle classes can attend and obtain a knowledge of the primary principles of scientific agriculture, and a model farm, managed by the lecturer according to these principles, from which, in a higher course of lectures, he can adduce proofs of the advantages arising from such cultivation, and declare the re- sult of investigations and experiments entered into, the advantage, in my opinion, must be much greater than in the former case. It has been pro- posed at York to establish a professorship and model farm for this purpose, but to make it a hranch of the York Collegiate School. This, in my opinion, is not only impolitic but unjust. If the trustees of this school like to establish a lectureship on agriculture, they may do it ; but for the public at large to support one, -which, osfemiblg for the good of the irhole communitg, is confined ex- clusively to the supporters of one establishment, which is the private property of certain indivi- duals, would be not only unfair towards every other establishment in the city and county, but absolutely inadequate to do that good which its supporters expect. But why is the professorship to be connected with ang establishment ? If the public supports it, the good resulting from it is public property, and the public ought to be ad- mitted upon a proper scale of fees to the benefit of the lectures. Why, indeed, should not the whole community, young and old, — why should not every school, club, society, or individual in the country, have an equal opportunity of attending these lectures, and of receiving instruction in the principles of scientific agriculture, without it being incumbent on them either to receive or pay for any other instruction from persons whom, through religious, political, pecuniary, or other prudential reasons, they may have no wish to patronize \ In this way, thousands would receive a know- ledge of the science before a hundred in the method proposed ; for not only would every tutor consider it his duty to prepare and encourage his pupils to attend, but many, verymany, young men of education, of some or no knowledge of science, would seize with avidity the opportunity of study- ing what woidd be of so much use to them. Many, too, actually engaged in the world as agriculturists, would not only listen to the precepts of science, but put them to practice quickly. From such, not only hearers of the word, but doers also, the im- provement of agriculture would receive a greater and quicker impetus than can be imagined .; for, cautious as the present class of farmers are of new plans, when merely built upon theory (which to most is but another name for speculation), when they come recommended by practice, it will be found, I think, that they arc, generally speak- ing, as wide awake to their own interest as any other persons. 3d/i/, Of the advantages springing from agricul- tural associations, clubs, exhibitions, &c., tried as they have been (especially in Scotland and the north of England), it would seem supererogatory for me to speak. The eff'ect of emulation upon the breed of stock, agricultural mechanism, and all kinds of produce, and the benefit to science from the geological surveys, chemical analysis of manures and soils, and reports on various systems of management, &c. (all of which it is the duty of societies of this sort to encourage to the extent of their means), speak for themselves; but there is one view of their advantages which may be overlooked. This is the mental benefit which ac- crues to the farmer individually; for is it possible for any man to leave such an exhibition without being, if not a better at least a wiser man than he was when he went ? If he be a competitor, is it possible for him to prepare for the contest with- out maturing or extending his knowledge of the nature, characteristics, or peculiarities of the ar- ticle he exhibits '! If he be merely a spectator, can there be one " with soul so dead" as not to add one more wrinkle to his knowledge ? Can he view so many specimens of what talent and atten- tion can accomplish, without admiration ? Can he hear decisions given as to the respective merits of the animals or articles, without testing his own judgment? Can he — allow him to be one of the most illiterate men we can find — associate with the best informed men of his profession for a series of years, without rubbing ofi' some of the rust of apathetic ignorance? Is'o! If he looks on he must admire, and if he admires he will more or less imitate. If he tests his own judgment, he will find out his own deficiencies. If he listens to the " sayings" of his superiors, and sees them exem- plified by " doings," he must respect though he does not fully comprehend. In all cases, then, if nothing more, he will learn, what no mean philosopher considers the grand ultimatum of knowledge, to know himself, to see his own puny eflTorts in their proper light, and then to improve them. To what, indeed, but their extensive intercommunication, and their THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 275 frequent association with men of every calibre, every calling, and every country, who have " JIany towns and cliangc of manners seen," can wc attribute the boasted information and in- telligence possessed by the operatives in manu- facturing towns ? To "what, then, can we ascribe the comparative ignorance of the agricultural population, but to their isolated locations, and consequent slight intercourse, and retired habits ? Anything which brings men together with their minds intent on one subject, and the ignorant and the enlightened in contact with each other, while it docs not injure the latter, must benefit the former. So, in this case, though some farmers, through the lack of education, may feel them- selves out of their element — especially in those farmers' clubs where agricultural queries are in- vestigated and discussed at stated times — the seed of improvement, even on such ground, will not be without increase. When they see effects, they must appreciate, though tbey cannot understand, causes: and they will determine that their sons shall go on with the age, though they cnnnot. The result, then, will be what is the chief and corner-stone of all systematic and permanent im- provement in any science or art — an extension of education amongst the very individuals who re- quire it most. That this spirit is creeping — that a thirst after knowledge is increasing amongf^t farmers, none can deny. AVithin the last twenty years, I know — and few have better means of knowing — that, in Yorkshire, education has advanced, in thisT^ar- ticular class, at least fifty per cent, in quantity, and I don't fear contradiction if I say as much per cent, in quality. This gained, a spirit of enquiry and a know- ledge of the value of education diffused more widely, and agriculture will quickly put forth those germs which, when matured, will compel labourer and land-owner, merchant and manufac- turer, alike to allow that " nothing is better than agriculture," and entitle its professors and practi- calists, individually and collectively, to take what is their due, a higher standing in the country, and to call for that consideration, both political and popular, which in the past times never was, in the present never ought to be, and in the future never again will be, denied them. And to accomplish this " consummation de- voutly to be wished," agricultural societies and clubs seem to me no mean agents ; like the noble river, which, with hundreds of tributary branches, drains many a lofty hill, and waters many a thirsty plain, in its sinuous windings, yet pours its waters at last through one channel into the bosom of the broad ocean, — in a thousand ways may we trace the operations of these societies ; — here giving an impetus to science, there enlisting the dormant powers of lethargic practice into active observation — here ameliorating labour, there offering fresh fields for exertion — here be- nefiting the purse, there the mind — yet always tending to one grand focus, the improvement of agriculture. Before quitting the subject of agricultural as- sociations, I would address a few remarks to those landowners and farmers of influence in their re- spective neighbourhoods, who, being members of the lloyal, the Highland, or the Yorkshire Agri- cultural Society, conceive that they are doing their best to encourage agriculture. They are doing something ; but they may do more. There are numbers of farmers —operative farmers we may term them, who, owing to their narrow means, can never hope to compete with the great breeders who would oi)po?e them at the great shows ; for these, then, the landowner should es- tablish district societies, limited either to the tenantry on a certain estate, or to the inhabitants of certain townships. Now, whatever degree of benefit may spring from the large and unlimited associations, the same will, in an equal ratio, arise from these local ones. Owing, as we have before said, to the limited means, deficient education, and iso- lated location of many farmers, agricultural knowledge is slow of diffusion. It is obvious, therefore, that the " old farmer" must be taught to creep, before he will attempt to run ; and that these private or parochial meetings will be the best preparatives. Improvements are brought to his door, and be must adopt them. The spark of emulation is fired, and he who would as soon at- tempt to fly as to compete with such men as Earl Spencer, shames to be outdone by his neighbour. Thus, the spirit of improvement spreads over the neighbourhood ; similar societies are formed ; they combine, and form a nucleus or large associ- ation ; the best stock is taken from the private to the larger meetings; till every village in the land has its well-bred stock, and the veriest dullard an opportunity of observing its superiority. But, excellent as are the means which have been proposed, and which we have discussed in the preceding pages, when the friend of agricul- ture has supported these — as it is absolutely in- cumbent uj)on him to do — he has not done all. Many means of benefiting the cause may be sug- gested, or may accidentally offer themselves, which I am far from inferring should be neglected because they are not mentioned here ; on the con- trary, I would remind him that it will be his duty, as a good and iaithful servant, to turn them to the very best account, If, however, these opportuni- ties occur not, there is still one line which may be pursued. "Let every man," says some moralist, "mend 07ie ;" so let every farmer, if he can do nothing more, lend his best efforts to the study and improvement of his own farm. Every indivi- dual will, no doubt, exclaim here, " I do that already." Self-interest, it is true, teaches most to do this, as they themselves think ; yet it is equally true that many may be what are com- monly yclept " good farmers," may work hard, clean well, and till well, and yet have no know- ledge of the general principles of agriculture, nor even of the best system of sowing, ploughing, and cropping, for their oumfarm. But why is this ? Because they don't know " how to observe." Of the importance of this knowledge I shall not in this place say much, but refer the reader to those volumes which have been written to show its necessity in the study of morals and manners, as well as of natural philo- sophy, (viz., •' How to Observe Morals and Man- ners," by Miss Martineau, " How to Observe Geology," by Mr. De La Beche, &c.) To agriculture it is of equal consequence. Upon the land depends the prosperity of the farmer, and he must observe its features, disposi- tion, and nature, as he would those of the arbi- trator in whose hands he placed his property or his life. He must observe operations as well as results ; he must observe those indirect causes, over which he has no control, and their effects, before he comes to any conclusion respecting the 276 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. effect of tliosc causes over wbicli he had controul ,■ in fact lie must " observe," analyse, and weigh all ; the soil — quantity and quality ; the culture — seed, tillage, and season ; the crop — corn, straw, and sample, before he can make any satisfactory de- ductions. To " obnerre" in thi< manner, he must, it is evident, record all that he observes, the agents as well as the results. To some it may seem a labour of much trouble and complexity to do this. If done without a system, it will be so— it will be a mighty maze"; not only " without a plan," but without a use ; yet it is far from being either one or the other ne- cessarily. As a proof of thiis, I subjoin a speci- men page of an " agricultural register," which neither requires great learning nor great leisure to use ; but which will enable nny one who can write to record big observations as regularly as the most scientific. To make one of these the farmer has only to procure a quire of demy paper in half-sheets, and have them stitched together at one end, so that they may open longitudinally. He must then rule them lengthwise, and after that divide the first two pages that face each other into divisions by transverse lines, and over each column insert the proper heading, as in the specimen. In a similar manner every other two pages must be ruled. The method of entering observa- tions will be seen from the specimen, from which wc also see that, as each field requires two pages to itself exclusively, and that each year's observa- tions only occupy about three lines across the page, a book of one quire will probably be suffi- cient for a farm of 200 acres of land, for five years at the least. Were I to circulate a large (juantity of these books, made up with i)rinted headingsand directions, I am aware that it would be better ;but the risk of such a heavy stock, unknown as their uses arc, is more than I dare venture on ; and as to advertising them into use, it would be a work of more cost than I feel called upon, as an individual, to incur. And I am convinced that it would be useless ; such a system of complete observation would only be adopted extensively, as it ought to be, if supported by the recommendation and notice of some powerful body or society, whose duty it is to promulgate all means of improving agriculture. To those who may consider the trouble of this system of agricultural espionage and record more than its advantages would repay, I liave two answers, in my own opinion conclusivo ones, viz., that the labour is so trifling, that it is not worth mentioning, and that the advantages are so many and great, that they cannot be adequately men- tioned. Thus, as to labour, take a farm of 200 acres. Five minutes on any evening would suffice to re- cord the work of that day, as far as it is required, in the proposed register, or half an hour to do the same for a whole week. The same at spring would suffice to record the ajyparent efl'ect of his operations, and the same at harvest and at thrash- ing-time, to put down the real result of the same. And where is he who spends his time so well as not to have these minutes to spare ? Were the labour ten times as great, the very pleasure (st'tting aside the benefit) of seeing upon one page every particular of the management and crop of any field in their farms, for a series of years, would be ample recompense to most intelligent men. As regards the advantages of the practice pro- posed, it need only be said that they are the ad- vmitayes of observation. What tlicse arc, the annals of science will show ! Now, it is from science that agriculture expects much — from science that manufacture has gained much, but it is to observation that science owes much, and to it, therefore, must agriculture be also indebted. Ob- servation is in fact at once the foundation and the finishing stone of the temple of science. Obser- vation notes phenonienaand records coincidences, and upon the strength of this we build theories. Observation furnishes corroboration, and then we draw conclusions : these conclusions arc the axioms and first principles of science. In this manner has the sublime structure of astronomy been raised. Adam himself observed the courses of the heavenly orbs, or he could not ha%'e recorded his age at the birth of Scth. Seth also oliserved the motions of the stars ; and Josephus, the Jewish historian, supposes that longevity was given them that their observations might be fully carried out, as it was only once in six hundred years that the sun and moon, &c., came exactly in the same position with respect to each other that they were in at the first. The Chinese, the Hindoos, the Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, have records of astronomical ol)serva- tiojis, taken at the most remote period of anti- quity. Seneca, too, at a time when comets were regarded by the Romans as messengers of divine wrath, "who from their horrid hair Shook ]iestilence and war," says, " it is only by a close system of observation that a knowledge of their nature can be obtained." Every jjillar that supports the noble structure of astronomy, every embellishment that from time to time has been added to it, has been dug from the quarry of observation. It is the same with every other branch of natural philosophy. The inter- esting but incomplete science of geology, is but a string of observed facts and inductive conclusions, and chemistry a collection of observed phenomena and recorded experiments. In fact, whichsoever way we look, we find science dependent on obser- vation. Ex{)erimcnt does much in some studies, but observation rnore in all ; for it not only re- cords the success or failure of all those experi- ments which man makes (which would be useless without that registration], but also the efifect of Nature's own exyerimcnts. And these are neither few nor insignificant; many of the most useful facts in science bearing witness that Chnnco is tlie midwife that oft brings to Tiew Nitfurc's dark Inws and Art's arcana too. An apple's fall thus led the searching eye To the deep mine of rich ditcoverj. Yet, in all these cases where accident Ia3's bare. And Bome unwitting son of chance, Unvers'd in learning's wide exjianae. Stumbles upon the very jilan Eyes philosophic fail'd to scan, it is still necessary for observation to be there ; for, had Newton wiped from his memory " all re- cords' that " observation copied there," would the grand problem in natural philosophy have been solved ? But it is unnecessary to enlarge further on this head ; few will deny that Seneca's " close system of observation" is the royal road to all improve- ment, in agriculture as well as astronomy. If, therefore, the agricultural register I have pro- posed facilitate observation or systemize its records, it is worthy of consideration as one more means of promoting the improvement of agriculture. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 277 «2 1 .5 c g _ c.^ S 3 c =-« giS-- "^ "> 9'5v.' 'S "o S -3 = :ss':~ 1 S-o ;'" = 1-1 s »> g 5 ht; 3 ">■ g ^ c « s ° ■« • a'^^'S'v 0.0 o o'-C — ■-y— 3'3 4, -3 csJJ 00 ■* °'-C T3 o 5 3" « ^ !-< e. ?, p. -! C5 M O H « >5 « ? ^ Bi >5 -< ^ ^ 133 2 -a •§ 3 2 M S o 5 p. . i 5 H « ^ f/i o ° o .^ w w ^ PS H H^ CS rt~tE « =: g .=1 c o w ^ 3 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE FARMERS' AND GENERAL FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCE INSTITUTION. Sir, — Ilavhisf taken a deep interest in the " Fanners' and General Fire and Life Insurance Institution," from its first commeneement, and holding,- a considerable miniher of shares in it, I am of course not only an anxiousobserverof its pro- gress, but alive to any remarks upon it which may come under my notice. Mere chance has just thrown in my way a part of an old Norwich paper, containing a report of the proceedings at a General Meeting of the Proprietors of the Nor- wich Fire Office, in January last. Some observa- tions contained in a speech made by the Sec- retary upon that occasion, induce mo to re- (piest the favour of your giving place to this letter in your valuable paper. The remarks of Mr. Bignold are couched in that temperate and gentle- manly language, from which, my slight knowledge of him enables me to state that I know he would not deviate. This point, hov/evcr, fully admitted, I cannot refrain from observing that liis remarks display much more ingenuity tlian soundness, and although calculated to mislead those who only glance at the surface, will not bear the test of exami- nation. Upon the occasion alluded to, Mr. Bignold having divested himself of the character of Secre- tary, and taken that of a Proprietor, addressed the meeting as follows : — " He would avail himself of his privilege, as a pro- prietor, to make a few observations in reference to the present position of the institution. All dropped poli- cies in the year had been supplied by new insurer:*, and an increase had occurred of nearly one miUion of in- surance. A large proportion of this was upon agricul- tural property. By reference to the government re- turns of the aggregate insurance of farming stock in the whole kingdom, it appeared that the total amount protected a little exceeded 48 millions, of which this office so largely enjoyed the preference of the agricul- tural community, as to command one-fifth, leaving to the other thirty-eight offices the remaining four-fifths, to share amongst the whole of them. So large a propor- tion centring m the Norwich Union Office, might with propriety cause that institution to be designated the Farmer's Fire Office. There had been, however an office set up lately which took that title, as its dis- tinctive name, and founded its chief claim t» preference on a nearly exclusive connexion with the farming in- terest. Mr. Bignold, without any feeling of ill-will to that institution, could not accord his approbation to such a principle, since experience had fully proved that safety to a Fire Office could only he secured by combining all interests, (the trading, manufacturing, and agricultural,) which the Norwich Union most completely effected, joining to its farming insurance of nine millions, that of general insurance to the amount of forty -eight millions.'' Mr. Bignold disclaims any feeling of ill-will towards the " Farmers' and General Fire and Life Insurance Institution," and I give him full credit for the disclaimer ; to have entertained any SJich feeling would have been unworthy of him and of the important Institution of which lie is a share- holder : moreover, the parties by whom the " Farm- ers' Insurance Office" is supported, are of such un- questionable influence and respectability as to disarm those who might be disposed to underrate it. Mr. Bignold refers with manifest pride and satisfac- tion to the larye amount of far minr) stoch insured iti theNoriolcU Office — so large, that "the Office might with propriety be designated the Farmers' Fire Office," JN'ow, as a juan of Ijuisiness, I cannot for a moment suppose that Mr. Bignold would congratu- late himself and the shareholders on their having insured in the Norwich Office a large amount of a description of property of such a hazardous cha- racter as to be likely to entail a loss upon the Office. " But," says he, " safety to a Fire Office can only be secured by combining all interests — the trading, manufacturing, aiul commercial." Now, conceding to Mr. Bignold the correctness of the latter proposition, I beg the attention of Mr. Bignold to the fact that the Office to Avhich he al- ludes is called, and is " The Farmers' and Gene- ral Fire and Life Insurance Institution." That Office is not prohibited from taking insurances on other descriptions of property than that of Farming Stock. But I deny the correctness of his propo- sition, and I will challenge him by a reference to his own accounts to show that, taldng the amount of premiums received since the commencement of hus'iness by the Norwich Office, a loss has been sus- tained upon insurances on Farming Stock. This is a ruse on the part of Mr. Bignold to shake confi- dence in a new Office, and to blind the farmers as they long have been, by persuading them that the other classes of the community pay the piper for them. This system has long been pursued, but is now seen through by those who have been practised upon. It may be that in the years 1830,31, and 32, the losses on Farming Stock were very great — but that is not the question. How does the whole account mahe up 1 The Insurance Offices fix the rates of premiums ac- cording to their cxperiencesof the risk — hence the different rates of premiums ; if, therefore, the rates on farming stock usually charged had been found too low, would they not have been increased ? As- suredly, they would : but then concludes Mr. Big- nold— " the policies of insurance have been effected at the lowest expence at which it could be done with safety" — a sly blow at the Farmers' Office because it has reduced the rates of insurance on farming stock. The same offices boast a pe- riodical return, or bonus, to the insured — that is, an increased premium is taken from the insured, to be returned, as a matter of favour, to S07ne of them, at afutureday ; while the Farmers' Office leaves the additional amount, sochai-ged by other offices, in the pockets of the insured : I say it is returned to some of them only, because many circumstances may arise to occasion a discontinuance of the insurance, which will deprive the party of a participation in the profits. Again, as regards the insurance on other l)roperty than farming stock, does Mr. Bignold mean to assert that the insurance on farming stock, on the mansions and private residences of the land- owners, on farm-houses, and on the houses of trades- men in the country dependent on the land, are more hazardous than cotton-mills and warehouses ? The statement is specious, but untenable. Again, as regards the hazard of insurance on farming stock, it was admitted at the meeting of the Nor- wich Office, that the fires in London had increased greatly in amount in the last year — nothing of the kind is said respecting fires on farming stock. Mr. Bignold boasts of the amount of nine millions of farming stock insured in the Norwich Office. The following extract from a circular which I have just received, will show what progress the Farmers' Insurance Office has made in less than twelve months : — " There are only four Offices in London, and three ia the country, in which there is so large an amount of that description of property (Farming Stock) insured as in this Office, In the ghoit space of twelve mouths, * The HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 279 Farmers' Insurance Office" will have made such pro- gress in ihat department for which it was more espe- cially established, as to rank above the 'Globe,' the ' Atlas,' the ' Guardian,' and the ' British,' araonRst the London odices ; and above the ' Essex Economic,' the ' Birmingham,' the 'Manchester,' the 'York and London,' the ' Essex and Suffolk,' the ' Wesi of En- gland,' and the ' Kent,' amongst the country offices. Of the four London offices standing above it, this office ■will, in the first year, have effected insurances on Farming Stock to above one-fourth of the amount of the same description of property insured in the ' Phccuix' and ' Royal Exchange,' and one-fifth of the ' Sun' and the ' County ;' and of the country offices, equal to more than half of the ' Suffolk' and the ' Yorkshire,' and nearly one seventh of the ' Norwich Union.' '' Jlr. Bignold says that the Norwich Union may fairly he designated the Fiinners' Office, from having so large a proportion of farming stock in- sured in it. Now, the proportion of farming stock insured in the Norwich, as compared with the otlicr descriptions of property, is something more than one- fifth ; whilst the proportion of farming stock insured in the Farmers' Insvirance Office is more than a third. To maintain the same proportion, the Norwich ought to have upwards of sixteen millions of farm- ing stock. Recent circumstances render it essen- tially necessary that parties should be careful in ascertaining the responsibility of an Office in which they are about to insure. I am much gratified in finding, from the circular of which I have given an extract above, that a list of 1,323 share- holders of the "Farmer's Insurance Institution," con- taining tlie names of some of the largest landowners and most distinguished fai'mers in the kingdom, have been enrolled, as directed by the Act of Parliament of the Company — thus Yi^itm\rits resjwnsibility and security beyond all doubt. My object in thus noticing the remarks of Mr. Bignold, is not that of exciting hostile feelings between any parties, but merely to correct any misapprehension in refer- ence to the constitution of the " Farmers' and Gene- ral Insurance Office," which might have been pro- duced by his observations. The farmers have too long stood aloof from each other, whilst the other classes have always united to furtherandprotecttheir own interests. The " Farmers' Insurance Office" has effected a healthy reduction in the rates of in- surance on farming stock, and for tliat reason, wei'c there none else, has a claim upon the farming body for their support j and, if I know anything of the spirit which is beginning to manifest itself in the general conduct of the British farmers, that support ■will be given, as an indication that they appreciate every opportunity afforded them of concentrating their energies for mutual protection. Apologizing for this, I fear, too long epistle, I remain, Yours obediently, A Norfolk Fakmbr, and A Shakeholder IN THE Farmers' and General, Fire AND Life Insurance Office. MANCHESTER AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY^S PLOUGHING MATCH. This match took place on Thursday, the 4th of March, on a farm at Worsley, belonging to Lord Francis Egerton, president of the society. The field was a strong soil, and being an eld pasture, enabled the judges to determine the merits of the different ploughmen more accurately ; the compe- tition was very good, and the superior manner in •which the ground was ploughed did great credit to the different competitors. The judges' decision gave general satisfaction to the numerous company assembled, and particularly to those acquainted •with agriculture. 'J'he horses were nil abreast, to the exclusion of the old fashioned plan of three and four in file, which has been so obstinately persevered in by farmers to their own prejudice. It is hoped the example shown of introducing the double horse- plough into Lancashire, will be the means of con- vincing the farmers in this district of their supe- riority. Only eight ploughs contested for the prizes, as the neighbourhood is not in the habit of ploughing double. The fineness of the teams and the supe- riority of the work were much admired; the first three attracted much attention. The plough which gained the first prize was made by Mr. H-.nkes, ofEncn, in Cheshire, who is considered a first- rate agricultural implement maker. This novel scene attracted to the ground a great number of people, no less than three thousand. Amongst the company we noticed — Elias Chad- wick, Esq., of Swinton Hall ; Thomas Kersley, Esq.; Thomas Ayre, Esq.; A. Kay, Esq. ;i\lr. Landsdale ; Mr. Dixon ; IMr. Rothwell ; and many other influential agriculturists from the neighbour- hood. Messrs. George Bannister, Dean, and Shuttle- worth, acted as judges. The ploughmen com- menced at 11 o'clock in the morning, and conti- nued till three in the afternoon, when they all left the field to hear the judges' decision, which they announced as follows : — First premium to Samuel Phipps, servant-man to G. Cornsall Legh, Esq., High Legh Hall, Che- shire.— 4/. Second premium to JohnBentley, jun., son of Mr. Bentley, near Cheshire. — 3/. Third premium to Joha Motham, son of Mr. Motham, Burnagc. — 21. 10s. Fourth premium to James Whitlow, servant-man to Thomas Kersley, Esq., of Tinsley. — 21. Fifth premium to Robert Johnson, servant-man to Mr. Newton, Denfult, Cheshire— 1/. Sixth premium to John Jones, servant-man to Mr. Pownall, Rostherne, Cheshire. — 10s. The men after receiving the prizes gave three cheers for the Manchester Agricultural Society, and three for Lord Francis Egerton ; after which the gentlemeu connected with the society and others sat down to an excellent dinner provided by Mrs. Sutcliffe. Elias Chadwick, Esq., of Swin- ton Hall, presided. After the cloth was drawn the Chairman proposed " the Queen," (three times three,) in a neat and appropriate speech ; " Prince Albert and the Princess Royal," "the Patron," Wilbraham Egerton, Esq.," (three times three.) The chairman took an opportunity of compliment- ing the society upon having a patron whose zeal and well wishes for the society and agriculture was so evident in every action of his life. The next toast was that of " Lord Francis Eger- ton,"the president of the society, (three timesthree.) The Chairman, in proposing this distinguished in- dividual, said it would be totally out of his power to do him justice, but as he was so well known amongst the individuals present, it would relieve him from the difficulty he laboured under in ex- pressing to them his merits, not only in promoting agriculture, but philanthropy and every thing in fact that is good and amiable, belong to the cha- racter of this distinguisked friend and neighbour. U 2 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Lansdale, his lordship's land agent, return ed thanks in a neat and appropriate speech. "Captain Clark," the chairman of the com- mittee, (three times three). Mr. HuMPsoN returned thanks in the absence of this gentleman, and eulogised the character of the captain in the highest terms, and stated that no- thing would have given him greater pleasure than appearing here this day, but for the melancholy loss of a daughter, the remembrance of whom was no doubt too fresh in his memory to allow him to appear here this day. He would, however, take the earliest opportunity of expressing- to him the compliment, and he had no doubt but he would feel more gratified than could be described. The next toast, was " Mr. Chadwick," the chair- man, (three times three,) which was received with deafening applause. Mr. CfiADWiCKin acknowledglngthe compliment, said that he felt proud of the honour conferred upon him of presiding over this meeting, though he should have been glad if circumstances would have allowed Captain Clarke to have been in his place, for there was not a more attentive member of the committee, or one who took a greater in- terest in agriculture ; he therefore felt some diffi- culty in occupying his situation, and must beg their kind indulgence. Reassured them, it gave him great pleasure to meet them on the occasion, as he considered ploughing matches a benefit to any neighbourhood, but to that in particular. He be- lieved it was the first ever held at Worsley ; meet- ings of the sort were calculated to supply that desideratum in agriculture so essential in the neigh- bourhood. Thecollision of intellect in the neifjhbour- hood had advanced science, by which his ancestors had raised him to what he was, and he hoped to see farming advance in the same spirit as every other branch of manufacture had done in this neighbour- hood, that those engaged in it might be equally prosperous. The next toast was the secretary, Mr. Humpson, who was highly complimented for his services. Ml'. Humpson, in returning thanks, said that he felt highly gratified for the compliment paid him in having his health pioposed, and it was an addi- tional source of pleasure to see it responded to in the manner it had been by the gentlemen present, as it convinced him he had given satisfaction. He should be sorry to have a compliment paid him, if he really did not merit it. On all occasions it was his most anxious wish to promote agriculture in every way he could, and as good ploughmen are one great essential in the improvement in land, he thought meetings of this description were ca- pable of doing much good, by rousing the farmer, and his servant, to become good ploughmen. The mechanic's skill would also be put forth in con- structing ploughs upon the best principle; for at meetings like this we invariably see the agricul- tural implement manufacturer, actively engaged in finding out something new ; and thus a spirit of emulation and enterprize were created. "Gentle- men," said he, "some of you have no doubt seen Mr. Handley's remarks in the Farmer's Magazine re- specting wheel ploughs, and their superiority over the swing plough. Having a very high opinion of that gentleman's practical as well as theoretical knowledge of agriculture, I was induced to pur- chase one of Kansome's patent wlieel ploughs, with the view of showing the farmers in my neigh- bourhood some superior workmanship, and carry- ing home all the ])rizcs given at the different ploughing matches in the neighbourhood j but I found upon trial with the Scotch iron swing plough, that I should have only been laughed at if I had brought it here to day : instead of that, my man has been a successful competitor with the iron swing plough, which I consider to be far the best in use. The wheel plough appears to me to be invented more for idleness than for executing good work, and I would never advise any of my friends to purchase one. Meetings like this are capable of doing much good if supported as they ought to be. 1 wish to see the gentryof the coun- try coming forward, not only with their purses but with their presence, as they would tend much to enliven our jjroceedings, and make them of much more importance. I wish to see farmers encouraged to make improvements, that they may grow sufficient for our own consumption. Scarcity is always the cause of much dissatisfaction in this part of the country ; I therefore wish to see good crops, and cheap food, produced by our own la- bour, under a system of profitable cultivation. I should recommend landlords to make permanent improvements, such as draining, &c., which would enable the tenant to pay a reasonable interest, and lay out his capital in other improvements, so essential in procuring good cro[)s. Some ])eople will say, lower rents ; I agree that too high rents are bad, still the evil does not lie here. Landlords would confer on themselves, their te- nants, and the country, a greater boon, by encou- raging improvements on their estates than lowering rents; they should be constantly alive in giving encouragement to the industrious tenant, and sup- plying means, if necessary, for what would even be part and parcel of the fee simple. The present average rent of land does not increase the value of wheat more than Is. Gd. per bushel ; for instance, I should say that the quantity of wheat grown upon an acre on an average is about 25 bushels, which at Is. (id., would amount to 37s. (id., being more than the average price paid for land ; consequently, if we must have corn cheaper, we must make some improvetncnts in land so as to grow better crops ; and I do think if landlord and tenant will unite, double, and in some instances more, may be ob- tained from the same land. I say agriculture is the key-stone and independence of this country, let us therefore by every means in our power try to improve it, and then commerce will increase and bring i)rosperity to all classes of society.'' The next toast proposed was " Success to the Manchester Agricultural Society." Mr. Dixon, one of the insiiectors, in acknow- ledging this toast, said he was not a speech maker. He said the INIanchester Agricultural Society was one of the oldest and best regulated societies in the country ; other societies had adopted their rules, and the good it had effected in the neigh- bourhood was evident to every person connected with agriculture. He had travelled in diifereut districts, and he had found in none better farming than he had seen in this, though he could not Stay that good farming here was so general ; indeed, it could hardly be expected, as it was more a com- mercial county. His duty as one of the inspectors was very responsible and irksome, by the fact, that he had not it in his power to reward all deserving claiments that came under his notice ; for such had been the competition these last two years, that all the claims well deserved the society's encourage- ment, consequently many persons were disap- pointed because they had not been noticed by the society. There was a difleience in the pre- miums given by the society now and some years THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 ago. Formerly, premiums were given for draining and floating, which were attainable by parties ■without going to any great expense ; but now they could not obtain them without spending a very considerable sum. But was there ever in any so- ciety, two such claimants as those who had drained to the amount of one hundred miles ? lie was sorry that many Lad been disappointed this year, but efforts were required so great and so expensive, that many persons who might justly think tliem- selves entitled to a premium for draining, marling, and bone dusting, have been disappointed. ON THE USE OF SALINE NURES. MA- Sin, — Since I wrote you in February, 1840, on the subject of saline manures, I have observed seve- ral communications in your very useful publication, from gentlemen who have given them a trial, and the results appear to have l)een extremelv various. From the statements made bv your several corres- pondents, I should infer my experience to bo greater in the use of the above manures, tlian any that have favoured you with their communications. I feel greatly indebted to many of your correspon- dents for having given to the agricultural world the benefit of their experience, in reference to many sub- jects connected with the dearest interests of our country, and trust thev will still pursue their praise- worthy work ; from them I have freely received, and to them in gratitude I would freely give, adding my mite to the fast increasing stock of agricultural knowledge. To this end, Sir, 1 have turned to my letter inserted in your Farmer's Magazine for IVIarch, 1840, with a view to revise that which another year's experience might suggest as necessary. Where I think no alteration required, I shall follow my for- mer letter verbatim. Eleven years ago I purchased 14lbs. of saltpetre, and applied it to two stitches, or war|)S as we call them in Kent, of corn, one of wheat and the other of oats ; in about ten days the effect produced was dis- tinctly visible in the deeper green colour of the corn, and in a month, if the situation of tiie fields would have admitted it, the two warps might have been easily distinguished at the distance of a mile ; at harvest the corn was about a foot higher than the adjoining warp on which no petre was put. This was done about the 1st of INiay, the petre was sown on the corn, and nothing more done to it ; the land, a stiflf heavy close soil. The follov.-ing year I pur- chased a ton, and applied it to wJieat in the month of April, putting it on one warp and omitting one in several fields of similar soil to that mentioned above, and the result was equally favourable. 'i"he next year I purchased several tons, and among other ex- periments applied it to one warp of wheat, being about the sixth part of an acre, and doingnothing to the other part of the field ; the warp with the petre was reaped by itself, and the a [joining one without petre was also reaped by itself; both were carted and thrashed separately, the warp with petre yielded 6J gallons of wheat and 4 trusses of straw more than the other, the soil as before, and the quantity of petre used 1 cwt. jier acre sown on, and nothing more done to it afterwards ; the other land on which the petre was put appeared to be equally benefitted. 1 have continued the use of saltpetre from the above time to the present, increasing my purchases : the year before last — 1839—1 bought about 20 tons, which was put on nearly 300 acres of wheat, being about three-fourths of my whola grovvtii, and I have no reason to regret the outlay. I have not used nitrate of soda, until the year be- fore last, when I purchased 1 ton, and ])ut it on the poorest field, then in with wheat, on which no ma- nure had been previously put, containing Is! acres, sowing with it one warp in two, at a cost of 57s. per acre ; on the otiier warp was put saltpetre, amounting to the same sum per acre ; the result was a fine piece of wheat, but the warp with nitrate of soda was de- cidedly the best. Lastyear — 1840 — I used a consi- derable (]uantity of nitrate of soda on wlieat and oats, and was successful on the whole. Upon the farm on which I reside, on which has been used sa- line manures for the last eleven years, I had 50 acres of bean gratton intended for wheat, that was ploughed up at the usual time, but owing to the extreme wet season of the seed-time, I considered it by no means projier to sow it, as under such circumstances a very small crop could only be expected, not exceeding at most two (juarters per acre; the land was conse- (juently left until spring, being ploughed, harrowed, &c. The latler part of February proved very fine, and during that time, finishing the last day of the month, 1 sowed the ground in question with wheat, goltlendrop, on 20 acres, and new hoary white or rough chaff on 30 acres: in the latter part of April the whole was dressed with 2 cwts. of nitrate of soda per acre, the ground being rolled twice over after the sowing of the soda ; it was not harrowed, being too loose to admit of it : the result is a very fine crop of straw throughout, and judging from about two-thirds already thrashed, there will be over five- and-a half quarters of wheat per acre. One piece of golden drop was thrashed by itself, and yielded very near seven quarters per acre; the land is a stiff loam on a subsoil of clay, very wet, and worth, as laud lets in the neighbourhood, about 16s. per acre. I have now. Sir, thus far given you my doings with petre, &c., and will now endeavour to answer such questions as would probably suggest themselves to me, suposing myself the enquirer; in doing which it will not be necessary to travel through all that has led to the conclusion arrived at, having no object but the public good, you may rely nothing shall he offered intentionally wrong. 1. Quantity NECESSAnv. I have used from half a cwt. to two-and-a-half cwt. per acre. The intelligent farmer will readily determine from the state of his field, the appearance of his crop, &c., the best quantity to put on, not ex- ceeding the greatest mentioned. 2. Way to puuchase, &c. 1st. Buy of a person in whom the greatest confi- dence can be placed. 2nd. Insist on having it direct from the docks. 3rd. See a proper allowance is made for packages. 4th. He careful the allowance for refraction is fairly made : 51bs. per cwt. must in the first instance be struck off, all above that the purchaser is entitled to be allowed for ; thus, suppose the refraction is lOlbs. per cwt., the purchaser claims to he allowed 5 per cent. &c. The term refraction refers to use- less properties contained ia the petre. 5th. If nitrate of soda is intended to be purchased, the last remarks do not apply to that article, it is not sold subject to refraction, being generally about the same strength. 282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3. The BEST TO buy. Saltpetre is either sold rough or refined. Rough petre is as imported, it is cheapest, and will do as much good as reiined, requires no preparation, may be taken into the field in the bngs that contain it, being the same in which it is imported, and immediately used, I have put on the two sorts at equal cost on alternate warps of wheat through a field, and could not tell which did the greater good. It' tbepurchaser wishes fortherefined, he will generally receive it in barrels, containing 1 cwt. each, at a cost of 3s. to 5s. per cwt. more than the rough ; in that case, it must be put down in a floor and thrashed with a flail at the cost of 'is. Cd. per ton ; that is the method I pursue and the price I give. There is no refraction to be allowed for on refined petre. Nitrate of soda may be sown as received, in tlie same way as the rough petre. From observation and two years' experience, I should thiok nitrate of soda will answer every purpose of rough petre, at about three-fourths of the expense ; and for oats, I should prefer it in a very dry time dissolving with less moisture than petre, it frequently shews itself earlier and does more good. 4. Best time to xise it. As soon after the '2.5th March as the land is dry enough to bear a horse well, and when the weather is fine and has been so for a few days, as long- after and as soon before a shower as may be is best, it may be applied for a month after the above time with success. Too early an application often proves a failure. If the weather be wet and cold, after the petre or soda is put on, I think in such cases it does more harm than good. All saline manures when applied, from theii nature tend to increase the coldness of the earth, and if used before the sjiring begins to shine with genial warmth, the natural fermentation of the ground at that season is checked, the cold increased, and injury done to both land and crop. I once, as an experiment, put some petre on a piece of wheat in the latter end of January, wet and cold followed, and no good whatever was done ; two months afier, the other part of the same field was dressed with petre, with great success. 5. Mode of Application. It should be sown like corn. Late experience induces me to say, lightly harrow the land after sowing of wheat; but, if oats, dispense with the harrowing in either case, leave it rolled down. If it is desirable to sow clover or anv of the other artificial grasses, it may be done at the same time the petre is sowed and both harrowed in together ; the small seeds will be assisted by the petre in getting out of the way of the fly. 6. The Coun to put it on. Wheat will most likely yield the best profit from this obvious reason — a slight improvement in that crop amounts to the greatest sum, other corn not being so valuable. It is particularly useful to wheat that has expended itself during a mild growing winter, such wheat seldom goes on well without some assistance — gets bunchy, and generally much scattered ; the application of petre will, iu most cases, prevent the above and carry it through ; in this case, a large quantity is necessary, but should not be applied until the first symptoms of declining present themselves in the wheat ; likewise, when wheat is thick on the ground, it derives great benefit from the application, assisting the land to forward to perfection an unusual crop, but much doubt exists in my mind, unless applied \ ith very great judgment, as to the propriety of putting it on a thin piece of corn. Oats are much assisted by the application of petre, and will, through increase of crop, pay lor doing next to wheat; they should be well up' before the application. Barley, I grow but little ; as far as my experience will enable ms to say, it does less good than to oats. Beans, in my land, receive but very little benefit from petre ; the apjilication will not pay. Peas, the same results as beans. Tares, in some instances, have been much benefitted ; in others, but little or no ]nofit will arise from the application. Never saw it applied to turnips; none of my land being suitable for their growth. Clover — The increase of crop is not sufficient to repay the outlay. Grass land or meadow — The same remark as above. 7, The sou. most suitable. The greater part of the land in my occupation is a wet, heavy, stiff' soil, for the most part on u claj', subsoil ; and my own experience, of course, is con- fined to that. ] have a small quantity of free soil, a mixture of sand and loam moder-ifely dry, with respect to both. I have but one remark to make — it has in no instance failed. Chalk soils do not appear suitable; nor, as far as my observation has extended, does a hot gravelly soil appear to be adapted for its use ; nor does it, from all I have seen, do so much good on lands near the sea coast, probably arising from the circumstance of the atmosphere near the sea containing, from exhalations arising therefrom, more saline properties. Land disposed to grow a large quantity of straw in proportion to the corn is unsuitable ; many persons have used it on lands of this description, and have obtained a large crop of straw, but no increase of corn — and iu many in- stances from the crop being laid, even less corn than without the application ; but on most lands ac- customed, as we farmers say, to rise well, it is suitable. My uniform practice is carefully to watch the state of the growing corn, and if going on well, I never use either petre or soda; tlie necessity of doing the same, I would strongly recommend to all wlio intend to make a trial ; as without sufficient care and attention, a failure mav be the result, and the manure is blamed, when in fact the blame should be attached to the person using the same. Whtm a person has made up his mind to use these manures, let him consider well the nature and qualities of his land ; the appearances of the crop ; the season of the year; the state of the weather : in fact, let him consider he has in his hands a powerful assistant, the advantages of which may be lost by a single false step. In conclusion, I beg to state my decided im- pression is, that saline manures are not to be regarded as intended to supersede the necessity of other manures in common use ; but as a very valuable auxiliarv, possessing advantages above many, iu consequence of their being suitable for application at a stage of the crop when assistance appears evidently necessary, and can be afforded by a few other kind of manures. I am. Sir, yours most respectfully. Wji. Barne. Staplehurst, Kent, Feb. 27, 1841. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 LIVERPOOL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. THE SEVENTH ANNUAL PLOUGHING MATCH. The yearly plong-liing match for the premiums awarded by the Liverpool Agricultural Society, took place on Tuesday, March 9, in a field belonging to the Old Bold Hall Farm at Bold, between four and five miles from Warrington, and fourteen from Liver- pool. The day was one of those fine warm days now and tlien to be met with in the month of March, which, added to the advantageous locality of the situation selected for the contest, had the effect of l)ringing a crowd of from two to three thousand spectators together. The field selected contained somewhere about thirty statute acres of as nearly as possible level ground. Tlic quantity allotted to each plough was about half an acre. At a quarter past 9 o'clock, the difltrcnt portions hav- ing been allotted, the following started : — No. Owner. Residence. Ploughman, 14 Z.Sillar, Esq. Ramford T. Gres^soa 16 Ditto Ditto .lolin Rougrhley 17 Mr. Jas. Rose Hale Gate 'J homas Allen 3 J. J. Blackburne, Esq.. M.P. Hale Hall W. Woods 22 Ilu-h Clare. Esq.Sank^y Bridg'esVV. Hill 8 Mr. Thos. Kave Bold Heath W. Booth 6 Sir H. B. Hogh- ton, Bart. Bold Henry Webster 10 Ditto Ditto W.Fairclougli 4 W. Webster Esq. Upton John Morris 19 W. Websterjun., Esq. Ditto James Morris 7 Mr. R. Robinson Sutton John Tubbarn 1 John Garner Hand Park Thos. Ireland 21 Ditto Ditto Andrew Bell 15 Rich. Ellison Sutton Hall Himself 11 J. Birch Ramford James Fyldes 18 R. Neilson Esq. Halewood Thos. Blackmore 25 Wm. Howard Ditto John Howard 2 Earl of Derby Knowlesley Wpit. Young' 9 Ditto Ditto _ David Caldwell 13 Thos. Robinson Bold " T. Robinson, jun. 5 Ditto Ditto James Worrall 23 Ditto Ditto Rich. Padmore In addition to the five usual prizes, for which twenty-two teams were now contesting, there was a prize given by the Society, for the first time this year, to those who had gained the first premiums at the previous annual matches, viz., a Silver Medal to the owner of the plough, and five pounds to the ploughman. For this prize only one candidate came up to the scratch ; his name was Dan. Mc Intyrc, ploughman to the Earl of Derby, and the winner of last year's prize. He commenced work at the same time as the others. The land ploughed was an old ley, which had been about 15 years in grass, and was intended for a crop of oats. The soil was strong loam. In " by-gone" days farmers in ploughing their land were content to have it turned over, with- out paying any very particular regard to the man- ner in which the operation was performed, and he who ploughed most land in a given time was gene- rally acknowledged to be the best man. Since, however, ploughing matches have been pretty gene- rally introduced throughout the length and breadth of the country, a wonderful and sjiecdy change for the l>etter has taken place, and perhaps in all the great agricultural improvements the " march" is nowhere more perceptible than in the operations of the plough. In modern times the mathematician's art has been called in to aid the practical knowledge of the ploughman. The degree to which the furrow slice turns over is regulated to tlio proportion be" tween its breadth and depth ; thus, when a furrow is nine inches broad, it ought to be six inches in depth. When the slice is cut in this proportion it will be nearly half turned over, or recline in an angle of forty or forty-five degrees, and a field so ploughed will have its ridgeslongitudinally ribbed into angular drills or ridgelets — a form which, according to the best judges, constitutes in ploughing the very acme of the art. Amongst the workmanship performed by so large a number as twenty- two ploughs, it would be wrong to expect that all should come up to this standard ; but although there were here and there at the end of a farrow a bit or two of grass to be seen, yet the exceptions to the rule were " few and far between." Taken altogether, perhaps, a better ijloughed field was never witnessed in Lanca- shire. The majority of the teams worked two abreast, not more than four working single. There was only one wood plough in tire field, notwithstand- ing that at the first ploughing match in connection with the Liverpool Society, which took place at Newton seven years ago. Dr. Sillar was the only agriculturist who ventured to introduce the Seotcli iron jilough to public notice. At this year's meet- ing a new iron wheel plough from the neighbourhood of Birmingham was brought for exhibition, and ploughed a portion of land. The work appeared with the new plough to have been done with great ease to both ploughmen and horses, but the slice was laid much too flat for a seed furrow, and the ploughing bore no comparison to that done by the other ploughs. The judges appointed to decide upon the merits of the difi'ereut competitors, and to award the premiums were, Mr. Jas. Tinsley, of Rainliill ; Mr. Richard Hallsall, Halewood; and Mr. John Sutton, of Speke. Mr. Thomas Robinson, with that " old English hospitality" for which the British farmers have ever held themselves conspicuous, kept " open house" at the Old Hall, the original mansion of the Bold fa- mily, who held the estate in direct male succession from the Conquest to the time of the late Peter Patten Bold, who died some twenty years ago. In- vitations were unneeded ; all who chose to partake of the substantial fare did so, and met with a hearty welcome, Henry Webster, ploughman to Sir H. B. Hoghton, Bart., was the first to finish his task- he completed his work in 3 hours and 38 minutes. The other men averaged from 4^ to 5 hours. THE ORDINARY. At 4 o'clock a large party sat down to dinner, at the Griffin Inn, on Bold Heath. Strict attention was paid to the providing of nothing but real Eng- lish substantialities. A noble round of boiled beef graced one, and a baron of roast the other, end of the room ; with vacancies between, filled up in a manner highly creditable to the culinary skill of Mr. and Mrs. Priest, the host and hostess of the Griffin — to whom " the ploughing match" proved a " rich and seasonable harvest." On the removal of the cloth, Z. Sillar, Esq., was unanimously called to the chair. The usual loyal toasts — " The Queen" — " Prince Albert" — " The Princess Royal, and the rest of the Royal Family" — were successively given, and drank with enthusiasm. The Chairman rose to propose " Success to the Liverpool Agricultural Society," observing, that, although it was naturally to be expected that every man, or set of men, would speak well of themselves, yet if any gentleman, in the habit of attending the ploughing-matches of the society, would but just 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. take the trouble to look back at the ploughing pre- viously performed, and then tlu'ow their eyes to that done to-day, he would be at once convinced the ploughing had greatly improved, not only there, but over the whole of the county. In his opinion, the improvements effected by the society in that branch of agriculture much excelled those which had, through their instrumentality, taken place in any other. It was true the breeds of cattle had improved, and that greatly ; but, in no- thing was improvement more manifest than that to be observed in the beauty and condition of the Lancashire farms. (Cheers.) Generally speaking, he had occasion to observe that there were two sets of ploughmen — one ploughed so as to take the prizes ; the others (he did not mean to say that those who got the prizes did not do so also) for a crop. The ploughing performed that day could not be excelled ; he would therefore beg of them to drink in a bumper — " Success to the Liverpool Agricultural Society." (Great applause.) Toast — "The Army and Navy." The Chairman next gave — " The health of the Earl of Derby, the patron of the Society" — a toast which was drunk with acclamation. Mr. Ledger, the Secretary to the society, an- nounced that the Judges had awarded the pre- miums as follows : — The first to the Earl of Derby (Wm. Young, ploughman) ; the second to Mr. Wm. Howard (John Howard, ploughman); third, to Wm. Webster, Esq. (John Morris, ploughman); fourth, to Wm. Webster, jun,, Esq. (James Morris, ploughman) ; and the fifth, to Mr. Thos. Robinson (Thos. Robinson, jun., ploughman). They also awarded 6Z. to Daniel Mc Intire, the only ploughman competing for the 1st class prize. The Chairman distributed the various prizes to the successful candidates ; and afterwards pro- posed— " Good Landlord3 and industrious Te- nants." The next toast was — " The successful competi- tors," coupled with " The health of Mr. Thomas Robinson," which was drunk wilh considerable ap- plause. Mr. Robinson returned thanks. Mr. Cawley (the Agent to the Farmers' and General Fire and Life Insurance Institution), at the desire of the Chairman, in a very concise ad- dress, explained to the company the many benefits resulting from insurance, and the incumbent duty upon all classes of the community, and especially the farming interest, to provide against the casual- ties arising from loss by fire ; and to make a jjroper provision for their families, in case of being suddenly deprived of life. He afterwards shewed the peculiar advantages held out by the Office for which he acted as Agent, and the very great encouragement given to the Company during the short time they had been engaged in the business. The health of the Judges, the Inspector, the Secretary, the Treasurer, were afterwards given; merry songs intervened; and at length the com- pany separated, mutually pleased with each other, and the business of the day. RUGELEY PLOUGHING MATCH. On Monday, Mrach 1,'a spirited and well-contested Ploughing Match took place on a piece of land in the occupation of Mr.T. Dicken, St. Stephen's Hill, Col- ton, near Rugeley. A numerous and highly respect- able company assembled to witness the competition, and the day being extremely favourable, rendered the scene one of great interest. Amongst the spectators were— the Hon. Captain Bagot, T. K. Hall, l>q, of Holly Bush ; J. O. Oldham, Esq., of Bellamour ; Rev. C. S. Landor, rector of Cnlton ; W. T. Smith, E«q., of Crereton : James Wright, Esq., ot Ravenhill; H. Sirams, E^q., of Germany ; J. U. Morgan, Esq., of Colton ; and most of the respectable agriculturists of the surrounding neighbourhood. The ground was laid out in twenty-four portions, each cnutaining half an acre, in two butts, the quantity to be ploughed by each of the twentv-four iudividuals who contended for the prizes. Mr. H. W. Holland, withwhsm the match originated, took great [mins in preparing the arrange- ments for the work, so as to prevent confusion, and afford equal facilities to each of the competitors. The several portions were all numbered ; and each of the twenty-four ploughmen having ascertiiined his place by lot, took his station at his post to await the signal for iitartiug. When all the preliminaries were settled, a white iiandkerchief was thrown up, and Mr. Hollaud, who occupied an elevated position, fired a pistol. On the signal being given, the twenty-four ploughs simul- taneously started with all the eagerness of a St.Leger race, and as each man completed his task, his time whs taken down by Mr. Jamfs Wyley, jun., until the whole was finished. As soon as the ploughing was ended.the judges, Messrs. A. Govau, James Wyley, and J. Brad- dock, who had been absent during the performance of the work, came into the field, and, without knowing by whom tloe different allotments had been ploughed, made their award as follows : — The first premium of 2/. be given to No. 17, John Keeling, servant to the Right Hon. Earl Talbot, who ■with two horses abreast, ploughed half an acre in 2 hours and 18 minutes. The second premium of l7. he given to No. 2, Rich- ard Cope, servant to Mr. Sharratt, of Blithford, who with .3 horses in length, ploughed half an acre in 2 hours and 20 minute*. The third premium of 10s. be given to No. 14, Ar- chibald Sevis, servant to Earl Talbot, at Birchwood Park Farm, who with two horses abreast, ploughed half au acre in 2 hours 1 minute. PUEMIUMS lOR YOUNG MEN UNDER 20 YEAHS OK JiCE. The first premium of \l. be given t« No. 22, Thomas Perkins, servant to Earl Talbot, who, with two horses abreast, ploughed half an acre in 2 hours and 20 minutes- The second premium of lOs. be given to No. 24, George Yates, son of Mrs. Yates, Newlands, who with three horses, ploughed half an acre in 2^ hours. The following men were considered desei-ving of reward, and received 58. each : — 3 A.Deakin, servant to Mr. John Yates, Colton 4 C.Aldrift, ditto to Mr. Morgan, Colton. 6 T. VVareing, ditto to Mr. Dicken, St. Stephen's Hill. 10 B. Brough, ditto to Mr. Hughes, Stone House, 11 Thos. Holt, ditto to Mr. Walkeden, Colton. 12 W. Frogal, ditto to Mr, Nichols, Hamley House. 20 J. Woolley, ditto to Mrs. Bond, Farley. UNDER 20 YEARS OF AGE. 23 H. Rowley, servant to Mr. \V. Holland, Lee Lane. After the award had been made known, the success- ful competitors were decorated with ribbons, and having received their prizes, they proceeded to partake of Mr, Dicken's hospitality, who had piovided a sub- stantial dinner for their entertainment. Mr, Dicken also provided an excellent lunch for such of the com- pany as favoured that gentleman with their presence. Altogether the scene afforded the highest gratification, not only to the agricultural part of the company, but to a number of ladies who honoured the occasion with their company. Great praise is due to Mr. Dicken for his hospitality, and to Mr, Holland, and Mr, Wyley, jun., for the trouble they voluntarily incurred in making the various arrangements as complete as posvible. It is expected that the ploughing match will lead to an annual one, and contribute greatly to improve that de- partment of agriculture in the surrounding district. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 285 RURAL CHEMISTRY. Under this licad we propose giving a sketch of the science of chemistry in its most simple form, not pursuing the subject finthcr than is necessary in order ])erfectly to understand the relation which it bears to agriculture and rural economy in general. We shall endeavour as much as pos- sible to divest science of its technicalities and hard words, so as to render it intelligible to those who have neither time nor inclination to wade through the bulky volumes which treat of che- mistry. Every dry proves more strongly the value of this science in its application to agiicul- ture ; but unfortunately there is no book which, whilst it enters into the relation of organic che- mistry to vegetation, is sufficiently simple in its language and terms to he comprehended by those whom it would most benefit, if they were able to understand it. We hope that the short articles we intend giving under the head of " Rural Che- mistry" will supply this deficiency, by placing in the hands of practical men such an outline of the suljject as will enable them perfectly to under- stand a mass of highly iinjiortant information which is now useless, from the want of an expla- nation of the terms and technicalities in which the details of the science are involved. Perhaps it will be as well, in the outset, to say a few words respecting the aim or object of the science we are about to enter upon. It was at first intended to give an introductory chapter, which should con- tain an explanation of scientific terms; but it sub- sequently appeared more convenient not to do so, but to explain all technical terms made use of as we proceed. The object of chemistrj' is to be- come acquainted with the properties of all natural substances, to study the changes which are going on in nature, to find out the rules which govern them, and the manner in which these natural ope- rations are influenced by circumstances. Nearly all the changes which are going on in nature may be classed under two heads. The one kind of change is that which takes place when two substances come together which have, as it were, an attraction or affinity for each other. As a familiar example of what then happens, we may take the conmion ))rocess of soap-boiling. When an alkali or caustic ley is boiled with tallow or fat, soap is formed. The alkali which is contained in the ley has an attraction for the fat ; the two become tho- roughly mixed, and combine or unite together, and form a new substance, quite different from either the fat or the alkali, and which is called soap. This kind of action is quite distinct from simple mixture. \V^hen we mix together two sub- stances— such as, for example, brown sugar and sand — no change takes place, for they have no affinity or attraction for each other; and, there- fore, if boiling water be poured upon the mixture, it will soon dissolve out all the sugar and leave the sand, and neither the sugar nor the sand will be at all altered by having been mixed. When we mix two substances which have an attraction for each other, they are both changed, and the new substance formed by their union is quite different from either ; and when two substances are thus united or combined together, they are not so easily separated as when merely mixed, and of course require the exertion of some attraction more powerful than that which made them com- bine, to cause their separation. In the case of the soap just mentioned, it is different from the ley in not being caustic, and differs from the fat in not being soluble in water. It is a rule which holds good in all cases, that whenever two substances unite or combine together, and form a new sub- stance, the properties of the new substance are quite different from those of either of its compo- nents ; but when two substances ai"e only mixed the properties of the mixture are intermediate, or half way between those of its two components. Another common case of affinity is observed when we slake quicklime. ()uicklime has a strong affinity for water, and when it is wotted it be- comes very hot ; the lime combines with a quan- tity of water, and when it has cooled, wo find that the lime is much altered, having lost its caustic properties, and become mild or slaked. It may perhaps seem as if these two examples of the change produced by attraction or affinity were processes of art, and not of nature. 'J'hey will however, serve as examples of what is going on in a great many natural operations ; and as we proceed with tlie subject, it will be evident that this kind of change, by which two different sub- stances unite and form one new substance, is ex- ceedingly common throughout nature. The second kind of change which we shall have to consider, is that which goes on when anything decays. This change is quite opposite in" its nature to that which we have just been describing. It takes place whenever any substance is separated or di- vided into its component parts. Thus, to return again to the quicklime, which is made by burning chalk or limestone, we say that the chalk or lime- stone is decomposed, when, by burning or heat- ing it in a very hot fire, all the water, or whatever else it contains, is driven off, and the lime only remains. The decomposition of a substance is also effected when it is mixed with anything which has a very strong attraction for one of its components. Soap is made by the attraction which the alkali has for fat; but if we add to a solution of soap in water anything which has a stronger attraction for the alkali than it has for the fat, we shall decompose the soap : there are many substances which have the power of doing this, but it is sufficient now to mention one. If vinegar is poured into a solution of soap, it is de- composed ; the fat is separated and floats on the surface, and the vinegar combines with the alkali of the soap. This kind of change is always going on when anything decays or putrefies, and there- fore is of considerable interest in connection with manures. It is a very common saying, that there are four elements, air, earth, fire, and water; and many people beli^ve that all things are comprised and made up of these four elements. This is very in- correct, because there are many substances which do not contain any of these so-called elements ; and they are, besides, themselves compounded of many different substances. The term elements, in the sense in which it is used by chemists, means a certain set of simple substances, which by combining, or uniting together, form all the various matters that occur in nature. To return once more to the example of soap, we may say that the elements of soap are alkali and tallow ; but then the question will arise, what are the ele- ments of tallow and alkali .' which can only be ascertained by chemical experiments. In this way, then, we may analyse or pull to pieces dif- ferent substances, till at "last we find that we are imable to separate or decompose them any further, and the substances which then remain are called elements or simple substances. There are up- 286 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wards of fifty of these elements, hut it will not be necessary to study the nature and properties of the whole series, because many of them are of very rare occurrence, and found only in small quantities. We ivill commence with those sub- stances whicii are of the greatest importance, whether simple or compound, and gradually go through them, before entering upon the chemistry of vegetation. Foremost in importance of the substances whose properties we are about to study, stands the air. We are apt to think of air as being merely empty space ; we move about through it without feeling any resistance, and from its being invisible and totally unlike any- thing else we know, we usually forget its exist- ence altogether. The fact is, that every part of the surface of the globe is surrounded by air, wliich floats on its surface almost like water. It is easy to prove that the air is really a substance. When we try to squeeze together the sides of an inflated bladder, the mouth of which is tightly tied up, we feel that the bladder is full of some- thing which resists the pressure ; this is occa- sioned by the air which it contains, and which, though so easily displaced or pushed aside by any- thing moving through it, resists strongly any force applied to it when thus confined in a limited space; and if whilst we are pressing the bladder we prick a hole in it, the air rushes out, and we feel that the resistance is gone, and that the sides of the bladder easily come together. And again, when working a pair of bellows, it is the resist- ance of the air which we have to overcome by the force of arms, which constitutes the labour of working the bellows ; and if the nozzle of the bel- lows is stopped np, we presently find that it is impossible to go on working the bellows any longer, because, having forced in as much as it can hold, the natural resistance of the air prevents any more from entering. Although we arc so forgetful of the very existence of the air, it is of the greatest importance to all our daily occupa- tions, and even to life itself. Without air nothing could burn — we could have neither fires nor lights ; and, indeed, without air neither animals nor plants could live, for it is equally essential to the life of animals as it is to the growth of plants, and the burning of coals and candles. If a lighted candle is put into a large glass bottle, and the mouth of the bottle then stopped up, the candle soon gets dim, and in a short time goes out. The reason of this is, that the air is no longer able to keep it alight. If we now put a second lighted candle into the bottle, it will go out immediately. Exactly the same would take place were a living animal substituted for a lighted candle ; for, after living for a certain time in a confined portion of air, it would die, and a second animal placed in the air would immediately expire. The question now will naturally arise, is the whole of the air then burnt or used up ; and if it is, why does not fresh air enter the bottle and supply its place ? The truth is, the air is not wholly burnt, but only a small portion, perhaps one-fifth of its bulk ; the remainder, which cannot support flame nor the life of an animal, is of a dift'crent kind from the air which can ; and wc find that the common air which we breathe is a mixture of two kinds of air, or gases, as they are called by chemists ; — the one kind, which we might call good air, which supports the life of animals and plants, and is es- sential to the burning of fire and candles ; and the other, or bad air, in which animals and plants die, and which immediately puts out fire and lights. Chemists call the good air oxygen, and the bad air nitrogen ; but we must not suppose that be- cause the nitrogen appears thus useless, it is really so ; for it is, in fact, of very great import- ance, as we shall hereafter see. In the experi- ment just mentioned of burning the candle in a large bottle, the oxygen is all consumed and the nitrogen left unchanged, which, of course, puts out a fresh-lighted candle plunged into it. When the candle burns, it gradually disappears, it grows shorter and shorter, and at last, when all the tallow is burnt, the candle goes out ; but we must not therefore suppose that it is utterly destroyed. A change has taken place : the tallow, or rather its ele- ments, have combined with the oxygen of a portion of air, and a new compound, which is a gas or kind of air, is produced. If we put a piece of salt into water, it will get less and less, and at last will disappear, having wholly dissolved ; but wc know that the salt is not destroyed. Now we may compare the burning of a candle to a solution of a piece of salt ; for all the solid matter of the candle remains diffused throughout the air, after it is burnt, just as the salt remains dissolved in the water, but with this difference — the salt is dissolved in the water, but not combined with it. The elements of the tallow ai'e dissolved in the air, but they have combined with a quantity of oxygen, because they have a strong affinity or at- traction for it. If the solution of salt is left some time in a warm place, the water evaporates, and we get the salt again, unchanged : but in the case of the candle, its elements have combined with oxygen, and they cannot be again separated from it except by the action of something which, having a more powerful attraction for the oxygen than it has for the elements of the candle, causes it to relinquish them. There are substances which have sufficient attraction for the oxygen to effect this, but we cannot get back the tallow, but only its elements, or the simple substances of which it is composed. What has been said with regard to the burning of a candle is equally ap- plicable to the burning of wood, coal, or in fact any combustible matter. In all cases they burn in consequence of their affinity for the oxygen of the air, and they are never destroyed when burnt ;for their elements may always afterwards be found, combined with oxygen, in the air in which they have been burnt. The changes occasioned by chemical action frequently proceed slowly and quietly, but in many cases, and especially when substances com- bine together whicii have a strong affinity for each other, a great deal of heat is evolved. Sometimes as soon as two substances arc brought together they combine directly, and become very hot ; this is the case in the slaking of lime ; but it most usually happens that the mere bringing together of two substances, even though they have an affinity for each other, is not sufficient to cause them to combine. In these cases combination cannot take place until the substances are heated up to a cer- tain point. Thus charcoal has a strong affinity for the oxygen of the air, yet it cannot combine with it whilst l)oth are cold ; but as soon as a part of the charcoal is heated red-hot combination commences, and this very act evolves so much heat that the surrounding parts of the charcoal soon begin to burn, and thus the combustion, or combination of the charcoal with oxygen, con- tinues and increases until either the charcoal is all burnt or the oxygen in the surrounding air ex- hausted. The common operation of lighting a fire THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 287 Is a daily illustration of this. The fuel all contains carbon, or charcoal, ready to combine with the oxygen of the air, but unable to do so until by applying a light to it, we heat a portion up to the point required to commence combination ; after which, the heat given out by chemical action going on keeps it alight, and causes it to spread to the suiTOunding fuel. Now the atmosphere is composed of two diffe- rent gases, called oxygen and nitrogen ; but be- sides this, it also contains a small quantity of a third gas or kind of air, which is not simple like oxygen and nitrogen, but a compoutid of charcoal or carbon with oxygen, which is called carbonic acid gas. It is evident that all things containing carbon must produce a quantity of this gas whilst burning- ; and hence we can have no difficulty in ac- counting for its presence in the air. Indeed we might at first suppose that it must be always in- creasing in quantity; this however, is not the case, for we always find exactly the same quantity in any portion of air that we analyse, i'he cause of this is that all plants contain substances which have a very strong affinity for carbon, but which cannot combine with it in its solid forms because they are unable to come in contact with it ; but which, when the carbon has combined with oxygen and become a part of the air, are able, in conse- quence of their having a raore powerful attraction for it, to seize upon the carbon of the carbonic acid gas thus diffused throughout the air, and cause it to relitiquish the oxygen with whicli it was previously combined. These facts shew us a new use of plants, for we learn that the objects which we have only admired for their beauty or valued for their utility as producing articles of food, and even weeds themselves, and things we usually consider as wholly useless, are all con- stantly, by the agency ot attraction or chemical affinity, decomposing carbonic acid gas, and thus keeping the air in a uniform and healthy state. Hence the air always contains a regular pro- portion of carbonic acid gas, which is constantly produced by the burning of combustibles, and in many other ways, and as constantly decomposed by the action of plants. As \\c are now only con- sidering the properties and nature of the air, we will, for the present, pass over further considera- tion of this carbonic acid gas, to which wc sliall shortly return when studying the nature of carbon, and merely mention now, that it is of the greatest importance to the life of plants, being the princi- pal source from whence they derive the carbon necessary for their growth. The air always contains dissolved in it some water, or rather steam, which varies in quantity according as the air is hotter or colder. When it is hot, a larger quantity of water is evaporated or coverted into vapour, and dissolved in the air, which in consequence becomes more damp ; whilst, on the other liand, when the air becomes cold, the vapour in the air is condensed, returning to the state of water, and the air becomes drier. This of course is modified according to circum- stances : thus, in dry barren countries where the ground contains but little moisture, the air, when it becames hot, remains of course compa- ratively dry ; whilst in moist or swampy countries, under similar circumstances, the air becomes very damp from the abundance of vapour given off; and thus some of the principal dirterences of cli- mate depend mainly upon the quantity of water suspended or dissolved in the air. The solution of water or vapour in the air may easily be seen on observing the steam issuing from the spout of a tea-kettle. When the water boils strongly, and there is a large volume of steam coming out of the spout, v?e observe that just where it comes out the steam is trans])arcnt and almost invisible ; that at a little distance it becomes white and cloudy, and when it gets further out into the air it soon disappears and becomes again in- visible. The reason of this is, that hot steam is ([uite colourless and invisible like air ; and it only becomes apparent to us when it is partly cooled by rushing out into the cold air, and therefore is he- ginning to return to the state of water, and it would fall to the ground in a shower of little dro[)s like rain if it were not dissolved and carried away by the air as fast as it is formed. The quantity of moisture in the air is also rendered apparent to us whenever a cold sub'^tance is exposed to it ; this cools the vapour in the air so much that it is con- densed and appears again in the fluid state as water, in little drops on the cold surface : thus a l)ottle of cold water from a deep well, brought into a warm damp air speedily becomes covered on the outside with dew, or water thus condensed from the air. The substance next in importance to air is WATER, which exists naturally in three different states : namely, in the solid form as ice ; in the fluid state in its ordinary condition ; and lastly, as vapour or steam. These tlirre states of water are familiar to every one, but few are aware what causes the greac difference between them. When ice is placed before the fire, or exposed to the sunshine, or in any other way warmed, it absorbs heat, it melts and becomes water ; and when water is heated, it assumes the form of steam or vapour. The difference between these three forms of water is entirely caused by the quantity of heat they contain ; and we may truly say that water is a compound of ice and heat, and that steam is a compound of water and heat. Although this seems very lilie chemical action, it is really quite dift'erent, and must not be confounded with it. Chemical action can only take place be- tween mateiial substances, or those that have weight; now heat is not a substance— it is not a thing we are able to weigh, like all the chemical elements, and consequently when it combines with any substance it only alters the appearance and outward characters of that substance, but does not at all change its chemical ])roperties or nature. When heat is thus combined with a substance it is said to be latent, which means that it is no longer sensible to the feel. This will be easily understood from a very sini pie ex])criment. If we put some water in a kettle on the fire, we find that it will soon begin to feel warm to the hand if immersed in it ; the warmth which we then feel is called free or sensible heat : but if we ])ut some ice into the kettle in place of water, it will not become warm so soon, but will remain ice-cold until all the ice is nieltei), because all the heat supplied to it by the fire is absorbed or combined by the ice in melting, and therefore as the heat so absorbed does not make the melting ice any warmer, it is called latent. When all the ice is melted, the water will begin to get warm. It has already been stated that water is not an elementary or simple substance ; it is a compound, and consists of two gases. This at first seems very incomprehensible, for we can hardly believe it possible that a hard and solid substance like ice or a weighty fluid like water is composed of colour- less and invisible gas. The difficulty, however, 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. greatly diminishes, when vve remember that heat alone, without adding anything to the weight of ice, converts it into water, and that a little more heat will convert that water into an invisible colourless vajiour; for, as has already been said, pure hot steam is quite invisible, and only becomes visible to us when partly condensed by the con- tact of the colder air, which deprives it of the heat necessary to keep it in the state of vapour. The consideration of these facts makes the com- position of water appear far less wonderful ; for we have little difficulty in believing that steam is composed of two gases, and we know that steam, water, and ice, are, chemically speaking, the same. The one element of water is oxygen gas— that part of the air which is so essential to life and com- bustion : it constitutes eight-ninths of the weight of ice, water, and steam. The other element, or ihe remaining one-niiiib, is called hj'drogen gas, or inflammable air, because it is very combustible, being ihe basis of the common coal-gas used for lighting the streets, and entering into the compo- sition of the inflammable air or fire-damp of mines, and many other combustible substances. Water is not like common air, a mere mixture of two gases : it is a compound, and therefore is quite diff'rirentin its properties from either of its two elements. The very inflammable gas hydrogen having combined with a certain quantity of oxy- gen, which is the great promoter of combustion, forms water, a compound which we always regard as the greatest enemy to fire or combustion. ^ The purest kind of water which occur.'i naturally is rain-water ; for all others, such as spring, river, or sea-water, are more or less contaminated or rendered impure by substances dissolved in them. Thus sea-water contains a large quantity of com- mon salt, which in some places is procured from it by exposing it in shallovc pits to the heat of the sun, which causes the water to evaporate, and leaves the salt behind. This fact explains why rain-water is purer than othei' sorts of water, be- cause when the heat of the sun evaporates water from the surface of the earth, all the impurities which it contains are left behind; and of course when this vapour is cooled, and falls down in the form of rain, it must be very nearly pure. Springs which rise in the ground always contain earthy matters dissolved in them, which vary in nature and quantity with the soil through which they rise. The presence of these impurities in water in any quantity gives to it that peculiar character which is termed hardness. Sometimes springs contain a small quantity of iron or sulphur, and other substances, which constitute the many varieties of mineral waters. These matters, like the more common earthy impurities, are all derived from the beds of stone or sand through which the springs rise. Besides these saline and earthy sub- stances, water always contains atmospheric air dissolved in it. This is essential to the life of fishes, and to the growth of all water-plants, which could not exist if they were not thus sup- plied with common air. Water is essential to the existence of all plants and animals: it constitutes a large portion of all animal and vegetable substances, it is the princi- pal component of the blood of animals and the sap of plants, and is of the greatest importance, as being the means of introducing into their systems many soluble matters necessary for their healthy growth . — Gardener's Chronicle. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Having made repeated experiments on the specific gravities of soils, before and after they had produced different crops when manured in any par- ticular manner, I am inclined to think that much light might be thrown on the effects of different kinds of manure on soils, as well as of different modes of cropping the land, if many experiments could be collected, to ascertain the change pro- duced in the specific gravity of the same soil. As it is impossible for one man to make a suffi- cient number of these experiments, I would induce the farmers in general, and especially the proprie- tors of land who have intelligent bailifis, to amuse themselves with these experiments, which are so easily made, that the most ignoi-ant will soon learn to make them as well as the most practised exr perimentalist. I described the easiest mode of taking specific gravity in my Essay on the Analysis of Soils, and I send you the substance of it, with a few minute particulars, which can scarcely be mistaken. If you think its insertion in your widely-diffused paper can induce some of your subscribers to try experi- ments, and communicate them, a spirit of inquiry may be excited, which Avill greatly promote the science of agriculture. — I remain. Sir, your obedient servant, W. L. Rham. March 10. To TAKE Specific Gravities. Get a thin phial blown in the shape of a pear, cap- able of containing' about five ounces of water, which will stand firmly oh its bottom. The neck, which should taper to a diameter of half an inch, should be cut oft', and the edge ground smooth. Fdi this entirely with pure rain-water, at a temperature of 60 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, till the surface stands level at the neck. Place it in tlie scale of a g'ood balance, and put 1,000 grains' weight in the opposite scale; ilien add weights, till the scales are poised. Now take away the 1,000 grains, and pour out as much of the water as will poise the scales again. Thi? is easily done, with the help of a small glass tube, through which a few drops may be sucked out oF the phial or added to it. When the balance i* perfectly poised, mark with a diamond, or a file, the line on the phial where the sur- iace of the water stands; then make a counterpoise of brass, lead, or any convenient substance, to the weights in the opposite scale. This is all the apparatus required to find the specific gravity of any substance which can be introduced into the pliial. To find the specifiij gravity of a soil, dry it by heating it to the boiling point of water, 212, which is easily done by placing it in a tin vessel over boiling water, and stirring it with a stick for some time ; then pulverize it well, and sift it through a fine sieve. The fineness of the powder sifted is not of particular importance, provided tfie same sieve be used in all the experiments on the same soil. A metallic sieve, with from 60 to 100 threads in the inch, is most convenient. Having filled the phial with rain-water at 60 deg. up to the diamoad mark, and placed it in the scale, place the counterpoise before mentioned in the other scale, and poise them accurately, by adding or taking away some of the water by means of theglass tube. Now pour the soil very irently into the phial, taking' care to let the oir bubbles rise and escape, until the water rises to the cut part of the phial, and stands level ; let it remain so half an hour, and if any air is extracted, fill up the vacuity with more soil ; place it carefully in the scale, and add weights in the opposite scale till the equilibrium is restored. The number of grains required for this purpose will give the specific gravity of the soil, water being 1,000. This process, when repented two or three times, will be found extremely easy and very accurate if the balance is true, and turns with one grain or less, when loaded whh the full phial. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 289 ON DRAINING ALUMINOUS, OR CLAYEY AND MIXED HEAVY SOILS. Sir, — M)' views on the draining of these soils are very different from those of most of your cor- respondents ; I am aware that they are also in many respects opposed to the opinions of most who have written on the subject ; and in offering them, -am influenced by the hope of being the humble means of assisting to dispel that which I firmly believe to be an error — tlie idea of passing the surface water immediately into a shallow drain. As draining on these soils is the most important, so also it is the most expensive improvement, and one which it is essential to do in as permanent a manner as possi- ble. Tlie prevailing method of admitting water in a direct manner from the surface to the drain, and not causing it to filter through a considerable depth of soil, must at all times render the draining (leaving subsoiling out of the question) liable to injury, and certainly, unless the soil is a mass of clay, can never be permanent; but if it were so, and lam not wrongin my view of thorough-draining, the main objectto be desired would not be obtained : viz., that the soil be deprived of stagnant or super- fluous water to a sufficient depth, that it may not injure vegetation. The following observations will be considered to apply only to the drainage of these soils, when a considerable extent of surface is wet, and the water does not appear in the shape of springs, which is often termed surface water. First, with respect to the depth of the drains. It is well known that the weight of water is in pro- portiou to tlie depth, so that at four feet deep, it exerts twice the force it does at two feet ; but as fluids press equally in all directions, they have a pressure widely different from their veight, when that pressure is put into action on a larger body of fluid : for instance, if we take a close vessel of any given diameter filled with water, and insert into it a pipe of small dimensions, say one in;h, and fill it with water, the column of water in the pipe will, to whatever height we carry it, be equal to the weight of a column of water of the diameter of the vessel, and will press with the same force on every part of it, as though the vessel had been heightened, and filled with water to that height.* To apply this to the subject — if we allow for the filtering resistance of the soil, the surface of the land will be the surface of a column of water equal to tlie depth of the drain ; and this is not confined to the part immediately over the drain. If we take the distance apart at which the drains are cut as the base of a triangle, and the depth as its perpen- dicular height, the inclined planes of its sides will give us the same effect ; for although the tubular interstices of the soil may be vertical and lateral, yet the result will be the same, or near enough for the sake of illustration. Many of your readers will doubtless look on these statements as inappli- cable to draining, and exclaim," how can the water get into a deep drain in our heavy land V' That it will, that it does, the experience of several years shews me; and if we examine the question, it will * The pressure of a fluid on any surface, whether vertical, oblique, or horizontal, is equal to the weight of a column oC the fluid whose base is equal to the surface pressed, and beigbt equal to the distance of the centre of gravity of that surface below the up|)er horizontal surface of the fluid. — Dr. Olinthus Gre- gory's I'racLical Malheiiiatks. not, perhaps, be found so difficult to explain as might at first sight appear. In considering the in- creased ])res8ure of water on a drain of four feet deep, we should have a corresponding deduction to make for the close texture of the lower two feet of earth through which the water has to pass, did we not generally find in these soils, at about '.i or ;{§ feet dee]), small intervening layers of porous earth. When the drain is cut, and air is admitted freely to the soil, that surrounding it is of course dried by the water oozing out ; we know in con- sequence from the loss of its own watar, it will receive and pass that from the adjoining soil, and the same action will continue becoming weaker as it is extended farther from the drain. The benefit of the increased depth has now become poised by the distance ; or. in other words, the base of the supposed triangle is extended till the retentive resistance of the soil has counterbalanced the pressure of the water descending on the inclined planes. So far I have considered depth as giving in- creased pressure ; but, it should always be borne in mind, we cannot have water on the surface unless the substratum is filled. If it is not saturated below, no soil will long continue wet ; of this, our heavy chalk and rock lands are exatnples. In the greater portion of these soils, the origin or head of the water is considerably above the level of the land, and rises to the surface by its own weight ; and if draining is done in dry weather, it will be first seen forcing itself up at the bottom of the drain, or as soon as it is cut to about 3 feet deep. I will now refer to the direction of the branch drains. On this point, I see your correspondent, " A Farmer North of the Tweed," and also Mr. Morton, in his report on Whitfield Example Farm, inserted in your journal for May, 1840, agree with me ; indeed, I cannot suppose that those who con- sider the subject, will on this head differ much. Whatever might be the change in the layers of the substrata, and the declivity of the surface only little, and the layers did not (as we know by awise provision of nature they usually do) run hori- zontally but perpendicularly, (in a line with the ascent) it requires no demonstration to shew that the surface could not be wet, as the water woidd not rise to the surface till it reached the valley, and would there form a spring. If we take a long box or trough, and fill it with alternate layers of close wedges of clay and sand, or porous earth, and place it on one end at an angle of oO or (iO, and we now convey water by pipes to the upper layers of sand, we shall not have perhaps a very incorrect rejirc- sentation of what takes place on the sides of hills ; the water will of course, as soon as it reaches the bars of clay, rise and flow over the surface, and sink again whea it reaches the sand to a greater or less depth, dependent on the quantity of water and the rapidity of the descent j if the box was filled with sand only, it would not appear till it reach the lower end.* If we walk over wet lands of this description, and take a survey ofwhat we imagine to he the position of the superficial strata, there will want no faither evidence, I think, to bring us to this conclusion. How seldom do we find a field evenly wet, and liow easily are the strata traced by this means. To cut these bars asunder must then be the object, and prevent the water * I bad written the above observations before I saw the letter of Mr. Wreford, in your paper of this week. S90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (whicb it cannot afterwards do) rising along the bars above the level of our drains ; to do this, we certaini)' must run our branch drains in a line with the ascent, or obliquely across them, accord- ing to the declivity of the surface. Theseremarks may seem confined to hilly districts, but they are equally applicableto themorelevel and less change- able soils ; even should the land be nearly orquite level, we shall often and almost invariably find the substrata do not continue alike over any consi- derable space. Where the soil is alluvial, and we have no reason to suppose there is a spring at some dejith below the surface, we shall probably find but little change in the soil that will interfere with the direction of our drains- If we should at any time mistake the position of the layer, the first drain we cut will of course set us right. I have hitherto considered gravitation only, or the tendency of water to find its own level, as the cause of wetness ; but there is another cause, capillary attraction,* which is always in operation, and more particularly when the origin of the water causing the wetness is not above the level of the land. If we place a dry clod of earth in a shallow vessel of water, the water will gradually rise by capillary attraction till it has moistened the whole. This I conceive is a familiar illustra- tration of the reason why soils, after being drained, are preferable to soils of a similar quality on rocky or dry substrata; the surface of the super- abundant water being reduced to the level of the drains, it is always supplied with water in dry seasons, in a sufficient quantity to prevent a check in vegetation, and necessarily less liable to blights. Our most fertile alluvial or marsh lands are fami- liar instances of this effect, in many of them the water standing, in the driest time, to within a few feet of the surface. In land fleetly drained, on the contrary, we often find in very dry weather an injurious eflfect ; the surface immediately over the drain will be cleft, and unless the crop is such as to admit the use of the hoe, it will be injured. I have taken some pains to describe in a plain and concise manner, the principles on which the system I advocate is based, believing as it is now followed by some (and I do not advance it as a new discovery), it will, as it becomes more known, be more generally adopted ; and I know of no medium so likely to effect that object as your widely circulated paper. I will now describe the plan followed, confining my observatioHS to tiles as the materials, which are undoubtedly the best, except on old pasture land, when the turf, if mo- derately strong, will answer equally well. The description of tile used is the common arch-tile, having an opening of about 2^ inches wide and oi inches high, without the flat or cover, which in these soils is not required, except, as is sometimes the case, layers of loose sand may intervene, when they are of course requisite ; the tile should then be inserted, the bottom of the drain being well scraped with a grooved scoop, so that it exactly lits the top of the tile, which in all loose layers forms an excellent and secure channel for the water. It appears to me, those who advocate the use of small stones, or other materials not forming open pipes or conduits, do not sufficiently * The rising of fluids in porous and spongy bodies, the ascent of oil or spirit in the wicks of lamps, the diffusion of moisture in the earth, and the distribu- tion of the juices of plants, are a few of the important consequences of capillary attraction,—- i3ra/i(ie's Che' mistry. take into consideration the free circulation of air in the drain, the clearer passage and increased power of water moving in open channels, or the less liability to which the drains arc subject to be- come stopped by the accumulation of sediment. The main drain is cut across the lower part of the work, and branches thrown out at right angles or obliquely, according to the declivity; — as there are generally furrows in these soils, the branches are usually run up them. The less fall the better in any part of the drain, though often the descent will not allow the branches to be so placed, without their obliqueness becomingtoo great ;in wliich case it is advisable to have a greater number of branches running into the main, and not allow them to be ca,rried so far up the ascent, but take other main drains across, as circumstances may dictate. In general there does not require more than one main drain to four acres, and in more level land, if there is no great body of water, one to five acres is better — a heavier head of water will be kept together, to cleanse the drain and prevent the accumulation of sediment; it will not then signify at all as regards the drying of the surface, if our drain is below the level at which the water may stand in the ditch or pond itito which it falls, the pressure of water on the drain being, as before stated, in proportion to the height of the surface of the land through which it passes : but these numbers must not be taken as indefinite in re- ference to water only, the nature of the subsoil, the inclination of the drains, and the fall at the outlet, must also be considered. The ends of the main drains should be turned with the current when they run into a moving body of water. The distance at which the branch drains are put is of course dependent upon the retentive nature of the soil, varying from IJ to 2 or 2^ rods or perches of 1()2 feet, taking two rods as the medium, which will generally be effectual. The depth of the whole is about 3^ to 3J feet, which, should the soil be very heavy, and few veins of porous earth are found, might be reduced to three feet, and the distance to Ij rod. As little earth is moved in cutting the drains as possible, making the bottom the exact size of the tile, the width on the surface being about l(i inches. As soon as a small length of the drain is cut, the tiles are put in, taking care that sufficient space is left between them and the unfinished drain to use the scoop freely, and prevent the small particles of earth from being washed into the drain ; the clay, or the most ad- hesive earth that is found, is now carefully put in on the tiles, in sufficient quantity to prevent the rammer injuring them ; it is then rammed down closely ; the I'cmaining earth is now thrown in, using the rammer twice more, the last time at about a foot from the surface ; so that if the weather continiie wet after the work is done, the water will stand over the drains, which I am pleased to see, as the best proof that the work has been properly done, not wishing that the water should reach the drains, except by filtering through the adjoining soil ; being also certain if the subsoil is dried, no water will long remain on the surface. It must not in consequence be imagined, that lands so drained will, if they are very adhesive, always dry so quickly at first as the more shallow draining, or where the earth is loosely thrown into the drain ; but after they be- come once dry, it will be permanent ; for which tlie following causes may he assigned. No soils shrink and cleave so much in passing from a wet to a dry state as the heavy or clays j fissures are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 formed to a considerable depth, whicb, if the land were not drained, would not take place to the same extent, or would close again in wet weather, which become pipes for the conveying of water, and will remain, as the soil can no longer become charged with water sufficiently to cmise the same extension as before. The universal practice of putting the earth loosely into the drain, andnsini;- the lighter jjortion next the tiles, often, I imagine, frustrates the intention for which it is done ; the water passes ;it first rapidly, carrying with it a portion of the minute particles, the most minute of which are carried into the drain, forming sedi- ment, and the remainder with the loose light earth become an alluvial deposit .around the tile, which, unless the drain be very shallow, will be as impervi- ous as the stilfest eartli ; which we cannot, nnless by extreme beating, return to its former closeness. The average cost of the manual labour, where there are no furrows, or merely common land or warp furrows, is sixpence per rod. 1 have referred but lightly to tlie subsoiling system, although an advocate for its use, not making it an acting principle in the draining, but merely a subsequent a])pUcation, whicli in some instances is useless, and in many injurious, until the land is drained. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Agricultor. ON THE USE OF LINSEED OIL IN FEEDING CATTLE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Being from home, I have only this raorn- jug received a letter, addressed to me by INIr. Hutcbiason, respecting his patent oil-caUe. It is quite certain I made a great mistake as to the price of it, and therefore, without at all knowing whose cake it was, I considered it as one out of the many extraordinary agricultural things that have been brought forward ; and I find that there are others of your readers who were under the same misappre- hension. For my own part, I regret it. I have seen the cake, and like its appearance so much, that if I had not done stall-feeding forthis year, I would have ordered some of it to try how iar it would answer, compared with linseed oil-cake. This I will cer- tainly do next season. lam, &c. C. HlLLYARD. London, March 8,1841. PROLIFIC SHEEP. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAUMEr's MAGAZINE. Sir, — Having read in some provincial journals instances of fecundity in shee|), perhaps the follow- ing, which is the most extraordinary I have met with, may not he uninteresting to your readers; of the truth you may rest assured. Mr. Thomas Shepherd, of WooUey, in the parish of Moorwinstow, had an ewe sheep whicb produced fortv-four lambs. Four seasons she presented him two each season ; three times she bad three; three times, four ; and three times, live. Her progeny were prolific, but not so much so as herself, the most that 1 knew any of them to produce being four ; she was a cross-bred Nott sheep, and was bred by Mr. Colwill, of Bradworthy, Devon. I am. Sir, A Constant Reader and Suescriuer. North 0/ Cornwall, March Qlh, SUBSOILING IN ANNANDALE. In a former article on this subject, we gave a de- failed account of the extraordinary effects jiroduced by the tenant, i\lr. Gilles[)ie, on five llfhls which were mainly thorough-drained and subsoil ploughed by him, on his farm of Annan Bank, in iy.';7-8-y-40. Tho change, generally, has been to make land capa- ble of yielding good crops of oafs, say from iO to 60 bushels per acre, which bsfore was scarcely worth seed and labour ; or to produce, in the green crop immediately succeeding the subsoiling, a crop of po- tatoes worth from £'2ii to £30 per acre, where for- merly the manure would have been almost thrown away in such land, before being drained and sub- soiled. We refer to these details, and now proceed, as promised, to give some account of the nature and expense of the ojjerations alluded to (draining and subsoiling), which are not only instrumental, but indispensable, in producing so great agricultural improvements. VVe may mention that Mr. Gillespie approves, generally, of the Deanston system of draining and subsoiling, with a few exceptions, found to be bene- ficial from local circumstances. The draining ought to be executed, if possible, on lea, and which can bo commenced beneficiallv either during summer, har- vest, or winter, so as to admit of a break-up for a corn crop the following season. The drains can always be executed more effectively on firm lea than on stubble or fallow ground, owing to the latter being more apt to rush, and having more loose mould lying about, which necessarily finds its way into the drains when the process of filling is going on. It is well, also, that the tenant fill up these drains so soon as they are cut, when, the earth being compact, and the cuttings in an even state, the small broken stones can be well packed in without rushing, and so as to give the best and most general circulation of air and water throughout the drains, which is the grand desideratum in draining ; for, by this process, aided by the subsoil plough, which acts also as an important drainage power, the water and air dissolve, so to speak, the' stubborn clay and subsoil, convert- ing these into a dr\ , friable, and workable mould, and thus rendering them, by chemical action, a pro- ductive and sure soil, instead of being a waste, im- pervious, and probably poisonous substance, con- stantly immersed in stagnant water. The land drained by Mr. Gillespie rested on a hard retentive subsoil, banded throughout with nu- merous and large whinstones. Several of the fields were only partly drained, that is, drained only where verv wet, and skirted by main drains passing between the wet and hard or dry land, in such directions and with such a declivity as could run oflf the superabun- dant water collected bv the smaller drains. Much depends, in the operation of draining, in choosing proper levels, both for the main and secondary drains. Mr. Gillespie does not approve of the old plan of cutting drains across a hill, out of which water spouts. A series of springs bursting out across a rising may be cut off by cross drains ; but surface water, con- voyed along between the hilly subsoil and moist supersoil, can only be thoroughly taken offby jiariiUel drains cut from the top to the bottom of the hill, out of the face of which there is an outburst of surface water. The soil will generally be found to lie in layers of earth, each of which comes to the surface ofthedeclivity or hill, and betwixt the layers of which the water spouts out. The drains cut along the surface of the declivity, and at right angles to the layers of earth and outburst of the water, necessarily pass through a great variety of these layers aad 292 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. outbursts; whereas, taken across the declivity, a drain would only catch two or three outbursts at most, and consequently would not be so effective. JMain drains are, of course, necessary alona; the verge, and at the low ends of the fields into which the ordinary drains are carried. They are also ne- cessary along; every hollow in the field to be drained, into wliich the parallel drains ought to be regularly brought. No particular direction, liowever, can be given for the number and position of these drains, which depend much on the nature and declivities of the field to be drained ; but keeping in view the fol- lowing general rules, no person at all pcquainted with rural matters can, in draining, make any ma- terial mistake. 1st. The main drains must be cut with a sufKcient declivity to carry off all water flow- ing to the low parts of the field to be drained. 2nd. Where inequalities and hollows exist in such field, main drains must be carried through the lowest parts of such hollows, into which the secondary parallel drains ought to be let down ibe falling ground. The whole mnin drains being concentrated to a common point, efi'ect the complete evacuation of the collected water. .3rd. Where the field has a general hang, or declivity, the parallel secondary drains out to run not across but along such declivity. Now as to the size and expense of the drains pxe- cuted by jMr. Gillespie. His main drains were cut from three to four feet below the surface. Some of these, where the fall was gentle, were built with a narrow opening ; but v^-hcre the fall was great, he made them, say three and a half feet, fdling them up with broken stones. The secondary or parallel drains were, according to circumstances, placed 12, 15, and IS feet separate. On hard, stony, and retentive sub- soil, such as is to be found on Mr. Gillesp'e's farm, he recommends the drains to be put not wider than 15 feet apart : but on light, sandy, or porous subsoils, Mr. Gillespie thinks the parallel drnins, followed up with efficient subsoiling, might answer the purpose if cut even at 20 or 24 feet apart; — butnothing short of a minute insiiection of the ground, by a judicious and experienced person, can enable any one desirous to thorough-drain his fields, to judge accurately how to proceed with advantage. The following estimate of the cost of draining will enable any farmer to calculate generally what such work on his fields may be executed for: — Expense of main drains. — The cutting of these may be averaged at Hid. to Pd., and the collecting stones, and filling up, will be generally about 9d. also, making the total expense about Is. 6d. jier rood of 19 feet. This es'imate, however, depends much on local cir- cumstances, and the conveniences .iflbrded of more easily obtaining stones for the drains. These drains niav be averaged from 3 to 3§ feet in depth, and the bottom broad or narrow according to the quantity of water to be run off. The common or parallel drains should be at least 2^ feet deep, to admit of subsoiling, filled up with a foot of broken stones, if on a good declivity ; and if nearer a level, at least 14 inches of broken stones. In the hitter case, where 14 or 15 inches of stones are used, the drains ought to be proportionally deejier, so ns always to admit of 18 inches clear of the drainsover which the subsoil plough goes. Above the broken stones there must be laid a firm turf, well beat in, to keep all clean and compact ; the grassy part of the turf to be laid next tie stones. Such drains, cut from 2^ to 2 feet 9 inches in depth, and from 10 to 12 inches at top, and 5 to 6 at bottom, will cost generally as follows: — Cutting the drain, and breaking stones 3J inches in size, and filling in earth on the lop of the stones, 6d , ; expense of collect- ing stones and leading, if conveniently at hand, say S^d.per rood; filling in stones from -Jd. to Id., which, however, ought to be done by day's works, under especial superintendence, as much depends on this portion of the work being carefully executed — the total expense of the parallel drains being thus from 9d.to tod. per rood of 19 feet. We now give an estimate of the expense of thus draining per acre : — The parallel or thorough drains, at an average of 18 ft., will give 160 roods per acre, which at lOd. per rood (this sum including generally a fair average expense of main drains also) , gives the total expense of £.6 I3s. per acre ; or, for the sake of round num- bers, say £,6 los. This estimate, however, will only bold good on land moderately easy to cut, and where stones are at hand. W^e reserve further remarks on the subsoiling to a future occasion. Meantime, we may add, however, that Mr, Gillespie averages the expense of subsoil- ing on his ground, excavating stones, &c., at from 30s. to 3'2s. per acre — thus making, in whole, the expense of thorough-draining and subsoiling, on the generality of soils, from £8 5s., say to £8 8s. per acre. To prevent misunderstanding, however, we may mention, that on all hard, retentive subsoils, such as too generally prevail in Annandale and a considerable portion of Nithsdale, the drains should be from 12 to 15 feet ; in which ratio, of course, as compared with the above calculation of drains 18 feet apart, the expense of execution will be consider- ably increased, as well as the expense of additional main drains. — Dumfries Times, RUGELEY FARMERS' CLUB. The first meeting of' the llugeley Farmers' Club took place at the Talbot Arms Inn, Ilugelev, on Thursday, the 25th Feb. 1841; ^V. T. Smith, Esq., president. Upwards of 30 members were present, and more than 20 new ones were elected that day. The first subject for discussion was, " The best mode of cultivating the Swede Turnip," which was introduced by Mr. John Yates, of Colton. Mr. Yates commenced by stating, that in taking upon himself the task of introducing to his friends and neighbours what little information he might have acquired relative to the cultivation and ma- nagement of that valuable root — the Swede Turnip, he wished first to make a few general observations, as this was their first meeting. To those of his bro- ther farmers who were not in the habit of travelling about so much as himself, he would remark that in- formation, even in farming pursuits, was not to be obtained by sitting at their own fire sides, or walk- ing about their own grounds; and he recommended every farmer, let his farm be ever so small, to visit the markets, fairs, and agricultural meetings in his own immediate neighbourhoed, and to enrol himself a member of the latter ; by doing so, he would be certain to gain something fresh, which he might turn to advantage. He would also learn the marketable and fair price of all the produce he had to dispose of ; and they would be a few hours very ill-spent, if ho could not contrive to meet with some one, perhaps from a distant part of the kingdom, from whose knowledge he might add to his own store of infor- mation. He could speak from his own experience in this matter ; for he could assure them, that he scarcely ever made a journey from home without gaining some information, either in relation to agri- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 cultural or mercantile jjursuits. He would, more- over, advise every farmer to spend his evenings or leisure hours in the perusal of that most valuable publication, The Farmers' Magazine, He trusted a short period only would elapse before they should be favoured with the company and support of all the farmers in the immediate neighbourhood ; and he for one would be most happy to give and receive advice. He much regretted that other engagements would prevent him from doing all he could wish. He con- sidered the cultivators of the soil to be the most in- dependent, hospitnble, and liberal (though, perhaps, not the wealthiest) men in the kingdom; but he thought they might better tiieir condition in the lat- ter respect by a little more self-exertion, and at the same time add to the comforts of thousands who might be considered as dependent on their exertions. They must bear in mind that there was an increas- ing population to be provided for, and that what mankind were satisfied with only twenty years ago, they would at the present day consider insufficient. It therefore not only becnme them, but it was the bounden duty of those who had the management and cultivation of the first necessary of life, to ex- ert themselves to the uttermost in providing for and adding to the comforts of the population. But he must proceed to the subject under consideration. He was of opinion that most of the strong lands in this county, (and to such be now meant principally to confine his observations) might be applied profitably to the raising of crops of Swedish turnips, wliich he considered one of the most valuable roots grown by the farmer. Instead of the farmer letting his land lie idle all the year, he might calculate on as good a yield of wheat after a crop of turnips by manuring for that crop, and most likely a better one, than by making a sun fallow for wheat, without manure, sub- ject to a few rules and regulations, which he would endeavour to explain. First — By stating the proper time of ploughing and working the laud. — As soon as the crop of grain is cleared oil" the land in autumn, or as early after- ward as convenient, the land should be ploughed, deep and well, the deeper the better, and laid dry and round ; in fact, he thought it was best to ridge up the ground from the stubble, to remain through the winter ; the gutters and water furrows to be opened in the same manner as if the land had been sown with wheat. By these means, they would render their land mellow in the spring, when it came to be ploughed down again. Secondly — The best time for dressing, and the proper state of the manure. — He had tried the plan of manuring upon the land in autumn, when the land was in a clear state, (and they could not make a fair trial unless it were so) by setting the manure on the land before being ploughed up, and working and mixing it well with the soil, but that would prevent their adopting the plan of ridging and drilling, which many farmers preferred. He found the best plan was to get the manure in a green and raw state out of the farm yard, and have it spread out in the drills and covered with a thin coating of soil ; and in certain cases where the land was very foul, he had tried — and with great success — the get- ting together of the clods and squitch in heaps and burning them, which might be done at a small ex- pence. It tended much to open and pulverize the strong soils, and was also a saving of manure ; but, of course, they would apply a fair quantity of manure, say from 12 to 20 loads per acre. Thirdly — The proper state in which the land should be at the time of sowing. — He said it was altogether a mistaken notion, to have their land in a very fine state when they intended to sow turnips on strong soils, for by that means, it caused their laud to run and set together the first wet that came after sowing ; but he preferred the land being left in rather II knotty state, as it prevented the evil he had men» tioned, which invariably spoiled the crop. When the land was over knotty, cloddy, and uneven, (which will be the case on strong soils at times) he went over the drills with a strong tooth rake, and laid the stones and clods between the drills, and then fol- lowed with a heavy roll ; but all this work must be accomplished in dry weather— for the success of the crop mainly depended on working the land in a dry state. Fourthly— The quantity of seed per acre, to sow broadcast or ridged. — In general he drilled at least 211bs. to 31bs. of seed to the acre; he found it better to have plants to spare rather than to be short, and it gave a better chance with the fly. He did not re- collect ever having occasion to sow his turnips a second time, which he attributed to putting plenty of seed on the land at the first sowing. He certainly preferred ridging the land on this description of soil ; for it left it in a drier and better state, and was bet- ter for the crop, as the plants got the full benefit of the manure. Fifthly — The proper time when they should be sown, hoed, and cleaned.— The Swede turnip should on no account be sown later than from the lOth to the 20th of May, and the best crop he ever grew was sown on the first of that month ; the success of the crop mainly depended on their early sowing, and they must also take care to sow in the afternoon what had been made ready before leaving the field, whilst the land veas in a moist state. Wherever the land had been left in rather a cloddy and knotty state, he should advise their [not commencing hoeing and thinning too early, but allow their plants to get pretty strong before they commenced the work. Sixthly — On the selection of the kinds of seed. — He preferred the purple-top Swede to any other ; and they had, during the last few seasons, stood the win- ter well. Seventhly — The time for drawing the roots off the land — and this should invariably be done on this description of soil. By early sowing, the root will get to maturity by the latter end of the month of October or the commencement of Novem- ber, when he set his workwomen and boys to com- mence pulling, topping, and laying them in heaps against a favourable time for carting off the land with the least possible injury. By adopting the plan of gaing up every fifth land, they might carry the turnips from off each side, so that their carts would not do that injury which is so much dreaded by the strong land farmers. They must by no means attempt to fold their sheep upon this description of soil, but reserve their crop for stall feeding or strew- ing about their turf. Eighthly— The best manner of stowing and pre- serving the turnips. — He had his turnips carted into his stack-yard, or some other convenient place, and then laid in narrow rows and well covered with stub- ble, which he found effectually to preserve them ; he had now some by him, which he had no doubt, from their present appearance, would keep perfectly sound till the month of May, and which were got up in October and grown upon strong soil— such as his landlord ridiculed the idea of sowing with turnips, when he informed him he intended so doing— and he had carried more than 30 cart loads from an acre of such land, and his wheat now looked well on the ground. Mr. Yates then observed, that he should be happy to answer any questions which his brother 294 THE FARMER'S MAGAZirfE. farmers might ask ; and be should feel amply repaid if he found what he had stated to be of service to any of his friends. As the cultivation of the Swe- dish turnip on the light dry soils was so well un- derstood, he should not offer many observations, but should conclude by stating, that Swedish turnips grown on strong l.inds were ver}' much superior in quality to those grown on light, sandy,or peaty soils ; remembering, also, that the crop on light soils much depended on their success in getting the manure ploughed under fresh from the dunghill, the land well rolled, and sown as quickly as possible after ploughing. He also recommended the plan of drill- ing on the flat, in preference to ridging, as produc- ing a greater quantity, though requiring more manure per acre, and the soil should be broken very small. Several other members afterwards addressed the meeting, relative to the growth of the Swede on light soil, and imparted much valuable information. The subject fixed upon for discussion at the next meeting, on Thursday, April 1st, is the best mode of cultivating a strong-land farm ; to be introduced by Mr. Dennis. It is in contemplation to establish an Agricultural Library, at Rugeley, as soon as the society has suffi- cient funds. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE DONCASTER CHRONICLE. Sir, — I take the liberty of sending you the ac- count of an experiment, in dibbling Swede turnips, in ;» piece of ground in the township of Auckley, belonging to John Walbanke Childers, Esq., of Cantley Hall, near Doncaster, and which had recently been planted with forest trees at three feet apart. It appears doubtful whether any similar trials have been made : as such, it may perhaps not be unin- teresting to someof your numerous readers, especi- ally those who may have a taste for planting. In the months of February and March, 1840, twenty- iive acres were planted with forest trees as just stated ; many poor people residing in the villages around, applied for leave to grow potatoes thereon, having their manure carted for that purpose ; fifteen acres were thus occupied, the remaining ten were dibbled with Swede turnips. In carrying the latter scheme into effect, I had two objects in view, namely, first, to clear away all weeds from the young trees ; and secondly, to produce a crop of turnips, (by dib- bling) of sufficient value to remunerate the propri- etor for the expence incurred. It gives me pleasure to say, both have been fully accomplished, as the land at this time has much the appearance of a well- cleaned nursery ; and the turnips an excellent crop, of a large size, and good quality. The other part planted with potatoes does not present the like ap- pearance, owing to the negligence of some of the parties. Dibbling commenced the first week in May, 1840, in the following manner : — A good spit of earth was dug up and turned down (from 1^ to 2 feet apart, great care being taken not to approach too near the roots of the trees), in the centre of which a hole was made, about four or five inches square, with a small spade for the purpose, sufficient to receive a handful of bones spread into it by a boy, (being of opinion bones are much more eft'ective when dispersed under and about the root of the plant, than when put in altogether) ; a little earth was drawn over them ; another boy followed with the turnip seed m a tin box, with a small hole at tiiS top, one shake of which was sufficient to deposit the proper quantity of seed, then a little earth over it finished the business. The first hoeing commenced as soon as the plant exhibited the broad leaf; the second hoeing, the latter end of June ; the third and last hoeing, the first week in August ; and it is a remarkable cir- cumstance, the turnips from first to last were never injured by the game, although two woods adjoined. In the latter end of October and the beginning of November, the whole of the turnips were drawn, and carted into heaps in a wheat stubble field adjoining (which is intended for turnips this season) and co- vered with straw, close to which a temporary shed was erected, 66 feet long, well thatched, with a spa- cious fold yard 66 feet square, fenced in with posts and four rails. 150 sheep, half of them ewes and the other half hogs, were then taken into it; the turnips were cut for them with a machine ; and straw and stubble supplied for bedding- as occasion required . The time in consuming them was just sixteen weeks, the sheep having no artificial food whatever ; and there can be no doubt but the time was consi- derably prolonged by the shed system. Another object has been obtained by the experiment, namely, from 35 to 40 cart loads of good manure ; and also it is on the spot where it is wanted for turnips this sea- son, and, which ought not to be forgotten, 1^ mile from the home farm at Cantley. In calculating the value of the keep of the sheep, I must take the gene- ral average on ordinary seasons, which will be about 4d. per head per week : and in calculating the value of the manure, I must consider the quality and its situation, deducting the value of the straw anil stub- ble with the carriage. It is very gratifying to me to observe the young trees so healthy and vigorous, and with every appearance of making great progress this summer. The result is so very encouraging, that it is my intention to dibble with white, yellow hybrid, and Swede turnips the whole of the 25 acres, changing the several kinds : for instance, the part with Swedes the last season to have white or yellow this, and so on. Thus a young plantation having turnips for three years in succession, should have a different kind each year. A word or two here about planting will not be much out of place. It appears quite clear to me, that land for planting ought to be fallowed the year preceding, and either trenched with the spade or plough in the winter. The trees ought to be hoed amongst for three years ; and if that be done in a proper manner, no weeds can do them any future injury ; and I am quite sure if this plan be attended to, they will progress more in that time than trees planted in grass land, holed for the purpose, would in five or six years. Proof of this may be seen here — a piece of land planted two years ago, has had potatoes and turnips growing with the trees, and kept in clean order, excepting a small patch of about ten yards square, which has had no hoe since planting ; tho latter are now miserable plants, two feet shorter than the former, and most probably in a year or two the difference will be still greater. Here follows a statement of the receipts and pay- ments :— RECEIPTS. £. 6. d. Keep of 150 sheep, for 16 weeks, at 4d. per head per week 40 0 0 Value of the manure, in its present state and situation, after deducting the straw and stubble with the carriage.. 10 0 0 £50 0 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 PAYMENTS. P'bblinj 10 acres, at lOs. per acre 5 0 0 Hoeinij thrice at 5s. each time 7 10 0 Singling the turnips at Is. 6d. per acre. 0 15 0 100 busliels of bones, at 23. lOd. per bushel 14 3 4 Balance 22 11 8 £50 0 0 Thus it appears the receipts are 22i. lis. 8d. over and above the expenditure ; it m.iy be, that the sea- son was peculiarly favourftble for the turnips, or that the anioials did not consume so much asotber years; still 1 have every reason to hope, following the same plan, and dibbling rather earlier, I shall obtain a good crop the present season. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Richard Littleivood. Cant ley, March 2, 1841. PLOUGHING MATCH. The parish of Dalton sometime ago having challenged the parish of Ruthwell, to meet them with ten ploughs from each parish, and the challenge being accepted, the two parishes met on Tuesday, the 2nd March, on Mr. Grierson's farm of Rotchall, in the parish of Dalton. Although the day did not prove so line as might have been wished, still the attendance of spectators was numerous ; but, owing to the excellence of the arrangements by the com- mittee, everything went on with the greatest order and regularity. The ploughmen having drawn lots for their positions, and the hour for starting having come, it was beautiful t© see the keen and masterly manner in which each competitor commenced the business of the day; after a most arduous struggle, the premiums were awarded in the following manner : — 1st Prize to David Irving, ploughman to Mr. Elliot, Hardgrave, Dalton. 2nd do. to William Frood, Kirkstile, Ruthwell, who ploughed with his own horses. 3rd do. to David Barton, ploughman to W, T. Carrulhers, Esq., of Dormont, Dnlton. 4th do. to Alex. M'Neil, Rutterthwait, Dalton. 5th do. to John Boyes, Fourteen Acre, Dalton, who ploughed with his own horses. 6th do. to David Clark, ploughman to Mr. Nelson, Longridge Moor, Ruthwell. The parish of Dalton carrying off the victory. Too much praise cannot be awarded to the Judges, Mr. Kennedy, Cnmmertrus, and Mr. Chalmers, Lochmaben — both tried and proven men in their profession — for the ability which they displayed in their decisions ; it being no easy task when all were good, to make the selection. The match excited considerable interest in the neighbourhood, as the ploughmen were all picked men, the elite of both parishes, and certainly their work bore witness that the selection had been carefully and judiciously made. On the field, the ploughmen were bountifully refreshed by Mr. Crierson, while a select party of farmers and other ou-lookers, partook of his hospitality at his board. The day will long be remembered by both parishes ; it was pleasant to see the good feeling which prevailed everywhere, and we have no doubt matches like this, from the interest which they create, will tend greatly to encourage the young and rising generation of ploughmen. MURRAIN IN CATTLE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE LANCASTER GUARDIAN. Sir, — In the perusal of your paper a week or two ago, 1 find that the epidemic is raging in your neigh- bourhood ; and it appears that they are at a loss how to treat it. 1 take the liberty of sending you my mode of treatment, which you will please insert in your next week's number. I have had from 500 to 600 cows under my care, and I am happy to say I have not lost one. Treatment. — Avoid bleeding, unless the cow be ia high condition. Give epsom salts lib. 4oz., sulphur 4oz., nitre l^oz., in two quarts of gruel; and if the bowels are not well acted upon in twelve hours, give half the quantity. Wash for the mouth. — Common salt Jib., alum \\h., water four quarts. Where there is much slaughing of the membrane of the mouth, I use blue vitriol Jib., water, four quarts — wash two or three times a day. Dress the feet once a day -with blue vitriol loz., carbonate zinc loz., water, three pints ; give scalded oats and bran, turnips and sweet hops. Those that will not eat, drench with gruel ; if there is much debility, and the cow requires a tonic, I give cascarilla bark l^oz., gentime l^oz., in gruel ; repeat, if required. Yours, respectfully, W. Charnley, Veterinary Surgeon. Wrexham, North Wales, Feb.27, 1841. MITCHELSTOWN AGRICUL- TURAL ASSOCIATION. Never did the rays of a rising sun grace the opening of an eventful day, to a people anxiously awaiting the commencement of a long continuing happiness, with a greater lustre than did Monday's dawn illumine the bright sphere of a foreboded prosperity to the inhabitants of Mitchelstown and its vicinity. The spirit evinced by upwards of 5000 persons, who assembled to witness our first ploughing match, is highly gratifying to all who are interested in the progress of agriculture — a spirit which would do credit to districts more mature in such pursuits than Mitchelstown is at the present. It is to be hoped, that we will ere long be able to compete with our neighbouring societies, which it must be admitted are years before us, blessed as we are with a soil on which nature has bestowed a bountiful share of her gifts — a soil in every way calculated for the working in all departments of agriculture — a soil whose occupiers display a degree of emulation (though yet in its infancy) worthy the sons of our sister countries; under such suspices, and aided by the co-operation of our noble landlord, who has munificently contributed towards the funds of our society, together with holding out every possible encouragement to the industrious tenant, are we not to expect the independence consequent on the con- tinuance of abundant crops and an improved breed of cattle? From an early hour in the morning all the roads leading to the town were crowded with persons anxious to witness the da3''s proceedings. At nine o'clock the gates of my Lord Kingston's domain were thrown open to the public ; and in a short time after, the large field in which the match came oft', presented a very animating appearance. X 2 296 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The gaiety of the scene was very much increased by the presence of the fair sex, whose approving smiles created a high degree of emulation in the minds of the young aspirants for husbandry. The gentlemen who kindly acted as Judges ou the occasion, were William Forward Austen, Esq., of Fermoy; William Cooke Collis, Esq., jun., of Castle Cooke ; Mr. Fergusson, land steward to the Duke of Devonshire ; and Mr. M'Kiswick, land steward to the Earl of Mountcashel. The first premium, being a winnowing machine, value 71., and aZ. cash, was awarded to Michael Greehy, ploughman to Mr. Sherlock. 2nd. An iron plough, value 4L 10s. and l5s. cash, to Mr. Thomas Quinlan, of Ballygiblin. 3rd. A stone roller, value 4/. and 17s. 6d. cash, to Pat. Sheehan, ploughman to Dr. O'Neill. 4th. An iron harrow, value 31. and 12s. 6d. cash, to Mr. Thomas Fennel, of Araglin. 5th. A seed-sowing plough, value 2Z.and 10s. cash, to Mr. Denis Leahy, of Araglin. 6th. A light grass harrow, value 11. I5s. and 7s. 6d. cash, to Patrick Baker, ploughman to Mr. Hartland. 7th. A plough harness, value il. 10s. and 5s. cash, to Mr. John Fennell, of Carracunna. 8th. An order for seed, value 11. 5s. and 2s. 6d. cash, to Thomas Flemming, ploughman to Mr. JefFry. 9th. An order for seed, value 11. Is. 6d. to Mr. John Casey, of Springvale. 10th. An order for seeds, value I9s. to Michael Brien, ploughman to Mr. Young. 11th. An order for seeds, value ISs. 6d. to I\Ir. Pat. Cloney, of Ivildong. An additional prize of It. was given to Mr. Richard Hartland's ploughman, for the best ap- pointed plough-horses, &c. — Cork Staiidard. THE CORN LAWS. "Sir, — Dependent as we must ever be for our natural comfort and prosperity on the cultivators of the soil, it is grievous to witness the crude ideas now so insidiously put forth for sacrificing the vast interests of the agricultural community to any vague schemes of immature legislation, depriving the British farmer of tliat protecting duty on corn by which alone a great portion of land in this coun- try is now enabled to be kept in cultivation, and thousands of our honest labourers furnished with employment. In perusing the " Report of the Commissioners on the condition of the hand-loom weavers,' just presented to the Houses of Parliament, I find the following remarks : — " Tliat as a means by which the exportation of the products of our own looms may be promoted, and the food and habitations of our labouring population may be improved, we have recommended the substitution, for the present anamolous and fluctuating corn duty, of a duty either to be annually reduced, or to be per- manently fixed at a low price. Deeming it of essential importance that the agri- cultural body should be apprised of these facts, — how, in quarters where one would least suspect, opportunities are taken for thrusting these dogmas on the attention of the Legislature, I am, Sir, yours faithfully, Charles T. James, Hi(jh EoQd'mg, Dunmoio, March 10. ON THE COMPARATIVE PRO- DUCE OF THOROUGH-DRAINED AND UNDRAINED LAND. rmZE ESSAY OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY. By George Bell, Esq., Woodhouselees, Dumfries- shire. [twenty sovereigns.] It may be necessary to remark, that the greater part of this farm is of a mossy, or what is called in the district a " black-top" soil, varying con- siderably in quality and in depth from four to five inches to 18 inches or moi-e, and which has hitherto, from the very retentive nature of the subsoil, resisted the most zealous endeavours for its permanent improvement and amelioration. The subsoil, however, is not uniform ; in many parts it is very hard and tilly, requiring the use of the pickaxe in the formation of the drains ; whilst more of it is of a clayey nature, in- terspersed with very minute veins of sand, not such, however, as at all to relieve the soil of the surface-water. There are few or no springs to get quit of. Most of the fields have a gentle slope, but not generally more than sufficient to enable the drains, now in the course of construction, to discharge the water freely. The noble proprietor, his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, having, in 1836, established a tile-work in the neighbourhood, and having held out most liberal encouragement to his tenantry, to induce them to avail themselves of its advantages, by agreeing to allow 3d. per rood of six yards for the expense of cutting and finishing the drains, and on this and the prime cost of the tiles to charge five per cent., it became an object to ascertain the probable results of thorough-draining on the better as well as the most inferior soils of the farm. With this view, as early as tiles could be obtained, drains were cut in two fields, on different parts of the farm, of the depth of 24 or 30 inches, partly diagonally across the ridges at the distance of 30 feet, and partly in the furrows at the distance of 15 feet. In both cases it was found that the advantages of the latter distance, in the produce of the fallow crops of potatoes and turnips, greatly more than counterbalanced the additional expense. No trial was made of diagonal drains at the distance of 15 feet, for it was considered, from the slight declivity of most of the fields, that when it was found necessary to have the drains so near as 15 feet to secure thorough- draining, that they would be more efficient in the furrows than diagonally across the ridges. The favourable results of these first trials, led to the draining of as much ground as tiles could be obtained for in 1837, 1838, and 1839 ; and the result of further trials in these years is what is now submitted to the Highland and Agricultural Society. The drains have, in general, averaged 30 inches in depth, and are at the uniform distance of 15 feet. It having been the practice on the farm, to endeavour to counteract its wet nature by gathering the ridges twice previous to laying down the land in grass, it has been necessary, where the soil is shallow, to cut the drains in the centre of the present ridges, so as readily to obtain sufficient of the surface-soil for filling them up. A decided preference is given to draining when the fields are in grass, both on account of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 297 the turf reversed forming an excellent covering for the tiles, and the greater facility of leading on the tiles previous to ploughing. These are laid down at the edge of the pro- posed drain, the soil is carefully deposited on the opposite side of the drains when cut, and the subsoil is thrown out on the ridge beyond the tiles, and deposited as much as possible in the old furrow, so as eifectually to prevent its being put into the drain. The cutting of the drains is all contracted for, but the laying of the tiles and the filling in of the soil is uniformly done by the farm labourers, under the immediate superin- tendence of the grieve, if possible when in a dry state. This done, a furrow on each side of the drain is ploughed into it, as the most economical, and at the same time the best, method of filling up the drain. Iii the course of fallowing the ground, the greater part of the subsoil which has been thrown out of the drains gets thoroughly incorpo- rated with the soils ; and where the depth of the latter exceeds 10 or 12 inches, it is of advantage in contributing to consolidate the mossy soil; but where the soil is thin and the subsoil tilly, it appears for a time to act very injuriously. The greatest importance is attached to the details of constructing the drains, to secure their permanent efficiency. It should be remarked, that soles (from the hardness of the subsoil and slight declivity) are, in most parts, considered quite unnecessary; but where they do appear requisite, Welsh slate is used, it being procured of the necessary size so low as 16s. per thousand. It may be almost unnecessary to notice, that the bottom of the drain is cut, as nearly as possible, of the same breadth as the tde, so as to prevent the latter being improperly laid or displaced. The cross-drains requisite are cut some inches deeper than the other drains, and are generally laid with four-inch tiles. Having offered these explanatory remarks on the method of draining, we shall now give the details of the actual expenses incurred, and the results of three comparative trials. No. 1. Coat of draining 13 acres, in November 1838, a black-top soil averaging 10 to 12 inches in depth, on a very bad tilly retentive subsoil, so hard as in many places to I'equire the pickaxe in the formation of the drains, which averaged 24 inches in depth, and 15 feet apart. 38,000 three-inch tiles at 25s £47 10 0 1,577 four-inch at 32s 2 10 5 Cutting 2,003 roods of six yards, at 3d. 26 8 9 Slates for soles 1 5 0 The sum paid by the landlord. ... 77 6 2 Leading 30,000 tiles, at 3s. 4d. per 1000. (J G 8 Leading 1,577. ... at 5s 0 7 10 Thirty-one days' work of man and horse laying down tiles, straw for covering do., &c., at 5s. Cd 8 10 6 Women loading and unloading carts. . 2 3 0 Thirty days' work of a man setting tiles. 2 5 0 Thirty ditto , of a woman 1 0 0 Three ditto .,.,.. of a plough 1 10 0 Produce of oat crop in 1839, on two acres drained ground, 66 imperial bushels ; on undrained ground, 61 bushels. The above land, from the want of tiles, was not got drained till after the ploughing of the stubble in 1837. This caused considerable additional expense from the difficulty of leading on the tiles, &c., on the ploughed ground; but the subsoil thrown out had the advantai^e of being exposed to the winter's frost, which completely pulverized it. Still, on both the turnip and oat crop, it ap- peared to act very prejudicially. Now, however, that the lime applied previous to sowing the oats and grass seeds has had time to act, the grass which has been depastured with sheep is greatly thicker planted on the drained than on the un- drained land. No. 2. Cost of draining nine acres, when in lea, in November, 1838, of a black-top soil 12 to 14 inches in depth, on a clayey subsoil v/ith minute veins of sand. 29,000 three-inch tiles at 25s £36 5 0 1,514 four-inch at 32s 2 8 5 Cutting 1606 roods, at 3d •- 20 1 6 The sum paid by the landlord. . . . £61 4 H Twenty-one days' work of a man, putting in tiles, at Is. 6d 1 11 6 Thirty days' work of a woman, at 8d. . 10 0 Two ditto of a plough 10 0 Leading 29,000 tiles, at 3s. 4d. per 1000. 4 16 8 Leading 1,514 at 5s 0 7 6 Cost of nine acres £70 7 0 Or per acre 7 15 6 Of which the land- lord's share is.. 6 16 0 Thirteen acres cost £99 9 2 Or per acre £7 13 0 The produce of two acres of the above, sown with Aberdeenshire yellow turnip raised from bone-dust, in November 1838, was 16 tons, 16 cwt. : from two acres undrained land adjoining, raised in the same manner, was six tons, four cwt. The tenant's share £0 19 6 This field required a great many cross drains. The produce of the oat crop of 1839, of the above nine acres was 258 bis. good oats. 29 .. light .. Or per acre 31§ bushels. The produce of 6| acres un- drained, in the same field, and exactly of the same quality, was 192 bis. good oats. 29 .. light .. Or per acre 31 bushels. The crop of 1839 was, in this district, a par- ticularly defective one: in a favourable season this land has produced 45 to 48 bushels per acre. It will be seen that neither on this trial, nor in No. 1, did almost any benefit appear to be derived by the corn crop from the draining ; but the advantage of the turnips is this year (1840) very great, there being an excellent crop of Swedish and Aberdeenshire yellow turnips on the whole of this field (the 6^ acres having been drained last fall), which, before draining, could not in any ordinary season, and much less so in the wet one we have had this year, have been cultivated for turnips ; the fall of rain, from the 1st July to 1st October, having been 13§ inches. No. 3. Cost of draining four acres when in stubble, in the autumn of 1838, of a black-top soil of 12 or 18 inches in depth, on a retentive but rather better clay than either No. 1 or No. 2 : drains averaging 30 inches. 298 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 12,400 three-inch tiles, at 25s £15 10 0 164 four-inch at 32s 0 5 2 Cutting 661 roods of drains, averaging 2i feet deep, at 3d 8 5 3 Slates for soles 15 0 The sum paid by the landlord £25 5 5 Leading of 12,400 tiles, at 3s. 4d 2 4 1 One man putting in tiles, four days' ■work, at Is. 6d 0 6 0 Leading of 164 tiles, at 5s 0 0 10 One woman, six and a half days' work, at 8d 0 4 4 One plough, one-half day's work.... 0 5 0 Four acres cost.. £28 2 11 Or per acre £7 0 9 Produce of potatoes in 1839... 175 cwt. per acre. Produce of four acres of un- drained ground, of exactly similar quality, immedi- ately adjoining 70 cwt. per acre. Here the great benefit of thorough-draining the deeper mossy lands for the fallow crop is clearly shown. This season (1840) the same land has been sown with Swedish turnip ; on most of the drained land it is an excellent crop, on the un- drained a very poor one. Ten acres more of the same field were drained after oats last autumn, and have produced a crop of potatoes fully equal to that on the drained ground last year. THE TURNIP QUESTION. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS, Sir, — In the number of your valuable journal published on the 31st December last, Mbich came into my bands oa the 14tb January, you express yourself rather scpptically regarding the weight of turnips mentioned in my communication of Decem- ber 1839, as well as of the quantity mentioned by some others. It appears to me thit both you and some of your correspondents have in some measure lost sight of the design of that communication, which simply was to state the result of an experiment in turnip husbandry — that of thoroughly preparing the land in autumn. In short, the sole design of it was to throw out 3 hint to turnip growers, and, to use the expression of another journalist, to take time by the forelock. From the heavy crops of turnips raised on this farm for several years, the idea never occurred that the weight mentioned in that communication would bo considered any thing uncommon. Thus, in the year 1837, a crop of white globe turnips grew to a very large size, in which roots weighing from 18 to 24 lbs. were common; many weighed 28 lbs., and some above 30 lbs., as was noticed in the periodicals of that season. Crop 1840 has proved superior in weight to that of 1839, being as high as 42 tons per statute acre, without any uncommon or expensive mode of cultivation. Such heavy crops are not confined to this farm ; for, several years ago, in an adjoining parish, on the farm of Knowes, rented by Messrs. Dunlop and Co., and then under the management of Mr. Purves, a very able practical agriculturist, and one whose veracity no one who knows him will call in ques- tion— a crop of white globe turnips was produced under the ordinary mode of culture, weighing 53 tons per scotch acre : and in turning over Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, at page 791, section 1907", he mentions above sixty tons per English acre as having been raised in Ayrshire. It is no part however of the design of this commu- nication to embark in the dispute so keenlv carried on about the actual produce in some special given instan-ces, but must confine myself to the more hum- ble department of occasionally reporting such facts as may come under my own observation. Last sea- son both Matson's and Skirving's varieties were sown on this farm in alternate rows, and both proved ex- cellent crops; but the turnip which has been most productive is the green-top Swede, selected by Mr. Kennie and some others about 40 years ago, and very successfully cultivated by him on the adjoining farm of Waughtone. By way of experiment, a part of a field on this farm was sown on tiie 4th of May last, and produced at the rate of 46 tons per statute acre ; a number of the roots were taken up in September, and found to weigh from 13 to 17 lbs., and the whole were taken off the ground and stored in October, and the land sown with wheat, and the turnips are at this date as sound as when taken off the field. Can any of your agricultural correspondents af- ford any scientific or correct information on a point which may be considered of some importance in turnip husbandry, namely, at what stage of its growth does the Swede attain its greatest weight is in the highest state of perfection for feeding, and in the best condition for storing ? I am, Sir, yours very respectfully, James Scougall. Balgone, East Lothian, 12th Feb. Sir, — So much has been said upon the turnip question, as to render what I am now about to communicate, perhaps, a matter unworthy of a place in your A'aluable columns. I am aware that it .little concerns either you or the public, to be in- formed that 1 consider myself one of the oldest growers of Swedish turnips in this county, or per- haps in Scotland. A friend of mine — an ingenious horticulturist — got a small quantity of the seed sent to him by a gentleman from Hamburgh, in the year 1786, half of which he gave to me, and which I sowed in my father's garden ; from which period to the present time in no year have I been without Swedish turnips. In this way I have contracted a kind of parental fondness for the tribe, and am pleased to see them so much improved by inter- marriage with the families of Mr. Matson and others. Before this gentleman had " laid aside his ram- blesome pen," as requested, I had resolved to send you some account of our crops in this quarter; but I was prevented by the storm from prosecuting my design until now. This hindrance being happily removed, I proceeded, with the surveyor (whose report I enclose), to lay off and to see weighed one- tenth of the produce of an imperial acre, from the best crops of Swedes in three several parishes. The discrepancy betwixt what this table and the re- ports of our English aad Irish turnip growers ex- hibits, is very striking, in so much that, although I am aware that from particular spots of rich and fresh land a higher produce can be obtained, yet anything like a general crop of forty tons of Swedish turnip, or eight quarters of wheat per imperial THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 acre, is only to be raised by farmers in Utopia — not East Lotiiian, from whence I address you ; for I feel confident that tliis county will not average twenty tons per acre. I, however, contemplate with pleasure the wide field for improvement, and consequent increase, whicli lies before us ; now that cliemical science is powerfully to combine witli industry and art. I re- joice also to notice that so many gentlemen of ranlc and talent are now turning their comprehensive minds to agriculture. In it I can promise them increasing pleasure as they advance. What task can be so deUghtful, as dutifully to wander among the flowers and fruits of the fields, where lies the guileless road whicli leads from "nature up to nature's God!" Before I conclude, Mr. Editor, it may be pre- sumptuous in me to give expression to a parti- cular sentiment which I entertain. I look upon tlie land as the capital stock of the country, in . wliich the proprietors and tenants are a kind of joint partners. The emblem on their shield should be — " See that we fall not out by the way." Tliis motto, I tliink, would be less disturbed by a fair exhibition of the profits of the resiiective share- holders; but when the tenant presents to view only the brighter shades, as if no cloud ever obscured the face of the sun to the farmer, what is tlie sleeping- partner to imagine? Nothing surely like what I shall now set forth in support of tliis idea. Many years ago I purchased 100 Cheviot sheep, at a guinea each. I put the lot upon exactly tliree Scotch acres of turnips ; and wlien the sheep had consumed them, I sold them for thirty-six shillings a-head. Within a few days they were again sold, by the man who bought them of me, for two pounds a-head. But, sir, in two other years of my professional life, the profit and loss'account exhibits an advance of only five shillings a-head upon a lot of cattle, which consumed upwards of fifty Scotcli acres of good turnips. It will be well if the increased consumption of animal food shall protect us from a recurrence of such years j and this I presume to think is mainly to be averted by giving encouragement to our an- cient and simple art. Every man who has an eye to see, and a heart to feel, must wish our native plough to prosper. " Should our cattle be left to pine in empty stalls, and fields no meat supply ?" Statesmen may cry "Peace, peace;" but there shall be no continuance of peace in our country, if she is to depend upon other nations for the food of her people. To me, therefore, it appears, were we to divert the capital and labour, employed in the cultivation of our native soil, into another channel, would be to follow a course of destructive folly : but again I ramble where wiser heads should enter, and forget the worthy maxim, "That no suter should go beyond his last." I shall not trespass farther, but remain your con- stant reader, A Probationer in Farming, AND A Practical Man." East Lothian, Feb. 24, 1841. I hereby certify that the following Table exhibits the Weight of an Imperial Acre of Swedish Turnips, drawn from the Fields enumerated therein : — Tons. Cwts. No. 1 28 7i 2 27 is' 3 25 7i 4 23 U 5 22 0 George Pringle Smith, Ordained Surveyor. Sin, — " An old Subscriber," in the Mark Lane Express of the 1st inst., expresses an opinion that my statements, as to certain crops, are "calculated to do much injury, antl certainly very little good." 1 suppose that the plain English of this is, that if the eyes of the landlords are opened, they will be for keeping up high rents. Open or shut, there always will be a number of them quite willing to do so ; but the more they know of farming, the more likely are they to be satisfied with live and let live rents. I see no harm in any one endeavouring to open the eyes of the tenantry also, that these may be enabled by increased crops to pay their rents, and leave to tuemselves tlie profit — a thing that can be only done by great industry and superior skill ; and the more generally these can be acted upon throughout tlie country, the better it will be for all parties. The " Old Subscriber" dates from " Brown's Hotel." In the Express o{ the loth inst. is a letter signed " J. B. Browne," who " quite agrees'' with the writer of Brown's Hotel. Mr. Browne says, " I can put nearly all my manure upon a few acres, and raise great crops of turnips;" but asks where would be my average on a farm of 700 or 800 acres 1 In answer, in the first place, that I put only a fair pro- portion of my farm-yard manure on for turnips; sometimes I put on none at all ; this year I shall have some without any manure at all, simply because it is not wanted. In the next place, I answer that 700 or 800 acres are too much for any one farm, even in a ring fence, because the furthermost fields lie at too great a distance to receive the usual quantity of manure which they require, and are consequently, in manv instances, neglected ; for example, a farm of 400 acres with only one homestead is quite large enough, and in my humble opinion, England would be greatly benefited if the occupations were smaller, and with resident tenants. Another correspondent wonders how I can have so much manure to spare for turnips : let him come and look at my sixteen acres of' highly cultivated hops, and my other lands that are equally well cared for, and see, with his own eyes, whether any part is in want of manure. Yet I never buy a cart-load, although the great tithes are taken in kind. On the other hand, I never consume one hundred-weight of straw in a year, for it is turned into manure by cattle. I never suffer a particle of manure to be lost, for a cesspool receives the drainage, and the liquid so saved is carefully sprinkled again, from time to time, over the yards, never allowing any portion of it to be washed away into horse-ponds, ditches, roads, &c., which is so common to be seen, from farming premises, in all parts of the country. But the great question is not so much whether A. or B. is out in any part of his calculation, but how every improvement can be soonest generalised, so as to render the country independent at least of all foreign supplies. I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, R. M. Wingham, February 16th. P. S. Your correspondent " J. S." asks, in this week's Express, how moles are best got rid of 1 I have succeeded in destroying pretty well all on my lands, by means of the common mole-trap. Formerly, my marshes looked, from a distance, like a ploughed field, and I killed upwards of 1000 in one year, when I was a young man ; last year I destroyed only seven which had emigrated from a neighbour's land. Farming premises are to be cleared of mice for half-a- crown's worth of poison. 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sm, — I, for one, feel greatly indebted to you for introducing and keeping alive the Turnip Question. The crop of Swedes, as below, I grew upon this farm, and although not a heavy one, the trial shews that ten bushels of bone-dust per acre will give the most profitable return ; this trial also proves the great increase in the autumn. The piece of Swedes (Skirving's) that won Sir Charles Morgan's prize of lOL, last Christmas, is at Caerwent, in this county, and last month weighed 34 tons, 6 cwt. per acre. The land is a deep loam, and was manured with about 30 yards of good rotten dung, per acre, put into drills at 33 inches, and the plants hoed to 12 inches. I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, P. Pilstone, Monmouth, February 17th. 1 quantity of e seed were each other. g was taken yards from e field, and linualion. o o_ ■^ GO f Drilled at 24 in. i rows. Horse J hoed twice. Four rows o manure, w sown ad jo The 1st we from abou the bottom the others i _a5 0 0 0 H r- N -a > CQ i " • o oo 0 ■° ' » W ■^CO M r-.— "i _ •0 c OD r— ( o -5 et Boo a • lo cDco CO r-i H Ir^'^^ : ^^v-. r—^ . P^ . 0 t" • • t- h- 1 .0 : \^ u ^ « • • tj 05 to C * CO p -a ,Iechanics' Insti- tution, for the offer made to the Council of the use of their hall and rooms. It v^as also recommended that in the distribution of the tickets for the great dinner on the Thursday, the members at present enrolled on the list of the Society, namely, all elected before the 24th of March, should have a priority over those new mem- bers to be hereafter proposed, the number to dine on that occasion being limited to 2800. No tickets will, we understand, be issued, excepting at Liverpool, nor before the Tuesday in the v?eek of meeting. Mr, Shaw presented his Report of the details resulting from the adoption of liis resolution on the awards of the Judges of Implements at Liverpool. Epidemic. Viscount Duncannon communicated to the Society, as First Commissioner of Woods and Forests, Reports on the Epidemic, which he had directed to be transmitted from Her Majesty's home farms; and numerous supple- mentary reports on the same subject have been furnished to the Society by The Duke of Rutlaml, Marquis of Downshiie, Earl of Radnor, and Lord Worsley, Rlr. Cuthbert Johnson, and Mr. Lance called the at. tention of the Society to some new manures they respec- tively requested to be submitted to trial in the Society's model experiment. Mr, Alderman presented specimens of Kintbury Naked Bailey;and JMr, Rodwell specimens of his Italian Rye-Grass. Mr. John Towers communi- cated a Paper on the Application of Chemistry to Agri- culture ; and Mr. Charles Newman a statement of his results in the use of Nitrate of Soda. Mr. James Fair presented a copy of the premiums offered by the Lytham Agricultural Society for the present year. Mr. Shaw, the last part of " The Farmer's Magazine.'' The Publishers, acopy of thelast No. of the " Irish Far- mer's and Gardener's Magazine;" and copiesjby the respective Editors, of the " IMark Lane Express," " Bell's Weekly Rlessenger and Farmer's Journal," the " Cambridge Advertiser," the " Magnet," the " Hampshire Independent," and the " Essex Standard." At a Council held on Wednesday, the 24th of March— present, Philip Posey, Esq., M,P., President, in the chair; Lord Braybrookej Hon. Robert Henry 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Clive, 5I.P. ; Henry Handley, Esq., M.P. ; Thomas -Raymond Barker, E^q. ; Frencli Burke, Esq ; James J)ean, Esq.; William Allies, Esq., M.P.; William Woods Papre, Esq.; William Sbaw, Esq.; Robert Aglioaby Slaney, Esq., M.P., and George Wilbraham, Esq. I'he following- gentlemen were elected members of the Society : — Tupp, John, Broomershill, Pulborough, Arundel, Sussex Evershed, John, Albury, Guildford, Surrey, Franks, James, Albury, Guildford, Surrey Sraallpiece, JMark, Dorking', Surrey Richardson, Christopher, Capel, near Dorking:, Surrey Weller, Richard, Capel, near Dorkinpr Franks, George, Ockley Court, near Dorking Bailey, John Briker, Devizes, Wiltshire Ferris, Samuel, Bulkington, Devizes Monk, Charles Atticus, Hurnshaugh, Hexham, North. umberland Errington, Johu, Wavden, Hexham, Northumberland Jobling, JolmCreswell, Newton Hall, Newcastle-on- Tyne Grey, Charles Bacon, Styforce, Newcastle-on-Tyne Ridley, John, Park End, Hexham, Northumberland Fishwick, George, Scorton, Garstang, Lancashire Beebee, Rev. M., Simonburn, Hexham, Northum- berland Fyson, Joseph, Chapel-hill, Bristol Mullins, Richard, Chew Magna, I3ristol Harwood, Edward, Almondsbury, Bristol Coltman, William Joseph, Aldborough Hall, Borough- bridge, Yorkshire. Brown, William, Horton, Devizes, Wiltshire Hayward, Johnston, Etchelharapton, Devizes Hayward, Harry, Wilsford, Devizes Smith, Christopher, Burley-on-the-Hill, Oakham Searson, Robert, Deeping St. James's, Market- Deeping, Lincolnshire Davis, Cornehus Butler, East Woodhay, Newbury, Berkshire Heaton, Charles, Endon, Leek, Staffordshire Heaton, Thomas, Endon, Leek, Staffordshire Bourne, Cornelius, Stalmine Hall, Preston, Lan- cashire Kennett, Richard, Langenhoe Wick, Colchester Heathcote, William Arthur, Rollestone, near Salisbury Clarke, Joseph, Howlet's Hall, Navestock, Ongar, Essex Stobart, Smith, Hexham Abbey, Hexham, Northum- berland Harrison, A., Lay Gate Cottage, South Shields, North- umberland Hall, John, Hopton, Bakewell, Derbyshire Lees, William, Bakewell, Derbyshire' Vardon, Thomas, Librarian of the House of Commons Pocock, Samuel, Barne's Farm, King's Langley, Hertfordshire Gray, Thomas, Oakington Farm, Harrow, and Mount- street, Grosvenor-square Wartnabay, John, Clipston, Market-Harborough Attenborough, Richard, Sawtry, Huntingdon Catherall, John, Mold, Flintshire, N. W. Clmton, Lord, Heanton House, Hatherleigh, Devon Ord, William, M.P., 17, Berkeley-square, and Whit- field Hall, Hexham, Northumberland Crosland, John Smith, Burbage House, Hinckley, Leicestershire Jarvis, Edward Kern, Castle Hill House, Hinckley, Leicestershire Castaner, Hambleton Thomas, Weston House, Nor- wich Nickisson, John, Stone, Staffordshire Matson, William, St. Osyth, Colchester, Essex AVestenra, Hon. Henry, The Dell, Windsor Hams, Thomas, Fletchampstead, Stoneleigh, Coventry Ratcliffe. William, Brickhill, J'enny-Stratford White, Richsrd Edward, Apsley Giuse, Woburn Cradock, Thomas, Woodhouse, Loughborough Mr. Handley, as chairman of the Veterinary Com- mittee, presented the report of the meeting held that day in reference to the reduction and classification of the numerous documents on the subject of the epidemic, referred to them by the Council ; the Committee recom- mending immediate stepa to be taken to effect this object, for the purpose of discussing the collected facts in their condensed and classified form, and finally deducing from the whole a general report to the Council as the result of these inquiries. jNfr. Legard communicated to the Council the Report the Judges of Implements at the Cambridge Meeting, on the mode in which the vote of money for agricultural implements on that occasion should be apportioned among the respective exhibitors, recommended in their former report as the successful candidates. Viscount Sandon, M.P., presented to the Society several specimens of soils from the Earl of Harrowby's estate in Lincolnshire, exhibiting the improvements effected in the peat soils ©f that county, by the opera- tion of claying, as detailed in his lordship's former com- munication to the President. Sir Charles Gordon, Bart., Secretary of the Highland Society of Scotland, informed the Society of the measures taken by the Plighland Society to pro- mote the object of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in reference to the acquisition of information respecting the epidemic ; and communicated to the Council the Report of Professor Dick, of Edinburgh, on that subject, as well as copies of the various premiums offered by the Highland Society. Sir Charles Morgan, Bart., transmitted to the Council copies of the prize list of the annual Agricultural Show at Court-y-Bella Farm, in Monmouthshire. Mr. Slaney, M.P., presented copies of Mr. Law Hodge's .■jccount of Pearson's Draining Plough ; the Geological Society, the recent numbers of their printed proceedings ; Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, his work on increasing the de- mand for agricultural labour ; Dr. Lindley, a copy of the " Gardener's Chronicle ;" and the editors of the " Yankee Farmer," " Mark Lane Express," " Bell's Weekly Messenger," "Farmer's Journal," "Mag- net," " Hampshire Independent," " Cambridge Ad- vertiser,'' and " Liverpool Albion," the last numbers of their papers respectively. Letters were read from Mr. W^. Bowie S. Campbell, of Clockfaldich, near Dunkeld, on the introduction of the Belgian carrot into the Highlands of Scotland ; and from Mr. Bruginton, of Staffordshire, on the luxuriancy resulting from the application of wood-ashes, obtained by burning hedge-row trimmings, as a top-dressing for clover. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 31st of March. LLANDOVERY DISTRICT AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY. On Wednesday the 3rd of March, the above So- ciety held its Spring Meeting and Annual Ploughing Match. The ground selected for the contest was a field of the Vice-President, D. Jones, Esq. on Blae- nos Farm, near Llandovery. A procession was formed as usual from the Castle-yard to the ground, and fifteen ploughs entered the field. About twelve o'clock, the preliminaries of drawing lots for the numbers having been settled, each ploughman took his allotted station, and upon a given signal they started together, each buoyed up with the hope of winning the first prize. The heavy rain on Tuesday had rendered the ground extremely wet and totally unfit for the display of fine work ; a slight shower, with bleak wind right in the face of the ploughmen at the moment of starting, added to their diflUculty, So that their first furrows were but indifferently opened ; they soon recovered their spirits, and im- proved their work at every turn, finishing the whole in such a satisfactory manner, as to prove that they were capable of performing good ploughing. There THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 was a large concourse of spectators in the field ; and •sucb wtis the anxiety evinced by the fitrmers, ser- vants, and others, in viatchin years 0 10 We heartily wish success to this and all similar societies, feeling assured they are the best means of promoting industry and the welfare ef all classes. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. May I request of you, or some of your correspon- dents, to inform me, which is the most useful and improved work on the planting and management of woods and plantations'? C. R. B. WHAT ARE THE BEST GRASSES FOR PER- MANENT PASTURES ? Mr. Editor, — May I request of ycu or some of your correspondents, to inform me what are the best grasses and seeds to sow for a permanent pasture, and where to be got at the cheapest rate to depend on, and the cost per acre ? Also you would further oblige by stating whether it is not customary for a landlord to be at the expense of such laying down of land. Your inserting the above ia your valuable journal, will much oblige Your's, most repectfully, South Beds. A Young Farmer. ON GYPSUM. Sir, — I frequently have seen gypsum recom- mended in your paper as a top-dressing for clover, and as I live in the neighbourhood of gypsum quarries, allow me through you to request infor- mation as to the proper mode of preparing it for use. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Constant Reader. Sir, — I should be extremely obliged to Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, who has written on gypsum, if he would kindly inform me, through your valu- able paper, why gypsum answers upon our poor limestone soil, commonly called stone brash, when burnt before it is pounded ; and that we find very little benefit when used without its being burnt ? AVhether he thinks nitrate of soda would answer on our limestone soil ; and what he would mix with salt, as a top-dressing, instead of lime I I am only expressing the opinion of many others, when I say that Mr. Cuthbert Johnson has done more than any man to improve agriculture, by his publications ; and while men are receiving testimo- nials of the public's estimation, let some person come forward and fix upon something to present to Mr.Johnson, and name a small sum, say five shillings each, so that a large number may have the privi- lege of contributing. A few weeks ago it was asked in your paper, if any small mill for grinding could be recommended ? The horsepower which was afterwards recommended, costing 701., was doubtless very good ; but on a small farm, where in the winter the farmer hardly knows how to employ his labourers, could he not get a hand-mill Y 2 312 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. which would answer his purpose ? AVould some correspondent give advice on this subject ? I saw some advertised by Thomas Neal, No. 70, St. Jolin Street, Clerkenwell, varying from bl. up- wards, according to the power. Believe me, your obedient servant, A Farmer on the Cotswold Hills. ON THE DISEASES OF CALVES. Since your valuable columns offer themselves as a medium for general agricultural information, I cannot abstain from participating in inquiries. The present case, which I am about to submit to your practical intelligent readers, has recently come immediately under my own observation, and re- quires, at this season of the year, more than ordi- nary attention, especially as the diseases in cattle have, of late, so universally prevailed. A herd, consisting of six short-horned cows of the improved breed, have recently been introduced into my neighbourhood. The offspring of these animals have invariably been much more delicate than those of coarser origin ; but yet, until the present year, have not ajjpeared subject to any fatal maladies. About the middle of last month, three of these cows produced fine healthy calves, Avhich were, as usual, placed in a warm, comfort- able pen, adjoining the shed where the cows are usually milked. Nothing in their appearance at all justified the slightest suspicion of approaching malady. They had always sucked their respective dams, and been kept clean ; and, when between the ages of seven and ten days, were attacked with a most virulent diarrhoea, which quite bid defiance to the effect of considerable doses of laudanum, catecu, and other predominant remedies. The death of all three ensued about the third or fourth day from the time of attack. I must observe, the cows themselves had been fed upon Swedish turnips and straw ; were very healthy and in good condition. The cause of such disease I cannot contemplate ; and, fearing a simi- lar recurrence, should feel greatly obliged to any reader who would suggest, through the same chan- nel, either a preventive or remedy, and whether he considers the disease infectious. Essex. ON THE FEEDING QUALITIES OF OIL-CAKE. A correspondent enquires whether the feeding property in oil-cake consists in the oil which re- mains, or in the other component parts of the linseed, or both. FARM ACCOUNTS. Mr. Editor, — There are many ways recommended of keeping farm accounts, and one, not the most un- common, was recommended to me by an experienced old country gentleman, who stating his wish to remain in good humour with his farm and bailiff the year round, " he kept no accounts at all," and per- haps it was the best method of attaining his object; hut in these days of calculation ia all matters con- nected with farm produce and consumption, I am surprised it has never suggested itself to any of our agricultural economists to give a sort of table, show- ing what quantity of the produce of the farm is generally consumed ; or more properly what quan- tities of food ought to suffice for those animals which are supplied to the house from the farm. It would be very useful were it shown in the pro- portions that would probably be required from the mansion of the peer to the house of the small renting farmer ; because it does not follow that the same proportion of expense would attach to the twenty fat chickens killed by the former, as to the 200 couple required in the establishment of the peer. Such a statement would be a very excellent guide, communicated through your valuable and instructive journal; it ought to embrace the quantity necessary, and the expense of maintaining a sufficient stock. To produce a given supply for consumption, it would be a good check to the expenditure of the peer ; it would show the squire that his table, though supplied by his farm, still cost him some- thing, and perhaps would open a new light upon the good-natured farmer, who, like my friend, " keeps no account at all." The following queries, or some of a similar kind, would supply the in- formation needed : — Piggery. — What stock (or number of old ones) should be kept, and what quantity of barley-meal, potatoes, or other food, will be necessary to pro- duce— suppose— six bacon hogs, of from 200 to SOOlbs. each ; fifteen porkers, of from 70 to 801bs. each ; twelve roasters. Poultry. — What stock of old ones should be kept, and what quantity of barley, rye, potatoes, or other food, required to produce — suppose — 100 couple of fowls, tat ; 40 turkeys, do. ; 30 ducks, do. ; 20 geese do. ; and about 150 dozen of eggs. The number of cows, and expense of keeping, to produce about the average of 501bs. of butter per week, and twenty quarts of cream per week. The above data of quantities is merely taken to shew the probable proportions of different things required from the farm, without in the least wishing those who may do me the favour of answering these queries, to make their calculations upon them. Your most obedient servant, March 7 th. B.C. STEAMING APPARATUS, WHITE CARROT- SEED, &C. Sir, — Some few weeks back I saw an extract in the Mark Lane Express, from a Scotch paper, giving an account of an excellent potato-steamer, much used in Scotland. You would much oblige me by procuring from some of your northern cor- respondents, a further description of the apparatus referred to, its cost, &c. I should also feel much obliged by your informing me Avhere the white carrot-seed may be procured, by what name the best sort is distinguished, and whether it is superior to the red carrot in any respect, excepting quantity of production, &c. I am. Sir, yours resiiectfully, A Subscriber. Chatteris, Feb. 23. ON STEAM THRASHING-MACHINES. Sir, — I was pleased to see in your Journal of the 8tli of this month, an answer to my queries respecting a Portable Steam Thrashing-machine. Your readiness in inserting any agricultural queries is of great use to the community at large; and since you are so ready in obliging your subscribers, allow me to ask a few more questions respecting this subject, which is of great interest to me, if not to many others in the agricultural line. I shall be obliged to your correspondent, Wolverhampton, Bad others who have tried the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 313 machine, to inform me the quantity of coal it con- sumes in tlie course of twelve, or any given number of lioTirs ; also the time it requires to get tlie steain up ; and, also, tlie nearest spot to this county, or to London, where one could be seen at work. I should also be glad to know if this engine, of five-horse power, would be applicable to working a plough, if removed from one part of a field to another. It may be too theoretical an idea, but I cannot help thinking, ere long, steam power may be profit- ably employed for agricultural purposes ; till which time I fear much of poor clay soils in this country cannot, even under the existing corn-laws, be profitably employed in tillage. — I am, sir, your obedient servant, A Dorsetshire Farmer. DRILL PLOUGH. A Correspondent enquires, whether a drill has ever been attached to a plough so as to work with it ; and if so, in what agricultural publication a no- tice of such machine may be found ? We have seen somewhere an account of a drill for peas and beans so attached to a plough. LIME KILNS. A Correspondent says, " I wish to know the best and cheapest mode to erect a kiln for burning lime •with furze, heath, faggots, &c. ; and I should es- teem it a favour if any of your correspondents would answer the enquiry." ON DESTROYING RATS. Sir, — I shall feel obliged if any of vour numerous and respectable readers Avill inform me the best method of destroymg rats (in buildings), such as mills aad flour stores, my premises being much in- fested with them. Your inserting the above in your valuable journal will much oblige, yours, most respectfully, a con- stant reader. A. B. Sheffkld, Feb.S6, 1841. PS. — Think it would be a good subject for the lloyal Agricultural Society to offer a premium upon. ON STORING TURNIPS. Sir, — In a letter, headed — " The Turnip Ques- tion," in your valuable paper of the 15th of Febru- ary, much useful information was conveyed by Mr. Ogilvie; perhaps, through the medium of your paper, he would be kind enough to answer the fol- lowing queries : — He says, " I had the crop of turnips removed by the latter end of October, and the ground sown in wheat by the first week in November." Now in Ayrshire the turnips are still growing, and not come to perfection ; and, as we must keep them on to the end of April, for the sake of the stock, until we get the grass — which is not generally tmtil the end of April — I should be glad to know how he stores his turnips, and whether they are at their full growth in October or not, as the great difficulty is in keeping them, though we sow about the same time and after the same method he mentions ; and, as Mr. Ogilvie says he is always glad to give any information he is possessed of, would much oblige your obedient servant and constant reader, Near Ayr, March 5, 1841. R. W. ON THE WIRE-WORM. Sir, — The general and useful information I srlean from your weekly paper, induce* me to ask the favour of some of your correspondents in getting' rid of tlie wire-worms, having by them iiad my wheat crops de- stroyed for the last four years. My land is poor, wet, heavy, stiff' loam. My system has been, after making a good fallow, to sow Oats or Wheat, and lay it down with Pacey grass, white clover, and trefoil, for two or three years, and sometimes for six or seven years; I feed and top-dress the layers two or three times with dung-, lime, and earth ; I then break them up and plant Beans, afterwards Wheat, which I have frequently been obhs-ed to plough up ; and after making a good fallow (eight or nine plougrhings), besides mending (with six hundred of lime, and about thirty loads of earth per acre, previously mixed and turned over), I have now sown Wheat, which I fear is so infested with worms that I must again plough it up, unless you can devise means to save it. Yours obliged. An Essex Farmer. ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. A DRAIN PLOUGH. Sir,' — I -was at Forthampton Court, the residence of that excellent friend to agricultural improvements, Joseph York, Esq., where I had the good fortune to see this plough at work ; it was working in a piece of strong clay laud, full of stones, where they supposed no plough could work, for it could not be worked with the spade without the pick, but to our surprise the plough turned out a furrow twenty-six inches deep, fourteen at top, and seven at bottom, at two cuts ! and left the drain perfectly smooth and fit for the tiles, more perfect than any spade in the world could do it. It will work in any soil that requires draining; it will cut an inclined plane on a dead level, work across ridges ; it is taken out of the drain with perfect ease ; it possesses great strength, and is not heavy ; it is quite a new thing, and alto- gether out of the common form of ploughs ; and I understand that the price is about £15. It was invented by a Mr. H. Baker, of Tewkesbury, who, I am informed, will be glad to furnish any gentleman with all particulars concerning it, together with the implement if desired. I am. Sir, Your obedient and humble servant, Feb. 24,1841. A Constant Reader. P.S. — I have forgotten to tell you that it will cut a drain at one, two, or three cuts : and there is no skill required in the ploughman, the coulters being- all set when the plough is made, and saves about 70 per cent. PORTABLE STEAM THRASHING MACHINE. Sir, — In answer to a " Dorsetshire Farmer," I beg to inform him that the engine and boiler, and the portable steam thrashing machine, is applicable to any machine or straw-engine he may require, which horses are in the habit of working : it is a high-pressure rotarv disc engine, and a patent, made at the Patent Disc Engine Company, Berkley- street, Birmingham, and a five horse power, requiring a small space about 2 feet 8 inches by 3 feet, and having neither fly wheel or beam ; price of the en- gine 631. Let me also inform him he may have a boiler to what size or make he likes to drive it, the price of which will be according to the strength 314 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and make. The above machine rides on a four- wheeled carriage, and three horses may convey it where wanted. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, March 1st, 1841. Wolverhampton. BONE-DRILLP. Sir, — In i-eply to the question of "A Subscri- ber," respecting bone-drills, I beg to inform him that the most complete drill for sowing bones or ashes is made by the inventor, Mr. Carson, of Warminster, in the county of Wilts, which I can recommend, from having had one in use for some time ; the price is fourteen guineas. It takes t-.vo drills twenty-seven inches apart, or three drills thirteen and a half inches apart. I am, your obedient servant, Dorset, Feb. 10, 1841. A Yeoman. ON DESTROYING MOLES. Take a quantity of fresh worms, put them in a wooden box, with a small quantity of carbonate of barytes in powder, and let them remain an hour or two; then find out the runs where the moles leave the fences for the land, lay in every run five or six worms, and continue doing so as long as the worms aretakeu away by the moles. I was infested with moles before I used this remedy, which was about fifteen years since, but have never been injured since, by giving a little attention to them in the spring. If you consider this worth a corner in your valuable paper, in answer to J. S., it will oblige, Je&. 20,1841. A Si;bscriber. ON PIGEONS DUNG. Sir, — A correspondent inquires the value of pigeon dung as a manure, and how it ought to be used. It is an excellent manure for turnips ; so also is poultry dung. Clear the dove-cote and chicken-house about a fortnight before turnip-sowing commences ; throw the dung on a heap, sprinkling it plentifully with water ; it ferments rapidly, and in a few days will be fit to riddle: mix an equal portion of soot ashes, and drill in with the turnip seed about four quarters per statute acre. Having the pen in my hand, I may as well correct a mistake of Mr. Hillyard's, relative to the price of barley oil-cake : it is 121. per ten, instead of 41. 10s.; indeed, no honest man could make it for the latter price. Linseed oil is 271. 10s. per ton ; con- sequently the cake could not be manufactured for the price Mr. H. imagines. Your obedient servant, Lincoln, March 2nd. North Wolds-Man. Sir, — lu 1832 I manured about seven acres of a nine-acre field lieavily with good fold -yard manure, in equal quantities, mixed horse and cow dung, the remaining two acres were manured with 100 bushels of pigeon dung, fresh from the cole, and sown broad-cast on the land, as was the tur- nip seed over the wliole field. The turnips were called the " K'orfolk white." I had an excellent crop, and could never distinguish a difference arising from the variety of manure, excepting that I fancied the quality in feeding on the land was somewhat in favour of the fold-manure. In 1833 the same management was resorted to in another nine acre field, and with precisely the same result. In the years 1834, 1835, and 183G, I drilled the pigeon dung, mixing at the rate of 1 qr. of rape- dust and 40 bushels of pigeon dung per acre ; and in every case, part of the fields were manured witli fold-yard dung, and tire results were the same as when sown broail-cast. The soil, in all these cases, was an excellent turnip and barley soil — a deep rich sand on a grit stone rock. In 1839 I drilled pigeon dung ; quantity, hO busliels per acre (without mixture), on u soil com- posed of black sand and peat to a great depth, with a clay subsoil. In this instance, as well as in those before mentioned, I also manured a part of the field with good fold manure. The turnips in this case were "purple topped Swedish;" where the pigeon dung was used they wore good for no- thing, but where the fold manure was laid the crop was excellent. These turnips were all drilled on the 20th May. Trusting you will excuse these hurried remarks, as I am just now much pressed for time, I am, Sir, your obedient servant, C. R. Brady. Lyme Parlt, Cheshire, March 4, 1841 . CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE FOR APRIL. The beauty ef the last month, to the period when we write this article, has been striking, and the wea- ther most ])ropitious to the gardener; what April may be, remains to be proved. Last year it might be called the fiery month — the sun blazed with fer- vor throughout, and scarcely one of the fine prover- bial showers refreshed the already parched earth. The springs of all the j'^ears subsequent to 1835, have been singularly perplexing and anomalous — that this may prove an exception is our sincere hope. In the Vegetakle Garden all the operations of the last month (2S6) may be repeated— observing to sow peas whenever the seed last put in the ground has completely vegetated. Peas try the land more than any oiher crop ; it is not that they demand much manure, but the system of their roots is very great, and equally singular ; the odour they diifuse through the ground is peculiar and strong ; if any plant afford evidence of radical exudation, it is the pea ; and they who crop with it in frequent succession, should exercise a keen eye upon the results. In the shallow chalky soil of thn Isle of Thanet, after two or tliree crop.s, we have known a fine plant of this vegetable, a foot or more high, to " fox" off (a local term) in a day, the haulm turning orange, and ceasing to grow. In all places a judi- cious rotation should be adopted, and in large gar- dens, perhaps none is better than that which we observed at Sloke, in Buckinghamshire. Straw- berries formed the permanent crop of broad borders, the rows extending from wall to front, a yard or more apart ; between these there were rows of dwarf peas, to which succeeded the smaller varieties of brocoli. Thus the ground was perpetually rotated and cleansed; all the crops flourished and were healthy. In that celebrated work, " Organic Chemistry, by Liebeg, 1840," we possess a fund of philosophical in- formation, which ought to be in constant requisition ; we shall do the scientific author the justice to place extracts from it, occasionally, before our horticultural readers, in the assured hope that thus we may THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 315 equally promote his olj act, aid extend the Science of Gardening. Liebeg appears to be the first who lias duly ap- preciated ami explained Decandolle's theory, which supposes that " the roots of plants imbibe soluble matter of every kind from the soil, and thus neces- sarily absorb a number of substances which are not adapted to the purposes of nutrition, and must sub- sequently be expelled by the roots, and returned to the soil as excrements," But excretions may be of a two-fold character, and Liebeg- makes this just dis- tinction, while he entirely reconciles the two theories — of the " poisoning" of tiie soil by these specific or fecal exudations, and its exhaustion by vegetable extractive power ; " thus," he says, when " sub- stances wiiich are incapable of being employed in the nutrition of a plant, exist in the matter absorbed by the roots, they must be again returned to the soil. Such excrements might be serviceable, and even indispensable to the existence of several other plants ; but substances that are formed in a vegetable organism, during the process of nutrition, which are produced tlierefore in consequence of the formation of woody fibre, starch, albumen, gum, acids, 6ic., cannot again serve in any other plants to form the same constituents of vegetables." " Flax, peas, clover, and even potatoes, are plants, the excrements of which, in argillaceous soils, re- quire the longest time for their conversion into humus: but it is evident that the use of alkalies and burnt lime, or even of small quantities of ashes which have not been lixiviated/' (wood-asJies are meant) " must enable a s©il to permit the cultiva- tion of the same plants in a much shorter time." They who still question that plants of any kind exude fecal or (to the individual) superfluous matter from the roots, might be hampered to account for the extraordinary odour emitted by peas and kidney-beans into the earth. 'I'his odour must be something ; and he who doubts, should sow peas and kidney beans in a bos of the simplest loam : this is a good season for the business, as both legumes transplant very well. A gentle heat should be em- ployed ; and by the time that the plants are four or five inches high, the boxes will be full of roots, and the question at issue will be settled. Kidney-beans may also be sown in the open ground by the 21st — both dwarf and runners. Seeds of these leguminous plants ought never to be sown in cold, wet ground: drills, two or three inches deep, should be formed early in the day, so that the earth may become warm by the sun before the seeds are deposited ; warm ground is a great stimulant and preserver from decay, and beans never prosper that remain long torpid. Sow sea-kale in deeply-digged beds — the seeds, either in rows, or three or four in a little ring, each ring two feet from its neighbour ; thus a permanent plantation will be formed : also peas, beans, cab- bage, savoy, borecole, brocoli, spinach, turnips, beet-root, carrot, silver-skinned onions; the con- sumption of the family must regulate the supply to be provided. Aspariigus and sea-kale — not forced— come into regular season in April, and both are in higher flavour, if grown without stimulus. Cut the former with a saw-bladed knife, passed slanting and rather deeply by the shoot: cut the kale close over the collar, and when a row is taken, pass a sharp bladed S])ade along the crowns, and cut each to a clear level surlace just below the soil ; thus a new succession of young shoots will rise, little liable to run to seed — reduce the earth of the beds a trifle, exposing the crowns of the plants, and make the ground and in- termediate spaces clean and even. Dress articJiol.e beds or rows, digging in the decayed manure, and taking off the extra suckers, which maj' now be em- ployed to form other beds. If tlie plot of JerusaleiH artichoke be not regulated, the work ought to be no longer delayed, because tie tubers will be growing. Plant small ones entire, the larger in cut sets, four or five inches deep, and about eighteen inches asunder. Main-crops of potatoes ought to be in the ground : two-eyed cut sets, if fine, yield a greater return than entire tubers : the reason is obvious — the most active eye of the latter becomes a shoot, and the others remain torpid ; hence there is a positive loss of weight, for if a half-pound potato push but two eyes, and if the same potato, cut into six sets, push twelve eyes, the return must, in comparison, be greater. Transplant cabbage, cauliflower, celery, from seed-bed. Hoe, weed, thin seedling-beds of every sort of vegetable sown this year ; earth peas, beans, cabbages, &c., and destroy weeds every- where. Fruit Department. Finish pruning espalier and dwarf apples and pears: these trees (now) appear very forward, and of great promise; therefore the work, as always, should be completed before the blossoms expand. Watch the apricot, plum, peach, and nectarine trees, for by attentive, timely regulation, many wounds and much labour will be avoided. Disbud therefore the useless wood-shoots, as they become an inch or two long ; the thumb and finger will eff'ect much, and a very fine sharp knife will remove any loosened bark. The pruner ought to provide one well placed shoot at the lowest part of the bearing wood of the peach and nectarine, to furnish the succession bearer of next year; another about the middle, and a third at the extremity ; these three are retained to secure the fruit, and to carry on the vital functions of the branches. The leaves of all plants perform a far higher office than those of merely expelling watery transpiration ; they are vital organs, in all that respect atmospheric influence. TnE Vinery. 'J he early houses progress, and grapes frequently begin to colour: occasional night-fires must be em- ployed ; but the sun is the grand maturing agent. Our object now is to direct attention to a vine which few approve of, because they treat it improperly— we mean ]Vest's black St. Peter, recommended by Mr. Oldacre, formerly gardener to the Empress of Russia. It is very late in its season, and retains its fruit in perfection till the winter, provided the house be dry. Many have attempted to force it early, but found themselves in some way disappointed. Durino- two summers we have left it to the natural stimulus, under glass, and have ripened the fruit very finely ; but it is more prudent to light the first fire early in April, and keep the house at 60** by night, till the fruit be of the size of peas, and thinned. Then, if the season be ordinarily genial, the sun's power will complete the process, and large clusters of fruit will be ripe, and fit for the table from September to Christmas. The berries are oval, of a deep purple, covered with a delicate bloom ; the juice is rich and saccharine, but not of any distinctive flavour ; there are scarcely any seeds, and the skin of the berry is thin and tender ; the leaves are highly glazed on both surfaces; the veins and footstalks purplish red. Greenhouse. " Give abundance of air every day, and in mild nights leave some on all night; water over the leaves 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (not upon the under surface) and shut the house in the afternoon when you water ; this invigorates the plants wonderfully.'' Sound, though old advice, to which we add, *' i^ all the healthy Pelargonia will require shifting — twice, perhaps. A good earth is composed of unctuous hnzel loam, blended before the winter with an equal portion of two-year old cow- dung; now adding as much black leaf mould, and a sixth of the whole of river sand. The Cactus tribes will begin to" fill up" after their winter torpor, and then must be refreshed with new soil, and moderate watering, in heat. Moss must never be used as drainage ; we see reason to suspect this substance generally. Charcoal powder is re- commended as a powerful manure for the cacti; the curious should trv it to the extent of from one quarter to one half of the compost earth, using oyster-shell drainage. (See a note in Lindley's New Gardenei's Chronicle, on the subject of caciaccc) ^ Flower Garden. Sojy the seeds of every approved annual, in little circles, covering with fine earth ; place an inverted pot over the patches, to protect the seeds and young plants from burning sun, and water them v/ith a very fine rose. Hoe, rake, and clear the ground occasionally. Introduce herbaceous plants, but leave spaces for the verbenas, calceolarias, and other greenhouse and frame plants, which must shortly be hardened for exposure. Propagate by cuttings. Lay down turf, roll, sweep, and mow ; keep gravel walks clear of grass and weeds, and roll them after every shower. The shrubberies must be nicely pruned, and the ground digged carefully ; layers of the lower branches of evergreens pegged down, notched and earthed, will take root freely. In the stove and propagation house, heat, moisture, and air should he liberally supplied. Cuttings of almost every plant, so ])ro- pagated, may now be made ; and we recommend our amateur readers, who do not aim at a stock, to em- ploy a small pot for each cutting, in order when filled with roots to transfer the young plant to its proper soil with safety. In potting oft", persons are very apt to lose their young plants ; this is fre- quently the case with tbe azaleas, gardenias, and other wooded subject, struck in sand. Verbenas that have stood the winter, and are growing, can now he freely multiplied by cuttings, and will flower in the autumn. — March 17. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MARCH. It is a generally admitted fact, that that period of the year which forms the subject of this report, is one of the most important in the calends to all en- <'ao'ed in agricultural labours ; hence we conceive it worthy of particular attention. The continuance of exceedingly favourable weather has been productive of great advantage to our farmers, who have been thereby enabled to prosecute both ploughing and sowing, even in low situations, without experiencing those atmospheric interruptions with which thev have often had to contend ; and the accounts which have come to hand from all quarters, have been of the most satisfactory nature. At the month's commence- ment, field work was unusually backward, even in our most favoured districts, but so great has been the progress made of late, that the process of crop- ping is expected to be concluded by, or shortly after, the usual time. The soil has been found in a fine condition for the reception of tbe seed wheat, and has worked remarkably well. As to the young wheat plants, these are exhibit- ing a very strong and healthy appearance, with every prospect of good forthcoming crops, especially on heavy lands. Scarcely any instances have been discovered in which the grain has missed chitting properly, yet the ground does not in any way seem encumbered with the plants. The lambing season has been, we are happy to state, productive of a fine fall of strong lambs, in most of the grazing counties, and very few casualties have occurred. From Scotland, we learn that the value of seed wheat has been well maintained in the diflferent markets ; while, in other kinds of corn, as well as pulse and flour, a limited amount of business has been doino-. Tillage has progressed beyond the ex- pectations even of the most sanguine, and a large quantity of wheat and barley has been already sown, under the most auspicious circumstances. In Ireland, a scarcity of really fine wheat, fit for immediate conversion into flour, has been complained of, owing to which, enhanced rates have been de- manded for it. Good potatoe oats have also im- proved in value ; yet barle}', oatmeal, and flour, have been little sought after. In the mountainous dis- tricts, a large i)ortion of the Lenten crops has been either dibbled or sown broadcast, and some fair pro- gress has been made in other quarters. It is highl)' satisfactory in being enabled to assert, that much of the virulence of the epidemic amongst stock has abated, and that the accounts which have reached us from Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Leicester- shire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, &c. &c., intimate that it has now appeared in a much milder form, and produced much less disastrous effects than formerly. Both sheep and beasts have also come to hand in the metropolitan market in a much im- proved condition, and but few losses have occurred on the roads. The recent strenuous exertions Vv'hich have been made by the Manchester Chamber of Commerce to obtain a repeal of the corn-laws, have been the topic of conversation not only amongst agriculturists, hut the public at large. JBut how have these attempts been met by those whose pro])ert3% nay, whose very existence, is thus assailed ? In too many instances, by much more apathy and indifference than the im- portance of the question demands. This, our readers may rest assured, is not the way to stem ef- fectually the flood of " PUBLIC OPINION," which is thus agitated against the best interests of the most valuable portion of the community. It is an acknow- ledged axiom, that " Unity is Strength ;" and we have no hesitation in thus asserting, that if that homely axiom be acted upon throughout the country, that our farmers will speedily put to silence the " cheap-loaf" bait which has been so industriously wrung into the ears of the lower orders of society, and by that means support their just rights and pri- vileges. Mr. Villiers has, we perceive, given notice of his intention to bring under the consideration of the lower House the subject of the corn-laws after the recess ; hence it is quite time our agriculturists were vp and doing, in order to counteract the evil THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 317 tendency of that poison wLicli bas been so widely of stock somewhat freely, and the currencies have disseminated. improved from 2d. to 4d. per 8lbs. The various country markets have been, on the A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- whole, tolerably vs-ell, but not to say heavily, sup- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited plied with wheat, most of which has come to hand ill and sold in Smithfielu Cattle Market, on fair condition. For the best parcels the inquiry has Monday, March 30th, 1840, and Monday March 1.1 X J 1- i,„ ,<■ o, ,„,. ^_ 29, 1841. AtperSlhs.tosinktheoffata. proved steady, at an advance ot about 2s. per qr.; •^' .March 30, 1840. March ao, 1S41. but, in other kinds, little fluctuation has occurred. s. d. s. <1. s. d. 9. d. The barley trade bas been mucli depressed, and the Coarse & inferiorBeasts2 0 to 2 2 .. 3 4tc3 S quotations have declined from Is. to 2s. per qr. Second quality do 2 4 2 8.. 3 10 4 4 Malt has met a slow sale, at drooping prices. Al- Prime large Oxen 3 0 36. .46 48 though the arrivals of oats have proved extensive Prime Scots, &c 38 42., 48 4 10 all the month, that article has sold readily at im- Coarse & inferior Sheep 38 40.. 3 10 42 proved rates, say from 6d. to is. per qr. In beans Second quality do. .••.4 2 4 6.44 410 and peas little passing; but flour has risen from 2s. Prime coarse wooUed do. 4 8 5 0.. 5 0 5 2 , ,,'^ aoniiT Prime Southdown do.. 5 0 5 2.54 56 to OS. per 2801bs. Lambs 6 6 7 6 .. 7 0 8 0 The following is our usual monthly statement of Large coarse Calves.. 4 4 4 10 .. 5 0 5 4 the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and Prime small ditto 5 0 5 6.. 5 6 510 sold in Smithfield Cattle Market. The supplies of Large Hogs 40 46. .40 48 beasts have amounted to 9,941 ; of sheep and lambs, Neat small Porkers .. 4 8 4 10 .. 4 10 5 0 81,213; of calves, 420 ; and of pigs, 2,400; while ^'7^f''f.f -,„,„ ^, ^ „„ ,o., ., •' , . „„ e^u°' R „<• A March 30, 1840. March 29, 1841. the prices have ranged as follows :— Beef, fiora ^^^^^^ _ _ '^^ 5s. 4d. to 5s.; mutton, 4s. to 5s 6d.; lambs, DS. 2d. gheep and Lambs ... . 22,000 16,620 to 6s. 8d. ; veal, 5s. to 6s.; and pork, 4s. to 5s. per Calves 132 69 81bs. to sink the offals. Pigs...'.' 504 645 From Scotland, about 200 horned and polled Scots, The supplies of slaughteied meat received up to together with 400 sheep, have arrived by steamers Newgate and Leadenhall Markets have been very in excellent condition. moderate, yet the deaiand for them has proved by On each market day, the market has been well no means animated, at but little fluctuation in the attended by dealers, who have purchased most kinds prices. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURIxNG THE MONTH OF MARCH. The large corn markets, contrary to the general expectation, have not, since our last publication, been very abundantly supplied with any descrip- tion of grain of British growth : but still, the (juantities of each have been nearly in proportion to the demand, and no great variation in prices can consequently be quoted during the month of March. This circumstance is in part to be at- tributed to a very natural desire, always entertained by the British farmers, of gradually restoring into their stack-yards, that quantity of grain which, on the average of years, they should always at the conclusion of each corn season possess ; but of which, the deficient crops of 18'.^7 , 1838, and 183'J, latterly deprived them. This has been more par- ticularly the case in the article of wheat, the quantity of which, in the farmer's and merchant's stores, has been, and still is much less than the well-being of the community requires. The large crop of wheat which was produced in 1840, will, no doubt, in part enable the agricultural interest to remove this great national misfortune ; but still, one good crop cannot be expected to make up for the deficiency in quantity, which three previously bad ones had created. An expectation therefore is entertained, and is gradually gaining ground, that a considerable importation of the finest qualities of foreign grain will be required during the ensuing summer, to assist our home produce of wheat of last season. The merchants who are principally engaged in this department of our foreign commerce, are, fortunately, alive to this state of the corn trade, and have, we believe, to a certain extent already given those orders to their correspondents abroad, which are necessary to remedy the expected evil ; and no doubt can be entertained that their importations next summer and autumn, will amply make amends for any deficiency in the home supply which may occur towards the conclusion of the present corn season. To the home producers of wheat, this circumstance cannot be of any material con- sequence, for a reduction in the present rates of the wheat import duty must precede any large foreign importation of that article ; and to reduce duties, a proportionable improvement must talce place in the average prices, by which these duties are regulated. The reason why our markets during the month of jMarch have not been so abundantly supplied with British and Irish wheats, as was previously expected, may partly also have its origin in the expectation being now enter- tained by the farmer, that an improvement in the value of his property is prol)able before the next crop can be brought forward into the market for consumption; and, t'nerefore, that it is for his interest to deliver at present, as sparingly as possible, until a later period of the season. It is under such circumstances, that the fine arrange- ments of the corn laws display their almost naturally beautiful workings. As necessity demands, they reduce or they increase the duties payable on the importation of foreign grain for home consumption ; sometimes perfectly pro- tecting the home grower by prohibitory duties, and at other times for the consumer's benefit, admitting the importation of unlimited quantities at nominal duties. It is not improbable, that these la vvs may shew their good qualities before the conclusion of the present corn season, and even, should necessity require it, they may for a time, as they did last year, virtually repeal them- selves. However much all, who are connected ■with and interested in the progress and in the 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. prosperity of the British agricultural interest, may deprecate a large importation of foreign grain into our markets of consumption at nominal duties ; stiil, the injury which a free trade in grain with foreign nations inflicts on the agricultural interest at home, is trivial indeed when it is placed in the scale opposite to the injury which it universally inflicts on the commercial, manu- facturing-, and monied interests throughout the United Kingdom. To the land proprietor, and to his tenantry, the evil consequences of a partial freedom in the corn trade with foreign nations can only be temporary ; but to trade they are per- manent, in as far as the disarrangement which an unlimited importation of foreign grain occasions in the value of the precious metals, which form the standard of our circulating medium, and by which the value of wages and the prices of every description of manufactured goods are universally fixed. This princij)le is but too abundantly proved by official papers lately placed on the table of the House of Commons, by which it is made manifest, that the declared value of our foreign exports during the year 1840, is nearly one million and a half less than that of 1839. The anti-corn-law people attribute this fact to the prohibitory duties which are imposed on foreign grain admitted into our markets for home use ; because, as they assert, tiie foreign grain growers possess no other means for payment of our manufactured goods, than the exchange for them of their own produce. It, however, un- fortunately for these doctrines happens, that the importations of foreign grain of all descriptions during the year 1840, were larger than the history of the corn trade can record in any previous year ; and that, so far were the import duties irora being prohibitory, the largest portion of that very im- mense importation was entered at nearly a nominal duty. Still, official documents shew a deficiency in the value of the goods exported during 1840, wherein the corn trade was as nearly free with foreign nations and states as it possibly can be rendered, even by the entire repeal of our corn laws themselves, of nearly one million and a half sterling. Had our foreign export trade in- creased in an equal degree with the partial freedom in the corn trade during that period, then, indeed, there might have at all events been one plausible argument in favour of the total re- peal of the corn laws ; but an imbounded free corn trade has heretofore always been attended by results the reverse of increased activity in our foreign export trade, for which the reasons are very obvious indeed. We have only to refer to the experience which is furnished in those years wherein the importations of foreign grain have been large, of the general distress which is uni- versally created in the money market afterwards, and of the injurious consequences of this circum- stance to commerce, to manufactures, and to every department of industry, agriculture ex- cepted. The serfs in Poland, and indeed in all the large foreign corn districts in Europe and America, by whose labour the fruits of the soil are produced, have scarcely any interest in the crops themselves, a small portion only being an- nually retained for their support. Under a system of this description, we have often had occasion to remark that, large crops or small ones, fine quality or bad quality, high prices or cheap prices, are not of the smallest consequence to their well- being; nor do the most productive corn seasons enable them generally to increase, in any material degree, their usual consumption of manufactured goods, or of colonial produce. When, therefore, unfavourable seasons render any large importa- tion of foreign grain necessary for our home con- sumption, no increase in our exports of goods to those states from which the corn and flour are received has ever yet occurred, nor can any great alteration, under the present corn principles and practice abroad, be expected. During the last three years, the immense drain here on the jirecious metals has had its origin solely in the de- mand for specie, which the payment for foreign grain consumed in this country required ; and this demand has been attended by a natural scarcity of money, and by a proportionable advance in the value of the circulating medium. Dear and scarce mouQy caused an advance in the annual rates of interest, which the limited profits at present to he derived from com- mercial pursuits cannot long afibrd to pay, and commercial distress has thus unfortunately, but naturally, been increased by that immense import- ation of foreign grain which was rendered neces- sary in 1840. A repetition of a foreign trade in the same article; to the same extent, during this corn season, must be attended by similar results to commerce, and likewise, we fear much, by a mate- rial and destructive reduction in the wages of industry and of labour themselves. The people, of course, must submit to evils which, under the present protective influence of the corn laws, the elements alone can create ; but yearly now do they shew their hostility in a more determined manner to the repeal of those laws by which the wages of their labour, and the pay of their industry, are so admirably protected. At the annual meeting in London of the anti-corn law people, in the begin- ning of last month, the hostility of the respectable portion of the operatives and artizans to the principles of this society was perfectly illustrated ; indeed, their conduct at that meeting must have effectually removed every doubt which might have previously been entertained of their opinions re- specting this most important subject. They voted the chairman from his seat, appointed one of their own, negatived all the resolutions which were pro- posed against the existing corn laws, and substi- tuted for them amendments in other matters of polity. The progress of the mind towards a know- ledge of better things, has already taught the great proportion of the jiroductive classes of society, that dearness and cheapness are entirely relative terms ; and that, in the present state of society in the United Kingdom, they are regulated partly by supply and demand, but more frequently by the scarcity or abundance of money. When, by the unfavourable state of the seasons, large quantities of foreign grain become necessary for the home consumption, an exportation of a proportionably large amount of specie also becomes necessary. This money can only be again drawn back into the empire by future efforts of industry ; but in the meantime it is withdrawn entirely from the pro- ductive employment of the British people. Had it been exchanged with our own farmers or colo- nists for the necessaries or luxuries of life, it would have remained in the country, and conse- quently never been out of circulation. It would have been applied to farther internal improve- ments, either agricultural or commercial, and it would have afforded good wages to many thou- sands of families. Circumstances, however, have rendered the exchange of large sums of money for large quantities of foreign 2,i3Aa, during the last THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 yeai', absolutely necessary, and commerce is now feeling the unfavourable consequences of this most anti-national — though at the time necessary — ex- cliange of British money for foreign food. The want of it also has — for a time, at all events — restricted si)eculativc undertakings, and must eventually produce a correspondent limitation in the wages of industry. The people are, however, as we have frequently had occasion already to notice, gradually gaining knowledge fconi the ex- jieriencc which they derive from continually jjass- ing events, and they are now almost universally impressed with the conviction, that in agricultural prosperity mainly depends their own future well- being ; for, when they are sup])lied with the neces- saries otlife from our internal resources, they are dailjf becoming more convinced that their industr}' is in proportion promotei, and their wages for labour in an equal degree increased. To pay for the labour of their own agriculturist is fu- more advantageous to the inhabitants of any country, than to give that employment to the agricultural labourer of foreign states ; and no people know this truth now better than the productive artizans do in the United Kingdom. No long period can now pass before farther measures will be demanded by them from the legislature, for the promotionof still farther improvement in agriculture ; and more particularly for the conversion of millions of acres of land, now in a state of nature at home, into fields capable of producing largely towards the necessities and wants of the people. In operations of this description, emi)loyment may be found in abundance for numerous industrious families, to whom at present transportation to some one or other of our colonies affords the only relief. In the cultivation of the wastelands, which are much too extensively to be found in the United Kingdom, the surplus population may be most advantageously em- ployed, not only for the benefit of themselves, bat for the public good itself. Government is continually called on for pecuniary assistance to emigrants, or tj distant colonies already established, but unable to support the unfortunate men who have been induced to exchange for them their native country. This public expenditure would be much more use- f ally applied to the improvements which agriculture everywhere presents at home, than thrown away in the useless attempt at converting sandy hills in Australia and New Zealand into fields for the production of grain and other articles absolutely necessary toliuman support, and for which purpose no soil has yet been discovered, in either of these colonies, in any way qualified for such operations. In agricultural improvements at liome, if properly encouraged, no want of productive employment for a much more numerous population than we at present possess need prevail ; nor need associa- tions be formed to transport any of them to distant and foreign lands, for the conversion, in them, of wilds and wastes into cultivation and utility. In the United Kingdom, the result of additional cultivation mu=;t eventually render the inha- bitants, at all times and in all seasons, per- fectly independent of foreign nations for any of the necessaries of life. That these advantages must in a few years be derived from legislative assistance to agriculture, and from the very proper protection which the corn laws hold out to agri- cultural pui'suits, the experience of every succeed- ing year more clearly demonstrates ; for it is only by increasing the production of agricultural pro- duce at home, that money can be retained within the empire necessary for the full employment of the entire population: and every principle of com- mon interest therefore demands that the law should give the most stringent protection to every description of agricultural improvement, and that the existing corn laws should at all events be main- tained, unless an alteration for the better jjrntec- tion of the revenue, to be collected hereafter on foreign grain when entered for home use, be in- troduced into the Corn Importation Bill. At no tin;e, and under no circumstances, should the wheat duty be under 10s. per quarter— a charge which would occasionally, in a material manner, assist our public revenue, and which, for the use of our markets, the original foreigrt projjrietor of wheat would very cheerfully pay. iVothing, how- ever, can be better adapted for protecting capital and industry, embarked in agricultural pursuits, than these laws are ; and their repeal would be in every way detrimental to all classes in British society, with the exception of a very limited num- ber of master manufacturers, who no doubt might, by the reduction of wages which a reduction in the expenses of livelihood might enable them to make, gain, for a year or two after the establish- ment of an entirely free corn trade with foreign nations, even more than princely fortunes. It is from this class alone that the opposition to the corn laws emanates, and to make money them- selves is the only object of their exertions in this anti-national cause. They know well that — " Tlie Queen can make a Ijeltedkniglit, A lord, a duke, and all tliat ; The L. S. D.'s abo^•e lier might — The pound's a pound for all tliat." But capitalists can be created, neither by royal favour nor by royal power, nor can the Universities themselves confer such high honours and distinc- tions on any individual. Consequently, to gain the means of acquiring the distinguished title of L. S. 1). is, under present circumstances, an important ob- ject of ambition with several of the Cotton Lords, They know, however, that the reduction of the wages of their workmen is the only sure road by which they can reach the station of wealth, and the ruin of the agricultural interest at home is neces- sary, and consequently of little moment in their esti- mation, to the accomplishment of their wishes ; for without this event, they are fully aware that the wages of labour cannot be rendered sufficiently low for their purposes. The chance of a repeal of the corn laws becomes, however, annually now less pro- bable; and another favourable crop or two in succes- sion, will be nearly sufficient to preclude, (or some time to come, any large importation of foreign grain into our markets of consumption after the present CGrn season has arrived at its conclusion. Of one fine crop of wheat to begin with, the prospect at the present time is in every respect favourable. The winter sown wheats are strong at the roots, and the blade even already is coming away from them with a considerable appearance of healtli and luxuriancy. The weather generally, during the month of JMarcb, has likewise been propitious to the spring labours in the fields, and theie exists every probability that the spring corn, pulse, potatoes, &e., will be got into the ground in excellent condition. We tLeiefore feel ourselves justified, at all events, in anticipating another abundant crop of wheat, which the elements alone now can preveut ; and should our hopes in this respect be i'ulfilled, little money need for years after- wards be remitted to foreign nations in exchange for grain. The specie, on the contrary, will remain at home, will restore public confidence, and will render money again plentitul. It will then increase 320 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the productive employment of tlio industrious classes. It will extend our commerce at Lome and abroad ; and by the agricultural and commercial im- provements, wbicb must arise from tiie increased cir- culation of money, emigration to the colonies and to foreign states, witb all its expenses and wretcbed- ness, will cease witb tbe cause in wbicb it bas bad its origin. TJiese advantages must attend, at all events, tbe effective workings of tbe corn laws ; but should tbey ever be repealed, soon indeed afterwards even a favourable season cannot be expected to pro- duce for us an abundant crop of grain , for a vast quantity of land, which is now useful to the people, must then be placed out of cultivation, and universal distress amongst the productive classes in particu- lar, must succeed to that degree of high prosperity wbicb tbe corn laws have created since their im- provement about a dozen years ago. Since our last report of tbe barley trade, little has occurred in the market to alter those opinions, which we hive been so frequently compelled to express on this vi- tally important department of the agricultural inter- est. The supplies and tbe consumption of barley have been, as nearly as possible, equal to each other during March ; and the variations which have oc- curred in prices, have consequently not been very extensive, nor have tbey in any manner commanded that degree of tbe public attention to which their high importance so well entitles them. The heavy duties which are imposed on malt and British manu- factured spirits, limit the consumption, and conse- quently the growth of barley to a quantity, cerlainly much less than one-half of that which, under a more liberal system of taxation, would soon become ab- solutely necessary to the wants of the community. The injurious effects of this state of the barley trade are as numerous as they must be obvious to every person taking any interest in the public welfare. That the revenue never can be improved by exces- sive taxation, ex perience of tbe past has most effectu- ally established ; but that the same circumstance causes in it a very material defalcation is but too fre- quently proved by results. On malt, at a duty of Is. per bushel instead of tbe present high charge of nearly 3s., the sum placed into tbe treasury would greatly exceed the present collection. The quantity of barley then converted into malt would be perhaps tripled, and even then it would not nearly equal what ought to be the consumption of beer under a better system, amongst a well employed population. It would likewise put a final stop to the nefarious custom, now so universally prevalent, of adulterating the working men's beer, and conse- quently of defrauding them of their rights. It would also enable millions of the people, at all events, to consume annually a small quantity of malt, whose small means at present place an entire bar betwixt them and tliis luxury. The excise laws place also many impediments in the way of tbe maltster ; for by absurd regulations, which are of no benefit to the revenue itself, the official officers prevent tbe ex- ercise of that degree of judgment and experience which is so necessary to every manufacturer for the jiroduction of the best article. The same fiscal rules are at present applied to barley, whatever may be its quality. Whether from nature it be flinty or soft, whether it be grown iu a northern or southern climate, whether its quality be fine or coarse, it is subjected to nearly the same process in its conversion into malt. The duty should at once be charged on the barley itself, when ic is sent into the malting. Much unnecessary expense would thus be saved in its collection. The quality of the malt would generally be superior to that manufac- tered under the existing system, and tbe poor man's beer would be proportiouatel}' improved. It would also render any revenue fraud on the part of the maltster impossible ; for it would most effectively secure the fair collection of tbe malt duty at reduced expenses, and under all circumstances in which the manufacture of it may be placed. If, however, the malt duty be extravagant, that on spirits manufac- tured in England is doubly so — and far more pre- judicial to the revenue, and to public morality itself. It encourages tbe trade of the smuggler to an extent which is scarcely within belief, and tlius it becomes the foundation of almost every crime committed within the British empire. It is the cause of the rapid progress of the two extremes of drunkenness and tee-totalism, both of which rapidly lead , though by distinct processes, to the grave — and it undermines the principles of temperance themselves. In Ireland and in Scotland, where the spirit duties are moderate, the increase in the number of temperance societies is yearly extending itself. In both of tliese divisions of the empire, the inhabitants use with mode- ration those benefits which Providence confers on them ; but this can never be the case in England, so long as smuggling raises itself on the solid foundation Gf over-taxation. Into England, certainly not less than ten millions of gallons of spirits, of the worst quality, are annually smuggled, and the health of the people is injured by tlieir consumption, in a degree certainly not inferior to the corruption which their illicit im- portation occasions in their morality. This nefarious trade also assists in drawing the precious metals out of the country in exchange for these spirits, and thus considerably increases the existing pecuniary wants of commerce and of agriculture. 'The trea- sury this illegal trade likewise deprives of at least two millions sterling of spirit duty, which would be received annually under a more moderate system of taxation, and to the viciously-inclined alone is it of auy advantage. To equalize tbe duties now charged on home-made spirits throughout the United King- dom, would considerably tend to cure this evil ; and to make a public charge everywhere of os. per gallon would increase the revenue collected at present on home-made spirits, because it would increase tlieir consumption at the expense of the smugglers' illicit commerce. By rendering the duty on home-made spirits moderate, the consumption of barley in their manufacture would be increased by upwards of half a million of quarters, which would annually add to the national wealth, and open new channels for the productive employment of tbe people. Public meet- ings during the month of March have been held in various places in the manufacturing districts, for the purpose of petitioning tbe legislature for a reduction of the duties now charged on many articles of foreign growth and manufacture. At all these meetings the high duty on foreign spirits is particularly com- plained of, and a reduction of it on French brandy is recommended. Now, even were the duty on French brandy reduced to 12s. per gallon, the smuggling trade into England would not be one gallon less than it is at present, but the annual revenue derived from this article would be at least one-half less than it is under the existing system. To tbe great body of spirit consumers, a duty of 12s. would be as prohi- bitory as the present rates are ; and certainly, nothing short of a large reduction of the duty on spirits made in England, and in our own colonies, can effectually suppress the smuggling trade, and all its concomitant vices. If the public revenue can afford a raduction in the rates of import duties, certainly it should, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 321 without hesitation, be complied with ; but tbe reduc- tion on the duties charged on manufactured barley should precede any remission on the rates now charged on foreign manufactures consumed in this countrj'. It has already been satisfactorily esta- blisiied, that a spirit can be distilled here much more wholesome, and certainly not inferior in flavour, to the best qualities of brandy imported from France, did the excise laws not oppose insuperable obstacles to the manufacturer of it, in the strengths at which alone it can be admitted into general consumption. The British rectifier is by an unreasonable legal enactment, not permitted to rectify British brandy, unless it be some seventeen, or so, under spirit proof. This system of course does not allow the exercise of that talent which is necessary to the pro- duction of superior quality of brandy, and an altera- tion of the present practice is become therefore necessary, as well for the sake of the public and of tiie British distiller, as for that of the revenue itself. In the mean time, however, so long as tlie malt and British spirit duties continue in their present form, so long must the growth of barley be limited in its amount, and the revenue injured by the illicit impor- tations of bad and unhealthy spirits from foreign states. The agricultural interest is thus sacrificed, in a certain degree, to that of foreign nations ; for to it the production of upwards of double the cjuantity now annually grown of barley would be at all events of some consequence, wliilstto tlie revenue it would be beneficial, and on the great mass of the people it would confer, we may say, nearly unbounded advan- tages. As matters are, however, the maltiug season is now gradually drawing towards its conclusion, and the quantity of barley used in this department, as yet does not show any increase on tiiat of the last season: indeed, many expect that the increased rate of the malt dut)' may again bo attended by a falling off in the quantity consumed, and thus fur- nish another proof, if any be wanting, of the bad consequences to the treasury itself, of too heavy rates of duty. To the barley producer this circum- stance is of less consequence at present than it is to the community. His stcck of barley will last out the season, and what may then remain of the last barley crop in his possession will be so small, that any pecuniary loss which can occur on it, cannot be very injurious to him. He has as yet obtained fair and remunerating prices for his property, and no great decline can now be expected in the value of barley, until the next crop of it be brought into the markets for sale. The consumption of oats during the last month has been large. Unlike barley, this article is not sub- jected to heavy taxation before it comes into use, and consequently no limit is placed by the legisla- ture to the production of that quantity which the demand requires. Although in Great Britain the cultivation of oats during several years past, has yielded in part to the growth of other descriptions of more valuable agricultural products, still the supply during March has been quite equal to the gra- dually increasing consumption, and no material al- teration therefore can be quoted in prices since our last number of the Farmer's Magazine. The rapid improvements in Ireland have enabled the agricul- turists there to make good in some measure, in all the British markets, the deficiency in the supplies which the diminished culture of oats in England and Scotland has naturally been the cause of; and by the ability of Ireland to do so, that money which under different circumstances must have been remitted to the North of Europe for oats, remains in circulation at home, and no doubt is employed in internal im- provements, both in trade and in agriculture ; thus giving wages to many who otherwise might have been compelled to pass their time in idleness, and perhaps to subject their families and themselves to want. Tbe protection wliich legislative enactments extend to agricultural pursuits, is the sole cause of the vast progress whicli is now annually' occurring in improving the quality, and increasing the quan- tity of all descriptions of agricultural produce throughout Ireland — benefits wliich descend on all classes, whatever may be their occupations, in the United Kingdom ; and with which, no increase in our foreign export commerce can be placed in com- petition. In Ireland the room for agricultural and commercial improvement is nearly boundless ; and should nothing occur to limit the progress now mik- ing there in all descriptions of field labour, the time is not far distant when our consumption of agricul- tural produce will be chieflv drawn from our own growth. Already a vast quantity of oats is weekly imported from Ireland, and the imports of wheat and barley must likewise be gradually increased in proportion to the large quantities of land now yearly brought into cultivation in that portion of the British Empire. The sowing season for oats has been as favourable as could have been wished for ; the seed generally has been got into ground admirably pre- pared, and in excellent condition, and so far, we have some prospect, at all events, of another abun- dant oat crop. The deliveries of beans and peas have latterly been rather liberal than otherwise, but the demand for both has been in proportion to the supplies, and their value has been subjected to very little variation duriug the month. There Laving been a fair growth of pulse last season, and the quality being generally of a superior description, it is not very probable that any importations of either from abroad will be required, at all events, before some opinion can be formed of the prospects of the next harvest. The land, as we have already had occasion to observe, is in exceedingly good condition for the sowin^- both of peas and beans, and the future must consequently depend materially on the state of the weather. Similar observations must be applied to the last po- tato crop, the quantity of which was more than usually large, and the quality in most instances fine. This crop is annually becoming of greater im- portance to tbe people at large ; indeed, now it yields only to wheat, in general consumption amongst the community. The markets are most abundantly supplied with potatoes, and prices are moderate, and at the same time sufficiently remunerate the agriculturist for his labour and capital embarked in their cultivation. A larger quantity of ground than usual has this sea- son been prepared for potato cultivation; and, as the land is generally in excellent condition for the re- ception of the seed, the prospect for the next crop is as favourable as it can well be at this early pe- riod. The spring generally is from a month to six weeks earlier than it has been during the last two years, and the genial rains which fell towards the conclusionof March, have been of much advantage to everything, particularly to the marshes and grass fields, which are already filled with vardure, and are supplying most amply already the live stock with the best description of provender, for which the severity of the weather had previously rendered a large consumption of oats necessary, but which necessity now happily has ceased to exist. The information received from the different corn districts in Europe is in due course of post, but is not interesting generally to those connected with the 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. corn trade, resident in tbis country. In the Baltic and Northern German ports the winter had been UDUSually severe, but the navigation was about to open, and then greater animation was expected to take place in the corn trade. The stocks at none of tbose markets were large ; on the contrary, those of wheat were small, and i)rices consequently were de- manded which would leave a loss to the purchaser of them for shipment to this country, at our pre- sent quotations and rates of import duty. When the Vistula, Elbe, and other large rivers, however, within and without the Baltic Sea, become again navigable, the supplies in the different markets, it was generally expected at Dantzig and Hamburg, would become abundant, and then the advices from London would, as usual, regulate the prices. Some small purchases had already been made of the best high-mixed Polish wheats, for English account; but until the inland supplies come down the rivers, no great extent of business could be effected, unless in time bargains for shipment on delivery. An idea was entertained in the Baltic, that a fair corn trade would again be transacted with the United Kingdom during the ensuing season; but the profit of this trade must depend mainly on prices being moderate abroad, for unless the appearances of the coming crop should become less favourable than they are at the present moment in this country, no advance in prices here can take place which would justify the payment of dear prices abroad, with a view to this market. A quantity of fine foreign wheats may find sales here during the summer and autumnal months, for the manufacture of fine bread, and for mixture with inferior and damp samples of that of our own growth, but beyond this it is by no means apparent that any quantity can be required for common pur- poses ; and certainly matters, as they are at present in the corn trade here, aflbrd very little encourage- ment to foreign wheat importation, unless it can be made on very reasonable terms indeed, and of the finest qualities. From the United States of America the commer- cial letters received are dated towards the end of the second week in March, but to the corn traders hero thev are entirely uninteresting. Money was exceedingly scarce, and flour and wheat consequently remained low, in comparison with their intrinsic value 'in this country. Shipments of flour continued to be made chiefly to Liverpool and London, at prices which will nearly aflbrd to pay freight charges and duties at our present quotations. This trade, however, cannot be conducted very extensively without causing an improvement in prices abroad, and therefore its influence on the value of agricul- tural produce here cannot be of much real conse- sequence. Many of the letters latterly received from the United States continue to complain vehemently against our corn laws, which are inju- rious to the pursuits of agricultural extension in America, in as far as they prevent the annual import- ation here of four or five millions ot quarters of wheat, which, in a few years, our transatlantic brethren could with ease produceforour benefit, and with the surplus growth of Europe, they would thus save our agricultural labourers the trouble of culti- vating grain in this kingdom at all. Late events in that republic, however, must — or, at least, ought to convince even the anti-corn law leaguers them- selves of the fatal consequences which, sooner or later, would be the certain result of the repeal of the corn laws. Had the inhabitants of the United American States the power to deprive us of two or three months' consumption of food at the present critical moment, the effect very possibly might be injurious to both countries, even supposing that our prosperity could survive the destruction of our agri- cultural interest. So long as the precious metals remained in tlie country sufficient for the payment of foreign grain, so long we would receive it in great abundance ; but the exchange of manufactured goods for it has been proved to be a perfect absurdity. It is really insolent towards the freedom-loving artizans of Great Britain to propose to feed them for their labour — to reduce them, in fact, to the condition of horses, who receive their victuals on terms even more favourable than the anti-corn law leaguers are willing to bestow on the manufacturing and indus- trious labourers in this country. Should the ele- ments render supplies of grain necessary from America, or from anywhere else, we learn from the past that they can be obtained in the greatest abun- dance ; but the true policy of the United Kingdom is to encourage agriculture at home in all its branches, for it is only by so doing that the wealth of the empire, and her true strength and grandeur can, by any pos- sibility, be increased or even maintained in their present condition. CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE. March 29. Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex and Kent, red .. 64 68 White.. 68 70 76 Irish 60 62 Do 64 66 Old, red 68 70 Do 70 75 Rye, old 36 38 New 33 41 Barley, Grinding 28 30 32 Malting 34 36 Chevalier — 38 Irish 27 28 Bere . . . 24 25 Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 64 70 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware .... 64 68 Chevalier 68 — Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnsh., feed 24 26 Potato.. 25 26 Youghall and Cork black 22 23 Cork, white 22 24 Dublin 22 23 Westport 23 24 Waterford, white 21 22 23 Black.. 23 24 Newry 24 26 Galway 18 19 20 — Scotch feed 26 27 Potato.. 27 29 Clonmel 24 26 Limerick 24 26 Londonderry 28 24 Sligo .. 23 24 Beans, Tick, new 38 40 Old.. 42 44 48 Peas, Grey 36 38 40 Maple.. 40 42 White 38 40 Boilers. 40 42 Flour, Town-made 58 — Suffolk 46 48 pr sk. of 280 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk, 45 47 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND, Wheat, Dantzic 44 48 Hamburg 40 42 Barley 18 21 OATSjBrew 22 24 Feed... 16 18 Beans 30 — Peas 30 — Flour, American, per brl 28 — Baltic.. 23 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week endin!* Feb. 12th .. 19th .. 26tli . . March 5th . . 12th .. 19th . . AggregateAverage of the six weeks which regulates the duty Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Outports till the arrival ef the mail of that day from London Do. on grain from British posses- sions out of Eu- rope Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. 61 1 61 10 62 5 63 6 63 11 63 9 31 10 32 0 31 11 32 9 32 11 83 2 22 3 21 10 23 4 22 8 22 11 23 0 34 35 34 36 35 36 3 7 9 6 1 6 40 0 89 2 39 5 39 6 39 9 89 7 62 9 32 5 22 6 35 5 39 7 24 8 13 10 13 9 16 9 11 0 5 0 0 6 2 0 3 0 0 6 Peas. 39 6 89 6 38 10 39 2 38 9 39 1 39 1 0 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, March a6th, 1841. s. d. Wheat 03 9 Barley 33 2 Oats 23 0 RVB 30 6 Beans 39 7 Peas 39 1 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding: Gazette in the last year, Friday, March 20th, 1840. Wheat 09 Barley 39 Oats 26 Bye 38 Beaks 4! Peas 41 Account shewing- the Quantities of Grain, Meal and Flour, imported into the United King-dom, during' the month ended the SthMarcli, 1841 ; the Quantities on which Duties have been paid for Home Consump- tion during the same month, and the Quantities re- maining in Warehouse at the close thereof. Foreign Grain and Flour. Wheat, from British Possessions Peas, from do Indian Corn, do.,.. Wlieat, foreign .... Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Corn, do Buck Wheat, do. . . Flour, from British Possessions Flour, foreign Quantity imported. Quantity en- Quantity tered for remaining in consumption. ivareliouse. qvs. bush. qrs. bush. qrs. bush. 3921 1 1621 1 5583 0 739 2 746 1 12347 3 286 6 102022 6 858 7 82 3 9612 7 7 0 0 2 12021 3 2992 7 3103 7 1480 3 4997 1 3354 3 2801 4 1145 7 2 2 1 7 1604 4 cwts. qrs.lbs. cwt?. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs.lbs. 20468 2 20 370S7 2 0 100433 2 24 121.34 0 13 111 2 10 72227 3 27 PRICES OF SEEDS. March 29. Linseed, English, sowing 54 59 Baltic — — crushing 45 50 per qr. Mediter. & Odessa 40 52 Hempseed, small .36 40 large.. 44 46 Coriander 10 16 old.... 16 ISpercwt. Mustard, brown, new .. 14 16 white.. 11 13pr.bush. Turnip Seed, new Swedes — — 10 18 Trefoil 16 28 fine ne«38 44 Rapeseed, English 38Z. 40/. foreign — I. — ?. per last. Rye Gra5s, English SO 42 Scotch 18 40 Tares, winter — — Spring 8 9 Large, foreign.... • — — 8 9 Clover, English, red .... 58 90 white 48 60 per cwt. STOCK OF GRAIN, &c., IN BOND, IN THE PORT OF LONDON, ON THE 5th MARCH. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Peas. Beans, Rye. Flour, qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. qr?. qrs. cwts. 41,360 5,393 7,682 221 754 18 51,136 Cloverseed, 9,377 cwts. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, March 29. In Hops the chief business doing is still in the fine qualities of 1839 and 40, for which very full prices con- tinue to be realized. Other descriptions keep steady as regards value, though with but a limited enquiry. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE. March 29. The arrivals d\iring the past week have been as fol- lows:— From Yorkshire 810 tons; Scotland, 780; De- vonshire, 230 ; Jersey and Guernsey, 193 ; Kent, Essex, ana Suffolk, 450 tons. The above abundant supply, combined with the fineness of the weather, renders sales heavy at the subjoined quotations. Yorkshire Reds . . . . 90s. to 100s. per ton. Prince Regents (grown on warp land) — s. to 70s. „ Shaws for planting.... — s. to 70s. „ Scotch Red 75s. to 80s. „ Devon Reds (early) . . — s. to 75s. „ Do. (late) — s. to 85s. „ Jersey & Guernsey Blues — s. to 70s. „ Wisbeach 65s. to 70s. „ Lynn Kidneys 75s. to 80s. „ Kent and Essex Whites 65s. to 70s. „ WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. March 29. s. d. s. d. Down Teggs 1 3ito 1 4 Half-bred Hogs 1 3" 1 4 Ewes and Wethers 1 0^ 1 1 J Flannel do 10 12 Blanket Wool 0 6 0 9 Skin, Combing 0 lOj 10 LIVERPOOL. March 27. Scotch. — There continues to be but a moderate de- raand foir Laid Highland Wool at our quotations. There has been rather more doing in good Crossed and Cheviot Wool ; but altogether, from the unsettled state of our relations with America, there is nothing like animation in our market. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 9 6 tolO 0 White do. do 12 6 13 6 Laid Crossed do..unwasIied.. 10 0 11 0 Do. washed do 11 0 13 0 Do. Cheviot unwashed do 10 0 12 6 Do. washed 15 0 18 6 Clieviot wlute, washed 24 0 26 0 FOREIGN. CITY, March 29.— The quantity of Wool imported into the port of London last week was 978 bales ; of which 494 came from Sydney, 48 from the Cape of Good Hope, 226 from Italy, 81 from Spain, and 129 from Germany. In Wool a fair business is doing at present, and at steady prices. Bags, Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. 1836 1836 1837 1837 1838 18.38 1839 18.39 1840 1840 East Mid. Weald Sussex. Farn- Kent. Kent. of Kent. ham. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. 45 to 65 45 to 65 45 to .56 — to — — 45.. 75 45.. 75 45.. 65 45.. 63 — none none none none — 80 . . 105 80.. 105 75.. 85 85.. 115 85.. 115 84.. 105 110.. 150 110.. 150 100.. 120 150 . . 190 150 . . 190 110,. 150 105.. 130 240, 300 140 . . 300 185 . . 290 140.. 320 140 . . 320 120 . . 200 130.. 180 290, 355 to 450 PRICES OF MANURES. March 29. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of manure : — Bone-dust, 21s. 6d. per qr. of 8 bushels. Half-inch ditto, 21s. per qr. do. Rape-dust, 7l. Os. per ton. Rags, 4L to 41. lOs. per ton. Graves, 5l. to 51. 10s. per ton. Gypsum, 38s. per ton. Salt, 21, 5s. dirty, 21. 15s. clean, per ton. Lance's Carbon, I2s. od. per qr. ,, Humus, 14s. Od. „ Soap ashes, 10s. per ton. Artificial Manure, 12s. per qr. Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. fid. per qr. Nitrate of Soda, 24s. Od. to 24s. 6d. per cwt. Nitrate of Potash or Saltpetre, 27s. to 28s. fid. per cwt. Willey Dust, 4/. 4s. per ton. The Urate of the London Manure Company, 5l, 5s. per ton. 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. No. of Shares. 6,300 6,300 9,600 15,000 9,300 7,500 .3,000 64,000 61,000 18,000 10,918 10,918 10,918 10,000 25,000 25,01)0 87,500 8,000 36,000 33,000 20,000 9,000 80,000i. 2i,000 1,500 2,100 ■6,100 11,475 7,968 36,000 36,000 6,000 25,000 25,000 31,250 25,000 13,000 13,000 30,000 10,000 10,000 15,000 15,000 ]a,ooo 8,762 1,000 28,000 6,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 2000 4,000 30,000 60,000 12,432 20,000 10,000 7,739 20,000 4,000 20,000 12,000 6,000 S0,000 IRON RAILWAYS. Birmingliara & Derby June. 100? sli Ditto J shares 25Z sh 101 pd Ditto iind Gloucester .... 1001 sh Bristol and Exeter. .lOOZ sh 601 pd Ditto and Glouces. . 50J sh 2,^ pd Cheltenliara & Great West. Union 100? sh 62^1 pd Clarence (Durham) lOOZ sh Eastern Counties . . . .201 sh 23/ pd Ditto Debentures.. 8? 63 Sd.Al pd Edinburgh & Glasgow 50? sh 40? pd Grand Junction 100/ sh Ditto Half Shares 50? sh Ditto Quarter Shares ..25? sh pd Great N. of England 100? sh 80? pd Great Western 100? sh 65? pd Ditto Half Shares 50? sh Ditto Fifths 20? sh 4? pd Hull and Selby 50? sh London and Brighton 50? sh London & Croydon. .Av. IS? 15s 9d London and Greenwich .... 20? sh Ditto New 16? sh Ditto Debentures (various amounts) Ditto Script . . . . 6J? each 3? pd London & Blackwall 25? sh Leicester and Swaftnington. .50?sh Leeds and Sclby 100? sh Liverpool and Manchester. .100? sh Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25? sh Ditto Half Shares 50? sh London & S. Western, late London and Southampton Av. 38? 17s 9d One-tenth Shares ....5?sh IJ ?pd Do. Portsmouth Branch 50?sh 40/pd London & Birmingh. 100?sh90?pd Ditto Quarter Shares 25? sh 5? pd Ditto 32? sh Diito New S2? sh ... ... Manchester & Leeds 100? sh 70? pd Ditto Half Shares . . 50? sh 30? pd Manchester &Birming. 70? sh 40? pd Midland Counties 100? sh Ditto ^-Shares of 25? . .5? pd North Midland 100? sh Ditto Half Shares 40? sh Northern & Eastern 100? sh 50? pd Severn and Wye . . Average 27? sh Stockton and Darlington. .Average 106? 13s 4d S. Eastern and Dover 50? sh 33? pd York& North Midland 50?sh JOINT STOCK BANKS. Australasia Bank (Chartered) 40? sh 54? aO? Ditto New(Chartered)40?sh .. .. 51J?a2? BankofCeylon(Chart.)25?sh 10? pd Bank of B. N. America (Chart.) 50? sh 40? pd 35? Colonial Bank(Chai-t.)100?sh 25? pd3S?ai? Com. Bk. of London 1000? sh 200? pd Ionian State (Chart.) 25? sh 15? pd London and Westminster Bank 100? sh 20? pd 23? ex all London Joint Stock Bank 50? sh 10? pd I2i?aj? Do New,lssued at 1 ? pm 50? sh 10? pd National Bank of Ireland..50? sh 17i? pd ISJZ Do. Provincial Bank of England 100? sh 33?pd34^?a5? Do. New 20? sh issued at 2? 10s pm 10? pd 10?aO? Provincial Bank of Ireland 100? sh 23? pd 42i?a3? Ditto New 10?shl7|? Union Bank of Australia.. 25? sh 32? Ditto New 25? sh 5? pd 10/aJ? Union Bk. of London 50?sh 10?pd93?aO? West of England and South Wales District Bank ..20? sh 12^? pd per Share. Div. per Sliare per Ann. 73?a80? 36?a0? 25i?a7A? 30? 8?al? 6i?a7? 33?a4? 203(a0? lOO.J/al? 27?a0? 63?a0? 90?al? 62/ai? 91? alO^? 43?a4? 44? aj? 12i?aa? 8? ex d 17?ai? 4i?aa? 19i?ai? i5? 188? 47? 89J?90l? 56? ex all 2? J? pm 45? a6? 153? ex n 225? ex n 52? ex n IJ? pm 68?a70? 29?a0? 24?aC? 79?a81? 9i?alOJ? TUa.il 36?a7? 45? 250? 16|?17i? 78?a80i l.J?persh 10s p sh 14?per ct 14?per ct l)er ct per ct per ct 7s per sh 1? per sh 2J? 4? per sh 9i?per ct 9|?per ct 9J?per ct 3? persh 5? per ct 8? per sh 8? per ct 8? per ct 2?12spsh 14?per sh 2? 19s sh 8? per ct 6? per ct 8? per ct 6? per ct 5? per ct 6? per ct 6? per ct 6? per ct S? per ct 8? per ct 50s pr sh 5? per ct 6? per ct Shares. MINES. Price. Dividend 4,000 Alten 50? sh 121? pd 1,000 Ditto New 15? sh 12^? pd 10,000 Anglo Mexican (iss.5? pm) 100? sh 3374S1 Ditto Subscription 25? sh 10,00" Ditto Mint 25? sh 10? pd 8,000 Blaenavon Iron & Coal 50? sh 45? pd 2,000 Bolanoes 150? sh 1,000 Ditto New 50? sh 20? pd Ditto Scrip 25? sh 20,000 Bolivar Copper Company .. 15? sh l?aO? 20,000 Ditto Ditto Scrip New . . 3? sh 3?a0? 10,000 Brazilian Imperial 35? sh 20? pd iss. 5? pm 7?a9? 11,000 Ditto St. JohnDel Rey20?sh 14i?pd 2?a0? 20,000 British Iron Comp. 100? sh 55? pd 10,000 Candonga 20? sh SJ? pd 10,000 Copiapo 30? sh 12^? pd 10? 9,204 Hibernian 50? sh ll'^l pd 3?a0? 5,739 Mexican Company 100? sh 58|? pd iU^l 5,000 Minas Geraes 20?shl2? pd 14,460 Realdel Monte registered Av. ?sli Ditto Ditto unregistered 2?a3? 17,066 Ditto Loan (Notes) 150? sh 10,000 Rhymney Iron 50? sh 28,267 Unitea Mexican 40? sh 40? pd. iss. 2? pm 2?a0? 5,281 Ditto Scrip 2?pd..3J?aO? 8,957 Ditto ditto (New) 5? pd 4?a4? ! MISCELLANEOUS. I 10,000 Anti Dry Rot Company . . 18J? sh 2?ai? 10,000 Assam Tea Company 50?sh 12^? pd 1,080 Auction Mart 50? sh'20? 10,000 Australian (Agricultural) 100? shl 28?2spd.39?a40? 8,600 British Rock and Patent Salt 50? sh 35? pd 13? 10,000 Canada ©orapany (Chnrtered) 100? sh 32.1? pd 30?a2? 5,000 Droit\vich Patent Salt 25? sh 2,700 Equitable Reversionary Interest Society 100? sh 60? pd 20,000 General Steam Navigation Com- pany 15? sh 14? pd 25^a6? 1,800 Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25? sh 1,800 Ditto New (Cliartered) 25? sh 2,100 Hungerford Market 100? pd 32Z 24,800 Ditto Debentures (var. amounts).. 8,000 London Cemetery (Chartered) 20? sh 1,800 London CornExchange....37i?pd 20l?al? 2,000 London Commercial Sale Rooms Average 75? sh 24? 2,400 London and Westminster Steam Boat Company 10? sh 20,000 Mexican and South American Company 10? sh 7? pd 20,000 New Brunswick Land'lOO? sh 60? pd 4,000 New Zealand Company 25? sh 25?a0? 5,387 Reversionary Int. Societv..lOO?sh 108? 14,400 S. Australian Comp. 25?" sh 20? pd(18?aO? 8,000 South Metropolitan Cemetery (Chartered) 25? sh 4,000 Thames Tunnel 50? sh 200,000? Upper Canada Loan 200,000? Ditto 10,000? Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char- tered 100? sh 18? pd 5,000 Weet London and Westminster Cemetery 25? sh 22? pd Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London. m 4 \ ■^ 3» PC "C:^'-\ / . . ,r. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. MAY, 1841. No. 5.— Vol. III.] [Second Series. PLATE I. The subject of the first Plate is a Shearling Leicester Ram, bred by, and the property of, Mr. Samuel Bennett, of Bickerinj^'s Park, Bedfordshire, to which a Prize of Thirty Sovereigns was awarded at the Cambridge Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in July last. PLATE II. THE COVER SIDE. (See page 335. J USES OF BOTANY AND CHEMIS- TRY IN AGRICULTURE. . (from dr. daubeny's lectures on agriculture.) In the lecture on Rural Economy, which I de- livered before the University at the close of the preceding term, my principal object was to ex- plain the advantages which the art of husbandry was likely to derive from the assistance that might be afforded it by the sciences of vegetable physio- logy and of chemistry. I therefore brought forward various instances, in which a knowledge of the laws that regulate the growth of plants was calculated to promote mate- rially our success in cultivating them, and pointed out in how great a degree the fertility of the soil, audits adaptation to the wants of man and animals, was affected by its own chemical constitution, and by that of the various manures which might from time to time be superadded to it. In the present lecture, it is my intention to con- sider more at length the latter portion of the sub- ject, and to bring forwards in detail the scientific principles upon which the chemical action of ma- nures appears to depend. It may assist us, perhaps, in understanding the mode in which the various matters intermixed with the soil, with the view of improving its qual- ity, may be supposed to operate, if we begin with tracing the successive steps by which mankind have advanced from the simplicity of early practice, to that more complicated and artificial system of husbandry which prevails in most civilized coun- tries at the present day. In order to become acquainted with the rude methods adopted in the first ages of the world, it is scarcely necessary to go back to the records or traditions of that period : without giving ourselves OLD SERIES.] this trouble, we may obtain a sufficiently just idea of their mode of procedure, by referring to the practice of husbandry adopted by the early colo- nists in the wilds of America, or by that in use amongst those, who in the present day emigrate from the eastern portions of the United States into the regions of the far west. In the virgin land, on which the labours of these first settlers were expended, whether it were in Virginia and the Carolinas in the last century, or in Kentucky and Michigan in the present, the expedients for refreshing and invigorating the soil, which are resorted to in older countries, are found to be wholly superfluous. Judging indeed from the crops obtained for seve- ral years after it has been first reduced to cultiva- tion, the ground might in many instances be pro- nounced to possess an inexhaustible store of fer- tility, since the same crops admit of being repeated year after year, with no apparent diminution in the amount of produce, and with no further care on the part of the colonist than that of simply turning np the soil and introducing seed. Such is represented to have been the case even with the tobacco, when first cultivated by the early settlers in Virginia, where, on land now requiring careful tillage, and yielding but a scanty return, this exhausting species of crop is said to have been repeated year after year without any perceptible diminution. In Kentucky we are told of soil, that has yielded the finest crops of wheat or of maize for twenty- five or even fifty successive years, and that with- out the addition of any kind of manure ; whilst in the State of Illinois, some portions of the territory are said to have been cultivated with profit in this same way, from the first period at which the country was settled. During my late tour through the western por- Z [Ny. 3.— VOL. XIV. 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tions of the United States, I had frequent opportu- nities of witnessing the system adopted by those who first established themselves in a new settle- ment. In these wild regions, unlike to those portions of the globe with which wo Europeans are familiar, forest and pasture land are seldom found inter- mixed, but we meet at one time with vast tracts altogether destitute of timber, and at another with forests taking such entire possession of the soil, as to leave no intervals for any sort of culture for many hundreds of miles. The former description of country constitutes the prairies, the latter the woodlands, of North America. With regard to the former, various theories have been propounded, to account for the entire absence of timber over such extensive tracts. Monsieur DecandoUe offers the following solu- tion : — " The right of prior occupation," he says,* ♦' explains how it happens that forests and prairies are found mutually to exclude each other. For if by any cause a forest is established in a given place, the shade of the trees, together with the greediness with whicli their roots absorb the nu- triment, and the manner in which the fibi-es of the latter are interlaced, will prevent the grasses from shooting up underneath. If, on the contrary, the prairie is first developed, then, even supposing that the seeds of the trees do from time to time germinate, yet their roots in the young state can- not easily pierce the close network of roots and stems already existing on the spot ; and even if they succeed in doing so, are starved by the voracity of the grass roots, which are more numerous and more developed than their own." But still the question occurs, what has given to the forest in the one case, and to the meadow in the other, that prior occupancy to which their power of maintaining entire possession of an ex- tensive tract may perhaps be justly attributed"? It is probable, I think, that in tbe climate and latitude alluded to, forests would usurp dominion over the greater portion of the country, if no ex- traneous cause interfered to arrest them. It is only necessary therefore to explain why large tracts should be found wholly denuded of timber ; and this it seems most reasonable to attribute to the practice that prevails amongst the aborigines, of annually setting fire during summer to the plains. In order the more readily to take deer and other wild game. For tbe extreme dryness which prevails at that season, causes a fire, when once kindled, to spread in all directions, until it is either stopped by the intervention of a river, or put out by meeting with a ridge, or tract, so entirely destitute of vegetation, as to afford no combustible matter to maintain it. Hence those vast plains that lie to the west of the Mississippi, not being intersected by any barren range of hills, nor yet traversed by large rivers, have in the course of years been converted into prairies, the growth of timber being from time to time prevented by the cause assigned, until the luxuriant herbage at length so pre-occupies the soil, as itself to stifle all other kind of vegetation ; whereas, over a wide tract extending along either side of that great stream, the numerous tributaries that pour their waters in it oppose a limit to the progress of such fires as may occur, and thus enable the forests to maintain their ascendancy. * Physiologie, vol. iii. Be this however as it may, we can at least as- sure ourselves that the absence of timber in the prairie country is by no means an evidence of sterility — on the contrary, the immense accumu- lation of decayed vegetable matter, which has re- sulted from the growth of herbaceous plants during so many centuries, is found to constitute a soil of almost unrivalled productiveness. The colonist, therefore, in first settling down in such a region, has little room for the exertion of any extraordinary skill or industry, having around him an unlimited extent of land, which in its actual condition affords the richest pasturage for his flocks and herds, and which, whenever he takes the trouble of turning it up, and scattering seed over it, will generally repay him largely for the labour expended . Harder indeed is the lot of him who takes up his abode within the precincts of the primeval forests of the western world, since, before he can reap any advantage from the land he calls his own, he must undertake the severe task of clearing it of the timber with which it is encumbered. This, however, being accomplished, it is seldom that he is disappointed in the quality of the soil that lies underneath ; and, for the most part, his rude and imperfect methods of culture afford him for several years as ample a return as the utmost exertion of skill and experience can secure in the older countries from which he has migrated. And this was even the case in parts of the Union, which are by no means remai'kable for their fer- "^ tility at present ; as, for instance, in the States of New England. "When the tract on the green mountains in Massachusetts was iirst settled" (says Dr. Dwight), " the same exuberant fertility was attributed to it, whic:h has since characterized Kentucky. From those regions the paradise has travelled to the western parts of the State of New York, to New Connecticut, to Upjjcr Canada, to the countries on the Ohio, to the south-western territory, and is now making its progress over the Mississipi into the newly-purchased regions of Louisiana. In consequence of the long accumulation of vegetable mould, regions, even if naturally sterile, hold out at first the promise of an abundant return to the cultivator." Now there is little reason to doubt that the first Egyptian and Phoenician settlers in Greece, or the first Greeks who peopled the shores of Italy or of Spain, would find themselves placed under cir- cumstances as favourable to husbandry as the present emigrants in the far West. It would seem, indeed, that the extraordinary exuberance of newly- peopled countries, wherever at least the subsoil and climate are such as in any degree to allow of the spontaneous growth of tim- ber, may have given countenance to those visions respecting the Golden Age, in which the teeming imaginations of the inhabitants of early Greece delighted to indulge. But in the case of the colonist of antiquity, as in that of the settler in the new world at the pre- sent day, 3 period at length must arrive when the ground, exhausted by unintermitted tillage, would cease to yield him a profitable return ; in which case, so long as abundance of good land remained unoccupied, the most obvious course for him to pursue, would be that of abandoning Lis present possessions, and of advancing further into the va- cant territory, until he lighted upon a tract better suited to his purpose. This accordingly is the practice often adopted in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 327 tlie United States, not only in the nevvly-settleJ countries of the west, but even in the older States of Georgia and the Carolinas, wliere the cultiva- tion of cotton, however profitable it may be at first, speedily exhausts the land, and reduces it to sterility ; so that, in passing through these dis- tricts, we frequently see estates which had once yielded an abundant return, since abandoned l)j' their possessor, and becoming again a portion of the original wilderness. And, dishearteuing as it may at first sight ap- pear to him, to submit to the Sisyphean labour of bringing continually fresh land under his domi- nion, and again to relinquish his conquests after so short a period ot occupation, the plan alluded to is the only one which presents itself to the settler in a new country, for restoring to the earth that fertility of which it has thus been deprived. It is, in fact, a substitute for the method of fallowing, which constitutes the first step in an artificial system of culture ; and it seems probable that the early colonists in the old world may have been led to introduce this latter practice, from having observed that soil, which had become un- fruitful in consequence of excessive cropping, gradually resumed its pristine productiveness when abandoned for some time to itself. For, although in the first ages of the world, the colonists may have adopted the same custom which we find now prevalent in America, and may have pushed farther and farther into the wilder- ness in proportion as the land already in their possession became exhausted, yet it is evident that the period for such unrestrained emigration would have long passed away, at the time when, as his- tory informs us, the Pelasgi emigrated into Italy, the Egyptians under Danaus established them- selves in the Morea, and the Israelites took pos- session of the Holy Land. In all these cases the colonists were not only destitute of those facilities for moving to great distances which steam navigation, and the other improvementsof modern times aflTord to the settler in the United States, but were circumscribed in their movements by the hostile tribes that hemmed them in, which, if somewhat lower in the scale of civilization than themselves, were at least not so utterly unable to cope with them in the arts of war, as the wild Indian of the present day finds himself, under ordinary circumstances, to be with the back-woodsman of European extraction. Hence, being more generally obliged to remain stationary upon the spot in which they had at first established themselves, the colonists of old would soon be driven to resort to a system of fallowing, ia order to give back to the land a portion of that fertility of which their mode of culture had in the first instance deprived it. Accordingly, we find in the Hebrew law, every seventh year set apart as a period of entire rest — a command, it is observed, grounded not only on religious, but also on political and civil consider- ations, with the view, that is, of preventing the soil from being worn out by continual tillage. That, which in the Mosaic dispensation had been had intervened, since it had not yet been fully understood, that a judicious rotation of crops would stand in the place of fallowing, whilst the practice of manuring land, which is the next step in the system of improving it, had already been adopted in the earlier period alluded to. Thus Homer describes the faithful dog, who alone recogniseshis master on his return to Ithaca, as lying neglected upon aheap of dung, with which the labourers were about to manure the farm. No notice, it is observed by Cicero, is made of manuring by Hesiod, so that we may perhaps con- clude that the practice was of recent introduction at the period when Homer lived. In the age of Virgil, however, some progress seems to have been made towards that, which con- stitutes perhaps the grand improvement of modern times — I mean the rotation of crops. Whatever therefore may be the comparative merits of the ancient and modern systems of husbandry in other respects, it would seem that in this one at least a vast step has been gained since the days of Virgil and Columella. Nor are we less in advance of these writers in the article of manures, which, no longer limited, as with them, to animal and vege- table matters in a state of decomposition, or to lime and certain kinds of marl, comprehends at present a great variety of mineral substances, with which the ancients were wholly unacquainted. Amongst these we may enumerate— 1. phosphate of lime or bone dust, so useful in the turnip, potatoe, and grass land of this country ; 2. the nitrates of potass and of soda, which are said to in- crease our crops of wheat and other cereal grasses in a remarkable manner ; 3. barilla, or kelp, which has also been employed with success for corn- crops -, 4. common salt, which is considered bene- ficial to the same on light soils ; and 5. gypsum, the efficacy of which is admitted in leguminous crops, and will probably be found to extend to others also. None of the above manures, it is probable, were kno-.vn by the ancients, though Virgil recommends nitrum, which appears to have been carbonate of soda or potass, and not, as commonly tran?:lated, saltpetre, mixed with the dregs of oil, as a steep to make the seed grain swell. The great advance indeed which has been made within two centuries only in the art of husbandry, may be calculated from this one fact alone, namely, that the population of England in the time of Queen Elizabeth amounted, according to the esti- mate of Guicciardini, to not more than two rail- lions, whereas at present it probably exceeds four- teen ; yet there is no question but that the present inhabitants are better fed than were their ancestors, although it can hardly be supposed, that the quan- tity of land now in cultivation exceeds seven times that which had already been brought under tillage in the year 1600*. Something indeed must be allowed for the amount of corn introduced into England from foreign countries, which in 1831 (in which year a larger quantity had bsen imported than at any period before or subsequent) was estimated at enjoined as a religious duty, was adopted also in 3,541,809 quarters, being less than one-fourteenth the early times of Greece and Rome from motives of the whole quantity consumed in the United Kingdomf. But even with this deduction there the early of expediency. Even so late as the time of Virgil, it seems to have been the practice to allow the arable land to lie fallow every alternate year. From which it might seem, as if no very marked advance in the principles of husbandry had been made since the Homeric age, considering the lapse of time that will remain a sufficient overplus, to evince the greater productiveness of the soil under its present management, than under that of our ancestors. * See Appendix. t See M'CuUoch's Coinm. Dict.j p. 417. z 2 328 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Let us not, however, indulge too much in a feel- ing of self-satisfaction wlien contemplating our proficiency in the art of husbandry, for conside- rable as the advances may be, which have been made from the first rude eiForts of the earliest oc- cupants of the soil, yet still greater, it may be suspected, is the distance which separates us from that ideal goal, towards which the efforts of the agriculturist ought to be directed, at which empi- ricism would give place to principle, and theory direct with ease and certainty the operations of the husbandman. " As tbere is no profession," says Liebig,* " which can be compared in importance with that of agriculture, so there is none in which the application of correct principle would be productive of more beneficial effects. Hence it appears quite unac- countable, that we may vainly search for a single leading principle relative to this subject in all the writings of agriculture and of vegetable physiolo- gists." "The methods employed in the cultivation of land are different in every country and in every dis- trict ; and when we enquire the causes of these dif- ferences, the answer we receive is, that they depend upon circumstances fie circonstances font les assole- mentsj. No answer could show ignorance more plainly, since no one has ever troubled himself to ascertain what these circumstances are. Thus, also, when we inquire in what manner manure acts, we are answered by the most intelligent men, that its action is covered by the veil of Isis ; and when we further demand what this means, we discover merely that the excrements of man and animals are supposed to contain an incomprehensible something, which assists in the nutrition of plants, and increases their size. This opinion is embraced, without even an at- tempt being made to discover the component parts of manure, or to become acquainted with its nature." Whilst an eminent chemist expresses himself in these terms with respect to the labours of physio- logists, the judgment passed upon the researches of chemists by a distinguished botanist of our own country is not more favourable, since he quotes with approbation a remark which had been made to him by a friend, to the effect " that chemistry has hardly advanced the art of agriculture a single step, but that the latter remains, after all the investigations of the chemists, a mere empirical art."-f- I trust what I have said in my former lecture will convince you, that both these general statements must be received with some grains of allowance, and that both chemistry and vegetable physiology have already rendered good service to agriculture ; but it cannot be denied that experience and tradition are still the main sources to which the farmer usually looks for information, and that science is as yet far from having shed any steadjr light over the obscurity in which his processes are veiled. It is evident that, in order to determine in what precise manner the different kinds of manure can improve the condition and increase the quantity of the plants exposed to their influence, it will be ne- cessary, in the first place, to ascertain from what source or sources vegetable substances obtain their nourishment; and it is certainly somewhat humi- liating to reflect that, notwithstanding the attention paid to the elucidation of this subject by many dis- tinguished men of science, a question so funda- mental should have remained in part unanswered, * Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture, p. 138. t Lindley's Introduction to Botany. until the celebrated German chemist, Liebig, ap- plied himself to its investigation. The elements of which the structure of every perfect plant consists, may be referred to two distinct classes, namely, such as are capable of being received into the vegetable organization in the con- dition of a gas, and such as are not. The former class of elements comprehends oxygen and hydrogen, which, either separately or in the condition of water, enter into the constitution of every plant ; carbon, which, though of a fixed nature when alone, is converted into a gaseous state when combined either with oxygen or with hydro- gen ; and nitrogen, which is volatile both when alone, and when in combination with hydrogen, as am- monia. The three former are universvdly present in plants, the latter more commonly so than was for- merly supposed, although in smaller proportion than the rest; and as all four, though present in the soil, are also capable of volatilization, or in other words, of existing permanently in the atmosphere, it is quite open to conjecture, whether plants obtain their elements from the one source or from the other. The second class of constituents, comprehending substances found in plants which are incapable of being converted into vapour at such temperatures as they are exposed to in nature,consist of the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, which by their presence give firmness and solidity to the vegetable structure, and perhaps, by being interposed between the par- ticles of living fibre, may contribute in some other manner, as yet imperfectly understood, to impart to it the properties it possesses.* These of course cannot be conveyed through the medium of the atmosphere, and hence the natural in- ference would seem to be, that thev are derived from the soil in which the plants are fixed. Yet this conclusion has been combatted by many physiologists, who allege that the above ingredients are found in plants, even when not present in the soil from which they proceed; and a German chemist, Schrader, was honoured with a prize from the Berlin Academy, for having, as was thought, established this position. Saussure, however, has shewn that the same plant, when grown upon a calcareous soil, contains more calcareous matter than it does in a siliceous one, and I have myself instituted a series of experi- ments, which tend to demonstrate that in propor- tion as you deprive a vegetable of all external means of obtaining its fixed constituents, in that degree you diminish the quantity of them which it will contain ; whence the natural inference would seem to be, that if it were possible to intercept completely all the channels by which it could derive these prin- ciples, none such would be present in its composi- tion. Thus the latest experiments confirm, what both reason and analogy tend to suggest, and relieve us from the necessity of resorting to a supposition so paradoxical, as that of attributing to the vegetable organization, the power of itself elaborating the alkaline or earthy matters which it may chance to contain. -f- * See Dr. Prout's Treatise on the Stomach, &c., introduc- tion, and my Introduction to the Atomic Theory, p. 30. + Lampadius has lately instituted some experiments, which seem at first sight to militate against the notion, that the inorganic constituents are dependant on tlie nature of the soil in wliich they grow. He divided a piece of ground into five equal parts, each twenty feet square ; after measuring them equally, he strewed over the first 51bs. of finely powdered quartz; over the second, the same quantity of ammonia; over THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 It follows then, that whichever of this class of con- stituents enters necessarily into tlie fabric of tke vegetable, must be present also in the soil in which it grows, and hence we may derive an important lesson, as to the application of the substances em- ployed as mineral manures in encouraging the growth of particular plants, and also as to the injurious effects of certain crops upon the growth of those which are to succeed them. Every known vegetable seems to contain a given proportion of alkali — soda near the sea, potass in places more inland. The former of these may readily be referred to the salts present in the waters of the ocean, whilst the latter may be supplied by the decomposition of those rocks into whicl) it enters as an ingredient. But the decomposition of a rock proceeds only at a certain and that a very slow rate, and until it is complete, the alkali will be retained by an affinity much too powerful, to allow of its being extracted by the absorbing surfaces of the roots. Hence, supposing the crop already raised on a field to have absorbed all the alkali which the subsoil at the time contains, it is evident that no second crop of the same description can succeed, until the ground has lain fallow long enough, to admit of a fresh supply of alkali being obtained by a continuance of the process of disintegration, or until this ne- cessary ingredient has been added to it from veithout. Hence the advantage in these cases of such manures as wood-ashes, because they contain much potass, and even of the excrements of animals, since these also are not destitute of that principle. Another ingredient present in all vegetables that yield nourishment to man, and especially so in the different kinds of bread-corn, is phosphoric acid. This substance is found in many minerals and mineral waters, and even, according to Liebig, in all land anywise capable of cultivation, so that the barren heath of Luneburg contains an appreciable quantity of it. I recollect some years ago, when Dr. Buckland was pursuing his researches on coprolites, which consist chiefly of phosphate of lime, that I en- deavoured to assist him by searching for this substance in a variety of rock specimens taken from different localities, but that I soon gave up the pursuit, finding traces of its presence so generally, as to be led to conclude that no inference, as to the presence of coprolitic matter, could be satisfactorily deduced from the mere existence of phosphate of lime in the containing rock. Under the circumstances stated, we cannot wonder, either that bone-dust, which mainly coasists of this material, should prove so excellent a manure when applied for the first time upon land, or that it should lose its efficiency on repetition — that is, when the soil has become already sufficiently charged with this principle to furnish to the plants all of it which they require. The necessity of deriving from the ground what- ever fixed ingredients enter into the constitution of any particular plant, explains in part the advantage of a due admixture in the subsoil of all the more common earths. A certain quantity of silex, of lime, of magnesia, seems to he essential, and hence the third, as much chalk ; over the fourth, as much of car- bonate of ma^esia ; the fifth being left without any addition. A certain quantity of wheat was sown in it anil the crop analyzed, but no difference in their respective fixed ingredients was discoverable. Mayer, however, justly obser\'es, that these experiments prove nothing, because the earths added were not in a soluble condition, and therefore could not affect the constitution of the plants. a soil consisting wholly of one of these earths is generally found to be unproductive. I have likewise shewn, in some experiments which I made some years ago*, that when an earth, which does not naturally enter into the constitution of a plant, such as strontian, is presented to it even to the exclusion of others, little or none can be delected within the vegetable tissue, so that it either is not absorbed, or is again excreted by the roots ; and this conclusion I find to be corroborated by Liebig in the volume already referred to. It may appear singular, that under these circum- stances, a substance having such a resemblance to lime as strontian possesses, cannot be substituted for it, especially when it has been found, that the proportions of the several earths and alkalies which enter into the composition of a plant vary according to external conditions. Thus I have already stated, that the same plant grown on a calcareous soil contains more lime, and less silex, than it does in a siliceous one, and vice versa. But it has been shown by Leibig, that the total amount of the bases present never varies, the excess of one making up for the deficiency of the rest. Thus, according to Saussure, one hundred parts of the ashes of a fir, growing the magnesian soil of Mount Breven contained : Carbonate of Potass . . 3.60 Sum of oxygen in the lime 46.34 potass 0.41 -^magnesia, 6.77 lime ... 7..33 — magnesia 1.27 Sum of the Carbonates. 56.71 Sum of the oxygen in the bases 9.01 whilst one hundred parts of the ashes of the same tree grown on the soil of Mount La Salle, which contained no magnesia, consisted as follows, of: — Carbonate of potass . . . 7.86 Sum of oxygen present lime 51.19 in potass 0.85 magnesia. 00.00 ' lime... 8.10 ~, magnesia 0.00 Sum of the Carbonates 58.55 Sum of the oxygeu in the bases 8.95 Again, Berthier has analyzed the ashes from two fir trees, one growing in Norway, the other in France (Dep. de ITsere.J That from Norway contained in one hundred parts : Potass 14.10 of which 2.4 parts would be oxygen Soda 20.70 5.3 Lime 12.30 3.45 Magnesia 4.35 1.69 51.45 12.84 That from France, on the contrary, contained in one hundred parts : Potass and soda . 16.8 in which 3.42 parts would he oxygen Lime ; 29.5 8.20 Magnesia 3.2 1.20 49.5 12.82 Thus, in both cases, variable as the proportions of the different bases were, the amount of oxygen pre- sent in them collectively was as nearly as possible the same. And what renders the last result more remarkable is, that in the fir-wood from Norway the amount of soluble salts was fifty, in that from France only twenty- five per cent. The bases in the former were in combination wholly with organic acids, those in the latter partly with organic, and partly with mine- ral ones, such as the sulphuric, phosphoric, and muriatic. Yet even here, as we have seen, the amount of oxygen present in the bases collectively, * Linncean Trans, vol. xvii. 330 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and in consequence tlieir saturating power, corres- ponded almost precisely. Why tben, it may be asked, cannot anew earth, like strontian, take the place in a plant of those which form a part of its ordinary constitution ? It is possible, that the difference of crystalline form, which exists between the substances under consideration, may render the substitution of one for the other in the structure of the living plant, impos- sible. Lime, it is to be remarked, is isomorplious with magnesia, and even in some cases replaces potass and soda. We can therefore understand bow it hap- pens, that one of these bases may be substituted for the others in plants, as well as in minerals ; but be- tween them and strontian no isomorphism exists,* a id hence there may be some mechanical reason why this substance is unsuitable to the vegetable or°:anization-f-, and therefore cannot replace the bases ID question. 'I'liere would seem, however, to be a limit to this power of substitution, even in the case of substances which enter naturally into the constitution of the vegetable, and which are isomorphous one with the other; for we cannot otherwise explain why it is that wheat will not flourish in a sandy or even in a calca- reous soil, unless a considerable quantity of clay be also present, the latter being required to furnish a sufficient proportion of alkali, which the other earths do not contain. Accordingly, fir-trees and other evergreens grow ■well in sandstone and in limestone, whilst those which shed their leaves thrive better on rocks of a granitic character; for the latter require more alkali, and can procure a larger supply of that constituent from felspathic materials. But the inorganic matters already alluded to con- stitute, after all, an inconsiderable part of the vege- table structure, when compared with those volatiliz- able principles which accompany them in plants. It becomes therefore a still more important inquiry, from whence do ihe latter derive the carbon, the hy- drogen, the oxygen, the nitrogen, which the}' all ap- pear to contain? Do these principles proceed from the soil, or from the atmosphere, or must we con- clude that both the one and the other contribute to supply them? (To be continued.) * We should have expected that two substances, which correspond so nearly, in structure, in chemical properties, and in relatiens to other minerals, as isomorphous bodies appear to do, should produce analogous effects upon the functions of vitality. Yet it is found, tliat barytes is highly poisonous, strontites innocuous, and in like manner that ar- senic is most destructive to life, whilst phosphorus enters necessarily into the constitution of all animal and of many vegetable structures. The latter circumstance is the more extraordinary, if it be true, as Orfila has stated, that arsenic acid in minute quan- tities is present in the bones of man and other animals, as this would seem to imply a transformation of one substance hitherto regarded elementary into another. Should this fact be substantiated, it would seem well worth the attention of physiologists to discover, wliether the exist- ence of a larger amount of arsenic in the constitution, result- ing from disordered actions, may not be a new and hitherto unsuspected source of disease. But notwithstanding the deservedly high authority on which the assertion rests, its extreme improbability may induce us to suspend our belief, until further evidence of its correctness shall have been adduced. t Von Buch has oflfered some ingenious remarks, in a me- moir on the silicification of organic bodies, published in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, which seem to illustrate this latter position. " The skeleton of animals," he remarks, "would have become very ciitFerent, had nature had another substance to work with than phosphate of lime, the axes of which are unequal. Such minerals only as have unequal axes, i. e., in which there is one axis of greatest contraction, can become fibrous or extend themselves in rays. They are ON GROWING TURNIPS. BEINa THE SUBSTANCE OF A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE MEMBERS OF THE TORRINGTON FARMERS' CLUB. This being the first monthly meeting of the Tor- rington Farmers' Club, 1 have been called upon to offer a few observations on the best method of cul- tivating turnips ; I consented to undertake the task, but never having heard, or even read, an essay or a lecture on the subject, or even been at a similar meeting to this, I feel myself very unequal to doing the subject anything like justice. Mine willbeonly a few plain observations, as they have come practi- cally under my notice, in my short experience as a tenant farmer; and I shall with pleasure listen to any friend who may think mv views on the subject erroneous, and shall feel obliged for his opinions, when, should he be able to convince me his plans are best, I shall be very ready to adopt them. It appears that turnips were first cultivated in England, as food for cattle, in the county of Norfolk, more than 150 years ago ; and it does seem rather extraordinary, after all that has been written and all that has been said during so long a period, that in many parts of England that crop is still so much neglected, perhaps by some through prejudice to their forefathers' method of cropping, and by others for want of information on the subject. It may be said, farmers should inform themselves by reading agricultural works, or by taking a journey in other parts, where a different system is carried on, to see and judge for themselves ; but, from the laborious nature of farmers' employments, they are more inclined after returning from the fields for sleep than for study ; consequently they are not generally reading men. And from the smallness of the farms, and the indifferent quality of the land in the most backward parts, it is necessary for the farmers to remain (hard at work) at home, and to save every shil- ling, to be enabled to meet the differest demands on them ; consequently they are no travellers. Now I know of no means so likely to effect that great object (namely, an increase of production) as by forming clubs of this description, to impart to each other any practical information which appears likely to be beneficial, not only to ourselves, but to the consumers likewise. And if, by anything I may advance this eveninor, I should add my mite towards effecting it, I shall feel amply repaid for any little time it may have taken. 'i'urnips, like all other plants, have a soil best adapted to their growth : that soil is a deep light loam, with a free open subsoil, or, in other words, good barley land. It was formerly thought that turnips could not be grown on any other land, but experience has taught us, th»t by the aid of artificial manures, and the introduction of the drill system, the common sorts can be grown on any land, even if the nature of the land has been completely ex- hausted by continual straw cropping. I have grown good turnips where the land would not produce two those minerals, in which the axis of the ray is always at the same time the axis of the greatest contraction. This axis even decides the predominant direction of the shooting out of the rays. It is only in such minerals, that these rays can so ar- range themselves togetlier as to form a thin covering." " Were the secreted substance one having equal axes, like fluor-spar for instance, the organic life would have had thus great difficulty in arranging the particles of fluor-spar when formed. Instead of rays and plates, masses would have been producod; and the skeleton, and with it the entire animal, and its capabilities, would have been completely different from what they actually are." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 331 bushels of barley for one sown, by well working the land, and laying out from one pound to two extra in artificial manures, per acre. Before the introduc- tion of the turnip crop, it was found necessary, where the land was much tilled with straw crops, to give it once in five years an empty fallow, for it to receive the benefit (as was supposed) of the sun's rays ; but experience has taught me that, except to destroy weeds, it is an injury instead of a benefit. I have seen instances, when the turnip crop lias failed, and the land again ploughed and left to remain open to the sun, where the barley crop was much stronger in the part the turnips grew and produced a good crop, and taken from the land, than in that on which they failed. It was formerly considered necessary to break up grass land, and pare and burn the surface for the benefit of the ashes; but that system is now almost entirely abandoned, and a green crop between two straw ones substituted. Some farmers plough down a piece of ley for oats, next take that for turnips; others take two straw crops first; but I think the best method is to break the land for wheat, lime it well, and as soon as the wheat is taken from the field skim the arisb, and make it thoroughly clean, and before winter take out what dung is made, and plough it in the land. I think the sooner duHg is put in the land after it is made the better, but this must not be done in wet weather ; the carts passing over the ground get it close, and cause much labour to get it in a proper state to receive the seed. I have known good turnip-growers allow their land to remain unploughed because the dune was not made, but I think there is more lost by the land being deprived of the benefits of frost, than gained by the dung being ploughed in as soon as made. Two or more ploughings will be required in the spring, and (if not perfectly clean) harrowin"-, rolling, raking, or picking, must not be neglected. This method is likewise less expensive than break- ing up grass land. I will give you an estimate of the expence per acre when grass land was taken for Swedes, as per account kept by myself in the year 1837 :— £ s. d. Skimming of the surface 0 5 0 Working Do. before burning , . 0 6 0 Raking and burning 0 2 6 Spreading ashes 0 1 0 Skirting the same , 0 5 0 Working Do 0 5 0 20 loads of farm-yard dung nt 2s. 6d 2 10 0 Carriage and spreading 0 5 0 20 bis. of lime at Is. IJd. per bl. 12 6 Carriage of Do. 9 miles 0 12 0 Mixing and spreading Do 0 5 0 12 cwt. bone-dust 1 17 6 Carriage of Do 0 5 0 Ploughing last time 0 5 0 Harrowing, rolling, &c 0 6 0 Seed 0 2 6 Drilling, &c 0 2 6 Hoeing 0 12 0 Banking 0 2 0 Carting to yard 0 10 0 Rent of land 15 0 Rates, taxes, &c 0 8 0 Master's head and eyes 0 10 0 £12 4 6 This appears a large amount, and it may be said the crop could not be worth the money, but turnips pay in an indirect way, and we cannot tell their exact value, but in this case I had the satisfaction of knowing that I obtained a good crop, while thou- sands failed who spared the expense; besides when extra means are resorted to, we may expect to be repaid a part in the crops that follow. From the great increase that has taken place in the cultivation of the turnip crop in Scotland and many parts of England, it has been feared that ma- nures for a more extensive cultivation could not be obtained, but the art and ingenuity of man is ever active in making new discoveries, consequently, several manures congenial to the growth of turnips have been found out; in addition to bone-dust, there is aniraalized Carbon, Lance's Humus, Clark's Desi- cated Compost, Nitrate ofSoda, and some others. Of these I have tried experiments with Bone dust and Animalized carbon, 1 found both very congenial to their growth ; I last year tried its eflSects by drill- ing the carbon mixed with peat and wood-ashes, be- tween that sown with bone-dust mixed with ashes, at an equal expence as near as possible per acre ; the result was, from the commencement of their grow- ing to the time of hoeing, in favour of the carbon ; and they were at the timeof drawing, equal, if not su- perior to those sown with bone-dust. Having made rather free with the bone-dust at the commencement, 1 was obliged to shorten the supply in the last acre, and it was very visible in the crop : I understood my brother had made some experiments with dif- ferent manures, I wrote him for the result, and will give you his answer in his own words. " I will now give you some account of the expe- riments tried last year with different manures, but it will not be very satisfactory as we did not weigh the turnips : they were drilled eighteen inches apart ; the first piece with about 2 qrs. of bone-dust, and 2 qrs. of wood and coal ashes mixed per acre, the se- cond with about 4 qrs. of Lance's Humus, the third with about 4 qrs. of vrood and coal ashes, and the last witli about 4 qrs. of malt-screenings ; the turnips came up in all very well, except the malt screening, which was rather thin, owing I suppose to the dry weather and the hotness of its nature. The humus soon took the lead, and continued the best for the first three months ; but when they had finished growing, the bone-dust was considerably the best, the humus next, and the other two nearly alike. Several farmers in this neighbourhood (Pro- bus) tried Lance's humus against bone-dust last year, and all with the same results. Having seen many accounts iu the Mark Lane Express ot the won- derful effects of Nitrate of Soda, I have ordered some, intending to give it a fair trial." As it is well known that lime takes some time to complete its action on the soil, I would recommend a liberal quantity to be applied for the former straw crop, and as much dung as can be afforded with one of the quickening manures drilled with the seed for the turnip crop. There are various different sorts of turnips now grown, they were no doubt obtained from three kinds by innoculation, namely, the Swede, the yel- low, and the white ; the green rounds, the Aber- deen, and Hybrids are a cross between the Swede and the white, and all other sorts by crossing and re-crossing ; those I sow are the Copper crown Swede, the green round, and white bold fast; I have seen some good crops of the Hybrids, they are similar to the green round ; I have tried many other sorts, but found them inferior ; I have brought a few specimens of the kinds 1 cultivate, which I will now produce for your inspection. 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In the best turnip districts, tie common sorts are but very little cultivated, and I have no doubt at no very distant period the invaluable Swede will super- sede every other sort, where there is a possibility of growing them ; they are food for man and beast when all other kinds are rejected by all. I would recommend every grower of turnips to save his own seed, or purchase from some one who did, and who is known to be very particular in transplanting the best formed bulbs to keep the different sorts pure; I have known, after excellent management, crops lost, by sowing old worthless manufactured seed ; I have seen the expectations of farmers disappointed by finding they have been im- posed on, by being sold rape-seed for Swedes, and all sorts together for common. Seed should never be saved near a village or gar- den, where greens, cabbages, &c., are allowed to flower, nor two sorts saved near each other for fear of crossing; the seed should not be left too ripe be- fore taken up, but taken up when fully kerned and covered over with straw to keep them from the birds and sun, or placed in a house to stand on their roots, when tdey will retain their nature sufficiently long to bring the seed to perfection. There is an old saying " he who by the plough would thrive, must either hold himself, or drive." I know of nothing that requites this motto to be so closely adhered to, as in that of drilling the seed ; for my own part I would not trust my own brother, if able to attend to it myself; there is great care and attention required, or some mishap will take place : I recollect in the year 1837, 1 was inspecting the drilling of the seed, things went on well before we left for dinner ; to make sure I took the canisters from the drill, and carried them in, and placed them in a room, locked the door, but did not take out the key ; the apprentice girl, as I suppose, having oc- casion to go to the room, no doubt was anxious to see where the seed was put in, and not contented with shifting one hoop to find out the hole, she shifted two and let them remain ; on going again to the room, I found it as left, ©r so I thought ; I took it to the field, placed it in the drill, and ordered the rtian to drive on ; I followed the drill once through the field, and part way back, when, on taking up the cover to see all was right, I was surprised to see the large holes of two canisters open, and all the seed gone : I have mentioned this, as there is a curious instance connected with it, of which I will by-and- bye give you an account — and to show the necessity of very great precaution, Swedes should be sown early in June, the common sorts late in June or early in July ; but much will depend on the weather — better a little out of season than out of temper. There are various differently-constructed drills, and as many different opinions respecting them — some contending for twenty-seven inches apart, others for one foot ; but 1 contend for the interme- diate space of eighteen inches (or more for Swedes). The first drill I ever saw — and, I believe, the first introduced into that part of Cornwall — was made by my brother, the plan taken from one seen in the neighbourhood of Exeter ; it was merely to deposit the seed in rows of eighteen inches apart. I was drilling with it, when a young neighbouring farmer came to see it work. He exclaimed, it would never answer, the rows were so far apart. I endeavoured to reason with him by saying they could be left thick in the rows, but to no purpose. I then pro- posed to put the drill back between, so let the space of one drill's width be nine inches apart, intending to weigh the produce ; but, unfortunately, a disease affected them, which I will by-and-bye explain to you, called fingers and toes, which so injured the crop that it was useless to make the trial ; but, from observation since, I am convinced that eighteen inches is quite near enough for Swedes. The wider the drill, the more manure comes in direct contact with the plant, and forces it from the attacks of the fly and other enemies. In Scotland and many parts of England, they first drill out the ground, then place the dung immediately beneath where the seed is to be deposited, plough the land back on the dung, and then with a hand-drill deposit the seed. I adopted that plan myself, or one very similar, a few years since, but I found it a slow process ; and since the introduction of the ash-drill, and the different manures that pass through it, I prefer that plan — it is more expeditious, which is a great point gained in this variable climate, and the fibres of the roots are sure to reap the benefit of the dung, if ploughed in equally in every furrow. I have been informed that good crops of Swedes have been obtained by planting, first sowing a seed- bed in the garden ; but I think the process must be an expensive one, and not likely to succeed in a dry season. Perhaps some one present, who has tried the experiment, may be enabled to give an account of it; but I do not think it likely to be acted on in a large scale. Perhaps an early piece of vetch ground might be planted with advantage. Sometimes, after the utmost perseverance has been used, an enemy comes and destroys the crop : these are — the destructive little fly, the wire-worm, the grub-worm, the black and green caterpillar, and some others less destructive ; there have been various remedies recommended, but the only one I have practiced is, to force the plant from their raviiges, and which I think the only one likely to succeed. I promised to give you an account of the circum- stance connected with the mishap in drilling : the two holes being left opon, the seed came out in heaps, consequently the turnips came up in bunches, and produced sufficient shelter for the fly of passage, that produce the black caterpillars, to deposit its eggs, before the other part of the field was scarcely discernable ; the consequence was, the caterpillars came out from the bunches by thousands, and de- stroyed every turnip within a land yard, while on the other parts of the field not one was to be seen. As that was not a year that they did any damage, I think it shows that the flies passed over the land be- fore the turnips were a suflScient shelter for them to deposit their eggs. I now come to a most important part, and one which, if neglected, our former labour will almost be in vain : — it is that of horse and hand hoe- ing. There are many different kinds of horse-hoes, but the best I have seen for the flat surface is one invented by Mr. John Bonifant, and improved on by Mr. Darke and myself ; as I have a model of it here, you may judge of its usefulness for yourselves ; T have likewise the model of a single one, which is very useful in stony or uneven ground. But the hand-hoe is indispensable, and should be put in execution as soon as the plants are sufficiently visible. I must say we labour under a great dis- advantage in this neighbourhood from not being able to get young, active girls to execute the work ; not that they are scarce, but because, instead of assisting to procure food, they are employed to make coverings for the hands of dandies. I am fully aware, by their being so employed, a large sum of money is brought into this neighbourhood, but I do think, if the country girls were brought up in agricultural pursuits, it would add greatly to the happiness and comfort of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 333 our agricultural labourers when tbey became ibeir Mowing of the tops £0 1 0 wives. In somo parts ot Cornwall, the hoeing is all Ploughing out tlie bulbs 0 7 6 done by women ami girls, at an expense of about Harrowing 0 2 0 seven shillings an acre, aad much better done than Four one-horse carts 0 6 0 we can get it here for nearly double the amount. The Two men filling 0 1 4 farmers there formerly gave premiums for women and Two boys do 0 0 8 girls to hoe for; I have seen from thirty to forty One woman 0 0 4 stoutly contending to be victorious, but since the Master 0 2 0 introduction of the drill system, there is not so — much art required. £l 0 10 Plants, like the human frame, are liable to diseases; ^his amounts to £1 Os. lOd., but it must be re- the most destructive to the turnip is that called collected that two acres have been skimmed and fingers and toes, of which 1 promised to give you worked, which if properly managed must have been some account-I have seen acres after they were j^ne, if taken up by hand, which would reduce the considered secure almost wholly destroyed by it ; I expence to 12s. 4d. cannot better describe it than by reading u passage ' It will be recoUec'ted that last year the Enolish Ae- from Jackson's Treatise on Agriculture and Dairy ^cultural Society offered a premium of ten pounds Husbandry, pag-e 7j. for the best essay on storing turnips ; that premium Ihere IS another disease called mildew; this, I ^.^g ,,v^„.jed to Mr. Geach, of Tywardreath in think, is caused by the crop having exhausted the Cornwall. 1 have endeavoured to obtain it, but it is nature of the land before the cold weather sets in, to ^^^ ^,^^ published by the society, but we shall have check Its growth. It generally happens to those it in' the report of next quarter :'so says Mr. Geach sown very early ; and I have observed in another j^jr ,^„ ,,^,^ ^^^^^ -^ g^^^j^g j^^^^, ^- ^^^ ^^, ^g^' part of the held the same kind, but sown much later, j^ ^^^3 ,,,3^ ,i,.e potatoes, or put them in a house not the least affected by it. but in either case they must not be placed too thick It will be necessary about September to go over f„^ fg,^ ^f heating, say from 2 to 3 feet in the house the crop and pull any weeds that may have escaped ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^■^^^ .^^ „,g ,^,^3 potatoes if eaved • but the hoe so that not a single weed be allowed to j„ ^^.^^ ^^^^^^ t,, „„gt be well covered with straw seed. Sir John Sinclair says in his work on agn- ,,g j,, ^jn ,,3 ^^^^ required in frost. In the cu tui-e, however desirable it may be to have a farm .; £ j^row them to a heap a load thick and cover tithe-free, it is equally desirable to have it vyeed-free. them slightly with straw to keep them from the sun Here if successful, the farmer has the pleasure of j ^hink the rain rather improves them than otherwise! a most daily witnessing the improvement making in j ^^^^ ^^^j^ ^^j apparently from good authority their growth, the straightness of the rows, the well- that from 40 to 50 tons of Swedes are grown in formed bulbs, their regularity, and the cleanness of Scotland and some parts of England per acre. Al- the land ; he may say to himself- though I am well aware that the quality of the land After all my anxious care I've fairly won and the strength of manures far exceeds any thing Food for the stock, the game, and feathered throiiff ; in this neighbourhood, yet the quantity appears All eapr to devour, no doubt, by instinct led; extraordinary. I have weighed some' which I I'll take a day or two and sport on what I've fed. .1 , •^ 1 ,■ ° , ""11-" a thought good crops this season, but none ex* I have found it an excellent plan just before the ceeded 30 tons to the statute acre. I tried the setting in of frost, when the land is dry, to take a weights of two crops, one drilled at 18 inches apart, one-horse banking plough and pass between the the other at 14 ; the weight was a little in favour of drills, throwing up the earth on both sides of the 18, but that did not exceed 26 tons per acre ; per- turnips ; it preserves them from the frost, and keeps haps, if drilled at a greater distance, the weight the land clean and dry ; but this cannot be well would be greater. There are various different opi- efiected at a less distance than 18 inches, which is nions respecting the best method of consumino- the another argument in favour of that distance to a less crop, but much will depend on the nature of the one. soil ; some fanners consume the whole on the land In taking from the land and storing Swedes, the with sheep, others draw one-half to ihe fold-yard, method I have adopted, (and I know of none so ex- but I think in this neighbourhood the best method is peditious and economical,) is to put a man to mow to draw the whole from the land ; the turnips o-o off the tops and gather them up and take to the much Auther, and by having a good store, the sheep fields as fodder for sheep, let the skiming plough can be kept well in frost or wet weather, by taking follow with a share of sufficient width to clear all them daily on a grass field, or in a yard where the the surface, leaving the tap roots to remain in the manure will he equally beneficial as if tbey were land, let a harrow follow to move the bulbs to consumed on the same land tbey grew, the surface, and if required take a thorn brush and There are a great many different machines invented pass over them to make them thoroughly clean, for cutting turnips, but the best I have seen is one Here again we require rhe assistance of young ac- purchased at the meeting of the English Agricultural live girls to fill the butts. A short time since, by Society at Oxford, by Mr. Nott; it is turned by way of experiraeot. I tried what quantity could be hand, when a great number of projecting knives taken to the yard in a given time. The crop weighed from a cylinder scoop out small pieces calculated about 26 tons per acre, 1 had in use four one horse to feed sheep ; it appeared to work remarkably carts, the distance to take them was 72 land yards, easy, and did its work well, but it appears one man and one boy to discharge the carts, and the inventor has obtained a patent for it, so two men, 2 boys, and one woman to fill them, and it come"? expensive, although simple. In some master to keep all a going ; the time employed was parts of England the landowners, to encourage their four hours, and the quantitv stored 64 loads, or i6 tenants to g-row Swedes, oflfer a premium of the most loads per hour, or one load every lour minutes, improved turnip slicer for the best crop, this I think The quantity of land cleared was about 2 acres, islikely to increase their growth. I generally allow the weight drawn per load about 16 cwt. I will the bullocks to break the Swedes themselves, and now give you the cost of taking from the field and they contrive to devour a great quantity, hut I have storing the two acres, weighing 52 tons. no doubt if cut for them, they would fill themselyes 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. quicker, and by having more time to rest, get fat in less time. I always cut them for young sheep. Perhaps it may not be amiss to say a few words on the evil effects of a lost crop, or where no crop has been endeavoured to be gained, but not having any extensive experience on that point, I will quote a passage or two from that excellent little work, written by Mr. Hillyard, on Practical Farming and Grazing. He says in one place the cattle must turn out in spring like crows after a hard winter, and in another, no food, no cattle— no cattle, no dung — no dung, no corn. I will likewise say a few words on the benefits arising from a good crop. It is said, a merciful man is merciful to his beast. What can be more satisfac- tory to such a man, than to know he has food sufficient for all, and to spare. He has the satisfaction of knowing that he has assisted to procure food for rich and poor. He has the pleasure of feeling that he has by his perseverance, skill, and capital, done his utmost to increase the production of the earth so as to be enabled to render the consumers his produce on moderate terms. I will conclude in a similar strain to the advice some one is said to have given to his son, after giving him as you may suppose the best advice respecting his conduct through life. He says, get money, honestly if you can, but get money ; and I will say to you, grow turnips, cheaply if you can, but grow turnips. ON VEGETABLE LIFE. Sir, — I have taken the liberty of trespassing on your attention, on account of the numerous experi- ments which have been superintended by scientific men, in trying to explain the origin of the above subject, but which as yet have tended little in the furtherance of its development; I therefore beg to offer a few remarks on the general principle, which is maintained in the support of that life, trusting that they will be acceptable to some of your readers. Many practical writers on manures, both organic and inorganic, have ably shown what their effects are on different soils, and have borne out each other very closely as to their relative merits ; but how far that manure operates, directly or indirectly, in sup- porting that life, they have as yet failed in coming to any decisive conclusion. Thnt it is a subject sur- rounded with difficulties, is most evident, and its solution can only be attained by the most assiduous and persevering study ; chemistry may aid mucli in unravelling this mystery of nature, which is of such vast importance to the agricultural world, provided it is conducted with ©penness and candour j and no opinions for or against a particular system ought to be discarded, because they disagree with a pre- vious one. In submitting the following remarks and experi- ments to your consideration, I think it will be advis- able, in the first place, to give a cursory review of the effects of manures on soils ; and in the second, that of the influence of the atmosphere on plants; con- cluding with a brief summary of their combined agency in promoting vegetation. The principle of applying manure to soils, is either to cause them to be capable of retaining more moisture, or to loosen them, so that the superabundant moisture may be evaporated by the atmosphere. Thus on soils chiefly consisting of sandy loam, chalk, or shallow soils on gravel, manure having the property of containing moisture is applied, to make those soils sufficiently tenacious, thereby retaining the moisture longer in the vicinity of the roots, which otherwise would be evaporated. On soils consisting of clay, peat, marl, &c,, manure of a loosening property is applied to open those soils, that the action of the atmosphere may more readily approach the roots, and evaporate the stagnant moisture contained in them. That ma- nure can have very little more to perform in the productiveness of soils, is fully shown by the fol- lowing experiment, superintended under the care of eminent men. Professor Van Helmont planted a willow cutting in an earthen pot, having a lid to it perforated with small holes similar to the top of a watering pot, wherein he put 200 lbs. of dried earth, and watered the plant when requisite ; at the end of five years he took the earth out and dried it, when he found it had only decreased 2oz. from its original weight, but the willow cutting had in- creased 1691b. 3 oz. Messrs. Gleditch, Bonnet, Der Hamel, and G.W. Kraft, sowed different seeds in glasses, containing different substances, viz., moss, spunge, dried sand, pieces of woollen cloth, chopped hay, and garden mould, which they all re- gularly moistened ; and when the seeds had grown into maturity, they were found to contain all their respective parts, and had all equally flourished, without the slightest regard to the substance they had been sown in. It is therefore evident that earth in any state of richness can be looked upon in no other light than as a protector for the roots to spread in, and as long as roots have a sufficiency of mois- ture and air circulating them, it matters little what that substance consists of, if it is capable of afford- ing it. In the second place, that the influence of the at- mospheric action conduces materially, if not solely, in the origin and support of vegetation, and imparts to the different plants all those essentials which are found in their composition, is satisfactorily shown by the following experiment. Four thousand plants, belonging to different species, were planted in pure earth kept regularly moistened, and on ana- lyzation, after they had attained their ripeness, were found to contain in each species an ounce of oil and salt, according to their usual habits, in the most flourishing soils : though the earth they had been planted in had not decreased in weight, nor had it previously contained one particle of any oil or salt. The action of the atmosphere consequently can be regarded as the only source from whence all those plants derived their nourishment — oils, salts, and earthy particles which formed their composition. The results which accrued from the foregoing ex- periments were highly satisfactory, inasmuch as they at once proved that vegetable existence was immediately derived from the combination of air and water, and that the substances which surrounded their roots were of no further use to the natural habits of the plants than as retainers for the mois- ture which was necessary for their vegetation. Manures can be looked at in no other light than as substances, when they are mixed with soils for re- taining or absorbing the moisture in the vicinity of the roots ; manure, by its decomposition or fermen- tation, deposits oils and salts in the earth, which being soluble in water, are taken up in that state by the plants, is maintained by some as the most bene- ficial cause why land should be manured, but how that supposition can be hetd forth after it has been proved that they do not partake of any property existing in the soil or substance in which they vege- tate, seems at variance to reason ; if manure imparts those essentials to plants, and that they derived it from that source alone, what caused those plants to .,4,^-4*^ '«VW^. 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 335 contain tLeir oils and salts, which grew in sub- stances, not having a single particle of any essential (which was found in their composition^ in them, in the slightest degree 1 Again — if manure imparts properties to the soil which renders that soil more congenial to the growth of plnnts, why does not the soil diminish in weight as the plants increase in size, if the plants take up as food their soluble matter ? If on tlie con- trary, which has been proved to be the case, wiiat use are the properties of manure to the general ve- getation, further then rendering that soil more capable of retaining or absorbing that moisture which is necessary for their existence? It is there- fore evident, tliat air and water may be considered as the chief promoters of vegetable life ; and if we could only be certain of having a sufficient supply of moisture distributed to the plants, either by ar- tificial or natural means, the principle of the present system of cultivation would be most materially al- tered ; but as that supply is so variable in our cli- mate, it becomes necessary for cultivators in general to mix such substance with his soil which will ren- der that soil more capable for retaining or absorbing that moisture desired. Trusting that I have not infringed too much on j'our patience by the perusal of these remarks, I re- main your constant reader and subscriber, Surrey, April, 1841. T. J. W. THE COVER SIDE. The subject of our second embellishment is one which must interest every class of society, from the peer to the peasant. The utility of the horse is too generally known and admitted to require comment here. In addition to the acknowledged usefulness of this noble animal, the indefatigable research and ingenuity of man have been the means of making this beautiful and docile quadru- ped subservient to his pleasure as well as his profit. By attention to breeding, and the innumerable experiments for introducing and maintaining the purest blood, united with power and speed, Eng- land stands pre-eminent, if not alone, for pos- sessing the finest race horses in the world. Long may she hold, with undisputed sway, the supre- macy ceded to her. It is matter of history, that the admixture of Arab blood has much improved our breed of horses. The first Arabian on record was imported into England in the year 1121, and the crusades, which soon succeeded, were the means of introducing a large accession of Eastern horses from the Levant. The traffic in horses now began to assume much of its future character-. Smithfield wss about this time first established as a horse-market, and the dealing in this valuable and useful animal was already become a regular profession, and not untainted by the still pervading vice of trickery. To Edward the Second the breed of English horses owes much of its early improve- ment. He procured cavalry horses from Lombardy, Italy, Spain, and heavy draught horses from Flan- ders. From this time the public attention a[)pears to have been particularly directed to the necessity of improving the breed of horses ; in fact, many public ordinances were promulgated to that effect. In the reigns of the two Henrys (7th and 8th) it became common to import foreign stallions for this purpose from Barbary and Spain ; and in the two following reigns others were imported from Belgium, Flanders, and Denmai-k. As the former were intended *o improve the speed, spirit, and beauty ; so the latter added, in no sliffht degree, to the size of future breeds. As early as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there were horse-races in England ; but these ap- pear to have been principally confined to trials of speed between native horses. In the latter part of the reign of Henry the Eighth, horses, procured either from Barbary direct, or bred from tlie pure race, were ex])ress]y used for this purpose ; and we may date the systematic improvement in the breed, by the admixture of what we call blood, to have its origin about this time. James the First pursued the system, and imported from Barbary a set of the finest mares, for purity of breed and ex- cellence of form, that could be procured. These, known significantly as the royal mares, greatly assisted the general purpose. His majesty also im- ported an Arabian, but his qualities and those of his produce did not realize the sanguine expecta- tions raised, and for a time the breed was in com- parative disrepute. Regular race-courses were now established, and racing was conducted on fixed principles, governed by laws, and confined within rules. Charles the First encouraged these sports, and to him we owe the establishment of the New- market Course ; and in such estimation were they, as connected with national good and advantage, that even the fanaticism of Cromwell gave way to it, for it is on record that he had a stud of race- horses. The Restoration gave a new impulse to racing, and a new impetus to the improvements meditated at this period. The Arabian was again resorted to, and on the renewed trials he was found to justify the former expectations. From that time to the present, by a judicious mixture of crossings of the native and Eastern horses in different degrees of consanguinity, we now stand unrivalled among nations ; and it is an extraordinary fact, and worthy of being noted, that we now send back to Eastern countries to meliorate that blood which we origi- nally borrowed from them. Much discussion has arisen by the frequent repetition of the question — " What constitutes full blood ? and what is termed a thorough-bred horse?" We consider this question as very easily decided, the term thorough-bred horse merelyimplying one that can be traced through the Stud Book, by sire and dam, to any Eastern stallion, or to what were called the second edition of royal mares imported by Charles the Second ; as they, together with two or three of the first imported stallions, form the " we^^2<*M/t the tenant's interests, that he is prevented from profiting by it as he otherwise might. Let the reflection pass through the landlord's mind, thiit /le too has /ns duties as well as his tenants ; let him lend a helping hand to those improving, enterprising occupiers; who make the greatest efforts to help themselves ; let the con- ditions of their occupancy be confined to the avoidance of a few universally admitted evils ; and impose no unnecessary, harassing, and vexatious ties on them, which are as much adapted to promote real im- provement in agriculture, as the prescription that "the sovereignest thing on earth was parmacity for an inward bruise," was suited to Hotspur's outward cuts. A great deal may be done without bills of pains and penalties; the experimental farm in Glou- cestershire will do more service to the cause than bales of parchment agreements ; improvement in that loca- lity is wanted indeed ; but in the published report of proceedings there, though quite enough is stated to convince any one that the method of management was of the worst description possible, yet I cannot shut my eyes to another fact admitted in the same document, namely, that the fields were so small, and the hedge- row trees so numerous, (upwards of 3,000 pounds worth on a farm of 240 acres, if I mistake not, as I quote from memory) as to set all common attempts at improvement at defiance — quite sufficient if a tenant was down, to keep him so — and the first step which was taken was to fell them all, — " a consummation which however he might devoutly wish," it is very pro- blematical whether an application to the proper quarter from the late occupier, would have accomplished. In the letting of a farm, let the suitability of the applicant as far as regards a practical acquaintance with his business be ascertained ; to have been brought up as a tiller of the soil would generally be one item — though it is somewhat curious that three first-rate farmers, who have but few equals within my knowledge, were in their younger days connected with Manchester in- stead of Mark-Lane and Smithfield ; and if the inquiry be satisfactory, exact a fair rent and no more — but do not fetter him uunecessarily ; and providing he be young 2 A 342 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and unmarried, if a certain phrenological or^aa situate at the back part of his cranium have an average de- velopment, and the number of bonny lasses suitable for wives be as great as they now are, and are likely to be for some time to come at least, he will have quite inducement enough to do his utmost in keeping his land in condition, in order that it may keep him and his. Apologizing for having trespassed so long on your time, I remain, yours truly, March 2Q. B. H. ON THICK SOWING. Sir, — With much pleasure I reply to your correspondent signed " A Subscriber," on the subject of sowing grain. It appears that your correspondent assents to what I have said in my work on Practical Farming and Grazing, that "different descriptions of land require such different methods of sowing, and such different quantities of seed, that no one can lay down any general rule for this important part of farming, and that on most soils it is unwise to be saving of seed." To this I beg to add, that all good farmers best know, taking into consideration the chance of seasons, the quan- tities of seed per acre their land "should be sown with ; and, although our system of sowing mio;ht be different, 1 have no doubt but your correspondent's land was sown in a manner suited to it. I will now reply to that part of your correspon- dent's communication in wliich we are at issue. My opinion is, that poorer soils to produce good fair crops, require a greater quantity of seed than the rich. I became a convert to this opinion ■when at Holkham, about twenty years ago. Lord Leicester has ever been of opinion, that the poor sandy soils of Norfolk should be sown thicker than the loamy soils in other counties. When going round the farms with bis lordship to shew his system of farming to persons who have not before seen it, he has often desired the attending servant to pull up a handful of stubble to shew that each root was separate, from the corn having been drilled so thick that each grain could only send up one stem, the ear of which produced finer corn than would have been produced from two or more stems coming from the same root. Your correspondent describes how be sowed a field of his, in 1831, which be says was part of it level land — other parts a rich valley — others, hill sides, proportionably poor : on the level land, he sowed four bushels per acre ; the hill sides, three to three-and-a-half bushels ; the rich valley sowed twice over, so as to bring it at least six bushels per acre. Within these three or four days, I have been sowing with barley a small field of eight acres, which appears, from your correspondent's descrip- tion, very similar to the one he has mentioned ; parts of it being hilly, thin of soil and stony, the other parts valleys, with much richer and deeper soil. As these different soils required different quantities of seed, I have in this instance departed from my long accustomed practice of drilling, and sowed the field broad-cast, in order that I might sow thicker on the poor soil than on the rich. On the hills, I had sown four bushels to the acre; in the valleys, about three bushels. Had there been on this part six bushels per acre sown, as there was in the field of your correspondent, I feel sure that the corn on it would (without it should prove to be a very dry season) be rotten on the ground before it was ripe. As it is after turnips, and clover-sown, therefore there can be no hoeing of the crop, broad-cast sowing may do as well as drilling. The best wav T can devise to satisfy your correspondent as to whetlier I am right or wrong in my ideas of tliin and thick sowing, is to propose, should he be travelling this way, to come to see my farm and crops in tlie month of Jul v. Having pen in hand, I am induced to give you suine information as to the present appeaviince of my own and the wheat crops around me, on our light land. On the breaking up of the frost, they did not appear to be much injured by it — but many of them now show sad proofs of injury from the ravages of the wire-worm ; and the worst of it is, there is nothing at present known which will stop their des- tructive career, without killing the crop they are in. I was in hopes that before this time, as it has been so publicly requested, that some entomologist would have informed us of the natural history of this grub, that we might be enabled to form the best opinion as to the most likely means of destroying a great part of them ; but as to aunihilating the breed, that is quite out of the question to think of. I feel sure, however, that in the land which has been infested with them during the growth of a crop, they may all, in the autumn when the crop is off, be destroyed. I have written a letter on the sulject, and sent it up to the President of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which, should the Journal Committee approve of, 1 conclude will appear in the Society's next Journal. It is lamentable to think, that from present ap- pearances, there will this year be as mucli wheat destroyed by this grub, as would have produced bread enough to supply for one whole year, the wants of many thousands of human beings. I am. Sir, yours, &c., C. Hillyard. Thorpelands, near Northampton, March 25, 1841. PLUG DRAINING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE tlNCOLNSHIIlE CHRONICLE. Dear Sir, — Every friend to agrieulture must be thankful to you for the zeal with which yeu collect all matters of interest to their calling. I was much pleased with a perusal, in your last, of the proceedings of the Rutland Farmers' and Graziers' Club ; the remarks of Mr. Hawley were sound and practical, and just what we might expect to hear from so clever an agriculturist and so shrewd an ebserver. Allow me to ask, however, in reference to the subject which heads my letter, whether the gentlemen who so strongly advocated this system (new to these parts) are quite warranted by experience in doing so ? I confess 1 am rather fearful as to the results ; for it appears to me, that if the ground is rammed too hard over the plug, the drain formed will become in a degree impervious to wet, and thus defeat the object — while, if not thus rendered firm, it can scarcely be expected to possess sufficient tenacity in its parts te become very durable. Perhaps ]Mr. Pickering or Mr. Robt. Smith will satisfy me and others of your readers on this point, through the medium of your columns. The importance of the question of draining will, I feel convinced, plead my excuse for troubling you. It is of the greatest moment to the farmer : in fact, good farming cannot be done without it— and when we read that in 1324, 64 acres of land produced only 69 quarters of corn, we cannot but remember ihat oar ancestors never drained. But to be done well, this should be done thoroughly: nothing, in my opinion, can beat stme, and although it is a costly process, its durability makes amends for its price— and two crops will pay all the expense. Hoping to be favoured with a hint or two from one of the Rutland gentlemen, I am, Sir, yours, &c., Agricola. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 LANDLORD AND TENANT. LEASES AND COMPULSORY CULTIVATION CLAUSES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — The invitation to individuals and others, in your editorial article of the loth February, to communicate their sentiments on the subject of leases and compulsory cultivation clauses, has brought forward " X. Y. Z." and " B. H.," as correspondents in your papers of the 8th and 22nd current, the former questioning the propriety of leases without restiictions to a prescribed course of management, while the latter has given an ac- count of how much misery can be produced to all from such conditions, originally intended for the benefit q/a/^. With a hope that the views of a " practical farmer" in the Lothians of Scotland, where leases and restrictive clauses have long been tried, may assist in eliciting some truth, I propose to trespass on your columns. Few men question the benefit of leases to all concerned — to the landlord in particular, from an improved property — to the tenant, from security to reap the fruit of his improvements — and to tlie consumer, from the increased produce therefrom ; but the duration of lease likely to produce lUe greatest result is not so certain. I would not take less than 20 nor more than 25 years, vuta u rent certainly not to oppress, but high enough to call into active operation every energy, and pro- duce the greatest result. The consumer, who has limited his consumption, under a heavy tax, to the produce of our limited country, has a right to expect and demand that the greatest result shall be produced ; and has good grounds of complaint against those who take the tax and refuse to allow the greatest to be produced, by refusing to grant leases. This brings me to the conditions of a lease, which ought to be of such a tenor as to give free scope to agricultural improvement of every kind. No man can calculate the changes capable of being ])roduced on all varieties of soil by tho- rough tile draining. No man can foretel what improvements science will give to agriculture be- fore the expiry of twenty years. And no man can at present draw out compulsory rotation clauses for crops, so as to produce the greatest result at that date. In fact, such clauses put a bar upon improved management for the period of the lease. The only restrictions requisite, in a lease of any length, are stipulations to manage according to the rules of good husbandry, viz., not to take two white crops in succtessive years from the same land ; to consume all the straw and turnips upon the farm ; and during the last four or six years of the lease, the tenant to have a fourth or sixth of the farm in sown grasses, annually sown with a white crop, after a fallow crop manured and hoed. In some districts, it may be necessary to stipulate that the white crops be hoed as well as the green or fallow crops. Simple as these restrictions may at first sight appear, they are quite sufficient ; they apply to most, if not all, kinds of soils, and all kinds of crops, while they give free scope to the tenant to suit his crops to each kind of soil he occupies, and to adopt each improvement as it rises ; and they avoid the absurd restrictions in use among extensive proprietors, whose agents, to secure a uniformity of leases upon an estate, thus attempt to produce a uniform course of cropping upon soils diametrically opposite in their qualities and capabilities. No.v that English agriculture is relieved from the incubus of tithe in kind, and the poor rates have been bettor regulated, let her able advocates fully discuss this question of leases and compulsory cuUimtion clauses — let them show Scotch landlords and tenants a lesson. I expect something great from them, and the first to acknowledge it will be your very obedient Z. Y. X. March 2Gth. ENCLOSURE BILLS. Return to an Order of the Hon. the House of Commons dated March 3, 1841, for a return of the number of bills for enclosing of waste lands which have passed since the re^elution of this house on the 9th day of March, 1837, for appropriatinjf allotments of land for recreation and exercise of the inhabitants of the seve- ral parishes ; stating^ the number of acres enclosed by each bill ; and stating' also, in classes, the number of allotment* of one, two, three, four, five, or more acres of land, and the number, if any, where no allotments have been made, in each year, and the total number of hills and of acres. Summary of the Account. Number of enclosure acts passed since the stand- ins' order was made requiring allotments for recreation 63 Number of acts in which the number of acres to be enclosed is not stated 28 Number of acts in which the number of acres to be enclosed is stated 35 Number of acres to be enclosed under the above 35 acts 50,022 Number of acts in which allotments for recrea- tion arc made 54 Number of acts in which no allotments for recreation have been made 9 Number of allotment*! of not more than two acres, nor less than one acre and a half 2 Number of allotments of not more than three acres, nor less than one 2 Number of allotments of two acres 6 Number of allotments of not more than four, nor less than two, acres 3 Number of allotments of not more than four, nor less than tin-ee, acres 2 Number of allotments of three acres 3 Number of allotments of four acres 2 Number of allotments of not more than five, nor less than two, acres 2 Number of allotments of not more than five, nor less than three, acres 3 Number of allotments of not more than five, nor less than four, acres 1 Number of allotments of five acres 4 Number ef allotments of not more th^n six, nor loss than three, acres 2 Number of allotments of not more than six, nor less than four, acres 12 Number of allotments of six acres 2 Number of allomients of not more than eight. nor less than four, acres 1 Number of allotments of not more than ten, nor less than nine, acres Number of allotments of twelve acres Number ot allotments of thirteen acres Number of allotments of sixteen acres Number of allotments of eighty-eight acres .... Number of allotments to be determined by the Commissioner 2 Edward Johnson. Private Bill-office, House of Commons, March 10, 1841. 2 A 2 344 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL NUTRITION. Tliis lecture was delivered by Mr. James Allen Rausome, at liic Royal Victoria Gallery, Mancliesfer. Mr. Ransome commenced by stating, that at the last meeting, in introducing the subject of vegetable and animal nutrition, he had alluded in general terms to the nature of the materials em- ployed as elements, or as engaged in the first pro- cesses of nutrition. He had remarked, that man, although an omnivorous animal, was yet ulti- mately dependent upon the vegetable kingdom for his nutriment ; for the flesh meat he took as food derived its nutriment from the vegetable creation ; so that man is dependent, directly or in- directly, upon the vegetable kingdom, for the ma- terials which constitute the alimeni from which his own frame is to be formed. Thiw, then, led to the couFideration of the materials composing the vegetable kingdom ; and he had shown experi- mentally, that a simple vegetable product— sugar —contained three elements in a state of combina- tion—carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, which were the three principal elements entering into the composition of vegetables. But he had prepared them to look for iiaer elements, in order to com- plete the series. They next considered from what sources these respective elements were derived ; and after a short review of the notion that carbon, their principal constituent, was derived from /mmus, or, as it was also called, hicrnin, or /mmic acid, he had ventured, on the authority of Pro- fessor Liebig, the celebrated German chemist, to show that much doubt might be entertained on this subject, and that it was more reasonable to suppose that, instead of carbon being derived from humvs, it was derived from one of the consti- tuents of the atmosphere, for carbonic acid was found to constitute one-thousandth part of the weight of the air. From experiments which bore some analogy to the process of vegetation, he had shown that a much greater weight was taken up by chemical substances, having an affinity for carbonic acid, than was required for plants grow- ing in the same surface in the same time ; with- out denying the use of humus, or the ingredient constituting vegetable mould, which exists ia almost all good soils. In connection with the subject, he had shown, that, if we examine the constitution of plants, we shall find almost every one of their elements, such as woody fibre (lignin), starch, sugar, tannic and tartaric acids, and the essential oils, contain less oxygen than carbonic acid, with which the air furnishes them ; and, consequently, that, in the act of taking them in, oxygen must be given out. He had mentioned this, in reference to the main question— the main- tenance of the purity of the atmosphere ; for if we suppose, from the respiration of man and ani- mals, and the combustion of immense quantities of carbonaceous matter (amounting, perhaps, to thousands of tons in this town alone), that the quantity of carbon in the atmosphere had gone on increasing, and that of oxj'gen decreasing, and that thus, after a given time, the materials of which the atmosphere is composed would become unfit for the support of life— we should see that, by this beautiful arrangement, the decomposition of carbon and the giving out of ox)'gen, the purity of the air was constantly maintained ; and that the direction given to the winds by different temperatures also tended to equalize the purity as well as the temperature of the air throughout the globe. He had shown, that we need not look very far for t.he sources of hydrogen and oxygen, in- asmuch as oxygen might be taken in as a con- stituent of the air, or might exist as a constituent of water, in combination with hydrogen, and hydrogen is necessarily taken in from the water which is abundantly provided for plants, both in rain and in the dews which occur in the absence of rain. We will now (continued Mr. Ransome) proceed to a consideration of what other materials are found to be contained in plants, and, in fact, found to be essential to their growth. But we have still one other substance to rank with those already considered — nitrogen or azote, the fourth princijial element of plants. Some are disposed to think that this does not enter materially into the composition of a plant, except in the case of some poisonous plants, or those which possess strong medicinal qualities ; but a few words only are necessary to show that, unless plants did con- tain this element, animals could not derive much nutriment from them. It has long been known, that if dogs are fed upon pure sugar, which is ac- knowledged to be nutritive when mixed with other things, they fall into a kind of consumption, lose flesh and strength, and ultimately die with symptoms of emaciation and decline. Sugar is one of those substances which contains no azote or nitrogen. On the other hand, we have whole tribes of men and animals who live upon nothing but vegetables ; yet the bulk of their muscle or flesh contains a large proportion of azote. Whence can that be derived, unless the food they take contains a large portion of it, or we consider man as possessing the power to assimilate the gaseous elements around him ? But the fact is, they do not take in azote from the atmosphere, and they would die unless they were provided with some- thing as an aliment containing azote. We shall see that, although sugar and starch exist in the leaves of ])lants, yet every particle is surrounded by a thin lamina, of a substance which contains azote, and it is owing to this that many changes take place spontaneously, or by means of the root. The simple operation of fermentation takes place from the gluten, which contains a quantity of azote, reacting upon the sugar which it invests ; and we shall see many instances in which che- mical changes are effected through the instrumen- tality of the azotous principle which accompanies the other more truly vegetable principle. A compu- tation was made by Boussingual t, a French chemist, that hay contains one hundredth part of its weight of azote. Hence we see the source of the nutri- ment of cattle fed on grass. Wheat contains even a larger quantity ; and, in proportion to the nu- tritious quality of the wheat, shall we find the greater quantity of azote. And upon this depends the practical application of chemistry to the art of culture, — viz., the providing a plant with sub- stances which will give out azote to it ; for such is the difference in wheat, that some only contains 3J per cent, of gluten, whereas other wheat, pro- vided by the care and foresight of the farmer, with proper composts, has this quantity of 3^ per cent, of gluten increased tenfold, or to 35 per cent. We also find, that if a horse, for example, be fed upon potatoes (which it will cat readily enough), it is unfit for its work, an! loses strength and spirit ; because the potato is a plant which con- tains but little azote. In the East Indies people live very much upon rice, which contains but THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 little azote ; and, in order to get a fair proportion of this principle, they have to take a larger quan- tity of food. It is singular enough, that one of the articles in daily use in most families should be a substance containing a large quantity of azote— viz., coffee. The cafine, or active principle of coffee, contains more azote than almost any other known body. I was in hopes to have exhibited before you this evening a tew proofs that some plants contain azote ; but imfortunatcly it has very intractable qualities; and, though it would put out a light, it would not display any very ac- tive properties. The form in which it is best known in combination is that of ammonia, or the gas which is the pungent element of the salts con- tained in the smelling bottle. Ammonia is known to contain a certain proportion of azote, repre- sented by the formula Nl, 113, or one proportion of nitrogen or azote, with three proportions of hydrogen ; and these two, combined in these proportions, constitute ammoniacal gas. 'i'his gas is formed under many circumstances, in the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances, and in the elimination of hydrogen : and therefore we may naturally expect, that, from the immense masses of putrifying matter upon the surface of the earth, the relics of former generations, ammonia must be given out, into the atmos- phere. Most of us were struck with the very small proportion of carbon or carbonic acid found in the air, only one-thousandth part of its bulk ; yet I showed you also, that when coral reefs are formed in the ocean by myriads of animalcula, these little animals contrive to abstract from the water sufficient carbonate of lime, to form future islands ; and yet the quan- tity of lime in sea-water amounts to only the 12,400th part of its bulk, and iodine is contained in salt water in the proportion of one millionth. The air itself contains 79 per cent, of free azote, about 21 per cent, of oxygen, and one-thousandth of carbonic acid ; but, unless we provide azote for plants in some other form than that in which it exists in the atmosphere, it is useless. That form is ammonia ; and in that form we must look for it in the air, as required for plants. If we take a jar full of atmospheric air, and look for ammonia in it, most of us will be disappointed, the quantity exists in so small a proportion. By recent calcu- lations, Liebig found that every cubic foot of air contains only a quarter of a grain of ammonia : Liebig has, however, found it in the air. Ammo- nia is a highly volatile substance, at an ordinary temperature existing as a vapour ; but if that vapour comes in contact with water, the water absorbs it so rapidly as almost to produce an ex- plosion. Liebig conceived the idea, that if we wish to search for ammonia, we must look for it in the water which falls from the air, and by so doing has found it, as I have done by repeating his experiments. Liebig took 100 gallons of rain water ; he applied heat, and distilled over four or five pints ; he saturated it with acid, so as to fix the ammonia; evaporated it, and it left crystallized muriate of ammonia. It appears, however, that our air in Manchester is rich in ammonia ; for instead of 100 gallons, we had only to use 10 gal- lons ; and from the first pint distilled, Mr. Neild and I succeeded in procuring this quantity of am- monia [exhibiting a quantity crystallized in a glass] . It is natural to expect, where so much coal is burned, and where there is so large an ac- cumulation of human beings, that if ammonia is to be found at all, it is in Manchester. We see, therefore, that the atmosphere will provide for plants a quantity of ammonia, and so small as is the quantity entering into the composition of a jilant, it is sufficient for the development of those principles which are requisite to the nutrition of the plant. If one pound of rain water contain only a quarter of a grain of ammonia, then a field, having an area of 14,000 square feet, must receive annually upwards of HOlbs. of ammonia, or G.'dbs. of nitrogen. This is much more nitrogen than is contained in the form of albumen or gluien, in 2,(irj01bs. of wood, in 2,8001bs. of hay, or in 200 cwt. of bcot-root, which are the usual products of that surface. It also happens, that the quantity of ammonia thus brought down by rain, after a drought, is larger than ordinary. In summer, a thunder shower after a drought is very likely to bring down, in the first part of the shower, a large proportion of ammonia. Liebig took different portions of strata of snow, and found the larger proportion of ammonia in the lowest stratum, which of course fell first. The sensation of greater hardness in rain water (felt on washing thchands) than in distilled water, is owing to the quantity of ammonia which rain water contains as compared with distilled water. We have next to consider how this ammonia appears in plants, or whether it appears at all. Of this there is abundant evi- dence presented in the evaporation ot the juice taken from the stem of the maple tree, which is_ generally saturated with lime, for the purpose of throwing down the gluten it contains, and the presence of the lime causes a disengagement of the gaseous ammonia sensible to all about. In the manufactories of maple and beet root sugar, this escape of ammonia is very strikingly experienced ; indeed this circumstance is one of very serious loss to the beet-root sugar manufacturer ; for the ammonia given off, leaves behind it an acid vsalt which prevents the sugar crystallising, and causes considerable loss by reducing the sugar to a treacly state, in which only a portion, instead of the whole, can crystallize. The products of the dis- tillation of flowers, herbs, and roots, with water, and all the extracts of plants for medicinal pur- poses, contain ammonia. The tobacco leaf con- tains ammoniacal juice ; the juice of the cut vine also gives off ammonia. In connection with these facts, we may allude to some articles which the farmer employs to increase the fertility of his land. Most of the composts used are rich in nitrogen, particularly bone-dust, crushed bones, and the shavings of horn, being parts of dead animals; but there are also other substances, which, when thrown over the field, increase its fertility, simply because they combine with the ammonia which comes down in rain water, and deprive it of its azote. Gypsum, or the sulphate of lime, is ex- tensively used, and, when applied to a meadow exposed to alternations of wet and dry weather, causes it to produce abundantly ; but it is found not to answer upon a dry meadow ; and the reason is, that when rain falls, if carbonate of ammonia exists in the air, and comes into contact with gypsum, it is converted into carbonate of lime, and the ammonia is disengaged and absorbed into the soil. The next shower dissolves a portion of it, which passes down to the root of the plant, and is assimilated by the plant itself. Many soils con- tain ammonia. If you take a piece of common pipe- clay, and moisten it with a strong alkali, you per- ceive at once a smell of ammonia given off, which will even continue for a couple of days. Other alumiuous earths retain ammonia. Burned clay ia 346 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. often nsed by farmers to apply to their land ; and burned clay is now found to absorb and retain ammonia. The ferruginous earths (those which contain an oxide of iron) also retain ammonia ; and one of the most solid of these oxides, the hematite or red oxide of iron, a stone, contains one per cent, of this gaseous principle. It is from these facts — now for the lirst time ex- plained by Liebig — that the materials used by the farmers prove beneficial in their appli- cation to the land. Humus is a spongy body, which absorbs ammoniacal gas to a considerable extent ; and, with every shower of rain, it gives it out to be taken up by the roots of the plants. Plants, then, derive their nourishment from carbonic acid, ammonia, and water ; these being the principal sources from which plants derive the greatest part of their bulk and weight. The plan assimilates to itself these respective elements from carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. In the decay of plants, these elements float to other plants, are again assimilated by them, and thus the destruc- tion of one generation of plants furnishes the materials out of which another is to be formed. The intermediate processes are obscure ; but still lights are to be thrown upon them, by analogy, which may form the subject of another com- munication. Let us now consider what other materials we find in plants. If a plant consisted merely of the elements mentioned, it would vaporize, be entirely dissipated, and nothing would be left ; but very few plants will do this. Some of the elements of plants will do it, as starch, sugar, and the essential oils ; but generally we find, that, after the burning away of a plant, there is an ash left. In coals, which are but vegetables transformed, we find the value of the coal depends upon the greater or less quantity of ashes left; and this ash we will term the inorganic principle of vegetables. This consists of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, some of the metallic oxides, phosphoric, sulphuric, and other acids, chlorine, iodine, and I need hardly enumerate them all ; but there are a number of fixed elements, capable of existing in a solid form, unalterable and unchangeable by heat. (He exhibited a quantity of ashes obtained from burning six ears of corn, after thrashing, and without the wheat ; in addition to a quantity of soluble matter, which had been dissolved.) In reading the works of the older physiologists, we meet with the statement, " Such a plant contains a little soda and a little magnesia," without specifying proportions, or any stress being laid upon the fact. But more accurate investigations have shown, that there are certain relative pro- portions between the quantity of these fixed materials and the plant itself; that, in proportion as these exist in the soil or the plant, its develop- ment is more or less perfect. If a farmer attempt to grow wheat on a soil containing neither flint nor potash, he may get wheat, but it will not stand, the stems will not support it ; because the stalk of wheat contains a species of glass — silex in combination with potass. He would have nothing in the ear, unless the soil were provided with a salt called thephosphate of magnesia and ammonia. This has been tried in the mosses, which contain humus enough, but without the addition of some compost they never bear. In the tribe of plants called equisetacece, the stem contains large quan- tities of silica. The Dutch rush contains so much that it is used for the purpose of polishing ; and it is found in large quantities in some tropical plants. The bamboo in some of the joints contains absolute nodules of asubstanceconsisting of 70 por cent, of silica, and 30 per cent, of potash. How came they there ? 'J'here has been some controversy ii])On this subject among chemists ; and one analysis has been made to show, tiiat it could not he a permanent proportion, inasmuch as two pine trees, which grew in different situations, contained different proportions. Liebig took these analyses, compared them together, and then introduced — triumphantly I think — the principle of equivalents, laid down by our venerable townsman, Dr. Dalton, showing that although the quantities appear very dissimilar, yet in their jn-oportions they are exactly the same, although the data were taken from a hostile source. Two pine trees were taken, one growing on Mont Drevcn, and the other on INIont La Salle. The first contidned potash, lime, and magnesia ; and the sum of the carbonates of these amounted to .5()71 per cent, in the ashes ; whilst those of the pine grown on Mont La Salle contained 58-55 of these carbonates ; but this latter contained only potash and lime. In the first the quantities were carbonate of potash >3'60, carbonate of lime 46*34, carbonate of magnesia 6'77 ; in the second, carbonate of potash 7'36, carbonate of lime ol'lS). So that the one containing no magnesia contained more lime and more potash ; and when we examine the equivalents — the proportions required to neutralize an acid — we find them in the one to amount to 9-01, in the other to 8-95, being a difference of only "06 (six hundrcths), a difference of weight which few scales would detect. Liebig took another analysis in which the disproportions are much greater. He took two fir-trees, one growing in Norway, and the other at Allcvard, in France. That in France contained potash, soda, lime, and magnesia ; the sum of these carbonates was 49*5 ; while that of the carbonates found in the fir grown in Norsvay was Jl'45 ; yet these, when reduced to the equivalents in which they combine with acids, were found to be 11*62 and 11*47; from which result Liebig is disposed to infer, that the presence of these elements is not accidental ; but that they form a certain pro- portion, and enter into that proportion in the ratio of their equivalents. Now from what sources are these matters derived ? Take a sandy heath, which contains, to all appearance, nothing but sand, and where the most expert analj'st will detect nothing else ; no humus whatever, and, ii you attempt to grow wheat upon this heath, there will be no crop, But, if on this heath plants are grown which require but little of the inorganic principle, and these are destroyed either by decay or combustion, it is found in practice that the heath acquires fertility. Take, for example, the Luneberg Heath, in Germany, which is covered with heath-plants generally, especially the erica vulgaris. Every thirty or forty years the practice is to burn down all the vegetable growth on the surface, to let the ashes sink into the ground, and then to sow wheat; and thus these plants, which have, for the space of forty years, been constantly collecting a little of these elements, when burned, contained in their ashes the product of that number of years' growth ; which, when returned into the soil, is sufficient for one crop of plants which require a good large proportion of these elements. In the neighbourhood of Heidelberg, one of the perquisites of the wood- cutters, after felling and clearing timber, is to be allowed to burn the roots, stumps, twigs, and leaves, and to raise one year's produce from the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 347 ground. They do so, and get one good crop ; for, whatever the trees and plants collect goes on ac- cumulating, and then, by destroying the carbo- naceous parts by fire, the inorganic products are returned to the soil, and provide for one year's growth of wheat. Does not this show us what is meant by exliausting a soil ? If wlicat is grown year after year on the same soil, it is found that the crop becomes less and less productive. And why ? Because, with every crop of wheat, so much of the inorganic elements is removed or taken away from tlie ground ; therefore, in order to allow this ground to recover these inorganic elements, it is necessary to resort cither to the now exploded (?) system of allowing it to remain fallow, or to a rotation of crops; which, we shall show, will furnish ground with potash and lime. But how does a soil hapjien to contain potash originally? All soils are formed from the dis- integration of the harder rocks ; they gradually accumulate in the lower parts of the country, being brought down by floods and other causes. We must look, then, to the composition of the rocks themselves. Suppose of each of these which I will enumerate, a field of 40,000 square feet [a, Hessian acre) of surface, with a depth of twenty inches, were decomposed, the quantity of potash we might expect to find would be : — In felspar, 1,152,0001b.; in clinkstone, 200,0001b. to 400,0001b.; in basalt, 47,5001b. to 75,0001b.; in clay slate, 100,0001b. to 200,0001b. ; and in loam, from 87,0001b. to 300,0001b. We also find, that the aluminous or clay earths, contain a large pro- portion of potash ; for we can obtain it not only from pure felspar, but from the granites. The potash these contain is not washed away by every shower of rain ; for clay is a very impervious sort of material ; and therefore, though the surface may be washed away, the intei'ior still contains a large proportion. Wherever water penetrates, there the soil gives off its potash to the water, and this will be taken up by the sporiffioles of the roots of plants. A single cubic foot of felspar, if decomposed in clay, is sufficient to supply u wood of 40,000 square feet, with the quantity of potash necessary for the growth of timber upon it, for five years. Do we not, then, see the use of many of the composts now introduced upon the land ? The very dirt collected upon our roads must contain quantities of potash. The gritty portions of this dirt undergo decomposition ; it is reduced to the finest powder, and, from exposure to air and moisture, undergoes disintegration ; and by this means an abundant sui)ply of potash may be obtained. How does the earth, after being exhausted by the growth of plants, recover itself by lying fallow 1 Ic has the double advantage of not only having its humus exposed to the air, and converted into a sort of sponge; but the inorganic materials are still further decomposed by the action of the air, and thus become ready to furnish to the next crop the quantity of alkali required. We see that where silica is required as an in- gredient in the portions of a ])lant, it is necessary that potash should exist with it, to render it in some degree soluble. Thus the hard part of the bamboo, and the stalk of wheat, which cotitains silica, have it accompanied with jiotash, which assists the silica to enter into a state capable of being assimilated to the plant. There is another beautiful provision in plants, for taking up some of the more insoluble elements, viz., that in one class of plants, the f/raminea-, an acid is given out as an excretion from the roots, producing an acetic fluid, which, entering into combination with alkaline earth, forms soluble elements, and allows them to be taken up by the spoiigioLcs and reduces them to a state of assimilation. Plants growing there will assist in the disintegration of rocks more than mere weather will do. But suppose a soil pretty rich in potash, and that the farmer is misled by the desire of making the most of his land in a short time. He grows upon that land plants, which, when they attain their proper growth, are removed from the land, burned, and sold for potash — an article greatly in demand. The plant generally selected for this purpose is the artemisia, or wormwood ; if he grows it and sells the ashes, and the next year thinks he will have a crop of wheat, he will be disappointed ; for he has taken from the soil that very material which is essential to the welfare of his wheat the following year. Again, it is essential to the farmer to know which of his crojjs take out of the most of this principle, as contained in potash, lime, or mag- nesia. Tobacco and wheat require pretty much the same proportion of potash at one period of their growth. If the farmer attempts to cultivate the one after the other, the result will be pretty much the same as if he tried to grow two crops of the same plant in two succeeding years. It would seem from this, if the view taken by Liebig be correct, that it is important the farmer should always know what are the inorganic elements con- tained in the crops he wishes to have ; for these must either be found in, or supplied to the soil : they cannot exist in the atmosphere. He ought next to examine his soil, and see if it contains them. If not, they must be added. Upon this, it seems to me, the important principles of agri- culture depend. It is not necessary that each farmer should be himself an analyst ; but a number of farmers might unite to procure the services of one ; and it is certain that success would follow the application of these principles. The quantity of inorganic elements required by the plant in 100 parts of the stalk of wheat, are 15-5 of ashes. In the same quantity of the dry stalks of barley, 8.54 ; in 100 parts of the stalk of oats, 4"42 ; and thus we see, that the same field that yields only one harvest of wheat, might be made to produce two crops of barley, or three of oats, year after year. The illustration of the practice at Heidelberg, of allowing the wood-cutters to burn the timber on the ground, will also show how land, which has been covered by forests for years, will when the forest is consumed, become abundantly fertile. It is owing to this, that the trees themselves require but little alkali in proportion to the grasses ; they have been assimilating this for years, and, when they are destroyed by decay or combustion, that ground is abundantly supplied with inorganic pro- ducts necessary for a crop, and also with a fair proportion of vegetable soil. The common practice with farmers in the rotation of crops is to follow grass with legtiminosce, which class of plants contains no free alkali, and only 1 per cent, of the phosphates of lime and magnesia; buck wheat contains only .09 per ceni^. These belong to the fallow crops ; and the cause they do not exercise any injurious influence on the land cultivated is, that they do not extract the alkalies from the soil, and only a very small proportion of the phos- phates. Now, is there not something in all this deserving the attention of agriculturists ? They^ have hitherto gone on blindly ; they have arrived at a certain state of knowledge from experience, and it so far a useful guide ; but are they possessed 348 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of sufHcient knowledge of facts connected with this important subject to form a principle and rule, in reference to crops and soils of various kinds, and the order of succession? And when we find a work published by a celebrated organic chemist, Dr. Liebig, in which these principles are developed for the first time in Europe, are they not, I ask, highly deserving the attention of agriculturists ? They not only apply to all tlie articles of our daily food, but to the articles of raw produce which we consume in our manufactures ; and, in fact, it seems that culture is not only useful, as supplying our animal wants, but also to lay the foundation of the prosperity of states, particularly of those engaged in commercial enterprise ; and therefore, in the speculations now afloat as to the transfer of the products of one part of the earth to another, it is important to set at rest or establish the principle upon which this must be eifected. I do not stand here in order to defend the principles of Liebig, but shall be glad to listen to the experience which any gentleman here has to offer ; assnring you, that I have at least as much pleasure in listening to others as in hearing myself. The lecturer concluded his communication (which was delivered extemporaneously with great ease and fluency) amidst the loud applause of his deeply- interested auditory. Mr. J. E. Bowman moved the thanks of the meeting to Mr. Ransome for his very lucid ex- position of the important principles which had formed the subject of his lecture, which were passed and suitably acknowledged. THE ART OF CULTURE. This lecture was delivered by Mr. James Allen Kansome,at the Royal Victoria Gallery, Manchester. Mr. Ransome opened the proceedings, by ob- serving that on two former occasions he had an opportunity of bringing before the meeting the new views entertained by Liebig in relation to the process of vegetable nutrition; and, having full}^ developed these views, there still remained an opportunity of making a practical application of the subject. On the present occasion he wish- ed for an audience exclusively of gentlemen, in order that he might the more readily enter into details, which he could hardly submit for discus- sion in a mixed assembly. In the announcement of the subject for the evening, he had used a new term — the art ofculture— which he considered an episode to a general course of lectures, which he •was bound to deliver to them. The art of culture implied that some violence, gentle or otherwise, was done to assist natural processes — that artifi- cial means were employed to produce certain ef- fects. The agriculturist availed himself of the guidance of nature, to produce certain effects which nature herself could not effect, were his interference wanting. The main end of vegetable existence seemed to be the reproduction of means of which the species might be maintained. A few seeds, maturated by the parent plant, falling into a suitable soil would have answered this object, but this was not sufficient. It had been wisely order- ed that where a higher class of beings depended on vegetables, for life and support, the reproduc- tion should be made as abundant as ijossible. It was intended that the increase should be lamply sufficient for the maintenance of the superior or- ders of creation. That abundance had been, up to the present time, materially increased by ai'ti- ficial means, and it was still doubtful whether it had as yet reached its maximum. The object of Professor Liebig was to show how, by the applica- tion of certain principles, the production of a still greater abundance might be obtained. It was an object which every good citizen must have at heart ; for it had been well said that that man deserved well of Ins country who could make two ears of wheat grow where there was only one be- fore. (Cheers.) He (Mr. R.) considered himself merely as the expositor of Professor Liebig, for Lis own knowledge of agriculture was slight, and his authority of little weight ; but he would endea- vour as much as possible to deliver the substance of Professor Liebig's book extemporaneously, as he (Mr. R.) knew it would be more interesting to the audience than reading from a book. They had seen, on former occasions, that vegetables were compounded of four principal elements — car- bon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; and in ad- dition to these there were certain traces of inorganic constituents which were found to follow an exact law of some of the most fixed and unal- terable principles, such as potash, soda, lime, magnesia. &c. Having pointed out the relative proportions of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and ni- trogen that were found in plant matter, Mr. Ran- some showed that the carbonic acid was furnished to the plant through the medium of the water, and absorbed into the spongy part of the roots. The hydrogen and oxygen were derived from the rains furnished by dew or irrigation. The atmospheric air contained about 79 per cent, of hydrogen. The inorganic products, such as potash, soda, lime, magnesia, &c., he had shown on a former occasion to have been derived from the disintegration of the rocks of which the soil was composed. If they took a virgin soil, such as the first colonists of America were so fortunate as to discover, they would find that the seeds of plants sown in it would flourish accordingto their natural habitudes — that is, each would select asoil suitable to itself; if sown in a wrong situation it would fail, but where it fell into ground suitable to it, would flou- rish. In South America they were able to accom- plish a task which the English agriculturists could not ; they grew for upwards of 100 years succes- sive crops of tobacco plants, but after 100 years the soil ceased to yield its produce ; it was exhaust- ed— of what.' Not of carbon, that was provided from the air, water might be wanting in some localities, but where rain was not, there was abun- dance of dew. Nitrogen also pervaded the at- mosphere; it was shown in that room that it could be brought down by showers of rain. The exhaustion of the soil might in part depend on its being robbed of the nitrogen, or the ammonia that furnished it. The abstraction of the nitrogen would impoverish the soil. The impoverishment of the soil might also be attributed to the abstrac- tion of the inorganic matter. The question then was, how the exhaustion could be prevented — how the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen with the inorganic constituents, such as soda, lime, potash, magnesia, &c., could be preserved } It had been shown that plants would grow in air without soil, yet these were exceptions ; most plants required soil, and in that soil there was a quantity of vegetable mould to which the name of humus had been given by vegetable physiologists. The humus that exists in the soil, when brought into a state called coal of humus, was, in fact, a sponge which absorbed the oxygen and carbonic THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 acid, and then gave out the carbonic acid to the plant. We might expect to find in every good soil this vegetable mould oi- humus. It would be considered bad husbandry for a man to grow two crops of wheat in two successive years; why? Some supposed the soil would be exhausted. But Decandolle and Macaire, who experimented on this subject, came to the conclusion that although the plant takes from the soil whatever is presented to it in a state of solution, it also excretes back to it those mattei's not useful for its own assimilation. They also found that it would ensure the destruc- tion of a plant, to put it into the water where another plant had grown and left its excrementi- tious matter, shewing that the excrement of one plant is the poison of another, of the same des- cription. But plants of another species would flou- rish if put into this excrementitious matter, which also showed that the excrement of one ])lai\t con- tained the nutriment of another. From these ex- periments Decandolle and Macaire were quite justified in coming to the conclusion that some- thing was thrown oft' by one crop which would be injurious to another in the following year ; but if that matter could be exposed to the action of the oxygen as it exists in the air or the water — parti- cularly if the earth were turned u]) for tillage, so as to expose a fresh surface, this excrementitious matter would undergo decomposition, and be re- duced to a state of /<;<»««« or vegetable mould. This humus had another property, namely, that of as- suming the form of uric acid, in which state it formed compounds soluble with potash, lime, &c. This was the dogma of the old physiologists, that humic acid united with lime, &c., became soluble, and was taken up by the spongioles of the roots. It was found, howevci', that the vegetable earth which contained this humic acid was injurious to the growth of plants, and that the earth which is mixed with it is unfit to be used until it is so thoroughly washed as to have lost the power of colouring the water. Fi'om these experiments it appeared that cultivation did not diminish the quantity of carbonaceous matter in the soil, for each crop left behind it more than the preceding one exhausted — exhaustion therefore could not proceed from the diminution of carbon. The at- mosphere contained a sufficient quantity of ammo- nia from which the plant could attract its nutri- ment. Many of the wild plants did not require am- monia ; but wheat and other plants used as nourish- ment in this country required a large proportion of it. Wheat possessed more nutritious qualities, in proportion to the nitrogen it contained, than other plants. The supply of nitrogen, therefore, should be regarded as an artificial means of in- creasing the produce of the soil. The next point of inquiry would be to ascertain from what source the loss of potash, magnesia, lime, &c., each suc- ceeding crop takes from the soil, might be restored. It was obvious to all, that, if in a crop so many parts of earthy and alkaline matter were abstract- ed from the suil, so much less would be left for the succeeding crop. They had then to look by what means this loss might be supplied. He would first begin with nitrogen. It was found that the destination ot plants, besides the reproduction, was generally for the stomachs of animals. In fact, all animals derived the elements of their growth from plants. The animal takes this vege- table food in his stomach, part of this vegetable mucus he uses for the growth of his body, and part for excrement, the law of the case being, that whatever was solid and insoluble passed offin ex- crement, whatever was soluble passed in the liquid, and whatever was volatile passed off in exhala- tions, either from the lungs or skin. Nitrogen was a volatile body, and, in its compound state, ammo- nia was highly volatile, but there was a beautiful provision by which the nitrogen in combination was kept solid for the purpose of agriculture. The excretion which contained the largest proportion of nitrogen was urine. According to an analysis ofBerzelius, 1,000 parts of human urine con- tained— Urea... 3010 Free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and animal matter, not separable from them 17T4 Uric acid 100 Mucus of the bladder 0-32 Sulphate of j)otash 3'71 Sulphate of soda 3'lfi Phosphate of soda 2'94 Phosphate of ammonia l•(^5 Chloride of sodium 4-45 Muriate of ammonia 1-50 Phosphates of magnesia and lime 1"00 Sileceous earth 0-03 Water 933-00 1000-00 These were all the elements in the urine that con- tained nitrogen. If the urea were allowed to putrify spontaneous)}' — that is, to pass into that state in which it is used as manure — all the urea in combination with lactic acid would be converted into lactate of ammonia, and that which was free into volatile carbonate of ammonia. In a neces- sary, if the muriatic acid were exposed, white fumes would indicate the combination of the urea and the acid; for when the urea undergoes this change it is converted into carbonate of ammonia and free ammonia, both volatile products. Liebig says, " If a basin filled with concentrated muriatic acid is placed in a common necessary, so that its surface is in free communication with the vapours which rise from below, it becomes filled after a few days with crystals of muriate. The ammonia, the presence of which the organs of smell amply tes- tify, combines with the muriatic acid, and loses entirely its volatility, and thick clouds, or fumes of the salt newly formed, hang over the basin." In dung reservoirs, well constructed and protected from evaporation, this carbonate of ammonia was retained in the state of solution, and when the urine was spread over the land, a part of the am- monia would escape with the water which evapo- rated, but another portion would be absorbed by the soil, if it contained either alumina or iron; but, in general, only the muriate phosphate and lactate of ammonia remained in the ground. It was these alone, therefore, which enabled the soil to exercise a direct influence on plants during the progress of their growth, and not a particle of them escaped absorption by the roots. Thus we had one element and by-and-by he would allude to the neglect of the agriculturists of this country in not taking better care of what was so very valu- able, but which they were apt to consider not worth keeping. In Flanders and China this was justly considered the best manure ; but our far- mers, by their neglect, benefitted their neighbours as much as themselves, by not preserving the gas from escaping. Among the inorganic elements contained in urea, were sulphate of potash, soda, chloride of sodium, phosphate of magnesia, alum, and sileceous earth. Might they not see in this, at once, the stock which supplied the waste pro* 350 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tluce in the soil by the growth of plants, and that these elements, taken from the soil and taken into the body, were found of no use, and returned back to the soil again. In the solid excrements of ani- mals— in the cow, the sheep, the horse, and man himself, was found a greater or less proportion of acid ; perhaps in the cow there was the least pro- portion, in the horse and sheep not much more, and in the body of man the largest proportion of all. In the cow the proportion would be ^ per cent. ; in the horse, I per cent. ; and in man, from the peculiar nature of his food, it amounted to much more ; and in the pig there was most of all. The hone, cow, and sheep, devoured the grass as it grew in the field ; they took in the azote it con- tained and assimilated what was necessary for themselves, and gave off the surplus in various ways. The cow gave it off In her milk or urine, but more especially in the milk, which was highly nutritious. It passed offfromthe the surface as well as from the extremity of man, in whom the pro- portion varied from 5 to 5 per cent. But even here there was a difference between the man who lived in the country, and the man who resided in town. The former lived chiefly on farinaceous food, being unable to procure animal food, and therefore there ■was a smaller proportion in his excrements than in those of the town-fed man, who consumed a greater proportion of animal food. The town-fed man took in s. greater quantity of azote than his body requited, which was afterv^'ards given out in solid excrement and urine. Of all the manures derived from towns, the excrement of man was considered the most nourishing. But there were other sources from which the inorganic elements of plants could be derived. If, for example, we wanted to supply the land with a sufficiency of phosphorus, we had the choice of ashes of white oak, beech, pine, fir, or Norway pine. In the ashes of oak there were only the traces of phos- phate; in the beech there was 20 per cent, of the phosphate of soda ; pine and fir had from 9 to 15 percent.; but the Norway pine had only I'R of phosphoric acid. With every lOOlbs. of the lixi- viated ashes of the beech spread over the soil, we could furnish as much phosphate as 4601bs. of fresh human excrement could yield. According to the analysis of de Saussure, 100 parts of the ashes of the grain of wheat contained 32 parts of soluble and 44*5 of insoluble phosphates, in all 76*5 parts. The ashes of wheat straw contained 11'5 per cent, of the same salts ; hence with every lOOlbs. of the ashes of the beech, a field might be supplied with phosphoric acid sufficient for the production of 3,8201bs. of straw, and of from 15,0001bs. to IS.OOOlbs. of corn. It was also found that when an animal died, and all his secretions ceased, the bones were still useful as manure, and they had this advantage, that they could be kept almost any number of years. Bones contained phosphate of lime, and phosphate of magnesia ; they also contained gelatine, and albumen accor- ding to others, and were rich in nitrogen. Eight pounds of bones contained as much of the inor- ganic elements, as lOOOlbs. of hay or wheat-straw, or 4,0001bs. of the grain of wheat or oats. The advantages of bone manure were pretty well ap- preciated in this country, and in Flanders and China. With respect to the excrements of cows, black cattle, and sheep, these contained phosphate of lime, common salt, and silicate of potash. The nature of the excrements were found to vary with the elements which the animal had taken in, and always consisted of the elements which the body found unfit for its own purposes. Human foeces or excrements, according to an exact analysis fur- nished by Berzelius, contained, besides three- fourths of their weight of water, nitrogen in very variable quantity — namely, in the minimum IJ, in the maximum 5 per cent. In all cases however, thej' were richer in their element than the excre- ments of any other animal. Berzelius obtained by the incineration of 100 parts of dried excre- ments, 15 parts of ashes, which were principally composed of the phosphates of lime and magnesia, both of which enter into the composition of the husk of wheat. With respect to vegetable feeders, such as the horse, cow, and sheep, the excrements of the two latter restored to the land the silicate of potash, and salts of phosphoric acid, which was removed from it in the shape of corn, roots, or grain, and the excrements of the horse gave back to the soil phosphate of magnesia and silicate of potash ; and the straw which they used as a litter restored a further quantity of potash and phos- phates, which, if the straw were putrified, would be exactly in the same condition in which they were before being assimilated. It was evident, therefore, that a farm containing a certain number of human beings, and a certain jjortion of which was allocted for the grazing of cattle and the growing of corn, would be very little impoverished if the excrements of the human beings and cattle were carefully distributed ever it every year. In the case of a number of young children being born and reared on this farm, the alteration in the land would still be very little ; for, supposing the chil- dren continued there till they reached maturity, and consequently assimilated a great proportion of the inorganic matter, let them die and be given back to the ground, and then it would contain as much as it did at first. This shewed the necessity of using over again the excrements as manure for the purpose of reproduction ; and it also shewed the fallacy of much that had been said about ex- cessive population and a deficiency of food ; for the supply of food seemed to be always in propor- tion to the increase of population (within certain limits,) and the means of returning to the soil the necessary elements. The Chairman— In this case do you suppose that the inhabitants consume all the produce? Mr. Ransome — Yes. The CiiAipMAN — If the population is redundant, do you suppose a consequent imijoverishment of the soil .' Mr. IIansome, said he had taken a hypothetical case — a farm of given extent, supporting a certain number of animals during a cycle of years. The Chairman — If I understood you right, the animals and the men would consume that pro- duce. Mr. Ransome — Yes. Sometimes, however, an animal would be satisfied with eating a certain quantity, and sometimes he would eat more than was required for his sustenation ; a fault not con- fined to brutes — man also often takes a little too much. In the excrements of animals the surplus passed through unchanged, and Liebig remarks that "we cover our fields every year with the seeds of weeds, which, from their nature and form, pass undigested along with the excrements through animals without being deprived of their power of germination; and yet it is considered surprising, that where tliey have once flourished they cannot again be expelled by all our endeavours ; we think it very astonishing, while we really sow them our- selves every year, A famous botanist attached to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 351 the Dutch emhassy to China, could scarcely find a single plant on the corn fields of the Chinese, ex- cept the corn itsclt." J?y thus spreading over our cornfields the excrements of animals, we impreg- nate the soil with the seeds of weeds, which inter- rupt the growth of the crops we are seeking to cultivate. In Flaiulers and China, animal excre- ments are thoughtlittle of, while human excrements are highly prized ; and urine, a manure which in this country is perhaps most neglected, is with them considered hest of all. When exposed for a lenjjth of time to the air, urea undergoes decom- position, uric acid and lactate of ammonia undergo decomposition, and free ammonia escapes into the air. What is left behind is collected for the pur- pose of manuring the ground ; hut it has lost the principal element which should have been saved — namely, ammonia, which, passing into the air, benefits the neighbouring farmer as much as him who collects it. This gives rise to the question, can it not he economised ? In China we know they take the greatest care of it. Mr. Kansome then referred to what he had said on a former occasion respecting the influence of lime and mu- riate of lime, which, in certain circumstances, converted carbon of ammonia into sulphate of am- monia. He also shewed, on that occasion, that some earths had an affinity for ammonia. Profes- sor Liebig proposed that wherever urine was kept for the purpose of manure, that it should he mixed before it underwent decomposition, with coarsely powdered gypsum, or sulphate of lime. By this means the ammonia, instead of escaping into the air, became fixed, and could be removed to the soil. This kind of manure was exceedingly useful in breaking up the masses of which the earth was composed, sub-dividing it and otherwise improving its mechanical texture. Having seen from what source nitrogen, pliosphate of soda and lime, &C., might be derived, and also how they might be di- minished, he would next come to the question, in what proportions were thev to be added to the soil ? If a proportion greater than nature pointed out wereused, the plants would be over stimulated, and the produce would be diminished. It was ne- cessary, therefore, to observe a medium in the use of these means ; for, supposing that the presence of nitrogen gave the plant a power of assimilating more rapidly the carbon, the oxygen, and the hy- drogen (for wherever these three existed they were generally in combination,) with the vesicle or membrane that contained the nitrogen, j'et the quality of some plants would undergo a change on account of the extra proportion of nitrogen. W beat, for instance, would deteriorate in quality, and pa- tatoes also. The latter would contain less starch, be larger, and have more cells; they would be waxy, and in Lancashire he could hardly expect such a change would be considered advantageous. The suggestion of Professor Liebig respecting the use of bone manure was important. He said, that instead of allowing the bones, simply after pulve- rization, to be sprinkled over the fields, they should be mixed with ten times their weight of sulphuric acid, and after remaining in contact for some time, to be diluted with 80O or 1,000 parts of water, and then sprinkled over the soil. This would render the ground far more productive, than if a coarse powder were sprinkled over its surface. The sandy soils of the South American coast were ren- dered fertile by a process not unlike that suggested by the use of the urine of men and animals. They were manured by a substance called guano, con- sisting of utrate of ammonia and other amraoni- acal salts found in the islands of the Pacific, and abundant crops were produced. The idea was taken from the fertility produced by the fcsces of carnivorous birds and serpents. The next point to which he would draw their attention was, that if they sujjplicd the land with nitrogen, and at the same time otnittcd to supply it with potash, soda, magnesia, alum, or other inorganic substances, they would do it more harm than good. This had been practically decided in the vineyards, in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, where some persons were in the habit of manuring their vines with cuttings of horn and bone powder, by which means they forced the growth of the vines and in- creased the quantity of their produce ; but, as they noglected to supply their vines with inorganic ele- ments W'iiich were necessary for the plant, they completely ruined their vines. There was one poor man there whose sole dependence was on the produce of his vineyard, and as he was not able to manure his vines after the expensive manner of his neighbours, with an ingenuity which did him credit, he discovered a method of renewing his vines, which were almost worn out, and which were the only support of his old age. He observed, that wherever the cuttings of the vine were buried, the grass sprung upmost luxuriantly; and he rea- soned thus— " If the grass sjjrings up luxuriantly on account of these cuttings, why may not the vines ?" Accordingly he applied the cuttings round the roots of the vines— inorganic elements being thus supplied to the plants, his vineyard from being the poorest soon became the richest in the neighbourhood. In what part of the plant were these inorganic elements found ? In a spread- ing tree they were in the largest proportion in the leaves, next in the branches, and least of all in the trunk. At the autumnal fall of the leaf they were once more returned to the soil, where they were again taken in at the spongy parts of the roots, and thus the foliage and growth of the tree were renewed from year to year. These were points bearing on practical culture, hut there were one or two curiosities connected with it which he would be wrong to omit. On a former occasion he ob- served that one plant might contain potash, and another of the same kind soda, which shewed that there was a principle of substitution in existence. This was proved in the case of a certain maritime plant, which, when growing on the shore contained soda as its alkaline principle, but if sown on land where there was no alkali it would produce seeds containing one-half soda and one-half potash, but the plants from these seeds would produce nothing but potash, shewing how one plant might replace another, where nothing else could be had. In some samples of the Jesuit's bark, it was found that the proportion of quinine was very trifling, but whenever this was the case, the deficiency was supplied by lime. On the other hand with respect to acid, there was plenty of opium that had none of its peculiar acid, but the deficiency was replaced by sulphuric acid ; so that it was sometimes ne- cessary to deprive the soil of some of its inorganic elements, in order that a plant having deficiency of one acid might be compensated by the supply of another. In looking forward, therefore, to a crop, the first question would be, what does the soil contain .' and the next, what will the crop, which may be expected from the soil, contain ? And if it were found that no relation or corres- pondence existed between the crop and the soil, success could not be expected ; and thus the in- terference of the art of culture was called into ex- 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. istence. I have thus, gentlemen ("said Mr. Ran- some,) endeavoured, as well as I could from me- mory, to biing before you some of the facts recorded in Professor Liebig's book, and I hope the seeds which have been thus cast on the earth, may bring forth fruit in such abundance as will convince the most ignorant and the most preju- diced, that science can do something for agricul- ture, and that Professor Liebig, in sending forth this book, may be considered as the friend and benefactor of his species (cheers). Mr. Read — I understood you to say that Pro- fessor Liebig had given the amount of potash derived from the decomposition of the rocks which produce it. Mr. Ransome— He takes the Hessian acre, ■which contains 40,000 square feet, and says that if that undergoes decomposition to the depth of 20 inches, a soil of felspar would contain l,152,0001bs. clink stone, from 20,000 to40,0001bs. basalt, from 47,500 to 75,0001bs. clay slate, from 100,000 to 200,0001bs. loam, from 87,000 to 300,0001bs. potash, is present in all clays ; accord- ing to Fuchs it is contained even in marl. It has been found in all the argillaceous earths in which it has been sought. He shows that the inorganic element, potash, may be derived from the decom- position of rocks. .A.n expert agriculturist can tell the certain constituents necessary to produce a crop. The Chairman said, that the farmers in Swit- zerland were very particular with regard to the preservation of their urine. They had pits to the depth of 84 feet below the surface of the ground, ■where, surrounded by a sort of wicker-work, the urine was preserved until it was mixed with loam, as Mr. Ransome described. Mr. Day said, that when Mr. Ransome spoke of urea as a manure, it reminded him of several fertile meadows in the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh, ■whose production he found, on inquiry, to arise from their being overflowed several times a year by the common sewers of the citj'. If some provision were made in Manchester for the pre- servation of urea, it would be of great benefit to the surrounding neighbourhood. Dr. Black said, there was an immense reser- voir in the vicinity of Paris for the reception of urea. Mr. Ransome said, that while this was a power- ful manure, according to Liebig, it would be still more so, if it were neutralized by some cheap mineral acid. Mr. Hopkins said, that in Rome, not only did they throw all the sweepings of the streets into the Tiber, but the refuse of public slaughter-houses, such as the blood and animal excrements, were also thrown in, and no one ever saw a single load of manure taken from Rome to the adjoining neighbourhood. It was to be hoped that such views as were developed that night would even reach Rome, and teach the people of that country the necessity of preserving this valuable manure. The Rev. W. Hutchinson said, muriate of soda was not only useful as a manure, but also valuable in destroying snails, &c., v?hich injured the plant. Mr. MooRE said, that he was informed by an intelligent farmer, that two-thirds of the night-soil taken from Manchester would, on a fair average, yield 300,000 loads of potatoes. The Chairman observed, that there was one important fact which should never be forgotten — namely, draining and the use of subsoil ploughs, which would let the air down to the roots of the plants, and increase their vegetation. He very much regretted that so little attention was paid to culture in this country. If farmers paid sufficient attention to ploughing and draining, they would have double the usual produce. iMr. MooRE remarked, that one benefit which would result from Professor Liebig's book was, that it would convince farmers that plants would require the accession of air to their roots as well as to their leaves, and that draining was essen- tially necessary to carry off the stagnant water, which was very injurious to the plants. Mr. Swindells said, that farmers had ascer- tained that bones were better manure after than before they were boiled. If they were applied to the soil without being boiled, they would not pro- duce any effect for two or three years, because the gelatine should be dissolved before the ammonia could act on the phosphate of lime ; but when the gelatine became dissolved, the bones became pro- lific mutter. Mr. Ransome then read the following experi- ments and observations on the action of charcoal on vegetation, by Edward Lucas : — " In a division of a low hothouse in the bo- tanical garden at Munich, a bed was set apart for young tropical plants, but instead of being filled with tan, as is usually the case, it was filled with the powder of charcoal, (a material which could be easily procured) the large pieces of charcoal having been previously separated by means of a sieve. The heat was conducted by means of a tube of white iron into a hollow space in this bed, and distributed a gentle warmth, sufficient to have caused tan to enter into a state of fermentation. The plants placed into this bed of charcoal quickly vegetated, and acquired a healthy appearance. Now, as always is the case in such beds, the roots of many of the plants penetrated through the holes in the bottom of the pots, and spread themselves out ; but these plants evidently surpassed in vigour and general luxuriance plants grown in the com- mon way, for example, in tan. Several of them, of which T shall only specify the beautiful Thun- bergia alata, and the genus Peireskia, throve quite astonishingly ; the blossoms of the former were so rich, that all who saw it affirmed they had never before seen such a specimen. It produced also a number of seeds without any artificial aid, while in most cases it is necessary to apply the pollen by the hand. The Pireskiae grew so vigo- rously, that the P. aculeata produced shoots several ells in length, and the P. grandifolia ac- quired leaves of a foot in length. These facts, as well as the quick germination of the seeds which had been scattered spontaneously, and the abun- dant appearance of young Filices, naturally at- tracted my attention, and I was gradually led to a series of experiments, the results of which may not be uninteresting : for, besides being of prac- tical use in the cultivation of most plants, they de- monstrate also several facts of im{X)itance to physiology. The first experiment which naturally suggested itself was, to mix a certain proportion of charcoal with the earth in which different plants grew, and to increase its quantity according as the advantage of the method was perceived. An addition of two-thirds of charcoal, for example, to vegetable mould, appeared to answer excellently for the Gesneria and Gloxinia, and also for the tropical Aroideae with tuberous roots. The two first soon excited the attention of connoisseurs, by the great beauty of all their parts and their general THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 appearance. They surpassed very quickly those cultivated in the common way, both in the thick- ness of their stems and darkcolour of their leaves; their blossoms were beautiful, and their vegetation lasted much longer than usual ; so much so thatiu the middle of November, when other plants of the same kind were dead, these were quite fie^h and partly in bloom. Aroidea? took root very rapidly, and their leaves surpassed much in size the leaves of those not so treated ; the species, which are reared as ornamental trees on account of the beautiful colouring of their leaves — I mean such as the Caladium bicolor, Pictium, Poecile, &c., — were particularly remarked for the liveliness of their tints ; and it happened here also, that the period of their vegetation was unusually long. A cactus, planted in a mixture of chaixoal and earth, throve progressively, and attained double its size in the space of a few weeks. The use of the charcoal was very advantageous, with several of the Bromeliaceai and Silaceaj, with the Citrus and Begonia also, and even with the Palma;. The same advantage was found in the case of almost all those plants for which sand is used in order to keep the earth porous, when charcoal was mixed with the soil instead of sand ; the vegetation was always rendered stronger and more vigorous. At the same time that these experiments were performed with mixtures of charcoal with diffe- rent soils, the charcoal was also used free from any addition, and in this case the best results were obtained. Cuts of plants from different ge- nera took root in it well and quickly. I mention only the Euphorbia Fastnosa and Fulgens which took root in ten days, Pandanus utilis in three months, P. amaryllifolius, Chamsdorea elatior, in four weeks, Pipernigrum, Begonia, F"icus, Cacro- pia, Chicocca, Buddleja, Hacrea, Phyllanthus.Cap- panis, Laurus, Stifftsa, Jacquinca, Mimosa, Cactus, in from eight to ten days, and several others, amounting to forty species, including Ilex, and many others. Leaves, and pieces of leaves, and even dedimenti or petioles, took root and in part budded in pure charcoal. Amongst others we may mention the fioliola of several of the Cycadete as having taken root, as also did parts of the leaves of the Begonia Selsairice, and Tacaranda Brasili- ences, leaves of Euphorbia fastnosa, Oxelis Barrili- eri, Ficus, Cyclamen, Polyanthus, Mescmbrian- themum ; also, pieces of a leaf of the Agave Americana, tufts of Pinus, &c., and all without the aid of a previously formed bud. " Pure charcoal acts excellently as a means of curing unhealthy plants. A Doryanthes excelsa, for example, which had been drooping for three years, was rendered completely healthy in a very short time by this means. An orange- tree, which had the very conmon disease in which the leaves became yellow, acquired within four weeks its healthy green colour, when the upper surface of the earth was removed from the pot in which ii was contained, and a ring of charcoal of an inch in thickness strewed in its place around the peri- phery of the pot. The same was the case with the Gardenia. " I should he led too far, were I to state all the results of the experiments which I have made with charcoal. The object of this paper is merely to show the general effect exercised by this substance on vegetation ; but the reader who takes particular interest in this subject, will find more extensive observations in the Allgemine deutsche Garteuzei- iiaiff, of Otto and Dietrich, in Berlin. " The charcoal employed in these experiments was the dust-like powder of charcoal from firs and pines, such as is used in the forges of the blacksmiths, and maybe easily procured in any quantity. It was found to have most effect when allowed to lie during the winter exposed to the action of the air. In order to ascertain the effects of different kinds of charcoal, experiments were also made upon that obtained from the hard woods and peat, and also upon animal charcoal, although 1 foresaw the probability that none of them would answer so well as that of pine wood, both on account of its porosity and the ease with which it is decomjjosed. It is superfluous to re- mark that in treating plants herein described they must be plentifully supplied with water, since the air, having such free access, penetrates and dries the roots, so tiiat unless this precautioTi is taken the failure of all such experiments is unavoidable. " The action of ciiarcoal consists jjrimarily in its preserving the parts of the plants with which it is in contact, whether they be roots, branches, leaves, or pieces of leaves, unchanged in their vital power for a long space of time, so that the plant obtains time to develope the organs which are necessary for its further support and proi)agation. There can scarcely be a doubt, also, that the char- coal undergoes decomposition, for after being used five to six years it becomes a coaly earth, and if this is the case it must yield carbon, or carbonic oxide, abundantly to the plants growing in it, and thus afford the principal substance necessary for the nutrition of vegetables. In what other man- ner, indeed, could we explain the deep green colour and great luxurianceof the leaves and every part of the plants, which can be obtained in no other kind of soil, according to the opinion of men well qualified to judge. It exercises, likewise, a favourable influence by decomposing and absorb- ing the matters excreted by the roots, so as to keep the soil free from the putrifying substances which are often the cause of the death of the spon- giola;. Its prosperity, as well as the power which it possesses of absorbing water with rapidity, and, after the saturation of allowing all other water to sink through it, are causes also of its favourable effects. These experiments show what a close afiinity the component parts of charcoal have to all plants, for every experiment was crowned with success, although plants belonging to a great many different families were subjected to trial." — Ipsivich Express. ON GRASS SEEDS. Sir,— la your paper oa " Clover Sick Land," and ia last March number, page lOS, I would refer you to Sinclair's admirable work on grasses, and to " British Husbandry," by the Useful Knowledge Society, v. i, 505.* The grasses there stated being suited fox pas- ture, if chosen accordieg to soil and length of ti.me intended for pasture, would form a complete change ; and if any farmer would make the trial, he would pro- bably not be anxious to return again to clover. I am, yours, &c., Monmouth, A Subscriber. April 2, 1841. Wrench and Co., Seedsmen, Southwark, have a statement of the slock carried on land near Boston, sown with a full mixture of grasses for pevmanent pasture. They were sown according to the directions in Mr. Sinclair's book : the pasture was the admiration of the whole neighbourhood. See also the Society's work, p. 560. 354 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON LEASES. (Fiom a Correspondent North of the Tweed.) TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — A pamphlet, pointing out the connexion between landlord and tenant, tenant and labourer, by George Webb Hall, Esq., has just been pub- lished, at Ridgway's, London. It contains several striking observations relative to the relations of the above classes ; and it is written with an earnest and benevolent desire to promote the welfare of these different bodies of our country- men. As Mr. Hall is an experienced cultivator of land, and an intelligent gentleman, his sentiments upon the subjects he discusses in the above alluded to publication, are deserving of much attention. Pray, Mr. Editor, call the attention of the readers of tiie Mark Lane Exy^ess, which has a wide cir- culation, to the pages of this interesting publica- tion. In perusing its pages — which I have done with no little satisfaction — I have been much struck with the dependent situation in which the tenantry of most of the counties in England are held. I had no idea, that the security of a lease was so gene- rally withheld from the tenantry by the landlords. How can the landlord expect, that while the tenant is refused the security of a lease, that he will risk his money in making the necessary improvements on his farm, from which he may be expelled next year, and receive no indemnification for what he may have expended on it? Whatever confidence the tenant might have in a good landlord, he is ignorant how he may be treated after his death. Either the next heir, or the trustees into whose hands the management of the estate might pass, or the agent, may all behave very diflerently to the poor tenant. Regardless of the improvements the tenant might have made on his farm, the rent might be raised to his ruin — or other reasons assigned, he may have notice to quit. Besides, ])olitics — now the bane of the tenant, since the passing of the Reform Bill— may be made to bear againsthim in many ways. Under such circumstances, without the security of a lease, we cannot expect that all those necessary im- provements which the Royal Agricultural Society of England and other inferior kindred societies dispersed over England, contemplate for the improvement of British husbandry, will take root in our country. It is in vain that the chemist, the geologist, and the mechanic, are exerting their abilities to instruct us farmers, that we may improve the cultivation of the soil, while we are held in such dependence on our farms, let to us only from year to year— being annu- ally exposed, from various causes at work against us, to be ejected by the landlord from our farms — and thus to be losers of all the expenditure we may have made in improving the productiveness of our farms. If the landowners of England expect that their tenantry should cultivate their farms on the most improved principles of husbandry, they must place their tenantry in a different position to what they are placed in at present. They must grant them leases of 18 or 21 years duration. If the Royal English Agricultural Society, patriotically insti- tuted to advance British husbandry, wish to carry out their laudable views to the fullest extent, they must endeavour to persuade the landowners not only to grant leases to their tenants, but to aid and assist them in making the improvements of draining with tiles, and others of the same permanent na- ture. At the meeting of the Manchester Agricul- tural Society for Ploughing, on the 4th of March (1841), at Worsley, it was very well remarked by their Secretary, Mr. Hampson, " that landlords ought to make permanent improvement, such as draining, &c., which would enable the tenant to pay a reasonable interest, and lay out his capital in other improvements, so essential in procuring good crops. That landlords would confer on themselves, their tenantry, and the country, a greater boon, by encouraging improvements on their estates, than lowering rents ; they should be constantly alive in giving encouragement to the industrious tenant, and supplying means, if necessary, for what would even become part and parcel of their estates ; that were landlord and tenant to unite, double, and in some instances more, may be obtained from the same land." Not long ago, while making an excursion in the county of Norfolk, I was much gratified in going over several farms on the estate of Holkham, be- longing to the father of English Agriculture, the venerable Earl of Leicester, to observe the comfort and intelligence of his numerous tenantry. In examining some of these, I was not a little struck with the spirited and able manner in which they were managed: implements of the best and most im- proved description ; the cultivation of the land more like garden culture. I asked the tenants, how they came to expend such large sums in improving their farms. They one and all replied, " our land- lord gives us 21 years leases." I was also in- formed that Lord Leicester, when he succeeded, sixty years ago, to his estates, gave all his tenants twenty-one years leases, determined to make them independent of his caprice, and that they should be secured by such a tenure to enjoy the fruits of their outlays in improving their farms. This noble con- duct of Lord Leicester —an example well worthy of the imitation of every English landlord — has well repaid hina, as his estates have been highly improved ; and while the rent has been increased, the prosperity of the tenantry has also kept pace with its increase. The compliment which Mr. Webb Hall, in the above alluded to pamphlet, at page 29, pays the Earl of Leicester for such enlarged, liberal views of conduct to his tenantry, is no more than what that venerable, noble-minded landlord justly deserves. How much I wish that all the landowners of England could be induced to imitate the example of Lord Leicester, and grant leases of 21 years' duration to their tenants. Were such security given to the tenant, and the landlord to do his part, by making such improvements as tile-draining, &c., at his own expense, or assist the tenant to make them, we should soon see English husbandry make rapid strides in every sort of cultivation ; and the tenant would then be placed in more favourable circumstances to avail himself of all the scientific discoveries of the chemist, the geologist, and the agricultural im- plement mechanic. Until Lord Leicester's noble example be generally adopted by the landowner, we cannot expect English farming to advance rapidly in productive improvement. Had Scotland been denied leases, years ago, we should not have seen the Lothians, and other well cultivated districts of that part of our island, in the high state of manage- ment they now present to the traveller. There is scarce a farmer in the Lothians that has not a steam- engine of three, four, or more horse power, to drive the threshing -machiue, steam the various sorts of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 355 food for tlie cattle, horses, and pig's, and do other work. I cannot do better to express my otlier views of what tlie landlords ought still farther to do to improve the agriculture of England, than extract from an able i)aper of Queries and Answers on Clieshire farming, in which an intelligent and expe- rienced agricultural gentleman has made in answer to each of the queries sent to him. What is said of Cheshire landlords is applicable to those of most of the cotanties of England. " Is there a spirit of improvement in any but tiie gentlemen of property (in Cheshire) ? ''The spirit of improvement seems to be nearly as slow amongst most gentlemen of landed property, as amongst the tenantry of the county ; perhaps partly owing to the want of funds, but more, I should ima- gine, from the want of respectable and experienced men, in whom they can place unlimited confidence, to manage the whole detail of the various department* of their landed estates. It cannot be expected that im- provements should be judiciously made by men who, whatever their talents iu their own profession may be, are practising as lawyers, or by men taken from some menial office, such as an old groom, a butler, or gardener, and placed at the head of all the depart- ments. It might as well be expected that the whole of a large and complicated building is to be properly and economically built by a common bricksetter or stone- mason ; or that any piece of complicated machinery is to be constructed and worked by any common black- smith, who might be able with much labour to make one or more of the simplest wheels ; as that the ma- nas-ement and improvement of an extensive landed estate is to be conducted by any others than men edu- cated for the business, and capable of seeing at one gliince whether the whole of the complicated ma- chinery is working well or not. Merchants and ma- nufacturers, who are men of business themselves, always take care to have proper persons to conduct their business, however high the remuneration may be for their services; I may add, that were two or three hundred respectable estate agents, who have been liberally educated, and in every way properly trained to the profession, placed on two or three hundreds of the best estates in Eiiglaad, they icould do ten times more for the improvement of agriculture during these next ten years than all the agricultural societies that now are or may be established in the kingdom, or the united wisdom of both houses of Parliament could accomplish for these next fifty years. li such persons were to be appointed the responsible managers of all lands belonging to the Crown, I should think that their present revenue would be at least quadrupled in less than twenty years ; and if such genilemen were to be appointed by the Government, or by the Lord Chan- cellor, inspectors over all the landed estates under the control of the Court of Chancery, and report annually to his lordship as to the condition of the lands, and necessary repair of the buildings, &c., they would be the means of preventing much serious waste on such estates, and consequent loss and misery to many of those who afterwards may possess them." Every estate agent ought to be capable of acting as tutor to the tenantry, and as an able and confi- dential counsellor in all business matters to the landlord. Were the judicious advice offered in the answer to the above query followed, a very different system of farm management ■would be introduced among the tenantry of England. As the generality of tenants seldom go far from home — know little of the farm manage- ment in the best cultivattd districts of our island ; and, as few of them read the publications connected with rural affairs, agricultural improve- ments travel very slowly to them. But were land- agents such a class of men as the answer to the above query points out, the tenants would soon be instructed on the best mode of improved husban- dry ; and would soon adopt them, having such an intelligent land-agent to direct them. In Ireland, on a partial scale, this plan of well- instructed land-agents has been introduced with great success, by Mr. William Blacker, in the north of Ireland. The land-agents there are called agri- culturists} whose duty it is to go round the estate, and point out to the small farmers the management of their lands, and what crops to cultivate, and how to raise them in the best manner. Were such a system adopted as that recom- mended in the answer to the above query relating to Cheshire agriculture, we should soon be an ex- porting country, instead of being occasionally de- pendent on foreign imports of grain. On an estate in Cheshire, which we have known for upwards of twenty years, the system recommended in the above answer to the above query has been most suc- cessfully pursued. The agent, on first taking the management of the property seventeen years ago, immediately recommended leases to be granted to its tenantry, and afterwards thorough drainage of the lands by tiles ; and followed by an improved system of cropping — the agent instructing the tenants in all their proceedings — and, from being constantly in close communication with them, he obtained their complete confidence. By these means he has been enabled, in the last seventeen years, to raise the actual paid rent from .30 to 40 per cent, above the highest war rent ; and, at the same time, to increase the profits of the tenant at least 100 per cent. I may likewise remark, that there is not anotlier estate in the neighbourhood wdiere the rent now is equal to the highest war- rent ; but, on the contrary, has been reduced from 15 to 30 per cent. — thus making a difference by the management on the rental, of from 50 to 60 per cent. Nor is there any tenantry in the country more flourishing, and comfortable, and contented, than those upon this estate. I hope, Mr. Editor, you will now and then ad- vocate the subject of leases, and endeavour, by your powerful influence among the landlords of England, to persuade them to grant leases to their tenants ; you will thereby confer a very great bene- fit upon us tenants, who are already indebted to you in many ways for the lively interest you take in our welfare. I am very grateful to you for your exertions, week after week, to collect every sort of information that can be of service to us. In no way can you do us more good tlian by recom- mending, on all occasions, our landlords to grant us leases of 21 years' duration, with the same covenants as granted by Lord Leicester to his tenantry in Norfolk. I remain, Mr. Editor, Your obedient servant, March, 1841. A Tenant. NITRATE OF SODA. Sir — As you suggested some short time since, I have tried nitrate of soda on sea-kale, applied just previous to forcing, and find not only no benefit but an injury as the result. I should be glad to hear the experience of any of your readers in this respect, and whetiier it will corroborate mine. March 22. B. 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROTATION OF CROPS. BY MR. TOWERS. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) The review of "The iFourCourse System of Husbandry," by Mr. Rlilburn, serves aptly enough as a precursor of those remarks on rotations of crop which form the subject of this communication. It will speedily be seen that I claim little of originality, inasmwch as it it is my object to refer to the evidence of others, in order to induce com- parison of facts ; but, before I proceed further, it appears desirable to render Mr. Milburn's detail of the four-course Norfolk system a little more complete by making the reader acquainted with the method of manuring i)ractised on the noble lands of Holkham ; and this I am enabled to do by copying, almost verhatim, a letter received a few years since from the venerable nobleman, the father of husbandry, then Mr. Coke ; I had occasion to consult that excellent gentleman on the subject of his application of fresh manure, in ■which I conceived the late Sir H. Davy had erred, and was honoured by an immediate reply. This letter is now before me ; in it, however, are marks of extreme rapidity and contraction of words, which render the perusal an affair of no little difficulty, and may lead to some trifling error. It thus proceeds : — "All the manure made in the separate yards is carted out duiiug winter, as opportunities oiler, into the fields intended for turnip, calculating the quantity at ten loads per acie. In the first instance, I make a platform of earth, and then cart over it a proportion of cow-dung, which I deem to be the weakest manure ; upon that pig, which I bold to be the best ; then comes the store and fold litter, fol- lowed by horse-dung ; then some of the pig, always compressing the heap by carting over it; and then I plough round it and throw a sligbt coat of earth over the top and sides to kee[i it from fermenting. It remains in this state till within a fortnight of sowino- my turnips, when I turn it over, and in its fer- mented state it is put into the split ridges of 27 inches, then turned over with the ])lough, and the seed sown immediately after it. This process I have found to answer mil most sanguine expectations for -up- wards of sixteen years, upon a scale of not less than from 300 to 400 acres per annum. Sir H. Davy, who frequently honoured me witli his compauv at ray annual sheep-shearing, strongly recommendedfresh dung out of the yards ; but this I did not find an- swer, the other has never failed ine for turnips, and it carries me round the four-course shift without any additional manure. Yours, iScc, T. W. Coke." By the careful perusal and appreciation of this most estimable document, the reader will be able to complete the line at p. 385, which now reads, " \st, Turnips (manured) consumed tipon the land.'" The parenthesis I have filled up, and thus perfected the detail of the "first course." We have now to turn our attention to that pecu- liar order of rotation, which is described very minutely in an article (XLI. of No. 4, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society) " The Mode of Cultivation of Stinchcombe Farm." Of this I must extract merely the leading points, referring the reader to the article itself, and to the judicious remarks upon it by the Rev. Mr. Rham. " Stinchcombe is occupied by a Mr. Dimmery ; it comprises about 400 acres, half under grass (the meadow grasses) and half arable; the soil of the greater portion being of a good friable texture, partaking of the nature of tbe subsoil, or lower oolite on which it rests, and well calculated for the production of barley and oats, it is neither too strong and adhesive for turnips and potatoes, nor too light and soft for the production of wheat under proper culture; it is about 16 miles from Gloucester, 25 from Bristol and Cheltenham." Bj' the above description, one would conclude- that the staple is a mellow loam, resting upon a species of granular freestone rock, for oolite is such. "One of the purest examples is the free- stone of Kettering in Northamptonshire; the Bath freestone is another example, where the grains (often hollow) are connected by interposed cal- careous matter." Portland and Lincolnshire free- stone are cited as specimens of oolite, differently cemented. We have lately heard mucK" of agri- cultural schools and colleges, and if ever a tissue of lax disjointed facts, in the most important pur- suit of lif^e, called for efficient regulation, we have only to refer to all the descriptions given of soils, to procure evidence that nothing is really known or correctly described. Agriculture is a science, and a noble one, but un- less the great ones of the land, the powerful and influential societies — we would prefer to say — the Government itself, take up the cause, and institute agricultural colleges in many parts of the United Kingdom, wherein land in the large way, its geological and chemical characters, shall be tested by accurate experiments, and its powers of rota- tion practically ascertained, ambiguity and doubt will continue to embarrass every operation of the farm, and render every attempt at description nu- gatory and illusive. At the very first opportunity, I hope to resume this more important considera- tion ; at present I only add, that we are no more able to understand or appreciate what the land of Stinchcombe farm really is, from the passage I have quoted, than to delineate the true features of a landscape from the perusal of a written de- scription of it ; and until we understand a soil, we can never know its capabilities. " Rotation. — The production of tbe largest crops of the best edible potatoes, and at the least possible expense, being the principal object, M. Dimmery adopted the following course, which he has found by upwards of forty years' experience to answer best. Tbe first year he takes turnips ; the second, potatoes ; the third and last year of the course, luheat. About one-third of the wheat stubble is sown in winter vetches, which are eaten off the ground by sheep, and, as cleared, it is prepared for a late crop of tur- nips ; so that the lehole of the wheat land is under turnips the following year. The turnips are all consumed by sheep folded oa the ground in the usual way. After the turnips, potatoes are planted on the whole the next year. To this rotation most farmers would object, as a crop of barley might be taken between the turnips and potatoes, and also from an absence of a crop of clover in tbe course ; hut it will be seen in the detail that, in this course for twelve years, there are four crops of wheat and four crops of potatoes, both of which are tbe most valuable articles a farmer can produce from the soil, and only four preparing or fallow crops. "The land is alway kept in the best state of cul- ture, and its productive power is never diminished by any of the crops which are taken, nor does it re- quire, in any one year, additional labour to clear it from weeds." TflE FARMKIl'S MAGAZINE. 357 " Velches. — Soon afrer the wheat is harvested, tho slubble is cut and carted oft' the ground before the potato harvest is begun. About twenty acres, or one-third part of the wlieat stubble, is prepared for winter vetches. One ploughing onl}' is necessary', and about three bushels of velches to the acre are sown broadcast, and the ground is well harrowed to cover the seed. About olO ewes, 340 lambs, and 170 wethers are generallv put on this about the seaond week of May (it is shut up from stock during the winter and spring months), and are kept upon it till the tirst of .luly, or till tlie crop is all consumed. This amounts to about seven weeks' keep for a flock of 850 slieep, or at the rate of five or six sheep ]>er acre per annum, which may be said to be free of all expense beyond the cost of the seed, as the land does not occasion more expense in preparing it for the turni]i-crop than if it had not been sown with vetches ; and the manure left by the sheep, with what addi- tional dung can be procured, always produces a good crop of hite turnips." " Turnips. — As soon as the wheat stubble is all carried oft" the land, the sheep are brought from the pasture land where they are fed bj' day, and folded on the land intended for turnips. I\ir. Dimmery prefers to fold before ploughing, as the sheep lie much drier on it. As soon as the teams can be spared, that part of the turnip break intended to receive the stable-yard manure is ploughed, as is that folded for sheep as it becomes ready. The se- cond ploughing is generally performed in February and the early part of March. To pulverize the land further, and to bring it to good tilth, the roller is frequently used after the land has been ploughed, and before the drags are applied it is alwavs rolled to break down or bruise the fuirows that they may Lave greater effect, and reach the bottom of the fur- rows; and when the land diags up in lumps, it is again rolled before the second draguing. This is the most effectual method of completely pulverizing the soil ; and the harrow is seldom used on this farm except to harrow in the turnip-seed. When the land is properly prepared for the crop, all the dung that can be collected is carted on it, and is ploughed in with the last furrow ; that for Swedes in May and June, and for the others in June and July ; that which was in vetclics as soon as it can be got ready after they have been consumed b}' the sheep. The whole is generally finished about the middle of July. The turnip-seed is always sown broadcast, and the whole is consumed by slieep on the ground, which are folded in the usual wny, receiving along with the turnips a suflicit'nt (piantity of hay from the grass- farm. The sheep are generally on the turnips from the end of October till tlie end of the following April. All the land is manured either by the fold, the djing carted from the yard, or by the consumption of the crop of vetches by the slieep." — "The expense of this crop may be reckoned at three ploughings, two rollings, five draggings, and two harrowings, besides carting all the manure on the farm. The land being always clean, the crop of turnips never fails. They are universally a good crop : the 66 acres are equal to keep from 16 to 20 sheep per acre from the end of October to the end of April." Cabbage plants, — This is a new feature, and though the extent of land employed be compara- tively trifling, the object effected is of no little im- ])ortance, therefore I deem it right not to omit the section. The culture of this vegetable will not be considered as affecting the rotaiioti; but it may bring profit to the farmer, and must prove bene- ficial to the neighbouring cotters or villagers. 1 have long desired to see the Brassica tribes on the farm ; persons forget their value. " 'I'here are generally between 2 and 3 acres of the turnip break or field sown with cabbage-seed, thf! preparaiion for which is the same as for turnips, with the exception of an additional ploughing and harrowing." The seed is sown in August — York and broad Kattersea mixed: both are raised always by Mr. liimwiery himself. From this one sowing, from 150,000 to 200,000 plants have been sold in a season, at from 8d. to Is. per 100 ; " all which re- main on the ground in Ma)', are eaten off by the sheep, and the land comes in its course for potatoes. Although the return from this crop is great, yet the expense of weeding and pulling the croj), tying them iu bundles of 60 each, and carrying them to market, is great also;" an allowance is given to the retailer, and thus tlie expense of attending market is saved. Potatoes. — It will bo impossible to copy the whole of this section ; butthereare so many points of importance in it, that, for the benefit of science, were there no other reason, I think it right to cite all the leading particulars. " As soon as the slieep have consumed the turnips oft' a considerable part of the field, the land is plough- ed to cover the manure left on the surface by the sheep, and to prevent it from being washed away by the rains or evaporated by drought. 'I'his is per- formed by the ox-teams, the horses being at this time employed in hauling the potatoes to market ; the land then remains till the end of March, or the beginning of April. If there has been frost to pul- verise the surface, another ploughing is not neces- sary ; and the heavy drags, loaded with blocks of timber, and worked with six oxen, go over the land twice to a ])lac8, loosening the whole furrow slice. The land is then rolled with a heavy roller, to bruise all the lumps brought up by the drags, after which it is again dragged in an opposite direction. If the land vvork well, it will do for planting after be'ng again rolled ; but if there has been no frost, or if the winter and spring have been wet, and the land has got soured by wet, or baked hard by drought, after the first jiloughing, it is then rolled by the heavy roller, to crusl-i the surface, that the drags which im- mediately follow may have the greater effect, and get deeper into the ground. The harrows are never used on this farm, for there are no weeds to shake out, and the object is not somuch to reduce the sur- face, as to loosen the whole of the soil to the depth at which it was ploughed ; and the greater this depth, the better it is for raising a crop of potatoes." " 'I'he seeds or sets of a known true kind are taken from the middle-sized \>oUioes, not from the largest size ; and they are generally cut in two, it being the principal object to obtain the greatest quantity of good edible potatoes. It has been found that the tops of large potatoes produce the greatest crops of the largest sized potatoes. Many people think it necessary to change their seed every three or four years. The seed-potato on this farm has been changed but once, about thirty years ago, when the crop was blighted from some cause, and new seed from Dum- fries was then procured, and these are cultivated without any symptoms of degeneracy or deficiency," " With regard to jjtantinff. — Early planting is attended with great risk, not only from frost, but because the spring rains solidify the earth round the plants, and prevent the fibres f'rom running into the earth ; or they create a much greater expense in hacking and hoeing the ground, to gfive a degree of looseness necessary to secure a full crop." This light texture has always been found effec- 2 B 358 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tual. In my method of trench-planting, I secure it by the subsequent earthings and diggings to fill up the trenches as the stems advance ; but this applies to gardens : in the great way, Mr. Dim- mery's practice is very peculiar. The operations commence about 20th of April for the earlier, and 20lh of May for the later crop, tlie ground being previously pulverised in the way de- scribed. " The ridges being a perch in width, drills are formed across them, and in the following man- ner : — A man with a heavy triangular hoe about 4lb. in weight, something like a trowel, but broader, with a handle about 2^ feet long, begins on one side of a ridge, by making a hollow groove or drill across the whole of its width till he comes to the other furrow ; he moves backward after each stroke, drawing the hoe and the earth with him, and then lifting the hoe to make a fresh stroke and a fresh movement backward, till he reaches the opposite side of the ridge at the next furrow; he then turns about and makes a fresh drill at the distance of 22 inches from the former, till he comes to the side of the ridge where he first be- gan ; and he thus proceeds until the ridge is formed into drills 22 inches asunder, and about 6 inches deep from the edge of the earth raised up by the hoe, not, however, more than 3 inches into the ground, — about 6 inches wide at the top, and 2 inches at the bottom. No line is used; the workman, from long practice, succeeds in making them not only straight, but at equal distances. As one man proceeds thus with one ridge, others form similar drills on adjoining ridges, but instead of making the drills in straight lines, to meet the ends of those of the first-described ridge, each of them is designedly made to begin and terminate in the middle of the space between the drills, and thus throughout the entire field. This might be thought a slovenly and irregular mode of proceeding, but Mr. Dimmery has adopted this plan from the conviction that potatoes or any other plants produce a greater crop when remote from each other, and" (as Knight always observed) " that the outside plants of a row are more productive than any other plant in the row, every other circumstance being the same, and he obtains an increase of more than 3 per cent, than if the rows were in a continued straight line across the field. The drills being formed, awan follows with a basket of soot, and sows it in the bottom and sides of the drills by hand, walking up the mid- dle space, and throwing a handful of soot right and left, at the rate of 25 bushels to the acre. Tije sets are then planted by women and boys, 10 inches apart, and as the seed is thus deposited, a man follows with a hoe about 8 inches broad, and covers it by drawint^ the earth from the space between the drills, raising it higher over the potatoes than it is on each side of them. By this mode of covering, the whole of the soot does not come into contact with the seed, but is so placed as to give nourishment to the roots." "All the operations of drilling, sowing soot, plant- ing, and covering, go on at the same time; thus 32 people and 4 horses are in full employment till the whole crop is put into the ground j 16 men making the drills and covering the seed, and 8 women planting, can finish 5 acres a day, with 45 sacks of seed.'' The application of the soot is a circumstance to he noted, — it is a powerful manure, and tends to develope ammonia, invariably when it meets with any lime. 1 suspect that nitrate of soda will, ere long, be called in aid, for in its decomposition, which cannot but be suspected, nitroyen, one of the constituents of its acid, will meet with hydrogen, at ths moment of extrication, and form amrmnia. while the base (soduj will unite with a portion of the substance now termed humus. Be it remem- bered, however prejudice or ignorance may oppose the fact, that electricity is the immediate agent of these decompositions : it is the right hand of na- ture, and is never absent where chemical pheno- mena are present. The seed being deposited and growing, — " as soon as the plants begin to shew themselves, hoeing or hacking is performed by the same peaked hoe, by repeated strokes with it into the ground, thereby mov- ing and loosening the soil between the rows, and also between the plants in the rows, taking care not to disturb or injure the plants. Earthing up, when the plants altain four or five inches in height, is per- formed with a hoe eight inches wide, to on extent nearly to cover them ; for it is found that the higher the earth is drawn, the greater is the produce, and much therefore depends on its being properly done ; yet none of the plants should be quite covered, as it checks their growth, and gives their neighbours the start : the earth also is drawn around the ends of each row which projects between two rows of the adjoining ridge, and no loose earth is left either in the furrows between the ridges, or between the drills." " Taking tip the crop. — This is begun at the end of October, and the bulk is on an average estimated at 60 sacks each of 2801b. per acre of one sort, 70 sacks ef another, and of a third, called ' ivhite fats,' 80 sacks, besides the broken and small tubers, and those kept for seed." Mr. F. Burke in a note estimates the average, including chats and seed, at !)0 sacks, equal to llj tons per acre, and this he deems " a large pro- duce," though Mr. Knight's letters to me give testimony of 20 or more tons — that is, a produce of (iOO or 700 imperial bushels per acre ! ! The mechanical operations of harvesting and storing do not apply to our subject of rotation, therefore I extract nothing further concerning the potato excepting the annexed theoretic observation. "The common mode of raising potatoes is to ap- ply a large quantity of dung in contact with the seed. This has been suspected to produce a disagreeable flavour iu the potato. It being Mr. Dimmery 's object to produce the greatest quantity of good-flavoured edible potatoes, he applies all the dung to the turnip crop, and as this is consumed by the sheep, their dung is dropped regularly over the whole surface, and is iutimntely mixed with it by the succeeding preparation. The whole of the staple to the depth of the furrow slice is thus enriched, not only with all the dung applied to the turnips, hut also with the produce of the whole turnip crop consumed by the sheep, without any portion of the manure coming in contact with the plant." Wheat. — " As soon as the potatoes are taken up, the field is dragged over once in the direction of the ridges ; the edges of the drills, which may have been neglected by the spade in taking up the potatoes, are thus levelled, and any petato-haulm that remains is gathered up and carried off the ground ; the wheat is then sown on the surface after the drags, and ploughed in ; this is preferred to the common way of ploughing the land first and harrowing in the seed after, because the land, after the potato crop, is left so loose that it is necessary to get a good clod on the surface if possible. By this plan the firm earth at the side of the drills is lifted up by the plough, and left on the surface. A team easily ploughs in an acre a day, and a man and a boy follow with spades to clean out the furrows, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 level any of the ground tbat may be left uneven. Tlie quantity of seed is from 3^ to 4 bushels per acre, accordiiijj to the time of sowing; the later it is sown, the more seed is required. Mr. Diuimery thinks that farmers lose much by not putting seed enough into the ground. " About Marcli the wheat receives a dressing of soot, at the rate of from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. 'I'he crop is reaped and stored in the usual way in the rick-yard ; tho average crop is from 28 to 32 bushels per acre, but he has often had 40 bushels per acre ; it is always clean and of good quality ; there never teas smut seen on this farm — the reason Mr. Uimmery assigns is, that he alwavs sows neivly threshed seed, the produce of the previous year. The crop of potatoes being his principal object, the land, by the plan adopted, is left in the best state that such land can be left in for receiving the seed." The quality or variety of the wheat is not alluded to, but observing the allusion to the " modification of the four-course system," by Mr. Milburn, (p. 390), and the remarks on i-ed wheats of the Quarterly Rejmrt, (p. 435-6), I may observe that, in Berkshire and elsewhere, doubtless, the variety called red-chaffed Dantzig wheat has been highly lauded of late. I know the farmer who was primarily instrumental in giving it local notoriety, a man of close observation, and of corresponding zeal. Its appearance in the field last summer was beautiful, and the flour it yields is very fine. In the north, this variety might occasionally be sown in alternation with white wheat, just as Swedes are made to alternate with common turnips. I merely suggest; but ivhatever varies (safely) the rotation, must tend to meliorate, or at least sustain the staple. " Manure was formerly purchased, but for nearly thirty years soot has been found a most valuable substitute, the carriage of which is not one-twentieth part of the expense in hauling. The general price is 6d. per bushel in Gloucester, less at Bristol and Cheltenham ; and the quantity used on the farm is upwards of 3000 bushels a-year, one-half of which is applied to the potato crop, the other to the wheat." Mr. Morton, who wrote the article in question, observes that " he has not obtained any idea from Mr. Dimmery how the soot acts in producing such effects as it evidently does, both on the potato and wheat crop ; upon the latter particularly, for, however sickly it looks in the spring, its colour and vigour of growth is changed in a few days after it lias been applied." I lay no stress on the solubility of this manure ; we gain no fact by this old theory : but I see every reason to helive that a new arrangement of its constituents is [)roduced, which induces a change in the verdure of the plant. Now, this specific action of soot very much resembles that of nitrate of soda, a salt wherein no carbon exists ; therefore, we are the more inclined to refer the action of both to the development or formation of ammonia. Mr. Rlorton's remarks are pertinent and sensible, but they must not now be cited at length. "I have," he says, " been in the habit of riding over the farm ten or twelve times a-year, for the last twenty-five years, and can safely sav that, instead of a diminu- tion in the crops, thare has been an increase, not only in the yearly return of each of the three crops, but also on the quality and fertility of the soil." Again, " It is very evident that this course of cropping must keep the land perfectly clean and free from weeds, both aaaual and pereanial : the perfect fallow given to the turnips, followed by tbe pre- paration for the potatoes, with the complete culture given to this crop, must eradicate every weed from the soil. All the energy of the soil, all the enriching and vivifying quality oif the dung, the fold, and the soot, which are yearly applied, has its full eflects on the crops which are cultivated, instead of being dis- sipated," (or rather consumed) " by the production of weeds." " Indeed, from our own observation, we are convinced that the system adopted is ono that ought to be well considered by every farmer in the kingdom, because that, by it, the land not only increases yearly in its productiveness, but that it also produces more vegetable and animal food for man, and at lessexpense, too, than is raised by any other system." As to produce, 800 sheep are supported, CO to 80 sacks of potatoes, each of 2!)01b., equal to 1 6,8001b. of good wholesome food, are grown, besides 10 sacks of ofFal for pigs ; and the yield of the wheat crop " will be equal to IS'JOlb. of bread per acre." I regret that I have not space to enter further into particulars ; much is omitted, many passages are abbreviated, though the sense of every line is preserved pure and intact. When I peruse the remarks of Mr. Walker at the Aberdeen meeting, quoted at p. 41.'5 of the last Journal, and compare thetn with those of Mr. Milburn, I feel more than justified in thus extracting the substance of a valuable article, sanctioned by the authority of the Royal Agricultural Society. Every fact shews that no one ought to conceal or withhold knowledge of facts ; and if this communication yield any local improvement, my object is gained. In the mean time, I second now (what I have been most forward for years to advocate) the appeal of Mr. Boswell (p. 416), and say, "Let the Highland Society (and the Royal Society also) lend all its influence and countenance to the establishing of an Agricultural College and Experimental Farm." This is the "consummation devoutly to be wished," without which knowledge and science will never advance. But more of this at a fitting opportunity.* * This is called a " three-field course," snd con- trasted with the " four-field course of Norfolk," by ]Mr. Rlorton : according to our notion this course cannot be called a rotation of cropping. It may not be easy to give a correct definition of a rotation of cropping ; since such differences of opinion exist on what it should necessarily consist. Our notion of it is, that it necessarily implies the exercise of such a course of cropping as will annually supi)ly the food of every creature — whether human beings or animals — domiciled on the farm. Let us see whether this idea is entertained in this " three-field course." The human beings might subsist on the potatoes and ■wheat raised in the course. But there being neither oats nor grass in it, it is obvious that neither horse, ox, or sheep, could subsist by it in summer. If the whole country followed this " course," there could be no food to maintain the live-stock in summer. This system is therefore impracticable, as a general one; and if our notion of a "rotation" be correct, it does cot possess all the properties of a rotation, and cannot therefore be called one. But the grass for the live-stock is grown on another farm. 1'rue. But see the consequences that such a state of things involves. In the first place the grass is excluded from the rotation of cropping ; it has no connection with it ; tbe farm which grows it may be 10 miles distant from that which is pursuing the " three-field course." la the second place, though the grass-farm 2b 2 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Your correspondent North of tlie Tweed, in your Express of tlie date of the '29th March last, I am glad to see, has drawn attention, as others have lately done, to the only true foundation and ir.ain- spriug of all agricultural improvement — the securing (by lease^ to the tenant, the benefit of all the skill and capital put forth to etFect it. Knowing how desirous you are at all times to spread information of any kind having a tendency to further the progress of agriculture, I will not apologize for intruding on your columns, if the matter I send you be thought worthy by you of making public. The subject is a most important one, not to one class of the community only, but to each and all ; and I can but rejoice, that individuals are more and more acknowledging it, and that the nature of the holding of farms is becoming to be better understood by the liberal-minded of our great landed proprietors (now setting a noble example), as well as increasingly so by the intelligent of the tenantry. So much is daily doing to a'lvance agricultural knowledge, that the farmer's attention is almost as naturally turned to gain it, as to the practical cultivation of his farm ; indeed, it is not to be wondered at, as from the one springs the better management of the other. Much has been done, but much more every one sees remains to be done ; to this end science has been unsparingly pressed to our service, but science has failed to point out a way by which her discoveries can be put into operation without the aid of money ; and of this, not a little is necessary, and, in most cases, not a little patiem e is to be tried before the return of this capital and the interest of it can be made; but tlie nature of a farmers' business is to look forward witli ho|ip, and trust in a kind Providence, after all duo care and at- tention shall have been used by himself; not only in putting his seed in the ground under the best pre- paration, but also securing peaceable possession to himself for reaping it. It is not at all singular, then, that the first thing striking a tenant farmer in his attempts to improve his farm, and carrying out the theoretical or other knowledge he may have gleaned in the abounding channels of information now coming to his hands, is the soundness of his title (if I may so express it), to expect to reap the benefit of any extensive outlay he may enter upon in anticipa- tion of futur® lucrative return ; and however sound were adjoining the other, the proprietors of both may be diflferent persons, and the owner of the grass-farm may object to the stock, and hay, and eat age of the grass being transferred to the other farm ; because the interests of both proprietors, under such different circumstances, cannot be identical. In the third place, the grass-farm must be kept in permanent pasture, and that again implies land of good quality, for no inferior land will grow grass fit for pasture, per- manently, at least not in Scoland j very little of the land of that country, and that only the choicest spots of local districts, being capable of growing permanent pasture tit for the fattening of stock. No doubt there are thousands of acres ©f natural grass on our mountains, but not one of them can fatten stock — that must be accomplished in tlie low country — and will only keep them alive. However applicable, therefore, the plan of cropping by Mr. Uimmery may be to local circumstances, it is no instance or illustration of a rotation of crops, and it would be inapplicable where those very peculiar local cir- ""^tjstances do not exist. — EnrroR. his judgment in proceeding with these improve- ments, ami well-founded in other respects his ex- pectation of piofitiihle return, it must be obvious to every one, if his title to continued holding be bad, he would be wanting in common prudence to proceed with them. The stimulant to bring into active employ every thing which science has and continues to discover, it is quite clear, remains with the landlord to apply. It is utterly impossible the country can reap the benefit of them ift/jey withhold the good secutity which every ])rudent nian expects for monies invested in this, as well as every other transaction of alike nature. Upon what grounds tlir withholding of leases can be tenable, it is not my intention to enter upon ; my desire is to show, tliat by doing so, landlords are like misers, holding in their hands a power which is a serious pounds shillings and pence loss to them- selves, bettering- no one, aiul is moreover tenfold more likely to bring on the repeal of the corn laws than all the agitation which all the repealers can work up. The people ask for, and have a right to eat their bread at the cheapest possible rate it can be grown for in this country; and it lies as a moral, if no higlier obligation, on every landlord proprietor, that there be raised on his part no obstacle to so desirable a consummation ; the more so, as his own or his jiroperty's benefit eventually is mixed up with it. A large landed proprietor must have a tenantry ; he could not advantageously occupy the whole were he desirous to do so, and the less often a tenantry is changed, it is universally admitted, the better for the estate. How can this freeness from change be so certainly secured as hv increasing the tenant's interest in the land he occupies in grantin-- his holding for a long term ? especially as a tenant will give an increased rent for his land ; and this he can do without injury to himself, as he thereby is placed in a situation to employ more capital at a sure return in the shape of annuity interests, besides leaving some portion to pay the increased rent to his landlord for securing him the profitable employment of it. I know how generally there is a reluctance on the part of tenants to take farms on very long leases; but how untenable such objections are, might be easily shown. I can suppose them to arise only from the cliangeableness of prices, either from an alteration in the corn laws or currency, either of which must affect the prices of grain, but this is over- caution ; because the last is not likely to be incon- siderately done, all classes being alike affected by it, engaged either as farmers or in commerce, whose interest is too great to be tampered with. The best answer to the first fear is, that by taking a long lease, and availing yourself of the advantages thereby given, you are putting your quota of probability against it. The inconsistency of the course of pro- ceedings taken by some of these very objectors is worth observing, shuddering at the idea of engaging in a 21 years' lease of a farm, yet where opportunity offers becoming the purchaser of a farm perhaps for their own occupancy, thereby making themselves tenants in perpetuity, and of course in much worse situation to meet the apprehended dangers. In endeavouring to show the evils to landlords, tenants, and the public, by the denial of long leases, let me not forget to add ray mite of reprehension against the worse than useless restrictions lawyers are generally so desirous of introducing info leases and agreements, often not leaving a tenant power to adopt many of the improvements modern science has brought to light. The tenant has in this more power I am convinced THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 in bis own Lands than many are aware of, and more who neglect to avail themselves of it. If 1 might give a hint on this head, I would re- commend tenants never to fetier their l)etter judg- ment in assenting or objecting to the conditions of leases and agreements by taking possession of their farm before every stipulation and clause is signed and sealed in conformity to his own desires. Num- berless are tlie tenants I firmly believe who, to their cost, can testify to the soundness of this advice. It is too common a practice, even by intelligent and businessmen, to consider, if the question of rent be agreed on, there remains no obstacle to their com- mencing operations on their new undertaking ; and perhaps about twelve months afterwards, they find such covenants oftVred them as would be rejected most decidedly, had they not stocked their farm and gone too far to retract, and thus as it were taken at advantage because of their own imprudence. If tliis adjustment of covenants had taken place before the tensmt was in any way fettered by an outlay, the landlord or liis agent having- found a desirable tenant at the rent he had expected to receive, would, I am per- suaded, rather th;in lose a good tenant, so modify Lis covenants as that one could not reasonably object. Wli;it think you of these agricultural secieties everywhere springing up I Are they doing anv eond '( are question-; fre(|uenlly pat. My answer iil-v.us has been " Yes, to a certain extent,'' but they blink the great question, the probability of the <.'i-,coV(r- ies and experience there made public, being cMrrii d into extensive operation. Surely this is a question of sufficient importance forlandlords to enquire into. Much is said of farmers' prejudices to new things, but I think it would he found on en(|uirv, that strong a barrier as I am willing to admit this, it is not nearly so considerable or extensive a one, as the want I have endeavoured to show. Did I not fear to tire you and your readers, my subject would carry me much farther ; enough I ho])e has been said to elicit discussion on this subject, and should this letter do so, my purpose in writing it is answered. Wuch information has been gained by many of the friendlv discussions you have been the means of communicating to the public ; here there is another wide field, and I am sure, Mr. Editor, vou will take care it shall be fairly fought. April 7, E. Wyatt. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF CLAY LAND. TO TMli EDITOR Or THE GLOUCESTliR JOURNAL. Sir, — In your paper of last week there appears a letter from " A Farmer," in support of the system of managing clay land advocated by i\lr. Long, on which you will much oblige me by affording me a place in your next to offer a few remarks. I should not have thought it necessary to notice any tiling " A Farmer" has advnnced, if he had confined him- self to facts, although he designates mv argument as wild and absurd, because he tells you that it influ- enced the majority of the well-informed and intelli- gent members present, and with tliat I am content. But when he is uncandid enough to state, ""that it was asserted that a clay soil could be crop]^ed to belter advantage for ten successive years witbout a naked fallow," I cannot allow such perversion to pass uncontradicted. At the third meeting of our club I suggested a rotation of crops for clay land, to which 1 refi^rred on the occasion alluded to, which it is true includes ten years. But bow does it commenced Why with a naked fallow ! So much for the correctness of this champion of JMr. Long's system. The principle there sought to be established was the more frequent production of the green crop, in perfection if possible, and converting them, those crops being succeeded by white straw ; and I confess I have not by any reasoning of Mr. Long, or this confiding gentleman, been convinced of its incorrectness. If" A Farmer" when he states that it was argued that this soil would not produce quitch, alludes to any remark of mine, I beg to say be is again in error. I never supposed that towards the end of the course the land would be free from quitch. Hence my reason for proposing a recurrence to naked fallow ; for notwithstanding Mr. Long's theory of dispelling juices, &c. (which, by-the-bye, are it seems by some unaccountable law of nature favourable to the growth of weeds, but not of corn,) I believe the chief benefit derived from naked fallow to be the destruction of quitch. Can- not the land be perfectly pulverised after winter vetches for wheat 1 And will not the winter's frost be quite as effectual if the land is ridged up early in autumn after beans, as on fallow? Why then devote a summer to obtain the tilth which the winter's frost will equally accomplish in time for oats ? 1 will now place before your agricultural readers my rotation which has been stigmatised as so wild and absurd, against Mr. Long's, as in ope- ration on one hundred acres of land, and allov7 them to form their own conclusions:— Under Mr. Long's course there would be 20 acres of fallow. 20 acres of oats. 20 acres of clover. 20 acres of wheat. 20 acres of beans. too Under my course there would he 10 acres of fallow. 10 acres of oats. 10 acres of clover. ■10 acres of wheat. 20 acres of beans. 10 acres of winter vetches, 100 I could go fully into comparison without fear of the result, but doubt the propriety of so doing in a ])ublic journal, at the same time I cannot help thinking it will require something more logical than the bare assertion of " A Farmer," to persuade any practical man that to grow clover every five years, oats in the proportion of twenty acres out of a hun- dred in a climate congenial to the production of wheat, and wheat only once in five years, would be the most profitable system he could adopt. Talk of risk! how, I would ask, would a farmer on a clay soil be likely to incur more than by sowing clover every five years, and the whole of his wheat on clover roots or sward if he had any 1 Why had not " A Farmer" in his anxiety to enlighten us givenus his calculations which were so convincing? It would certainly have been more satisfactory, and might possibly have undeceived some of the intelli- gent and well-informed. With regard to the vote I know nothing, not having remained till that took place ; but I can tell " A Farmer" that those mem- beis he speaks of as turnip and sheep farmers are also occupiers of clay land to a considerable extent, and fully competent to answer for themselves. In conclusion, I beg to add, that I consider a news- jjaper controversy upon this, or any other subject which has been introduced at the meetings of the Farmers' Club, might, by unnecessarily dragging its members before the public, tend to prevent that free discussion which alone can render it useful to them and the community ; and I therefore decline any further expression of my sentiments in this matter, except at the meetings of that institution. John Beach. Redmarleu, near Gloucester, March SOth. 3G2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON TPIICK SOWING. Sir, — I beg to tliar.k Mr. Hillyard for so readil}^ admitting that In; supposes I sowed mij land " in a manner suited to it," when I sowed most seed on tluit wliich was tlic ricliost, although that xcas quite coidrary to the general rule hud down in his book. I also thank Mr. Hillyard for liis invitation to visit Thorpelands, and thereby sec the effects of Ids system ; but if Mr. H. had said, that by way of experiment he had sowed a portion of liis field according to my system, that in my opinion would have been a better means of testing his. Mr. H. does not say that he ever did try this experiment, and I shall not be convinced that it would not answer even on Mr. Hillyard's farm, until I hear that it has been tried there. I do not agree with Mr. Hillyard, that all good farmers know the quantity of seed best suited to their land. A man may be a very good farmer on the whole, and yet not perfect in every point. I have known first-rate farmers change their opinions as to the quantity of seed best suited to land which they had long previously been accus- tomed to. I think Mr. Hillyard would be the last to say, that the Earl of Leicester was not a good farmer 40 years ago; therefore I beg to ask him, whether his Lordship has not, during that jieriod, adopted a new quantity of seed for his land? and if so, whether he now sows more or less per acre, than lie formerly did? I have not had the pleasure of seeing the Earl of Leicester's farming, but 1 think I am justified in giving so much credit to common report, as to suppose that the land under his cultivation has been improvhui in condition during the whole of the above period. If no good farmer can be benefitted by know- ing the opinions of others, such books as Mr. Hillyard's can only be of use to bad farmers. I do not see how we are to come to any other conclusion than this, unless we suppose that Mr. H., and he alone, is able to give such a hint as may be useful to a good farmer, and this seems to me to involve a contradiction, for you thereby are presuming ihat the good farmer may be taught. I have always liked to hear the opinions of others; and after fairly weighing and testing them, to act according to my judgment, as assisted by those hints and different opinions. 1 think it probable that the best farmer might learn something, if he kept a sharp look out, by crossing the farm of the greatest sloven in his county; men sometimes learn the best lessons of wisdom from observing the effects of the follies of others. Business will probably lead me into the neighbourhood of Northampton, and I am sure it would afford me very great pleasure to avail myself of Mr. Hillyard's invitation, as I am certain no person could write so good a book, on the whole, as lie has written, whose phactice a\^as not WORTHY OF THE STRICTEST EXAMINATION. What Mr. Hillyard says of his visit to Holk- liam, tells rather in favour of my argument than against it ; for the question is not whether " sandy " or " loamy " soils require most seed : it is, whether any given soil requires inost seed when it is rich, or when it is poor ? — and what was seen on the Earl of Leicester's land showed that, "from the corn having been drilled so thick that each grain could only send up one stem, the ear produced finer corn than would have been produced from two or more stems coming from the same root." I beg to draw parti- cular attention to this quotation, and that it may be borne in mind when reading what I have to add. I have observed — and I suppose many others have also — that if you sow the spot on which a dung-hill has liecn placed, with the usual seed, the corn will be laid and rotted ; if you sow half the usual quantity, it will still be the same ; but you 7nay sow so much seed on it, as to make the crop stand. As many of your readers, I have no doubt, have tried both Mr. Hillyard's system and mine, their reporting the results in your useful paper would tend to elucidate this important question, and much oblige, sir, your very obedient servant, A Subscriber, (Once a farmer on the Wolds of Yorkshire.) Loudon, March 31. MANURES. ON THE PROBABLE USE OF COALDUST AS A MANURE. (From the Transactions of the Society of Arts, S(c.) The analogy of the constituent principles of coal, to that of oil or animal matter, led to the idea that it might probably be employed as food for plants ; and, when I further reflected that many geologists supposed it to he of vegetable origin, I was strengtheneal parts of both plants and animals. The greater number of vegetable substances consist wholly of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; whilst animal matters mostly contain, in addition to these three elements, a quantity of nitrogen. When wood is charred, its elements are separated from each other ; the hydrogen and oxygen combine together and form water, whilst the carbon is left behind. It is the combination of the hydrogen and oxygen which causes that which we call flame. The combination of the charcoal with oxygen gots on more slowly and steadily, the carbon all the time glowing, and con- tinuing red-hot. W^henever a substance burns with a flame, we may be sure that it contains hy- drogen ; and whenever the flame is bright, we are sure it contains a good deal of carbon, for the flame of pure hydrogen is very pale indeed, and the brightness of a flame, such as that of a candle, is entirely due to the carbon contained in the tal- low, which is burned at the same time with the hydrogen, both combining with oxygen of the air. As the products of the combustion of a candle are carbonic acid gas and water, it would be natural to expect that a cold substance held over the flame of a candle would take from the vapour of water thus formed the heat necessary to its existence in the state of vapour, and consequently condense it inio the fluid form. This is anexi)eriment which may very easily be mads, for we have only to hold a cold glass at a little distance above the flame of the candle, and we shall soon find it lined with a fine dew of water condensed in this manner. Carbon is unable to combine with oxygen at common temperatures ; it requires to be heated before it can enter into combination with that substance ; but when a compound substance con- taining carbon is exposed to the air, it usually happens that if the other elements which it con- tains combine with oxygen, the carbon also is then able to combine with oxygen, and forms carbonic acid gas. Thus when a plant dies and decays, its elements separate and form new compounds ; but the carbon is not set free in the form of black charcoal, but is slowly combined with oxygen. Hence we see that decay is very like burning, similar effects being produced by both, only that the change which is effected by combustion in a short time, and accompanied with a great deal of heat, is very slowly and gradually effected by de- cay, very little heat being at the same time evolved. In both cases carbonic acid gas is pro- duced, which is essential to the growth of plants, as they, beitig able to decompose it, thus obtain carbon. This explains the use of decaying veget- able substances in manures ; the)', of course, con- tain carbon, which is slowly combining with oxy- gen, and therefore always supplying the growing plants wjth carbonic acid gas, which being rather THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3fi5 heavier than common air, remains near the sur- face of the ground ready to be absorbed by plants. Carbonic acid gas is produced in hirge quantity by the breathing of animals. A constant sujjply of fresh air is requisite for the support of life, and we know that if an animal is prevented from breathing or inhaling fresh air, it will very soon be sufl'ocated. The chemical action which goes on in the lungs of an animal is just the reverse of that which takes ])lace in the organs of plants : in this case carbonic acid gas in the air is decomposed, and the carbon which it contained is appropriated by the])lant; whilst in the lungs of an animal carbonic acid is formed, as the oxygen of the air is found, on being expelled from the lungs, to have combined with carbon and become converted into carbonic acid gas. In fact, the process of breathing is very similar to that of combustion, the same results being produced in either case. Carbonic acid gas is called an acid, although it certainly is not acid or sour to the taste, like vinegar, and the other common acids we are acquainted with : it will therefore be proper, before proceeding any furtlier, to explain why it is called an acid, and in fact what is meant bj' that term- There exists in nature a numerous class of substances which are called bases; amongst which are potash, soda, lime, and other caustic substances. Now an acid is a substance that has a strong affinity for these bases, and which in combining with one of them forms a neutral compound. Some acids are exceedingly sour, and very corrosive substances, like oil of vitriol and aqna-fortis ; but when poured upon a base, such as potash or soda, they combine with it directly, and both the acid and the base lose their caustic and corrosive qua- lities. These compounds of acids and bases are usually called salts, or saline compounds ; and are very numerous, as there are many acids and many bases. Although carbonic acid, being a gas, is not perceptibly sour to the taste like the strong acids just mentioned, it nevertheless combines with bases, and in so doing destroys or neutralizes their caustic properties ; but as it has a far less powerful attraction for bases than most other acids have, it is very easily expelled ftom com- pounds containing it by the action of another acid, which seizes npon the base and sets the carbonic acid gas at liberty. We have already spoken of the conversion of chalk into lime by heat, in which process the chalk is decomposed, certain matters being expelled or driven off, and the lime left caustic. Chalk is a compound of carbonic acid gas and caustic lime, together with a quantity of water, andiscalledacarbonateoflime. The carbonic acid is combined with the lime by so weakan attraction, that heat alone is sufficient to expel the acid, together with the water which the chalk contains. If a piece of chalk is put into some vinegar, or indeed into any sour liquid, it will be decomposed, and the carbonic acid will bubble through the fluid until the vinegar or other acid is fully combined with lime, and its acid powers entirely neutralized. In consequence of this gas being rather heavier than common air it frequently collects in caverns, cellars, and other similar situations, and often occasions serious accidents, suffocating those who unfortunately enter the places thus filled with carbonic acid. Its presence in such places in the air, in any quan- tity, may always be easily ascertained by letting down a lighted candle into the well or cellar : if tiie candle continues to burn, we know that thei"e is enough of oxygen present to support the life of an animal ; and if the candle be extinguished, we are certain that the place is full of carbonic acid gas, and therefore that it must not be entered until the heavy carbonic acid is dispersed by proi)cr ventilation. Carbonic acid is also evolved in large (luantities during the process of fermentation, and occasions the ])rickling taste and effervescence of cit not omit Ktalinjr, was supplied to me by my seeds- men, Messrs. Dickson, of your city. Edmund Wili.iamo. Llangerjiiew Vicarage, near Llanrwst, lOth March, \8i\. ADVANTAGE OF PLANTING FRUIT TREES ON DECLIVITIES. — Dodart first observed that trees pushed their branches in a direction parellel to the surface of the earth. If a tree stands on a steep it pushes both towards the hill and towards the declivity ; but on both sides it still preserves its branches parallel to the surface. As there is an attraction between the upper surface of leaves and light, I am also persuaded, though not equally certain of it from experiment, that there is an attraction of ihe satne nature between the under surface of leaves and the surface of the earth. This I consider the true cause of the phenomenon : — I had long observed that the most fruitful orchards and most fertile trees are those planted on a declivity, and the steeper it is, though not quite a precipice, the more fertile they prove. It is well known that the -spreading of trees always renders them fruitful. On a plain they incline to shoot upwards ; and therefore art is employed by skilful gardeners, and employed in various ways, to check their perpendicular and to promote their lateral growth. But this point is obtained on a declivity by nature. There a tree loses its tendency to shoot up- wards, and in order to preserve its branches parallel with the surface, is constrained to put them in a lateral direction. Hence an important rule in the choice of orchards and fruit gardens.— -Ren, D. J. Walker. EFFECT OF COLOURED LIGHT ON PLANTS. — 1 planted in a box some curled cress seed, and so arranged bottles of carmine fluid, chromate of potassa, acetate of copper, and the ammonia of sulphate, that all but a smwll space of the eaith was exposed to light which had permeated three-fourths of an inch of these media. For some days the only apparent difference was, that the earth continued damp under the green and blue fluids, whereas it rapidly dried under the red and yellow. The plumula burst the cuticle in the blue and greeu lights before any change was evident in the other parts. Ai'ter ten days, under the blue fluid there was a crop of cress, of as bri£;ht a green as any which grew in full light, and far more abundant. The crop was scanty under the green fluid, and of a pale unhealthy colour. Under the yellow solution but two or three plants ap- peared, yet they were less pale than those which had grown in greea light. Beneath the redbottle the num- ber of plants which grew was also small, although rather more than in the spot the yellow covered. They too were of an unhealthy colour. I now reversed the order of the bottles, fixing the red in the place of the blue, and the yellow in that of the green. After a few days' exposure, the healthy cress appeared blighted, while a few more unhealthy plants began to show themselves from the influence of the blue rays in the spot originally subjected to the red. It is evident from this that the red and yeliow rays not merely retard germination, but positively destroy the vital principle in the seed. Prolonged exposure uncovered, with genial warmth, free aii , and all that can induce growih, fails to revive the blighted vegetation. I have repeated the experiments many times, varying the fluids, but the re- sults have been the same. At this time I have the above facts strikingly exemplified where the space covered by the bichromate of potassa is without a plant. These results merit the attention of those who are engaged in the study of vegetable economy.— Jounia? of the Franklin Institute. 2 c 374 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE ECONOMICAL MANU- FACTURE OF DRAINING-TILES AND SOLES. BY ROBERT REART, OF GODMANCHESTER, HUNT- INGDONSHIRE. (From the Joiirnalof the Royal Agricultural Society.) In writing upon this subject, difficulties arise in forming a system generally applicable ; if it were only required to meet the wants of one locality, the nature of the clay would point out the peculiar mode of preparing or tempering required. The expence and process of burning must be regulated by the facility of procuring the coals, wood, or peat, made use of; but as my object is more par- ticularly to give a statement of the system and cost of manufacturing draining-tiles, and the prices at which tiles have been sold in this county for the last five years, I shall confine myself as much as possible to these objects. The price of furrow draining-tiles has fluctuated here from 20s. to 22s. per 1000 ; and that of soles, or bottom tiles, from 8s. to 10s. per 1000; at those reduced prices, the consumption of tiles has increased greatly : as a proof of that increased consumption, and of the great quantity manufactured, it was publicly stated at a late meeting of agriculturists at Huntingdon, that one tenant farmer last year consumed five hundred and twenty thousand of furrow draining-tiles. I wish to point out to tile- makers, that whether the making of tiles be per- formed by machinery or by hand-labour only, they may be made at prices much below what they now cost in many parts of the country, and thus enable the makers so to reduce the price of tiles that the consumption will augment as it has in this county. Though the profit on a single thousand of tiles will be less, still the quantity they would sell would be so increased, that the profits of their works would be larger; by the introduction of machinery, which led to the change of system in this county, a reduction of 15s. per 1000 was efifected in one season, and during the last five years the number of tile-works has doubled. I will now give a statement of the cost of manufac- turing by hand, and likewise by machine, in Huntingdonshire, which is as follows : — By By liand. macliine. S. d. S. d. Removing the earth and raising the clay, per thousand, each tile to contain 100 in. cubic 2 0 2 0 The clay turning once over and covering down 0 (! 0 6 Grinding and moulding 4 6 3 0 Sand 10 0 0 Setting and unloading the kiln, burning and waste 3 0 3 0 Cost of fuel, one ton of coals to burn 3,500 draining-tiles, 13J inches long, at 23s. per ton .... 6 f) <> (J 17 ()• 15 0 This statement shows the actual saving in this county by machinery is two shillings and six- ])ence per thousand ; but a material advantage is felt in the control of the manufacturer over his workmen — common labourers being competent to the working of the machine : besides which, a more regular supply of tiles for the kilns may be secured by the adoption of a better division of la- bour. I shall now proceed to give a description of the kilns, drying sheds, &c., made use of. \st. As to the_form of the Kiln. — The form of kiln which has superseded all others in this county, is delineated in figures 2, 3, and 4. This kiln is well adapted for burning tiles, with only a single course of bricks set upon the floor of the arches ; it can lie filled entirely with tiles, and is calculated to burn every description of fuel; if wood or peat are burned, the furnace bars are removed, and the size of the furnaces regulated by the con- sumption of such fuel. Constructing the bottom of the kiln with fire bricks, as shown in figure 3, not only save both time and labour in loading and unloading- the kiln, but also simplifies the setting of the kiln. It may be sui)posed that there is a loss of fuel, inasmuch as, if the flues were built with unburnt bricks, these would be burnt with- out any greater consumption of fuel ; but this supposition is erroneous, for were an immaterial consumption of fuel thus saved, the time lost in setting and unloading the kiln is equal to tbe value of the bricks, which are generally of an in- ferior quality, whea burnt in the flues of the kiln. 2nd. Construction of Drying Sheds and Pug-mill House for grinding the clay, as shown in fig. 1 and a. As the manufactory of a large quantity of tiles depends very much upon the facility of di-ying them either upon shelves or drying floors, which must be of sufficient extent to allow the uninter- rupted moulding of the tiles, I believe the most economical and convenient drying sheds are as shown in figure 1 : the four sheds as thus shown are calculated to contain from 20 to 24,000 drain- ing-tiles, and the method of using them to the greatest advantage is to cover all the shelves with tiles, wiiich when done, those first made may be removed, and set or stacked down the middle of the sheds, as the shelves are required to be refilled — by these means from 40 to ."SO, 000 tiles are made before it is necessary to move any to the kiln. Drying-floors for most descriptions of clay are quite equal to shelves, if the clay is sufficiently strong to bear setting one tile upon the other, 3 or 4 high, as they are produced from the machine or mould ; they maj', however, be dried without sheds ('as great quantities are in this county) and simply protected from the weather by being covered with sedge or straw. If attention is paid to drying them, the quality is found to be quite equal to those dried upon shelves or covered floors. ird. Machinery. — The only machinery for making draining-tiles in this county is the ma- chine constructed by myself, and which I have patented, and the common hand mould — the mode of working my patent machine is fully described in the explanation appended to the drawings of the machine, plate, figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The use and construction of the common hand mould is too well known to require any description. ith. Best shaped Hie for drainittg land. — I con- sider the best shaped tiles to be the common drain- ing and sole tile ; they are the cheapest, and also the most permanent when laid in a drain. For the manufacturer, they are also the most simple and easy to produce in large quantities; they do not take up above half the space in the kiln that winged or other shaped tiles do, and thus they re- quii-e less fuel to burn them, and the manufacturer is enabled to produce the tile and tile sole (the two to be sold as one) at less money than the winged or other tiles, which vary in shape from the common tile. THE FAllMEll'S MAGAZINE. 375 blh. Cost of erecting Kiln and Hopper (to hum 40 to 4"), 000 lilen), toilh sheds, machinery, or tables and moulds, 6{c. Kiln and hopper, as shown by the plans, will re- quire (iO.OOO bricks, at yOs. per thousand .... !'0 Labour, lime, and sand . . 45 Firebricks 10 Two tons of furnace-bars and doors, at 12/. I'is. per ton 25 Roof for the kiln and hopper 20 Four drying sheds and pug-mill ; house, co- vered with pan or flat tiles ; the shelves to be one-inch board ; the posts may be fir or other poles set upon a sill, on brick-work £ s. d. 4 0 0 0 s, d. IDO 4 0 raised six inches from the ground, the shed being but seven feet wide ; the tops of fir- I)olcs will do for the roof ; in setting up the shelves, lay the first board on the ground ; support the shelves from this ; merely at- tach them to the build- ing to keep them up- right Patent machine 12 12 Pug-mill 12 12 Tools, barrows, & planks 10 0 130 0 0 35 4 0 £355 8 0 N.B. If tables, hand-moulds, &c., are used to make the quantity of tiles above mentioned, the cost of these will be about equal to the ma- chine. DESCRIPTION OF SHEDS, KILNS, &c. Fio. 1. Fig. 1. Is an isometrical view of the different departments of a tile work, in the order which is considered advantageous for carrying on the va- rious processes : A, is the position of the pug-mill and horse walk ; B the drying sheds, in four lines. each 100 feet in length ; C the kiln, represented without the roof; and D the hopper, also repre- sented without the roof, in order to show the mouth of the furnaces. c bed (^ Fia. 2 2 c2 37G THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Fig. 2. Ground plan of a lain and hopper : A the kiln, and B the hopper. The walls and piers a for the furnace arches, are founded at the depth of about five feet under the level of the surface of the ground, and are carried up in solid brick work, the whole length of the kiln, as from a to b, to the height of two feet six inches — see also fig. 4. The over-all dimensions of the kiln are twenty-four feet in length and twenty feet in width ; the height from the floor to the top is twelve feet ; it is capable of burning forty-five thousand tiles. The width of the ash pits under the grate bars is fourteen inches, and of the fur- naces above the grate bars two feet. The height of the ash pit eighteen inches, and of the furnaces to the spring of the arches twelve inches, and the rise of the arch fifteen inches, over which tlie floor of the kiln is laid. The walls above the level of the floor are carried up at a thickness of two feet si.x inches. In the piers of the furnaces the shaded parts represent the position of flues formed through the arches, to carry the flame through the openings in the floor — c d, c d, c d are the grate bars ; B is the hopper to contain the fuel; and, to allow space for the tirenian, its dimensions over all are twenty-five feet in length, and sixteen feet six inches in width, the necks of the furnaces projecting into it two feet. Fig. 3. Is a plan of the kiln taken above the level of the floor; a a the walls ; b the doorway by which the kiln is loaded ; and the interior re- presents the perforated floor, the shaded parts being the perforations or flues, having a width of six inches, crossed occasionally with a brick to bind the arches, the arches themselves being nine inches in breadth. If the sides of the kiln are slightly curved, as shown by the dotted lines c c, and embanked with clay on the outside, less thickness of wall will suffice ; it will be equally strong, and will retain the heat better. c / e Jl h Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. Is a transverse section of the kiln, a a Fig. o. Is across section of a drying shed upon the ground line, b the piers, c the ash pits, d the an enlarged scale, showing the position of the furnace and grate bars, e the wall, and/ the door- shelving a in relation to the posts b. way. DESCRIPTION OF MR. BEART'S PATENT MACHINE FOR MAKING DRAIN-TILES. Fig. 1. Fig. 1 is an end view of the machine, and fig. 2 a section on the line a a. In these figures, the letters refer to the corresponding parts in both figures. A is a box or mould of cast-iron, fixed by hook joints at the corners, and bolted to the frame B, also of cast-iron. The box is 13^ inches long, 10 inches wide, and 6 inches deep, but may be varied in size, according to the size of tile wanted. It is fittedwith a moveable bottom or piston, which, being attached to the rack-bar C, rises and falls with it. The rack-bar is acted upon by a pinion Pig. 2. fixed in the shaft D, supported in the frame-work. This shaft D carries also a spoke-wheel E, having eight bent spokes or hands, by which the operator acts upon the machine. To work this machine properly, one man and two boys are required. The man stands on the side of the machine, with his right hand towards the spring-stop F ; one boy between the machine and the table on which the bending-blocks or horses are placed, and the other boy behind the table. The man having let down the piston to its lowest THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 point, takes a lump of clay of sufficient si/e ; this he throws with force into the mould ; if it does ■~ltf not fill up all the angles, hebeats itiii with the blow of a nnallet, and with the strilvc or bow, fig '.i, cuts off any superfluous clay that may stand above the edges of the mould, smooths the clay witli the same, turns the wheel E one spoke round, which, being provided with a catch on eacli spoke, on its arriving at the spring F, falls into, and is locked by it. By this motion the piston aud clay has been raised about one inch, or the thickness of a tile ; the operator then leaves hold of the spoke, and with the strike cuts oflf a slice of clay, equal in thickness to the space throuRli which the piston and mass of clay has been raised; the strike being guided in passing from front to back of the mould by the edges of the same. The nearest boy now lifts off the slice, lays it upon atile horse, or bond- ing-block, figs. 4 and 5, where the tile is put into form by bending the slice of clay on the horse. This operation is repeated until the mould is emptied. The boy who removes the slice then moistens the inside of the mould with a wet cloth, or other wet substance ; and while the man is refil- ling the mould, l>othboys are employed in washing- down the bended tiles, and laying them in the dry- ing shelves. In making soles or flat tiles, tlie same process is followed, except that in this case the strike is furnished with one or two cross cutters, as shown by the dotted marks a a, in fig. 3, which, simulta- neously with the cutting of the slice, divides it into two or three separate portions. These are taken up by the boys, and removed directly to the shelves. The table or stool that bears the horses, is a very slight fabric, and is furnished with a water trough ; but no sand-box, that material not being retpiired in this method of moulding tiles. The horses, figs. 4 and 5, are in two parts, the upper or curved part being fitted to the other by means of a groove and feather. Tliey are covered with flannel, which, when moistened, allows the tile to part freely from them. In lifting the tile to the shelf, the u])per part only of the horse is lifted with the tile. The strike, tig. .'>, is a piece of hard wood, three-fourths of an inch thick, and shaped as in the figure. A thin brass wire is stretched between the ])oints b b, which forms the cutter for slicing; and in the strike for cutting soles, the cross-cutters a a are added ; the extremities are formed into handles, by which the operator holds the strike. The operations effected by this machine being purely practical, it sometimes happens that the moulder succeeds but indift'erently for a week or two at first ; but that period will generally give him sufficient experience to enable him to turn off 3O0O tiles per day. Having now given a detailed statement of the mode of manufacturing a:id tlie cost of producing tiles in this county, with a general statement of the construction of a tile work or tile-and-brick work, it would be useless for luc to attempt to give a theoretical direction as to the burning of tiles, this part of the work being purely practical. None but experienced burners can tell from the appear- ance of the flues and fires of a kiln, how to regulate the heat or management of them with supplies of different sorts of fuel. I would observe that the clay best adapted for tiles, is that which contains a small proportion of sand or marl, or sand may bemi.xed with the clay when raised in the winter. Clay thus mixed does not contract so much in drying, and the tiles, when burnt, are larger and sounder; but as tiles must be made from clay beds in the locality v/here they are required for use, it will be expedient to con- sult practical men acquainted with the soil. In conclusion, I wish to add a few observations upon furrow-draining on tenacious clay soils ; the drainage of these soils has generally been done in shallow depths, under the prevailing common opinion that otherwise the water would not get into the drains. The contraction which beds of clayundergowhencutthroughbyparalleldiainshas thus been entirely overlooked. This contraction, however, is most important, so much so (as I have found by experience) that the drains dug from 30 to 40 inches deep have operated to much greater advan- tage than those of shallower depth. 'I'hebed of clay contracts itself near the drains as deep as the drains are made ; and the deeper the bed of clay is con- tracted, the larger will be the fissures for the wa- ter to percolate through to the drains. In well- drained land, the water does not enter the drain by the furrow, but percolates through the fissures (formed by contraction) from the ridge to the drains. It is also, Iconsider, an error to cover tiles with loamy soil or vegetable substances ; these have a tendency, after a few years, to choke the drains ; the best covering upon them is the clay itself. The action of the atmosphere will always so contract the clay, that there will be sufficient fissures for carry- ing the water into the drains. This is proved by the system of block-draining, vvhich is sometimes performed on very strong clays in this county. The plan is to dig out the drain, lay a block of wood in the bottom of the drain, then beat the clay firmly upon the block, and after drawing for- ward the block, the same operation is repeated. Now there is no complaint that the water does not enter these drains, for the contraction of the clay, which always takes place, remedies the supposed obstruction. 378 THE FAllMEIl'S MAGAZINE. Drain, 40 inches fleep. Land Ritjge. Drain, 20 inches deep. 1 The line a h c represents the direction of tlie supposed line of the deptli to which the contrac- tion of the clay-bed is available to drainage by the water pcrcoUiting tlirougli tlie fissures. The dark horizontal shading represents the clay-bed. This sketch is intended to show the fissures which art; returned -at my counting-ljouse as de- formed by the contraction of the clay-bed, and the livered. I have notliini;- to do with waste tiles, nor advantages of deep draining: by increasing the do I go to my tile-yard ten times a-year. I contract fall from the ridge to the bottom of tha drain, the to deliver the coals at '20s. per ton. Tiieclay in this expansion of the clay in the winter will he less county is themostexpensive to raise, and requires the than in shallow draining. most teinpetiiig and grinding of any clay that I ever RoBF.RT Beart. saw (and I have visited vards in most parts of the GodmancJiester , Huntingdonshire, couiitry) excejit wiiere tiie clay requires washing to September 18, 1840. free it from sfoties. As to cost of fuel I have liad 5G,()00 tiles burnt in a kiln, with a consumption of i\T D„ 1 1 „„ „™'<.i. 1 . i. 4 V, c 11 Ions of coals, but the construction of our kilns is Mr. Beart has omitted to state any charge for , ■ . • ■ i i i i ,. ,. * • i „ . r •» 1 i' -i_ on the nest nrincinle and on a lar"-e scale, royalty or rent, interest of capital, tor the crcc- ' ' == tion of furnaces and sheds, as well as for wear and '^'^'^^ saving of fuel, indeed, appears to be a more ^ear of implements. The cost of a kihi, of so large essential part of iMr. Heart's system than even his a capacity as this, seems to be estimated very low, machine ; for he is al)lc to burn ^SoOO or even 4000 as well as that of the erection of sheds, which ^''^^^^ ^"-''^'^ ""° *«" of coals ; but, as .^.Ir. Burke in- must either, I shoiild imagine, be of very small *''-'^''"s me, a ton of coals at least is required on the dimensions, or constructed with timber ^rowing "'<^ system tor 2r,00 tiles, and he has generally upon the estate. The usual amount charged hy fo""^' ^ t"" '"" even l'4 cwt. to be employed in landlords to their tenants for tiles made ui)on the -"'^*^- ^^ '^^ ""t, however, the torm of the kiln estate is from 233. to 2b%. per thousand, at the cost ^'""^ l^''''* effects this saving of fuel : I find from price; and if reference be made to the statement ^"" ^'^''T Verney, who has lately begun to use of Mr. Wiggins on tiles in this Journal (vol. i. p J^eart's machine with his own kiln, that the more 354^ it will be seen that those, even so small as accurate shape of the tilesis also a source of great 12 inches long, and only 3| high bv 2:} at the open- economy in the burning. He writes to me from ing, cost 19s. (id. for labour and materials, ex- Buckinghamshire: — elusive of clay and agency, which are ."is. (id. more, " My kiln contains .■)4,000 tiles, without bricks or thus bringing the price of the very smallest kind soles, being 8,000 more than I could pack into it to 258. per thousand. However, if Mr. Beart can when I made the tiles by hand. Ten tons of hard really manufacture sound well-made tiles of full Derby coals burn niv kiln of tiles ; of softer Stafford- size, and sell them at the price he mentions, he shire coals, acoujde of tons more would be required, certainly deserves the encouragement of land- In small fires in a dwelling-house the sea-borne coal owners. J. French Burke. would go much further than even the hard Derby, a fourth or a fifth further, but in the large furnace of a kiln ive find the hard Derby coal as enduring as (Note ly Mr. Pnseij.) the Newcastle coal." In consequence of the doubts thus expressed by The subject is so important that I must add some so experienced a writer on agriculture, I thought calculations, with which Mr. Evelyn Denison has it my duty to inquire further^ into this invention, furnished me, as applying to the manufacture of and have found Mr. Beart's statements to be tiles in Nottinghamshire : — borne out. The secretary of the Huntingdonshire " i am afraid the answer, which I now send to your Agricultural Association, Mr. Fox, writes me word question as to the expense ot making draining-tiles that " the farmers of the county value Mr. Beart's in this part of the country, will come too late for one services so highly as to have invited that gentle- of the olyects you bad in view ; but I have had the man to a public dinner last summer ; that he con- calculations carefully gone over as to the cost of siders iMr. Beart's tiles quite as good and durable those made at my ovvn yard, and I have communi- as any tiles made by hand ; and that the price of cated with several of my neighbours who make tiles, tiles immediately before Mr. Beart invented bis so you may depend on the accuracy of this statement, machine was 35s., but that for the last five years << No 1. 'Draining-tiles 12^ inches long, 5 deep, 4J they have been sold at from 20s. to 22s. by all wide, cost me at ray yard 17s. 6d. per 1000: which manufacturers in the neighbourhood, whether may be divided under the following heads :— made by hand or machine." This statement 5. <;. establishes the fact that tiles can be sold at the Getting clay in winter, making and burning price of 22s. per thousand, the price of coals being the tiles 10 0 23s. per ton. The price for which they can be Coals 6 0 made by those who possess kilns and brick-yards, Sand 0 6 is stated by Mr. Beart as follows, in answer to my Horse 'labourVgrin'ding'clay', .............. 1 0 inquiries : — "The work here is fanned by the foreman : my Total 17 G contract with him is 15s. per thousand for all tiles You will see that notliing is here charged for the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. .379 prime cost of the buildings, the kiln, the sheds, &c., or for the clay. "But the outhiy for the buildings is not largje ; 2/iO/. would cover the expense of sheds and a kiln, sufficient to make 300,000 tiles in the course of the summer, so if you add 2s. per 1000 to the 17s. (id. for the interest of the money and the value of the clay, you allow more than is sufficient. " With this addition, the total expense of the tiles would be 19s. 6d. per 1000. I should say that this is not an estimate, but the actual price paid to ray tile-maker. "I built the kiln and sheds, and the tile-miiker delivers the tiles to rae at the rate of charge statecl above. He is answerable for all accidents by i'rost or weather, and for all breakage. I jiay only fur perfect tiles fit for use. "Throughout this part of the country the actual cost of making tiles varies from 18s. to '20s. per 1000. The current price at which they are sold is from i^tra\v to he cut and used with it. 2nd. — Tiiiit it permitted the more advantageous tise of damaged liay, the offensive mould being much removed by the operation of the cutting, from which circumstance sheep eat it all without selection or waste. i^5rd. — That it allows the more economical use of sainfoin hay, the stems being all eaten when cut into chaff and the leaf saved from waste, which on account of its tender nature is frequently lost by carriage from the rick to the field. 4th, and lastly — For the opportunity it affords of feeding the sheep with oats economically. The experience of the author of this communi- cation enabled him to state that great benefit bad been derived to him by this last mode of feed- ing sheep, and which he detailed to the club ; but one observation in particular should be recorded in this report ; his opinion, founded on well con- sidering- the subject, was, that an acre of good oats was ctjual to three acres of rye grass and clover hay, taking the average of seasons for hay- making; and if so, he suggested for the conside- ration of the club, and we repeat it for the conside- ration of agriculturists generally, whether it would not be expedient to rest our lands longer from clover, and grow instead a portion of oats for that feed. A communication was also made at this meeting, of an experitnent made by a memhev " on soirinff irheat chilled and l/roadcasf," but the opinion of the club was not expressed on it. We would however here observe that this is a subject of very great importance ; and as a variety of practice exists in Ihis district, much of the land being sown after both systems, while one must be superior to the other, we think that at an early meeting the sub- ject should be fully entered into, and the club ex- [)ress their 0()inion on it. Another communication was made to the club this evening by a practical agriculturist of great experience, of the result of four experiments made by him in the application of various manures on ten acres of wheat grown on a porous sandy soil. After a crop of clover and turnips — 2§ acres were manuredwith salt and lime"") ,. , 2h acres with pot dung and sheep fold I , _'^, 2?f acres with second shear of clover f'? "^P ploughed-in. J '^'^"• 2^ acres manured with muck and the"^ of the turnips fed off with slieep and folded }■ turnip on the land. J land. 10 acres. Greatcare appears to have been taken in making the experiment, and the mode in which it was carried out was detailed with great minuteness, and is fully recorded among our proceedings. At harvest, twenty ])erches of each lot was measured and thrashed separately, and the result was in favour of the salt and lime, as follows : — Corn. Straw. 20 perches of salt and lime pro- duced 24] lbs. ;5291bs. 20 do. of pot dung and fold 2171bs. 3l01bs. 20 do. of second shear clover ploughedin llKilbs. 2501bs. 20 do. of turnips fed and folded with sheep 1741bs. 2CfiIbs. At the fourth quarterly meeting held 2!ith January, 1841 — In consequence of the late serious flood there was but a small meeting and the club had par- ticularly to lament the absence of two members who would otherwise have brought forward subjects for discussion, which were consc 4 J 4 3 4 2 2 4 5 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 i 3 4 2 2 o 4 74 By application to a respectable seedsman (of whom there are many), the grass seeds can be procured either single or mixed, as may be desired. The spirit of improvement manifested by the numerous and intelligent corresponde:its of the Mark Lane Express is most gratifying, and their valuable communications cannot fail to he highly beneficial to vour numerous readers. Should you, Mr, Editor, consider the above ve\)\v to your corres- pondent who subscribes himself "A Young Farmer," worthy of a place in your columns, 1 beg to place it at your disposal. I enclose my card ; and beg to subscribe myself, Sir, your obedient servant, March 30th. G. D. Sir,— I am glad to see the MarJe Lane Kvpress becoming what has long been Avanted — a medium of asking and communicating information on agri- cultural subjects ; to the exclusion of that useless ephemeral gossip with which other publications are encumbered. In your last paper "A young Fanner" asks — " what are the best grasses for permanent pas- ture .'" This is a question to which no direct or positive answer can bo given, as different descrip- tions of soil require a diircrciit assortment of grasses. 1 believe the Gibbs of London,' Lawson's 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of Edinburgh, Di'ummonds of Sterling, Sinclair of Woburn, and some other first-rate seedsmen, profess to furnish the various kinds of seeds, pro- perly proportioned, for any description of soil. Sinclair, I believe, is gardener for the Duke of Bedford, and a very cle^ er botanist. I know of some instances where he has furnished an admix- ture of seeds for permanent grass, which have in the second year of their growth exhibited all the ap- pearance and feeding qualities of ancient i^astnre. One of these may be seen in some fields the pro- perty of Mr. Watson, of Wandby, near Hull. It is the prevailing opinion, that there cannot be good rich feeding land without it has been laid down a great number of years — hence tlie strong disinclination there is, in almost all landlords, to have old grass broken up. This, I conceive, is oc- casioned in a great measure by the injudicious way in which land is usually laid down ; for, except in very few instances, no diiference is made in the quantityor descrijitionof seed which is sown on land intended for a one year's pasture, and that for pas- ture to an indefinite period of time. If only half-a- dozen kinds of seeds are sown on a certain piece of land, we can expect only half-a-dozen kinds of grasses to grow in consequence of that sowing. But fifty years after, when this land will, perhaps, feed oxen to the greatest weights, there will pro- bably be found fifty different sorts, forty-four of which the earth has had to produce spontaneouslj-. Now if these fifty grasses had been sown in the first instance, I do not see why they should not have vegetated and formed as nutritious a combination as any similar admixture of herbage which had been forced into existence by the slow process of natural production. In some parts of Scotland they do not hesitate to break up their oldest and best pastures, and after taking three or four crops of corn, lay them down again Avith a propei- selection of seeds, when they become in two or three years as good or even a better pasture than before. A very clever paper, by Mr. Boswell, descriptive of his practice in this way was published, I believe, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, 1839. Another of your cori'espondents is desirous of information respecting a drill to be attached to a plough, and has been partially answered by " Ro- bert Gilbert, jun.," who says, that a machine of this description has been used in jVorfolk for sowing- turnips. As this is, perhaps, not exactly what the inquirer wanted, I would beg to say that a drill attached to the ])lougli has been in common use in the district of Holderness, in Yorkshire. It is at- tached to the beam of the plough, immediately before the (!Oulter, and deposits the seed in the furrow which the plough has made in the previous turn about ; so that the seed is covered as soon as it falls by the fur which is being turned over. It is used chiefly for sowing beans and wheat ; but when for beans, a plough without a drill is generally tised at the same time, that the seed may be drilled in alter- nate furrows. The machine is exceedingly port- able, easily managed, and is put in nmtion by a wheel running on the land to the left or near side of the plough. It is considered, I believe, a very useful implement under favourable circumstances. I am no.t able to name any particular person as the maker of them, nor what may be the cost ; but from the simple nature of their construction, it can be but trifling. Your obedient servant, AiicHiii.VLB Williams. ON GYPSUM. Sirt, — In reply to your correspondent, " A Con- stant Reader," on liie subject of the proper mode of prejiaring gypsum, I hasten to give Lim the neces- sarv information. The gypsum, when first quarried, has the appear- ance of spar, and is so close and compact that it, in this state, li;is no effect upon vegetation ; but when heated, it becomes; brittle and easy to powder. The best apparatus toburnitisa lime-kiln, and it should be burnt in a manner precisely similar to lime-burning, with tliis exception, tliat half the fuel will do, as it does not recpiire a high temperature ; but should there not be a lime-kiln at hand, a heap of weeds and brushwood, and other combustible materials, such as coke, wood, or charcoal, intermixed judiciously in a large heap with gypsum, and set fire to, will answer the purpose ; when burnt, it should be ground under a common edge-stoneon an iron-grating, through which grating the jjowdered gypsum will fall as it is ground, and will then be fit for use ; and should any of it have the appearance of spar, and be difficult to grind, it is an indication that it is not sufficiently burnt. By powdering a piece in its natural state with a pestle and mortar, and then by putting a lump in the fire-place and making it hot, and then powdering it, the difference will be so apparent, that the best modus operandi, according to the situation, may then be decided upon. A horse ought to grind three or four tons a day, which would dress many acres. The apparatus for grinding should be on the same principle as that used for grinding lime, for making concrete for foundations. When the gypsum is heated, the water which is chemically combined with it, and which (extraordi- nary as it may seem to the unscientific,) is the cause of its hardness and compactness, flies oflT.and leaves the gypsum easily to be acted on, as the bonds which held it together are dissipated. Any further information on this subject may be commanded of Yours, &c. W. S. London, March 23. Sir, — In answer to the very flattering challenge of "A Farmer on the Cotswold Hills," in the last number of your widely circulating Paper, I can assure him, that I shall ever be ready to answer, in the best way in my power, the practical questions of the British Farmers ; to whom I have been so often and so deeply indebted for the kind manner in which they have received my efforts in their service. Y'^our friend asks, " Why gypsum answers upon our poor limestone soil when burnt before it is pounded, and that we find very little benefit from it when used without its being burnt"!" Gypsum, when burnt, be- comes very fiuely divided, and is much more soluble in water than before its water of crystallization is driven oflF by the heat; some specimens ofmereljf powdered spar, which I have seen using by the farmer, could not possibly dissolve in the moisture of the ground, and I need not remind your intelli- gent correspondent that it is only when in solution that manures of any kind are the food of plants. I have always used the gypsum, after being burnt, in the state of powder, and 1 have no unsuccessful experiments to record with this valuable salt, on the only crops for which it is adapted as a direct food ; viz., lucern, sainfoin, and clover. If the soils of your correspondent do not already contain saltpetre, which some lands do naturally in small proportions, (and this I take to be the true explana- tion of many of the discordant results of the trials with these valuable salts,) then tho nitrates will he THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 385 found a fertilizinsf addition to the limestone soils of tlie (lotswold Hiils. If lime nnd snlt do not suit the limestone formations, whv then salt and soot most likely will, say equal pro|ioi'lions of each. Let your correspondent only try tbis for carrots (trencii- ed in) and sown broadcast upon wheat, and let him write and tell you liow it answers. I will take tiiis opportunity of saying a few words upon the adiiUeration of manures, which is carried on by some of the small dealers to a most disgrace- ful extent. — Thus nitrate of soda is mixed with Glauber salt, (made for the vevii purpose, with a cri/s- tiil resembling cubic petre) — bone-dust is mixed with the refuse lime and hair of tlie skin-merchant's, and even soot is comnwnlii and largelii adulterated by the finelv-sifted refuse ashes of the London scaven- gers. Now this is not only in itself a most flagrant fraud, but its consequences are to be lamented iu more ways tlian one — it throws a damp upon the far- mer's exertions, it deceives liim in his trials, it per- verts tlie truth. There is an easy lemedy, hon'ever, in every farmer's power ; let him carefully avoid all the pretended cheap dealers in manures — those who pretend to sell below the real market price ; and let him keep to those wlio have been long tried as the venders of a genuine manure. The season is now arrived when oat-sowing commences ; let me recommend to the farmer, as an excellent manure for them (applied by the drill), the Urate of the London INIanure Company ; and the com- post of M. Poittevin and Co.; either of them (espe- cially the Urate) I believe to be still more power- ful, both for oats and turnips, than either bones or sprats. I am, sir, yours faithfully, CuTHBERT W. Johnson. 14, Grail's Inn Square, March 25, 1841. to cause it to separate in spread iiig, which was always done by two men from a single horse-cart, in the same manner as lime. It ought to be well broken, and mixed by frequent turnings with a shovel — the clover top-dressed in the early part of tlm season, say January or February. I consider it an excellent manure for any crop, but we ha, Stone, Stafford- shire Jones, John, 14, Benson-street, Liverpool Gregson, Matthew, Toxteth Park, Liverpool Green, James, Prescot, Liverpool Williams, Dr., Islington, Liverpool Cantrell, George, (jrongston Grange, Bakewell, Der- byshire Hat horn, John, Worsley, Manchester Barnes, R.W., Worsley, Manchester Clabon, George, Knowsley, Pre:;cot, Lancashire Westmoreland, Robert, Billingborough, Folkingliara, Lincolnshire Lacey, W., Panton, Wragby, Lincolnshire Crabbe, Thomas, Chenies, Rickmanswortb, Hertford- shire Duppa, Thomas, Cardington House, Bridgenorth, Shropshire Hinckesman, John, Westwood, Bridgenorth, Shrop- shire Peploe, Samuel, Garnstone, Hereford Bailey, Joseph, M.P., Glanusk Park, Ciickhowell, Brecknockshire Moss, John, Liverpool Fortescue, Hon. G., Boconnock, Lostwithiel, Cornwall Gibbs, Ben Thomas Brandreth, Brompton Lodge, OIJ Brompton, and 47, Half Moon Street, Piccadilly Long, Henry Laws, Hampton Lodge, GuiWford, Surrey Vincent, William, Calverton, Stony- Stratford, Buck- ing'aamshire Liverpool Meeting. Colonel Challoner having presented the Report of the Finance Committee, which was read and confirmed, moved that the following instruction be issued lo the Liverpool Committee: — That a catalogue should be printed with the names of Exhibitors of Implements, Machinery, Seeds, Soils, and other matters, and be ready to be distril)uled as early as possible in the week of the Liverpool Meeting,— a resolution which was carried unanimously. Nkw Bye-Law. A communication having been addressed to the Chair- man from his Grace the Duke of Richmond, in reference to the amended Bye-Law of which lie had given notice at the last monthly meeting; Mr. Raymond Pnirker, in the absence of the noble Duke (in consequence, we regret to learn, of one of his Grace's sons being a pas- senger on board the " President" steam-ship) proposed and supported the following new Bye-law in question, which was carried unanimously :— That " A List of all Prizes to be proposed by the Society for any particular year shall be laid on the table for suggestions and revision, at or before the Anniversary Meeting in the month of May in the year preceding ; and shall be finally settled by the Council, at or before the last Wednesday in the following month of June ; after which time no new Prize shall be offered, or any alteration or increase of an old one made for the year in question." Election of Memdeus. JMr. Raymond Barker also moved the following Re- solution, of which due notice had been given : — " That the Election ot !\Iembers be suspended after the meet- ing of the Council on the first day of July, until that day month ; but that names of candidates be received for proposal as heretofore, and sach candidates have pre- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 389 ference over strang'ers. in reference to the Dinner Tickets at the Annual Country Meeting:. Irish Commission of Aut and Scienck. The Lord-Lieuteoant of Ireland applied, through the Under-Secretary of State, for a copy of the Society's charter and bye-laws, for the use and reference of the Commissioners recently appointed by the Government for enquiry into the best mode of promoting art and science in Ireland. Farming Account-isooks, Mr. Fi*her Hobbs presented to the Society, on the part of the publisher, Mr. Taylor, of Colchester, " The Farmer's Complete Account Book," by Robert Swiu- borne ; and " Taylor's Improved Edition of Haddon's Farmer's complete Account Book." Foittevin's Manure. Robert A. Christopher, Esq., M.P., presented a re- port on the comparative merits of Poittevin's manure and bones, as tried by his Lincolnshire tenantry, and communicated by his bailiff. Mr, Robinson, of Guy's Hospital, presented a model of a raowing-machiue ; Mr. T. W. Mayer, Secretary of the Standing Committee of Veterinary Surgeons, trans- mitted to the Council copies of the petition to the Q,ueeD, and an address to the Secretary of State, on thesubjectof the professional privileges of Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor Royer of Paris addressed a let- ter to the Society in reference to a French agricultural periodical ; fllr. Shaw presented the last part of " The Farmer's iMagazine ; and the Society of Arts the last part of their Transactions ; The Labourer's Friend So- ciety, their last part of Proceedings ; and the respective Editors of periodicals, various copies of their publica- tions. At a Council held on Wednesday, the 21st of April, present — Thomas llaymond Barker, Esq., inllie Chair; French Burke, Esq.; Colonel Chulloner; and Edvvard Davies Davenport, Esq. The Earl of Lisburne.oF Crosswood, near Aberyst- with, South Wales, was elected a Governor, and the followinT gentlemen Members ot the Society : — Storer, (ieorge, Tlioroton, Binffham, NoUiiighunishiic J?ougheu, William, Hainford, Norwich, Nori'olk. Barnes, Orlando, Bceston, Norwich Drake, John Wythe, Wroxhani, Norwich Ogiivy, Colonel, the lion. Donald (of Clova), Balnabolli llou^e, Ku'iiimuir, N. B. Healhcote, liudstone, Wiirwicii Coleman, Richard, Lungdoa Abbey, near Dover, Kent Smith, George, Edenhall, Leechani, Penrith, Cumber- land Booth, John, Cottani, Newark, Nottinghamshire Lawton, J. B., Newark, Nottinghamshire Cawley, James, Winwick, Warrington, Lancashire Packe, George Hussey, Caylhorpe Hull, Grantham, Lincolnshire Brown, William, Ilichmond Hill, Liverpool Aishtoi), Henry, Woolion, near Liverpool Claton, George, Knowsley, Preseot, Lancashire I'urncr, John, Banstead, Ewell, Surrey Shipman, William, Sedgebrooke, Gnuithum, Lincoln shire Waters, Willisun, Wighton, near Walsinghain, Norfolk Fowler, John Kersley, j an , Ayle&lmry, Buckingliam shire Davidson, William, Scotter, Gainsborough, Lincoln shire Wigun, Edward, Lapley, Wolverliampton, Stafibrd shire Nice, Thomas, Great Bradley Hall, Newmarket Bigge, Charles William, Linden, iUorpeth, Northum- berland Blackden, J. C, Fovel Castle, Bervvick-ou-Tvveed Darling, George, Helton House, Wooler, Northum- berland Ogden, John Biss, Harrietfield, Kclso, Nortliumberland Stenning, William, East Grinstead, Sussex Head, William Alston, East Grinstead, Sussex Stenning William, Godstone, Surrey Moyse, J. V., Milton, Sittingbourne, Kent Emery, Richard, Huston Place, Storrington, Sussex Turwor, Thomas, Abbot's Bromley, Rugeley, Stattord- shire Norman, Edward, Mistley Place, ]\lanningtree, Essex Whitlrtker, Thomas, Boxted, Colciiester, fJssex Sciuby, William, Broxted, Duninow, Essex Death, Georrre, Long Melt'ord, Sudbury, Suffolk Miipletolt, Robert, Stausted, Sudbury, Suttblk Holton, George, Wiston, Sudbury, Suffolk lM,il)le!oft, Robert, Secretary oi the South Suffolk A^riruliural Sccieiy Siinth, Willniiii T;i\ lor, lirewton, Ilugcley, Staffordshire Freneii, Richard, 'i'leciiill, Bur»ledon, Hampshire Pocock, George, Henumont's Farm, St. Alban's iOdwards, Henry, St. Alban's, Hertfordshire Brown, Alexander, Birely Grange, Wetherby, York- shire NlTRATIi OF SOUA. Captain Archibald Hamilton, of Rozelle, as Vice- Pre'ident, and Mr. M'Murtrie, as Secretary, of the General Agricultural Association of Ayrshire, com- municated to the Council the interest which the Society's publiciUion of facts on the application of the nitrate of soda had excited in that part of Scotland, and re- quested permission to reprint the papers on the subject contained in the two last Parts of the Journal in a cheap form, for extensive gratuitous distribution among the agriculturists of that county ; and leave to this effect was unanimously granted by the Council. DiSORDKR AMONG SUEEP. J. C. Athorpe, Esq., of Dinniugton Hall, Notting- hamshire, communicated to the Society a statement of a singular and fatal affection among his sheep. The fleck are principally year-old sheep, and all in good fat condition, being fed, in the first instance, on turnips, but the change of food and pasture afterwards adopted was found to have no effect on the progress of the dis- order. Salt had been given them, which they took greedily ; but no diminution of the fatality among the flock appeared to result from its use. 'I'he *heep ap- peared perfectly well at one moment, and at the next, when attacked with the disorder, were paralyzed in the hind -quarters, which the animal dragged forward in a nerveless state to a short distance, when staggering supervened, and the sheep, after rolling over a few- times, died on the spot. On examining the body of the animal after death, no unusual appearances pre- sented themselves, excepting perhaps a greater fulness of the blood-vessels of the chest, and little red spots under the skin. Mr. Athorpe found the deaths take place very irregularly, sometimes losing two or three of the sheep in the course of a day, and afterwards not any for a week. The state of the weather ai)peared to make no difference, nor did bleeding or the adminis- tration of Epsom salts, nitre, ivc. The case having been referred to Professor Sewell, that gentleman has offered to undertake amiuutepo^i 'mortem examination of the animals, in order to ascertain the cause of the complaint, and lead to just conclusions respecting the mode of prevention and cure. Model Experiment on hie growtii or Swedish ToRiNIPS. David Barclay, Esq., of Eastwick Park, Surrey ; James Stratton, Esq., of Manningford Bruce, Wiltshire; and Thomas Ferris, E*q., of Manningford Bohune, Wiltshire — have severally agreed to join in tlie Society's comparative Model Experiment to be tried this season, and appended their names to the conditions proposed. AGniCUETURAE IMPLEMENTS. Rlessrs. Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, in Suffolk, informed the Society of their intention ef transmitting by sea a ship load of their choicest implements for exhibition at the Liverpool Meeting, and applied for the requisite space of ground in the Show-yard of the Society. The Council referred their request, with a recommendation, to the Liverpool Committee. Messrs. Black and Armstrong presented a FrencIi work, in 2 volumes, published last year, and entitled 2 D 390 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. " De I'AgricuUurc, et de la Condition des Agriculteurs en Irlande et dans la Grande Bretagne ;'' the Geolo- j?ical Society, their two last parts of Proceedings ; the Statistical Society, the last part of their Transactions ; Mr. Weiton, of Chertsey, a Table of Distances alons^ the Thames ; Messrs. Silvestre and Co., engravers, and Mr. Staunton, impressions of their respective designs for Agricultural Labourers' Prizes; and the Editors of periodical papers numerous copies of their respective publications. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 28th inst. LIVERPOOL MEETING. THE PHIZES ARE OPEN TO THE COMPETITION OF THE WORLD. Wednesday, July 21, and Thursday, July 22, 184L N. B. The Show- Yard will also be open on Friday until Two o'clock in the afternoon. PRIZES FOR IMPROVING THE BREED OF CATTLE: 1841. Class I. — Siiort-Hoens. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously to the 1st of January, 1839, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the 1st of January, 1839, and more than one year old, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Cow in milli, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exeeeding three years old. Fifteen Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer, Ten Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sovereign'^. Class II. — IlEREionns. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously to the 1st of January, 1839, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the 1st of January, 1839, and more than one year old, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exceeding three years old, Fifteen Sovereigns. To the owner of the best i'earliug Heifer, Ten Sove- reigns. To tlie owner of tiie best Bull Calf, Ten Sovereigns. Class III. — De\ons. To the owner of the best Ball calved previously to tlie Ist of January, 1839, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Bull culved since the 1st of January, 1839, and more than one year old. Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Cow in milk— Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best in-ealf Heifer, not exceeding three years old, Fifteen Sovereigns. To the owner ot the best Yearling Heifer, Ten Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sovereigns. Class IV.— Cattle or any Bueed, or Cross. Not qualified for the foregoing Classes. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously to the 1st of January, 1839, Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Twenty Sovc« reigns. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the 1st of January, 1839, and more than one year old, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Fiftetn Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best Cow in milk, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the second best ditto, Ten Sovereigns. 'J'o the owner of the best in-calf Heifer, not exceeding thiee years old, Fiftten !;ovcreigns. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer, Ten Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best Bull Calf, Ten Sovereigns. Class V. — Horses for Agricultural Purposes. Division I. To the owner of the best Cart Stallion of four years old and upwards. Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto ditto. Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best three years old ditto, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the best two years old ditto, foaled since the 1st of January, 1839, Filteen Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Cart-Mare and Foal, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto. Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best two years old Filly, Tea Sove- reigns. Division 2. To the owner of the best pair of Horses or Mares at plough on the ground, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best pair of Horses or Mares at plough on the ground, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the third best ditto ditto, Five Sove* reigns. To the owner of the best Horse or Mare at plough on the ground, not competing for any prize in the yard, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the second best ditto ditto. Five Sove- reigns. '\»* TIio Prizes for tlie working hoi'ses will be awarded after a trial at jilough ; and no horse can compete for these Prizes which competes for the Prizes for horses iu the Yard. PRIZES FOR IMPROVING THE BREED OF SHEEP: 1841. Class VI. — Leicesters. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sove- reigns. To the owner of the second-best ditto. Fifteen Sove. reigns. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second-best ditto. Fifteen Sovc- reisrns. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes suckling their Lamb? at the time of showing, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewe;-, Ten Sovereigns. Class VII. — South Downs, or other Siiori- wooLLEo Sheep. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sove- reigns. To the owner of llie second-best ditto, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To tlie owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second-best ditto. Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes suckling their Lambs at the time of showing, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewes, Ten Sovereigns. Class VIII. — Long-woolled Siiekp, — Nol qualified to compete in Class VI. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram, Thirty Sove- reigns. To the owner of the second-best ditto, Fifteen Sove- reigns. To the owner of the best Ram of pny other age. Thirty Sovereigns. 'i'o the owner of the second-best ditto, Fifteen Sove- reign?. To the owner of the best pen of five Ewes suckling iheii' Lambs at the time of showing, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best pen of five Shearling Ewes, Ten Sovereigns. Class IX.— Pius. To the owner of the best Boar, Ten Sovereigns. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 391 'I'o the owner of tlie second-best Oitlo, Five Sovereji^iis. To the owner of llie best breeding: Sow, Five SovereiM:ns. Jo tiie owner of the best pea of three breeding' Sow Pif^sofllie snine litter, above four and under nine months old. Ten Sovereigns. N.B.— It is to be stated in tliti certificate of tlie Sow, Iiow iiiiiiiy ]iii;s slic pro'luced in her last litter, and reared to the time of woaninc Class X. — Implements. Division 1. To the owner of the best Plough for general purposes, Twenty Sovereigns. To the owner of the second-best ditto, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best double-furrow Plough, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Plough drawn by one horse, Five Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Subsoil-Plough, Ten Sove- reigns. X.B. — Li^litiiess of di'auRht will be considered, as well as (liiality of work performed. Quantity of land to be jiIouKhed, and all resuhitions as to the depth of the fur- row, and time allowed, to be tixed by the stewards of the ground, set apart for the ploiighing-match. To the owner of the best Scarifier or other implement for stirring or cleansing the soil, Fifteen Sovereigns To the owner of the second best ditto ditto, Ten Sove- reigns. Division 2. To the owner of the best Drill for corn and general purposes, Twenty-five Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Turnip and Manure Drill, Fifteen Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Horse Hoe, Five Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Chatf Cutter, Ten Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Crusher of Corn, Cake, &c., Five Sovereigns. To the owner of the best Machine for Cleaning Corn and Seeds, Ten Sovereigns. Divisinn 3. Fifty Sovereigns will be apportioned among such implements exhibited as the Judges shall consider to have sufficient merit. N.l!. — In the ease of more notices than one for exhibiting the same description of implement, for trial beinv; re- ceived, the inventors and manufacturers of such imple- ments will be considered as entitled to the lu-eference of trial. Otherwise, the notices will be taken accordin;; to priority. Parlies will be furnished with horses and ploughmen, at a moderate rate, if notified in the certifi- cate. Class XI. — Extra Stock, Foots, and Skeus. For Extra Stock of any kind, not shown for any of the above Prizes, and for Roots, Seeds, &c., Prizes may be awarded and apportioned, by the Committee and Judges, not exceeding in the whole Fifty Sovereigns. Any New Implejmen't. For the invention of any new Agricultural Implement, such sum as the Society may think proper to award. Seed Wheat. I. Thirty Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given to the E.xhibitor at the Liverpool Meeting of the best 14 bushels of White Wheat, of the harvest of 1S40, and grown by himself. II. Thirty Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given to the Exhibitor at the Liverpool Meeting of the best 14 bushels of Red Wheat, o( the harve^t of 1840, and grown by himself. [Vi bushels of the Wheat will be sealed np by the Judjjes, and one of the renrainhig bushels of each variety will be exhibited as a sample to the pul)lic. At the njeneral MeetinK in December, 184-2, the Prizes will be awarded.] The three best samples of both red and white Wheat, without distinguishing; between the three, will be selected b\ .ludges ai)pointed at the Liverpool Jleetinj:, ami will be sown, under the direction of the Society, in the autumn of 1841, by three farnu'rs, who will make their report, upon which the prizes will be awarded. Ten Sovereigns will be iriven at the Liverpool Jleetirg to the Exhibitor of each of these three samples. Gorse-Crushing Machine. Twenty Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for the cheapest and most effective Gorse- crushing Machine. 1. The nnichine produced must be on a working scale, and at a cost that will be attainable by the occupiers of the smallest farms. 2. It mtist be capable of reducing the material to a pulpy state for the mastication of ruminating animals, as cows and sheep. GENERAL REGULATIONS for EXHIBITION. 1. No stock can be admitted for exhibition unless the necessary certificates, on the printed form prescribed, ."snd signed by the exhibitor in the manner directed, be delivered to the Secretary, or sent (post paid) so as to reach the Society's rooms. No. 5, Cavendish-square, on or before the first of July next. 2. The name and residence of the Breeder of all animals exhibited, when known, should be stated. 3. Non-members will be required to pay Five Shil- lings for every head or lot of live stock, before ob- taining a ticket of permission to bring their stock into the Show-yard. 4. The same animal cannot be entered for two classes, and in all cases the age of animals is to be computed from the day of birth, except in the case of Horses, when the year only will be required. 5. No animal which won a First Prize in any class at the previous meetings of the Society, will be allowed to compete for a similar prize at Liverpool. 6. 'J"he Sheep exhibited for any of the Prizes must have been really and fairly shorn between the First of May and the First of July, 1841, both days mclusive. 7. Persons intending to exhibit extra stock, must give notice to the Secretary on or before the First of July next. 8. Any person who shall have been proved, to the satisfaction of the Council, to have bean excluded from showing for prizes at the exhibition of any society in consequence of having been convicted of an attempt to obtain a prize by giving a false certificate, shall not be allowed to compete for any of the Prizes offered by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 1). In case any gentleman, or number of gentlemen, wish to offer a prize for any class of stock not distinctly specified among the Piizes offered by the Society, he or they will be allowed to offer such prize at the Liver- pool Meeting; and the slock vyhicli shall compete for such prize shall be exhibited subiect to such conditions as shall be decided upon by the Councd, and the prize awarded by such of the Judges as the Council shall select. Animals exhibited for such prizes shall not be prevented from competing for any of the prizes offeied by the Society, for which they are qualified. 10. Stock of every description can only be admitted between the hours of eiplit in the morning and eight at night, on Tuesday the •iOlh of .Fuly, and must remain in thu Show-yard until after Two o'clock in the after- noon of Friday the 24th of July, and no animal can be removed from its place, or taken out of the Show-yard, without leave in writing from the Stewards. N.R. -Slallion^ only may be removed for the ui^ht. 11. Whenever reference is made to Weights and Measures, it is to be considered that the Imperial Weights and Measures only are referred to. 12. Persons intending to exhibit Seed Wheat, Imple- ments, Seeds, Roots, &c., niu-^t give notice to the Se- cretary of the Society, in Cavendish-square, on or before tiic First of July, and furnish him with a olescription of the articles intended to be shown, and the probable space which wouM be required for them, in order that the (Jouncil may be enabled properly to apportion the space allotted for the exhibition of such articles among llie various p.irties making application ; and the articles to be exhibited musi be brought lo ilie Show-yard either on Friday the 16tl), or Saturday the 17ih of July, be- twten the hours of eight in the niornir.;^'- and six in the evening, as none will be admitted after those days. 13 '1 lie Judges of Stock are to have the whole ot Wednesikiy, the 21-t of July, for niakinsr iheir adju- dication, and signing their award, without the admisjjtn 2 u 2 392 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of members, strangers, or candidates, into any part of the yard. 14. No prize vviU be given when tlie Judges shall be of opinion that there i^; not sulKcient merit iu the Stock, Jmplements, ike, to justify their award, especially in ca?es where tiierc is no competition. 15. All exhibitors for Sweepstakes or extra prizes to be subject to the regulations of the Council. *^* Further iuformalion respecting regulations of detail niuy be obtained frovn tiie Secretary in due time previously to the Show. The conditions for the trial of implements will be published before the Meeting. No certificate will be allowed unless the i'rimilu lOR.Ms (to be obtained of the Secretary) be employed, and filled in by (lie e.vhibilor, or by hi? agent in his name. INSTRUCTIONS TO THE .TUDGES. As the object of the Society in giving the Prizes for Neat Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs, is to promote improve- ment in breeding stock, the Judges, in making their award, are recjuesied not to take into their consideration the present value to the butcher of animals exhibited, but to decide according to their relative merits for the purpose of breeding-. Jn Class \, the prizes being offered for horses adapted to fanning jiurposes, the Judges are therefore requested, iu addition to symmetry, to lake activity and strength into tlieir consideration, in awarding those prizes. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT i-OR APRIL. [n taking h retrospectire glance at the proceedings ill the agricultural world, at this season, we find abundant matter for consideration, and which cannot fail to prove highly interesting to even the casual observer of passing events, We have much pleasure in intimating that the present appearances of the wheat crops, are, inmost situations, and on almost every variety of soil, very healthy and luxuriant — yet we have witnessed in many parts of Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, and Rut- landshire, including a part of Yorkshire, some exten- sive failures, arising from the ravages of insects. This failure, however, must he considered to have reference to the autumn sown wheat ; that which has lately appeared above ground, being, in every respect, exceedingly promising. Having made strict in- quiries, relative to the breadth of spring sown corn, we have found it to be considerably on the increase. Hence, this circumstance— the paramount importance of which no one will attempt to deny — cannot, bv possibility, fail to have an unfavourable influence upon speculative purchases of wheat. Bean planting has been everywhere iinished, and the land never was in better condition for it. We have seen many fields up, and some in a very forward state. Early, as well as icicle planting, we conceive to be a very important point in the cultivation of this description of pulse, while it is gratifying to learn that the cli)se system has nearly become exploded. In some jiarts of Rutlandshire, the pulse are now generally from 12 to 21 inches apart. Both barley and oats are now to be seen above ground, but the seed time cannot be concluded before the 10th of May. la most parts of England, the lambing season has been brought to a very successful termination — while it is gratifying to state, that notwithstanding the piefcingly cold winds with which the flocks have liadto contend, the losses in yeaning have been, com- paratively speaking, trifling. Twins have not been lo say numerous, hence much of that trouble often experienced by the shepherds has been got rid of. Tlie accounts which have come to hand from Scot- land, say that at least three-fourths of the seed-wheat had been already sown under auspicious circum- stances. As to the general appearance of the crops, we have to report favourably of it : indeed, at no previous corresponding periods of the year, have fewer exceptions been found than at the present mo- ment. The stocks of wheat, barley, and oats, in the Stack-yards continue tolerably extensive, orving to which, the corn trade has proved heavy, and the prices have had a downward tendency. From Ireland, we learn that the available supply of really good wheat has continued limited, whilst the inquiry for it has been animated, at full cur- rencies. \Vith all other kinds of corn, as well as pulse and Hour, the trade has ruled dull, at drooping currencies. The wireworm appears to have com- mitted rather extensive ravages in some of the low- land districts, yet the reports are, on the whole, satisfactory. Notwithstanding that so much of the farmers' time has been occupied in the fields, the various country markets held in the course of the lEonth have been fairly supplied with both red and white wheat of home and foreign produce. It being the generally- received opinion that the yield of wheat (at least should the weather continue fine) this year will be extensive, a great falling oft' has taken place in the inquiry for even the finest descriptions, and the prices have declined from Is. to os. per quarter. The barley trade has been the dullest recollected for a series of }'ears past, while the currencies of that article must be noted Is. to 2s. per quarter cheaper. In malt, tlie receipts of which have been extensive, exceedingly little has been passing, at considerably depressed rates. The arrivals of oats, both from our own coasts, Scotland, and Ireland, having been on the increase, and more than adequate to meet the existing inquiry, the rates have experienced an abatement of 6d. to Is. per quarter. Both beans and peas have fallen in an equal ratio ; while flour has been a mere drug, hut cannot be called cheaper. From our great flock districts, we learn that the so long complained of epidemic amongst cattle has much abated as to its virulence, and that scarcely any losses of moment have been sustained. As to sheep, they have come to hand in good saleable con- dition, and fully answered the expectations of tlie buyers. The following is our usual monthly statement of the supplies and jirices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market. The supplies of beasts have consisted of 10,'J87 ; of sheep and lambs, 110,000 ; of calves, 370 ; and of pigs, 2,700 ; wliile the prices have ranged as follows : beef, from 3s. 4d. to 5s. ; mutton, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 2d.; lambs, 5s. 8d. to 7s. 8d.; veal, 5s. to 6.i.; and pork, 4s. to 4s. lOd. perSlbs. to sink the oftals. At the month's commencement the demand was brisk, at improved currencies; but towards its conclusion, on account of the increased receipts, the inquiry fell off and the rates declined generally 2d. per 8lbs. The arrivals THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 393 of beasis from Scotland, per steam vessels, Imvo comprised about S^O ; and of slieep, oOO. Vvoin the Isle of Wight, per the Southampton Railway, jifarly 700 Iambs liave come to band ia fair condi- tion. ASTATEMEiNT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfielu Cattle Market, on Monday, April 2Sth, 1840, and Monday, April 'ifith, 1841. At per Slhs. to sink the oj/'als. .\\n-i\ U«, 1840. April 'Jii, 1311. g. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse&inferiorBeasts2 10 to3 0.. .{ 2to3 0 Second quality do 3 2 3 C .. 3 S 4 0 Prime large Ox en 3 S 3 10 .. 4 2 4 4 Prime Scots, &c 40 44. .4G 48 (^arse & inferior Sheep 3 0 3 2 . . 3 4 3 f! Second quality do 3 4 3 6.38 44 Prime coarse wooUed do. 3 8 3 10 .. 4 0 4 8 Prime Southdown do.. 4 2 4 6 . 4 10 5 0 Lambs 6 0 70,. 58 70 Large coarse Calves ..44 5 4.. 5 0 54 Prime small ditto 5 6 5 8 .. 5 6 5 10 Large Hogs 40 46. ,40 48 Neat small Porkers .,4 8 4 10 .. 4 10 3 0 SUPPLIES. April L'S, 1S40. April 26, 1841, Beasts 2,442 3,104 Sheep and Lambs .... 20,630 22,080 Calves SO 65 PinfS 480 553 The supplies of slaughtered meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall Markets from Scotland and various distant parts of England have been, on the whole, large, whilst the demand has ruled heavy, at drooping- currencies. NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. The weather since my last report has been of the most favourable description, more than correspond- ing with the period of the year ; the general aspect of the country is truly delightful, and our best soils are now affording a fair bite for stock generally. Sowing- is being brought to a close, and under the most favourable circumstances; the soils have worked admirabl}^ and that which was sown early has al- ready made its appearance, and is extremely promis- ins; : the wheat plant on most soils never was better — we have a redundancy cf plants, and the hue is of the first-rate description. The wireworm is com- mitting its annual ravages on our limestone and loamy soils, which I am sorry to add has not yet re- ceived a check — no means tried as yet has been efficient in destioying them ; this, however, is not a general evil, but a lamentable exception to the gene- ral rule. The attention of tlie farmer now begins to be directed to ihe preparation of the grounds in- tended for turnips, which are generally in a very forward state, and some fields are already cleaned, so that they may now try their skill in growing /// their calves. Sheep feeders have lately been getting turnips at a very low rate, some being glad to get them eaten off for next to nothing, the sheep having gone to market ; and the turnips were running to seed, and wasting themselves, and exhausting the ground. The season for curing pork is about over ; prices varied little during the whole season, hut bacon has at present a tendency to rise. The long protracted frost prevented draining- being got for- ward with during tlie winter months, but much has been done since. Labour is plentiful, and labourers fully employed. Present prospects for the farmer are good, and should they become less favourable, it will be time enough then to complain, and not hasten the evil by meeting it half way. — April 21. LEICESTERSHIRE. Since niv last report (the latter end of February) the weather has been uniformly favourable for all agri- cultural operations, and perhaps finer seed time was never known than the last autumn and the present spiing. Never did the farmer experience more glorious weather lh:in the whole of March, for there was not a day in which he could not be working his land. From tliese circumstances the prospect is most cheering to the agriculturist, and also to the country ; and we may hope, and reasonably expect, to reap an abundant harvest. In regard to the wheat crop, it is in many instances, fiom different causes, thinner of plant than in the beginning- of March. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 395 This chiefly arises from the wire-wovra and slug, which have been very busy, and many crops have a most meagre appearance ; but the plant which is left is now tillering out, and within the last few days has assumed a healthy aspect. This remark, I am happy to say, only applies to a small portion of the crops in this neighbourhood, and they may still re- cover to yield a fair produce. I may say, genenilly, the plant is looking remarkably well, and fre(iuently luxuriant, though not with such promise of heavy crops as when 1 last reported ; yet those on the best soils, which have escaped the ravages of insects, are very fine indeed. The fine weather since February has caused the spring seed-time to progress more rapidly than usual, and more land has been sown since the 1st March than in the same period for many years past. Even bean sowing did not commence till about that date, and now the barley sowing is nearly completed. Beans c:ime up quickly, and the plants are strong and healthy. Oats are the same. Tlie voung barleys vegetated in a very short time, and notwithstanding some strong cold winds from the north-west, and a sliarp frosty nightor two, they look everything that could be desired, and the clovers are coming very thick among them. The fine weather has been very favourable for preparing the land for early green crops, which are in a very forward and clean state, where adv;intage of the season has been judiciously taken. Planting potatoes, and sowing mangel-wurtzel and carrots is in full operation, and tiie ground is in a fine state to receive the seed. The turnip fallows, where well worked, are in excellent condition, as the weather could not have been better for cleaning and prejiaring the land for that impor- tant crop. The absence ofnortli east and east winds Las bad a wonderful effect upon vegetation this spring, and form a great contrast to this time last year, when the wind was constantly from tliose points for a long time. I believe both herbs and trees are as forward now as they were at the same date in May last. The pastures are a month earlier, which is very favourable to all out-laying stock, and the sheep are fast recovering from the effects of the severe storms of winter. The clovers, where not stocked, have flourished, and are generally good, and the Italian rye-grass has grown rapidly ; hut it must be confessed, from the dry seed-time, and want of rain in the autumn, it is far inferior this, to any former season, as regards producing keep. Turnips have been abundant, and yielded much food, both for sheep and cattle, and'been a great saving to the hayricks. From these causes the prospect of abun- dance of keep for store stock, has increased their value; though high before, they may now be pro- nounced extravagantly dear. The grazier pur- chases very reluctantly at these high prices, as he sees but little chance of realizing a profit for the summer's keep ; however, he is obliged to have them, or his land must go unstocked. 1 am happy to say the epidemic is not so prevalent, and has assumed a milder form than it did some months back ; yet the cattle which come to our fairs and markets from a distance, fall in the driving, or soon afterwards. The fall of lambs has been of an average kind, and attended with different degrees of success ; in some flocks very few have been lost, in others, particularly ■where tlie ewes have recently had the epidemic, the loss of lambs has been very great. No doubt, from the weak state of many flocks, had not the weather been very fine, the loss vrould have been much greater. The price of wheat has not varied much in the last two months, but there is now a tendency to decline ; the best has made 66s. to 68s. per quarter. Barley is lower, it being worth only 52s. Beans and Oats are cheaper ; the first 40s. to 44s., the latter 26s. to 30s. The wool market is flat, and trade in a similar state. We cannot expect any higher price, unless trade improves. The stocks are not heavy in the staplers'ormanufacturers' hands, but for the time of year rather so in the growers, who are firm hold- ers, not being willing to take less than 30s. per tod ; it is worth from 28s. to 30s. Our labourers are all fully employed, receiving 12s. per week, if good hands. — April Slat. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE FOR APRIL. The season, as we anticipated, has proved showery, and now, while we write, in the middle of April, hail is no unfrequent conconaitant. The weather is also cold, but it is not severe : and a greater contrast cannot be remembered than the one which the month of April, 1841, has fur- nished, when compared with that of 1840. If warm gleams and raiUl nights follow, the month of May will recover its character, and become rich in flowers. The operations in the kitchen-garden are nume- rous and important : the first to which we shall solicit attention is the culture of the kidney-bean. It is probable that many gai-deners have already sown, late in April ; and when sowings, either of dwarfs or runners, have been effected in warm dry soil, the plants will now be up ; in which case, the earth ought to be hoed, made light and open, and drawn to the height of two inches against the stems. The great secret of successful cultui-e is the rapid germination of the beans, and warm ground is the requisite condition, for if it be cold and damp, the chance is that half the seed will perish. Sow twice in the month ; the dun dwarf and the painted lady's climber are both excellent, and very j)rolific. Scarlet runners can be propa- gated continuously by treating them, much in the same manner as the dahlia, and perhaps may be had in advance by a fortnight, if the roots be digged up in autumn, before frost kills the stems, and being air-dried in a cool shady shed, be placed in perfectly dry sand all winter : if damp, they decay. Planted' in the first week of May, or even at mid-April, in rows sis inches apart, the e3'es will break, and if the roots be quite sound and juicy throughout, they will be less liable to in- jury than is the seed. It is always worth while to try these comparative experiments, and it is quite certain that a fine crop of beans has thus been ob- tained. Sow also, successional — Marroiv peas (Adamson's matchless is fine, tall, and large), and the scimitar; Windsor beans; cauliflower for autumn ; and all the brocoli varie- ties for autumn or spring. Sow cress, mustard, corn-salad, lettuce. Some plants of the last year's lettuce will require tying up. Potatoes, if not all set, should be planted without delay. We now perceive a remark in the Gardeners' Chronicle, which we cojty, because it comprises one of the late Mr. Knight's leading points of judicious planting :—" Let the rows range from north to south, if possible, that they may have the full benefit of the sun. Be guided by the length the stems attain in the distance allowed from row to row." While attending to the philosophy of Mr. Knight'stheory of light, our modern planters depart from his practice of plant- ing entire large tubers, invariably. They say that 396 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sets with two, or even one eye, yield more in propor- tion. They are right where all the sets succeed, be- cause if one or two bold eyes of an entire tuber break andgrow, the other eyes will generally remain tor- pid; but in earli/ sowing, if frost destroyed the shoot of a single-eyed set, where shall we look for a successor? For late planting, as tlie present, sef.'f (always, however, fresh from the knife) ought to be chosen, with a view to economj'. Very early potatoes, excited in a gentle heat, and planted in February ,|are, we perceive, sprout- ing. Any frost will touch them, and the gar- dener's eye ought to be observant, and his hand ready, to draw earth and littery matter close against the stems to the tops, even as late as mid- May, for who can forget the frosts of 1837, 8, and 9? FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Currant and Gooselerry bushes should be de- prived of really supcrnumerarj' shoots of the young wood, not by total excision, but by cutting them back to within an inch or two of the older wood ; and all suckers or rank water shoots ought to be digged off, or broken away. Keep the sur- face clear of weeds ; and here we remark, that in every quarter these intruders should be rigidly checked in spring, otherwise, as Mr. Pa.vton in- structs the readers of the Chronicle, they will maintain possession throughout the season. Prepare early to disbud peach, nectarine, and apricot trees. By disbudding we imply the e- moval of every forcriglit shoot, called breastwood, of those behind, tending towards the wall, and third of every supernumerary lateral. Supernu- meraries are shoots beyond the three which in general should he found one very fruitful branch. One at its base, or near its origin from the former year's bearer, for this is left to become the fruitful successional of next year ; a second at or about the middle, to provide against contingencies ; and a third near the summit, to act as a leader to draw the sap, or, to express ourselves more correctly, to re- ceive and laborate the vital fluids of the shoot. =^Besides these three, every shoot which has a well placed fruit at its base, must be retained, to be, however, shortened to within two leaves of the fruit, when that shall be as large as a small marble. If mildew or puckering of the foliage com- mence, or aphides attack the leaves, dust them with flower of sulphur, mixed with a fourth of Scotch snuff, picking oft' the loose and much in- fected leaves. Strawberry plantations ought to have mowings of short grass, or clean soft moss, placed round the plants, to protect the fruit and keep it clean : if the weather becomes warm, the plants promise to produce ripe fruit at the close of the month. Vines, having showed the advance of the buds early in April, are likely to be very forward. Every shoot which has on it two clusters, ought to be pinched back to the uppermost; or if it have only one, it should be stopped at the joint above that cluster. Soapsuds freely applied once or twice in spring appear to be useful : they add alkali to the soil. The prunings of the shoots may also he chopped small, and buried among the earth over the roots, care being taken not to expose or wound those at this season of growth. In the earliest vineries, the grapes are changing colour, after the apparent pause caused by the production of seeds (' stoning'). Give air early in sunny mornings, and avoid syringing ; but moisture on the floor and flues is useful. We ob- ject to syringing over, or rather under the leaves, at any time. We believe that this unnatural ap- plication of water upon the under surface of these delicate imbibing and excreting organs, is one main cause of that green mealiness, which puckers the membranous covering, and is evidently mor- bid. We never saw the vines of a small stove free from this singular eruption till this year, when, for the first time, we have refrained from sprinkling the leaves ; the foliage, moreover, is in every respect more healthy. But as one or more observations cannot confirm or determine an inquiry so delicate, we beg our readers to investigate for themselves ; at all events the practice of syringing under the leaves is pro- ductive of no good to vegetation. The later grapes ought to be thinned out with pointed scissors, from time to time, observing the then position of the berries, (which ought to be left till of the size of a pea) in order to confer and retain a regular distribution of the requisite num- ber. It is better to go over the clusters six times, than by hurry and want of caution, to leave them ultimately gappy and disfigured ; the wounds also will heal more speedily. The Greenhouse may now be gradually emptied, and by the middle of the month the Pelargoria, and all the Grania, can either be planted in par- terre, or dispersedly — or those which are choice may be preserved in glazed airy pits exposed to a more northern aspect with a view to secure the bloom. We have heard that if the walls of a pit be built of four-inch brick-work, pigeon holed, so as to admit the air laterally, the glasses may be kept on, and thus maintain the bloom longer, and preserve it also from flies and other insects ; the last consideration is important to those who practice impregnation, and wish to select the in- dividual plants. Flower yarden. Now plant out, either in bor- ders or in mass, all the beauties of modern intro- duction, and which increase upon us, so as to preclude particular notice ; Verbenas, Calceolarias, Penstemons, Phlox, are among the number. The annuals also raised and nursed under glass, are to be included among the multitude, Mhich, after the 15th should be planted out for the summer. Persons who have command of space and means, woiUd be gratified, were they to follow the prac- tice of a nobleman, not remote from us, and which he has required of his gardener. Witness- ing the ravage? and deformity produced by cutting the great numbers of flowers that are in decora- tive requisition, he has ordered plots of various plants to be laid out, for the express purpose of furnishing cut-flowers ; with this view, above 1000 pinks are prepared, with many others, and thus the pleasure grounds retain their beautiful order without mutilation. Propagation of greenhouse and stove plants. Most of the plants with herbaceous or succulent stems, strike freely from cuttings of two or three joints, taken off at the one-sixteenth of an inch below the lowest, and inserted half the length of the intermediate space between the cut and the joint above it. These subjects generally succeed in a soil consisting of leaf-mould three years old, and pure white sand, equal parts ; Pelargonias take to it freely in a gentle rather moist heat of 60*^ to fii')''. The more woody plants strike best in that sand only, and to this part of our subject we beg to urge the following considerations. Nur- sery-men and professional gardeners in the broad scale are adepts by continual practice, and they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 397 propagate wholesale ; the amateur veciiurcs from two to half a dozen of a favourite plant : let such then, prepare any given number of the smallest narrow thumb-pots, and as many others three or four sizes larger, which will permit the former to have a space around and above its rim, of half an inch. Place a piece of oyster-shell or crock over the hole of the little pot, and upon that so much of the soil (heath-mould, heath-mould and loam, or leaf-mould and loam, &c., which the individual plant affects) as will till it half way or thereabout, press it to a level surface, and fdl up with wetted white sand. Strike the pot, and add water till the sand be completely saturated, then level it with the rim ; put a cake or stratum of w et moss at the bottom of the lai'ger pot, so thick, as when the thumb-pot rests on it, will raise the latter to its top level ; then pour any kind of free sard into the space, till the little pot be embedded in it to the rim — wet this lining sand to saturation. Prepare the cutting of two or three joints of half-ripened wood, and cut it across nearly at a joint or below a leaf; remove every leaf as far as it will be inserted, and thrust one single cutting into each little pot, so asnearly to reach the mould, leaving however a thin layer of sand below its base, water again, and make the surface flat and firm, and finally adapt a bell glass, or tumbler, so that its rim shall enter the sand of the outer pot one-eighth of an inch. Then place the pots in gentle heat like that of a temperate cucumber frame. Supply water ff/ii/'fli/.s by the outside, that it may peuftiate the lining- of sand, and be absorb- ed through the bottom hole of the littlt^ pot. Observe that moss does not agree with all plants, and though it affords a good medium of moisture, we do not in any case prefer it to free course sand, provided Dud be secured in the outer pot, and kept moist. Some plants strike from extremely young green wood, as all tlu; liner Azal'ias; but generally a lirmlsh condition is favourable to success. If water be supplied by upward absorption, the glass will seldom require removal, and rooting will be indicated by growth and durable vigour. When once produced by the agency of moistened sand, the young roots cannot find their entrance into suitable soil too eai-ly — and we have provided for their ingress. A plant so raised may generally be transferred — ball entire— to a pot of proper earth (removing of coin-se, the sand, and allowing for its depth) with- out a check. It will only be requisite to raise the plant so much higher in the new pot as just to cover its upper roots with earth — to water ten- derly, and to place it in a shady, close frame, till it adapt itself to the soil. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL. The markets generally have been rather abun- dantly supplied with wheat throughout the United Kingdom ; and although no apjjarent diminution in consumption has been observable, still consider- able dulncss existed, and the average value, on the whole, declined during the first two weeks of the last month, though to no great extent. This state of the wheat trade has rather tended to shake the opinions entertained by many at the time of our last review of the state and prospects of the corn trade going to press, of the probability of a large importation of foreign wheat being rendered necessary by various circumstances, which we then placed before our readers, previous to the next harvest season. At the time to which we now allude, we were inclined to think that a consider- able quantity of the best description of foreign wheat would be wanted for mealing purposes generally, and more particularly for mixing with the deliveries of the new crop, as they came into the markets of consumption. We are still in- clined to adhere to our then-expressed opinion ; for nothing has since occurred of sufficient im- portance to cause any material alteration in the prospect of the wheat trade during the approach- ing summer and autumnal months. The farmers naturally are endeavouring to reinstate into their stack-yards and granaries that quantity of wheat of which they in common seasons held the pos- session, but of which the inferior wheat crops of three current years have at present deprived them. Last year's growth of this article was, at all events, an average one ; and the quality, with very few exceptions, was of a very superior de- scription. It is exceedingly probable that a part of the farmers' deficient stock of old grain will be restored this season ; but this very proper attempt on their part must from necessity be attended by average prices here, which, by possibility, may admit the entry for home consumption of a large quantity of the finest qualities of foreign wheats, provided their value abroad be sufficiently low for these purposes. These foreign supplies, however, should our expectations on this subject be con- firmed by the result, cannot in any manner be detrimental to the interests of the wheat growers in this country : for, with due consideration of the nature of the last wheat crop, the present l)rices afl'ord a fair remunei-ation to the tenant, and, to render foreign importations in any degree profitable, a considerable improvement in the average prices by which the import duties are rcguated, must precede their admission for home consumption in this country. So far, therefore, from the introduction of foreign wheats into home consumption during the remainder of this corn season being injurious to the Uritish farmer, the necessity of these supplies will be advanta- geous to him, in as far as it must enhance the value of that portion of the wheat crop of 1840 which now remains in his possession. Although, how- ever, the agriculturist may not be injured in his interests by any partial imi)ortation of foreign wheat into our markets for consumption during the remainder of the present corn season, still, to all engaged in mercantile and manufacturing pur- suits such an event may be detrimental — in so far as its natural consequence must be to increase the present scarcity of money in proportion to the quan- tity of the precious metals which the payment of these foreign wheats must require. When money is extravagantly dear, labour, which is the real property of the industrious, becomes limited in its quantities, and reduced wages for labour is 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sooner or later the certain consequence of even a very partial trial here of a free trade in foreign grain. During the last three years, the quantity of foreign wheat which bad seasons had rendered necessary for home use was exceedingly large ; the amount of treasure which was drawn out uf the empire in payment for it was considerable, and the annual interest charged on money was thereliy so materially enhanced, that a limit was from necessity placed to many of those internal improvements by which the productive labour of the people had been previously so materially in- creased. These injurious consequences to the productive classes, which a virtually free trade in foreign grain during the last three years has occasioned, have not yet been entirely removed ; and even a moderati; importation of foreign grain during the remainder of the present corn season, must in a material degree increase the evil of the scarcity of money now existing throughout the British empire, and thereby considerably increase the existing commercial and agricultural distress. Legislative protection, therefore, to the producers of food at home is far more important to the trading interests, of whatever description they may be, than it can by any possibility be to agri- culture. Indeed, the corn laws are formed for the ' general good, and before long they will be called, by all classes in the community, the people's real Charter ; for their chief tendency is to keep tbe precious metals, which arc now the standard of our circulating medium, within the empire, and consequently to render money plentiful, and the interest for the loan of it moderate to those by whose talents and enterprise the working classes are generally provided with abundance of really productive emoloyment — emploj/menl which adds to the wealth and strength of the empire for generations to come, and which, in the meantime, provides for the labourer and artizan all the necessaries, and many of the luxuries themselves, of life. It is therefore an object of the deepest importance to the general prosperity, that our agricultural proprietors and labourers should he encouraged, by all means possible, to produce, if practicable, as much as the British people can consume of the necessaries of life, because the wealth of the consumers is, under sucli pro- pitious circumstances, retained within the empire. The money is then not remitted to foreign propri- etors of land, by whom it is never returned, hut is paid away to our own farmers in exchange for their crops, and remains in active circulation amongst the industrious classes of IJritish so- ciety. It thus creates abundance of employment in internal improvements, both commercial and agricultural ; and it is continually adding, when so employed, to the profits and i)roperty of the capitalists. There remains still in Great Britain a vast quantity of land now nearly in a state of nature, and perfectly useless to humanity; and in Ireland the national resources of this description are nearly boundless. The only real way by whith these wastes can be rendered useful to the human race, is to encourage their conversion into grain fields ; and this great public benelit can alone be acquired by the stringent operations of the people's corn laws. To cultivate the waste lands will eventually and most effectually drive real poverty out of the country, and render the emigration of any portion of the people to the colonies — for the purposes of tillage there of lands in a far wilder state than the worst of them are at home — per- fectly unnecessary. Agriculture also may by such means he eventually rendered the medium of affording living employment to all excepting the aged, the lame, and the blind, and thus most effectually give relief to the payers of the ])oor's- rates. Tbe advantages of commerce we do not, nor ever will, endeavour to depreciate. In its various ramifications, numerous channels are always to be found for the productive employ- ment of numerous classes in societj'. It is one of those links in the great arch of British society, without which the structure itself could not long exist ; but agriculture is the real key stone to this arch, and certainly of far vaster importance than all the other links in the chain, when, even com- bined together, can by any possibility be consider- ed. Commerce, no doubt, brings foreign nations into closer and more friendly relations with each other, but it also lays the foundation of luxury, which is the certain road to the decay of nations. To oppress or subdue foreign nations never yet made a people either great, hapi)y, or prosperous ; and yet this is most certainly amongst the conse- quences of foreign commercial operations, so long as they aie attended by large profit, and so long as they are cultivated with success. There is no limit to the desire and ambition for wealth enter- tained by several merchants and manufacturers. Toobtain the enviable privilege of adding the much- sought-for title of L.S.D. to their other acquired honours, the nation of their birth is frequently in- volved by them in foieign wars, and is far more frequently doomed by them to endure an immense quantity of internal distress, and of individual suffering. Their workmen — however liberal the wages paid for their labour apparently are — are daily becoming better satisfied that these wages depend, in a great measure, on the prosperity of the home market for the consumption of manufactured goods ; and tliey know well that tliis channel for their productive employment can- not be in a very healthy state, unless the agricul- tural interest reap fair and I'emunerating prices for the produce of their fields. They are rapidly now becoming converts to the sound principles of affording fair protection to the cultivators of the soil ; and the corn laws, therefore, are considered now by the gre.it body of the people as necessary to the prosperity of all. The doctrine put forth by the anti-corn law leaguers, of an exchange of manual labour for foreign food, is now a subject for general derision. Tbe horse, under such re- gulations, would be in a better situation than the liberty-loving Englishman, even were an exchange of commodities of this description practicable. But the past experience of an entirely free trade in grain with foreign nations clearly shows that such an exchange is not possible. In not one of the continental corn districts has the export- ation of their agricultural produce been attended by the slightest increase in the importation of British-manufactured goods during the last three years ; but, on the contrary, the manufacturing and commercial interests of the United Kingdom have been injured by the exportation of upwards of ten millions sterling in hard money, in pay- ment to the proprietors of foreign lands, for the produce of their serfs and slaves. Had these seasons been propitious, this large quantity of bullion would have been retained in the British empire, money would have been plentiful, and the annual interest for loans would have been moderate. The consumption of goods in the United Kingdom would have been far larger than it has been ; and our own colonies, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 390 many southern estates and empires, would have taken off the surplus labour of all onr artisans and manufacturers. The corn laws may now be assuredly considered as the workmen's charter, and no meeting can be held now by their opponents unless by tickets of admission. The interests of all classes in the community, it is now j)erfectly understood, are the same. Commerce cannot injure agriculture, without also doing much mischief to herself; and the farmer can have 710 interest in doing wrong to the consumers of his jjToduce. The corn laws protect equally the con- sumer and the producer. When grain is scarce, and consequently dear, they protect the interest of the consumer by virtually repealing themselves, as they repeatedly have done during the last few years, and as they may again do before the current corn season come to its conclusion, for the present state of the wheat market generally leads to the belief that a supply of foreign wheat will be re- quired, as we have already said, before the close of this year, though to the farmer, we repeat, this cannot be of much consequence ; for before im- portation to any extent can occur, what remains of the crop of 18 lO must he materially improved in value. Another crop or two, equally abundant with the last one, in conjunction with the rapid improvements now in progress in the science and philosophy of agriculture, must, before many years can pass away, render the exportation of specie to foreign states in exchange for loreign food unnecessary, and then idleness and its con- comitant, wretchedness, will disappear, and we may witness again the happily described condition of the Inhabitants of England in former days, for " A time there was, ere Englund's griefs began, Wlien every rood of grounci iiiaintained its man ; ]'"or hira light hxbour spread her wholesome store, .Fust gave wliat life required, but gave no more ; His best companions — innocence and health — And his best riches, ignorance of wealth." This beautiful description of rural life applies, partially only, to the present cultivators of the soil in England. Amongst them certainly no in- ordinate desire for much wealth is apparent, and, if it exists at all, there is not one instance of any farmer having succeeded in obtaining it. Unlike merchants, we find none of them created peers, nor enrolled in the enviable lists of the capitalist. They employ their talent and their industry in the cause of the human race, and thereby they procure a far greater portion of real enjoyment than im- mense wealth can confer ; for generally they live contented with their lot in life. Under the bene- ficent protection of the corn laws, capital may soon be created by the successful exertions of commerce, produced by the moderate prosperity of agriculture, ])erfectly sufficient for the cultiva- tion of all the waste lands in England and in Ire- land, and by these improvements double the pre- sent population may be productively employed, and be supported on food grown at home. This prospe:t must at all events be far more pleasing to the great majority of the people, than the con- version of land into workshops for the purposes of clothing foreigners with British manufactured goods, ever can be to the industrious classes of society. In the former case, emigration to the colonies will not any longer be their otdy resort from poverty and distress at home. The fields, by the progress of agricultural improvement, will double the real wtalth of the nation, and the in- habitants will lead a far more healthy and con- tented life than any amount of riches can bestow- on them. This must be the restdt eventually of he working of the corn laws ; and most justly, therefore, may these laws be considered as the charter of the rights of the productive classes throughout the United Kingdom. This season, in every probaliility, will largely contribute to this most ardently to be desired consummation ; for, since our last ])ublication, it has been most emi- nently favourable to field operations of every de- scription. A more than usual quantity of spring wheat has been sown, and the blades have come up in a more than usually healthy state. The winter plants have likewise gained great strength, and have assumed, even already, the most luxu- riant appearance. Towards the middle of last month the weather became rather cold, and a seasonable check was thereby given to the exube- rance of the wheat ])lants, the roots of which were, however, pro])ortionably strengthened. Should the weather hereafter he as fine, and as favourable as it has been hitherto, the labours of the agriculturists will be crowned by a large pi'O- duce, and the consumers will be blessed bj' an abundant crop of all the necessaries of life. During the current month, in common seasons, the value of wheat is generally on the advance, and nothing has occurred as yet, during this corn season, in any way calculated to alter the general state of the markets at the same period in other years. The consumption of wheat has been, and will continue to be large, at all events, till next harvest time ; for although the scarcity of monej', which the large importation of wheats during the last three years have occasioned, has been in a material degree injurious to commerce and manu- factures, and has caused much dulness in trade generally ; still the artisans, working manufac- turers, and the industrious classes, are rather pro- ductively employed than otherwise, and their wages continue perfectly equal to the value of all the necessaries, and of some of the luxuries of life. The wheat market therefore will probably con- tinue in a healthy state, at all events until the period arrive to which we have alluded above ; and should prices not advance so materially as to en- courage any large importation of foreign wheats, still the farmers at home will be paid remunerating prices for their property, and will be enabled by these means, at all events, to maintain the home market for the consumption of manufactured goods in its present healthy state— healthy, cer- tainly, though not so extensive as could be wished for by all the friends of general prosperity. Prices of grain do not at present offer any in- ducement for speculative purchases, and as the farmer looks for the present rates being at least maintained throughout the remainder of the pre- sent corn season, it is not improbable that, at the commencement of the next one, a considerable quantity of old wheat will remain in their posses- sion ; and thus, in part, restore the agricultural interest to a more natural state than it has en- joyed during the last three years ; for the country cannot he considered entirely independent of foreign supplies of wheat, unless from four to six months consumption of each previous crop remains within the country at the conclusion of each corn season. The crop of 1840 will in part restore this proper state of things. Should, how- ever, the svheat crop now in the fields be only abundant, both in quality and in quantity, ano- ther year must restore materially the at present existing deficiency of home grown wheat ; and to render this advantage more certain still, an im- 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. portation of the finest qualities of foreign wheats, (lurii)g the ensuing summer months, must he he- neficial to all classes of consumers in the United Kingdom. Since our last puhlication, the far- mer's deliveries of hai'ley have rather exceeded the consumption. The demand has consequently ill general heen dull, and prices lower, though not materially so. The malting season, in a^ far as the barley markets are interested in it, has been brought to a close ; and we are sorry to add, that no increase in the consnmijtion of this most va- luable article has heen visible in this channel for the manufacture of beer during that period. Extravagant malt duties, and absurd fiscal ar- rangements in malting, are the sole causes of this effect ; detrimental, not so much to the agricul- tural interest, as to the productive classes in British society. The excise collection on manu- factured barley, as we have repeatedly had occa- sion to state, is little short of one quarter of the annual revenue of the United Kingdom. The amount of it, however, heavy though it be, is not nearly so detrimental to the community as is the manner in which it is collected. The present high duty levied on malt, limits the consumption of barley in this channel, to considerably less than five millions of quarters annually; and amongst thirty millions of people, the beer ex- tracted from this quantity of malt forms but a veiy paltry portion for each individual during the year. Indeed, it entirely prevents upwards of one quarter of the population from all participa- tion in beer ; and it causes at least the half of the quantity brewed to be adulterated, and ren- dered hurtful in the extreme, to the health of those who have means sufficient for payment for its consumption. There is not in the history of finance, one example of heavy taxes being at- tended by the consequences for which their im- position was intended. On the contrarj', as a feather must, in certain cases, break the camel's back, so over taxation universally reduces the re- venue collected on those articles of consumption which are subjected to heavy increased public im- posts. That tlip consumption of malt may be tripled throughout the British empire, the slightest attention to figures, and common sense itself, may most sufficiently demonstrate; and the advantages generally to the community, which would attend the production^of ten millions of quarters of bar- ley above the quantity at present grown, must be apparent to every liberal mind, with the ex- ception of that of the teetotaller. To reduce the malt duty, from its present extravagant rate, to one of a shilling per bushel, would, within a very short period, triple the quantity of barley at present converted into malt, and would hold out the greatest encouragement for the further culti- vation of light and sandy soils, which may be rendered useful for this description of tillage alone, and which are now ])erfectly- useless, be- cause the malt tax limits the consumption of barley. The tillage of these waste sandy lands themselves would increase the rent-roll of the land proprietor, would vastly multiply the quantity of field labour, and would double the enjoyments and comforts of the laborious classes of society. The amount of revenue itself would lilrewise he increased in the exchequer, for it would he collected from three times the present quantity of barley, and would be most cheerfully paid by the people. The real wealth of nations can only be illustrated by a pro- ductively employed people; and even in tbis'channel alone, a wide field indeed may be opened for in- creased national wealth, throughout the British em- pire. The teetotaller himself would sutler no injurv whatever from the reduction of the malt duty, for the alteration would not compel him to alter his mode of life, shuuld he still conUiuie to merit an eiirly grave by persevering in the extravagant in- dulgence in his favourite beverage. On the contrarv, he might feel satislied, from the example of his neighbours, that no person is justified iu shortening- his days by excess in the use of anything ; and his conversion therefore may be one of the good eifects at ending on the reduction of the malt duty, in as far as lie may again become a useful member of the community. The useless and oppressive excise re- gulations to which the maltster is subjected, are also injurious to the common interest, in as far as by tbeni the best qualities of malt cannot always be manufactured. The same rules are applied by the excise to every description of barle)', whether it he produced on heavy or on light soils — whether it he grown under a northerly or southerly sun, and whether it be malted in cool or in warm weather. To charge the duty at once on the barley itself when it is put into the mahhouse, would save to the excise office much trouble and considerable ex- pense, and the maltster would then he enabled to use his talents aud his experience in the profitable prosecution of his profession. He would generally,, when relieved from useless regulations, produce a far finer article than he can do under the present re- stricted svstem, and it would be utterly impossible for the revenue to suffer from an amendment in the law of this description. In short, the reduction of the malt duty would produce an universal good ; and it is a subject of much regret, that the representa- tives of agriculture do not bring it under the imme- diate notice of the legislature. If the heavy public charge on malt, however, he injurious to the public interest, the duty at present charged in England on liome-made spirits i.-s doubly so ; in as far ns it corrupts public morality, and f. fiords the greatest inducement to smuggling-, in which almost every crime at present committed within the United King- dom has its origin. Three hundred and fifty per cent, of duty on the cost price of British spirits, is an evil so glaring that it is perfectly wonderful liow it should be tolerated in the present enlightened age. To the property of the English distiller these heavy duties are destructive ; for it is utterly impossible for him to pay them, and at the same lime to compete, in the English spirit market, with the smuggler who pays no duty. The distilling trade is consequently in a state of much depression, indeed, so much so, that nothing short of the capital of those unfortu- nately engaged in this profession supports them under their present difficulties. At least one half of the spiiits at present consumed in England is supjdied illicitly, and is composed of the worst qualities of Holland gin, and French and Spanish brandies. In their importation the depraved obtain employment ; and in their sale throughout England, the fraudulent and lawless make far larger incomes than can be procured by those who are engaged in lawful retail trade. In the meantime, the fortune of tlie distiller is sacrificed^ else he must abandon his profession. This evil has its origin alone in heavy taxation, and the exchequer is subjected to its full share of the injury. To equalize the spirit duty throughout the British empire, and to make the ge- nera! national charge 4s. or even 5s. on each gallon distilled, is the only real method for restoring the distilling trade to a sound state of health. In Ire- land and in Scotland, where the duties are moderate, smuggling in foreign spirits has been entirely put THE FARMEll'S MAGAZINE. 401 down ; the evils attenrling tbis practice are gradually disappeariij;^, aud tiMiipcance is rajjidly gaining strength amongst the people, at the sole expense of !tb two extremes, drunkenness and Icelolulisin. A reduction in the amount now charged on home- made spirits consumed in England, would ho at- tended hy advantages at all events of equal magni- tude- with those vsrhich the Irish and Scotch roaj) from the moderate duties charged in these portions of the Tuited Kingdom. As smuggling was suppressed, the morality of the people would he improved ; and bv the cousumptioB of wholesome spirits, the gi'nalni'. extract oj' grain, instead of the destructive and perni- cious foreign spirits now in use, the puhlic health would in a material degree be improved. It would ill a material manner also remove the tt-mpiation to drunkenness, and by so doing it would take away the source in which teetotalism linds the great majority of her recruits. It would enable the follower of true temperance to enjoy, in moderation, those beuelits which Providence bestows on him, and, in that, it would increase the real happiness of English- men. The reduction would also bn of immense consequence to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, tor It would render the expense of the coast blockade un- necessary, and thus deduct upwards of half a million sterling annually from the public expenditure. It would even improve tiie revenue, ibr duty would then he paid on every gallon of spirits consumed within the empire. Tlie reduction of smuggling would open an additional channel for the consumption of half a million of quarters of grain at least above the quantity now used in distillation ; and other ad- vantages would arise from the alteration, which are too obvious to require to be mentioned at the present time. When a field for the reduction of taxation exists of so much magnitude as barley is, surely, instead of petitioning for the reduction of the import duty on foreign spirits, as the mercantile community now so strongly recommends, it would be far more advantageous to recommend to Govern- ment, an alteration in the present mode of col- lecting the duties on manufactured barley. No reduction in the duty at present charged on foreign spirits can be so considerable, as to put down this trade of illicitly importing them ; nor can it, in any manner, improve their quality. Brandy is now manufactured in London far more wholesome to the consumer, and superior in flavour to a great portion of that even legally imported. This is more particularly the case at the distillery of IMr. Stokes, and of Mr. Dunlop, in Kings-street, Snow Hill ; and the excise restrictions alone in rectifying prevent these gentlemen from even excelling the best brandy distilled in the South of France. By granting permission to the rectifiers of British neutral spirits to raise the strength of their ])roduce, when retailed, to that allowed to the retailers of foreign brandy and hoUands, the consumption of foreign spirits in this country would speedily be put an end to, and much expense would thus be saved to the British public ; for large sums of hard cash are ainiuallv paid by England to foreign distillers for spirits, not nearly so tine as those distilled at home. Ili consequence of these legal restrictions, a large quantity of land, which, under difTerent circum- stances, would have now been nnder barley culti- vation, has been, this season, sown with spring wheats ; and, however injurious this necessity of change may be to the farmers' interest, still it must he continued, until the excise law extends greater protection to the barley grower, than it does at the present time ; for annually must the tillage of barley be diminished, until soaie material remissiou in the existing rates of the malt and British spirit duties be granted by the legislature. The l)arley lands during last month, were never in better con- dition for the reception of seed corn, and nearly the whole will bo sown at the time our present number goes to press. In as far us an opinion can yet be formed, we may indulge in the hopes of another abundant growth, the limited quantity of ground this year under this description of tillage taken into consideration. The young plants have come as yet above the ground in a healthv state, and the con- clusion of April has been more mild and genial than it was at its commencement; for it was then un- naturally cold, and in a certain degree opposed, though not injuriously so, to vegetation in general. 'J'he spring at present, however, cannot be repre- sented as an early one; on the contrary, we should rather describe it as being later than the average of years; but 'still the barleys and spring corn gene- rally look vigorous, and with gonial warmth during this month, and heat afterwards, an abundant pro-- duce may be fairly anticipated, when the reaping season arrives. Until harvest time, the barley trade, however, must remain in a depressed state ; for the maltster's demand has till then ceased, and the dis- tiller's trade has been so much injured by the trade of the smuggler of Foreign spirits, that it is not pro- bable that any large quantity can be consumed in this channel for several months to come. The bar- ley farmer, in fact, has no encouragement to increase his produce at the present time. In all the large markets of consumption, the supplies of oats have been most abundant during the month of April, but not more so than the demand required, and prices have consequently undergone only a very trilling variation. The consunqition of oats, notwithstand- ing the extension of the railway mode of travelling, increases annually, even in a greater degree than that of wheat itself ; and this increase is received chiefly out of the extensive improvements which are now annually occurring in the tillage of Ireland. In that portion of the British empire, agriculture is making greater progress at the ju'esent moment than it did for centuries previously ; but still farming operations there may be truly represented as being only in an infant state, for the field there for in- creased cropping operations is nearly unlimited, as well in the further improvement of those lands al- ready under cultivation, as in the conversion of morasses and waste lands of all descriptions into cultivation and utility. Already, we repeat, is Great Britain supplied in a material degree witli oats by Ireland ; and this fortunate circumstance is of im- mense advantage to manufacturers generally, be- cause, were these supplies not received from the Sister Island, they must have been imported from Foreign nations, and large remittances of the pre- cious metals must have been made in jiayment for them. As matters fortunately are, however, this money remains in active circulation in the British empire, encouraging industry, and providing pro- ductive labour for thousands of the jieople. Before many years can pass away, the supplies of wheat from Ireland will have an equally important influ- ence on the corn markets in Great Britain, as those of oats possess at the present moment, and the wealth of the empire must be materially added to bv the production, within herself, of all the necessaries of life ; for, to employ our own labourers, and to cul- tivate our lands within the kingdom, must certainly be far more profitable than to transfer that employ- ment to Foreign agricultural labourers, and to pay hard cash to Foreign land proprietors for Foreign grain, by whom this money is never returned, Ju 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ireland, improvements may tate plnce, the benefits of wbicb it is utterly impossible to contemplate witbout feeling astonishment at the insane at- tempts which are now making to repeal the corn laws, witliout the protection of which, not only must all further agricultural improvements through- out the United Kingdom cease, but a large quantity of land ahead}' under cultivation must go again into decay, and the want of employment amongst all classes, whether they be commercial or agricultural, must be the speedy and necessary consequence of the permission of an unrestricted corn intercourse with foreign nations. The eyes of the artisans and of all the productive classes are now open to their real interests. Price, they now know, is only a re- lative term. The same figure is dear in one por- tion of the Empire and cheap in another. In Ire- land oats are dear at 20s. per quarter, whilst in London they are cheap at the same figure. Wages of labour are regulated by the same law ; thev en- tirely depend on circumstances, and are almost always regulated by the value of the necessaries of life. Was the price of bread in London only one penny per pound, the wages of labour would not be one-half of their present amount, nor would the workman enjoy one solitar}- advantage from the re- duction. On the contrary, the demand for manu- factured goods in the home market would fall in more than an equal degree with the value of agri- cultural produce, and eventuall}' one-half of the productive classes would be thrown entirely out of employment. The successful cultivation of oats therefore in Ireland, is of far greater consequence to British workmen than a free trade in foreign grain over can be; and accordingly the repeal of the corn laws, which form the charter of their inde- pendence, is now annually becoming less and less popular amongst them ; and the anti-corn law leaguers cannot now muster a public meeting with- out incurring no small portion of public ridicule. Ireland, as we have said above, has already abun- dantly supplied our markets with oats in particular, and will continue to do so, until the next harvest be secured. In the mean time the oats have been placed into the ground in excellent condition, and they are already looking healthy and green in the fields. In Ireland the quantity sown is again larger than it was last season, and this circumstance will probably next season supply that deficiency, which the late conversion of many former oat fields into a more valuable system of agriculture, throughout Great i5ritain, must naturally have occasioned. The information received since our last review, of the state and prospects of the corn trade from foreign nations has not been, in any particular manner, in- teresting to those connected wiih that department of our foreign commerce. I'rom the Baltic, the let- ters received are in due course of post. At Dant- zig and Elbing the stocks of wheat naturally were small, but so likewise was the demand. The busi- ness done for British account was not extensive, because the best qualities of high-mixed I'olish wheats continued to be held at prices comparatively too high for tlie prospects it present existing for importation into our markets of consumption. When the inland navigation opens, it was generally expected that the stocks on hand would be very con- siderably augmented, and a decline in prices was anticipated, unless some material alteration should previously have occurred in the British markets, or unless the demand for several Ilussian provinces should prevent the supplies from being so abun- dant as otherwise tbey undoubtedly would be. The favourable appearances of a plentiful crop of wheat, which our fields at present exhibit, must render the importers of foreign wheats exceedingly cautious in their purchases, else their chance of eventual loss, by their speculation, will do more than counter- balance the chance of profit. That fine Dantzig wheat, if purchased abroad at low prices, will find a ready sale here during the remainder of the present corn season, is certain ; but the importer of it must calculate, amongst the expenses of importation, on the payment of a considerable duty, before his pro- perty can be entered here for home consumption. Fine qualities may afford these charges, but certainly there exists at present little or no inducement to buy abroad inferior (jualities of wheat even at almost nominal prices ; and consequently, in the lower ports of the Baltic, and in Hamburg, and the other ports without the Baltic, the corn trade has been very dull ; nor is there much prospect, at present, of any greater activity being soon visible in those different markets for exportation. In Holland, and through- out France, the corn markets are equally dull and uninteresting. Prices are low, and a great stagna- tion in commerce and manufactures is the natural consequence of the too generally depressed condi- tion of the land proprietors. The repeal of our corn laws continues therefore to be the ardent desire of foreign nations generally ; for, in the sale of their surplus agricultural produce to Englishmen, they ■would receive money sufficient, at all events, to pay, in some degree, for the labour of their home manu- facturers. 'J'he ruin of the British agricultural in- terest would not be considered by them any sacri- fice on the part of the United Kingdom, in exchange for a very paltry increase to our foreign commerce, which might attend the calamities of an unrestricted freedom in the corn trade. From the United States of America, the letters are dated so late as the middle of last month. Bar- ter trade is increasing very considerably throughout the American Union. Money, at these dates, was scarce, and credit still scarcer. Flour continued therefore to be shipped to England without refer- ence to our prices, or to our import duties, and more remittances of this description may still be expected, until some improvement be effected in the American monetary system. Permission to supply the British people annually with flour and wheat, to the value of twenty or thirty millions of dollars, and to receive payment for these supplies of food in the precious metals, the Americans very naturally fancy, would speedily furnish the Union abundantly with solid means for creating, not only a metallic circulating medium, but likewise would enable them to extend their manufactures, to the injury of those of the United Kingdom. The spring was not more forward than usual, but still the prospect of another abundant growth of the necessaries of life, was most cheering to the po])utation in general. There exists at present, however, no chance whatever of England taking away the surplus of foreign crops for years to come, and the time is not far distant when we shall supply perhaps even our own Colonies with flour. America, during the last year, has enjoyed an entirely free trade in corn and flour with our West India Islands, and the consecjuences have been excessive supplies of Hour, and the entire drain- age of the metallic currency from these Islands — a circumstance which has created universal and heavy distress amongst our fellow subjects, by whom these Islands are inhabited. This is an expeiiment of free corn trade on a small scale— what would it be on a large one ] THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 403 CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE. Vl'KIL 20. Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex and Kent, rpd .. 61 08 White.. 68 70 76 Irish 60 62 Di^ 04 66 Old, red 68 70 l)o 70 75 Rye, old 36 38 New 88 41 Bakley, Grindiiig23 30 32 Maltins 34 36 Chcralier — 38 Irish 27 28 Bere . . . 24 25 Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 6t 70 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware . Oats, Yorksh. &; Lincolnsh., fe.ed 64 68 Chevalier 68 — 24 26 Potato.. 25 26 Youshall and Cork blank 22 23 Cork, white 22 24 Dublin 22 23 Westport 23 24 AVatcrford, white 21 22 23 Black.. 23 24 Newry 24 20 Galway 18 19 20 — Scotch feed -'0 27 Potato.. 27 29 Clonmel 2.", 20 Limerick 24 26 Londonderry 23 24 SUro .. 23 24 Beans, Tick, new 38 40 Old.. 42 44 48 Peas, Grey 36 38 40 Maple.. 40 42 White 33 40 Boilers. 40 43 Floub, Town-made 68 — Suffolk 46 48 pr sk. of 2801bs. Sterkton and Norfolk, 45 47 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 44 48 Hamburg 40 42 Barley IS 21 O.vrs, Brew 22 24 Feed... 16 18 Beans 30 — Peas 30 — Flour, American, per brl 28 — Baltic.. 23 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week endin! fliarch 12th -. " 19th .. 20tli . . April 2ud .. 9th .. 10th .. AtrKregatcAveragi of tlie six week; which regulates the duty Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Ontports till the arrival af the mail of that day from London Do. on grain from Britisli posses- sions out nf Eu- rope Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. 63 11 63 9 64 4 64 1 64 0 63 8 32 11 83 2 32 11 33 0 33 8 32 6 22 23 23 21 23 23 11 0 5 11 0 5 35 36 34 34 35 36 1 0 9 0 5 39 0 39 7 39 5 39 2 39 4 39 6 64 0 32 10 33 0 35 4 39 6 22 8 13 10 12 3 10 9 11 0 5 0 0 6 2 0 n 0 0 6 Peas. 38 0 39 1 39 6 39 :i 38 9 38 6 39 1 COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN. AVEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, April 23rd, 1841. s. d. Wheat 63 8 Barley 32 0 Oats 23 5 Rye 36 5 AVERAGES from the corves- jiondiiii; Gazette in the last, year, Friday, April 17th, 1840. s. d. Wheat 09 0 Barley 40 9 Oats 25 1 liYE 38 2 Beans 39 6 Beans 4-j Peas 38 0 Peas ,. 41 6 PRICES OF SEEDS. April 20. Linseed, English, sowing 54 59 Baltic — — crushing 48 52 per qr. Mediter. & Odessa 50 54 Hempseed, small... 36 40 large.. 44 46 Coriander 10 16 old 16 18pcrcwt. Mustard, brown, new ..12 16 white.. 11 13 pr. bush Trefoil '. 16 28 tineneM38 44 Clover, English, red ..58 76 85 white 50 66 per cwt. Flemish — — do.. 45 05 '~ New Hamburgh .. 72 76 do.. 45 65 ij Old do 58 66 f'o.. — — i French 74 76 do.. — — g Citnaiy, new 84 86 extra 98 GO Carraway, old 50 51 new 50 53 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, April 26. East Mid. Weald Sussex. Farn- Kent. Kent. of Kent. ham. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. Bfts-s 1830 45 to 05 45 to 06 45 to 56 — to — — Pocks. 1830 45 . . 75 45.. 75 45 . . 65 45.. .63 — Baffs 1337 none none none nony — Pocks. 1837 — — — — — Bags 1838 80.. 105 80.. 105 75.. 85 — — Pocks. 1838 85 . . 1 05 85.. 105 80 . . 100 — — Bags 1839 no.. 150 110.. 150 — . — — Pocks. 1839 140.. 180 140.. 180 110,. 150 105 . . 130 240, 300 Bags 1840 140 . . 300 135.. 290 — — — Pocks. 1840 140 . . 320 140 . . 320 150 . . 190 lllO.. 170 290,355 1 to 450 POTATO MARKET. April 26. Yorkshire Reds 80s. to 90s. per ton. Scotch Reds 50s. to 06s. „ Devons (early) — s. to 50s. „ Do. (late) — s. to 75s. „ Kent, Essex, and Suftblk Whites 55s. to 65s. „ Kent Kidneys — s. to 75s. ,, Yorksh. Prince Regents 50s. to 60s. „ Do., Shaws for planting — s. to 70s. ,, WOOL MARKETS. .\PRIL 26. s. d. s. d. Down Teggs 1 3i to 1 4 Half-bred Hogs 1 3' 1 4 Ewes and Wethers 1 0^ 1 Ij Flannel do 10 12 Blanktt Wool 0 6 0 9 Skin. Combing 0 lO-J 1 0 LIVERPOOL. April 24. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 9 6 to 10 0 White do. do 12 6 13 6 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 10 0 11 0 Do. washed do 11 0 12 0 Do. Cheviot unwashed do 10 0 12 6 Do. washed 15 0 18 6 Cheviot white, washed 24 0 26 G FOREIGN. April 26. Australasian, 1st qunlity. Is. lOd. to 2s. 4d. ; do. 2nd quality, l.s. 6d. to Is. lOd. ; do. third ((uality, Is. 2d. to Is. 8d. ; do. Lambs', Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. ; do, grea-^e, 9d. to Is. Van Dieman's Land, 1st quality, Is. gd. to 2s. 3d. ; do. 2nd quality, Is. 5d. to l.*;. 9d. ; do, .Srd quality, 1«. Id. to Is, 5d. ; do Lambs', Is. 6d. to 2s 4d. ; do. grease, gd. to Is. ; Cape, 1st (juality. Is. fid. to Is. 9d. ; do. 2nd quality. Is. Id. to Is. 6d. ; do, 3rd quality, and grease, Sd. to Is. PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of manure : — Bone-dust, 21s, fid, per qr, of S bushels Half-inch ditto, 21s. per qr. do. Rape-dust, 7'. Os. per ton. Rags, Al. to 4/. lOs. per ton. Graves, 5l. to bl. 10s, per ton. Gypsum, 38s, per ton. Salt, 2/, 5s, dirty, 21. 15s. clean, per on. Lance's Carbon, 12s. Od, per qr. ,, Humus, 14s, Od, ,, Soap ashes, 10s, per ton. Artificial Manure, 12s, per qr, Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s, fid, per qr. Nitrate of .Soda, 22s. Od. to 26s. fid. per cwt. Nitrate of Potash or Saltpetre, 27s. Od. to 28s. per cwt. Willey Dust, 4/. 4s. per ton. The Urate of the London Manure Company, 5l. 5s. per ton. Alexander's Chie-fo'i, or Chinese Manure, 2ls. per ton. 40i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. No. of Shares. 6,800 (3,300 U,500 15,000 9,300 ?,500 .3,000 64,000 64,000 1S,000 10,918 10,918 10,918 10,000 •J5,000 20,000 37,500 8,000 86,000 .33,000 20,000 9,000 80,000Z. 24,000 1,600 2,100 5,100 11,475 7,963 36,000 36,000 6,000 |25,00U 25,000 31,250 25,000 13,000 13,000 30,000 10,000 10,000 15,000 15,000 12,000 3,762 1,000 23,000 6,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 2000 4,000 30,000 60,000 12,432 20,000 10,000 7,739 20,000 4,000 20,000 12,000 6,000 60,000 IRON RAILWAYS. per Share. Div. per Share per Ann. IJZper sli 10s p sh 14?per ct 14/per ct U U per ct •il per ct 3/ per ct 7s per sh U per sh il per sli 9ijlper ct OJ^per ct O^lyer ct SI persh al per ct per sli SI per ct SI per ct Birmiiisliam& Derby Jrinc. 1002 slii70/a2i Ditto '; shares 25J sh 10/ pel; Ditt'j unci Gloucester 100/ sli 75/a(:« Bristol and Exeter. .lOOi sh 60/ pd 36/aOZ Ditto and Glouces.. 50; sh 2^^ pd Clieltenhiini & Great West. Union lOOish 62iZ pd Slhi-Zl Clarence (Durhaui) lOOl sli 301 Eastern Counties . . . .25/ sh 23/ pd 9j/ a;}/ Ditto Debentures.. 8/ 6s 8d..4/ pd 7j/aS< Edinburgh & Glasgow 50/ sh 40/ pd 33/u4? Grand Junction 100/ sh 21 1/aOi Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh 105/ aO/ Ditto Quarter Shares . .25/ sh pd 29/aO / Great N. of England 100/ sh 80/pd63/a0/ Great Western 100/ sh 65/ pd 95/a6/ Ditto Half Shares 50/shu4JiaJ/ Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 4/ pd 1 1«/ Ml Hull and Sclby 50/ sh 43/a4/ London and Brighton 50/sli48/a0/ London & Croydon. .Av. IS/ 10s 9d 13J/a 14/ London and Greenwich .... 20/ sh S^hOI Ditto New 16/ sh I7i/aa/ Ditto Debentures (various amounts) Ditto Scrip .. .. 6J/ each 4/pd5^/a6/ London & Blackwall 25/ sli 19/a20/ Leicester and Swannington. .50/sli 55/ Leeds and Selby 100/ sh Liverpool and Manchester. .100/ sh 195/ Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 47/ Ditto Half Shares 50/sh91i/a0/ Loudon ic S. Western, late London and Southampton Av. 38/ 17s 9d 58/a9/ Ditto Une-teutli Sliares 5/ sh l;;/pd 2j/a0/ Do. Portsmouth Branch 50/sli Jj/pdjoi/ a2/ London & Birmingli. 100/sh90/ pd:i58(a60/ Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh 5/ pdi23i/a4.y Ditto 32/sh!53/a4/ Ditto New 32/ sh 2/ pd 24Za5/ Manchester & Leeds 100/ sh 70/pd'66/a0/ Ditto Half Shares . . 50/ •sli 30/ pdi29/a0/ Manchester &Birniiug. 70/ sh 40/ pd 24/a5/ Midland Counties 100/ sli 89/aO/ Ditto i-Shares of 25/. .5/ pd lOJ/lL}/ North Midland 100/ sh 82/ a4/ Ditto Half Shares 40/ sh 40/al/ Northern .Sc Eastern 100/ sli 50/ pd Severn and Wye . . Average 27/ sh 45/ 2/l2spsh Stockton and Darlington. . Average 106/ 13s 4d 250/ 14/persh S. Eastern and Dover 50/ sh 33/ pd 17i/al8/ Yorkic North Midland 50/sh 83/a5/ JOINT STOCK BANKS. I j Australasia Bank(Chartered) 40/ slii 8/ per ct Ditto New (Chartered) 40/ sh .. ..| Bankoi Ceylon(Chart.)25/sh lO/pdj Bank of B. N. America (Chart. V 50/ sh 40/ pdl36/a0/ 6/ per ct ColoiiialBank(Chart.)100/sh25/pd'85Tya6/ 8/ per ct Com. Bk.of London 1000/sIi 200/pd:i9U/ Ionian State (Chart.) 25/ sh 20/ iid'15/al6/ London and Westminster Bank [all 100/ sh 30/ pd'22;j/3iex 6/ per ct London Joint Stock Bank 50/ sh| 10/ pdil2i/aj-/ 5/ per ct Do New.issued at 1/ jim 50/ sh 10/ pd National Bank of Ireland. .50/ sh 17i/pd!l5/ai/ 6/perct Do. Provincial Bank ot England | 100/ sh 35/ pd,34^/a5/ 16/ per ct Do. New 20/ sh issued at 2/ 10s pm| 10/ pd}10/a0/ 6/ per ct Provincial Bank of Ireland 100/ shi 25/ pdj43/ai/ 8/ per ct Ditto New 10/shl74/ 8/ per ct Union Bank of Australia. .25/ 6h|34/a-J/ 50s pr sh Ditto New 25/ sh 10/ pd lej/al?/ Union Bk. ofLondon .50/sh 10/pd9^/aOJ 5/ per ct West of England and South Wales ] District Bank . .20/ sh 12^/ pdl 16/ per ct Shares, i 4,000 1 1,000 i 10,000 337421 10,000" 8,000 2,000 1,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 11,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 9,204 0,739 5,000 14,460 17,006 10,000 28,267 5,281 8,957 10,000 10,000 1,080 10,000 8,600 10,000 5,000 2,700 20,000 1.800 1 .800 2,100 24,800 S,000 1,800 2,000 80,000 20,000 4,000 .5,387 14,400 3,000 4,000 200.000/ 200,000/ 10,000/ 5,000 MINES. Altcn 50/ sli 12i/ pd Ditto N"w 15/ sh I2J/ pd Anglo Mexica.n (iss. 5/ pm) 100/ sh Ditto Subscription 25/ sh Ditto Mint 25/ sh 10/ pd Blaeuavoii Iron 6c Coal 50/ sh 45/ pd Bolanoes 150/ sli Ditto New 50/sh 20/ pd Ditto Scrip "-5/ sh Bolivar Copper Company . . 15/ sh Ditto Ditto Scrip New . . 3/ sh Brazilian Imperial 35/ sh 20/ pd.. iss. 5/ pm Ditto St. John Del Rev 20/ sh 141/ pd Britisli Iron Comp. 100/ sh 55/ pd Candonga 20/ sh 8^/ pd Copiapo 20/ sh 12:^ pd Hibernian 60/ sh 11^/ pd Mexican Company 100/ sh OSjZ pd Jlinas (jeraes 20/ sh 12/ pd Realdel Monte registered A v. /sli Ditto Ditto imregistered Ditto Loan (Notes) 150/ sh Rhymney Iron 50/ sh United Mexican iOl sh 40/ pd.. iss. 2/ pm Ditto Scrip 2/pd.. Ditto ditto (New) 5/ pd MISCELLANEOUS. Prioc. iDividend lla.01 2/aO/ 0/a7/ 2/aO/ 10/ 3/aO/ 2/ai/ 2/a3/ 25/aO/ 2/aO/ 3|/aO/ ild.il 30/a2/ 17/aiy/ 24Ja5/ Anti Dry Rot Company . . 181/ sh|3/a^-/ Assam Tea Company 5b/shl2^/ pdj Auction Mart 50/sh ,20/ Australian (Agricultural) 100/ sh| 28/2spd39/a40/ British Rock and Patent Salt I 50/ sh 35/ pd 13Z Canada Company (Chartered) 100/ sh 32A/ pd Droitwicli Patent Salt .... 25/ sh Equitable Reversionary Interest Society 100/ sh 60/ pd General Steam Navigation Com- pany 15/ sh 14/ pd Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Ditto New (Chartered) 25/ sht Hungeiford Market 100/ pd:32/ Ditto Debentures ( var. amounts).. London Cemetery (Chartered) 20/ sh London Corn Exchange 37^/ pd!20J/al/ London Commercial Sale Roomsi Average 75/ sh!24/ London and Westminster Steam Boat Company 10/ shj Mexican and South ATuerican | Company 10/ sh 71 pdj2/ New Brunswick Land'lOO/ sh 60/ pd New Zealand Company .... 25/ sii{24/a0/ Reversionary Int. Society. .100/ sh 107/ S. Australian Comp. 25/ sh 20/ pdil8/a0/ Soutli Jletropolitan Cemetery 1 (^Chartered) 25/ sh Thames Tunnel .50/ sh' lO/a^/ Upiier Canada Loan Ditto I Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char-i tere.llOO/sh 18/ pd8/a!.i/ West London and Westminster 1 I Cemetery 25/ thi Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 21, Norfolk-street, Strand London. ■J'^^ i V ^^ ' w^> ^t'"* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. JUNE, 1841, No. a— Vol. III.] [Second Series. PLATE I. The subject of the first Plate is a Hereford Bull, the property of His Grace the Duke of Bedford, which obtained a Prize of Thirty Sovereigns, at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at Cambridge, in July last. Bred by Mr. Yeld, of Herefordshire. PLATE II. THE STABLE. (See page 420.J ON A NEW METHOD OF TRANS- PLANTING TURNIPS. (Prize Essay of the Highland and Agricultural Society.) BY JAMES HOWISON, ESQ., OF CROSSBURN HOUSE, LANARKSHIRE. I am aware that, in some instances, with the Swedish variety of turnips, trials on a small scale have succeeded by following the same steps as in transplanting kale plants, and which success I ascribe to the formation of the Swedish turnip roots greatly resembling those of kale in size and firmness, properties which all the other varieties possess in a very small degree. It is owing to this circumstance, I am of opinion, that all the attempts to transplant the others in the same way have failed, as will be seen in my mode, which, although easy and quickly performed, requires a good deal of method. I shall describe in detail the method followed by me from the forming of the drills to the finishing of the transplanting of the young plants. 1. In an open piece of ground I form raised drills at the distance of twelve inches from centre to centre, in each of which I place a layer of short stable dung, closely laid on, on which the turnip seed is pretty thickly sown, and afterwards covered with half an inch of fine mould. The breadth of the drills at top should not be more than four inches, so that the earth and plants may be more com- pletely lifted up together by the spade, when to be transplanted. The time of sowing should be re- gulated according to the purposes intended ; and as a fall of ground converted into drills will pro- duce plants suflicient for transplanting three or four acres, it is better always to have a super- OLD SERIES.-] abundance. As to the best age for taking up the plants, I have found no difference in their success from the time they have got their proper leaves, until they are three or four months old ; however, those intended to remain long should be thinned out in the rows. I need scarcely mention that, in dry weather, they should be carefully watered, which in so small a space can easily be done, and which is one of the great advantages which this mode has over the turnip seed sown in the field, where, if no rain falls, it may remain for weeks without vegetating. 2. I, shall now state the method followed in re- moving the young plants from the drills, and transplanting them out in the field, after the ground has been ridged up in the usual way ; but 1 must first observe, that I consider rainy and cloudy weather as of the utmost importance to successful transplanting ; and so much so, that I prefer waiting weeks to attempting it in sunny and dry weather. Having- provided a wheel-barrow, a garden spade, and a couple of flower-pot saucers of a large size, I with the spade lift up its breadth of one of the drills, taking care that the spade enters below the roots of the plants. This spade- ful is then carefully placed in the barrow, and the same operation is repeated until the quantity of plants wanted is taken up. When that is done, they are then removed in the barrow to the field, where they are transplanted with the implements above mentioned. It is necessary for expedition that two persons be employed in the transplanting — one to prepare the plants, the other to transplant them. One spade- ful is then taken from the barrow, and with a knife divided into three or four pieces, one of which is taken up into the hand and carefully drawn asun- der, so as to lay open the roots of the plants with as little injury to them as possible, and, taking 2 E [IVu. 6.— VOL. XIV. 406 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hold of the leaves of the one that appears upper- most, draw it gently out with as many of the little halls of earth and dung adhering to its tender roots as practicable, and place it in one of the saucers. In this way, when the saucers have been carefully filled with the plants laid in regular rows, the transplanter may commence his operations. He then with his finger, or a short dibble not thicker than his finger, makes a hole which should only reach to the dung ; and then, lifting a plant by its leaves, drops it into the hole, and with the fingers of both hands presses the earth gently around it. In this way two drills may be planted at the same time. His assistant, following with the barrow, will be able to supply him with prepared plants ; and, from my experience, the two should be able to finish a rood of ground in the course of the day, if the plants are eight inches distant from each other. I must here warn the transplanter against using plants that have not one or more balls of dung or earth adhering to their roots ; for if he does, the chance of their growing will be very small. 3. I may now mention what I conceive to be the advantages that raising plants in seed-drills for transplanting has over the present mode of field sowing. In the first place, as already noticed, when the turnip-seed is sown at large in the field, should it not rain, it is liable to remain for weeks without vegetating ; and even if regular showers fall, the crop is liable to suffer greatly from the fly ; both of which evils are prevented by raising the plants in drills, as these can be regularly watered, and the plants are too numerous, from the thick sowing, to be much hurt by the fly. In the second place, in the case of a failure in the potatoe crop, such as took place a few years ago to so serious an amount, the length of time that elapses before potatoes appear above ground, and a certainty of crop can be ascertained, it is too late to attempt planting a second crop of potatoes on the same ground, or even sowing it with turnip seed, to have any prospect of a crop. Now, as potatoe-drills are made up in the same way as for turnips, by transplanting them with turnip plants two or three months old, the potatoe ground might be stocked immediately with the probability of a crop of turnips equally good as if sown with seed at the proper season. In the same way, the head and foot ridges of potatoe and turnip fields, which at present are left unoccupied to allow the turning of the horses and ploughs in the working of these crops, might be planted with turnips, as also all vacant grounds in gardens, after the gathering of the earlv crops. 4. In "farther proof of the practicability of my plan, it may be satisfactory to mention that, on the 9th of October, 1839, I went to examine a field of turnips on the farm of Green Burnside, in this parish, tenanted by Mr. James Cassie, who, in consequence of the great ravages of the fly, had resolved to try the transplanting plan according to my directions ; but having no prepared plants, he took plants with great care from the thickest parts of the drills that had escaped the ravages of the fly, and filled up the blanks to a certain extent ; and not having much confidence in my method, the blanks on the remainder of the drills were, at the same time, sown with seed, so that I had an opportunity of seeing at once three crops of tur- nips raised in a difi'erent manner. The crop from the first sowing that had escaped the ravages of the fly was excellent ; the transplanted very good, but the turnips not so large in general as the first ; the third, although sown on the same day as the others were transplanted, were none of them the size of an egg, which I believe is always the case with late-sown turnips, although the result is diffi- cult to be accounted for. 5. I may, in conclusion, mention another ad- vantage of the transplanting plan — that it is best performed in ivet weather, when all other field labour is at a stand. ON THE APPLICATION OF BONES TO GRASS LANDS, ON LORD COMBERMERE'S ESTATE. BY MR. EDWARD BILLYSE. Within the last nine years Lord Combermere has supplied his tenantry (upon the Combermere estate in Cheshire) with bones for upwards of 600 statute acres of their pasture land, at a cost of about 10/. an acre. The land before the bones were applied was not worth more than from lOs.to 15s. an acre ; it is now well worth from 30s. to 40s. His lordship charges the tenantry 7 per cent, upon the outlay ; they would gladly pay 10 per cent, ra- ther than not have the bones. Oldsourturf upon a clay subsoil is the land that answers best to ma- nure with bones, though I have seen them used upon a dry, friable soil, and a sandy substratum with success. I have never known them to fail when there is a strong turf, and the land free from water. Upon Lord Combermere's estate bones are not allowed to be put upon land until it has been down in grass at least seven years. In very few instances where land has recently been in tillage have I known bones to answer well. The end of April I consider the best time to apply bones ; no stock ought to be put upon the land before the following spring. If the land is not too poor to produce a crop of hay, I do not object to its being mown the first year, but on no account afterwards. Thirty to 35 cwt. is the quantity used upon a statute acre, according to the quality of the land ; or if bought by the bushel, one bushel of bones to a rood of 64 square yards ; if the land is very poor, 90 bushels to a statute acre. An imperial bushel of bone dust should weigh from 45 to 471bs. if ground fine enough. I prefer them ground to about the size of a walnut. It is now 20 years since I first saw bone dust applied to pasture land, on a field adjoining Lord Comber- mere's estate. At the time the bones were put on the land, it certainly was not worth more than 10s. an acre, and though so long a period has elapsed since the field was manured with hones, it is now worth 35s. per acre, though I think the land is not quite so good as it was five years ago. I consider bones the cheapest of all manure for mowing-grounds. Eight years ago, I manured part of one of my mowing fields with bones 35 cwt. to the acre, the land has produced me a good crop of hay every year since, quite equal to the other part of the field which has been manured with good farm-yard dung every two years. Once in eight ornine years is quite often enough to manure mow- ing lands with bones; and I am quite certain that pasture land on which bones have been applied never will (so long as it remains in grass) return to the state it was in before the bones were put on. The price I paid for bones last spring, was 2s. 8d. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 per bushel ; or if by weight, Gl. 15s. per ton. They are now a little lower ; I can purchase them at 2s. 6(1. per bushel, or 61. (is. per ton, that is for the raw bones. The boiled bones are at 41. 15s. per ton, but I do not consider them any cheaper than the raw ones, as being wet they weigh much heavier ; two tons of boiled bones are not more than equal to 30 cwts. of the raw. I give the pre- ference to the latter, if they can be got pure ; but I have not had such long experience as to assert confidently that they are the best as to durability. In the year 1828, one of Lord Combermere's tenants manured five acres of pasture land with boiled bones, and in the same field two acres with raw bones ; both answered well, and at this mo- ment I do not observe any difference, both still equally retain their fertilizing qualities. I find a great difficulty in procuring good fresh bones, as the manufacturers buy them up to make size of; old bones (such as the greater part of those are which are imported from Ireland and the Conti- nent) will not do for tbis purpose, and it is mj'' opinion that the fresh bones are not so much de- teriorated by boiling, but that they are quite equal as a manure to those we get from the bone-dealers as fine bones, most of which are old, and conse- quently have lost a great part of their fertilising powers. Edward Hillvse. Hiiyivood Farm, Nantwich, Cheshire, SOWING, REMOVAL, AND STOR- ING OF TURNIPS. Sir, — Having' for many years bestowed particular care and attention in the propan-ation of turnip seeds with the view of improving the most superior kinds — of arriving' at the most accurate conclusions as to the time of sowing these kinds, so as to be most available to the ngriculturist—and of determining upon the period most expedient for the removal of this important crop from the ground — I trust that you will give place in your widely-circulated Journal to the observations I am about to oHer, and that the respectable and intelligent class, with whom a deep interest in the subject na- turally exists, will exculpate me from the charge of pre- sumption in doing so. They are made from a sincere desire that those who have not hitherto given the sub- ject that consideration which its importance deserves, may avert some of those evils which are prevalent in the sowing, removal, and storing of the crop. To obtain seed of whatever i;ind, pure and unmixed, will readily be admitted to be a great desideratum, as there is not one kind, however much assimilated to another, which is not ditl'erently afllscted by the wea- ther. The loss arising from the seed not being perfectly pure, is never more manifest than in spring after a Sivere winter, when the field everywhere presents to the eye carious turnips, the production of seeds less capable ef withstanding the severity of the weather than Yellow Bullock or Swede, with which, from want of due care, they had become mixed. To avoid, there- fore, what daily observation points out as objectionable, ought to be matter of anxious solicitude, alike to the farmer and to the merchant. Keeping this all-impor- tant consideration in view, I would not only venture to recommend the following kinds as of ascertained supe- riority to the varieties at present in use, but to suggest, that great uiility is to be derived from adhering, as far as practicable, in the sowing of them to the periods to be adverted to. 1st. Weather permitting. Dale's Hybrid should be sown in the month of May, or at the same time with the Swedes. This turnip will be ready for lifting in Sep- tember, and found of finer texture than the globes, much less liable to shoot than the latter, and will retain their feeding qualities for at least six weeks beyond the period of lifting (September), 2nd. Border Imperial ought to be sown in .Tune, so as to be ready for use immediately after the Hybrids are finished. This excellent turnip will continue to retain its nutritive qualities till the month of January. 3rd. 'i'he true Yellow Bullock. This turnip should also be sown in June. Like the immediately preceding kind, it will be fully prepared for use in January, and the inherent qualities of this root will remain in force till the first of April. 4tli. The Swede, which should be sown in May, is well known to be the most valuable of our turnips, and to retain, in a peculiar degree, those qualities which tend to obviate the pernicious effects of a severe season, as well as the feeding quality so characteristic of the root, and to continue to retain this quality till the month of June. Assuming these premises to be sound, the propriety of attending to the periods of so'wing, and the extent of each kind to be sown, cannot fail to be recognised by the practical agriculturist. If not attended to, there is nothing more certain than that the root which is allowed to remain in the ground beyond its natural term will lose its nutritious and feeding quality, and entail upon the grower an incalculable loss. The turnip in this situation, though apparently in full vigour, will inva- riably be found, on examination, to be deprived of that sac'chrinc matter which alone possessses the nourishing quality. To retain, therefore, the feeding quality in the various kinds, I hesitate not to recommend that all should be removed and stored not later than the first or second week of January. Though I am aware that a strong prejudice exists in the minds of many against such a system, I venture te affirm that the happiest results will be found to accrue to those who will adopt the plan of placing them upon a piece of dry flat ground, in narrow pit*, at a distance from a house or wall, and placing over them a light covering of straw. Ere long, I doubt not but the removal of turnip from the ground as suggested will be considered as important as the potatoe harvest is at present. While this mode of storing the crop is essential for the preservation of the quality of the turnip, it is not less beneficial to the farmer in protecting his land from being injured by the necessary cartage in spring. Be- sides, if turnips are allowed to remain in the ground till an advanced period of spring, the land not only suffers deterioration, out the crop itself, which becomes infi- nitely less powerful than when taken up and stored as recommended. In fact, it will be found, on minute examination between field and stored turnips, that the former, by being allowed to remain so long in the ground, is deprived altogether of its natural feeding quality. These facts cannot be better exemplified than by contrasting the condition of a quantity of stored tur- nips of the present year with an equal quantity of those in the field, in however advantageous a situation they may be. Those in the field will be found to be devoid of the feeding quality, while those that have been pro- perly stored will be as fresh and vigorous as if they had just been removed from the ground 'within the proper time. The experience of those who have directed their attention to the subject will bear me out in my premises in general, and in particular will they do so as applied to the winters of 1837, '38, and '40. Can there be anything more absurd, while the science of agriculture is making so rapid strides in other branches, than to have large portions of fields standing' till a late period of the spring, when it is found that so many injurious consequences not only result from such a practice, but that great loss is sustained from vermin 1 Though this branch of the science has been long neg- lected, it is not less important than many others, the results of which have drawn many, once strenuously opposed to their adoption, into a cordial acquiescence of their utility. The present subject, to be appreciated, therefore, requires only to have a fair and impartial trial to meet with universal reception ; and that this should be the case is the anxious wish of, sir, your most obedient servant, James Tough. Wemyssfield Nurseries, Kirkaldy, I5th March, I84U 2 E 2 408 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LEOMINSTER FARMERS' CLUB. The monthly meeting- of this institution took place on Friday, the 7th ultimo, and was very numerously attended. The chair was taken by the President ( VVm. Bennett, Esq.,) at four o'clock, when several new members were announced. We are happy to find that this useful and valuable society is progressing fast in its operations, and we doybt not but that, at no remote period, the beneficial results of its endeavours to promote the best interests of agri- culture, will be generally experienced throughout the locality in which it is established. A library is now added to the institution, consisting of several choice and eligible works ; and we would strongly recommend our agricultural friends not to lose sight of the advantages held out to them by the liberal and ju- dicious arrangements of the founders and patrons of the society. The first subject, as proposed by Mr. G. Yeld at the previous meeting, viz., — "The best method of preparing for vegetable crops, and the best manures as adapted to different soils," was very ably introduced by the Presi- dent ; and from the interesting discussion which ensued, the following remarks were elicited :— The vegetables taken into consideration were turnips, mangel wurzel, and potatoes, as being those only cultivated in the neigh- bourhood ; for these crops, the club strongly recom- mended deep ploughing, the infallowing to be given as early as convenient after the removal of the preceding crop ; the twy fallowing should be performed in March ; at which season many of the members had advantageous- ly used the subsoil plough. The second twy fallowing was considered to be best at the latter end of April or be- ginning of May, The scufflers, harrows, and rollers should be used as often as necessary from the first twin fallowing till the formation of the drills. Manures. — The manures most used in the neighbour- hood are farm-yard manure, bone-dust, and compost. The first of these applied to light soils would be best in- fallowed at the season above-named, and not less thnn 22 tons per acre should be used ; but in case the manure should not be ready at that period, it was recommended to twy fallow it in. If bone-dust be employed, it should be drilled in with the seed ; and if applied without farm- yard manure or compost, not less than a ton per acre should be used. In the case of compost, it may be put upon the land either before or after the second infallow- ing. The members were generally of opinion that lime does not add to the weight of any vegetable crop except potatoes; the mealy quality of which it certainly in- creases. It was also generally admitted that it might be advantageously spread over turnips soon after the plant appears, as some protection against the fly, wireworm, &c. The above observations refer particularly to light soils. Heavy Soils. — The club agreed that farm-yard manure should be put into the drills, as any other met hod of applying it was considered uncertain in its effects. Compost may be employed at the same seasons as on lightsoils, but bone-dust was not recommended for heavy soils. The next subject for consideration was " The best description of Swede turnip, the proper distance of plant- ing, the proper time for doing f,o, and the best means of preventing the fly." The " Ashcroft" was considered to produce the greatest weight per acre of any kind known in this neighbourhood, but having so small atop, and consequently being deprived of that protection which a larger top necessarily imparts, it was recom- mended that the crop should be taken off the land previous to the setting-in of the frost. The merits of " Skirving's improved purple-top," were discussed, and many of the members expressed their intention of giving them a trial this year. Distance of Planting.— A space of 24 to 27 inches between the drills was thought to be generally adopted, the latter being preferred when farm-yard manure is used, as being more convenient for carting it on. For potatoes the distance should be increased to 30 inches between the drills. Mo!T Suitable Time for Planting. — The members generally were of opinion that fropi the middle of May to the middle of June is the most proper time, the stale of the weather being taken into consideration. The latter part of the subject, viz., " The best means of pre- venting the devastation of the fly," was postponed. The subjects proposed for the next meeting, (4th of Jiane) are as follow : — 1st. Proposed by the President, " The most proper time of cutting, and the best and cheapest method of making and securing hay and clover." 2nd. Proposed by Mr. Richard Mason, treasurer, " The best mode of cleaning land, hoeing, or weeding." 3rd. Proposed by Mr, Good, " The best method of fallowing for wheat, and the expense attending it." Mv. Gilkes kindly consented to read, at the next meeting, a lecture upon the employment of salt in agri- culture and horticulture, adding some explanation of its chemical properties. MANURE. — Allow me to point out the enormous waste of manure, in the shape of muck, resulting from badly constructed farm-yards, and by mismanagement. And first, by way of hint to landowners, there are but few old farm-yards in the western part of this county but are situated, and apparently formed, for the pur- pose of washing away into the brooks and streams this muck. The sites which have been selected for the sheds, commonly called " linhays," are placed on an eminence with the yard of ''barton," on an inclined plane— frequently on a cousiderable declivity. The consequence is, the valuable property of the muck is either wasted by evaporation, or washed away by heavy rains, and by the accumulation of water fro«a the roofs of the sheds — amounting, when the fall of the water is heavy, tt> a flood. This waste of manure, in too many instances, goes on throughsut the winter. What, then, must be the amount of waste and loss ? The blood-coloured streams of water, tinged by the mucilaginous and extractive matter — the soluble essence — flowing away throughout a long winter, is the best answer. It is no novelty to see an accumu- lation of stable dung at the door, or placed near, and under the eaves, smoking with excessive fermentation, and driving oiF in gaseous form, carbonic acid and amraoniacal matter— the constituent property of good farm-yard manure, the residue being merely woody fibre, and scarcely worth taking away. All farm- yard dung, and particularly that from high-fed cattle, de- teriorates from (he same cause. It is too much the practice to let the dung accumulate through the winter, till the cattle is about to be turned to grass, and to collect the whole into large dunghills. By this practice, on badly constructed farm-yards, one-half of the quantity and three-fourths of the quality, is lost to the farm and to the public. The landowner would do well for his tenant by diverting the water from his farm-yards, by shoots being fixed to the eaves of the buildings. The tenant would soon discover his interest by preparing layers of soil, from 1 foot to 18 inches thick, for a base, cast on his dung as soon as made, and seal it down with another layer of soil, &c. Clay or marie should be used for layers, &c., of composts for light and gravelly land, and vice versa. Sir Hum- phrey Davy has informed us, that when dung heats be- yond 100 degrees of Fahrenheit, deterioration com- mences. He subjoins a test: " When a piece of paper, moistened in muriatic acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense fumes, it is a certain test that the decomposition is going on too far, for this indicates that volatile alkali is disengaged." Having given my opinion on the economy of farm-yard dung, I shall conclude, on the present occasion, by de- tailing the practice I adopt in further preparing these compost heaps, preparatory to being laid on the land intended for its reception, &c. Early in the spring, and when the temperature rises, these composts should be well turned and mixed : this cannot be too effec- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 409 tually performed. When heat is generated in the com- post— which is generally the result in ten days or a fortnight, according to the temperature of the atmos- phere— they should be returned, and intimately mixed again ; and this process should not, on any acount, be neglected. The non-deterioration of the manure will not be safe till it is well amalgamated with the soil in- tended for cropping. — A Farmer. — North West Somerset. REPORT BY THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CON- SIDER THE PETITION OF THE WESTER ROSS FARMING SOCIETY^ PRAYING THAT THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY WOULD ESTABLISH AN EXPE- RIMENTAL FARM. The committee find that this subject has fre- quently before been under the consideration not only of the Directors and of special committees, but also of general meetings of the society. On all these occasions, the result has been a resolu- tion that it would be inexpedient for the society, if not also inconsistent with the principles of its constitution, to engage in the establishment of an experimental farm. The committee may refer to the two last occasions on which this subject was discussed and disposed of, viz., in 18.3.') and 181^7. On the former occasion, the opinions of the directors were embodied at length in a report, which was submitted to a general meeting of the society, and after a full discussion, the report was unanimously adopted.* In 18;57 the matter was again considered.-f The views of Wr. Nairne, of Claremont, who urged the reconsideration of the question, will be found fully stated in the Minutes of Directors, 27th December, 1836. The sub- ject was again, on the motion of Mr. Nairne, fully discussed at the general meeting of the society, in January 1837, § when the feeling of the meeting being decidedly against the society embarking in the scheme, Mr. Nairne withdrew his motion. The following was the report of the directors, which was unanimously approved of by the so- ciety at its general meeting in 1837. " The Directors resumed consideration of the communication from the Duke of Gordon, trans- mitting copy of the letter addressed to the society regarding the establishment of an experimental farm. The letter having, in pursuance of the instruction of last meeting, been circulated to the directors and deliberately considered, and members bavisg now given their opinions, the board resolved to submit their opinion in the shape of a report to the general meeting, as follows : — " Transmitted through such a channel, the directors gave the suggestions the fullest consideration, but they are sorry they cannot recommend to the society, to adopt the proposal contained in the paper. In point of expense, it would far exceed the amount of funds at the disposal of the society, and it is, besides, in a great degree inconsistent with the principle upon which the society uniformly acts. " The directors are not prepared to say, that al- though similar establishments, hitherto tried, have all proved fuilures, an experimental farm could under ro circumstances be productive of benefit; but it • 2nd July, 1835. + 6th July, 1837. § lOth Jan. 1837. must, under any circumstances, be conducted at a great expense : its objects being in a great measure incompatible with attention to profitable return for its operations ; and they are well convinced that such a farm, and for such purposes as aie contem- plated in the ' suggestions,' would, in a very short time, exhaust the capital, instead of the portion of its annual income proposed by the projector. " Besides this fundamental objection, the plan is inconsistent with the present system of the society, which is uot to be itself the experimenter, but to en- courage, stimulate, and in some cases partially re- munerate, those who are about to make, or who have made, experiments for the improvement of agriculture. In conducting such experiments, the most useful course will generally be followed by those who must necessarily keep ultimate profit in view ; and the directors are of opinion that the so- ciety have wisely left it in their hands, aiding them as far as possible, by collecting and digesting infor- mation as to the objects to be kept in view, and the most probable means of attaining them, by offering premiums to those who, keeping these objects in view, will conduct their experiments on the prin- ciples pointed out by the society, and finally, by promulgating the results regularly through their quarterly transactions, for the use of the public generally. " There is no doubt that the application of scien- tific principles, and extremely accurate observations of results, which might be commanded under the society's auspices, are important objects, and have been attained in horticulture ; but the directors conceive the objects of investigation in agricultural practice to be of so extended and diversified a cha- racter, that it cannot be so well carried on in one spot, one climate, and nearly one soil, as by the society's present practice, which brings it at once to the doors of a great many acute examinators in every part of the country, and causes the trial to be made simultaneously under every possible variety of situa- tion and circumstance. Nor is the whole advantage of the society's present system to be confined to these points ; another and important result is the habit of mental exertion thus fostered among the agricultural classes, and the practical experience which each successive experiment supplies, opening up new trains of interesting speculation, and giving confidence to push forward in hopes of farther dis- covery. The directors point with satisfaction to your proceedings, as a proof that there is no diffi- culty of getting correct reports of numerous and complicated experiments from practical men, and no want of enterprise where there is a reasonable pros- pect of success in any new inquiry, which, if deemed too hazardous for the tenant's exertions, is generally taken up by some public-spirited proprietor, who is willing to encounter the risk in hopes of producing a result which may be useful to the community at large. "The directors fear, therefore, that, even sup- posing the funds requisite for such an undertakmg were procured, the scheme, as detailed in ' the sug- gestions,' would have the effect of cramping the energies of private experimentalists, which they must regard as the most useful channel for research, by inducing them to look exclusively to t'ne society for results which they are now in the habit of work- ing out themselves. " They have only to add that, if an experimental farm on a well-digested plan and moderate scale should be thought an adjunct for the investigation of certain phenomena, of which cases may perhaps be conceived offering too uncertain or too remote chance 410 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of advantage for individual speculation, the means of carrying it on being procured and placed at the disposal of the society, they would do their utmost to make the scheme conducive to the public ad- yantage." The committee, in considering the application for an experimental farm, which has latclv been made by the Agricultural Society of Wester Ross, have not allowed their minds to be influenced by the fact of similar applications having been, on former occasions, deliberately weighed and re- jected. They have considered the question on its own merits. But having unanimously come to be of opinion, that the society cannot accede to the proposal,]! is an important circumstance that this also was the result of an equally deliberate con- sideration of the subject by former boards of direc- tors, as well as by the society in its collective ca- pacity. While the committee fully admit that advantages might result from the establishment of a farm, to be set apart for the performance of useful e.'cperi- ments, and where there should be the means of putting to the test of practice the suggestions of agriculturists, as well as of ascertaining the principles on which agriculture, both as a science and as an art, is founded, the committee see too plainly that there are difficulties in the way of such an establishment, which any means at the command of the society could not enable it to overcome. The committee observe that, in the two last memorials which the directors have received re- commending the establishment of experimental farms, it is either assumed, or expressly stipulated, that they are to be conducted on what are called " scientific principles." Now it has appeared to the committee, that the exact nature of an experimental farm conducted on such principles is not distinctly apprehended by many persons, and especially by those who reckon with certainty on its yielding a remu- nerating rent. The primary object of such a farm being to make experiments, — and, by investigation of principles, to endeavour to derive aid from other branches of knowledge (as chemistry, vegetable and animal physiology, geology, and mechanics) for the elucidation and improvement of agriculture, it would be inconsistent with the principle of such an establishment, to conduct it so as to yield a profitable return. Were such a farm even limited to the trial of different practices in agriculture, it is manifest that what is bad, as well as what is good, must be the subject of ex- periment; and that the experimenters must reckon upon failure as well as success, it being indeed necessary for all practical purposes to ascertain the causes of both results. There would thus inevitably and constantly be loss on a farm conducted on such principles, even if a wider range of investigation were avoided, which, however, must be comprehended under the designation of a farm conducted on what are termed scientific principles. The investigation now pointed at would not only include, for example, experiments on the application to the soil of calcareous and all other matters which stimulate or improve it ; but would embrace an inquiry into the way in wliich the effect is produced, whether thiough the medium of the soil, or through the medium of the organs of growing plants. It would include not only the making the soil productive by the various means determined by experience, but an investi- gation of the chemical constitution of the soil, and of the causes of those changes in its constitution and character which different substances produce. Such a train of experiments, it is obvious, would be altogether distinct from the proper business of the cultivator, and would require investigations in chemistry and other branches of science, which are beyond the limits of agriculture as a practical and profitable art. The object of an experiniental farm, in short, is not to raise produce by such economical means as will yield a rent, but to perform experiments which can yield no jjecuniary returns. Were it proposed merely to establish a farm, and conduct it in the best possible manner, such a farm would be a model or pattern farm, and not an experimental one, in the sense in which the term ought to be employed. But little advantage, it appears to the committee, would result by an establishment even of model farms, under the direction of the Highland and Agricultural Society. Such a farm would, for any useful purpose, need to shew economy of ]al)our and expense, which it is not to be supposed it could possibly exhibit. It is not, assuredly, the merely raising a great quan- tity of produce, that would constitute a farm deserving of being regarded as a model. This produce must be raised with a due economy of time and capital, otherwise it would fail in serving as a useful pattern. But it can scarcely be hoped that a farm, managed by any public institution, whose directors are constantly changing, could be conducted with the same economy of time afld expenditure, and the same prudent adaptation of means, as in the case of a farm under the constant direction of a skilful agriculturist, who devotes his whole time and thoughts to the subject, and who has a deep personal interest in the economical results. A model farm, therefore, could not be managed by the directors of this society with the same economy or the same success as an ordinary farm belonging to, and managed bj', any intelligent agriculturist. But, independently of this general objection, founded on the management of a farm by a public and fluctuating board of directors, there would be expenses attendant upon a model farm, by whom- soever conducted, which would make any pro- fitable return more than doubtful. If the farm is to exhibit the best of every thing known in the art, whether of grains, or stock, or implements; if, also, it is to adapt itself constantly to the im- provements which are made in the various de- partments of agriculture, by purchasing what is new, and discarding what is inferior or old fashioned, the farm must manifestly be conducted at an expense far greater than that at which any other farm in the country is managed. Farther, in regard to the practical utility of the establishment, it deserves to be remembered that, however successful and however profitable might be the operations on a model farm, wherever situated, it does not follow that the same operations would, in other parts of the country, be equally successful. The several counties of Scotland present such varie- ties of climate, soil , and other material conditions, that it could never be certainlypredictedthatthe particu- lar crops or manures, or operations generally, which had answered well in one district of Scotland, would answer equally, or at all, in every other. If this view be correct, great doubt arises as to the amount of benefit which would result to agriculturists from a model farm ; and the Committee feel the force of this objection the more strongly on perceiving that, in one of the proposals lately submitted to the soci- ety, it is contemplated to have a committee of expe- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411 rimenters in every county, whose object it should be to ascertain whether the roots and seeds which suc- ceeded well on the Society's farm, were equally adapted for other districts of Scotland. If it is said that a stimulus would, by a model farm, be given to agriculturists to adopt on their own farms the most approved system, the Committee would observe, that every farmer is already under the strongest motive to adopt the most approved system, and to apply it successfully, viz., his own interest and a regard for public opinion. At all events, as already noticed, the knowledge that a par- ticular operation or practice has succeeded on the society's farm, might fail to convince individual farmers that, in ditierent circumstances, and with less command of resources, the same operation or practice would succeed upon theirs. This view also affords an answer to another remark which might be made in recommendation of a model farm, that, by publishing in the Societ3''s Transac- tions, journals of all the operations conducted on if, the agriculturists of the country would become ac- quainted with the most approved modes ot culture. Again the Committee must observe, that it would be of no importance to communicate such information, unless it were accompanied by an assurance that the same system would succeed on other farms, dif- ferent in soil, climate, elevation, and other respects. Farther, it may be remarked that tliere are few or no material discoveries or improvements in agriculture which are not almost immediately made known through the press, and especially through the means of agricultural societies, at their shows and meet- ings. So that the object in view is obtained already, without exposing the resources and reputation of the society to risks of a most formidable character. For these reasons, the committee think that a model farm, in the proper sense of the term, would be at- tended with no great practical benefit to agriculturists; and would, if conducted or superintended by the directors of this society, be attended with great dif- ficulties and ruinous expense. Much more advan- tage results from the examples which abound in all parts of the country of well-conducted farms in the hands of intelligent individuals ; for the operations on such farms are far more likely to be the subject of imitation, than those of one farm situated in a fa- voured district, and conducted by a public body, who would be supposed to manage it witiiout much economy of means. A model farm may perhaps be useful in such countries as Russia or Germany, large portions of which are still unreclaimed from a state of nature, and in no part of which agriculture has reached the same perfection as in this country ; — where, moreover, there is neither the same enter- prise on the part of agriculturists, nor the same im- mediate knowledge of any important discoveries, as in this country. It is understood that model farms for the encouragement of agriculturists have been, iii these countries, established by the authority of go- vernment, and are supported out of the national funds. But the case is very different in Great Britain, to almost every region of which, especially in Scotland, agriculture in its most improved state has reached, or is fast extending ; and where, of all countries in the world, less artificial stimulus is ne- cessary to foster discovery and improvement in the arts. With regard, again, to an experimental farm, which is more particularly the object of the memo- rials before referred to, it appears to the committee that, though advantages might result from it by the performance of experiments on a great scale, which iadividuals have not the means to execute, there is not that necessity for it, and there is not the probability of even any practical utility from it, which seems to be expected. There is scarcely a useful experiment which there are not agriculturists in the country ready to make. Indeed, there is scarcely any exten- sive and intelligent farmer who is not engaged in ex- periments of some kind or other ; and these experi- ments, it is to be observed, are performed under circumstances the most favourable for leading to use- ful results, and ultimately to general imitation. When the results are successful, there are innumerable channels by which they can be communicated to the country j and there are near all such farms agricul- turists sufficiently observant of what is going on, who will avail themselves of what is good, and reject what seems to be erroneous. It appears very doubtful to the committee whether those gentlemen who are desirous that this society should embark its funds and revenue in an experi- mental farm, have duly considered the amount of capital necessary for such an undertaking. The late Sir John Sinclair, who was a strenuous advocate for an experimental farm, calculated that a sum of 5000i. a year would be required to carry it on, Mr. Ste- phens, the experienced and intelligent editor of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, who also contends for the utility of experimental farms if properly con- ducted, has lately given a series of minute calcula- tions on the same subject. Mr. Stephens enters into calculations as to the extent of land, as well as the amount of funds, necessary for such a farm. He states that the smallest extent of the field should be five acres, and certainly they could not be smaller, if the experiments are to be made in the ordinary circumstances of a farm. He supposes that there should be experiments always going on in these fields, with four varieties of wheat, and four varieties of each of the other cereal grains, as well as with the other plants in ordinary cultiva- tion. In like manner, he assumes that there should be trials made with different kinds of stock. The result of his calculations is, that not less than 5000 acres of arable and pasture land would be required, to carry on experiments in merely the ordinary branches of agriculture, — for which the ground-rent alone would be at least 5000L a year, and the capital necessary for stocking it '20,0001. Now, in wliatever degree the accuracy of these calculations may be disputed, it is yet apparent that the sum required for stocking such a farm as would be in the least degree worthy of being regarded as a national institution would be very large, and vastly exceeding what the Highland Society could apply to it, without a sacrifice of all the objects which have hitherto occupied its attention. They must either take a lease, or make a purchase of land to a large extent ; they must provide more than the usual accom- modation of offices required by farms of the superior class ; they must stock it at a greater expense than ordinary farmers would do ; they must further em- ploy a practical agriculturist possessed of the skill and intelligence necessary for conducting an exten- sive farm ; and farther, if scientific inquiries were to be pursued, they must obtain the services of one or more persons possessed of the necessary scientific knowledge, and must provide the philosophical ap- paratus required for their investigations. It seems to be vaguely assumed, indeed, in one of the memo- rials, that a piece of land extending to from 500 to 1000 acres would be sufficient for a farm of this kind ; but even if the extent could be limited to the lowest of these quantitieSj the amount of capital, ne- cessary expenditure, and the probable loss, would cer- tainly far exceed what this society could make good . 412 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The committee cannot believe for a moment that this society can so advantageously employ the funds at its command, in endeavouring- to set an example of good farming to others, or in making experiments with a view to discovery and improvement, as by en- couraging the agriculturists of the country to afford these examples, and make these experiments. This has been the course which the society has pursued ever since its institution ; and no sufficient reason has yet been assigned to show that it would be wise to abandon a course thus sanctioned by experience. With respect to the application of principles de- rived from other branches of knowledge, or what are called scientific principles, in tiie elucidation of agriculture, — the society has not been inattentive to this subject, and in its recent premiums has called attention, in a special manner, to this course of in- vestigation. Although agriculture is to be regarded as a practical art, it is not the less dependent upon principles ; and it cannot be doubted that science, as applied to agriculture, is calculated to conduce to its perfection, in the same manner as in the case of the other principal arts, as, for example, in the case of the dyeing manufacture, to the perfection of which chemistry has been rendered eminently con- ducive— in the case of the smelting of ores, and mining engineering, to which both chemistry and geology have lent most important aid, and in the numerous other arts familiar to every well-informed man. But it is to be observed that chemistry and vegetable physiology are the subjects of study by a class of persons distinct from the agriculturist, and that it is only when results are obtained by the silent and slow investigations of scientific men, that they truly fall within the province of the agriculturist. These experiments, it is to be observed, are per- formed in the laboratory, or at the utmost on small plots of ground. It is not necessary that there should be a farm provided for such experiments. Impressed with these vievk-s, the committee would recommend that the directors should extend to the utmost degree those rewards that may induce scien- tific enquirers to bring the aid of their knowledge to the assistance of the practical agriculturist. The committee would beg to make the following sugges- tions, in regard to the premiums offered and the subjects proposed by the directors for scientific in- vestigations. In the first place, they think the amount of the premiums too small, even if, according to the terms in which they are expressed, the directors could award the full sum of 501, to a memoir on any one of the five subjects there enumerated. Any one of these subjects would entail a sacrifice of time and trouble on the part of experienced chemists, whicli would not he sufficiently remunerated by any sum less than 100/. ; for it will be remembered that the investigations are such as could only be carried on by a person of high scientific attainments. In the next place, the committee would suggest as an additional subject, a memoir on the results which have been or may be deduced from the most recent scientific investigations of eminent chemists and physiologists, in so far as they are practically useful to agriculturists, and may be proper to be followed in the management of a farm. Extract from the Minutes of a Meeting of the Directors OF THE Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, held on 16th December, 1840. " Resolved unanimously — That the report of the committee be approved of, and that a copy thereof be sent to the Wester Ross Farming Society, as an an- swer to the petition transmitted by them. It is further ordered that the report be published in the next number of the Society's Transactions, and that a few extra copies be printed as an extract from the Transactions." GREEN CROVS.— Extracts from Mr. Valcourt's Criticism on Mr. Blocker's Essay on Green Crops and Stall Feeding thereon (lohich has been translated into French.) — In the essay I have just read with much interest, I find Mr. Blacker has touched the target at the circumference, but not at the centre, point blank ; he has only glanced at half the advantages to be de- rived by the small Irish farmer from the house-feeding of cows. The milk is an advantage ; the dung is still greater ; hut the third — which Mr. Blacker has not mentioned — is the labour, though moderate, which the cow performs when harnessed with a collar — not with a yoke ; for two cows, harnessed either abreast or one before the other, will draw his horse-hoe, his harrow, his roller, or dung-cart. A cottier who has only four, or even three acres, will have plenty of fodder for two cows in the stable to do his tillage, and draw his ma- nure, his crop, and his firing. Mr. Blacker will see, ia the east and south of France, cows thus harnessed. Iq the south they are all yoked ; but in the east and in my province of Lorraine they have only a collar, which answers much better. It is true that a cow which works constantly eight or nine hours a day, stops giving milk ; but, provided she works only from two to four hours a day, and that not every day, and that she is well fed, she will give almost as much milk as if she did not work at all, and she will give more milk after having a day's rest : and a cottier who has only four acres will not have occasion to employ two cows daily. When a pony rests, it does not bring anything in ; whereas, when a cow rests, its milk increases. It has been observed in Lorraine, that cows are more active than oxen ; and that, harnessed with collars, they walk as quick as horses. The cottier, when he sees the work two young cows can do when kept well in the stable all the year round, will take care to provide plenty of good nourishment for them both winter and summer ; for, when poorly fed, they neither can work ■well nor give plenty of milk or manure; and a cow, with a suitable saddle, can carry considerable weight — for their legs are short and thick, and their spines strong. But, to feed cows well, the cottier must, as soon as he has a yard of ground vacant, dig it, manure it, and trans- plant on it (summer or winter) cabbages or other plants, according to the season ; and, at the same time, as much care must be taken of the dunghill as of the cow— for manure is the foundation of all productive agriculture in Europe. For this reason the cottier's wife should let nothing be lost which can increase the dunghill. The children of the cottier, so soon as they can walk, should be accustomed to carry something to the dung- hill ; it would be an occupation for them ; and they should be praised, and told — " Ycu have worked well ; here, my child, is the best potato for you, because you brought enough to bring up four potatoes." And let every child have its own bit of garden. — L. Valcourt. — Paris, Rue Louisle-Grand, No. 16, August, 1840. ST. COLUMB FARMERS' CLUB,— The subject discussed at the monthly meeting, on Monday se'n- night, was the best crop after a wheat tillage ; and the opinion of the members was, that turnips was the best crop after wheat, with an intermediate crop of vetches, or a particular kind of clover, to be folded with sheep early in the spring. The members present pledged themselves to carry out this improvement on their re- spective estates, as far as practicable. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 413 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. At a Council, beld on VVedaesday, the 28th of April, — present, The Honourable Robert Henry Clive, M.P., in the chair ; Hon. W. Bingham Baring, MP. ; Henry Handley, Esq., M.P. ; Thomas Raymond Bar- ker, E«q. ; .John R. Barker, Esq. ; Thomas William Bramston, Esq., M.P. ; Edward Buller, Esq., M.P. ; Col. Challoner ; John Walbanke Childers, Esq., M.P. ; Edward Davis Davenport, Esq. ; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.; William Goodenough Hayter, Esq., M.P. ; Robert Henry Hurst, Esq . M.P. ; Sir John V. B. Johnston, Bart.; William Woods Page, Esq.; Rev. W. L. Rham ; Edward Aysbford Sanford, Esq., M.P. ; and William Shaw, Esq. — The Report of the Liverpool Committee (of which Mr. Sanford, M.P., has been elected Chairman during the lamented absence of the Duke of Richmond) was received and referred to the consideration of the next monthly Council. Disorder among Sheep. His Grace the Duke of Rutland communicated to the Society the report of his farm bailiff, at the Belvoir Castle Farm, on a new disease which had, within the pre- vious fortnight, appeared among the hogs of his Grace's flock of sheep, and which he regarded as distinct from any disorder he had ever witnessed. The animals appeared to lose their condition gradually, during the course of a fortnight or three weeks, and then die ; aad the bailiff, on examining their livers, found them to be more or less affected, some of them having be- come so very tender as not to be able to bear their own weight, and ia one case the liver was nearly wasted away ; in none of the livers, however, were found any of the flakes which are so common in those of rotten sheep. The bailiff further stated that the sheep had always fed on dry healthy land ; and the hogs in question had not been attacked by the ordinary distemper, and that a month ago they were all looking well ; but at the present time many were looking very thin, and to all appearance as affected in the same manner as those which had died. The following Report on these symptoms was trans- mitted to the Council by Professor Sewell, of the Royal Veterinary College: — " No disease exactly resembling that which has lately shown itself in the Duke of Rutland's flock having been reported to the Society from other dis- tricts, it is requisite, with a view to ascertain its true character from the commencement, to select a few, and place them under the care of a veterinary surgeon for observation and treatment. To attain this object, three or four Kiightbe sent to the Veterinary College. " 'I'he disease appears to terminate in a degeneracy of the structure of the liver, and consequently its functions ; and probably originates in inflammation of that viscus. " The variable temperature which has prevailed of late, and probably some peculiar state of the situation, may favour a tendency to the disease. A change of place and aspect, and food to a certain extent, should ije tried in the first instance— at least, with those that appear to be affected. (Signed) " Wm. Sewell, "Professor, Royal Veterinary College." The following communication was also received from Joseph Vaizey, Esq., of Whitcomb Farm, near Dor- chester, Dorsetshire : — April 24th, 1841. " Respecting your enqnii'y about the epidemic, I will give you, as nearly as 1 am able, the facts as they have occurred on my farm. My flock consists of about 800 South-down Sussex ewos, and 300 ewe hoggets, which number 1 usually winter. These are all kept on turnips and hay from October till Lady-day, with the exception of the time when the ewes lamb (about Can- dlemas), when the practice here is to take them ofl^ tur- nips, and g'ive them grass laid up for the purpose, and free access to hay and water. Our object in doing this is to prevent their eating too great a quantity of succu- lent food, which is thought to be injurious to them when far advanced or rather just previous to their lambing. "JMy sheep were managed in this manner last autumn, and up to the 15th of January were in as high a state of condition as any flock in the country. About this time, however, they very suddenly andrapidly lost condition, and began to cast their lamb* prematurely ; many of the ewes, after doing which, died in the course of a few days ; the others all became lame and sore in their mouths ; we removed every sheep as the symptoms appeared. The proper time for them to lamb down was Candlemas, when I had more than 200 which had cast their lambs, and upwards of 50 ewes dead. On an examination every sheep (almost) was found to be in a highly in- flamed state along the back and spine, and a large and unnatui'al quantity of greyish fluid in the abdomen. Lungs and liver si)«»i(i and healthy. "No sheep has been attacked with lameness or sore mouth, until after the lamb has been yeaned either dead and prematurely cast, or alive and apparently healthy. '"J'hc hoggets were not aflTected until within about a month since, when they all showed similar symptoms. I am satisfied the greater part of the sheep have become lame, three sieveral times ; but after the first time there is no discharge betwea the hoof. "I tried various remedies ; bleeding and purging with no good effect, I am certain. Calomel and opium in large doses had the most beneficial efl'ect of any thing which I gave, but the difficulty of administering these is very great where the flock is large, inasmuch as every sheep must be hotised when calomel is given. "The most distinguishing and marked symptom, is the sudden and rapid loss of flesh, which is frighlful to any observant flock master or shepherd, "My farm consists of about 300 acres of pasture-land, and 400 acres arable ; hilly, IwaUhy, dry, and cold thin land, with a chalk substratum for the most part. I keep only eight cows, and these have been all affected in a similar way — those which had calves died ; but as this was an unimportant part of my business, my main at- tention was directed to the sheep. " Many of my neighbours' sheep are in a similar state now, and the disease is increasing in the neighbourhood ; I have heard of several fresh instances to-day. "Any information will be very welcome to us, and any further statements which I can make, I will cheerfully and readily do on application ; and any such information you ars quite at liberty to publish or do what you think proper with. "Joseph Vaizey." The thanks of the Council were returned to his Grace the Duke of Rutland and Mr. Vaizey, for these communications, which were referred to the con- sideration of the Veterinary Committee. The circum- stances of the two flocks were similar as far as relates to the extent and proportion of pasture and arable land on the tivo farms ; but the hogs on the Duke of Rutland's farm had not been affected by the disorder alluded to by Mr. Vaizey, nor was the disease among them the consequence of that disorder, as the animals affected by the new disease had not been previously disordered at all. Nitrate of Soda. The Rev. W. L. Rham read a communication which he had received from Joshua Rodwell, Esq., of Alder- ton Hall, Suffolk, on the eff"ects of nitrate of soda on the white clover which had been sown with barley the last year. Mr. Rodwell found that where the nitrate had been used, the white clover had almost entirely failed. ]Mr, Rham observed that accounts of failures should be no- ticed, in order to lead to the real practical utility of any proposed manure. Agricultural Improvement Society op Ireland. The Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland transmitted to the Society the first printed report of their proceedings ; and the thanks of the Council were unanimoiuly voted for this communication. 414 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ACRICULTURAL PjLANTS, Colonel Challoner and the Rev. W. L. Rham were appointed a deputation to the Hsrticultural Society, for the parpose of opening a communication with that institution in reference to the joint operation of the two Societies in promoting the cultivation of agricul- tural plants. New Glass Frame for Plants. Mr. Roherts, of King-street, Westminster, sub- mitted to the Council a new glass frame for plants, with an adaptation, first applied by himselC, for ex- amining and iuspecting the plant or soil, by means of a portion of the upper frame work being made to open on a hinge, without the necessity of raising the whole frame at any time for these purposes. Hoe for Drilled Corn. C. Hillyard, Esq., presented to the Society an im- plement invented by him, and found to be extensively useful for hoeing drilled corn. Mr. Blake, M.R.C.S., presented a paper on the formation of an artificial manure ; Mr. Isaac Everitt, of Norfolk, the results of his experiments on the growth of Swedish turnips with different manures. Mr. George Monckton, ol Stafford^^hire, a commuica- tion of results on observed prognostics of the weather ; Mr. Allen Stokes, of Harvinglon, a communication on the utility of obtaining an extensive analysis of the surface-soils of the kingdom ; Mr. Parker, of Sweeney Hall, Shropshire, presented his work on measures, an account of the cultivation of potatoes, and a descrip- tion of his engineering level for agricultural purposes ; Profesior Sewell presented the last number of the " British Farmers' Magazine ;" Dr. Whitlaw his results in the use of the medicated vapour bath ; and William Vaughan, Esq., F. R. S., the last report en Savings' Banks. At a monthly Council, held on Wednesday, the 5th of May— present, Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., Pre- sident, in the chair ; Marquis of Downshire ; Lord Camoys ; Hon. W. Bingham Baring, M.P. ; Henry Handley, Esq., M.P. ; Joseph Neeld, Esq., M.P. ; Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq. ; David Barclay, Esq. ; Edward BuUer, Esq., M.P. ; French Burke, Esq. ; Colonel Challoner ; J. Walhanke Childers, Esq., M.P. ; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq. ; Stephen Grantham, Esq. ; William Goodenough Hayter, E*q., MP. ; William Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; Sir Charles Hulse, Bart.; Robert Henry Hurst, Esq., M.P. ; W. H. Hyett, E*q. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart. ; John Kinder, Esq. ; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P. ; Thomas Thornhill Morland, Esq. ; William Woods Page, Esq. ; J. Wilson Patten, Esq., M.P. ; Francis Pym, Esq. ; Rev. W. L. Rham ; Joshua Rodwell, Esq.; Edward Ayshford Sanford, Esq., M.P. ; William Shaw, Esq.; W. R.C.Stansfiekl.Esq., M.P. ; Thomas Weall, Esq. ; Bartholomew Wroughton, Esq. ; and George Wilbraham, Esq., M.P. Colonel Challoner, Chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, presented the Report of that Committee, which was received and adopted, Mr. Sanford, M.P., Chairman of the Liverpool Com- mittee, presented the Report of the Liverpool Com- mittee, recommending Mr. James W. Wild, architect, of 130, Piccadilly, as the Surveyor of Works for the Liverpool Meeting ; and this appointment was unani- mously confirmed by the Council. The'President announced Sir Robert Peel's intention t& join in the Society's Model Experiment on the growth of Swedish turnips ; and Captain Wentworth BuUer has also appended his name to the list of members who have signed the conditions of the experiment. Experimental Agriculture. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Botany, and Rural Economy, in the University of Oxford, addressed to the President his plan for the prosecution of preliminary experiments in agricultural chemistry and vegetable physiology, on a small farm or other experimental ground, to be selected in some suitable locality for the purpose ; the trials to be comparative in their results, and made in the first iustance on a small scale before being more extensively brought to the test of experience on large tarms. The thanks of the Council were voted to Dr. Dau- beny for this interesting communication ; and on the motion of Mr. Hurst, M.P., a committee was appointed to enquire into the expenses with which the prosecution of such a plan would probably be attended, the follow- ing gentlemen being named members of the experi- mental committee in question : — Mr. Handley, M.P. ; Rev. W. L. Rham ; Sir Charles Lemon; Mr. Childers, M.P. ; air. Hurst, M.P. ; Mr. Hyett ; and Mr. Morland. Fox-TAiL Grass. Mr. W. P. Taunton, a Member of the Society, re- siding at Ashley, near Stockbridge, in Hampshire, transmitted to the Council a fine specimen of the Alopecurus Negricans, or blackish fox-tail grass, a Siberian perennial, grown on strong woodsour clay, over the chalk, at an elevation of five or six hundred feet above the level of the sea, in a tolerably well sheltered situation, but without any extraordinary manuring. Mr. Taunton called the attention of the Council to the fact tkat by the 30th of April (the day on which it was cut) some of the culms had put forth their flowers, the longestculm havingattained the length of nearly three feet five inches ; and he entertained a hope tliat the bulk, hardihood, succulence, and pre- cocity of this species of fox-tail would render its cul- tivation an useful acquisition to English husbandry — stating that this grass thrives in the same soils as the o'her fox-tails, namely, a rich siliceous (sandy or gravelly) soil, with a competent mixtureof argil (clay- earth), and grows freely from seed, provided it be not compressed into the earth, but sown ou the surface ; concluding by remarking, that from an experiment he had accidentally made with the plant, there is great reason to believe that it will prove peculiarly valuable to water-meadows and other humid places. Among the members present, Mr. H. Gibbs, confirmed the statement of Mr. Taunton respecting the general character of this species of foxtail-grasses ; and called the attention of the Council to the curious fact, that all the fox-tail grasses were more or less subject to be in- fested with a small orange-coloured larva, or grub, which preyed upon the germ of the seed, and destroyed the vitality of the seed to such an extent, that in most cases not more than one seed in a dozen ever vegetated on sowing. Mr. Gibbs mentioned another species of fox-tail even still more productive than the one under consideration. Mr. Joseph Badcock, of Pyrton, in Oxfordshire, communicated a Paper on Blight and Mildew ; Mr. Handley, M.P., presented a Tabular Treatise on Che- mistry, for the use of the Agriculturist ; Mr. Walton transmitted a Memoir on the naturalization of the Alpaca, or Peruvian sheep, as a new breeding stock ; Mr. Slaney, M.P., signified to the Council his willing- ness to add the sum of lOZ. to the premium of a prize he proposed for a cheap publication on the construction of cottages, &c. ; and iVIr. Fisher Hobbs gave notice of his intention of proposing at a future Council, that the scale of amount in the prizes to be oflFered at the Bris- tol meetine: next jfear should be raised in the proportion of 30/. to 50/. At a Council held on Wednesday, the 12th of iNI ay, present — Philip Pusey, Esq., M. P., President, in the Chair, Marquis of Downshire, Earl Spencer, Lord Bridport, Henry Handley, Esq., iVI.P., Thomas Ray- mond Barker, Esq., John Henett, Esq., M.P., Edward Buller, Esq., M.P., French Burke, Esq., Colonel Chal- loner, John Walbanke Childers, Esq., M.P., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Robert Hemy Plurst, Esq., M.P., Sir Chiirles Lemon, Bart., fli.P., William Miles, Esq., M.P., Thomas Thernhill Morland, Esq., William Woods Page, Esq., Edward Ayshford Saulord, Esq., M.P., and William Shaw, Esq. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 415 Samuel Peploe, Esq., of Garnstone, near Hereford, was elected a Governor. Colonel Challoner, Chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, presented tTie Report of the Meeting held that day. Model Experiment. Earl Spencer, and John Bennett, Esq., M.P., signi- fied their intention of joining in tiie trial on the growth of Swedish Turnips proposed for this year's Model Ex- periment, by members of the Society ; and iMr. Gibbs having' reported that a sufficient supply of Foittevin's Manure could not be obtained for each party making the trial, it was resolved that Clarke's Desticated Com- post should be substituted in those cases where the Poittevin JManure could not be obtained. Bristol Prize-Sheet. The new Bye-law requiring the list of Prizes for the Bristol Meeting next year to be laid on the table by the Anniversary RIeeting, to be held on the 22d of the present month, having been rend, the Council proceeded to make such alterations in the Liverpool Prize Sheet as seemed desirable to adapt it to the next year's Meeting, and proofs of this preliminary list of Prizes were ordered to be struck oft' and laid upon the public table of the Society, for the suggestions and revision of the Members. Disorder among Sheep. His Grace the Duke of Rutland informed tlie Coun- cil that, agreeably with Professor Sewell's suggestion, he had directed his Bailiff to select three of tlie Lamb Hogs of the BelvoirFarm Flock, which seemed on exami- nation to be the most diseased among the 50 that were affected, and to send them by railway to the Veterinary College in London, in order that Professor Sewell might kill, and institute a post-mortem examination on one of these animals, with a view to ascertain the cause of the disease, and then apply the kno'w ledge thus gained to his experiments in the treatment of the other two. His Grace further informef-l the Council, that when the disease first appeared among the lamb hogs of the flock, the weather was exceedingly dry, but that after a night of rain, which had occurred a fortnight ago, the mortality among them ceased at once, and not one had died since, nor had the bailiff found it necessary to separate any fresh case from the flock. Henry Cleeve, Esq., ofRawreth Hall, near Rayleigh, Essex, (Author of the Saffron VValden Prize Essay, published in the third part of the Society's Journal) also addressed to the Society a communication on llie subject of this disorder among the Duke of Rutland's flock, and stated that he regarded it as the rot in one of its most fatal (orms;, and adduced the fact thai a relative of his, residing in the West of England, had two pasture fields on his farm, both having a rich marly soil, with a very favourable situation, being both high and dry ; but that if he turned his sheep on these fields in the spring, when tlie weather was showery, symptoms of rot would quickly appear, and in a few weeks they would rapidly lose condition and die ; and that on opening the animals after death, the livers were found to be in so diseased a state, as to break on the slightest touch, without containing, however, any of the flukes which commonly accompany the rot in sheep. Conditions of Prizes. Thomas Bates, Esq., of Kirkleaving'ton, (the success- ful competitor for the first Prizes at the Oxford Meeiiiig), addressed a letter on the subject of the same animal being entered a second time for the Prizes of the Society, and in reference to the fifth regulation in the Liverpool Prize Sheet, namely—" No animal which won a First Prize in any class at the previous meetings of the Society, will be allowed to compete for a similar Prize at Liverpool," enquired whetherlhe Buli-cali he exhibited at Cambridge, and which gained a Prize as a huU-calf, could be shewn as a year-old bull at Liverpool ; and the Council decided that the animal in question could be shewn in the latter capacity. Italian Rye-Grass. William Ormsby Gore, Esq., M.P., informed the Council that he had received a communication from Mr. William Farr, of Plas-Llysyn, in Montgomery- shire, in which he stated that he had mowed a large cart-load of Italian Rye- Grass for his milking Cows every day since the 2fith of April last ; having sowed it in April, 1840, mowed all the field twice last summer, and a great part of it three times. Guano Manure. Alfred Casteliain, Esq., of Liverpool, informed the Council, that having observed a reference made in Pro- fessor Sprengel's article, on " Animal Manure*," pub- lished in the 4th part of the Society's J, 1840. The Committee of the Ardlei^li Farmer's Club, in making the report of its proceedings for the past year, Leg to state that, in consequence of the Club not at present exteniling beyond the limits of the jiarish, their operations must necessarily be on a small scale; but they trust nevertheless there may be some information tending to the benefit of tiicir brother farmers generally as well as themselves. The Club having been established in November 1838, and the first in the county, they feel no slight degree of pleasure in being enabled to say, that, if least, they are not last in endeavouring to forward the good work of raising the agricidtare of Great Britain to such a position, that she may be enabled to grow bi^cad for her people, witiiout pay- ing her gold to the foreigner, and thereby not only taking care of her wealth but her welfare. The fii-st topic brought before the Club, was the best method of securing a plant of turnips ; and a majority of the members were of opinion that dril- Ihig was most likely to secure a plant, but that Avhether drilled or broadcast, the seed to be put in as quick as possible after the land is ploughed, and the land to be left rolled down. That, on the subject of sowing saltpetre as a top- dressing, several members have expressed their opinions, and the result appears to be, that it lias a different eiFect upon different soils, and that it does not increase the quantity of corn in proportion to the increase in straw; that it may be a useful auxiliary, but by no means a principal in increasing the bulk of corn ; and that, as far as it has been tried, it appears to do more good in proportion on cool land than on light land ; but the Club hope to arrive at a more satisfactory conclusion ere long, as many of its members are endeavouring to ascertain its real merits. That your Committee sincerely congratulate the Club on the good arising from the establishment of a ploughing match once in the year ; the emulation excited amongst the ploughmen is only exceeded by the good feeling it creates between the farmer and the labourer. The present year seventeen men and three lads contended for the prizes, and so apparent are its benefits from the superior way in which tlie ploughing was done, that it was not without consi- derable difficulty that three competent judges could decide upon their merits : and when it is con- sidered that good ploughing is a very principal fea- ture in agriculture, your Committee beg to impress upon the minds of the members, the great utility there is in lending all the aid in their power to for- Avard a work so essential to the farmer, and so bene- volent in its views towards the labourer. The subject of subsoiling land being before the Club, your Committee think it advisable, in con- sequence of so little having been done at present, that no satisfactory conclusion can be arrived at ; also the best means of securing a plant of clover, and destroying the wireworm ; and each of them being subjects of great importance, the Committee will make no report thereon till the further expe- rience of the members will enable them to speak more decidedly. That your Committee, in alluding to the show of roots at the November meeting, cannot but express great satisfaction at their superior quality and size ; from the energy as well as judgment shown by the members in producing them, it is evident that a greater weight of food may be ])roduced than here- tofore, and therel)y add materially to the value of the produce of the soil. Tliat your Committee, in conclusion, have to ex- press their great gratification at tiie ability with which many members have stated their experience of the various matters under consideration, and the attention generally paid to the subject; and they confidently look forward to the day when farmers' clubs will be as general throughout the kingdom as thev are beneficial to it. PATENT CAKE MILLS, TO TIIE KDITOR OF THE MARK LA.NE EXPRE.SS. Siu, — I beg- you will give the following paragrapli a phic in vour valuable columns, as it niay be of essential advantage to those agricultural individuals who have tht'ir country's good and own interest in view. 1 urn well aware of the ignorance and prejudice of farmers generallxt to adopt any new improvements, until v'^ars of experience and practice, by llieir more in'elligent neiglibours, open tljeir understandings and convince tliem of their errors. Railroads, teetotalism, and many other causes, are greatly operating against the consumption of their ])rodnce, most ])articularly barley and beans, v,-in'ch to ilie agriculturist is of vital iraportisnce, and, if some other means had -not been adopted, vvouhl soon jiave afl'ecttd the landed proprietors themselves : the jiresent state of our corn markets, I trust, fully con- firms my statement. As the population keejis increasing, it gives the farmers an opportunity of increasing their cattle, and during winter an ojiportunity of stall-feeding beasts and slieep to a mucli greater extent tiian was usual ten years ago, which is eifected by using lin- seed cakes, with other materials. 'J'lieir own pro- duction (as linseed) in a great measure is not a!lovv-ed to be grown in this countrv by many states- men, through the ignorance of their land agents, bv ])rohibiting their grovv-lh under agreements, fines, &c. The manufacturer of cake is corn|)elled to im- port seed from foreign countries, at immense risk and very frequently great loss. As the consum[)tion Las so enormously increased in this and other coun- tries, they have raised the cost price of ilie seed above a remunerating return to the manufacturer, and the price of linseed oil having for some years been so ruinously low, and the government taking no part to protect the seed-crusher (same as in France), have caused immense sacrifice of capital, and brought ruin upon manv very res|>ectable families, and great injury to tlie trade generally. The writer of this statement unfortunately being a seed-crusher, can state the fact. The foreign seed-crushers being allowed to send their cake to this country with only 3s. 4d. per ton duty, and the British crusher must pay 8s. per ton, that is Is. per quarter duty, and the general average of seed required for one ton of linseed cake is eight quarters. Therefore, unless some other means be employed, the cake-making in this country will cease, as no man can go on with a business to keep continually losing, as has been the case of late with linseed crushing, and the English farmer will be compelled to depend upon u foreign supply of cake, which ii so injurious to his own interest, by paying away bis THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 429 sovereigns to enrich other countries, wliere, if tlie English farmer was awake to his own advantage, with his own proJuce, and less than half tlie quan- tity of linseed hevetofore used, ii better feed can he l)r<)duced, and fatten cattle in one fourth less time, and linseed might be grown u])on land lit for tlie ])urpose, properly worked and cleaned, instead of dead fallow, as a better crop of wheat may be ob- tained after linseed than any other croj), by giving a top-dressing of compost, rape-dust, ikc, on sowing the wheat, and no injury to the soil. If this system was followed, and the farmers adopt my patent oilcakes for feed instead of linseed, it will correct and avert all the injuries both of the seed-crushers and also the farmers themselves, and do away with the foreigH cakes, and cause such an immense consum|itiori of their own produce, and keep their cash in their own countr_v, which if my plan be acted upon, will save as much money as will pay the working expences upon their farms in twenty-one years. As mij oilcake for cattle feedexceh the linsted, lam pre- pared to prove, by the assertion of many respectable men who have had tlie knowledge to use the same, and would consume every quarter of barley, beans, &c., grown ill this country, notrequired for malting;, and in time require a much greater quantity of that pro- duce to be grown, whii;ii will rtiadily be effected by the improved state of their land, from the superior excellence of the oilcake manure, and that the ]uo- duction of their oivn farms, if mj' views of the be- nefit to arise to agriculture were properly carried into etlect. Having partly stated mv opinion, for the informa- tion of those who are better able than myself to give further information on the subject, and knowing your anxiety to render every information for the agricultural good, induced me to trouble you with my statement. Any farmer may have his own pro- duce made into oilcakes, at an expenceof 4i. 10s. for linseed oil andlabour, at any laill in their neighbour- hood, the parties first procuring my license so to do, during my 14 years patent, full particulars of which will shortly he published in your paper, showing the manner the licenses may be obtained, and the dis- tance allowed for the sale or manufacturing of the cakes between the mills duly licensed. WrLi-iAM Hutchinson. Sutton-on-Trent, near Newark, Notts,, April 26(/t, 1841. ON AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. Sin, — My ignorance of chemistry will, I hojie, excuse my requesting by means of your very useful pages, answers to the following questions, with any useful hints on the subject : — What is the best method of applying, to the best advantage, and for what purposes the lime from gas works, which has a strong smell of sulphur and ammonia'? If ammonia, how is this reconciled with the tact stated by your correspondent, that " lime mixed in dung heaps destroys the ammonia?'' Be- ing slaked as the gas lime is instead of by viater, is all the quality of the quick lime lost ; and will any of its fertilizing qualities he lost by chemical acti. n with the universal compost (staled in Baxter's work) of earth, salt, lime and oil; or with ashes or soot'! If sowi'd In- itself for turnips, what quantity per acre is advisable, or is it better to mix it with other, and what manure ? ^Vhat is the nature, action on soils, pastures, &c., and value as manure, of soap ashes'! TUllNIP (^UKSTION. I am glad to see your progress after truth on crops of turnips ; although your friends are very wide apart, it must do good. When England, Ire- land, and Wales, li.'id stated froui 20 to 50 ton crops, 1 prepared to enter the field of opinion, but seeing the sporting Captain Barclay's friend, wielding a pen of (').") tons, 1 was induced to hide my di.niuished head ; for although I can believe 30 to 40 tons nuni he J'orced by persevering skill, with plenty of good manure, good luck, good seed, good land, and no fly, — my present estimate of the best crops of Swedes grown in this and two or three neighbouring coun- ties, does not exceed from 15 to 'JO tons, and that the average of all that are left for a cro/i is from 6 to 10 tons per acre. I hope iVIr. Rlatson will succeed ill his three acres of 45 tons. But I want a large field like the Captain's, and all weighed, and ample testimony of the facts stated — say 20 acres of 65 tons, that is 1,300 tons, and not a " spot at random." I shall wait anxiously for the report of the mem- bers of our lloyal Society who are now at work, and who will, I hope, set the question at rest by a full and fair statement of cost and produce, the value of the particular piece of land, and all opera- tions upon it, and if any sacrifice has been made in labour, and in the farmer's other pursuits, in his time being minutely given to this. If the vtmnst pro- duce and value be stated, in fairness the utmost cost should be also. We should then find, I presume, that a turnip crop, like all othi^rs, (and 1 should like to hear of a load of potatoes side by side with tur- nips, and treated alike) will pat) for forcing to a cer- tain extent in a small, and to less extent in a large way ; but that farmers will find an increase of capital and ap[)licatiou nece>sary to force crops to the greatest payable extent, and that fair prices for pro- duce are only wanted to induce that further invest- ment of capital. Preserve the farmer's confidence by protection, and he will grow turnips and spend his own corn* in producing meat of all sorts, as the best means of producing munnres for more corn, meat, &c. — -what a field is here for Farmer's Clubs ! But if that protection and confidence he withdrawn, he will reduce his expences, and thereby the condition and produce of his land by avoiding turnips, the costs of which are not returned for several years. Corn- law agitators are little aware of the confidence and security really necessary to insure spirit and perse- verance in farming ; but I must not further occupy your space. I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, March 23, 1841. BEiiKsiiinii. A Subject for Discussion at Farmer's Clubs, OR FOR A Prize from our Royal English Agricul- tural Societv. — The best information on feeding live farm-stock with codl instead of Foreign arti- ficial food. The probable effects of such consump- tion of corn on prices — stating the jirice that meat and corn should realize, (corn first as the producer of meat, and next as the producer of meat fed by corn) to give a profitable inducement to feed, with esti- mates of the value of the manure (and its durability) when compared to the price uf the corn grown by it, &c., &:c. (This reijuires a more intellectual and comprehensive view than 1 have time to give it.) Sparrows. — This is the time to shoot and destroy sparrows ; I begin by giving four-pence a dozen heads, and increase one-penny every dozen all the summer. * He ought to avoid all Foreign cakes and manures. 430 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. BY THE REV. W. L. RHAM, A.M. VICAR OF WINKFIELD, BERKS. Part I. (From the Journal of the Roi/al Agricultural Socictii of' England. J Having been requested by the President and the Journal Committee to communicate the result of my observations on the present state of agricul- ture in the Netherlands, I shall endeavour to com- prise, in a short essay, those peculiar modes of cultivation which have made that portion of the continent of Europe so superior to the surround- ing countries in an agricultural point of view, and which throw considerable light on the true prin- ciples of practical husbandry. Some of the details have been laid before the public in the " Farmer's Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge " Mndcv the title of ^' Outlines of Flemish HushaiidrT/.''' I shall take the liberty of quoting largely from this little work, which, having been written on the spot, and referring to particular farms, of which the names are given, may be relied upon as giving a correct account of the modes of cultivation, and of the details of the practice generally adopted. The climate of the Netherlands, from tlic borders of France to the northern part of Holland, along the coast of the North Sea, and for oO or (iO miles inland, differs little from that of Kent or Essex, in England. From its geographical position, forming a part of the continent of Europe, it is warmer in summer and colder in winter than the central part of England. The quantity of rain which falls there is not so great, especially in winter, as in those parts of England which lie on the opposite coast ; but the snow covers the ground for a much longer time. This causes a material ditFerence in the time of ploughing the land and sowing the seed in spring. The quality of the soil is various. Towards the northern part of Flanders and Antwerj), and the southern part of Holland, it is a poor loose sand, almost as barren as that vvhicb is found on the sea-shore blown into hillocks and only kept toge- ther by the roots of the sea-bent fariiWfZo arenaria.) If it were not for a small portion of mud occasionally mixed with this soil, the water would freely per- colate through it, and no vegetation could be sup- ported. In proportion to the quantity of the mud, which is a very fine clay with a portion of decayeil shells and organic matter, the soil is more or less fertile; and when the mud enters into it in a con- siderable proportion, it forms a rich compact loam. In many places there are alternate narrow strata of sand and loam, which, being mixed together, form a very productive soil. A small portion of carbonate of lime, produced from the decomposi- tion of sea-shells, is found in the mud, when it is analysed ; but there is no limestone, chalk, or marl, in any portion of this coast. When the sand is of considerable depth, and little or no loam is found near the surface, it be- comes a difficult and tedious process to bring it into a state of productive cultivation. The sandy lieaths which lie between Antwerp and the Maese are of the most unpromising kind ; and with all the industry of the Flemings and Dutch, a great portion is still in a state of nature, producing no- thing but scanty tufts of heath, interspersed with a few very coarse grasses. But even in these bar- ren sands there are many green spots, which have been forced into cultivation. The following pas- sage in the " Outlines" is a faithful representation of such improvements : — " The poor sandy heaths, which have been con- verted into productive farms, evince the indefatigable industry and perseverance of the Flemings. They seem to want notbing but a space to work upon ; whatever bo the quality or texture of the soil, in time thev will make it produce something. The sand in the Campine can be compared to nothing but the sands on the sea-shore, which they probably were originally. It is liighly interesting to follow step by step tlie ])rogress of improvement. Here vou see a cottage and rude cow-sbed erected on a spot of the most unpromising- aspect. The loose white sand blown into irregular mounds is only kept together by the roots of tiie heath : a small spot only is levelled and surrounded hy a ditch ; part of this is covered with young broom, part is planted with potatoes, and perhaps a small patch of diminutive clover may show itself; but there is a heap of dung and compost forming. The urine of the cow is col- lected in a small tank, or perhaps in a cask sunk in the earth ; and this is the nucleus from which, in a few years, a little farm will spread around. " In another spot more extensive improvements are going on ; a wealthy proprietor or lessee is trenching and levelling the surface, sowing broom- seed, and planting young fir-trees, which are to be cut down in a few years. In another, the process has gone on further : the lirs or the broom are already cut down ; a vein of loam las been found, and is dug out to be spread over the sandy surface; the cart with liquid manure is preparing the surface for tiie reception of seed, or the same diluted with water, is poured over the 3'oung blade, just appear- ing above ground. The soil is created, and, if the cost and labour were reckoned, is paid for at a dear rate : but jierseverance ensures success, and there are few instances of improvements being abandoned after they are fairly begun, unless they were under- taken on too large a scale ; but then the land is soon divided into smaller portions, and improvements go on from different centres, and with more certainty." —pp. 11, 12. Trenching and levelling the surface is always tlie first operation in bringing a barren soil into cultivation. The Flemings and Dutch are very expert in this operation. " 'J'lie instrument they use is a light wooden trenching-spade, the end of the blade only being- shod with iron ; the handle of this spade i3 about 2 feet long, the blade from 12 to 1» inches. A light pick-axe is used to break the pan where it appears. A ditch is dug with the trenching-spade 2 or 0 feet wide, and as deep as the trenching is intended, gene- rally 2 feet, or at least 20 inches ; this ditch is filled with the earth which is taken in long thin slices from the edge of the solid side of the ditch. Every slice is distributed caiefully, so as to mix the w-hole, and keep the best soil at top, and likewise to fill up hollows and level eminences. If there is more than can conveniently be spread level, little heaps are made of the superfluous earth, which are afterwards carried, in an ingenious manner, to fill up more dis- tant hollows, by means of horses and an instrument w-hich is called a molleburt. Wherever there is a pan it is carefully broken, and the loam, which is always found under it, is mixed with the sand dug out. Draining is seldom required here, except that which is eflected by making- deep ditches to carry ofl" the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 431 superfluous rain-waler, which, iii a country almost as level as a lake is no grt^at difficulty. " If there is 110 manure at hand, tlie only thing that c-m be sown on poor sand, at first, is broom ; tijis grows in the most barren soils ; in three years it is fit to cut, and ])roduces some return in fagots for the bakers and brickin:ikers. The leaves which have fallen have somewhat enriched the soil, and the fibres of the roots have given a certain degree of compactness. It may now be ploughed and sown with buck-wheat, or oven with rye without manure. By the time this is reaped, some manure may have been collected, and a regular course of crojiping- may beg-in. As soon as clover and potatoes enable the farmer to keep cows and make manure, the improve- ment goes en rapidly ; in a few years the soil under- goes a complete change: it becomes mellow and retentive of moisture, and enriched by the vegetable matter afforded by the decomposition of the root.s of clover and other plants. "If about 20 small cart-loads of dung can be brought on each acre of the newly trenched ground, the progress is much more rapid. Potatoes are then the first crop, and generally give a good return. The same ijuantity of dung is required for the next crop which is rye, in which clover is sown in the succeeding spring; and a small jjortion is sown with carrots, of which they have a white sort, which is very productive and large in good ground, and which, even in this poor soil, gives a toleiable supply of food to the cows in winter. Should the clover fail, which sometimes happens, the ground is ploughed in spring, and sown with oats and clover again. But if the clover comes up well amongst the rye stubble, it is cut twice, after having been dressed with Dutch ashes early in spring. It is mostly con- sumed in the green state. The clover-ley is manured with 10 cart-loads of dung to the acre, and rye sown again, but not clover. After the rye comes buck- wheat without any manure ; then potatoes again, manured as at first, and the same rotation of crojis follows. It is fountl that the poor land gradually improves at each rotation from the quantity of dung used. " For want of sufficient manure, brooin-seetl is sometimes sown with the rye alter the clover The rye is reaped, and the broom continues in the ground two years longer. It is then cut for fuel. The green tops are sometimes used for litter for the cows, and thus converted into manure. It is also occasion- ally ploughed in, when young and green, to enrich the land. Oats, clover, and broom, are occasionally sown together. The oais are reaped the first year, the clover and young brooin-tops the next, and the broom cut in the thirds 'Jhis is a curious practice, and its advantage ap])8ars rather problematical. All these various methods of bringing poor sands into cultivation show that no device is omitted which in- genuity can suggest to supply the want of manure. " After the land has bt'en gradually brought into a good state, and is cultivated in a regular manner, there appears much less difi'erence between the soils which have been originally good and those which have been made so by labour and industry. At least the crops in both appear more nearly alike at harvest than is the case in soils of different qualities in other countries. This is a great proof of tlie ex- cellency of the Flemish system ; for it shows that the land is in a constant state of improvement, and that the deficiency of the soil is compensated by greater attention to tillage and manuring, especially the latter. The maxim of the Flemish farmer is, that, ' without manure there is no corn ; without cattle there is no inaiinre ; and without green crops and roots cattle cannot be kept.' Every farmer cal- culates how much manure he requires for his land every year. If it can be bought at a reasonable rate, he never grudges the outlay. If it cannot be purchased, it must be made on the farm. A i)ortion of land must be devoted to feed stock, which will make sufficient manure for the remainder : for he thinks it better to keep half the farm only in productive crops well manured, than double tlie amount of acres sown on badly prepared land. Hence also he does not reckon what the value would be of the food given to the cattle if sold in the market, but how much labour it costs him to raise it, and what will be the increase of his crops from the manure collected. The land is never allowed to be idle so long as the season will permit any thing to grow. If it is not stirred by the plough and harrows to clear it of weeds, some useful crop or other is growing in it. Hence the practice of sowing different seeds amongst growing crops, such as clover and carrots, amongst corn or flax ; and those which grow rapidly between the reaping of one cro;) and the sowing of another, such as spurrey or turnips, iminedialely after the rye is cut, to be taken off before wheat-sowing. These crops seem sometimes scarcely worth the la- bour ot ploughing and sowing ; but the ploughing is useful to the next crop, so that the seed and sow- ing are the only expense ; and while a useful crop is growing, weeds are kept down." — pp. 12, iS, 14. The process here described is the only one, which , allowing for difference of soil and other circum- stances, can bring very poor land into a state of profitable cultivation. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, in Scotland, on a very different, but still very jjoor soil, deep trenching with the spade, and judiciously mixing the different earths which are dispersed through the soil, have been found the most efficacious, and, in the end, the cheapest mode of transforming large tracts of peaty moor, full of granite rocks and stones of all sizes, into cultivated fields. The change produced in the as- ])ect of the country is no less striking here, after a few years, than that of the improved heaths of the provinces of Antwerp and Guelderland. 'i~he most rapid improver of loose sands is rich liquid manure, affording immediate nourishment to plants, whicli otherwise, for want of moisture, would languish, even with an abundance of solid dung; for this last remains altogether inert, until it be moistened and partly dissolved. When the fibres of the root spread, they hind the loose sand, and prevent the too rapid evaporation and perco- lation of the moisture. These roots remain in the soil when the crop is reaped, and by their decay afford organic matter for the nourishment of the next crop. Hence it is evident that the plants which have long sjireading roots, if they can be made to vegetate vigorously by an ample supply of liquid manure, greatly improve very light sands, and, in process of time, by the decay of the vege- table fibres, produce such an increase of humus as entirely to cliange the quality of the soil. i he collection and preparation of liquid manure is an object of jirimary importance with the Fle- mish farmer : every farm has, near or under the stables and cow-houses, one or more capacious tanks, into which the urine of the animals and the washings of the staliles flow ; and every exertion is made to increase the quantity and improve the qua- lity of the tank liquor. " The tanks are generally sunk below the level of the ground, and have the sides built of brick, and the bottom paved : they are of various dimensions, ac- cordino- to the number of cows and horses on the 432 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. farm. Attacbed to the distilleries, wliere many beasts are ccnstaatly kept to consume tlie refuse wash, there are very large urine-tauks, of an oblong shape, divided by partitions into different chambers, so that the liquor may be of the proper age wlien it IS used, which some farmers think ought to bo six months.* Each chamber is about 8 feet square and 6 or 8 feet deep : these are sometimes vaulted over, but frequently only covered with loose boards. As urine and the emptyings of privies are sold whole- sale and retail, there are many large tanks near the rivers and canals, where the dealers have sometimes great quantities in store. Some of these consist of many square pits like tan-pits, bricked round, and the iusirle covered with a cement, which prevents loss by filtration. There is generally in a corner of each pit a graduated scale, by which tlie number of barrels or tons of liquid in the tank may be ascer- tained, by oDserviiig the lieight of the surface. These tanks are gradually filled by boatloadsbrought from the large towns; and when the season arrives for sowing, in spring and iuitumn, the farmers come with their carts and lubs, and purchase as much as they may want. The price varies from three to five francs ('Js. 6J. to 4s. ) per hogshead, according to the quality. In a small farm of 30 to 40 acres the tank is generally about 20 feet long, I'i wide, and 6 deep, with a partition in the middle, and arched over, leaving a small round opening for the pump, and another sufficient to allow a man" to go in to empty out the earthy deposit which aecumuhites at the bottom. A trap door shuts over this last aper- ture to prevent accidents. Sometimes the tank is round like a well, with a dome top, and so deep in the ground, that it has a foot or two ef earth over it. The situation of the tank is either in the farm-yard near the entrance of the cow-house, or immediately behind it : sometimes it is like a cellar under the building ; but this is apt to cause a disagreeable smell in the cow-house. VVe here descrdie those tanks which we consider the most convenient : the form and capacity of them vary greatly, according to the means and notions of the proprietors of the farms ; but a tank of some kind or other is considered as in- dispensable an appendage to a farm as a barn or a cow- house. The farmer would as soon think of dispen- sing with his plough as with his tank : and no ex- pense or trouble is spared to keep it well supplied. " i'he numerous towns and villages in Flanders afford great help in the way of manure. The thrifty housewife and her active substitute the maid know the value of what in our households is thrown awav, or wasted and lost. A small tank, or a tub sunk in the ground, in some corner, contains all the liquid which can in any way be useful ; soap-suds, wash- ings of dishes, &c., are carefully kept in this reservoir until, once a week, the farmer or contractor calls with his tub on a cart; and this, mixed with the contents of privies, which are frequently emptied, he keeps in large cisterns for use or sale. "But this supply is not always adequate to the wants of the farmer; and then he has recourse to rape-cakes dissolved in water, or in the tank liquor, which is expensive, and can only be profitable when flax bears a good price, this being the crop for which rape-cakes are chiefly used as manure. Every means, therefore, of augmenting the supply of urine is had recourse to, and the most efficacious is the es- tablishment of distilleries. These answer the double purpose of consuming pioducoand increasing manure by the number of beasts which are fattened on the * But this depends on the season of the year and oflier cii- cumstanees, as will be seen below; refuse wash. It is calculated that every beast pro- duces at the rate of 10 or 12 tons of dung and 26 hogsheads of uiine in the year. A moderate distil- lery has 50 or 60 head of cattle constantly stalled. Here then is a supply of manure for several hundred acres of land every year. Formerly there were a great many distilleries i:i Flanders, but the duty on spirits and the interference of the government has much reduced their number ; so that the farmers com[)lain of the loss of this manure, and the conse- quent deficiency of their crops. " Liquid manure is carried to the fields in common water-carts, which consist of two wheels and shafts, carrying a cask containing from 60 to 120 gallons of liquid. The cask has in the under part a hole, 2 or 3 inches in diameter, secured inside by a valve ; under this is a board a little slanting, to spread the liquid as it flows out of the cask. A man usually rides on the horse which draws the cart, and holds in his hand a string, which passes through a hole in the cask and opens the valve when required. There is an advantage in riding on the horse, as it does not add to the weight of the load on the wheels, which in light soils would be apt to sink deep. In mo- mentary exertion it assists the horse by the weight on his back ; and the heavy Flanders horses are well able to carry a man and draw a light load at the same time. When the cask is empty the horse trots home for another load, and no time is lost. It is as- tonishing what advantage there is in accustoming horses to trot when they have no load ; it actually fatigues them less than the continued sleepy walk. Who would suppose that the Flemish and Dutch farmers surpassed us in activity 1 but whoever has been in the Netherlands in hay-time or harvest must acknowledge it." — pp. 21, 22,24. The value of cows' urine with other animal sub- stances dissolved in it is universally admitted by all the farmers of sandy soils in the Nether- lands : the theory of its preparation and applica- tion to the soil remains, however, yet involved in some degree of obscurity ; and some eminent chemists have doubted whether the collection of it in a tank is the most economical mode of prepar- ing it for the soil. In the fourth number of this Journal there is a translation of a very valuable Treatise on Animal Manures, by Sprengel, in which (p. 474} it is more than insinuated, that the advantages of the urine- tank are much over-rated ; and that it is better to mix the solid and liquid parts of dung together, and form them into composts with rich earth, as is often done in England and other countries, than to preserve the fluid portion by itself in a tank, to be used separately on the land, after it has gone through a certain stage of decomposition. Without disi)uting the correctness of the chemical princi- l)les on which this opinion is founded, we may hesi- tate before we condemn or undervalue a practice which has produced such wonderful effects in the improvement of the poor sands in the Netherlands. Liquid manure may be applied to plants in every stage of their growth, if it be judiciously diluted so as not to injure the young and delicate roots by its caustic nature. It invigorates their growth more than we could anticipate from a knowledge of its solid component parts. It is no doubt sooner exhausted ; because it is rapidly absorbed by the roots, and its elements enter into new com- binations. If some of the more volatile parts, as ammonia, fly oft" in the process of decomposition which goes on in the taidv, it is probable that a much greater ])ortion of these elements fly oft" from the solid dung, while it remains in the ground and T[IE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 433 l)etbre iC is in a fit state to be taken up by tbo roots, wbicb can only happen when rain renders it litjuiJ. All those who have had lone; experience of tiic good effects of liquid manure on light soils persevere in its use, whatever objections may be urged theoretically to its being preserved sepa- rately. Oil stiff, impervious soils the use of liquid ma- nure may not be so advantageous, and the reason- ings of chemists may be correct. On these soils it is seldom used, except when they are in grass, or when cabbages are planted ; and composts pre- pared with straw, earth, and dung, with the liquid portions occasionally poured over them, are found to be a more effectual and lasting manure. The Swiss, whose principal object is to have a supply of food for their cattle in winter, when the moun- tain pastures are covered with snov^', and who de- vote much of their attention to the cultivation of roots and artificial grasses, use the liquid manure in a very condensed state, collecting the water which has been poured over their heaps of dung, after it has filtered through them and been satu- rated with all the soluble portions of the dung. I'his, which they call lizier, in French, and mist- wanner, or guile, in German, is carried on the land immediately after the grass, sainfoin; or lucern has been mown, and produces a second and third crop in a verj' short time. Cabbages, potatoes, and the varieties of the beet are invigorated in the same manner; and thus, in the short summers of the high mountain valleys, crops are brought to maturity, which, without the use of liquid manure, would never had time to ripen. But let it not be imagined that either the Flemings or the Swiss un- dervalue the solid manure which is produced by the mixture of litter with the dung of animals, collec- ted in heaps, where it heats and decomposes. They are as careful of this, and as anxious to in- crease it, by every means in their power, as the best English farmer can be. " In order to increase as much as possible the quan- tity of solid manure, there is in most farms a place for the general reception of every kind of vegetable mat- ter which can be collected; this is a shallow exca- vation, of a square or oblong form, of which the bot- tom has a gentle slope towards one end. It is gene- rally lined on three sides with a wall of brick, to keep the earth from falling- in ; and this wall some- times rises a foot or more above the level ot the ground. In this pit are collected jiarings of grass sods from the sides of roads and ditches, weeds taken out of the fields or canals, and every kind of refuse from the gardens : all this is occasionallv moistened with the washings of the stables, or any other rich liquid; a small portion of dung and urine is added, if necessary, and when it has been accumulating for some time it is taken out, a portion of lime is added, and the whole is well mixed together; thus it forms the beginning of a heap, which rises gradually and in due time gives a very good supply of rich vege- table mould or compost, well adapted to every pur- pose to which manure is applied." — p. 22. It will be seen hereafter that, in the prepar ation of the land for the different crops, the Fle- mings and Dutch do not useless solid manure than we do, and that the liquid is an additional means of producing a certain and abundant crop, and not merely a substitute for the dung heap. The great secret in the improvement of poor land is to increase its fertility by judiciously stir- ring, pulverising, and mixing together the different earths of which it may be composed ; adding those which aie deficient — where itcan be done without too great expense of labour or capital — and, above all, impregnating it throughout with portions of humus, that is, organic matter in a state of de- composition. 'J'he ir.echanical texture of the soil is of the first importance; for on this dc])ends the proper retention of moisture, without fiupcral)undance or stagnation, \\hich im|)lies that the subsoil is naturally jjorons, or made so artilicially ; espe- cially in northern climates, where the evaj)Ora- tion i^ slow, and much rain falls throughout the year. The roots of i)lants, in their tender state, must find pores in which they can shoot and increase in bulk, for which the air and water arc indispen- sable. They must also find substances which can yield them carbon, in a soluble state, as carbonic acid, which is produced in all vegetable fermen- tation. In water and air are contained all the other elements of vegetables, and even carbon in a small proportion. If the pores are so large as to let the moisture through, or allow it to evaporate readily, the vegetation ceases, and the plant soon dies : if they are filled with water, so as to exclude air, the same result follows. Hence it is evident that by altering the mechanical texture of a soil, without any chemical change in its component parts, it may be made much more capable of sup- porting vegetation than it was before. The quan- tity of organic matter, or humus, which will sus- tain vegetable life is extremely small, when other circumstances are favourable. Hence in the im- provement of barren soils the most essential pro- cess is to alter the mechanical texture. In clays this is effected by repeated tillage, when the situ- ation allows the superfluous moisture to run off. This is the reason why good clays are in all coun- tries looked upon as the best soils, and sands as comparatively inferior. A soil which contains but little argillaceous or calcareous earth in its com- position was long considered as irreclaimably bar- ren : but when the alternative presents itself of starving, or making poor sands productive, means are soon found to correct their barrenness. As pure siliceous sand is too porous, the first thing is to add substances which will readily fill up some of the pores. Fine clay diffused through, water does so most effectually ; and it is astonishing how small a portion of pure alumina will consoli- date a loose sand, and convert it into a good loam, the parts of which, when moistened, will adhere and form a clod in drying. Whenever this is the case, the soil can no longer be considered as bar- ren ; but it may not yet be fertile, however its poro- sity may be corrected ; for this purpose it requires organic matter already so far decomposed as to be readily assimilated to the substance of the plants. When vegetation is active, and the organs of plants vigorous, there is every reason to sup- pose that water is decomposed by the action of the leaves ; but this does not take place in the infancy of the plant. The roots must find some nourishment, ready prepared and easily assimilated. This has a strict analogy with animal life. The infant finds its earliest nourishment in its mother's milk, or, by the admirable contrivance of nature, in some similar substance. 1 lie body of a young chicken is formed from the white of the egg in which it was enclosed ; and the yolk is a provision for the period which intervenes between its being hatched and the time when its little bill is so har- dened as to enable it to peck and take up insects or small seeds. The seed committed to the ground may 434 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. be compared to an egg : the first expansion of the embryo is entirely from the substance of the seed ; and, until the seed-leaves arc fully formed, it takes little or nothing from the soil, except pure water. But after the real leaves expand, it requires more nourishment, and if this is not found in the pores of the soil, or if the roots cannot penetrate to it, the plant languishes and dies. It is of no use that, plenty of rlcli manure is somewhere in the soil, if it be not accessible ; or if it be not in a proper state to be absorbed by tbe tender fibres of the roots. The plant will die, as an animal would by the side of a chest full of i)rovisioas, which are locked up, or unfit for his organs of digestion. These principles lead naturally to the best practice in improving or cultivating the soil ; and we shall find that the mode pursued by the Flemings admi- rably accords with the theory. The trenching and mixing prepares the soil fur receiving the additions of organic matter. The roots are fed with a liquid manure readily taken up, and greatly invigorating, until a sufficient por- tion of humus is formed, which gives the most gradual and regular supply of nourishment. At the same time solid particles are deposited which fill some of the pores, and begin that accumulation of humus which in time will convert the whole into a rich and fertile soil. It must be observed, that the smaller the parti- cles of sand the better the soil will be after being improved. Coarse sand, each ])article of which is a visible crystal, allows the humus to be readily washed out. It must be mixed with clay or marl to fill up some of its pores ; and if this is not already done by nature, it must be done by art, or all the labour bestowed on the cultivation, and all the ma- nure expended, will never be repaid by the produce. It is, therefore, of the greatest consequence to all improvers of barren lands to know, not only what proportion of silicious and argillaceous earths there is in the soil, but also what is the actual size of the particles. This is very easily ascertained by means of the simple instrument, consisting of me- tallic sieves, which is described in the Essay on the Analysis of Soils, in the first number of this journal. When a considerable proportion of the dry pulver- ised earth passes through the finest sieve, it is a sure sign that the soil, if not already fertile, can be easily made so. That which is most readily improved consists of a small portion of coarse sand , mixed with a larger portion of finer, and with a considerable portion of impalpable earth, partly silicious, and partly argillaceous and calcareous, so that, when it is moistened, it docs not form a tough paste, but dries into clods easily pulverised between the fingers. The degree of fertility will depend altogether on the quantity of humus which is incorporated with this loam, and which the spe- cific gravity readily discovers ; the richer soils being the lightest ; for humus is much lighter than any of the simple earths. Keeping this in view, it is easy to show the ad- vantage or disadvantage of different modes of pro- ceeding, which should vary with the nature of the original soil. In the natural earth, which has never been cultivated, or which is dug up from a consider- able depth below the surface, portions of different kinds of earth are found in thin layers or in separate pieces, which, being pulverized and mixed together, want nothing but the addition of liumus to make them a fertile soil. Here the use of the trenching- spade is evident. No other in- strument could so well divide the earths, and mix them in due proportions. The more the ground is stirred, the better it becomes; and by a course of cultivation, which, instead of exhausting the humus gradually increases its quantity, it becomes at last a rich mould, like that of a garden, in which all plants suited to the climate thrive luxuriantly. In the progress to this state of fertility the soil must have passed through every intermediate state ; and the same process which at any one peiiod effected the improvement must be judicious, if applied to any soil similar in its nature. In agriculture, as well as in most arts s and sciences, to stand still is the prelude to going I back. The soil, under the hands of a skilful agri- ' culturist, must not only be made to produce all that it is capable of producing, but its capacity for production must be continually increasing, until it arrives at that state, when a further increase of humus would loosen its texture too much to produce many of the most valuable plants, which are the chief objects of cultivation ; for, beyond a certain proportion, tbe increase of humus does not always increase the produce. These preliminary observations appear necessary to enable those who may not have paid much at- tention to tbe theory of vegetation to trace their accordance with the practice which experience and observation alone have suggested and confirmed. They may also be useful in suggesting to those who would imitate any particular system of husbandry the modifications which are necessary, where the soil, climate, and other circumstances are different. The advantages of stirring the soil to a con- siderable depth by trenching and deep ploughing, which only now begin to be genei-ally appreciated in England, and the intimate union of the manure with every portion of the soil, have long been practically acknowledged by the farmers in the Netherlands. The quality and value of flax, of all their crops the most profitable, has been found by experience to depend chiefly on the care with which the soil is loosened, and the manure intimately incorporated with it. Great attention is paid to ploughing and cross ploughing. The harrows are used much more frequently than with us, and the surface is laid level and thoroughly pulverized to receive the seed. The stitches, where there are any, are not generally in a convex form, but have a flat surface; and the spade deepens the intervals to twice the depth of a common furrow. The earth dug out is spread evenly over the seed which has been previously sown, and is pulverized by the harrows or by a flat instrument called a traineau, which is drawn over it, and breaks all the clods, while it compresses and levels the surface. The rounded form of the stitches in England throws the water into the interfurrows, but at the same time tends to soak the lower portions on each side in wet, if the subsoil is at all retentive of moisture ; hence the plants which grow there are often sickly and unproductive. In Flanders, even in the most tenacious soils, this rounded form is unnecessary ; for there is an open drain between every two stitches. The soil, having been well pulverized, allows the superfluous water to sink, and it runs slowly into the deepened furrows, without injuring the plants at the edge of the stitch. When the crop is reaped, the edges of the stitch are broken down and drawn into the deepened furrow by means of a large hoe or hack, and the plough completes the filling up and lays the land level again. When next the stitches are made, care is taken that the intervals are a foot to one THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 435 side or other of the lines where they were before, iind again dug out eight or nine inches below the bottom of the furrows. Thus in a few years the whole field will have been dug Id or 18 inches deep, and the soil and subsoil, to that depth, completely incorporated and enriched with manure ; for, after the seed is sown, the tank liquor is invariably poured over the surface, or into the intervals before they are deepened, that it may soak in and mix with the earth which is about to be spread over the seed. Although this is a longer process than that of trenching the whole ground with the spade at once, it is much more effectual and less expensive. About an inch only of the subsoil, whatever be its nature— if it be not an indurated clay or gault, as it is in many places in England, but nowhere in the Netherlands — is put on the surface to cover the seed. It pro- duces no weeds, and being soaked with liquid manure, and exposed to the action of the at- mosphere for many months, it is mellowed and assimilated to the soil before it is ploughed in. An inch of earth thus improved every year, and mixed with the soil, soon renders the whole of a uniform quality to the depth of Ifi or 18 inches ; after which every subsequent spreading tends to increase the imiformity in texture and richness. Some plants do not require a great depth of soil, their roots spreading near the surface. In this case the manure is ploughed in with a shallow furrow, and none of it is buried below the reach of the roots. But the most profitable crops, such as clover, wheat, cole, and especially flax, thrive best in a deep soil : the roots of this last will strike down several feet into the ground, if it meets with a very mellow soil ; and the crop v/ill not only be more abundant, but of a better quality, than it would in a soil, however rich, which bad but little depth. Potatoes also, which are cul- tivated to a considerable extent in every farm, thrive better in a deep soil of moderate quality, than they do in a richer soil of small depth on a barren subsoil. Another mode of deepening tlie soil and mellow- ing it at the same time is worthy of notice. When the harvest is over, the land is immediately ploughed, and, where labourers are to be found in sufficient numbers, several are stationed, with spades in their hands, at regular distances along the line of ploughing. The plough makes a furrow about 10 inches wide and six deep. As soon as it has passed the first man, he begins to take solid spits of earth out of the bottom of the furrow and places them on the land to the right side. These spits are not taken in continuation, but with a small interval between them, leaving so many square holes. The number of labourers is proportioned to the length of the furrow, so that each shall have finished his portion by the time the next furrow is made, which fills up the holes in the preceding farrow ; and the whole field is laid in an extremely rough state ; thus it remains for a considerable time, sometimes all the winter, and the rain and frost pulverize the clods which lie all over it. In spring the whole is repeatedly harrowed to make it level, and is then ploughed flat, or in stitches to prepare for sowing, the manuring being a matter of course. This will give some idea of the importance attached to deepening and mixing the soil, and will account for the uniform appearance of the crops on soils of very different qualities. The worst soils require more labour and manure, and consequei\tly are less valuable ; but every deficiency is made up by additional industry. But it may be asked, where can a farmer find manure, solid and liquid, to manure nearly all his land every year? for of all the crops cultivated buckwheat is the only one which is sown without some manure, at least by all good farmers. This is the great jjoint to which the attention of the farmer is constantly directed. The collecting and preparing of manure is a pro- fession of itself. The poor in towns sweep the streets, and make composts of all refuse matter in some spot given to them for that purpose without the {ijates. They reduce it to a fine powder, and dry it in the sun. \\'hat will chemists say to this .■' Will not all the volatile parts fly off, and the best portions of the manure be lost? We will not I)retond to give an answer to this objection : but the fact is, that this dry manure is most highly prized by the growers of flax, and is supposed more efficacious than any other, night-soil ex- cepted. This last is the ne i}lus ultra of maimrc for light soils. It is conveyed in boats from the different towns, and deposited in pits, where it is collected and kept for sale by measure. In a very dense population this resource is considerable, and no one would be so wasteful as to allow the common sewers to carry off a substance which is regularly sold and obtains a good price. These are adventitious resources, and can only be depended on in certain localities. The only certain means of obtaining manure is by feeding cattle, which in the Netherlands are chiefly milch cows. No meadows are required in the light lands of Flanders for the cattle to graze in : and where there are meadows along the banks of the rivers, they are mown to feed the cows with grass in the stalls, or to make hay for winter fodder. The whole system of husbandry is founded on the supply of manure, and a considerable portion of the crops are merely subservient to this purpose. The Immediate profit on the cattle is trifling, if they do not even cost more to feed than their produce will repay : but the manure must be had ; and he who can procure manure at the least cost is the best farmer. Keeping this in view, all the cattle are kept in stables, that none of the manure may be lost ; and every mode of feeding has been tried which will increase the manure at the cheapest rate. Meadows being scarce, and hay dear in those parts of the Netherlands where the soil is sandy, the chief food of cows in summer is grass, barley or oats, cut in a green state, clover, tares, and spurrcy ; and in winter cabbages, beans, and roots. These last are not given in their natural state, but soaked in warm water, or boiled into a mess, which is given milk-warm to the cows in troughs ; so that it may be truly said, that the cows are fed like pigs. The straw is used chiefly as litter for the horses. The cows often lie on smooth bricks, which are washed clean twice a day, for which purpose a pump is an essential appendage to a cow-house. There is generally a deep gutter along the wall behind the cows, into which the water and urine drain, the ground sloping gently towards it. The tank is either im- mediately under the stable, well vaulted over, or it is so near that all the liquid readily runs into it through a covered drain. The heads of the cows are towards the middle of the stable, and their tails over the gutter along the wall. The width of the building admits of two rows of cows, facing each other, with a space between them sufficiently wide to admit a small cart to bring- the food to them. This is universally the form of a cow-house in Holland. The liquid in the tank is allowed to 436 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. go through the first stages of fermentation, during which the caustic |)ortion of the urine is rendered mild, and the liiiiior is better adapted to be taken up by the fibres of the roots. In order that there may lie a regular succession of liquid, in a proper state for use, there p.ve jjartitions in the tanks, and, by means of small flood-gates in the drain which leads to it, the fresh accuinidation may be directed to any one of the pits thus formed, while the ripe liquor may be pumped up into tubs or barrels set on wheels, to be conveyed to the land. There are means of accelerating or retarding the fermentation, according to the time when the liquor is wanted. Stirring and admitting ihe air assist the process, while the addition of earth, peat, or ashes, and keeping out the air, retard it. The efficacy of the liquid is much increased by adding oil-cake, the residue of rapeseed when the oil has been pressed out, and other vegetable substances. This is usually done a short time before it' is put on the land, as it would otherwise ferment too much. AVc have already mentioned the compost-heaps. These are chiefly made of the dung and litter of the liorses and pigs, kept moderately moist, and - mixed with every kind of refuse vegetable matter, with the addition of mould from ditches and the sods taljeciions now so generally entertained against them, and which were commonly but too well-founded. The fact he believed was this : — That much of the mischief had arisen from mismanagement. Farmers, from a fear lest their machines should not 'hresh clean, set them so close as very materially to injure the grain, particularly barley. The damage thus done to the germinating powers of the corn was beyond conception. He here spoke as a maltster, and, it might be, somewhat feelingly ; — be this as it might, he was quite sure that no farmer would be willing to own as his certain samples he could produceat eleven days and upwards from the couch. The best and heaviest barleys were always the worst broken, nibbed, or skinned. One argument had been advanced in favour of the flail, which was, the equal delivery of straw to stock in the yards ; a minor consideration at best, and only proved, if it proved anything, the necessity of stack- ing, thatching, and otherwise taking care of the straw, if produced in larger quantities than could be con- veniently made away with as it came from the barn or stack. But the machine alone was not answcable for all the damage which grain frequently sustained. In certain seasons, and certain varieties of barley, for instance, it was exceedingly difiicult to get rid of the awns or havels. Very objectionable methods were sometimes resorted to for this purpose : one of which was, putting the corn and colder in the rough a second time through the machine ; another was horse-treading it in the same state ; and a third im- proper and excessive chopping. The speaker observed that he dwelt more par- ticularly on threshing barley with the machine, not only because he was more interested in that grain, but because he believed it was far more liable to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 445 injury than any other ; remarking, in conclusion, that so ns the veo;et;>tive power was uninjured, he cared not a rush how it was threshed. Another njultster confirmed all that had been said by the preceding sj)eaker; adding, that owing to the naisraanageraeut which generally prevailed in using the machines, he would always give more for Hail- threshed than macliined barley, A member said, that, as a farmer, he would always endeavour to avoid injury to his corn, be it what it might ; but that be could not give uj) the machine, for he did not like to see his pigs fattening on what was left in the straw by the flail. The general opinion having been expressed in favour of a judicious use of machinery for this pur- pose, the discussion terminated. The next subject for the evening was, " The best method of putting in barley, and the most approved description to plant," The mover thought there could not be two opinions as to the method of depositing the seed. The ad- vantages of drilling barley were so obvious, tiiat it would be a waste of time to enumerate them. He was not for very fleet sowing; but considered three inches a fair depth. The Chevalier was decidedly the best stock for good barlev land ; but for very poor soils, he pre- ferred the Moldavian ; though probably even tins was surpassed by the stock usually known as the old field barley. I'he Annat barley was alluded to by one gentle- man who had tried it last season ; but, not having threshed it, he could only say that from its appear- ance it augured well. He always adopted the drill system, using wide, winged coulters, so as to disperse the grain in the rows as much as possible, giving the field the ap- pearance of having been ploughed in. Very little difference of opinion existed as to the superiority of the Chevalier over any other variety, on the average of soils. One member had grown fif- teen coombs an acre of it; but h'^ acknowledged it was on very excellent land. A curious fact was elicited in connexion with this stock of barley; wliich was, that however much the crop might be laid and beaten down, either by storms, or by its own weight, the grain did not receive that injury to which any otber sort under similar circumstances would be liable. There can be no doubt of the general superiority of the Chevalier as a malting barley. Its introduc- tion has occasioned a complete revolution in certain districts, where formerly no such thing as malting barley was thought of. It is one of the greatest im- provements of modern times. " The choice of small seeds, and the most advan- tageous method of sowing them, with reference to a future crop," led to some useful practical remarks. Red clover was generally preferred for good strong land, at the rate of about one peck an acre ; and for mixed soil, clean trefoil rye grass was not usually very popular ; but cases were mentioned of its hav- ing proved a good preparation for wheat, if the layer was ploughed six weeks or so before the wheat was sown. A mixed layer of rye grass and other small seeds was recommended by some. Cow grass was also adverted to in favourable terms as sheep-feed. It yields well, and is a good green crop. As to the method of sowing, the prevailing opinion was in favour of the machine, in preference to broad-cast, and depositing the seed very fleet. April 2nd, — The first topic for discussion this evening was, " On the preparation of land for man- gel-wurzel, and the best sort to plant," The Nor- thumberland or raised-drill method was probably the most scientific, as well as popular, inasmuch as it offered facilities of horse-hoeing not possessed by flat-work; at the same time that it placed the seed exactly over the manure ; of which it thus derived the full benefit, and enabled the plant to make that rapid growth so essential to the attainment of supe- rior size and weight. One member had understood that fresh horse dung was injurious to the seed. Another used stale dung, dibbling in three seeds in each hole, at six inches distance, then cutting away every other plant; 4lbs. an acre dibbled, or 31bs. drilled, was the practice of some. The latter end of April a good time for putting in the seed. Paring and burning at a cost of 2/. an acre had been resorted to with success. IManuring the land intended for this cro]) soon after Michaelmas was strongly recom- mended from experience. The land had been ploughed in winter, laid dry, and drilled on twelve furrow stetches on May l.jth. The running to seed observable in some crojis, might, it was thought, be attributed rather to the stock than to the time of sowing. One part of this subject (probably on ac- count of the absence of the original proposer) re- mained untouched, viz, the best description of stock for sowing. This may possibly be resumed on a future occasion, "The best method of improving old pasture land," produced, as might be expected, a variety of opinions; and as Norfolk farmers are more cele- brated for their arable than grass land management, nothing very novel or instructive was elicited. Sur- face draining was reckoned a sine qua non by some ; but even this it was thought bv others might be carried too far, and the quantity, if not the quality, of hay injured thereby. This discussion, if so it might be called, having been brought to a close, the meeting next proceeded to " An inquiry into the causes and nature of the diseases of sheep incident to lambing," A paper was read on this subject, in which the writer pointed to the great mortality that generally accompanied every lambing season; attributing this, not to " bad luck," as flock-masters are too apt to designate it, but to bad management on their part, and that of their shepherds; the latter of whom, though often trustworthy, careful servants, are too frequently but fatalists with regard to the flocks under their charge. When, for instance, they see an ewe the second or third day after lambing at- tacked with shortness of breath, heaving of the body, pain in and falling, or dropping, of the hind quar- ters, difficulty in voiding the urir.e, as shown by the frequent stooping and straining of the animal, it is given up as a hopeless case. " ganger is set in," and — die it must ! ]\]any of the masters are no bet- ter informed — no cure is attempted, and the inevit- able result is, a fearful loss of life aud proJ)ert3^ Copious bleeding from the neck vein on the first appearance of the above symptoms, aided by ape- rient medicines, such as a quarter of a pint of castor oil, or 2oz, of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water or thin gruel, ought to be immediately resorted to. This treatment in the early stages of the disease will sometimes arrest its progress ; but the ewe is often dangerously ill before the discovery is made. And here we must briefly advert to causes : — The first is, high condition. The bleeding and castor oil should then be administered, and the ewe kept sheltered and dry. Attention should always be paid to the dryness of the ground on which the ewes are lodged. Cole- 446 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. seed, turnips, and other succulent food should be very cautiously given before lambing. If after laralnng the ewes show symptoms of failing, give a table-spoonful of spirits of nitre, or other fever medicine, everv eight or ten hours, in warm water, till better. Much of the evil arises from a suppression of urine ; and may not this be owing to a retroversion or displacement of the uterus, caused by the ewe's exertions during her labour ijainsl — Let tlie shep- herd go round three or four times a day and stir up the ewes that have lumhed. An uucleaa birth is another cause of heaving. The symptoms of a clean and unclean cast are then described : the effects perhaps are not visible till the second or third day after lambing, when the ut- most care and attention will be required, together with the bleeding and aperients as already described. Two pints ©f blood may be taken away. If gangrene sets in, use your remedy for mortifi- cation ; hut not before, or you will feed the disease. If the ewe does not void her urine freely, pass a catheter or bougia into the bladder to draw off the water. After many excellent observations on the duties of a shepherd, the writer concludes with a recipe for gangrene in the navel, arising from inflam- mation of the navel string. Fomentations of warm brine, and a linseed poultice, are very excellent in such a case. The hour having arrived for terminating the busi- ness of the Club, the discussion was closed, with a hope that at a future meeting it would be resumed, as many had not had an opportunity to take part in it. Thus terminated the first year's proceedings of the Stoke Ferry Farmers' Club. With those pro- ceedings, and with the general attendance at tlie different meetings, it is hoped that the Club, as a body, has every reason to be satisfied. — The success which has hitherto attended the Harleston, the Wat- ton, and other Farmers' Clubs, has excited a spirit of emulation, which it is hoped will not readily sub- side ; but manifest itself by still greater and more important improvements in the science and practice of agriculture. Besides the books mentioned at the commence- ment of this Report, and which may be called the Stock Library of the Club, the following works have been ordered for circulation. — The Qunrterly Jour- nal of Agriculture ; the British Farmer's Magazine (Quarterlv); the Farmer's Magazine (Vlonthly); the Journal of the Royal English Agricultural So- ciety; Liebig's Orgpnic Chemistry; Blacklock on Sfieep ; Treatise on Sheep, by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; Treatise on Cattle, by do. For the Committee, RiCHAitD PiGOTT, Secretary. KINGSBRIDGE FARMERS' CLUB.— A farmers' club has just been established at Kintrsbridge, Devon- shire. In addition to the objects usually contemplated by such societies, one novel feature in this is the ad- mission of farmers' sons between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, at half the amount of annual subscrip- tion. They are, however, not to take part in the dis- cu5sions until they have attained the ag'e of eighteen, nor to vote until they subscribe the full annual sum named for majoi' members, The admission of youths to hear the discussions, and to share the information on agricultural subjects canuot fail to be attended with beneficial eflets, both to themselves and to others, with ■whom at any future time they may be brought into connection. OBSERVATIONS ON THE PRE- SENT EPIZOOTIC AMONG HORSES. BY HUGH FERGUSSON, VET. SURGEON. The disease to which I purpose devoting the pre- sent observations, has received mnny appellations. By some it is called " distemper," by others the " influenza," while, bv the generality of medical men, it is designated "the epidemic," although very improperly, the word iraplymg a disease among the human species. I therefore, in conformity with the generally adopted principles ofmedical nomenclature, propose calling the malady in question the equine EPIZOOTIC, ("from epi upon, and zoon an animal) adding equine, to distinguish it from those affections which are at present reigning among our other domestic animals. It attacks indiscriminately horses of every de- scription and age alike; the old, the young, the high bred, the low bred, the strong, the weak ; under every circumstance, and in every situation ; whether in the well regulated stable or in the open air. " Is IT EITHER INFECTIOUS OR CONTAGIOUS'? With respect to this question, there are conflicting opin- ions. Repeated experiment and extensive obser- vation have convinced me that it is neither. Pathology. — Derangement of the organic system of nerves, the mucous membranes in general becoming affected ; the skin participating markedly in the general derangement ; the glandular system some- times sympathising. Symptoms. — The precursory symptoms vary much in this disease, and are generally so obscure as not to attract any notice. Until a few hours previous to its making its appearance there is no alteration which would lead to any suspicion of the threatening- evil. Sometimes, though by no means invariably, there is a sudden loss of appetite; yet the animal may drink with avidity. He is, however, in the majority of instances dull, and listless, with a dejected coun- tenance; moping his head in the manger, as if he were half asleep. The surl\ice of the body and ex- tremities, when at all altered in temperature, are more frequently found rather warmer than usual. This stage is, however, preceded by a rigor or cold fit ; yet there are some cases where the coat is found staring, and harsh to the feel, from a corrugated state of tne integument resulting from depression of temperature. The eyes becoming attacked is, in most instances, what determines in the mind of the attendant, that there is something really the matter. Many at first attribute this symptom to the eflPect of a blow, or some other accidental circumstance. One, sometimes both, are remarked to have an in- creased secretion. The pupil of the affected eye has ere this become contracted. Before the lapse of many hours, in many instances before the lapse of one.'the eyelids become completely closed from irritation. Their margins become everted, present- ino- to the view the conjunctival membrane highly inflamed, of a reddish colour tinged with yellow. Inpisated mucus, often miico-purulent matter, collects and adheres to the inner canthus. Mouth hot, but by no means parched ; usually contains a quantity of "soapy slaver." There is generally a peculiarappearanceof the buccal membrane covering the "ums, lining the lips, and beneath the tongue, denotino- extensive derangement of the gastro intes- tinal miuious surface. There is not alone an altera- tion of colour, but also a marked increase of vascu- larity. The capillary vessels of those parts, which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 447 in the healthy state of the animal carry only colour- less blood, liave now their courses well delineated by their extreme turgescence. The nasal membrane is frequently scarlet. In short, in this stage of the disease there is erytlieina of all the mucous mem- branes participating in the affection, an increase of their secretion, and a tendency to slight infiltration of their subjacent cellular tissue. In some of those cases where the disease appears to be much more intense than usual,' slight abrasions are sometimes observable on the Schneiderean membrane of the septum, and also on the buccal membrane of the mouth. In others the nasal membrane presents a number of scarlet streaks, resembling those seen in the mildest forms of scarletina. The discharge from the nose, nhen any is present, is however but seldom of a decidedly purulent character, although that from the eyes is frequently so. The sublin- gual region, when felt, may sometimes be observed to be slightly tumid. The manner in which the in- teguments, and subcutaneous cellular tissue are affected, however, varies much in different indivi- duals. Sometimes the entire surface of the body is covered with a rash resembling what is commonlv called " flying surfeit;" at others there is a general anasarca ; but more usually the osdema is confined to the legs, which are so often sore and tumid, that in some iiistances -the animal can scarcely move with- out considerable pain, and is yet suffering so much from irritation, that he cannot remain for any length of time vriihout shifting or varying bis position. Many instances are met with where the skin has become much glossier than usual ; while in others, as I have already mentioned, it is so tightly drawn over the body as to render it impossible to pinch it up from the surface ; or, in common parlance, the animal is " hide bound." With respect to the pulse, its character varies much in different individuals labouring under the affection ; depending in a great measure ou tiie na- tural irritability of the patient, the extent to which the disease has influenced the system, and the va- rieties of its complications. In most instances, how- ever, there is an acceleration of the pulse. It ranges from about forty to eighty. In some cases strong ; in others weak. The respiration is sometimes found hurried, but in the majority of cases perfectly tranquil. Cough is seldom present, excepting where it has existed previously, or that the affection has extended to the lining membrane of the larynx or bronchia. One of the leading characteristics of the disease is the rapid prostration of strength, particularly in the hinder extremities. The chief indication is to allay the increasing irri- tability of the organic system ; and thus by striking at the fountain-head of diseased action, remove those derangements of function which, although properly speaking are merely secondary effects, are by many considered as the primary seat of the dis- ease. For this purpose, I have had recourse, and with the happiest effects, to the potassio tartrate of antimony; a medicine whicii possesses the valuable <|ualities of acting on a mucous tissue, not alone by mere contact, but more particularly through the me- dium of the nerves, by becoming absorbed into the system, and thus acting on their centres. It also has the effect of allaying increased arterial action ; when given repeatedly, it acts as an aperient; and where tl)e bronchial mucous membrane is threatened, or has already become implicated, there is no re- medy better calculated to avert the danger. In the treatment of the present disease, it is a great desi- deratum, that its action is not direct upon the mu- cous surface, but intlireci through the medium of the nerves and vessels by which that tissue is sup- plied. In some cases I have combined the medicine, and I have thought advantageously, with a little of the nitrate of potass ; the dose of the tartrate being l.Ulr., that of the nitrate 2dr., given morning and evening, dissolved in a little water. By giving them in water, their action is immediate. The moment the animal swallows the fluid, it passes at once into his capacious coecum, very little of it remaining in his stomach. If a ball be given instead, it may remain hours in the stomach before it becomes dis- solved, solution being very tardy in that organ, while there is general derangement. Tiie tartarized antimony when given in its solid state, is very liable to inflame the ]>reviously irritable villous coat. The horse is, however, a most admirable subject for the exhibition of such an agent, he being an animal to whom the power of vomition is denied. Nausea can, therefore, in this case be carried almost to any extent. When an animal is first observed to become affected, it is desirable to place him in a large box stall, allowing him to have as much air as possible, both throughout the day and during the night. Of air, no matter how cool the temperature, he can- not possibly have too much. This is an axiom that should never be forgotten by the veterinary practitioner. The animal shoukl, however, be well clothed, and the legs bandaged, but not too tightly, with flannel. These means have a tendency to equalise the circulation, particularly where there is a diminution of heat. Let one of the principal ob- jects be, to allow the patient to respire pure cold air, at the same time keeping the surface of the body moderately warm, if the season be at all inclement. Fomentation with warm water will be found useful in abating the inflammatory action of the eyes, throat, and legs. If there be much cutaneous irritability, or soreness of the latter, a decoction of poppy heads may be used with advantage. State of Tiir, Bowels. — One of the most impor- tant features of this disease is the morbid suscepti- bility of the mucous membranes to be intensely acted upon by the exhibition of what in other cases would be found merely a mild laxative. Here the action of the purgative is not confined in its effects to the digestive tube alone, but unfortunately extends its injurious influence to the respiratory system; the mucous membranes of which, already too suscep- tible, immediately on purgation setting in, sympa- thise with those of the intestines; and there is, then, pneurao-lironchitis, in addition to the former aftection, an additional complication, which under such circumstances generally proves fatal, the vital forces being already too far gone to enable the pa- tient to withstand the attack, even with the assis- tance of the most consummate medical aid. Such a case is rendered still more hopeless if bleeding has been already had recourse to, in combination with the exhibition of aloes, the purgative usually pre- scribed on such occasions. Instead, however, of there being such a costive state of the bowels as to indicate the necessity of aperients, it will be found that after the first stage of the attack, they are generally rather lax than otherwise. In cases where they are found not to become spontaneously relaxed, and that the costiveness is considerable, a few ounces of warm water may be thrown up, which will rarely fail in producing the desired effect. CouNTER-inniTATioN — will never be found neces- sary in the simple form of the disease. REfUMFN.— With respect to the diet of horses 448 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. labouring under tbe present disease, the lower they can be kept the better. They should have nothing to eat for the first twenty-four hours. If inclined to take anything, they will find quite sufficient by searching among the straw of their beds. Until the disease has entirely subsided, hay should be kept from them entirely, and nothing allowed excepting a very small quantity of scalded bran, which should be well cooled previous to being given. The sili- cious particles of the bran act as a mechanical irri- tant on the mucous coats of ihe stomach and intes- tines, the consequence of which is a considerable increase of their secretion, an aperient effect being the result. It may startle many when I assert that starvation will be found one of the most useful agents in the reduction of inflammalor)' action in the horse. Yet it is an incontrovertible fact. No medicine can compete with it. Accidental Complications. — If, previous to the animal being attacked, any of his organs have been suffering from chronic disease, the appearance of the new morbid action in his system is almost cer- tain to ag'gravate the pre-existing evil, by establish- ing acute inflammatory action in those parts which were before affected. Or, in case there exists any constitutional tendency in a particular tissue to take on inflammation — it will most probably participate in the derangement. Those organs and tissues ac- cidentally implicated, will of course require the peculiar treatment necessary for each, when suffer- ing under idiopathic derangement, excepting that some modification will generally be found necessary, according to existing circumstances. Consequences and Skcondaiiv Symptoms. — Fre- quently, after the acute attack is past, there remain derangements of function, which shortly assume a decidedly chronic character. The animal being now, generally speaking, comparatively recovered of the ]jrimary disorder, he may, with tew exceptions, be treated in the ordinary manner. In such cases, either mild aperients, tonics, venesection, as the symptoms may indicate, will no longer be found injurious- -the morbid action having now, in some measure, become localized. Veterinary Institution, Dezille-street, Merrion- square. Dublin Medical Press. THE CORN LAWS AND THE POOR LAWS. Tlie subjoined table and remarks upon the effect of tiie prices of grain in producing pauper- ism, are extracted from tlie Morning Chronicle. The conclusions arrived at upon this subject are the most fallacious and extraordinary we have ever met with. The writer measures the amount of pauperism by tiie amount of the poor-rates; so that the lower the price of grain, the lower must be the ainount of pauperism ; and the higher the price of grain, tiie greater the amount of pauperism. " From 1818 to 1836," says lie, " the population had increased by at least four millions and a half, and yet such was the effect of cheap bread, that the poor-rates were three millions less thiin in the former year." It is not the increase of pauperism, but the increased cost of maintaining the paupers, which caused tiie difference of the amount of rates in 1818 and 1836. Supposing the number of paupers to be the same in each year — say two millioos — the cost of maintenance, giving one quarter of wheat to each, would be in 1818, with wlieat at 88s. per quarter, near £9,000,000 ; whilst in 183G, at 39s. 5d. say 40s. per quarter, it would be only £4,000,000. Again he says—" It will be seen, on comparing one new poor-law year with another, that a difference of 17s. per quarter in the price of wheat raised the rales £600,000." Now, if this argument be good, the gross amount of the poor-rates should rise and fall in proportion to the price of wheat; and yet we find, from the table given, that there was a difference of 40s. per quar- ter in the price of grain in the years 1814 and 1834, with scarcely any difference at all in the amount of the poor-rates. So much for " proof beyond contradiction !" The Corn Laws. — In order to show the vast amount of taxation borne by the " landed interest," Lord Eliot moved for and obtained returns of the local taxation of England and Wales up to 1S39 inclusive ; but all that has resulted from the enquiry has simply been to knock the legs from the supporters of the bread tax. It has generally been urged by the land- owners, that wages fall with the price of bread, and that dear food is one of the main elements of the com- fort of the working classes. Now no more unfaiUng index of the misery of the labouring community can be found than the ainount of pauperism, and the extent of beggary is of course most clearly indicated by the amount of poor-rates. The following table, extracted from Lord Eliot's return, proves beyond the possi- bility of contradiction that pauperism is greatest when bread is dearest, and least when it is cheapest : — Wheat, Wheat Years. Poor Rate. per Quarter. Years. Poor Rate. per Quarter. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1748") C25 1 1818* 9,320,000 88 3 1749 V 730,1.37 J 29 4 1819 8,932,000 81 .3 1750) ^29 4 1821 8,411,893 63 8 177G 1,720,317 37 e 1824 6,886,50.5 47 8 17tf.3") f50 0 1828 7,715,0.55 55 8 1784 [ 2,107,750 ■ 43 1 18.32 8,622,920 63 4 1785 3 43 10 1883 8,806,501 67 3 1S03 5,348,205 58 9 1834 8,888,079 51 11 isi.-i 8,046,841 106 1 1835 7,373,807 44 2 1814 8,388,974 91 11 1836* 6,354,5.38 39 5 181.5 7,457,676 74 3 1837t 5,294,i566 52 6 1816 6,937,000 63 8 18.38 5,186,389 55 3 1817 8,128,000 81 4 1889t 5,866,000 69 4 * It is worthy of note that from 1818 to 1836 the population had incvenseil liy at least 4J milUous ; and yet such was the effect of cheap l)read, that the poor-rates were three millions less iu the latter than in Ihe former year. + The action of the new poor-law was first fully evolved this year ; but it will be seen, on comparing one new poor-law year with another, that ft diffprpnce of 17s. per quarter in the price of wheat raised tlie rates XeOO.OOO. SULLY ON ENCOURAGEMENT TO AGRI- CULTURE.—It was a saying of Sully, that " If oupiht to be the first maxim of a good government to advance agriculture before manufactures, and to give the latter only a secondary rank in the State. A large and in- creasing produce of the land ensures the liberty of the people, while it places foreigners in a sert of dependence ; whereas the want of corn, the first necessary of life, gives a dependence on foreigners, who can either furnish the commodity or refuse it. The produce of the land cannot be consumed but to the profit of the ii^habitants, that is by a traffic more advantageous than the posses- sion of the cora itself; whereas the arts and manufac- tures may be possibly carried off by the artifices of rivals, and pass away, together with the artists them- selves, into all the countries of the world." This was a wise and well founded remark of this sagacious French- man, and Englishmen would do well to attend te the lesson here inculcated. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 449 REPORTS ON THE IMPROVE- MENT OF WASTE LANDS. (prize essays of the highland and agricul- tural SOCIETV.) I.— Of 144 Acres 2 Roods 23 Poles, on the Farms of Easier and Wester Corntown, comity of Cromarty. By James Ure, Esq., Maryburgh, Rossshirc. In 1829 the reporter obtained a nineteen years' lease of the farm of Easter Corntown, at the yearly rent of 180/., with an allowance of 212/., at the termination of the lease, for buildings and enclosures. It is situated on the south side of the Cromarty Frith, upon a sloping hank, having a northern exposure, and consisted of interspersed small hillocks producing brambles, between which vverc pools of stagtiant water, producing flags, rushes, and alder bushes. It extends to 326 acres 3 roods 32 poles imperial, but of which, at the re- porter's entry, only 132 acres 1 rood 9 poles were arable, much exhausted by over-cropping, and the remainder 194 acres 2 roods 23 poles, consisted of wild, unreclaimed waste. Even on the arable part there were no hedges, dykes, ditches, or fences, of any description, though there were a few old thatched houses, only fit for the occupa- tion of labourers, which had afterwards to be re- moved. Immediately after his entry, the reporter began to erect a complete set of farm offices, containing a thrashing-mill, propelled by water. During the building of the farm-offices the re- porter divided the farm into twelve separate fields, of from 7 acres to 22 acres each. He drained the land and trenched it with the spade, the large stones being thrown upon the surface, and used in building the dykes, while the smaller were put into the drains. In this manner the whole twelve divisions were improved, and brought under a re- gular rotation of cropping. The fences were va- rious, consisting of double stone Galloway dykes, sunk ring fences faced with stone and coped with turf, and thorn hedges and ditches. All these im- provements, including the forming of the mill-dam and mill lade, were completed by the year 1833, thereby not only improving the old arable land, but bringing into a regular system of cropping "9 acres 1 rood 7 poles of waste land. The expense of doing so was as follows : — £ s. d. Trenching 79 acres 1 rood T poles im- perial of waste land 408 8 7;} Draming 24,917 yards 315 18 1^ Carting stones for dykes and drains. . 124 1 5 Filling drains with stones .. ., 78 2 6 Blasting stones for dykes and buildings 64 18 8 Cutting 3139 yards of ditches 80 10 01 Forming mill-dam 35 5 o Building farm-offices, &c 650 0 0 M iking 2282 yards of farm roads ... o7 511 Building 5014 yards of stone-dykes. . 120 4 1 Planting 1348 yards hedges 17 5 11 Carting earth to new land 27 10 0 oOoO bolls of lime, at 2s. 6d 631 5 0 Making a total expense for improve- ments of £2610 15 3^ In the beginning of 1835, the reporter obtained a lease of thirty-one years, from the same pro- prietor, of a small farm called Wester Corntown, lying contiguous to, and bounded on the east by, Easter Corntown, and on the west by the high road from Dingwall to Inverness, at 15/. of yearly rent, the same farm-offices beinij sufficient for both farms. This farm contains 87 acres 24 poles imperial, whereof, at the reporter's entry, three small patches were occupied by crofters, contain- ing 21 acres 3 roods 8 poles, the remainder, fio acres 1 rood 16 poles, were worthless muir- ground, covered with whins, heath, broom, and large stones ; the land has likewise a northern exposure, was interspersed with barren hillocks, surrounded by rills and pools of water, and lay quite open and unenclosed. Shortly after entering into possession, similar operations of trenching, dyking, and draining, were carried on as upon the other farm. 4'he land was subdivided into four divisions, around which were built double stone-dykes with stone coping, five feet nine inches high. The two first divisions, after having been dyked, drained, and trenched, bore a crop of wheat and oats in 1837. Seven acres of the other two divisions were under tur- nips, while the remainder was likewise completely improved during the summer, and was sown with wheat in September 1837. The expense of these operations was as fol- lows :-- £ s. d. 'Trenching 65 acres 1 rood 16 poles imperial of waste land 310 2 7 Cutting and filling 7630 yds. of drains 92 0 0 Building 3181 yards of double stone- dykes 79 10 6 Carting stones for ditto 86 3 0^ Blasting 1456^ feet of stones for ditto 64 10 11 Cutting 3084 yards of open ditches . . 32 1 10 Levelling old cottars' Louses 2 0 0 1440 bolls of lime at 2s. 6d 180 0 0 Three cargoes of Inverness street dung 60 0 0 Making a total expense for improve- ments of, £906 8 lOi The soil of the reclaimed land on Easter Corn- town was partly black loam, and partly a brownish red sandy loam, mixed with a sprinkling of clay, having a free, sandy, or gravelly subsoil at the lower, but a soft retentive subsoil towards the upper portion of the farm. This land, in the re- porter's opinion, was at his entry, not worth more than four shillings per acre ; but, after being im- proved as described, it is now well worth thirty shillings per acre of yearly rent. The waste land was trenched with the spade 14 inches deep ; and the covered drains average 2§ feet deep by 2 feet broad at top, and 18 inches at bottom, filled with stones to within 9 inches of the surface ; but the open ditches were of various dimensions, accord- ing to the quantity of water to be discharged, and the level of the ground. In cropping the improved land, the reporter has adopted a four-shift rotation, viz., green crops, barley or wheat, one year's grass, and oats, which, in the reporter's opinion, is the best mode of management that could be adopted upon newly re- claimed land of the above description ; he also considers that trenching with the spade, and draining, as above described, is by far the best method that can be adopted for the effectual im- provement of waste land. As to the produce, the reporter has annually realized per imperial acre from 5 qrs. to 6 qrs. barley, from 3 qrs. to 5 qrs. wheat, and from 5 qrs. to 8 qrs. of oats, of good quality. The reclaimed ground on Wester Corntown is light, partly a black muirish loam, and partly a 450 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. whitc^ sanJy clay loam, with a very soft retentive subsoil. The chief obstacles to its improvement were the large quantities of stones near the sur- face, and numerous rills and pools of water which required draining. These lands, when unenclosed, were not, in the reporter's opinion, worth above one shilling per acre ; but after having been im- proved, he considers the farm now wortli twenty shillings per imperial acre of rent. As the soil differs considerably from that of the other farm, the reporter will possibly vary the rotation of cropping, by allowing the land to lie two years in grass in place of one ; and, with regard to pro- duce, the first crop of wheat the reporter had from one of the four divisions yielded 3 qrs. per acre of superior quality, weighing 62 lbs. per bushel ; another division under oats yielded 3| qrs. ; while the last two divisions, though the crop of wheat promised well after sowing, only produced 1 qr. per acre, in consequence of a rainy and severe winter, whereby the plants were thrown out of the soil. II. — Of IIG Acres of Moss and Muir on the Farm of Woodend, in the parish of Carnwath, Lanarkshire. By Mr. John Brown. The tract of moss and muir ground, consisting of 116 acres, upon the farm of Woodend, helong- ing to John Wilson, Esq., which has been im- proved by me within the last fire years, consisted generally of moss from 3 to 10 feet deep, the upper stratum of two feet being generally brown, light flow moss, the under part black, good peat, with fibrous roots of trees, principally birch and hazel, with some occasional large roots of oak ; the subsoil being generally sand, partly mixed with blue clay, and in some places gravel. Part of the muir was dry sand and gravel about 10 feet deep, completely covei-ed with heath and wild thyme ; part was hard gravelly soil to a great depth, like a waterbank; and part was sand and gravel covered with heather and whins. The road from Carnwath to Wilsonton passes through the moss. The first operation was cutting lai-ge deep ditches along the sides of the road to the water called Dippool, which is a slow deep-running stream with vei-y little fall ; these ditches, as well as the ones which were east for the subdivision of the moss into fields, were cut 7 feet wide at top, 4\ teet deep, and ahout 1 foot wide at bottom, fincling it necessary to give them a great slope. The divi- sions between the large ditches were then cross- drained by wedge-drains 3 feet deep at 7 yards distance. The top was taken out 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep with a common delving spade; the next spit was taken out with a draining spade 10 inches wide at top, and 7 at the point ; the third spit was taken out with a spade 6 inches wide at top and 4 at the point, and two cleaners were used for taking out the bottom and all the loose moss that happened to fall in. The drains were then doublc-wedgedwith strong benty turf, leaving 6 inches of a conduit below. Finding that the cutting of these drains caused the moss to sub- side more than a foot, and that, in consequence, in some of the divisions sprots and other aquatic plants began to appear, in the year 1837 I had new wedge-drains cut at right angles with the former ones at I) yards' distance ; these drains, being also cut three feet deep, were consequently at once \ foot deeper than the original wedge-drains, and have had the desired effect of running off the whole water. The large ditches were cut at a cost of 3s. per imperial chain, and the wedge-drains at lis., cost- ing in the whole 177/. 4s.7d. The general plan of improvement was to lime on the surface at the rate of 30^- bolls of lime-shells per acre, each boll of shells being 6 Winchester bushels. When any of the ground was pared, the muzzle or bridle of the i)lough was so managed that both the horses could draw upon the heathery surface, the coulter being kept as sharp as possible with a file ; the sock was made with a feather 14 inches long, which was 14 inches wide at the hind end. The ground improved by me was not worth any rent at all when I entered the farm; and indeed many of my friends and neighbours thought mc next thing to crazy for beginning and carrying on such improvements, particularly as my lease was drawing so near to an end ; but I took encourage- ment from the example set in the neighbourhood by Mr. Norman Lockhart, who successfully im- proved a tract of moss land under much more un- favourable circumstances; and had it not been for the particularly severe seasons of 1836 and 1838, my returns would have been much more favourable than they are. As it is, I consider the improved ground to be now well worth 7s. per acre in permanent pasture of free value, after allowing for the expenses of keeping the drains and ditches clear. The entire expense of the im- provements was borne by myself. [To avoid repetition, we shall give a detailed statement of the expenses of improvement, pro- duce, profits and loss, of only two of the fields particularized by Mr. Brown, and on these will be found to have been raised all the kinds of crops cultivated on the eleven fields in the years 1834-5-6-7-8.— Edit.] Account of Expenses, a7id Produce per Acre, of two fields of improved Moss and Muir on Woodend, No. 1. 1834. Limed on the surface with SOj £ s. d. bolls per acre, at Is. 2d. per boll, carting and spreading 7d. per boll 2 13 4^ Oats, once ploughed, sown, and har- rowed, at the rate of 35s. ; seed oats, 6 bushels per acre, at 3s. per bushel, a8s 2 13 0 .' 6 41 Produce sold for 6/. per acre 6 0 0 Profit £0 13 7 • 1835. Potatoes. Ploughed 3 times at ll. 10s., harrowing 3 times at 4s., 12s. per acre 2 2 0 Ridging, 7s. ; manure, 32 square yards per acre, at 2s. 6d. per yard ; cart- ing, tolls, and spreading, at 2s. 6d. per yard 8 7 0 Seed, 4 bushels at 2s. per bushel, 8s.; cutting and planting, 3s. ; cleaning, horse-hoeing, &;c., at 11. per acre 1 1110 12 0 0 Produce sold for Bl. 5s. per acre .... 8 5 0 Loss £3 15 0 1836. Oats, once ploughed, sown, and harrowed, at 12s. 6d. per acre ; seed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4ol £ s. d. 6 bushels of oats, at .'3s. per bushel, 18s 110 6 Produce sold for 71. per acre 7 0 0 Profit £5 V 6 1837. Ha}', mowing, and making and stacking, 4s. per acre ; seed 8s. 6d. 0 12 ti The produce about 70 stones, at fid. per stone ; the value ou the farm, without driving 1 lo 0 Profit £l 2 6 1838. Oats, once ploughed, sown, and harrowed, at los. per acre ; seed oats, 6 bushels per acre, at 3s. per bushel, 18s 1 13 0 The oats on this field were frosted this j'ear on the 9th and 10th September, and though the crop was frosted about the same time in the year 1836, yet, Laving been sown after potatoes that year, the crop was nearly ripe, and was sown as seed in 1837. 'J'his year they would not have sold for more than 21. per acre ; but had they not been frosted, as they were a stronger crop than in 1836, they would have fetched 81 2 0 0 Profit £0 7 0 No. II. . 1834. Limed on surface with 30J bolls per acre, nt Is. 2d. per boll, carting and spreading 7d 2 13 4i Oats, once ploughed, sown, and har- rowed, at the rate of 3os. ; seed oats, 6 bushels per acre, at 33. per bushel 2 13 0 £b 6 4A Produce was sold for 6/. per acre.. . . 6 0 0 Profit £0 13 7 J 1835. Hay, mowing and making, and slacking, 4s. per acre ; seed 8s. 6d. 0 12 6 The produce about 70 st., at 6d. per St., the value on the farm without driving 1 15 0 Profit £1 2 6 1836. Oats, once ploughed, sown, and harrowed, at 12s. 6d. per acre ; seeds, 6 bushels of oats, at 3s. per bushel 1 10 6 Produce was frosted, and not worth more than 2/. per acre 2 0 0 Profit £0 9 6 1837. Turnips. Ploughed at 11. lOs. ; harrowing 3 times at Is., 12s, ; ridging, 7s. per iicre 2 9 0 Manure, 32 square yards, 2s. 6d. ; carting, tolls, and spreading, 2s. fid. ; seed, 3 lb,, at 9d., 2s. 3d. per acre 8 2 3 Cleaning, horse- hoeing, &c,,at 11. per acre .» 1 0 0 11 11 3 Produce worth 8i. per acre on the field 8 0 0 Loss £3 11 3 £ s. d. 1838. Oats, once ploughed, sown, and harrowed, at 16s.; seed oats, 6 bushels, at 3s. per bushel, 18s. per acre 1 13 0 The oats on this field were frosted this year ou the 9th and 10th September. This year they would not have brought more tluin 21. per acre ; but had they not been frosted they would easily have brought8/. per acre, . .. 2 0 0 Profit. .£0 7 0 In this way, the results of profit and loss on the crops of the eleven fields in those years stand thus : — Gross amount of profit 1036 11 6 Gross amount of loss 236 19 11 E.xcess of profit over loss £799 11 7 From which falls to be deducted the making of 567 imperial chains of ditches, at 3s. per £ s. (L chain 85 1 0 2033 chains of wedge- drain, at lis. per chain 92 3 7 177 4 7 Giving a clear gain from the im-"^ provements during those years ^ 622 7 0 of the sum of J Being highly satisfactory and encouraging re- sults. October, 183S. 111.— 0/ 70 Acres 2 Roods 30 Poles of the Farm of Auchmaleddy , In the parish of Old Deer, Aber- deenshire. By Mr. Alexander Booth. I acquired right to the unexpired period of 16 years of the lease of Auchmaleddy, as tenant to the Right Hon. the Earl of Aberdeen, at Whitsun- day, 1835. In summer, 1835, I commenced the reclaiming of a small field of 4 acres 2 roods 24 poles impe- rial. It consisted of moss from one to four feet, superincumbent upon clay. It was first pared with the plough, and afterwards burned and level- led at an expense in the whole of 8/. In the spring of 1836 it was sown with oats, which produced 3 quarters per acre. In 1837 it was again in oats, and the return was 2^ quarters per acre. Finding that the original benty and heathy surface was still too tenacious, I resolved on trying a third crop of oats, in order thoroughly to reduce and pulverize it ; and it is in oats in the present season, 1838. In the same summer, 1835, I commenced the improvement of another field, containing 11 acres 2 roods 19 poles, which consisted also of moss about the same depth as in the former case, and with a like subsoil. Part of this field required considerable drainage, so that in 5J acres I put in 395 ells of open drains, four feet deep, at an ex- pense of 3/. 5s. lOd. ; 156 ells of tile drains, three feet deep, which cost 3^ 2s. 6d.; and 200 ells of strong, benty, turf drains, four feet deep, with a conduit four inches wide and twelve inches deep, and which immediately had a powerful eifect, at an expense of ZL. 6s. The portion of the field thus drained was also trenched and levelled with the spade to the depth of 14 inches, at a cost of 8/. 15s. The remainder of the field, 4S2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 6^ acres, was plough-pared and burned, and cost 8/. fis. In the spring of 1836' the whole field was sown with oats, which gave a return of 2J quarters per acre. I again took a crop of oat? in 1837, when the return was 2} quarters'per acre. Finding (hat the first portion of the field was not sufficiently pulverized, a third crop of oats is now on the ground, 1838, and the remainder of the field is in summer fallow, manured witb 80 bushels of bone-dust, which cost 13^., and next season it will be sown down with grass-seeds. The whole expense of the improvements of this field was 39Z. 15s. 4d. During the same season, 1835, I commenced the improvement of a third field, containing 7 acres 3 roods 1 pole. It consisted of a dry yellow soil with an open sandy bottom, and the surface was entirely covered with whins, broom, and heaths. The first operation was the removal of the whins and broom, which cost 1/.; and the land was then ploughed with four horses at an expense of 71. 15s. In summer 1836, it was sown with turnips, after being three times ploughed and pulverized with a weighty break-harrow, the ex- pense of ploughing and harrowing being 10/. It was manured with 150 bushels bone-dust, which cost 221. 10s. ; 80 cart loads of farm-yard dung worth 12/., and 250 bolls of Buchan lime, which cost 8Z. 17s. Id., the whole expense of putting this field into crop being G21. 2s. Id. The turnips were but a poor crop. In 1837 it bore a crop of oats, which was sown out with grass-seeds. Part of the crop was sold on the ground for 171. Vs., and the remainder of it measured 9^ quarters. During the present season, 1838, the field has been in pnsture grass, of a quality ef which I have no cause to complain. A foiirih field containing 15 acres 3 roods 21 poles also came under improvement in 1835. 'I'he quality of its soil resembled that of the last men- tioned field, and underwent nearly similar treat- ment. The cutting of the whins, and the plough- ing with four horses, at an expense of 19/. 15?. were accomplished in 1835. In ]83() it was cross- ploughed and harrowed for 8/., and during that season received 500 bolls of Scotch lime, which cost 17/. I4s. 2d. In the following spring it was manured with farm-yard dung to the value of 4()/. 10s., making in whole for the improvement of the field, 91/. 19s. 2d. The return hitherto has been 3 quarters per acre of oats of crop 1837, and it is again in oats in the present year (1838) with every appearance of a weighty crop. I commenced the improvement of a fifth field in the same season, 1835. It contains 5 acres 35 poles of light soil, inclined to muir, on an open bottom. I ploughed it in 1835 with four horses, at an expense of 41. It was cross- ploughed and well harrowed in 1836, at a cost of 2/. 10s., and after having been well pulverised, 150 bolls of Scotch lime were harrowed in, the expense of all which was 71. 16s. 6d. In the spring of 1837 the field was manured with farm-yard dimg to the value of 15/., after which it was sown with oats, which gave a return of 2^ quarters per acre. During the present season, 1838, it is in turnips and potatoes, having received to the value of 20/. 7s. 6d. of bone-dust and farm-yard manure, and the crop has a promising appearance. The out- lay upon this field amounts to 47/. lis. 9d. A sixth field, containing 5 acres 2 roods 24 poles, similar in quality to the last mentioned, has been treated much in the same manner, the only difference being this, that the operations to- wards improvement extended over the three sea- sons of 18.)5, 1836, and 1837, without a crop being taken, and the first crop is turnij), which promises well, after an entire expense of 32/. 18s. 6d. 1 commenced the improvement of the seventh and eighth fields in 1836 and 1837, which contain 19 acres 3 roods 26 poles of drj' open soil over- grown with whins. The clearing of the whins, and ploughing with five horses, cost 29/., and the cross-ploughing this season, 1838, cost 9/., the whole outlay being 38/. By next season these fields will be ready for manure, and will be treated in a manner similar to the other parts of the farm . I have thus briefly stated the mode and expense of improving 70 aci'es 2 roods 30 poles of waste land upon my farm of Auchmaleddy. The total outlay, exclusive of interest, has been 320/. 6s. lOd. ; and although the returns have hitherto been but small, I have no reason to apprehend that the expenditure has been injudicious, or that it will not yet give an adequate return under i)roper management. The climate of the parish of New Deer is among the latest in Buchan. The parisli is distant from the nearest harbour 16 to 18 miles, and consequently labours under many disad- vantages, and the average produce of the parish cannot be rated above 3 quarters of grain per imperial acre. IV. — Of upwards of AO Acres on the Farm of Sitty- ton, the property of John Ramsey, Esq., ofJBarra and Stralock, Aberdeenshire. By Mr. Amos. Cruikseiank. At Whitsunday 1837, I entered on a lease of the farm of Sittyton, which then contained 170 acres of arable land, and 50 acres of waste land. Since then, I have brought the whole 50 acres into cul- tivation, there being about 10 acres of it connected with other fields. The 40 acres are in one con- tinuous tract, which is now subdivided into four fields, partly by stone-dykes of 650 yards in length and 4 feet in height, at an expcn'^e of 36/., andthe rest by open ditches of 4 feet in dejjth by 7 feet in width, executed at an expense of 200/. There is a good road through the centre of the tract of land, mostly metalled. The waste land at first presented a very wild and barren aspect : some ot it being in great hills and dens ; other parts more level, but mostly covered with heath, broom, and whins ; some places were very rocky, whilst other parts were marshy. The value of the whole in pasture was not worth more, on an average, than 2s. 6d. per acre. The great distance from lime and manure, being 13 miles from Aberdeen, where lime can only be had, and six miles from Old Mcldrum, where manure can be procured, and there only to a limited extent, — has hitherto proved a great discouragement to the improvement of this tract. Previous to commencing the improvements, I had to make contracts for the greater part of the work. In June 1837, we commenced clearing the surface of the land of whins, broom, and stones, at an expense of 33/., which was accomplished by October. Whilst the clearing was going on, drains were opened and filled as required, amounting in all to 6000 yards in length, and at an average of 4 feet in depth, and at an expense of 90/. In October we commenced with ploughing 28 acres \\ith fo;:r heavy oxen, they being much more suitable for tearing up this state of land than horses, from their quiet, steady, and docile dispo- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 453 sition ; but, on account of the roughness of the ground and seventy of the winter, it was not ac- complished until the middle of April 18;>8, at an exi)ense of 38Z. There were 12 acres it was im- possible to make anything of with the plough, from the extremely rocky nature of the ground. These u ere trenched with the spade in the autumn of 1837 to the depth of 12 inches, at 8/. per acre, with the exception of one acre, which cost 111.; the whole being accomplished by April 1838, after having experienced a long detention by the great snow-storm of that spring. The expense ofclear- ino^ them of whins, broom, and stones, was 'S6l. There being 10 acres of the 12 which I consi- dered susceptible of carrying a crop, they were limed at the rate of 13 bolls per acre, and manured with dune:, and a small part with bone-dust : the expense of lime and manure, and preparing and putting them on, was 7al. They were sown with 10 quarters of oats, at 25s. per quarter ; but, owing to the late harvest and severe frost in autumn, the return was only 30 quarters of oats, worth 30s. per quarter. I must here observe that the crop of oats, after the bone-dust, was not above half so good as that after the horse and cow dung. In the summer of 1838, the 28 acres were har- rowed, and then cross-ploughed with oxen as for- merly, and again cleared of stones, at an expense of jO/. This large sum was chiefly incurred by the difficulty of clearing away large stones which required blasting with gunpowder. In the autumn ofthesajne year, I prepared the land for lime, which was put on at the rate of 13 bolls per acre, the expense of which and putting on was 721. In the s])ring of 1839, I had the whole 40 acres again manured at 4/. 10s. per acre. They were then ploughed, which was now quickly accom- plished, the ground being in a mellowed state. I sowed 40 quarters of oats, at 3()S. per quarter, and the expense of ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, was 33/. I'have this season (1839) an excellent crop, nearly all arrived at maturity, and which I consider, on an average of five returns per acre. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — In perusing j'our valuable publication, I particularly notice a letter from Mr. Rich. Smith, respecting the use of salt as a preventive of the prevailing epidemic, which has been so general through all parts of the country for many months past. I can in a great measure substantiate the correctness of his remarks, having had during the whole of last summer some stock for fatting, and up to the present time several dairy cows, colts, horses and sheep, the whole of which, with the exception of one trifling instance, have escaped that unfortunate malady ; and which I can only attribute to the free use of salt, although my neighbours all around me have suffered to a con- siderable extent. The particular description that I have is the rock salt, procured from Northwich, in Cheshire, which I place about the fields, yard, or manger, where they c;an use it at their plea- sure ; and although I believe it would stand in all weathers for a century without evaporation, so fond are all cattle of it, that a large lump is soon exhausted by them. I beg to apologise for thus intruding upon your columns, but if it should be of service to any of your numerous subscribers, be assured it will be e.xceedingly gratifying to Ajyril VJi/i. A Young Farmer. ENGLISH V. FOREIGN WHEAT. (to tub tUlTOR OF THE CUWIJERI.AND I'ACQUET.) Sin, — In the leading article of the Standard of Saturdav evening it is stated, that Foreign wheat can be imported into this country, inclnd'ivg the duty, at 30s. per qr., which would be 3s. 9d. the Winchester bushel. Now I have made a calculation of the cost of producing an acre of wheat in this county, which I have shown to some experienced farmers, and they all ao-ree that the prices I have mentioned are within the real cost. They are as follow : — Twoyearsrentoflantl,at£l lOs.OJ. 1 £3 q q per acre J Two years rates, &c 0 4 O Five times ploughing and harrowing. . 2 0 0 Cost of seed 110 Shearing and Housing 0 12 (5 Thrashing and Marketing 0 10 0 Twelve cart loads of lime, carting "1 2 0 0 and spreading on land J £9 7 6 Supposing the acre of ground to produce eight Carlisle bushels, the farmer, to save himself, (with- out calculating any thing for cf.pital employed in his farm,) must sell his wheat at IZ. 3s. 5d. the Carlisle bushel, or 7s. 9^d. the Winchester bushel ; and if the Standard he correct, of which no practical farmer can entertain the slightest doubt, wheat can be im- ported into this country, paying the fixed duty of 8s. the quarter, at 3s. 9d. a Winchester bushel, which clearly proves that 8s. the quarter is no protection at all to the British farmer. Thus, Sir, every farmer will at once see, that so far from the ministerial measure affording him any protection, it is pregnant with certain and inevitable ruin. In short, the soil cannot be tilled iuthis coun- try to grow wheat at the low price of 3s. 9d. the Winchester bushel, the price at which the ministerial measure will enable foreigners to import it into Eng- land. Therefore, if the British farmers wisli to pre- serve their existence as cultivators of the soil, they ouo-ht to resist the ministerial innovation as one man thev ought to strengthen the hands of the friends of the'landed interest in both Houses of Parliament by pouring petitions into the senate with the least possible delay. This ought at least to be done, as there is an active enemy to deal with, which is urging on the ministry in their work of destructioa an enemy which will never rest satisfied till it has completed the ruin of the English corn growers. I need not tell your readers that this enemy is the Anti-corn-law League, which is composed chiefiy of selfish mill-owners, and dealers and speculators in forei"-n (irain. The farmer must therefore look to his interests in time ; in the language of Milton, he must "Awake, arise, or be for ever fallen !" I am. Sir, &c., Brighavi, May 10, 1841 . Agricola. PLANTING TREES.— He who plants trees upon his paternal estate, repays a debt to his posterity which he owes to his ancestors. A frentleman whose lands were more extensive than fertile, used to plant 1,000 trees on the birth of every daug-hfer, upon his waste grounds — which were, on an average, worth one-pound each on her comin;? of age ; thus enabling him to give her a fortune of 1,000/. without any extraordinary eco- nomy on his part— the regular thinning of the ti-fcs at proper seasons, with barking, &c., paying ofl' all the current expenses, besides yieldmg him a small rent for the land. lu the year 1758, ninety-two fir trees were 2 H 454 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. planted upon a piece of ground, about three quarters of an acre in extent. The land was waste and poor ; no extra expense was incurred, and no further attention was paid to the young- trees. In 1813 they were cut down, yielding ninety tons of timber, then worth 4/. per ton, giving a round sum of 360/., which was equal to a rent of 6/. 19s. during the intervening hfty-five years. Can a more convincing proof he given of the facility with which a man may save a fortune for his grand- children ? It is, indeed, long to look forward ; but who is there that does not extend his family hopes much be- yond that period? In Yorkshire, very recently, 5,000 oaks were cut down, which yielded the sum of 100,000/.; and, as recently in Somersetshire, the timber of an estate of 2,000 acres was refused to an offer of 50,000/. Even in Scotland, a piece of ground not worih 30s. per acre for agricultural purposes, was planted with syca- more, and at the end of sixty years the trees fetched such a sum as paid 14/. per acre per annum during that period. There are ways, however, of makine: land, apparently fit for nothing else but planting, yield even an immediate profit, by a very simple process ; for it has been ascertained that a pound of turnip seed sown after harvest, upon an acre of light, sandy, and gravelly land, which had been worn out by over plough- ing, and ploughed in after two month's growth, leaves, roots, &c., had as fertihzing an effect as could have been produced by twenty-five loads of manure upon that quantity of land. The practice has not been un- common in some parts of Surrey. DINNER TO PETER GRAIN, ESQ. On Thursday, the 22nd ult. a numerous company sat down to an excellent dinner at the Eagle Hotel, priven by the members of the Board of Guardians of the Chesterton Union, to mark their high sense of appro- bation of the conduct of P. Grain, Esq., during the time he has been chairman of that board, from which he n0w retires. There were about 45 gentlemen pre- sent, all of whom are, or have been, members of the board of guardians, among; whom were Lord Godol- phin, Mr. E. Hicks (chairman), Mr. Jas. Witt (vice- chairman), and G. Fisher, Esq. (treasurer). After the removal of the cloth, the usual loyal toasts ■were drank aud responded to with great cordiality. The Chairman proposed the health of P. Grain, Esq., which was received with the most enthusiastic applause. Mr. Grain, almost overpowered with emotion, re- turned thanks, and proposed the health of Mr. Hicks, who returned thanks. The healths of the ex-officio Guardians were then proposed. Lord GoDOLPHiN returned thanks, and proposed the health of Mr. Witt. Lord GoDOLPHiN, in proposing the health of Mr. Mann, vice-chairman of the board of guardians, re- marked that farmers should always be careful to pro- cure good Grain, that smart Witt was one of the greatest ornaments of the festiv3 board ; but, above all, the ne plus ultrav/as a good Marm (Laughter), and he ^ould beg to propose the health of ths good Mann, the vice-chairman of the board. Mr. Mann returned thanks. Mr. Grain then proposed the health of Mr. Barlow, the clerk to the board of guardians. That gentleman having returned thanks, Mr. Mann proposed the professional officers of the board. Mr. Fetch returned thanks. The next toast was the health of G. Fisher, Esq., Mayor of the town, and treasurer of the Chesterton Union, and prosperity to the town of Cambridge. Mr. Fisher returned thanks. Several other toasts were then drank, and the chair- man retired about half-past nine, with Lord Godolphin, Mr. Grain, Mr. Fisher, &c. The company separated about eleven o'clock, after eejoying a very pleasant evening. COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL DIF- FERENCE BETWEEN THE ENGLISH, SCOTCH, AND IRISH. Professor Forbes, of Edinburgh (the able successor of Leslie, in the chair of Natural Philosophy), has recently made a series of experiments upon the physical differ- ences between English, Scotch, Irish, and Belgians, the results of which constitute the most interesting informa- tion we are able to lay before our readers, with respect to the comparative heights of sub- varieties of Caucasians. The following is a table drawn up bv Professor Forbes, to exhibit the relative heights, at different ages, of the students attending his class during a series of years, and belonging respectively to England, Scotland, and Ire- land. The Belgian measurements were probably de- rived from other sources. The number of individuals subjected to examination was very considerable, so many as eighty Scotch and thirty English being occa- sionally measured at once. HEIGHT — FULL DIMENSIONS WITH SHOES. Age. English. Scotch. Inches. Inches. 15 64-4 64-7 16 66-5 66.8 17 67-5 67-9 18 68-1 68-5 19 68-5 68-9 20 68-7 69-1 21 68-8 69-2 22 68-9 69-2 23 68-9 69-3 24 68-9 69-3 25 689 69-3 Irish. Belgians. Indies. Inches. , ^ 61-8 ., 64-2 66T 68-7 67-2 69-4 67-7 69-8 67-9 700 68-0 70-1 68-1 70-2 68-2 70-2 68-2 70-2 68-3 This table places the Irishman uppermost in the scale of stature, the Scotchman second, the Englishman next, and the Belgian lowest. Professor Forbes extended his inquiries among his students, Engli-^h, Scotch, and Irish, to bodily weight, adding examinations of a similar, and also of mixed classes of Belgians. The results were as follow : — WEIGHT IN POUNDS, INCLUDING CLOTHES. Belgians Age. English. Scotch. Irish. (not mixed classes.) lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 15 114-5 112 , , 102 16 127 125-5 129 117-5 17 133-5 133-5 126 127 18 138 139 141-5 134 19 141 143 145-5 1.39-5 20 144 146-5 142 143 21 146 142-5 151 145-5 22 147-5 150 153 147 23 149 151 154 148-5 24 150 152 155 149-5 25 151 152-5 155 150 Here again the superiority lies with the Irish, the others holding the same relative positions as in the case of stature. The mixed classes of Belgians, in whose case the weight of clothes was deducted, ranked exceed- ingly low — 134 lbs. being about the average. We have it in our power fortunately to compare the conclusions of Professor Forbes with those of other inquirers, in as far as the English and Belgians are concerned. The eighty students of Cambridge, weighed (with the clothes) in groups of ten, gave an average, as we are informed by Quetelet, of 151 lbs. the precise mean, it will be observed, of the Englishmen of twenty- five years of age weighed by Professor Forbes. The superiority of the Irish in point of stature and weight is remarkable. We shall find it borne out by a corresponding superiority in physical power, as shown THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 455 in the table of Professor Forbes having reference to that characteristic. LUMBAll STRENGTH IN POUNJ)S. Age. English. Scotch. Irish. Bcl^'ians. 15 280 204 16 336 314 236 17 352 340 369 260 18 364 360 389 280 19 378 378 404 296 20 385 392 416 310 21 392 402 423 322 22 397 410 427 330 23 401 417 430 335 24 402 421 431 337 25 403 423 432 339 The same relations are here preserved as in tlie pre- vious tables ; and as, with respect to weight and heig:ht at least, there could be no mistake, the probability that the last table is correct is much strengthened by the con- formity in question. The difference between the Irish and Belgians is immense, the former exceeding the latter in slrength by nearly one-fourth ; while between the English and Belgians there is also a great difference, amounting to 62 lbs. The English, in Peron's table, showed a lumbar strength equal to about 367 lbs., a point considerably below that of the English in Profes- sor Forbes's table. But we might expect such a differ- ence between students and sailors, or stout colonists, which latter classes were those examined by Peron. Between the Scotch and Irish the difference is small comparatively. It is much to be wished that the ex- ample of the Edinburgh Professor were extensively fol- lowed, both abroad and at home, so as to give us satis- factory views of the relative physical powers of the dif- ferent European nations. ON PLOUGHS. Sir, — In the magazine of January last, I madea few observations on " Ploughs 'and Ploughing," which were very favourably noticed by a ci»rrespondent in a succeeding number. In opposition to most writers and many eminent practical men, I have ever re- corded my opinion, formed from actual experience, that no implement yet known can take the place of the turn-wrist plough, on the iJinty and waxy clays of the southern counties ; acknowledging- at the same time, that it is much used where not necessary, and employing much greater power than is required. This employment arises very much from circum- stances, and not wholly from ignorance of applica- tion. An idea often occurred to me, that an imple- ment might be erected between the turn-wrist and the Scotch plough, combining the strength and adhering principle of the former with the cutting form of the latter. It will be no easy matter to effect this object, as a diminution of weight lessens the strength, and the weight of that implement adds much to its efficacy. A diminution on this head has been found inexpedient. On visiting, during last week, the agricultural im- plement factory of Messrs. Mack, of Blackheath Road, Greenwich, I found a plough somewhat ap- proaching the idea I had conceived. It is made at option of wood or iron — the latter being 61. in price, and the former 41, 10s. The left hand still and the beam are of one piece of iron, entire from end to end, and the other is screwed to the side plate and bent over and screwed to a cross bar of cast iron, which extends from the side- plate to the mould-board, and keeps all firm. The land side of cast-iron rises to the beam, and is screwed to it ia two places , sad the sole plate is similarly fastened to the land side, which is thinner in substance below, in order to receive it. The share is of cast-iron, and is fastened on the head, which is part of the land side, by an iron rod extending from the cross bar that connects the land side and mould- board to a hole in the back part of the nether wing. The entire length, from the point of the share to the heel of the land side, is much greater than in com- mon ploughs, and will consequently add much to the steadiness of the implement, and to its capability of keeping hold of the ground. The mould-board is long and narrow, pointed in the breast, and overlaps the land side in front, and prevents the wearing of that part which is more expensively repaired than mould-boards ; and these latter, with the sole-plate, will keep the former untouched and entire for a long period of time. The mould-board is fastened to the land side in front by a projection from itself at top, and by a similar projection from the land side below, and ail secured by screws ; and the ground heel is shod with a plate to prevent wearing in that quarter. The coulter enters the beam in the usual manner, or it may be screwed to the side of it in the cast-iron side extended for that purpose. The draught is ap- plied by a chain or iron rod attached to the beam just before the coulter hole, and fastened to the bridle on the end of the beam, which is turned down- wards for that purpose. The proper depth and breadth are obtained in the usual way. This kind of plough is well adapted for all soils with harsh grating, bottoms of flints, chalk or gravel ; and it gives much satisfaction on the stubborn wheat clays, that are unmixed with these substances. The elongated sole confers steadiness, and the cast-iron share takes a better hold than wrought iron, which wears round underneath on the point, and floats upwards. The narrow-breasted mould-board ob- viates the objection of carrying or pushing the soil before it; and the draught chain below the beam tends to keep the plough in the ground. A long narrow pointed mould-board, however, does not cut and lay a square furrow so neat as the more protu- berant breast of the Scotch plough ; the shoulder is lean, and the furrow looks thin and flat. For the purpose of drilling, and for ploughing all lands that do not overpower the strength and weight of it, the Scotch plough and mould-board is yet unequalled ; but,on the soils above mentioned, the plough now des- cribed will be found to be a very great improvement upon it, and upon all the lighter wheel and swing ploughs. It forms a link between them and the turn- wrist ])lough ; and though it cannot be put into competition with the latter, it will supersede the former on many soils where superior strength is re- quired. If the beam were raised and wheels attached, the strength and weight would not perform the work of the turn-wrist plough ; but for earthing up lands, and for ploughing after breaking up, it will be found a valuable implement ; and where the stiffest soils do not abound, it will perform every work of any wheel or swing ploughs in a superior and very satis- factory manner ; and being fitted for drilling and other spring operations, prevents the keeping a multitude of implements. This plough is giving much satisfaction, and is rapidly getting into use. The trials of ploughs by dynamometers lead to no useful application — practical experience far exceeds any scientific theory or combination ; and the vast improvements in our unequalled machinery, have very few of them proceeded from the enquiry of the philosopher, or the calculations of the mathemati- cian, but mostly from practical workmen. The ablest productions a priore seldom lead to practical results, CuLTOR. 2 H 2 456 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ILLOGAN FARMER'S CLUB. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT. Your committee, in presenting their first annual report of the lUogan Farmer's Club, beg to con- gratulate you on the signal success of the institu- tion. We have seen, as its offspring, a vast increase of the turnip culture — the alternate system of cropping — the introduction generally of improved farming — and the increase of that good feeling between landlord and tenant, and one another, which cannot fail of being productive of prospe- rity and happiness ; and your committee would deem themselves unworthy of their position did they not markedly recognise the munificence of the noble patroness. Lady Basset, not only in the gift of books, but in carrying out, with great zeal and considerable expense, experiments, with a view to benefit her tenantry and neighbourhood ; and also the liberality and kind attention at all times of the president, John Bassett, Esq., M.P., in furthering- the views of the club : nor can we omit recording our gratitude to the vice-presi- dents, the Rev. Geo. Treweeke, and Wm. Rey- nolds, Esq., who throughout the year rendered the most effectual services in promoting the best interests of this society. It remains now that we present you with a condensed statement of our year's work. At our first meeting in Februarj', we fixed on our rules, and elected our officers ; and at the next, in March, further arrangements were made for the future progress of the club, and the subject for discussion at the next meeting in April, was to be " manures and their applica- tion ;" when it was stated, that manures were either vegetable or mineral. The former con- sisted generally of all that was made in the farm- yard, and is called putrescent manure ; the latter, marl, lime, bone, gypsum, nitre, nitrate of soda, &c., some of which have a mechanical as well as a fertilizing influence. It was considered of the first importance to obtain as much as possible of farm-yard dung ; and in order to do this, the site of the dung heap should be so formed, that no liquid should escape, and the drainings of the stables and cow-houses should be conducted into it, and it should be well bottomed with earth or sand, or any refuse matter that can be found on the farm. This was considered the groundwork of good husbandry, without which all else would be unavailing. Top-dressing was thought to be essential to the improvement of land, and that the application of new dung was highly beneficial, and especially on clay soils ; and that no manure was more eco- nomical. The application of lime was considered as highly essential to clay lands ; it operated most powerfully in pulverizing, and brought into action the inert vegetable matter abounding in that soil. Lime was found to be much less beneficial to light lands. Bones were, beyond all other manures, the best lor turnips, which should be drilled with the seed at the rate of 25 or 30 bushels to the acre, and they are all the better for previous fermentation. The " alternate system of cropping" followed in aiay, and it appeared that the triennial system of wheat, barley, or oats, followed by grass, was the only course for a long period throughout Europe ; but which has happily given way in our own, and other countries, to the more reasonable and advantageous " alternate system." It has long been found that no land will continue to grow any crop successively for many years, how- ever highly it may be manured ; for this there have been two reasons given — the one is, that all plants have their particular aliment in the soil, and which l)ecomes sooner or later exhausted. This was the generally received opinion, till a Mr. de Candolle threw out the idea of plants in their growth throwing off certain matters into the soil, upon which the same plants will not thrive. This is found in the animal kingdom, and it is likely to be the same in the vegetable. The advantages of this system appear from its not exhausting tbesoil — from the increased luxuriance of the crops — from the increase of stock, and from the production of more and richer manure ; thus we are enabled to realize the affirmative of the Flemish maxim — " With green crops there are cattle, and with cattle there is manure, and with manure there is corn." The four-course shift of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, was thought as good as any ; but as it has been found in Norfolk that the turnip and clover appear. to be giving way in consequence of the quick succession, it will be well to vary these crops with potatoes, vetches, peas, and trifolium. We pass on to June, when "the preparation for crops, and their after cultivation," was the subject. Arthur Young's opinion was, "that what- ever other circumstances influenced the growth of wheat, a firm bottom was indispensable; and that it rarely flourished on very light soils ; or when the bottom was rendered too loose by frequent ploughings." Experience had confirmed this o])inion ; and therefore a crop of turnip or rape, fed off by sheep, is the best preparation for wheat, and particularly adapted for the light soils of this neighbourhood ; the sheep at once enriched and made firm the soil, which would enable it to bear the wash of winter. It was considered that paring and burning was the best and cheapest way of preparing the ley for turnips ; but, by whatever method it was done, the land should be thoroughly cleansed, and perfectly pulverized; it cannot be worked too much now, as the treading of the sheep in eating off the turnips will give it the necessary consistency for the wheat crop : great stress was laid upon toorking, as it was feared it was too little understood, uj)on which, next to manuring, rested the success of agriculture. The advantages of drilling were shewn to be — less seed, a heavier crop, and greater facilities for cleaning, applying equally to wheat and turnips. The next meeting in July, was for the purpose of inspecting several farms, that the club might have an opportunity of seeing what improvements were making; and they had a high gratification in ob- serving the progress made in the turnip culture and the other green crops ; and afterwards wei'e splendidly entertained at Tecvenson, the seat of W^m. Reynolds, Esq., V.P. In August, the sub- ject of cattle was brought before the meeting ; eight millions of which were found in Great Britain. 1, COO, 000 were sent to the butcher every year. After looking at the antiquity of the ox, and the estimation in which it was held by all na- tions, it was observed that the different breeds were distinguished by the length of the horn. The " long-horns" from Lancashire, mueh im- proved by Bakewell, of Leicestershire, and esta- blished through the greater part of the midland counties. The " short-horns," originally from East York, improved in Durham, mostly bred in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 457 tbe northern counties and in Lincolnshii-e, and many of them are now found in every part of the kingdom, especially where the dairy husbandry is most attended to; the "shorthorns" exceed- ing every other breed in the quantity of milk, and evinces at the same time a greater aptitude to fatten. The " middle-horns," not derived from a mixture of the two preceding, but a distinct, beautiful, and valuable breed, occupying princi- pally the north of Devon, the east of Essex, He- reford, Gloucester, and though much diminished, and with somewhat different character, they are found in the Scotch and Welch mountains. These are supposed to be the native breed, and to have been driven with their owners, the ancient Britons, into Devon, Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland. The Alderney, with her crumpled horn, is found on the southern coast, and in gentlemen's parks and pleasure grounds everywhere. The "polled," or " no horned" cattle, prevail in Suffolk and Nor- folk, and in Galloway, where they were first bred. It was considered of great moment to agriculture to ascertain which of the breeds was of most value to the farmer. From the evidence produced from every part of the kingdom, and especially from those who were formerly most opposed to the short-horns, it was placed beyond doubt that they possessed an earlier maturity, greater weight, more milk, and an aptitude to fatten beyond any other breed. A cross with the Durhams of the cattle of the neighbourhood was considered most desirable, and which would greatly improve the present breed. In September the subject was " bone manure," of comparatively recent introduction, than which nothing has had a more beneficial influence in the improvement of light soils, or tended more to in- crease the dung-heap. It appears to exceed every other manure for turnip ; twenty-five or thirt)'^ bushels of which is enough to procure a good crop upon comparatively poor soils. The most judi- cious application of it appears to be for turnips, the following crops being as abundant as if dung were used ; and the grass far better. Barley ap- pears to grow better than oats after bone. The next lecture, on the I'Zth of October, was on " vegetable physiology," by which is meant the laws which govern the life, nutrition, growth, and reproduction of vegetables ; and by the ex- amination of which we shall discover how an all- wise Providence provides, by a series of the most interesting and beautiful contrivances, for the production and support of substances essential to the existence of man and beast. Allusion was made to the difference in the education of those who had the care of animal, and of those who had to do with vegetable life ; and it was thought tbe time would come, when chemical analysis and botany would make part of the edu- cation of every young farmer; and then such substances only would be applied to the various soils as are known to be most conducive to vege- table life and nutrition ; and after entering at great length into the anatomy of plants, and the means by which they were nourished, it was stated that plants threw off by excretion wliat v^^as incapable of yielding any further nourishment, and which was the reason why the same plant would not thrive on the same spot so well as one of a dif- ferent character, and that this was the foundation of that alternate system of cropping, which is as reasonable as it is beneficial. Lime, it appears, is the substance most universally present in the ashes of vegetables, generally in the form of a carbonate, but also in union with other vegetable and mineral acids. Lime, wherever situated and uncombined, has an atnazing atrinity for carbonic acid, which it abstracts from the atmosphere, and from water percolating through the soil in its vicinity ; so that there is not, in the wliole store- house of nature, a substance so adapted to pre- pare the food of plants as lime. Silica is the eartli which, next to lime, occurs in the greatest abundance, and especially in one-lobed plants, such as wheat, barley, and the grasses. This sub- stance is found in our si)ar, and which, when finely pulverized, will be found a valuable ingredient in the dungheap. The subject for November was " dibbling," — a method of sowing by making holes and dropping the seed into them, and is gaining ground in many places. In several counties the old method of broadcasting is entirely superseded by dibbling or drilling. The advantages of this mode of sowing are : — 1. The sowing of seed to the amount of 12 gallons per acre. 2. The increased produce, gene- rally allowed to be 32 gallons per acre. 3. The facility which is afforded for cleaning the land by hoeing. 4. The seed, being well covered, is out of the reach of birds ; and 5th. Being of equal depth, it will ripen more regularly. If one-half of the land only were dibbled, there would be an increase of one eighth of bread corn, which would supply one-eighth of the whole population. The cost of dibbling is about 8s. or 9s. per acre. The practice in Norfolk is to lay the furrow flat, and a row of holes is made along the middle by a man who holds a dibble in each hand, making five holes in a second, three children following and dropping the seed. The man and three children are called a set. The dibbler carries on three furrows ; going on some yards upon one of the outside fur- rows, and returning upon the other ; after which, he takes the middle one, and thus keeps his drop- pers constantly employed. It has been proved by experiment, that three, four, or five grains are the best numbers that can be deposited ; eight or nine gallons of seed are quite sufficient for an acre. Marshall is of opinion, that dibbling is best suited to deep and strong loams, and not to thin and weak soils ; and perhaps this system is best suited to cottagers and small farmers, to whom the saving of the seed, and the employment of their families, are material ; and it is hoped that a ma- chine will be invented, that at the same time will make the hole and deposit the seed, which, for large farmers, would be a great boon. On December the 7th, the club held its annual meeting, when about fifty members dined at the Basset's Arms, Pool ; John Basset, Esq., M.P., president, in the chair, when the following prizes were awarded. Mr. Jno. Wise Paul, of Gryllis, the best crop of Swedes, Lady Basset's prize of 3/., Mr. Penpraze, of Roscroggan, the second best. Lady Basset's prize of 21. ; Mr. Henry Paul, of Carnkie, the best crop of pasture turnips. Lady Basset's prize of 21. ; Mr. Chester, of Treloweth, the best Swedes, the club's prize of 3/.; Mr. Tho- mas Davy, of Little Nancekuke, the second best, the club's prize of 21. ; Mr. A. Trewartha, of Great Nancekuke, the best pastures, the club's prize of U. Tbe meeting was one of great inte- rest ; the best feeling prevailed throughout ; and at its conclusion there was nothing to regret. At our last meeting in January, we considered that a steaming apparatus was a necessary ap- pendage to every dairy and arable farm of mode- rate size. The advantage of preparing different 458 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sorts of roots, as well as grain and chaff, by steam- ing, for the purpose of feeding cattle, is becoming better understood, and will, like other improve- ments, make its way among the farmers of this neighbourhood ; and although some experiments have gone to shew that bullocks feed as well, and perhaps more economically, on raw food, still horses and pigs are decidedly kept in better con- dition by their food being steamed. Mr. Wake- field, of Liverpool, kept some of his horses on raw, and some on steamed potatoes ; the former lost their condition and looked rough, while the latter were fat and sleek. Mr. Curwen, by his extensive and accurate experiments on steamed food, has placed the utility and advantage of this system beyond dispute. Curwen found the waste on potatoes to be one-eighteenth, and that when horses were fed on potatoes, straw did as well as hay, and on which they kept their condition, and did their work equally well ; about 321bs. is suffi- cient for a moderate sized horse. An apparatus for steaming may easily and cheaply be -attaclied to any furnace. A box of wood, or a barrel of the size required, with holes all over the bottom of an inch in diameter, which may be placed over the furnace, or have a false bottom, may be put in any convenient place, and the steam con- veyed to it by a pipe. Having laid before you a condensed view of the j'ear's work, we conclude with the hope, that as our experiments increase, so will our efforts and ability to render this society beneficial to the best interests of the farmer. — April 7, 1841. ON THE PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE NORTH OF DEVON. BEING THE SUBSTANCE OP A LECTURE DELI- VERED BEFORE THE MEMBERS OF THE TOR- RINGTON farmers' CLUB. Iq giving my opinion as to the present "state of Agriculture ii3 the North of Devon,"! shall confine myself for the present to a very few remarks, as the field is a very wide one, and one that may be fairly divided into a great number of future discussions bv persons more able to do justice to them ; or, if the society think me capable of enlarging upon any of them, I shall feel great pleasure in doing so. In giving my opinion as to the present state of agri- culture, it will be necessary to notice how it is con- ducted under various circumstances, that is, with different soils, " the climate also varying as it does in North Devon," " the sheep and cattle produced," its productions in corn, roots, artificial grasses, pas- ture, &c., timber and coppice woods, and the usual conditions introduced into leases. The soil of North Devon varies continually ; and, under the best management, it must also be cultivated in different ways. Within the recollection of many present, turnips were cultivated but very little, and now in some districts are not paid so much attention to as they ought, as the turnip crop is of great value, not only 8S an article of food for cattle, but as an im- prover of the soil, and a renovator in laying down land that has been tilled to grass, and this either for permanent grass or to be again converted to til- lage— in either case, it is indisputable that land of any value should be laid down in this way; and never, if it can possibly be avoided, be so done after more than one straw crop has been talcen after turnips, or a clean fallow : the latter course is but little practised in this neighbourhood, as the land is quite as fit after a turnip crop, and in most in- stances better than it is after a clean fallow — that is, if a crop of turnips has been produced, and the land taken proper care of by freeing it from weeds. It has been for centuries past the custom in North De- von, to pare and burn the surface, when taken up and converted to tillage: this now appears indispen- sable on most soils, where it has been out of tillage for any length of time, as the land will not be in a fit state to produce a crop otherwise; and the course I observe now generally pursued on the average til- lage soils is, to prepare for wheat in this way with the usual quantity of lime as a manure, and then fol- lows a sprmg crop of barley or oats, the following year turnips or potatoes, and then another crop of barley or oats, with artificial grasses for a crop the following year ; and then it usually remains two years in grass, when it is again taken up for wheat. By this course wheat is produced once in every seven years ; but considerable variations from this course are practised, as some contend that the tur- nips should follow the wheat, and the only objec- tion to this is, that the cost of manure will exceed the value of the crops produced, that is, where wheat cannot be produced without first dressing and preparing in the way I have noticed. In the course of my perambulations in North Devon, I find the more favoured districts sow wheat by merely ploughing down the land in the autumn, and fre- quently without manure of any sort. The land is next year well manured, and a turnip crop is pro- duced, and then follows barley, and grass seeds, as before noticed ; this course, it must be evident to every one, cannot be practised but in the most fa- voured districts; but the profit must also be evi- dent where this mode of cultivation can be pursued. I have also found that in the best districts, wheat is becoming the last straw crop after turnips, where the turnips are got ofl^ the land by the middle of February, and the land is sown with the usual grass seeds at the end of March or beginning of April, the seeds harrowed lightly in, and the land rolled down with a stone roller. I mention these different modes, that some mem- ber mav enlarge upon it on some future occasion •, and I beg to remark, that all prejudices must be thrown aside, and look at the most profitable mode, as that man is the best farmer who produces the greatest quantity and makes the greatest profit from the soil, with a course that can be continued, so as to produce more and more — and this cannot be pur- sued if the system deteriorates the soil. Some member will, I trust, give us at no distant period, the component parts of the soils of North Devon. That it is of a very varied description, no one will doubt that ever noticed it in merely passing by, and the variation is very great in quality where the land is of the same description, varying no doubt from climate and subsoil ; and we find the climate in North Devon very different in a very short distance, and which variation is not known where the country is not diversified with hill and vale ; and we are all certain that corn will not ripen upon our hills as soon as it does in the vales, and that makes the difi'erence ofvariation in our harvest ; for we find that much of the North of Devon is later than some other parts of the kingdom, although I believe the latitude of the place where we now are, is as far south as the southermost parts of Kent, consequently the greatest part of Devon is further south than the most favoured parts of the kingdom ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 459 yet we know that our harvest is frequently later, ex- cept it is in our sheltered vales. But when we lool; at it, we know that the Torridgje, which runs near us and falls into the sea hy Bidet'ord, and the Tamer which runs into the sea at Plymouth, both rise near the western coast of this county, and as it were upon the very clefts hy the sea, and, after a course of great rapidity, one falls into the Northern coast, and the other into the Southern coast of this coun- try ; and in some parishes that I have lately vi- sited, I find the rivulets which arise in them, fall some of them into one coast, and some into the other. This in itself must show that the cli- mate must vary ; and although the soil may not vary so considerahly. yet the climate will baffle the skill of the most able cultivator. Under all those circumstances, it must be evident to every one, tljat no uniform system in liusbundry can be laid down and followed with any certainty of success, but must be left to the abilities and skill of the farmer, as to what cattle and crops are best adapted to his farm. We know that sheep are produced on Dartmoor and Exmoor, of a hardy and peculiar sort, and very valuable in those districts producing good mutton, and slieep of the finer sorts could not exist upon those lands; but in our more lavoured districts, where the land is in general cultivation, the breed of sheep has of late years been much improved, and those now produced are in quality equal to some of the heretofore superior districts. As to the horned cattle in North Devon, they are too well known all over England to be noticed by me. I will only add, that I trust to hear some gentle- men, more capable than myself, give us the dift'erent breeds of cattle and sheep, and point out to us the qualities of each as adapted to our soil and climate. I am inclined to think that the management of timber and oak coppice may not be altogether irre- lavent to our business as agriculturists, as it forms ■J, considerable part of the wealth of the landed pro- prietors of North Devon ; and to see this neglected in the way it frequently is, is truly lamentable to every thiuking mind, both as regards the loss there- by occasioned in the present generation, and for the future. I beg to suggest that, in some future dis- oissions, it may be advantageous to make some re- marks on this, as well as what 1 have now said, and also on lime as a manure — the drill system of hus- bandry now getting in use in this district — and the wages given to agricultural labourers. On the present occasion, I shall only make a few other remarks, and which are upon the conditions usually introduced into leases of this county; and from the observations that I have before made, it must appear that any uniform system of husbandry can never be successfully pursued in North Devon ; and the greatest possible stricture to agriculture is an ignorant farmer who knows nothing of the soil or climate where he is placed, or a person bound down by old-fashioned former prejudices, with covenants that can never be successfully carried out — I mean \)y successfuUy , where the greatest quantity of pro- duce cannot be produced by the least possible ex- pence ; and this cannot be done at stated times during a term, but continued for a series of years ; and that man is the best farmer (or in whatever other way it may have pleased Providence to place him) who does the most good in his position in life, and excels in the calling wherein he is placed, by stimulating those around him with honest industry, and in communicating to others by precept and ex- ample, that which he by experience has found to be most advantageous to himself. NEW PATENT. Richard Edmunds, of Banbury, Oxford, gent., for certain improvements in machine? or apparatus for preparing and diiiling land, and for depositing seeds and manure therein, April 22. — Claim first. — A machine for pressing and preparing land for sowing corn, grain, seeds, or manure, in which a number of pressing rollers are employed, each roller being mounted on a separate axle, so that they may yield to any inequality in the surface of the ground. A horizontal bar extends through the machine from side to side, the axles of the two running wheels being formed on the ends of it ; along this bar are hinged a number of forked levers, the other ends of which carry the axles of the pressing rollers (which have angular edges as usual, in order to form angular grooves in the ground for the reception of the seed), each roller re- volving within the forks cTf its own lever ; the levers are each provided with a scraper, in order to remove the earth that might stick to the rollers. By this ar- rangement the pressing rollers can rise or fall accord- ing to the inequalities of the surface of the ground, independently of each other, and may likewise be weighted if desired, by attaching weights to their axles. Claim second. — The use of a long bar or plate, for the purpose of simultaneously regulating the escape of grain in drilling machines, from all the apertures, and the mode of propelling and guiding the machines. The lower part of the hopper of the drilling machine is pierced with a number of apertures for the passage of seed, and in front of these apertures a long bar or plate moves in grooves, having a corresponding number of openings in it. By moving this bar backwards or for- wards by means of a screw and nut, the apertures are either enlarged or contracted, and the escape of the grain increased or diminished. In order to propel and guide " hand drilling ma- chines" two rods are used, one of which is attached at one end of the machine just behind the wheels and at right angles with the axles thereof, the other is attached at one end to the machine, and at the other end to the first rod, being at an angle of 45 decrees with the same. By this improvement the placing of sticks at certain distances all along the field in order to assist in guiding the machine, is dispensed with ; all that the man has to do (who guides and propels the machine by means of a handle attached to the end of the first rod) being to keep the wheel that is before him in the furrow. Claim third. — The improved constructions of drilling machines herein-after described, and the manner of re- gulating the supply of grain through all the apertures simultaneously. The hopper of the machine is pierced as before with a number of apertures, from which the grain is received on a notched wheel ; by this wheel it is gradually poured through funnels into the angular grooves in the ground, formed by the pressing machine above described. The supply of grain is regulated by the following :— On one side of each of the apertures in the hopper is a fixed side piece, and extending across the machine from side to side is a bar which carries a like number of side pieces, so that by moving this bar backwards or forwards, the passage for the grain is either enlarged or diminished. A patent has been taken out in Jamaica by a Mr. Henry Gunter, for the preservation of animal and vege- table substances, the production of the tropics, in a fresh statp; so that our European friends may soon expect to be enabled to partake of the luxuries of the Antilles, preserved in such a manner as to retain all their excel- lencies. The turtle-guzzling: alderman will taste what he has hitherto only done in a deteriorated state, the delicious turtle, with the green fat in abundance ; whilst the pine, the mango, and other tropical fruits, will no longer be confined to the table of the wealthy. Mr. Gunter's in- vention will be duly estimated in Britain, whilst Jamaica will be benefitted in some degree, by the increased sale that will be occasioned for the articles required for pre- servation. 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IPSWICH AND ASHBOCKING, AND HADLEIGH FARMERS' CLUBS. The following remarks upon the proceedings of the day are extracted from the Ipswich Express. The adjourned discussions of the members of this club on "Ploughs and Ploughing," took place l-.ist Thursday. It having been decided that before re- suming the discussion on this interesting and impor- tant subject, a trial of as many differently constructed ploughs as could be convenient]? procured should take place, the land selected for that purpose was a rye stubble field, on which clear ploughing could be performed, belon ging to Wm. Hayward, Esq., of Hintlesham. The ploughs, which were brought by the farmers for trial on this occasion, were chiefly those in use in Suffolk, and these may be divided into two classes — the swing ploughs, and those with high gal- lowses and wbeels; in addition to the above were a number of ploughs selected from the manufactories of Rlessrs. Ransome, Bond and Co., Woods, Derrick, &c., and among these were the Kent Turn-rest, the Belton patent Rutland, Double Furrow, Palmer's patent Essex Swing, and others. There were not fewer than thirty ploughs in the field. Mr. Woods, of Stowmarket, being provided with one of the latest improved dynamometers, made by Cottam and Hallen, of London, it was agreed that the draughtof the ploughs mentioned in the following table should be tested by that instrument. RESULT OF THE TRIAL OF PLOUGHS. Swing Ploughs in deep furrow work ; the furrow being 9 inches wide by 7 inches deep, down the field, and 9 inches wide by 6 inches deep up. Draught Drauglit down. up- swing Plougll, S. R... Do. F.F. . Do. F. S.. Palmer's patent, W. H . Wooden Plough Essex Swing Mak er. Ransome Ransome . Ransome . Woods . . . Meadows . 20 stone* ■a .. 25 .. 28 .. 32 ., Ransome .'3S 23 stone 1.32 Swing Plough in shallow furrow work ; tlie furrow being 9 inclips wide by 5 inches deep down, and 9 inches wide by Sh- indies deep up. Swing Plough, A. L. P.. [ Woods . | 22 stone | 23 stone Ploughs constructed as Swing, with wbeels at head, tried in furrows 9 inches wide by 7 inches deep down, and 9 inches mde by 6 inches deep up. L. L. U. C. 2 wheels |Ransome.|24 stone 23 stone Rutland, 2 wheels iRansome . 24 .. Palmer's Patent W. H., 2l wheels '''oods ... 24 . . 24 Do. do., 1 wheel ....Woods ...25 ,. 24 G., 1 wheel lBond&Co.l26 Plough constructed same as last class, tried in a furrow 9 inches wide and 5 inches deep down tlie field. G.S., 2 wheels | Ransome | 22 stone ] Suffolk Wheel Ploughs, with high gallowses, tried in a fur- row 9 inches wide by 7 Indies deep down, and 9 inches wide by 6 inches deep up. Wooden Plough | Gardener Do. do King E.G. do Ransome Palmer's Patent, S. W. ..Woods .. Iron Wheel Plough | Derrick.. R., for strong land Ransomo Kent Turn Rest, turning the furrow-slice com- pletely over, 10 inches by 7 inches eacli way * 14 lbs. to the stone. The trials were not completed until four o'clock, at ■which hour about seventy gentlemen retired to partake of a cold collation at the George luu, Hiatlesham. 24 stone 24 .. 26 stone 26 .. 24 .. 26 .. 20 .. 26 .. 28 .. 28 .. 22 Mr. R. Kersey was called upon to take the Chair Present — Mr. Turner, Woodbridge; Mr. Mumford, Hintlesham ; Mr. H. Cross, Boyton Hall ; Mr. Blomfield, Stonham ; Mr. Webber and Mr. Farrow, Ipswich ; Mr. J. Clarke, Hadleigh ; Mr. Lacey, Ipswich ; J. Peacock, Esq., Ipswich ; Mr. Hayward, Badley; Mr. Lay, Bantley; Mr. W.Boby, Willisham ; J. H. L. Anstruther, Esq., Rev. Mr. Deane, Mr. C Deane, Mr. .T. Everett, Mr. Last, Mr. Rand, Mr. H. Sallows, Mr. C. Kersey, Mr. Neeve, Mr. Rist, Mr. Mumford, Groton : Mr. Freeborn, Wiston ; Mr. Cotton, Wnshbrook ; Mr A. Ransome, Mr. J. Ward, Sproughton; Mr. Lott, Burstall ; Mr. Partridge, Aid- ham ; Mr. Hayward, Hintlesham; and Mr. W. Woods, Stowmarket. The usual loyal and complimentary toasts were then drank. The Chairman called upon tjie Secretary, Mr. Farrow, to read the report. Mr. A. Ransome suggested that, for the better understanding of the nature of the present proceed- ings, it would be proper to explain that the meeting was an adjournment of the last meeting of the Ipswich and Ashbocking Farmers' Club, in order to carry out, by practical experiment, the discussion then intro- duced upon "Ploughs and Ploughing ;" and further, as a better introduction to the proceedings of this meeting, he would call upon Mr. Farrow to read the minutes of the last meeting. The Chairman said he was sure that an account of the proceedings of the last meeting would be re- ceived and listened to with a great deal of pleasure. Mr. Farrow then read the minutes of the last meeting of the Ipswich and Ashbocking Farmers' Club. The Chairman then called upon the Secretary of the Club to relieve the impatient anxiety of all pre- sent, to hear the result of the morning's proceedings. Mr. A. Ransome then rose, and said that the Com- mittee had not thought it desirable to make any fur- ther report than the one they had now to present, seeing that every individual in the field had oppor- tunities of making general observations, and forming his ownjudgnient thereon; and therefore they had con- fined their Report strictly to the practical detail of the working of the ploughs, and the respective amounts of their draughts : he felt bound to state, they were very much indebted to Mr. W^oods, for the use of his dynamometer, which he had kindly lent for the occasion. He expressed his obligations to the gentlemen who had united with them in taking the draughts, and for the perfect fairness that was shown in every instance : he felt in dutv bound to make these remarks. (He then read the report which we have given above.) He remarked that he had found by the experiments that there vrere differ- ences in the working of the dynamometer, occasi- oned by the differences in the line between up-hill and down-hill. He found that the horses drew lighter iip-hill than they did down-hill, although the furrow was less in depth. Before concluding the report, he would beg to add one or two reinarks with reference to the character of trials that day : in consequence of the additional length by the introduction of the measuring instrument in the line of draught, the ploughs calculated to work at 4^ or 5 inches deep, could not be made to work the same as those that were calculated for a depth of 7 inches ; the consequence was, that they worked with the dyna- mometer under disadvantages. 'I'he tests, therefore, were not to be taken as certain tests, or standards on which to base a strong opinion. Mr. J. Everett, in proceeding to the discussion of the subject before the meeting, said that the cir- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 461 cumstance which appeared to him to he of more im- portance tliiin any other, and to which his attention had never before been directed, was that a foot plough, while working in a very slight incline up-hill, re- quired a greater draught with a depth of 6 inclies, than when going down-hill with a depth of 7 inches, which of course was easier for the horses, on account of tbe whole weight of the plough from its centre ef gravity carrying it down. The circumstance was a very singular one, for which he could not account. It was not so with tbe wheel plough, which drew lighter up-hill with 7 inches than the foot plough did down-hill with thesame depth. This was a very diflBcult question to him ; and he would be much ob- liged to any gentleman acquainted with the laws of mechanics, who would be good enough to explain the philosojihy of it. He said he was not at all surprised that the foot plough should work at a great disadvan- tage up-hill, because every plough working in that way inclined to draw ; and if the plough was not set dig- ging, but was pitched in the same way as the wheel- plough, it would not enter the ground at all. In the wheel-plough the inclinatioa was downwards, except there was some counteracting force ; it was true the wheel-plough was of greater weight from the wheels and other appurtenances, than the foot, and required more exertion on the part of tbe horses to carry it, and these were disadvantages ; but still they were, he thought, counterbalanced by wheels. The turn-rest plough he would not allude to further than remark, that there were many points which made it valuable to Suffolk farmers. Mr. A. Ransome said the case applied also to swing ploughs : if from any circumstance the line of draught was higher than it required to be, it would have a tendency to depress the body of the plough, and therefore, in going up-hill, it would have to dip into the ground and would not work so well ; and in order to counterbalance that, the plough- man had to exert greater degree of force. A knowledge of the principle on which the plough worked would enable a skilful ploughman to remedy some defects in construction, or in the improjier adaptation of ploughs to soils for which they were not fitteij. Mr. J. Everett, in answer to a question from Mr. Webber, said he had not thoroughly considered tbe question in a mechanical point of view, but his own opinion of the matter was this — that when the horse was dragging the foot-plough, there must be two parallel lines ; one from the nose of the share to the heel of the plough, and another parallel to the collar on which the trace was fixed. Now it appeared to him, that when the horses' shoulders rose on a regular rising ground, the parallel line must corres- pondingly rise, and if it was a rounding piece, there would be a deviation, so that the pressure was un- doubtedly on the upper surface of tlie share, and there would be greater difficulty in guiding the plough forward, whether ascending, descending, or moving upon level ground. He therefore wanted to have the question mechanically answered — why the plough dragged heavier, and the horses worked harder down«hill than up-hill — and why there was more pressure on the surface of the share, so as to drag it out of the ground 1 Mr. A. Ransojie said, that provided the lines were parallel there was no question about it ; but the lines were not parallel, and consequently the draught was taken from somewhere about the centre of the plough, and, the lines acting at angles, the deviation would be easily accounted for. However, desirable as this question was, in a practical point of view, it was not so much tbe subject for discussion at this meeting, as what were the most desirable class of ploughs for farmers to use ; and what were the means to he adopted to obviate the effects of any disadvan- tages with respect to soils. The question was then as to the relative value of the swing-plous-h over other ploughs, and also to ascertain what were the most economical means of ploughing ; and he thought it was highly desirable not to sacrifice quality to facility of ploughing. The grent point was to attain perfection, and nothing short of that ought to satisfy agriculturists, who wanted to accomplish tbe best possible work at the smallest amount of expense or labour. With respect to the comparative advantages of swing and wheel ploughs, his opinions were not drawn so much from theoretic knowledge as they were from practical experiments witij different ploughs. He found that where the plouo'h was per- fectly adjusted, and in the hands of the best plough, man, for doing the work with the smallest possible draught, the wheel-plough appeared the most ad- vantageous. He did not deny that swing-plouo-hs were useful for some lands, and they mio-ht^be rendered more useful by the adaptation of a wheel according to the nature of the land they were re- (juired to plough. Mr.J, Everett agreed entirely with Mr. Ransome's observations with respect to the heavier working of swing-ploughs up-hill than down-hill, and admitted that for up-hill work the wheel-plough was pre- ferable. He thought, too, that the plough should be used with a wheel, when desirable. He had been accustomed for several years to use the swino'- plough, and from observation, had found it possessed many advantages ; but he sometimes used the wheel where extraordinary circumstances required it, and he took some credit to himself for being the originator of it. He had taken the H. A. plough, and fixed one wheel at the head, and by that means he had brought it as nearly as possible to perfection. All farmers had some fancy of their own, and all they had to do by discussion and experiment, was to see what fancy was right. The H. A., with a wheel in front was, he knew, generally used by the farmers in Essex and Suffolk. Witli a view of brino-ino- the discussion into something like a business form, he begged to propose as a resolution — " That the most advantageous plough to be used on the soils of Suffolk, both light and heavy, is the I. A. with one wheel in front." Mr. A. Ransome begged to object to that pro- position. He thought it should not indicate any particular maker, but should point out one of a class as the most desirable; he would, therefore, propose as an amendment, "That those ploughs which are of such a character as shall combine the advantages of the swing-plough where necessary, with the ability of having a wheel attached at the head, so as to lessen the draught in all cases where necessary, are the most advantageous." IMr. Everett begged to withdraw his motion in favour of tbe amendment of Mr. Ransome, which more distinctly expressed whatlie intended. Mv. H. Chosse said he had hoped the discussion would have gone further into the question than it had done. He farmed heavy land, and the wheel-plough was very objectionabletoliim, and lie wanted togetrid of it. It cut too deeply. It struck him, that there was a great deal of land in Suffolk upon which the wheel worked to a great disadvantage at all times. If the land got a few drops of rain, it became so soft as to prevent the wheels from working, and made them entirely useless. Some time ago, a plough was brought to him from Diss, to be tried, and he put it to work on dry land, where it worked very well, and 462 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. proved itself the most lerel plough be had ever seen. Afterwards a patent was taken out for it, and it had been at work in the field that day, but it worked with the greatest variation. He could not account for this discrepancy, except it was owing to the pitching. It certainly was not adapted to the soil, but was pitched for more tenacious land, where the pitch could be three inches deeper. Mr. Ransome : How was it tested 1 Mr. Crossk: By the same dynamometer that you have used here to-day. Mr. VV. Everett wished to know what was to he considered the perfection of plougliing-'? Some standard must be taken, and the standard he would propose was the nearest approach to digging ; if the object was turning the ground bottom upwards, then no one plough had any pretensions above another. The wheel-plough insured the furrow being to half an inch the same depth throughout the field, while, by the foot-plough, it could not be insured with one inch and a half. He thought it desirable to fix a standard of perfection, and recommended the Kent- plough. Mr. J. Everett thought the question of per- fection resolved itself into two branches: one with regard to turning up the land, and the other witk regard to the draught of the plough. Mr. A. Ransome said the jiroposition was not confined to the draught entirely, but it was distinctly worded, to signify that perfection in execution was not to be sacrificed to economy. Any sacrifice of perfection, he apprehended, was very bad policy. Mr. Everett said, that he should be obliged to withdraw his support to the proposition, if it was to be understood that the Kent-plough was to be con- sidered the standard of perfection. Mr. Ransome said, that he apprehended they were all at sea as to the real proposition. The question was to decide upon the depth, before perfection could be ascertained. Mr. Everett had instanced the Kent-plough, but it was only remarkable for its cleanliness of working ;and if that was the ultimatum, then it had all in its tavour. But it was of no ad- vantage to Suffolk farmers, whose land was not based on a chalk formation. Mr. J. Everett thought it impossible to entertain the question of perfection at that late hour in the day. He thought thev should confine the discussion to one point, that of draught. He would jiropose " That as to draught, that plough which might be used with or without a wheel, was the most advantageous for light and heavy soils." This he would suggest, without regard to any particular maker. A slight discussion took place upon the nature of the Kentish soil with reference to the working of ploughs, and also upon the merits of the Kent- plough, and the irregularities of its working upon the Suffolk soil. ON GRASSES. Some years ago, a very elaborate account of the grasses was compiled and published by the di- rection of an English nobleman who took much interest in rural affairs, and who constantly evinced a most anxious desire to forward agricul- tural improvements in any way by which they were supposed to be attainable. The practical management of the experiments was confided to his gardener, who seems to have acquired a fair knowledge of the gramineous plants, and to have bestowed much labour and assiduity in collecting and arranging the results that occurred. The chemical examination of the different grasses was performed by the most distinguished chemist of the age, and no pains were spared in making the experiments as complete in every respect as science and practice could effect. Each plant was grown on a space of ground two feet square ; the weight of produce was ascertained at three diffe- rent periods — the spring (April), the time of floweritig, and when the seed was ripe ; the quan- tity of nutritious matters contained at these times was given from analysis ; and the relative merits of the different plants, both in quantity and quality, were calculated from the results of the field and the laboratory. The publication contains much useful and varied information, but a number of insurmountable circumstances concur to render the chief part of the contents in a great degree useless to the practical farmer. The results that were obtained can only apply to the particular soil and climate ; the experiments were made on too small a scale whence to draw any general in- ferences for application ; they were not repeated in order to confirm the results ; and the indica- tions of the nutritious quality of vegetables as marked by chemical analysis have been found, when compared with the results of practice, to be contradictory, vague, and indefinite. The influ- ence of soil and climate, and of seasons, is very great, both on the quantity and quality of vege- table productions, so that no single trial of a plant in one situation can convey any recommendation of general utility. The greater part of the gra- mineous tribe are slow in growth and puny in bulk ; the seeds are small and difficult to be found ; they are easily choked by stronger plants, and the produce from the most careful cultivation would be found very inadequate to repay the expences that must be incurred. Experience has long ago confirmed the fact that permanent pastures are unprofitable, and that all lands where the plough can work are more useful under a system of al- ternate cultivation. If any exceptions occur in the case of the most valuable pastures, it must be remembered that the herbage on such lands has been formed by nature, and can hardly be im- proved by art or re-formed by human skill. The inferior and smaller grasses constitute the short sweet herbage on the dry and elevated downs of South Britain, which have likewise been formed by nature, and which, if broken up, it might be iinpossible to clothe with verdure during the lapse of many ages. Very inferior lands, both wet and dry, will not bear a good sound herbage, and any attempts to produce it permanently by cultivation would prove abortive. The grasses useful in cultivation are confined to those plants which will yield in " one year" a produce that proves the most valuable in quantity and quality, these latter properties being very considerably modified by other circumstances that are inseparable from vegetable growth. Great bulk of produce can rarely be obtained without a corresponding degree of coarseness being attached ; and it requires an almost impossible or unattainable degree of qua- lity in a smaller quantity of produce, to equal in value a greater bulk, when the latter is attended with a fair portion of the nutritious property, and when the difference in quantity is very consi- derable. The quick return of the capital and labour that are expended on any object, forms one of the primary considerations in every employ- ment of human skill and industry ; and the value of such return will very often exceed that of a more bulky but distant produce, which must THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 463 supply the deficiency during the infant maturity, by yielding a quantity sufficient for that purpose, nnd also to equal the value of the earlier profit. The very circumstance of any plant for cultiva- tion requiring a distant period of maturity, con- stitutes an almost insuperable obstacle to the use of it ; and the instances are comparatively rare in which the distant return can he preferred to the immediate gain. Even where such a certainty exists, the social position and very often the ne- cessities of the farmer exclude such a system of cultivation, and it can be practised only on very ample means and lengthened tenures. There is no doubt that the desire and need of immediate gain, and the aversion to outlay, preventthe deve- lopment of many sources of ultimate profit ; but various obstacles intervene, and the anticipations of the expected benefits must be clear and evident before the most approved mode can be justifiably abandoned, and more especially when an imme- diate loss attends the alteration. But when it liappens, as in the present case of grasses, that another mode of alternate cultivation has long shown the superior utility of a quick return, com- pared with the distant profit, the question requires no further argument — the evidence is clear and convincing, and can only be opposed by custom and prejudice, which continue to uphold the most absurd and ignorant practices long after they have been overturned by reason and experience. If any of the persons who were engaged in the above- mentioned work on grasses had been thoroughly acquainted with agriculture as a profession — if they had been enabled from practical experience and ex- tensive observation to take a comprehensive view of the subject, on the broad basis of general utility and varied application — and if matured reflection, de- rived from actual practice, had been joined with the aid of science, theinutility of theesperiments for the general purposes of cultivation would have been at once apparent. But though the most approved and daily gaining practice does not adopt the views that are entertained in that work, and though many of the results only confirmed the ob- servations that were previously made, and though the alterations that were suggested have not been so successful as might have been very reasonably anticipated, yet the publication has not been with- out its use, in confirming practice in some cases, in removing a prejudice in others, and most cer- tainly in extending our knowledge of the plants that enter very largely into daily use. Even where labour is exerted in favour of erroneous principles, or of prevailing prejudices, it is often attended with some useful result ; and when future discoveries supersede the matter of any compila- tion, the value at the particular time is not diminished. But in the present case the objections were known long before the experiments were made, and have been much strengthened by the results, which, had they been different, would still have been borne down by the practical and scien- tific principle of alternation, which is now fixed on a firm basis, and a powerful experience. The preceding observations are founded on the principle, that the crop of one year must pay the farmer as much as possible, and consequently, that grass plant must be the most useful to the farmer which approaches the nearest in nature to the cul- tivated cereales, and yields the gi-eatest produce on the greatest variety of soils. For this purpose, the common ray grass yet stands pre-eminent ; any superior quality discovered in other plants is completely overbalanced by general properties, for the nutritive difference from the laboratory will not appear ou the horse or the bullock. It pro- duces abundantly and grows readily, on by far the greatest variety of soils ; the seed is jilentiful and easily gathered ; and the general quality is equal to any other grass that has yet been found. Lawns, plats, and pleasure grounds, are not taken into ac- count— they are unprofitable. All our best lands are most usefully managed by a constant alterna- tion of plants ; and on distant inferior soils, the ray grass, with a portion of cynosurus, jjhleur dactylis, and the fescues, will form a good pasture for three years, before renewal. Some of the above plants have been tried along with ray grass and clover for hay, and also for one year's pasture ; but no difference was visible to justify the ex- pense, and on good lands pasture is not necessary. Soiling and consuming crops on the ground will gradually supersede pasturing on such lands where the crops will afford the animal manures ; and on the inferior soils the quickest herbage is required for two or three years, it being found that such lands do not hold good grasses beyond that period. In an estimate of general and pro- fitable utility, the minute difterences of the labora- tory will not appear, and must not be taken into account in arranging a system of cultivation — they wholly disappear in a general estimate. No difference has yet been found sufficient to over- turn the results of practice. J. D. ON LEASES. Sir, — Had my time and various avocations per- mitted me, I should certainly have entered some- what at large on the subject of leases, which has been so judiciously introduced by Mr. Wyatt. I can, however, only at present state my general con- currence in his views, so temperately as well as so ably expressed. That there are so few leases in this country cannot fail to excite the wonder of ull think- ing men, who have had an opportunity of witnessing their eftects where they have been long in healthy operation ; and especially such as have, like myself, had a good deal to do with the letting of farms. The state of things in Scotland, as it respects the condition of the farms and the tenantr}^ and on many accounts beside, fully ])roves the immense importance to the landlord, as well as to the tenant, of long leases, not to mention, again, the splendid example which tliat prince of landlords and farmers, the Earl of Leicester, has so long exhibited to his " own order." I have myself actually seen, in Scotland, on the estate of the late excellent, and by his tenantry, I believe, " much lamented," Mr. Ferguson, of Raitb, and in other places, improvements entered upon, and investments made in the land, to such an extent as would not be credited, were a statement given of them in print, except by those who have also had an opportunity of witnessing tliem. It occurred to me, on reading the letter of" A Member of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land,'' that your readers generally would feel greatly surprised at his statement of the cost of the grain im- ported— surely it could not have cost much more than /i«//' what he states : however, I agree with him entirely in his regret that there should have been any neces- sity to import any. If due attention was given to the improvement of our own soil, and due -protectiim given to its produce, small, comparatively, as is its terri- torial extent, this country would export grain instead of importing it ; but there are so many estates in the 464 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hands of lawyers, on the one band, and on the other, such a monopolv hy tlie few of land agencies, in which cases it is impossible, except they were en- dowed with uhiquity, for them to do anything like iufstice to them ; and further, there is such a back- wardness in granting, or in taking land on leases, that the aggregate production is little more than halt what it ought to be. I am, Sir, your's truly CoUinslmm, iTth April, 1341 . J- West. LORD WESTERN AND THE PRO- POSED ALTERATION IN THE CORN LAWS. Felix Hall, Friday, May 7. Sin _I am desirous of following' up the excellent address to the farmers, in the Chelmsford Chronicle of this day, by showing tliem how impossible it is for tlieir landlords to make any reduction of rent that can in any degree compensate for a reduction of price in the pro- duce of their farms, even such as may be considered quite within the extent to which an abrogation of the present corn laws would occasion. I do this because infinite pains have always been taken tn make the farmers believe that the corn laws are beneficial only to landlords. I have witnessed these eflfects in both Houses of Parliament. I have known this fallacy urged in an offensive and ungenerous manner by men in high sta- tions, who ought to have ielt that tlie class in seciety to which they belong would not support the corn laws with such selfish views. That the protective laws are beneficial to landlords is undoubtedly true ; but it is as false to say they are exclusively so. They are calcu- lated to maintain and ensure the general prosperity of the empire ; and if such is theireffect, they should be sup- ported, as they have been for so many years by the ablest statesmen, who have succeeded each other in guiding liie helm of the state. If their wisdom and patriotism can now be proved to be folly by the new lights of the pre- sent day, I would be the first to say, " Wipe them out of the Statute Book altogether ;" but either my under- standing is very obtuse, or their lights are too feeble, for on rae they yet have made no sensible impression. But ray object in this letter is to prove to you by a very simple calculation that the corn laws are as essential to the farmers as the landlord, and that it behoves them to exert themselves accordingly on the present occasion. Suppose a farm of two hundred acres of arable land, at twenty-five shillings an acre, farmed on the four-course husbandry, which will give fifty acres of wheat, fifty of barley, twenty-five of beans or peas, and twenty-five of clover. ACRES. £,• £,• 50 of Wheat 3 150 50 of Barley 5 250 25 of Beans 4 100 25 of Clover 50 of I' allow 200 500 Suppose the reduction in the market price to amount to two shillings a quarter on an average, one sort of grain with another, and the deficit in the farmer's receipt for the year will be exactly the whole amount of liis rent. To simplify the calculation, I take no notice of the clover and the fallow, which may give some crop, such as tares, &c. The calculation certainly may be varied many ways, as is obvious by altering theprices of produce, the quan- tities grown, rent, &c., but vary it in any way a nearly similar result will be exhibited, such at least as will show very decidedly the impossibility of any reduction of rent compensating to the farmer the fall iu the market price of his commodity. Your's, &c. Western. WATTON FARMERS' CLUB. May. 1841. SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. Having arrived at the close of another year, the duty again devolves upon your committee, of placing in the hands of each member an abstract of the proceedings of the club during the past year ; and they avail themselves of this opportunity it gives them, of expressing their satisfaction at the continued prosperity of the society, and they trust that each and every of its members will use their utmost exertions to further the highly im- portant object of its establishment, the improve- ment of agriculture by its members, communi- cating the result of their practice and experience, and by the discussions arising out of such com- munications. Your committee trust they may be excused in making the suggestion, that in stating the details and results of their experiments, members would be somewhat more minute and particular than they have hitherto occasionally been — for where no correct data are laid down, it is impossible to arrive at satisfactory conclusions. Having ventured to make this remark, they now lay before you the proceedings of the past year. First Meeting, May 14th, 1840. — Report of the preceding year was read and unanimously approved. Second Meeting, June 10th. — The proper time of cuttiny trefoil for hay — was discussed, in consequence of a letter from one of the members of the club, in which he stated, that it was a well- known fact that however well made it might be, it is often so distasteful to stock, that they cannot be induced to eat it, and that different individuals assert that this effect is produced from causes the very reverse of each other — one says it is from late cutting, another from early, and each is con- fident that his own opinion is right. Now it is very unlikely that both should be right. The writer then says, that both should undergo the strictest examination, by which means only truth can be elicited. He then goes on to say, that his at- tention was first attracted to the subject near twenty years since, when he had a stack of trefoil which the stock would not touch ; it was remarkably well made, and, to the eye, as beautiful a piece of hay as could be seen ; he could in no way account for this effect, and certainly at that time could not be persuaded that it was in consequence of earlij cutting, though from subsequent experience he had every reason to believe it was so. From that time he has cut late, and the hay has been uniformly good. This, he says, must have great weight with him, but may not be decisive of the question. He would however relate a fact connected with this subject: — aperson in an adjoining parish had alarge piece of trefoil, half of which he cut early and stacked it in excellent condition ; the remaining part of the field was not cut till a fortnight afterwards ; this hay was excellent, that cut first the stock refused. After giving similar cases, he says, he is decidedly in favour of late cutting, but that he was quite ready to believe there is much good trefoil hay from early cutting, but it must be very early, and before the crop has come to full growth. Several members stated their opinions, some in favour of late, others of early cutting, and on a division it was carried in favour of late J cutting. I A discussion then arose on the " stacking of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 465 trefoil, and whether it would be advantageous to use salt on the stack ;" and from all that could be collected, it would appear, that trefoil should not be much heated, and which the use of salt, it was contended, would much accelerate. That being the opinion of the majority of the meeting, the following- resolutions were passed : — Resolutions. — 1st. That trefoil should he cut in an advanced state. — 2nd. That itshould not be much heated on the stack. — 3rd. I'hat salt is not beneficial to hay that is well made. Third Meeting, July 8th. — On the cultivation of beet. — In discussing this subject but little dif- ference of ojjinion was manifested, all agreeing in the great benefit to be derived from the growth of this root, it being taken from the land very early, and the land being then fit for either wlieat or barley. As food in the spring they excel turnips, as they retain their quality for a longer period unimpaired ; aftbrding for both beast and sheep Iced late in the spring, at a time when it is generally so much required ; and having also this advantage, that they can be grown on situations where the land is unkind for turnips. Most of the members present approvedof the ridge system, drilling them at about twenty-seven inches apart. Tlie meeting then passed the following Resolution. — " That beet is a beneficial crop on most descriptions of soils — that drilling them is preferable to other systems — the ridge system being the best for general use, but on wet and licavy land that a good crop may be obtained on broad work." Your committee cannot dismiss this subject without remarking that much depends on the selection of seed for this crop, some being of very inferior quality, running into jwawy roots, whereas they ought to be clear rooted, free from fibres, and should grow well out of the ground; this latter kind not exhausting the land so much. Again they would remark, that the yellow beet are coming much into use, and tbey recommend that comparative trials should be made between the two kinds, not only in their weight per acre, but also in their fattening qualities. At this meeting it was agreed that the meeting of the club should be adjourned till the 7th of October, in consequence of the harvest. Fourth Meeting, October 7th. — On the varieties of wheat. — The gentleman introducing this subject began by saying, that nothing was of greater importance than increasing the produce of wheat, it being the main support of the great mass of the community. He said there were many varieties that would produce more than others — the Hickling, for instance, but then it was not saleable. He considered we ought to look to that which would produce the most flour. But his great object in bringing the subject forward was, to obtain information as to what descrij)tion of wheat was best suited to the several varieties of soil : his land was of a very light description, and he found the " Old Red" to answer best. He concluded by expressing a hope that others would give the result of their experience upon the subject. Several members then mentioned the different varieties grown by them, but it did not appear that any of them had applied accurate tests, by which means alone a right decision can be arrived at ; still, as far as appearances go, it would seem that the old red is the best on light, the copdock on mixed soil, and the red golden drop on heavy land. The white golden drop had been found very productive, but it sprouts so soon in wet weather that it is very hazardous to grow to any extent — but the same applies to all white wheats, they being more tender and consequently sprouting much sooner than the red varieties. The result of the discussion was such as to lead to a resolution, but, as before stated, from the paucity of tests applied it must not be regarded as fixed and irrevocable. It was understood that the subject would be renewed at some future period, when your committeehave every reason to believe much valuable information will be obtained, as this discussion will set on foot a spirit of enquiry, and cause members to make such accurate observations, as will bear the test of after-ex- amination. The resolution was as follows : — For light land, old red ; for mixed soil, copdock ; for heavy, red golden droj). It was then agreed that the annual show of roots should be at the next meeting, and that a sweepstakes should be ojjened for the best two acres of beet and the best two acres of Swedes. Fifth Meeting, November 4th. — The club met at an early hour to witness the exhibition. The Judges awarded as follows : — Long red beet, Mr. Wrightup, Ashill; long yellow beet, Mr. Wrightup, Ashill ; Swedes, Mr. Hartt, Ashill. Only six roots of either of the kinds were pro- duced by each exhibitor. IMany other specimens were exhibited, but there was no further competition. The prize for the best two acres of beet was awarded to R. Dewing, Esq., of Carbrooke, and that for the best two acres of Swedes, to Mr. Barton of Threxton. Your committee beg to suggest that in future the prizes for roots should be for roots groicinff on some given quantity of land — suppose two acres, as in the sweepstakes just mentioned. The subject for discussion this evening then commenced; it was, ''Whether it iv as advisable to use oxen instead of horses." The gentle- man introducing it stated, that he believed oxen could be used to advantage on many farms, and at a much cheaper rate than horses, but he advocated keeping only a limited number, a sufficient number of horses being kept to do the carting on the farm; but his argument had reference only to large farms, as he did not think oxen advantageous on small occupations. He was fully borne out by those gentlemen who took part in the discussion, with one or two exceptions, and they were willing to concede the point, provided plenty of pasture was attached to their farms, but upon occupations with a limited quantity of pasture, they did not consider they could be used with advantage. The meeting passed the following Resolution. — " This meetinghaving taken into consideration the propriety of using oxen on farms of not less than four hundred acres, are of opinion from the evidence offered, that they can be used to advantage, keeping at the same time a sufficient number of horses to do the carting." Sixth Meeting, December dra.— Saltpetre and nitrate of soda.— The above subject was brought forward by a gentleman who had not used it to any great extent, but his evidence went to show that there was a great apparent increase, more especially from the nitrate of soda on wheat ; and in this statement most of the members present agreed, but no one had accurately tested it, and consequently no direct opinion could be expressed or resolution come to on the subject, which was adjourned with the hope that at some future meeting gentlemen would be able to furnish satisfactory results. 466 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Your committee have subsequentljr been in- formed by a member, that in 1837 one hundred weight of saltpetre produced an increase of eight bushels of wheat and five hundred weight of straw, on his own farm, and that two years after- wards, one hundred weight of nitrate of soda, applied to wheat, produced an increase of ten bushels, and six hundred weight of straw on a friend's farm. Gypsum. — This subject, which was adjourned from the February meeting of last year, was re- sumed, and strong corroborative evidence given of its good effects on light land for sainfoin and clover; one member having an increase of two tons of sainfoin per acre, by using three bushels in April, (the sainfoin was weighed in the green state,) the after grass alone being worth all the cost of the gypsum ; after similar evidence, the following resolution was passed : — " From the evidence adduced this evening, it appears, that the use of gypsum is generally at- tended with success on light land, hut there is the same deficiency of evidence as to its effects on heavy land as last year." In consequence of the severity of the weather there was no meeting in January. Seventh Meeting, February 3rd, 1841. — On the management of farm fences. — The member introducing this subject to the notice of the meeting, dwelt much on its importance, and said nothiHg contributed so much to the comfort and convenience of the farmer as good and durable fences, and to insure which, the best attention ought to be given, not only in the rearing of new fences, but also in the management of old ones. He then entered into the early history of fences, showing the reason of so many of the ancient ones being so irregular, and the great improvement made in them since that time, and recommended the laying or plashing of old fences, instead of cutting them close, by which means a fence against stock is made at once, and it can afterwards be suffered to grow up, or kept clipped ; which latter system he strongly recommended, especially for wet land, as it allows of the full power of the sun and wind, which is so essential, and makes a material difference in the ripening and harvesting of corn. As regarded new fences, he considered much depended on the soil, as to whether it re- quired a ditch or not ; his system was on dry land, to make a ditch and afterwards plough it in, laying two rows of white thorn of good strong growth, and laying the spring in a slanting di- rection, so that the root lies six inches lower than the top ; and he recommended that trees should by no means be planted in the fence, as the crops were much injured by them. Other members stated that they quite agreed that plashing fences was a better method than cutting them entirely off, especially on light land ; some preferred making floor banks to a ditch, on light land, and to trim the fences up the sides to keep them thick at the bottom. After some further discussion, the meeting passed the following Resolution. — " It is the opinion of this meeting that no fence is better than white thorn, and that it is not desirable to cut them off' on light land ; that for old fences, the best system is to lay or plash them." Underdraining , — which was adjourned from the March meeting of last year, was then taken into consideration, and, after some discussion, it was resolved to let it remain aa it then stood j the meeting being of opinion that no better system could be pursued than that recommended. Cleaning Land from Poppy, — which was left unfinished at the July meeting of last year, was then resumed, and various opinions stated, but the prevailing one was in favour of harrowing, in slight frost if possible, and hoeing; those who were induced to try raking, as recommended last year, found it did not answer. The following resolution was agreed upon : — "It is the opinion of this meeting that harrowing and hoeing is the best method to eradicate the poppy from wheat ; and it fully agrees in the re- commendation of the committee of last year, that it is highly necessary to sift all chaff before it leaves the barn." Eighth Meeting, March IOtu. — At this meeting a most important subject was brought under discussion, (viz.) "The cause of the failure of layers .-" and various opinions were off'ered to the meeting, some stating they generally failed on light land if they used muck for the previous crop of turnips but which was not the case when the land was folded with sheep. The Treatise on Gypsum, by C. W. Johnson, Esq., was then read ; from which it appears, that the cause of the failure is from the natural gypsum of the soil being exhausted, and he recommends it being supplied by artificial means ; but as that had not been tried by any member present,* no opinion could be offered upon it — still that theory appears to be borne out, as it was found that where fresh mould was applied the layer did not fail. One gentleman had spread the scourings of a ditch round the field, and there he had a good plant, whilst it failed in the centre. A gentleman stated that twenty-five years since he could grow clover without difficulty each alternate course, and now he could not grow it at all with any degree of certainty ; he could not account for it, except from the constant succession of green crops which their leases bound them to grow, they gradually exhausted the soil of some constituent which wants to be supplied by some means, whether gypsum or not he could not say. Several members stated it to be their intention to try it, and the subject was ad- journed to hear the result of their experiments. Another subject somewhat connected with it was then brought forward — " On the sowing of seeds." Some recommending rolling them in about ten days after the barley was sown, which produced better layers than when they harrowed them in. Again, it was found a good plan to drill them on light land, changing the seed often from red clover to Dutch or trefoil. The Italian rye- grass was said to produce much more than any other, but the following crop was not so good. No resolution was passed, as it was considered to be so nearly connected with the foregoing subject as to form a part of it. The following experiments on barley were communicated to the meeting — thirty acres of chevalier against thirty acres of common sown beside each other, and treated alike on lig/it land. The difference was in favour of the common 51s., or about Is. 4jd. peraci-e. On heavy land, chevalier against Nottingham- long-ear. The latter was found much the best ; but it might be from the change of seed, this kind not having been sown before. * Since the meeting a member communicates that he tried gypsum sown at the time the seeds were, and with great success. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 467 NrNTH Meeting, April 7th. — Artificial manure for turni]js — was discussed at this meeting, and much evidence given of the good effects of hones, not only producing a good crop of turnips, but of their lasting properties ; it being stated that the good effects of them were to be seen in the succeeding wheat crop. Oilcake was tried against bones, and the result was in favour of the latter. Oilcake and carbon had also been tried, and the carbon prevailed ; but the experiments offered to the meeting were not sufficiently numerous to warrant a resolution on the subject, and it was consequently adjourned to some future time. Another discussion then arose " On the varieties of turnifs ;" but as little evidence was oflFerert, that was also adjourned. The library of this society having now become extensive, inasmuch as it embraces most of the standard agricultural works, and periodicals of the day — it appears that our future funds will be more than adequate to the demand that will be made upon them. Your committee therefore strongly recommend the procuring a room for the purpose of depositing them, and that the society should authorize the secretary to procure the leading agricultural newspapers to be laid in such room for the use of the members, who may be disposed to avail themselves of the opportunity. Your committee have nothing further to add but their best wishes for the continued prosperity of the society, and which, a strict adherence to its rules, with unanimity and good understanding amongst its members, cannot fail to produce ; not forgetting that as every stream, however minute, increases as it rolls on ; so every discussion, how- ever brief, will tend to increase our stock of know- ledge, and in the end will be found beneficial to the whole community ; and it is hoped, will not be lost upoii the members of the Watton Farmers' Club. For the Committe, Tiios. Barton, Secretary. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR- MER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — I beg leave to trouble you with a few re- marks, relative to the exhibition of implements at the coming meeting at Liverpool, hoping some in- formation may be afforded to manufacturers and persons intending to exhibit. Will the arrangement as to situation of each person be under the direction of the Society'? as a bank of 80 ploughs was ex- hibited by one firm, at Cambridge, last year. Will others be allowed to erect anything of the kind, so that their goods may be shown to as good advan- tage"? And if the committee should think best to have the assistance of those who exhibit goods, should or would it not be less partial to appoint a committee of those persons, that no considerable preference is given to one or two houses ? And as such an increased interest is manifested through the whole kingdom by those who make implements, and those who use them, is it desirable to allow per- sons to empty their warehouses to fill the Society's ground at such a time, when the most novel arti- cles are placed on the back ground to a disadvantage, as such in some instances was the case at Cambridge? I know it is very difficult to please all — but as en- couragement is given to talent the fruits will spring up, and should not, in my view of the case, be damped bv any disadvantage to which I have alluded. You will most likely think it would have been better to have applied to the esteemed secretary of the So- cietv ; my reasons for adopting this course is to give some publicity in your number for July, for the use of those persons for whom 1 write, and whose complaints 1 have heard several times ; and believing the Society have not the least intention, nor, may be, the knowledge of such complaints, 1 trust these remarks will not prove offensive to any one ; my object is to impress the committee that more room will be required — or some restrictions, as to articles —more particularly as a ship-load is spoken of as coming from one house. Your inser- tion of these remarks, will oblige A Constant Reader, and Member OF the Royal English Agricultural Society. THE TURNIP QUESTION. Sir, — In your magazine for this month you have inserted a letter from "An Old Cheshire Farmer," in which he states, that " no sane person will be- lieve that forty-nine tons of turnips were grown on a statute acre in Wales." I beg to inform him, that had he travelled into the island of Anglesey last autumn, he might have had an opportunity of proving his own insanity, by seeing on the de- mesne of Owen Fuller Meyrick, Esq., at JBodorgan , fiff;/ tons of turnips per statute acre ; and with most persons " seeing is believing.'' For the information of the " Old Cheshire Farmer," I will farther state, as his knowledge of other localities and their capabilities seems so cir- cumscribed, that the soil of Wales is in numerous situations peculiarli/ suited to the production of turnips ; and perhaps even he may admit, that the success which has attended the exertions of Sir Edward Mostyn and Mr. Dawson, in Flintshire (and to whom prizes for the best turnips have been repeatedly awarded at the Liverpool Agricultural Meetings), is some proof of the adaptation of the soil of Wales to their growth ; and he should also recollect, that the large county of Cheshire is within the limits of the society. Surely it could not be from want of skill, that the " Old Cheshire Farmer" and his brethren were so often beaten by the Taffies, whom he so much appears to despise. About five-and-twenty years ago a sweepstakes was entered into for the best Swedish turnips, by gentlemen, all enthusiastic agriculturists, from the following North Wales counties — Denbighshire, ilerionethshire, Caernarvonshire, and Anglesey, and from the county of Chester, whose agricultural superiority was to become manifest by the ma- nagement of a late Cheshire Baronet, who, when contending with Taffies, calculated upon an easy conquest. But mark the result : the prize was awarded to the Anglesey candidate, whilst Cheshire bravely supported the burdensome honours of the wooden spoon. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Maif 7th, 1841. Taffy. 468 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE MASCAL PLANT. I send you the printed account of the Mascal Plant of the Rio Grande, that you ma)'' not lose sight of it, in case any botanist should make an excursion to that quarter of the New World, to which it is said to be confined — it would be an ob- ject well worth his attention. A substitute for the clumsy Indian mode of cooking would soon be found out, once that it became naturalized in England. I shall set on foot an inquiry respect- ing it. If the description below be not very much ex- aggerated, our gardeners should lose no time in producing the Mascal Plant. — Jas. Mease, M.D. Philadelphia. " This extraordinary vegetable production (a bo- tanical description of which has never been ])ub- lished) is only to be found on the llio Grande, and its tiibutary streams, N. W. of the Mexican repub- lic. It grows spontaneouslj' on the most barren and sterile mountains in tlia) countrv, and is as much esteemed as an article of food by the JNIexicans, as the buffalo and the deer are by their more northern neighbours. The Mascal grows in the shape of a cabbage-head, and may be found as large in size as a half-barrel. It is thickly covered with sharp prickly protuberances, to the length of from 12 to ]4 inches; the root is very small, the head has also a thick covering of leaves, much resembling in shape those of the plantain-tree, which are verj' juicy, and when prepared for eating, in the same manner as the head, afford a sweet and nutritious beverage, answering every purpose to allay thirst. " The process used for cooking this plant is very singular, yet if digressed from in a single instance, the Mascal is spoiled and rendered unfit for use ; it consists of digging a hole or pit in the ground to the depth of four or live feet, which must be cover- ed with a layer of heated stones, on which the Mas- cal is to be placed with the root downward ; a thick coat of leaves and branches must be thrown over themoiith of the pit, over all of which is to be laid a thin coat of earth, just sufficient to prevent the heat or steam from escaping. In this situation must the Mascal remain (according to Indian computa- tion) for three days and three nights, when it may be taken out, and will be found perfectly cooked and most delicious. In flavour it resembles a ripe mellow peach ; and each succeeding day adds to its good qualities, as it increases in excellence by age. On one plant alone do the Indians subsist upon for months, being perfectly satisfied with their food, and esteeming it iibove all other. About half a pound of Clascal is by them deemed sufficient to satisfv the cravings of hunger for a day, and is alwaj's carried with them on their hunting and other excursions. As I before observed, the leaves of this favoured plant contain a rich and agreeable beverage, al- though forming a most extraordinary combination of food and drink, thus affording another illustration of the beneficence of a kind Pro\'idence, in securino- even to the wild and untutored savage a luxury which their more favoured and civilized brethren might well envy. " I have seen the Mascal so thick in some places as to form an almost impenetrable front of thorns ; as formidable in appearance as would be the same number of glittering spears, covering the whole ex- panse of the country as far as the eye could see; in travelling through which, the incautious or unwary will be reminded by a gentle step of the necessity there is to have a care. " I mav also mention that many of the peasantry of the Slates of Lonora and Chihuahua, bordering on this country, also cultivate the JMascal in tbeir fields and gardens, and, I have been informed, distil it into liquor, which is said to be excellent, and not inferior to the best Jamaica rum." ON DRILLING AND DIBBLING WHEAT. Although the drill husbandry has been so long adopted, it seems still a matter of doubt, whether to drill 9 pecks per acre with 21 rioges (so called) or 12 pecks with 14 rioges. Now this collision of the two drills, on this very important subject of seed wheat, induces a reference to your columns (April, 1839), which communicated far and wide the particulars of a limited experiment in 1838, which the next year (1839) was tested with great success upon a larger scale, and this in a field of about eight acres, dibbled as usual, when one single stetch of about 50 rods was dibbled with one grain only, which, from its very earliest growth till the day it was reaped, was constantly observed to be much stronger, more healthy, and in every respect more promising than any other part of the field; and, when reaped, though the quantity, owing to its having been dibbled too thin, was not greater than either of the stetches on each side— for they were all three most accurately harvested, threshed, and measured — yet the quality of the sample, as well as its appearance in the ear, was infinitely better, and the sample of that stetch with one grain was equal the whole year to any sample in the market. While growing, it was continually noticed, being near the road, and always occasioned inquiries as to the cause of its being so much belter than any of the other stetches. And it is to be added, that the occupier of the field, as cautious and provident as any of the great wheat growers in Essex, is not only one of the most respectable and experienced, but one of the oldest and most tipproved agriculturists in the county, and the iKst year (1840) adopting fully the system, all his wheat has been dibbled with one grain only, which has required no more than six pecks per acre. In the original experiment, where different numbers pro- gressively 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., to the amount of 8 together, were dropped carefully af'er the dibble, the produce was found to be in an inverse ratio to the number of grains deposited — the more grains, the less produce. Parcels of eight, each grain producing 3 ears and a fraction ; of seven, 3 and a fraction ; of six, 2 and a fraction ; of five each, 3 ; of four, 4 and a fraction ; of three, 4 ; of two, 7 and a fraction ; and the single ones 15 ears. How, then, to account for this extraordinary result, is the problem vve have to solve, and the explana- tion of this difficulty, submitted with great deference with reference to the drill, seems strongly to justify the preference given to the narrow ringes and thin sowing— viz., 9 pecks with 21 ringes; for thus the grains are heaped together much less than with 12 pecks and 14 ringes. If two grains by touching each other become less productive, could not a drill be contrived to deposit less wheat upon more ringes ? For if, as many believe, the produce of a single grain is as great or greater than that of two when in contact with each other, such a fact seems to demonstrate that this failure is probably caused by the two grains touchinsr each other; for, though the drill with three bushels per acre covers and secures all the seed under the ground, yet it will not yield more per acre than the broad-cast system with three bushels per acre, although so large a quantity of seed left un- covered must be lost from the destructive birds, and storms of winter. It cannot be doubted but that the numerous branches of the root, if they could all ger- minate, would all contribute to feed one sing-le grain, when laying by itself; but when that grain touches THE FAIIMER'S MAGAZINE. 4G9 another, the tender fibres of tlie roots of both are im- peded from shooting oa the sides where the grains touch, aud thus both of ihem checked in their growth, neither of them can yield their allotted increase. Re- sides, they would both ha deprived of the whole of that ifertility of soil and atmosphere which would have brought one to perfection, as half would be absorbed by the oilier grain in contact with it. Thus seeds laying together, the more there are of them, the less will be the produce. And tiiis was most unanswerably proved by the experiment in the Clielmsford Chronicle, April, 1839, the produce having been less and less almost exactly in the same proportion as the grains were more and moie in number, and which the dropper — an experienced person— had deposited with great care, when they were dibbled. Hence the ancient broad-cast system, separating the grains as they fall, though in that respect the best of any, yet it must give way to the dibble with single grains, which, with greater care and a little more expence, might be easily ma- naged, affording thus the only means by which the seed can be preserved from the destruction of birds, and the ravages of winter. Chiefly in confirmation of the success of the experi. ment in 1838, in dibbling wheat with single grains, which you were so obliging as to publish, and which, by the very consideraole saving of an article so impor- tant as wheat, might lead to great public good, I send you this, with the greatest deference, however, to the judgment of those who are supposed to guide, on every subject of agriculture, this most influential county. W. Lucas. Broumfield, Jan. 12, 1841. LANDLORD AND TENANT. RESTRICTIONS IN CROPPING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I owe, and beg leave to offer many apolo- gies to your correspondent B. H. (who, in your paper of the 22nd March last, was ple.ised to com- ment on t!ie opinion I had expressed, that it was of benefit to the cause of agriculture tiiat landlords rather than tenants should command the system of husbandry to be pursued on farms) for not sooner thanking him for the notice he has taken of my letter to you on the subject. I consider the case cited by B. H. in opposition to rnv views to prove their correctness, just as the ex- ception is said to prove the rule. A landlord who is such a booby as to employ a ci-devant captain in the army, ignorant of the theoiy and unskilled in the practice of agriculture, to dictaie to a tenantry the course of management of their farms, I'rom season to season, resembles a man who goes to law for the sake of peace of mind. He uses a wrong instrument ; the work is accordingly botched, and the end is failure. His estate was injured in its condition, the tenantry were harassed by tardy, inconsistent, and injudicious directions, to their own detriment and the waste of valuable produce to the comnaunity. I deny that this melancholy instance of folly affords any answer to my position, that the landlord, gene- rally speaking, either himself possesses, or has the means of commanding superior knowledge of the principles by which the cultivation of his estate ought to be governed. 1 may admit, without injury to my argument, that the time may arrive when farmers shall generally have become, as a class, skilful and scientific agri- culturists— when, like merchants, they will no doubt make their own bargains as to the possession of land (the staple material of their trade), and the contract will be in its nature so mercantile — the interests of hiitli landowner and tenant will be so exactly ad- justed, that nothing will remain of dependence one upon the other, but each will enjoy his own rights and pursue his oivn remedies, as in the case of any other contract for ordinary merchandize. Now this state of things is extremely different from that which actually subsists through the length and breadth of England. i'he merchant-fiirmers of Northumberland and Norfolk are, 1 imagine, the rare exceptions to the general condition of tenants. They are men of considerable capital, which they engage in "the greatest of all manufactures," with the same calcu- lations of profit and anticipations of improved for- tunes, ns stimulate the enterprise of cotton-spinners. They are entirely independent of their landlords, and take care to secure a property in their tenancy before they embark in such extensive business. But where are to be found such tenants for all the land of England ? And is it in a national point of view desirable that such a class of tenants should monopolize and ingros^the thousands of small fiirms, which now afford so happy and beneficial an occu- pation to the general tenantry of the country f I answer the question without fear of contradiction, that such a cliangein the cultivators of the soil would be cruelly mischievous in its immediate results, by the destruction of a most valuable and meritorious class of society, and injurious to the nation in many respects, especially in the annihilation of that cement by which the agricultural interests of England are now so profitably combined, and which is produced by the mutual and happy dependence which land- lords and tenants have upon each other. It will hovfever be urged that the people are chiefly interested in the increased production of the soil, in order that a greater number may enjoy a bettor sustenance. Granted ; but does my plan of tlie landlords infusing science and knowledge into the many tenants who have not had the opportunity of acquiring all the modern accomplishments in agri- culture, militate against the advance of improved production of the land? I assert that the effect of the system I recommend would be just the contrary. The increase of produce would become universal, and the lesser farmers would be exercising their art as beneficially to the public as the great independent corn-manufacturers, wjiora your correspondent seems ambitious to establish through the land. I can perfectly sympathize with B. H. in his evi- dent admiration of a secure tenure of a farm, where a man may have made up his mind to sit down for life, and embark his fortune of 10,000/. in the busi- ness of farming. But such a capitalist is a purchaser, rather than an ordinary tenant ; he chooses to occupy another man's estate because it enables him to extend his operations over a sphere so much wider, than if he contented himself with the land of which lie could aft'ord to buy the fee simple. The granting the lease to such a person is unquestionably a partial sale of the landlord's property, the price being an annuity for a term of years, viz. the rent. In such a parting with his property, a prudent landowner would take care to stipulate for such general regulations of management, as would secure either improvement of the farm, or the permanency of actual good con- dition. But I will suppose myself in the circum- stances of a small farmer, of humble means and limited education, occupying a farm which I manage according to traditional instructions from mv fore- fathers. And I am gradually made sensible that the capitalist-farmers are beating me in the increase of 2 I 470 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the profitable produce of the soil. I naturally look up to the landlord for protection against the approach of the giant's strides, who threatens to overwhelm me, and to extend his great factory by the addition of ray farm. The landlord serves his own friend and "his father's friend," by directing the cultivation of the farm, according to the improved methods; and, under arrangements which cannot injure the tenant, capital is provided by one or the other to enable the adoption of such improvements. The capitalist- lessee is stopped in his monopoly, and the humble farmer produces as many quarters o( corn jier acre as his scientific neighbour. The relation of landlord and tenant continues to their mutual advantage and happiness ; and the one really esjoys his estate, in other respects than by the expenditure of its rental, while the other pursues his occupation with in- creased profit, and the well-founded expectation of realizing a better property than his father was able to transmit to him. It is highly probable that the small farmer would pay the landlord a higher rent from time to time, but increase of rent is neoev in proportion to the in- crease of the farmer's profits, as may be known by the fact that good times and high rents are synonymous, and yet farmers consider good times well worth Laving, notwithstanding the landlord's increased participation in the profits of the lands I may possibly return to this subject, and apply myself to the observations of your other correspon- dents who diflTer from me. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, X. Y. Z. London, 16lh April. ON BREEDING IN-AND-IN. TO R. PEnCUSON, ESQ., OF HARKER LODGE, CARLISLE. Sir, — Although I may not speak in lutestring, 1 am ever willing to hear others patiently, and open myself to correction. At the late meeting of the East Cumberland Agricultural Society, you are re- ported to have spoken as follows : — " That twenty-eight years ago you had gone into va- rious parts of the country to purchase Leicester tups, for you are convinced that nothing wanted chang:e in the breeding more than sheep, — many had bred in-and- in until the Iambs were actually not worth lifting. No- thing required greater judgment than choosing good tups, and your stock is Leicester with a dash of 'J'ees- water." Had this after-dinner siesta been indulged in b)' any unobtrusive guest at the festive board, I should simply have complimented the landlord on the po- tency of his port. Eut for the vice-president of so respectable and intelligent an assembly so to have delivered himself, and then instantly contradicted the whole by his own exposition of his own prac- tices, is startling beyond measure. When " twenty- eight years ago" you found your flock worn out from bad managenaent, you acted most prudently in going into Leicestershire or elsewhere for purer breed, as the event has proved ; but that your improved breed can now be neither a true Leicester, nor a new Leicester, but a " Leicester with a dash of Tees- water." I do not criticise your adopted mixture, although I believe a Teeswater sheep (if any such remain), is a tall clumsy animal, slow of maturity, requiring a deal, and of the best kind of food ; the wool long, course, and thinly set on the skin. And that the economical mode in which j'ou have obtained your rams (61.), should produce a flock of surpassing excellence is more than I am prepared to expect. But all this is beside the question ; if it answers your purpose, I am satisfied. What I regret is, that you J should have so sluggishly expressed yourself, as if I you wished to wound but feared to strike ; leaving it to be inferred, that in-and-in breeding is in itself, under any and all circumstances, capable of ruining flock or herd, while you yourself are all but practising covertly the very system you would seem to con- demn. Yet leaving your anathema maranatha to rest upon all in-and-in breeding, whether scientifically pursued or only indolently permitted, the latter manner, no doubt, is ruinous and disgraceful; but that the former method is so, you will not easily persuade men to it, while you evidently hardly be- lieve it yourself. You have, you say, at last got a flock to your mind, and therefore have very sensibly left oif further experimental crossings ; why then seek to mystify yourself and bewilder your neigh- bours? There is a certain fish set as an example for our avoidance, that when closely pursued so be- muddles the water as to be no longer visible. That home breeding after we have obtained a desirable breed, when carefully and scientifically pursued, is not in itself an evil, but virtually the most profitable to the breeder, and the only one by which, character, consistency, and pure blood is to be maintained. Have you any facts to the contrary ? if so, be pleased to produce them. Notwithstanding any freedom of expression 1 may have used, I aslure you I am, most respectfull}' yours, &c., &c.. W. J. SIR CHARLES MENTEATH'S BIRTH-DAY.— The tenantry on the estate of Closeburn for a long series of years, on the 15th of May, have held holiday at Brownhill, in honour of the birth-dav of their worthy landlord, the Baronet of Closeburn. On the 15th inst. the muster of yeomen was strong and respectable — Mr. Hunter, Closeburn Cottage, in the chair; sup- ported on the right by Mr. M'Kinnell, farmer, Cample- green, and by Mr. Francis Laurie, Tinwald Shaws, on the left. Mr. James Kellock, of the Closeburn woollen manufactory, discharged the duties of croupier, sup- ported on the right by Mr. Smith, of Barscar, and on the left by Mr. Robert Kerr, tanner, Thornhill. After the Chairman had disposed of the usual preliminary toasts, he gave the toast of the day, in proposing which, he observed it was unnecessary for him to make any comment, as the mere name of the gen- tleman was a sufficient guarantee for its acceptability in every society. There was no public meeting in the county where his health was overlooked, and he would simply ask, did they ever hear it proposed where it was not received with rapturous applause ? — " Sir Charles Blenteath of Closeburn, Baronet." Received with all the honours, and great cheering. The Croupier, in an excellent speech, proposed "Lady Menteath of Closeburn, who is equally distinguished for unfeigned piety and charitable deeds, and who re- ceives, as entitled, the acknowledged blessing of every individual in the district. Enthusiastically responded to. A great variety of toasts followed, which we regret a pressure of local matter prevents us giving. LIME TOLLS EXEMPTION BILL.-This bill, introduced by Mr. K. Hoskins, Sir R. Price, and Mr. G. Wilbraham, proposes to enact as follows, viz.: — That no turnpike toll shall be payable in respect of any horse, waggon, or cart, &c., when employed in carry- ing or conveying along any turnpike road lime to be used in husbandry, for tlie manuring, &c., of lands, not- withstanding aay act now in force authorizing toll col- lectors to demand and take tolls in respect of horses and carriages so laden as aforesaid ; provided that in cases of leases or contracts made between trustees of turnpike roads and toll-collectors, &c., the trustees may make deductions for losses by exemption of lime from toll. The act is only to extend to England and Wales. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 471 AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. ON CURDLED MILK. Sin, — Being a dairyman seeking to get my liveli- hood bv carrying milk to town, my customers in- t'orm me that the milk is sometimes curdled a little, and sometimes it is not. Will any of your scientitic correspondents oblige by explaining how this curd- ling of milk is occasioned'? I at first attributed it to fast driving and shakbig in the cans. At another time I thought it might be owing to the effect of the epidemic, which the cows have had ; and lastly, to the fact of one cow's milk [which must be taken from her more than twice a day) being of course a little older tht>n the rest, and this has been skimmed ; but as the milk has generally been good under ull these circumstances, and sometimes curdled without any apparent cause, 1 take the liberty of asking for a remedy in your paper at your convenience. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Near Wahe/ield, April 9, 18-il. A Subschiuer. ON WEANINfi CALVES. Sir, — It will be esteemed a favour if any of your correspondents will give his opinion, through the medium of your journal, of the best method of weaning calves without any milk whatever ; that is to say, what food is the best substitute for milk, and how much of it would be sufficient daily to keep a calf in a growing state, and in a good thriving con- dition. If more than one sort of food should be recommended, the exact quantity of each sort would oblige. The enquirer keeps no cows, but wishes to wean /i))u' calves yearly. April ii2nd. A Subscriber. DRAINING. A correspondent seeks information on the follow- ing points. What is the best method of draining clay land with stones instead of tiles, the querist having plenty of the former within a short distance, for the expense of carting ? How deep and wide at top and bottom should the drains be? What distance should there bo between each drain, so as to secure a thorough drainage of the surface water, the subsoil being a stiff retentive clay, almost impervious to water, the land being nearly level ? Is it better to break the stones moderately small or not 1 ^Vould subsoiling imjirove the above-named land after drain- ing 1 and if so, what would be the cost of a two- horse subsoil-plough, delivered in Liverpool 1 FOLDING SHEEP. A correspondent enquires whether the folding of sheep or ewes (intended to lamb early) upon the second crop of clover, and after the first crop has been carried off, would be in any way detrimental to them ; and whether the following wheat crop would be much benefitted by it. Can the system be generally recommended 1 ANSWERS TO QUERIES. DRAINING. A correspondent seeking information on the best method of draining clay land with stones, should consult a small pamphlet written on the subject by James Smith, Esq., of DeanstOH, which can be had free by post, on enclosing a shilling, to W. Drum- mond & Sons, of the Agricultural Museum, Stirling, and who can also deliver in Liverpool, an Iron Sub- soil Plough, with all the latest improvements, for £5 15s. In answer to your correspondent, who wishes to be informed of the best method of stone draining — if the following, from one who has made trial of a dozen of different systems, be of the least service, the writer would be most happy. Finding great advantages from draining, and all systems hitherto tried being considered too temporary for such an im- provement, previous to 182.^, on an estate under my charge, I commenced filling drains with stones, broken to about 2J inches square, which was found to answer well, and were running as well as when first made, about a year ago, when I left Scotland. From long and large experience, I would say that stone draining is the best system (tile excepted) that is practised ; and having drained in the most of soils, would recommend for stiff clays the following rules, viz., drains about 16 feet apart, 30 inches deep, 12 or 14 inches wide at top, and 6 inches wide at bottom, to be filled with stones 12 inches deep at higher and lo or 16 at lower end of field, which will completely answer the desired end. Let the draining agriculturist calculate all expenses of an effectually made stone drain, and resulting advan- tages, and also tile drains, with its much earlier re- ceived profits in consequence of being able to drain bis lands in a much shorter period, and of course have the proper return in his pocket sooner by years than by the stone system, and I will venture to affirm that he will see the superiority of tile over stone. Two correspondents, one from Northampton, and the other from Dunbarton, forward receipts for re- moving the unpleasant taste and smell of the milk of cows fed upon turnips and cabbages. Each re- commends pounded saltpetre, which should be placed in the bucket before milking ; the proportion being about a tea-spoouful of saltpetre to a two gallon bucket, or a larger quantity if the unpleasant taste remains. A correspondent suggests as a remedy for the ra- vages of caterpillars on gooseberry bushes and other trees, that they should be wrapped in a brown paper bag, and well smoked ; and this he states will stu- pify the caterpillars, and cause them to drop to the ground, when they may be killed with a spade ; and if, he fldds, you let one in a hundred escape it is your own fault. It may be applied, he continues, to apple-trees, but they would require a very calm day, and a bag almost as large as Mr. Green's bal- loon; and would have to be lifted over the tree with long props or poles. [The plan, as respects large trees is chimerical, and we question whether it could even be applied effectually to gooseberry bushes without injuring the tree.] A correspondent, who signs himself " A Kildare Stall-feeder," recommends the following very simple remedy for Hoove i^a cattle. " When the animal is labouring under the effect of distension consequent on this complaint, take a bit of butter the size of a turkey's eg°;, hollowing it out largely with the finger and thumb, and filling the inside with tar. Give three of these boluses one after the other, having first contracted the butter at the opening where the tar is put so, that none may escape in passing them down the throat of the animal. Let the beast walk about in a yard or field. In ten mi- nutes or a quarter of an hour, the cure will be effected. The following morning I generally give a mild dose of salts, and feed moderately for a day or two afterwards. In no case since this remedy was tried (now some years), have I experienced any disappointment." 2 I 2 472 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY. In directing the attention of our agricultural readers to the state of the grain crops, and the pre- sent condition of farming, it is highly gratifying to observe that not only have the plants, aided hy most resplendent weather, progressed with a rapidity almost unknown during the past month, but that the prospect of a good forthcoming harvest is favourable almost beyond recollected precedent. These obser- vations, it must be stated, are not confined to any particular portion of the country, but refer to tlie tvhole of our corn producing districts ; while it affords us great pleasure to intimate that almost the whole of the farmers with whom we have conversed, or who have transmitted to us communications on the subject of the probable productive qualities of their farms, appear to be well satisfied with their condition in this respect. In some parts of the low- land districts in Lincolnshire, as well as in Suffolk and Norfolk, considerable destruction appears to have been caused by the wire-worm, in conse- quence of which many agriculturists have caused large tracts of land to be re-ploughed, in order to secure extensive yields. Such having been the case, we would suggest that the most efiBcacious mode of destroying this insect would be to roll the land with a clod-crusher, which will be found not only to pul- verize the soil, but also to assist in destroying the worm in question. In a tour we lately took from Boston to Hull, over some of the finest ground in the Kingdom, we looked minutely over 93 acres of wheat, and found only 30 of them to be good, 30 middling, and 35 very bad. Now it is to be ob- served, that over the last mentioned 65 acres a roller of this description had never passed, while it bad been industriously made use of on the former 30, the whole of which, during the years 1838 and 1839, were much infested with the wire-worm. Hence it will be perceived that a strict attention to the prepa- ration of the land is one of the primary objects of the cultivator. The all-engrossing topic of conversatiop amongst all classes of society, but more particularly amongst the agricultural body, has been the proposed minis- terial alterations in the present corn laws, and the utmost astonishment has been expressed that such attempts should be made to involve in inextricable ruin not only the cultivators of the soil, but also to create dissatisfaction with the existing order of things by the labouring population. Although it is highly improbable that any change, with the present formation of both Houses of Parliament, will take place in the duties on foreign grain, vet it is impe- ratively necessary that no time should be lost in giving expression, by those immediately interested, to the wishes of the agriculturists. By these means, the baneful inflluence of that poison which has been so industriously circulated by the free trade theorists will be in a great measure counteracted, while a good effect cannot fail to be produced amongst those who are led to suppose that a repeal of the corn laws would be beneficial to them. Notwithstanding the so-much-complained-of epi- demic has abated much of its virulence, complaints have reached us of some severe losses having been experienced in our grazing districts; yet we would fain hope that in a short time it will be got rid of. From all quarters we learn that farm labours are well in their place; that the new clip of wool has been a productive one, and that the young hop bine, with a few excpptions, is looking remarkably strong and healthy, while a few bets have been made in the duty, at 150,000/. Throughout Scotland the crop.*; are loaking re- markably strong and healthy, while farming opera- tions have gone on briskly. The whole land is ringing with the sound of rustic toil ; the lengthened day, the increased \yarmth of the air, the gentle showers producing that flowing sweetness which everywhere abounds, excite feelings of gratitude and pleasure, and the whole creation has assumed an aspect of beauty and delight. Every spot enlivens the traveller's eye with its ]>leasing evidence of life and vigour; every prospect gladdens the husbimd- , man's heart with the happy prospect of plenty and ■ prosperit)'. The prices of all kinds of grain have been rather depressed ; but it is not the general ap- prehension that wheat will be much lower. 'J'be shipments of oats from most of the Irish ports to London and Liverpool, have bcien considerably on the increase ; yet the corn trade in Ireland has proved heavy, and the quotations have generally declined. The grain plants are represented as very strong and healthy, and a good growth is anticipated. The following is our usual monthly statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle market. The supplies ot beasts have amounted to 11,233; of sheep and lambs, 112,449; of calves, 941 ; and of pigs, 2,233 ; while the prices have ranged as follows : — Beef, from 3s. 4d. to 5s. ; mutton, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. ; lamb, 5s. 4d. to 7s. ; veal, 5s. to 5s. lOd. ; and pork, 4s. to 4s. lOd. per 81bs. to sink the offnls. Considerable fluctuation, owing to the irregularitj^ of the re- ceipts, has been apparent in the value of stock, yet its value has been, on the whole, well supported. Nearly 1,000 beasts, and 1,700 sheep have come to hand by sea from Scotland, as also 1,300 lambs, per railway, from the Isle of Wight, in good sale- able condition. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfirld Cattle Market, on Monday, May 26th, 1840, and Monday, May 24th, 1841. AtperSlhs.to sink theojf'ah. Miir •-'(), 1840. May 24, 1S41. s. A. s. d. 8. d. s. d. Coarse &inferiorBeasts 3 0 to 3 2 .. 3 0to3 2 Second quality do 3 4 3 6.. 3 4 3 6 Prime large Oxen 38 3 10. .38 42 Prime Scots, &c 44 48. .44 48 Coarse & inferior Sheep 34 38. .34 36 Second quality do 3 10 4 0.38 40 Prime coarse woolled do. 42 46. .44 46 Prime Southdown do.. 46 48.48 50 Lambs 6 0 7 0.. 5 8 6 10 Large coarse Calves ..44 54. .50 54 Prime small ditto 5 6 5 8.. 5 6 5 8 Large Hogs 40 46. .40 46 Neat small Porkers .,4 8 4 10 .. 4 8 4 10 StlPPtlES. May 26, 1840. May 24, 1841. Beasts 545 2,705 Sheep and Lambs .... 7,310 23,920 Calves 262 126 Pigs 493 605 Although a considerable falling off has taken place in the supplies of slaughtered meat from dis- tant parts up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, they have proved fully adequate to meet the wants of the dealers, and a trifling advance, say 2d. per 8!bs., has taken place in the currencies. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 473 LINCOLNSHIRE LINDSEY. The early spring- and prolific growth of nature, portrayed in my last report, has, witli the excep- tion of iibout u fortnight's interval of dry cold wea- ther, continued ; and even that cliange was good for the v('heat crop, the plant of wliich iinjiroves faster at this season of the year, in cold than in wet, except in tlie lightest and naturally dry soils, such as our east fen, where an impetus is given to the wire- worm, and during the period hefore named, he made good use of the time, and great was the havoc produced ; the rain which followed checked his pur- suits, and the land so cleared has been jjloughed up and either set with potatoes or sown witli oats. With these remarks every thing looks as well as lieart can wish, and the indication of abundance both of corn and grass seems beyond doubt conhrm- t'd. Cattle, fat and lean, fetch high prices. Store sheep about the period of Lincoln fair, in April, dropped r)s. to 8s. per head, in consequence of the dejiressed state of the wool market, which remain- ing still the same, causes tlie same abatement to con- tinue. Tliis and ths agitation of the corn law (]uestion, seem to be the drawbacks in the agricul- tural world for the present season. ^Ve are, how ever, in this district, fully alive to the eifects already produced both upon the price ofwheat and the value of land. County division meetings have been called, agricultural district societies have assembled, and vou will shortl}' find our members of Parliament approach the House of Commons heavily laden with petitions from everv parish and association ; and al- though we do not make the same noise in getting up a petition that is produced in a large town or manu- facturing district, yet we shall endeavour to prove our weight uj)on the tables of both houses before the crisis is past ; and I trust we shall satisfactorily prove tliat it is for the benefit of the kingdom at large, rather to continue the present protection, than adopt the ruinous scheme of low fixed duties, as proposed by her JVIajesty's Rlinisters, for the sake of shifting the loss of the Post Office revenue upon the shoulders of the farmers, to make them the letter carriers to the nation. \Va may, in the estimation of tiie manufacturers, be only fit for beasts of burden, yet we are too numerous to be thought lightly of as customers ; and no class of purchasers are more un- certain, for we always buy with an honest intention to pay for what we order, and never order goods if our corn does not make a remunerating price — thus the labourer loses in wages by the stopping of im- provements in under-draining, levelling, fencing, and ditching. The tradesman finds out that we nei- ther paint nor paper our rooms, or carpet the floors — the bone and cake merchants may shut up their mills — and all agricultural implement-ma- kers may rest awhile, for we shall wear our waggons, carts, ))loughs, harrows, harness, &c., as long as they will bold together, which will be as long as the land will produce corn without artificial help ; our old clothes will last about the same time, and we shall be ready for the next new start that, in the wisdom of our cotton lords, they may find out. — Spilsby, May 19. of grass, and mowing, if the weather be fine, may be calculated on in two weeks. The vetches are an exception, hut few good pieces, and a great many bad ones. 1 now come to the wheat crop, of which I cannot give so good an account. There is certainly a large breadth of this grain, and a good deal look- ino- well, but there is, on the other hand, a good deal looking very bad and middling. Inconsequence, 1 expect, of the early and unusually warm weather, the plant has shot up very rapidly — its growth is weak, and it has not thrown oft' as usual last year, though cold in the spring. Although the plant did not appear so thin, it increased at the root, and came up strong, and threw up more oflsets ; and when this is the case, I consider each stalk produces more and finer corn on an ave- rage, than when each plant throws up but few. There is another consideration — should we have wet or heavy siorms, it will soon be laid ; still I con- sider, should we have a warm dry summer and a good time, there is every prospect of more than an average crop. Great expense will he incurred this year in weeding the wheat, weeds being unusually jjrevalent, particularly garlick and charlock ; the latter in particular, now in flower, gives the wheat field in manv instances the appearance, even at a distance, of a fine meadow covered with gold cups. As regards the quantity on hand, it is difficult to give anything like a fair calculation, but I am dis- posed to think, unless the price rallies materially, we shall have very short supplies for the next two or three months ; it already begins to fall off decided- ly, and what is held is in comparatively few hands. \Ve have been selling at 7s. 4d. to 7s. 6d. for best wheat during the past month, and flour from 44s. to 41s. and 42s. ; at present there is more disposi- tion to purchase on the part of the millers, and best wheats 62 to 641bs. are worth 7s. 7^d., red from 7s. 3d. to 7s. 5d. In barley and oats there is little doing, und beans hardly maintain their price, 3s. 6d. to 4s. piM- bush. 20s.' to 28s. per qr. and 4s. 6d. to 5s., for peas, I should quote as the present price. Poor stock, &c., maintain their value in consequence of the abundance of grass. Beef rather flatter sale ; mutton and lamb are also high, but the latter, only for prime, is there a quick demand. VVe shall have rather more than Lalf a crop of apples 5 the trees are much blighted. — May 22. SOMERSETSHIRE. Although the quantity of rain fallen has not been great, yet in proportion to what has fallen for some years past, it has an important consequence ; and in conqjarison with iormer years, more particularly on the spring-sown corn, which is, without almost I may say an exception, come up, and looking- re- markably well : we have also a very promising crop DURHAM. Since ourlast report we have experienced unusually favourable weather for agricultural purposes, and the seed has been put into the ground as well as could be desired ; vegetation has met with little check, and the spring corn, as far as yet can be ascertained, looks healthy and strong. Pastures and meadows give promise of great abundance ; cattle are all turned out and doing well, with every indi- cation of remunerating the grazier for his capital employed. Artificial grasses are forward, and bid fair for an early cutting. A large breadth of pota- toes have been planted under most favourable cir- cumstances, with little apprehension of the dry rot, from the land and manure possessing a sufficiency of moisture. The thrashing-machine has been in active operation since we last wrote, and it does not seem probable we shall have any scarcity of grain before harvest; and it is most gratifying in having to report, that young wheats present a healthy and vigorous appearance, and there is every prospect of this crop being early and abundant. Many of the new varieties of wheat, so highly spoken of, have turned out a failure, particularly upon poor soils ; we admit that a change of seed occasionally ia of 474 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. great importance, but it is very improbable that every new seed will succeed upon different soils and climates ; the failure of a particular description of grain ought not to prevent the introduction of another. ^J'here is a strong feeling here against Ministers, for agitating the corn laws — 8s. per qr. will afford no protection whatever to the farmer ; vpe would rather have no duty at ail. The farmers in this county are determined not to vote for any mem- ber who does not support the present corn laws ; besides, the duty proposed could never be main- tained in a season approiiching to scarcity. A meeting will be held at Durham on the 22nd, t) petition Parliament against any alteration of the present corn laws. Farmers' Clubs are of the greatest importance in this instance, and well calculated to produce the most beneficial effects on agriculture ; and it is exceedingly gratifying to observe, that these Clubs are spreading in every part oF the liingdom, and it is clieering to witness that the landed pro])rietor and the triulesraan are anxious to become members. Associations of this nature evidently produce a good feeling between landlord and tenant, so very essential to their inte- rests; we sincerely hope that this feeling will take root and flourish — for, we have often had occasion to observe, how little do many landlords know what impediments they themselves throw in the way of agricultural improvement. If proper protection and encouragement were given to agriculture, we would not require the aid of one single bushel of grain for the consumption of our increasing jiopulaiion — as land is susceptible of the greatest improvements, and few are acquainted what it is capable of pro- ducing. On the other band, should Ministers re- peal the corn laws, all poor soils in cultivation will afford no rent whatever, as it is well understood that rent bears but a very small proportion to the out- goings in the cultivation of the soil. Our country cattle markets for lean stock have exhibited rather a downward tendency since the great fair at Darling- ton on Easter Monday, but still they aiebenring fair remunerating prices. Fat cattle have also given way in price, say from 7s. to 7s. 6tl. per stone of d4lb. ; mutton, from 7d. to 7id. per lb. Corn mar- kets have experienced little fluctuation for the last three months; wheat is selling from 7s. 3d. to 8s. 6d. per bushel ; Oats are a complete drug, and diffi- cult to dispose of, say from 2s. 9(1. to 3s. 3d. per bush. Wool is an extreme dull trade, never having a single inquiry for that article, our manut'acturers being entirely supplied with foreign wool ; our Mi- nisters being determined to benefit the foreign farmer and ruin our own. Labourers are fully employed, at good wages. — May 21. THE FARNSFIELD SALE OF SHORT-HORNS. The following are the prices of the valuable short- horns, sold by Mr. White, of Retford, on the premises of Wm. Houldswortb, Esq., of Farnsfield, Nottiog- hamshire. The importance of the sale, and the ex- cellence of the stock, had brought together a very numerous and respectable company, among whom were the Duke of Beaufort and the Earl of Lincoln : — cows AND HEIFERS. Gs. Polly Hopkins, roan, calved in 1830, by Favourite 20,| Wharfdale Lady, roan, calved in 1832, by second Hubback 35 Martha, red and white, calved in 1833, by Filho da Puta 24 Columbine, roan, calved in l834,byMatchemthe Third 25 Gs. Formosa, roan, calved in 1834, by Sir Thomas . . 50 Adelaide, red and white, calved in 1834, by Filho da Puta , 24 Doubtful, roan, calved in 1834, by Childers. .. . 24^ Mary Anne, red roan, calved in 1834, by Filho da Puta 31 Lady N, roan, calved in 1835, by Sir Humphrey 20 Endive, white, calved in 1835, by Velocipede.. . . 39 Venus, roan, calved May 10, 1836, by Velocipede 66 Modesty, roan, calved January 31, 1830, by Velo- cipede 43 Miss Bradley, white, calved Sept. 1S36, by Sir Humphrey 18§ Miss Butler, red and white, calved in 1836, by Rinaldo 35 Virginia, roan, calved March 19, 1837, by Ri- naldo 46 Flirt, red and white, calved April 10, 1837, by Tomboy 44 Dido, white, calved May 4, 1837, by Hector . . . . 26 Pet, roan, calved May 13, 1837, by RinaWo. . . . 51 Elizabeth, roan, calved June 29, 1837, by Wood- ville 24 Ernily, roan, calved December 1, 1S37, by Vanish 3S Kate, white, calved January 3, 1838, by Vaniih 60 Brilliant, roan, culved 1838, by Vanish — Sir Humphrey 31 Victoria, white, calved 1839, by Coltness— Wharf- dale Lady 30 Minna, roan, calved in 1839, by Coldness, dam Modesty 32§ Variety, white, calved February 1839, by Vanish Venus 48 Aco;iite, red aud white, calved May 29, 1839, by Coltness 23 Flora, red and white, calved in 1839, by Vanish — Formosa 41 Belinda, roan, calved in 1839, by Coltness — Miss Bradley 172 Vidonia, white, calved November 13, 1839, by Coltness .34 Bessy, white, calved August, 1S39, by Coltness. . 20 Vanity, red and white, calved January 13, 1840, by Vanish 60 Promise, roan, calved April 9, 1840, by Coltness — Pet 43 Etta, roan, calved June 12, 1840, by Coltness — Endive 44 Brenda, roan, calved July 22, 1840, by Young Prince 35 Madame, roan, calved July, 1840, by Coltness — Mary Anne 26 Finella, roan, calved Nov. 10, 1840, by Coltness. . 30 Vine, roun, calved Dec. 5, 1840, by Coltness 30 Violet, white, calved January, 1841, by Coltness — Venus 34 Amelia, roan, calved March 5, 1841, by Young Piiace 12 BULLS. 1343,V Coltness, roan, calved January 1, 1837, by Velo- cipede 32 J Young Prince, white, calved February 17, 1838, by Prince 24 Epperstone, white, calved Feb. 8,1S39, by Vanish 50 Major, red and white, calved May 6, 1839, by Coltness 42 Columbus, roan, calved December S, 1839, by Coltness 27 Kelso, white, calved Nov. 1, 1839, by Coltness 21 Albert, roan, calved April 29, 1840, by Coltness 60 Magnus, red and white, calved June 5, 1840, by Coltness 44 Bowfin, roan, calved July 4, 1840, by Young Prince 31 Buzzard, white, calved December 26, 1840, by Coltness 15 Total average (about) . 346^ 34| THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 475 AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. AtCREDITON FAIR the supply of fat bullocks was but small, and late prices were scarcely supported. Oxen, steers, and store bullocks tiiat were in coiulitii.n, met a sale at rather an advance on late quotations. The show of sheep was large, and iliough at the close pretty many had been di^jposed of, sales were nol brisk. The quotation was correspondent with those of late markets. At TOTNES FAIR, Mr. R. Watson, of Dorsley, had ten very superior tut heifers, which drew general attention, and it was understood were sold for 2AI. a piece. The supply of fat bullocks oihervvise was not larf>'e,and the quotation for sale — first rate beef from .57s. to f53's. ; second do, from 52s. to 56^. per cwt. Butchers' sheep — Wethers, in their wool, from 7d. to T^d. per lb. ; ewes, do., from 6|d. to 7d. per lb.; wethers, shorn, from 6d. to 6^d. per lb. ; ewes, do., from S^d. to 6d. per lb. Cows and calves fetched hig-h prices, and must be quoted at from 48s. to 56s. per cwt. For store bullock-; equal prices with those which have latterly prevailed were not obtained, and the quotation in tliis way must be from 30s. to 40s. per cwt. Yolk wool was from S^d. to S.^d. per Jb. Wheat, from 7s. to 8s. ; barley, from 3s. 6d. to 4<. per bushel. Pot.itoe?, from 29. 3d. to 3s. per bag of seven score weisrht. CALLINGI'ON FAIR was well supplied with cattle and sheep. Fat bullocks sold at from 3/. to 3/. 3s. per cwt. ; inferior ones 4s. or 5s. per cwt. less. For cows and calves there was a very brisk demand and unusually high prices were obtained, the best bringing upwards oi'Sl. 3s. per cwt. Store heifers and steers met with a good sale at about 40s. to 42^. per cwt. Fat sheep produced 7d. per lb. ; but for these, as well as for ewes and lambs, the demand was by no means so good as for horned cattle. LONG SUTTON FAIR was very shortly supplied with beasts and sheep, and having many buyers, most of the useful stock iveie disposed of, and much more business would have been transacted had more slock been shown. CAISTOR FORTNIGHT MARKET. — There was a tolerable show of beasts and sheep to-day, the sales were slow, and at a lower pi ice Ihsm the last mar- kef. The town market vvas very large, being a few days after the servants had left their places, and before they had gone to their new ones. WOOTTON BASSETT MARKET, Tuesday.— The arrivals this day week were — Butter, 126,'- doz.; cheese 4^ tons ; eggs. 4,800. In consequence of tiie Cricklade monthly cattle market being on the same day, dairymen were anxious to leave early. Butter found a quick clearance, and not a sufficient supply for dealers. The supply of cheese limited, and in this article trade rather dull. Quotations— Butter, from 9d. to lid, per lb.; cheese, skim, 30s. to 403 per cwt. ; broad, 56s. to 70s., do. ; loaf, 65s. to 72s. do ; eggs, 18 per Is. CHIPPENHAM MONTHLY MARKET, Fiuday. — About 39 tons of cheese were pitched, the greater part of which was sold at the following prices: — Skim broad, 68s. to 70s. per cwt. ; truckles, 65s. to 723. The supply of cattle, in consequence of the fair following on the Monday, was but small. Beef realized from Us. 6d. to 12s. 6d. per score ; Mutton, Tid. to 8d. per lb. — Wheat, 2Ss. to 30s. per sack ; Bar- ley, 27s. to 32s. per qr. ; Beans, 18s. to 24s. per sack. MUIR OF ORI) iMARKET.-There were few South country dealers in attendance, and the principal purchasers were graziers from various parts of the country. There wiis, however, a good deal of business done at considerably lower prices than those given at last market. Milk cows, 6/. to 10/.; two year old queys, 41. IOj. to 0/. 10s.; three year ohl stots, 8/. to 10/.; two years olds, do. 5/.; a lot of 34 Highland two year olds, the best in the market, were purchased by Mr. Cowpar, Fornighty, at 8/. a head; a lot of fine slots belonging to Lord Lovat, were sold at 13/. a head ; one year old stirks, &c., averaged from 2Z. 10s. to 3/. There was an excellent show of cattle on the ground ; some hogs were shown, and a few horse*, but few sales were effected . MUIR CA TILE TRYST.— There was a fair show of cattle at this market, but business went on slowly, from the purchasers refusing to submit to the terms de- manded. Prices were a sliade lower than f.t Slateford tryst on Monday week— the accounts of Amuhee and Glammis markets being rather unfavourable. Prime fat brought 6s. 6d. to 6s. lOd. per imperial stone, to sink the offals ;— but there were few buyers from a distance, and some lots of the best animals in the muir were bought by graziers in the neighbourhood. A good num- ber of small beasts remained unsold. STRAXrON MAY FAIR was abundantly supplied with cattle, which, in consequence of the high prices asked, went olf but slowly, and very little business was done. The number of bullocks was beyond what has been witnessed for several yeais past, and their con- dition much better than could have been expected. Fat bullocks were scarce, at 563. to 60s. per cwt. Those for grazing could scarcely be sa;d to liave fetched be- yond 35s. Cows and Calves were in good request at fair prices. Sheep were not plentiful, nor did they ap- pear to be much sought after. KILKHAMPTON HOLY THURSDAY FAIR was well supplied, and a much better sale was visible than took place the day before at Stratton, and, upon the whole, a good deal of satisfactory business was done. The farmers, profiting by the lessou of the pre- vious day, were more disposed to meet the dealers, and do bu.-iiiess in a live and let live sort of way. The country is everywhere full of grass, and may be said never to have looked better. SURPRISING FEAT IN PLOUGHING. -A match against time, originatingin a bet of 20/. between two farmers in Lincolnshire, took place on the ClifF- farm of Mr. Charles Popplewell,of Canwick, last week, Mr. G. Pupplewell having undertaken to find a man that siiould, with one pair of horses and a single-fur- rowed plough, turn up two acres of fallow land within eight hours, to the satisfaction of tv.'o impartial judges. 'The plough was started at six in the morning, and the two acres were completed before one in the afternoon, being within seven hours! to the perfect satisfaction of the judges. The furrow averaged a depth of seven in- ches, and the share measured only 6| inches broad at the wing. The ploughman's name was Wm. Prescott. FAIRFORD FARMERS' CLUB.— The monthly meeting of this club was held a few days since, when the subject for discussion was " The best rotation of crops for strong land.'' In introducing the subject, Mr. Thomas Arkell remarked that although the neigh- bourhood of Fairford might not be considered a heavy land district, still several members of the club had por- tions of that description of soil on their farina, which it was desirable to cultivate in the best possible way. That he thought if the country were taken generally it would be found that a far greater improvement had been ef- fected in the management of light than heavy soils, and that farmers generally appeared to prefer the former from being better adapted to turnip cultivation, and consequently to the supporting of stock, and the pro- duction of barley, oats, and wheat. That having thus different kinds of produce to dispose of, the occupiers of a light soil had a much better chance ef farming with advantage to themselves than the heavy-land farmers, whose principal dependence for profit was on wheat and beans only. He thought heavy land could be farmed to much greater advantage by adopting the al- ternate system, and wholly doing away with the summer fallow ; and he was strengthened in his opinion by the premium offered by the Royal English Agricultural Society for the best rotation of crops on heavy land, with the view of bringing the two descriptions of soil more nearly on an equality than at present in regard to the maintenance of stock. He was still furtherstrength- cned in that opinion from having observed the modes of management adopted by some of the best farmers in two different districts— one being the "Vale of Glouces- ter, and the other the north part of Wiltshire ; the Glou- 476 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cestershire farmer growing a good crop of barley, and keeping scarcely any stock on his land, and planting- but few vetches or turnips, whilst the Wiltshire farmer grew vetches and turnips for leading off, and fed his pastures with his flock for the purpose of enriching his arable land ; but, at the same time, grew no barley, ap- pearing to place his principal dependence on his wheat crop. The best system for arable land wa», in his opi- nion, that which made it least dependent for manure on meadow or pasture. His own practice, in regard to his arable, was to feed off his turnips and vetches with his flock, which lie thought il desirable to be kept, if possi- ble, the wlioleof the year on the arable land, by which means half the land being worked in spring and summer, it was pulverized and kept clean quite as well as by having recourse to the expensive naked fallow. Thu latter was rendered necessary, where adopted, for wheat, by the miftaken plan of ploughing and planiing the Inndin a wet state, and probably in the afterwards ploughing it up again for beans about Christmas, and following with wheatagain ; in this way the land, for three years at least, never being ploughed but when it waMQ a wetstale. Tiiatifit were necessary to fallow and pulverize heavy land for the purpoFe of making it lighter, why not adopt a system for keeping it so ? If however thought desirable, for the advantage of the crop, that the soil should be clung and heavy, in that case it must be unnecessary to have recourse to the fallow at ail ; one of the two might be right, but both combined he did not think could possibly be so. An interesting discussion then followed, in which several members joined, and at the close of the debate the meet- ing adopted the following resolution : — " That it is the opinion of this meeting, if heavy and strong lands were properly drained and subsoiled where necessary, and the alternate system of farming adopted, the naked fal-. low would be rendered unnecessary upon moist, if not all sods of that description." CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE FOR JUNE. May, to the period when we commence our monthly observations, has been all that the most ardent lover of vegetable nature could desire; showery— rather cool— with lively breezes, and very warm gleams — little or no north-east winds till the 12th, and even then the minimum was not below 4 5'" ; in 1839 it receded to .3° below freezing. Thus the garden and orchard, with their glorious massesof apple bloom, are perfect pictures: the only draw-back is the uncertain condition of the strawberry crop— partially (for the plants develope their trusses of bloom very irregularly), and the tremendous visitation of the larca of tmthrido, or black saw-fly, which is extensively devouring the foliage. Where shall we find a remedv for this pest t and what is that which nature employs, and by which the countless myriads of a season, in lieu of giving birth to ten thousand times their number, are swept away, leaving not one to per- petuate the evil ? Vet, strange to say, though seven years elapse without the lo^s of a leaf by this destroyer, we again see its return, and ag-ain witness its temporary triumph. In the culinary departments of the garden, sow peas, returning to the early Kent, or Charlton ; but trust none— for if the ground be not exactly suitable, and the summer moderately showery, all will mildew : the first week comprises the period. Sovf beans for a late crop ; kidnetj beans of both kinds, and during the first ten days. In sowing this crop, a rather rich, free, sandy loam is to be pre- ferred, making the bottom of each drill rather iirm, and quite even ; but the covering soil should be light, fine, and not above an inch and a half deep, trusting to future earthing up, rather than lay a deep covering over the seed. Endive, twice, not before the second week. Cabbages, for late succession ; but the plants from the bed sown in April will do, particularly if they have stocky roots, and stand in poor soil. Turnips, once, early; the Dutch and yellow bulbed, for a main supply, at the end of the month. It is rather late for Swedes, but there is a species which we once met with in the Isle of Thanet some years ago, but have never tasted since, which is exactly fit for the table — tender, of a delicate tint and flavour, never emitting that rank odour which is pi-edorainant when common field Swedes are boiled. This sort ought to be used as a garden vegetable. Carrots for succession may be sown, and onions for salads. Potatoes. — Go over all the plots, and with a long- handled grubbing mattock (which has also a pick to it, made for cutting weeds) , hoe and work deeply, to the extent of six inches on each side of the rows ; this disturbance will give freedom to the tuber-bearing- fibres, and also excite chemical action in the soil : after some days, the light earth may be ridged along the stems, and the intervals digged. Do the same, only exercising a tender hand and more caution, with all growing crops ; and afterwards stick the peas, top beans, and earth up the plants of the cabbage family. Transplant some, to produce strong, fibrous roots, prior to final removal. Transplant also the vegetable marrow, raised in pots; do this early: and the following vegetables : — Lettuces, sown early last month, into an open bed of ground, rich in vege- table matter : in this and all transplantings, select the evening, and rather moist weather ; plant in drills a foot asunder, and each lettuce from four to eight, or even twelve inches from the next : the " f/rand admirable" or " Union" will extend so far. Water along the course of the drills at plant- ing, and then as required. Observe the same method with cauliflower, early brocoli, Savoy, borecole, Brussells sprouts. All these place three or four inches asunder, and they will be ready for final removal in six weeks. Plant out for good, either in trenches or drills, all the strong plants of the same family, and particularly a full crop of Savoys for winter, two feet asunder. Asparagus beds still yield, but as every crown depends upon a growing shoot, it is more wise to desist about the middle (Grayson, in his paper on the giant asparagus, names the 4th June), than to obliterate every shoot of any one stock. Blanks and decay are produced by imprudent cutting, but it is not too late to replace a plant, by digging a deep hole, and putting new enriched earth around the roots, puddling it in with water. Thin out, by hand or hoe, the rows of onions ; the work must be done several times, leaving them at distances, according to the ultimate size of the bulbs : now it will suflSce to thin them to one or two inches apart. Plant young thyme, savory, sweet marjorum, and other sweec herbs, whether they were raised from seeds, in pots, or by slips, or under glasses in the open ground. Plant slips of lavender, rue, rosemary, thyme, savory, &c., in a shady border. Sweet herbs, coming into flower, should bo cut for drying, and suspended in an airy room or shed, not, however, exposed to sun. f RCIT-GARDEN AND ORCHARD. Peach, nectarine, and apricot trees. Leave the green spring wood, selected for future bearers, to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 ripen, also other well-placed shoots, till next month, and train them in, to admit air and light to the fniit. At present we appear to have little of the aphis Csreenfly blight), which did so much mischief in 1840, but mildew— a disease which renders the leaves blotchy — is very frequent. Sulpiinr, dusted over them, is said to be the best remedy, but in general the leaves fall, or should be removed, as nothing can restore those which are deformed by this malady, nor prevent its re- currence, unless there be an entire removal of the soil : this may be effected gradually, in autumn anundance for the comfortable support of three times her present population. There is not one field yet in culti- vation in the British Empire, which, as the science of farming ailvances towards a more perfect state, is not capable of producing a much larger and better crop than it does at the present lime ; and of the land actually now in tillage, upwards of one half must, by the proper encouragement of agri- cultural pursuits, in due time be rendered capable of growing at least twice as large crops as it does under the present existing system of tillage. Six millions of acres in wheat cropping are perfectly sufficient for the support of thirty millions of Englishmen, even under the i)resent imperfect state of agriculture ; and future improvements, consequently, must do much more than adequately provide for the probable increased population. Capital and industry must speedily place the ne- cessary quantity of land into wheat tillage, if legislative protection continues to be extended to them, when embarked in this description of in- ternal improvement. The repeal of the corn laws, however, will place not only an efiFectual bar to any farther agricultural improvements in this country, but will also throw many thousands of acres of land, now in a gradual state of improve- ment, entirely out of cultivation. The discussions on this most important subject which have already occurred in Parliament, must eventually be at- tended by most beneficial results to the British community, in as far as they shew clearly how fatal the repeal of the corn protective laws must speedily be to the wages of labour themselves. It is sufficiently established by the whole tenour of these debates, that the only object which the re- pealers have in view is to obtain the command of foreign markets for the sale of British manufac- tured goods; and to do this effectually, they must devise means by which they can previously reduce the expenses attending their production. To re- duce the value of agricultural produce by one- half, will enable, the cotton lords to reduce the wages of labour by two-thirds, and this can only be done by placing our agricultural labourers on a level with the serfs in Poland. It is in this channel alone that the hostility to corn laws has its real origin. It is in the desire of a few to gain the names of capitalists that the effort is now made to bring the present prosperous condition and contented lot of the British labourers on a level with those of foreign nations, at the present moment centuries behind them in intelligence and morality. These ambitious master manufac- turers look only to their private interests, and care little for the prosperity of those by whose labour they obtain princely fortunes. They know and feel that " their mucli-loved wealth imparts Convenience, plenty, elegance, and arts ; But view them closer, craft and fraud appear, E'en Libei'ty herself is bartered here. At (jold's superior charms all freedom flies. The needy sell it, and the rich man buys." To reduce the labouring classes to the lowest grade in humanity is not considered by many of these masters to be any great sacrifice, nor to render the public debt as A-^alueless as that of Spain is at the present moment, would they con- sider of much consequence, provided they can acquire gold sufficient for their selfish purposes. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 479 If the expense of the necessaries of life was repre- sented b)' figures one-half nnder those which denote their present value, the revenue would from necessity be reduced in a proportion- able degree. Was the nominal price of bread re- duced from two-pence to one penny per pound, the public revenue would be reduced from fifty millions sterling to one of much less than half that amount yearly. At the existing value of all things produced in the British Empire, the public charges for the public service can be with ease coliectcd ; but most assuredly if the value of the agricultural propertj' be not maintained, the taxes cannot be collected. It becomes the fund proprietor, there- fore, to lend his aid in supporting the just value of property, whatever may be its nature, wheiher it arise from agriculture or from commerce ; for without this, his half-yearly dividends cannot be for any long period paid to him. The manufac- turing labourers have for some time past been perfectly aware of the injuries which tiie repeal of the corn laws would inflict on themselves and on their families, and accordingly they do not attend any of the lectures which a few paid orators de- liver on the subject, unless it be to counteract their exertions, or to throw ridicule on their motives. The wages paid to them under the exist- ing system are quite equal to the present price of bread, and in most instances no deficiency in em- ployment can with justice be complained of. A repeal ot the legal protection now given to British agricultural produce would make the circumstances of the trade widely different to what they are at present. It would materially be detrimental to the home consumption of manufactured goods, whidi is the best mart for British labour, and without which one-half of the practical manufacturers would be thrown entirely out of work, and the other half would be ])laced on scarcely living: wages. The corn laws in fact are as protective of the wages of labour as they are of the property of the agriculturist, and are fully as necessary to the one as they by any possibility can be to the other. They form the best possible charter for the indus- trious classes of society, and it is for this reason that many of the master manufacturers desire their repeal. They enable the industrious work- man to demand and to obtain fair wages for his labour, and they are a good bar to any immoderate reduction in them. Generally wages have been maintained, by their agency chiefly, sufficiently protective, since our May number, to prevent any unnatural fall in the value either of manufactured goods or of agricultural produce. The commercial and agricultural interests, therefore, may be with much truth represented as continuing in a healthy, if not in a flourishing condition, and in each of these great departments of employment the labourers find enough to do, and sufficiently good payment. Although in the beginning of the last month wheat declined two or three shillings a quarter, contrary to the general expectation enter- tained when our last publication went to press, still this is not the effect of any decrease in the actual consumption of wheat, but it can alone be attributed to the great excitement wbich the pro- posed change in the corn laws has created amongst all classes of society. These continual proposi- tions for alteration are always attended by the worst consequences to the great national interest of agriculture. They are in every respect inju- rious to the dealers in grain and to the manufac- turers of flour. The truth of this may be well ascertained by. the appearance of doubts wbich existed in all the great corn markets of consump- tion a short time ago. No necessity whatever need exist for emigration associations, were our own internal resources pro- perly resorted to. There are many millions of acres of land only in a state of half cultivation, which may be rendered doubly productive by a proper application of capital and labour to them ; and nearly twenty millions of acres, as we have already mentioned, are now in a perfectly natural state and consequently useless to hiimauity, but which are perfectly fit for culture, and may be in time converted into lands highly productive. Protection to the capital which may be embarked in undertakings of such immense importance, is the sure road to the successful accomplishment of them ; and it is only by such means that the inhabitants of the Empire can be best employed, and consequently add to the nation's wealth. In Ireland in particular, the channels for increased agricultural improvements are nearly bonndless. Waste lands are in the greatest abundance, and there is no want of labourers for their conversion into utility. Security for capital is alone wanted to render Ireland the first agricultural district in Europe ; and this security the corn laws would most effectually give, was there any security fur their remaining unrepevded during the period for which the leases may be given to the cultivators. 1 hese laws render the markets for grain as steady as our changeable climate permits, and a fair and remunerating consumption for the produce of these improvements is the only certain way to render them in the highest respect advantageous to the British community. The consequence of the repeal of these laws, and of an unrestricted trade in foreign grain at a fixed duty, would be the abandonment, not only of any attempt to cul- tivate waste and useless lands, but also of the cultivation of many thousandsof acres now yearly progressing in tillage, and yearly producing superior crops, because all our large markets of consumption would, under such circumstances, be supplied with foreign grain on far cheaper terms than it can be produced in any department of the British Empire. The immediate abandonmnnt of all descriptions of agricultural improvements would only, however, be the oiiening scene of a vast mass of human misery. When the precious metals were abstracted from this conntry, the - foreign supplies of wheat would immediately after- wards cease , for there is no instance, during the last and present centuries, of the payment for foreign food having been made in British manu- factured goods. The home demand for labourers, both in agriculture and in commerce, would not be to one-half of the extent which it has reached under the present admirable system of protecting the capital and science embarked in all descrip- tions n{ British productive pursuits, and the wages for labour would be reduced in a far greater de- gree than the number of labourers would be in- creased. It would then give greater difficulty to the industrious man to find one penny, with which he might purchase one pound of bread, than he now ieels in paying for the same quantity of bread three times that price. Sugar would then be dearer at M. than it is now at 9d. per lb. The value of money in short, would be so enormously enhanced, that the want of profitable employment would speedily be attended by ruin and starvation to all the working classes in the British Empire. If any distress now prevails in commercial affairs, it has not its origin in the workings of the corn 480 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. laws. It may be attributed partly to several other causes. Over production of goods, bad markets and bad debts abroad, and last, though not least, theexjjortation ofspecie to foreign nations, amount- ing during the last three years to little under sixteen millions sterling, may all he, and no doubt are at the present time, operating on the value of commercial property of almost every description ; biit this depression in trade can only be of a temporary nature, although it would "have been much worse had a large and most abundant crop of last year not increased the home con- sumption of goods of all descriptions very considerably, and retained within the country large sums of money which, imder less favourable agri- cultural circumstances, would have been remitted abroad in payment forincreased supplies of foreign food. These favourable symi)toms for trade will gain strength should the remainder of the corn season continue to be as highly favourable as it has been heretofore ; and if distress actually does exist in trade, another twelve months in ei'cry probability must remove it, for the present pros- pects in the fields are brilliant in the extreme, and should the croj) not receive some untimely check from the weather, the harvest must be an earlv one. Of wheat the quantity sown last winter and spring was unusually large, more particularly in Ireland ; and, as some portions of the crop of 1840 most probably will remain in the farmers' pos- session when the wheat now in tiie fields is brought into the markets for consumption, we have strong grounds to expect another prosperous season to the agricultural interest, the certain consequence of which will be the revival of com- mercial and manufacturing prosperity ; for, after all, this is its principal foundation, and to render it sound and healthy, is to infuse activity and animation into every description of industry and of enterprise throughout the British Etnpire. Uefore the termination of last month, these good prospects were beginning gradually to unfold themselves. The demand for wheat became more than equal to the supply, and the decline which had taken place early in that month was fully removed. It may yet be therefore that a supply of foreign wheat maybe required to meet the increase of con- sumption, but half a million of quarters will limit its amount. During the last two years the im- porters of foreign wheat have not, on the averace, made much money in their department of British commerce, although the duties payable on the entries for home use had been, on more occasions than one, nearly nominal. This year their prospects are es'cn less flattering, for unless we should have an unfavourable alteration in the weather, the chance indeed of the average price being considerably higher than it is at the present moment, is not very cheering to the importers ; and they must, amongst their calculations of im- portation expenses, consequently include a rate of duty which must improve the revenue, and at the same time be sufficiently protective to the wages of labour generally, and also to the pro- perty of the British farmer. The supply of and the demand for barley, since our last publication, have as nearly as may be satisfied each other, and consequently no material variation has occurred in the prices since our last quotations of this most important article of consumption and of revenue. Much latterly has been said and written on the subject of a reduction generally being necessary in the duties now charged here on various articles of foreign production, when im- ported into this country for consumption ; but not one woi-d has been spoken, nor one line written latterly, in favour of the reduction of the anti- national and oppressive duties now charged on manufactured barley, paying as they do annually into the treasury little less than one quarter of the public expenditure. We are, and always have been, of opinion, that too heavy taxation is in- jurious to the revenue, and therefore we can see no material objection to the reduction of the duties now charged on all articles of foreign manufacture, with the exception of those levied on foreign spirits ; because to encourage their consumption here would injure the agricultural interest, the British distiller, the colonial rum manufacturer, and above all the rest, it would entail evils of no small consequence on the British consumer, both in his health and in his pocket. We find now that the manufacture of British brandy — the pure extract of British barley — is yearlj' becoming more extensive, and the quality of the rectified spirit is also as rapidly becoming more perfect, equalling if not excelling the best descriptions now legally im ported from France. At the distillery in King- street, Snow-hill, the article produced is equally palatable with that distilled inFi'ance, and certainly far superior in its healthy quality. Too high duties however, and absurd excise regulations, prevent British brandy from reaching that high state of perfection which, under a more liberal system, it assuredly would arrive at. To allow its retail and manufacture at any strength, and to I reduce the duty generally on English and colonial spirits, would, in a short period indeed, entirely supersede the consumption of that spurious description of Spanish and French brandies wbich at the present time is smuggled into this country, is the great corrupter of public morals, and does material injury to the public revenue. Of this description of brandy, and of Geneva, at least one-half of the spirit consumption in England is composed, and duty is not paid on one gallon of it, unless after seizure by the excise. Indeed, on Dutch gin, duty is now collected on less than tv.-enty-two thousand gallons, although the con- sumption of this description of foreign spirits must be nearer five millions of gallons than the above quantity. A reduction of the duty now payable in England on home spirits, and on colonial rum, to a moderate rate, say 5s. yer jiroof gallon, would destroy the smuggler's trade by rendering it unprofitable, would inci'ease the duty now levied on home-made spirits consumed in England by one-third of its present amount, would improve the general morality by the en- couragement which it would extend to real temperance, and would amazingly reduce the numbers of those who, having previously damaged their constitutions by excessive drink- ing, give them the finisher, by the cultivation of teetotalism. To give due encouragement to British distillers and rectifiers would cause an additional consumption of barley, to the extent of at least half a million of quarters annually, and the production of this quantity would require an addition of more than one hundred thousand acres of land to be made to the quantity now imder barley cultivation. This would, in a considerable degree, increase the public wealth, for large quantities of money, which it is under the present smuggling system necessary to remit to the continent in payment for foreign spirits, would be paid to our home corn growers, to our distillers and rectifiers, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 481 would thus be kept in constant circulation amongst the people, giving them additional emplo3'ment ami improving their respectability and grade in society. If the British, spirit duty system, however, be injurious to the common interest, the present malting system is doubly so. The duty now charged on malt is much too heavy for the wages of the general body of beer consumers, and con- sequently the consumption of malt, instead of pro- gressing with the increase of population, is annually decreasing, and must continue to do so, until the system be thoroughly reformed, 'i'he quantity on which duty was paid during the last financial year, was in round numbers four millions of quarters, and allowing each quarter to produce one hundred gallons of strong beer, the propor- tion to each of the inhabitants of the United Kingdom, amounting to somewhere about thirty millions of souls, is small indeed. The real fact is, that one-half of the people consume beer, not the extractor malt and hops, but an adulterated article, highly injurious to themselves, and a revision of the system is therefore yearly becoming more necessary. To reduce the malt duty within reasonable bounds, would in a year or two do much more than double the present consumption of matt by the common brewers, now nnly four millions of quartern, would considerably increase the amount of malt duty now paid into the treasury, and would open an excellent market for the sale of five millions of quarters of malting barley above the quantity which the existing limited demand requires. The reduction of the duties on malt and spirits would speedily make good the deficiency now existing in the revenue, and would be of the greatest importance to the best interests of the community. It is perfectly idle to assert, as too many do, that barley could not be grown in this counti'jr equal to the increasedconsumption, which the reduction of the duties now levied on barley would occasion; for we have great abundance everywhere, of sandy soil quite equal in quality to the best bar- ley lands in Norfolk, which is at present nearly va- lueless, but which, by proper tillage, is perfectly capable of producing malting barley of the best de- scription. If the legislature and the Chancellor of the Exchequer will only condescend to open addi- tional channels for the consumption of barley, the farmers of the United Kingdom will amply suj)ply the markets with that article, grown on lands now of little value, but, by encouragement of this descrip- tion, perfectly capable of being brought into a high state of cultivation. Under existing circumstances the farmers are obliged to limit their barley crops, because they know by experience that only a certain quantity can, under the existing excise regulations, be consumed ; and no inducement is held out to them to increase their wealth bj' increasing the growth of barley. If, however, the quantity remains stationary, the quality does not, for there is a great and important improvement in this respect, at all events ; and the very fine weather, which we have had during this season in as far as it has as yet ad- vanced, creates a general belief, that the barley crop this year will even exceed that of last year in quality, forits appearance is most luxuriant at the time we are about to go to press, and not one complaint of any de- scription is uttered against it. Still, to the commu- nity, this prospect is of little consequence, the law in this instance prohibiting them from the enjoy- ment of many of the advantages which this beautiful season would otherwise bestow on them. Better feelings for the public interest, however, are rapidly unfolding themselves, and the time is not far distant when, under the protective influence of the corn laws, the wages of labour will continue gradually to improve, and (ifty millions of acres of land, lU, least, under improved culture will do more than maintain, in all the necessaries and in many of the luxuries of life, double of the present population of the United Kingdom, without placingany dependence on foreign nations for any articles, except for those which can- not be grown or manufactured amongst ourselves, nor in our colonial possessions. Under moderate and equitable legal protection, therefore, toour internal and colonial industry of every description, a new era ife gradually rising, when all will he profitably and comfortably supported at home, and when emigration to foreign and uncultivated colonial lands will no longer be resorted to, fertile resources of the British empire, we repeat, may and will be rendered per- fectly sufficient for the support of double her present population. Ireland has continued, during the month of May, most abundantly to supply with oats all the large markets of consumption throughout Great Britain, and is necessarily reaping all the great benefits which the corn laws extend to her agriculturists, by secur- ing to them a preference in the corn markets over the foreign producers of grain. Under the protec- tion which tiiese laws have, and now are giving to agricultural pursuits in the Sister Island, the advances already made, and now making, in the cultivation of the fields, are important and satisfactory, and by perseverance in the same jiriuciples she must eventually become the largest corn district in Europe. The surplus of her crops over the home consumption will, if matters remain as they areat present, continue to be shipped to this country, and it will create a real barter trade. The proceeds of the crops will be expended in the British manu- facturing districts, and will much increase the home consumption of all descriptions of manufactured goods, thereby increasing the wages of the artisan or operative, and extending to him his full share of the benefits of the existing corn laws, protective equally of his wages and of the property of those who are more intimately connected with the soil. i*sothing can be more satisfactory than the oat fields now appear to he throughout the United Kingdom. The plants came up with great strength, and they have now assumed all the appearance of great luxuriancy. Like barley and wheat, the produce of oats must be large, and the quality most excellent, should the weather continue to be propitious until the gathering season draw to its conclusion. Nothing can, under these favourable circumstances, prevent the peopleofthe United Kingdom of every class from enjoying, next corn season, all the advantages of an abundant crop, unless, by the proposed alteration in the corn protective laws, our hopes be blighted by overwhelming importations of grain of ail descrip- tions from America and from Europe, and the excess of supply over any possible consumption render the prices far beneath the intrinsic value of agricul- tural produce. Then instead of cheap provisions, as they may then be called, in comparison with the pre- sent prices, being advantageous to the great body of the people, they will deprive them of one half of that productive employment which, under present circumstances, they possess ; and the wages paid for the other half will be reduced in proportion to the reduction which may previously have occurred in the expenses of livelihood. This eventual prospect is anything but pleasant. In the mean time, oats, during the last month, have been purchased on ra- ther lower terms than they vrere in April, but still the prices now obtained, although so extremely mo- 482 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. derate to tbe consumer, are sufficiently high for tbe remufier ition of the oat farmer ; and this certainly is the most healthy slate in which any department, either of agriculture or of commerce, can be placed. The pulse market has exhibited very little anima- tion since our last review^ of the state and prospects of tbe corn trade. The supjily has rather exceeded the demand, but tbe quality both of beans and peas has been so superior, that the declme during the month is not more than from Is. to 23. per quarter in each. Like everything else, the appearance of the pea and bean crops in the fields is as fair as could be desired, and tbe prospect of an abundant growth of them is most cheering. An increased breadth of land has again this season been planted in excellent order with potatoes ; the old crop of this article con- tinues of fair quality, and the supplies are so abun- dant that it may reasonably be concluded, the new potatoes will be at market before tbe old crop can be consumed. The information received from the northern and eastern corn districts in Europe is, as usual, in due course of post, and little light is thrown on the fu- ture prospect of the corn trade by these advices. The markets everywhere were but sparingly supplied with grain of any description ; the demand was ex- tremely dull, and prices were nominally the same as they were at our last review. From the United States of America nothing later than tbe first week in May has been received. Shipments of flour to a considerable extent had been made, and continued to be made to Great Britain, rather however as a medium of remittance than as a matter of specula- tion. These operations therefore cannot be consi- dered as any indication of American feeling re- specting the future prospects of the corn trade in this country. CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE. Mat 24. Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex and Kent, red 62 64 66 White.. 65 68 Irish 60 62 Do 64 66 Old, red 66 68 Do 68 70 Rte, old 34 36 New 36 88 Barley, Grinding 28 30 Malting 34 36 Cheralier — 38 Irish 27 28 Bere . . . 24 25 Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk .56 58 Brown.. 54 HQ Kingston and Ware .... 58 60 Chevalier 58 60 Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnsh.,feed 23 24 26 Potato25 26 27 Youghall and Cork black 22 23 Cork, wliite 22 24 Dublin 21 22 23 Westport 23 24 Waterford, white 21 22 23 Black 22 23 24 Newry 24 26 Galway 17 18 19 Scotch feud .... 26 27 Potato.. 27 29 Clonmel 25 26 Limerick 22 23 25 Londonderry 23 24 Sligo .. 23 24 Beans, Tick, new 36 38 40 Old 42 44 Peas, Grey 36 38 Maple.. 36 38 White 35 36 Boilers. 38 40 Seed, Rape 36i. iOl. Irish . . 32/. 34/. per last. Linseed 41 46 English Red Clover, fine, 60 70 80 per cwt. White 66 68 74 Mustard, Wiiite 16 — brown 18 19 per bush. Tares, old ... . 36 40 new 80 90 per qr. Flour, Town-made 58 — Suffolk 46 — pr sk. of 2801bg. Stockton and Norfolk, 45 47 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 44 48 Hamburg 40 42 Barley 18 21 OATS,Brew 19 22 24 Feed... 14 16 Beans 22 24 Peas 26 — Flovb, American, per brl...... 35 — Baltic.. 24 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending April 9th . . 16th . . 23rd . . 30th . . May 7th . . 14tli .. AggregateAverage of the six weeks whicli regulates the duty Duties payable in London till Wed nesday nextinclu- sive, and at the Ontports till the arrival eftheniai) of that day fiom London Do. on grain from Britisli posses- sions out of Eu- rope....^ Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. 64 0 63 8 63 8 63 8 63 2 62 5 32 32 32 31 31 31 8 6 4 8 7 23 6 23 5 23 1 23 0 22 U 22 7 35 7 36 5 35 8 35 0 36 10 34 8 39 4 39 6 39 3 38 8 38 7 38 5 63 5 32 0 23 1 35 6 39 0 23 8 13 10 12 3 16 9 11 0 6 0 0 6 2 0 8 0 0 6 Peas. 38 9 38 6 37 10 38 1 38 3 37 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN. AVERAGES from tlie corres- ponding Gazette in the last year, Friday, May 15th, 1840. s. d. 7 5 6 WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from tlie Gazette, of Friday last. May 21st, 1841. s. d. Wheat 62 5 Barley 31 2 Oats 22 7 Rye 34 8 Beans 38 5 Peas ., 37 9 Wheat 68 Barley 38 Oats * 27 Rye 37 Beans 44 Peas 41 PRICES OF SEEDS. Mat 24. Linseed, English, sowing 54 59 Baltic — — Mediter. & Odessa 60 54 Hempseed, small 36 40 Coriander 10 16 Mustard, brown, new ..12 16 Trefoil 16 28 Rapesecd, English 38/. 40/. Rye Grass, English 30 42 Tares, winter — — Large, foreign.... — — Clover, English, red ..58 76 85 Flemish — — New Hamburgh . . 72 76 Old do 58 66 French 74 76 Canary, new 84 86 Carraway, old 50 54 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, May 24. The duty on Hops has been backed at 135,000/., which is a fall on the previous quotation of 15,000/. This is in consequence of reports of fly by parties just arrived in town. We believe that fly is not very general, however, and that the betting's at the reduction have been limited. The market is steady. crushing 48 53 per qr large . . 44 46 old 16 18 per cwt. white.. 11 13 pr. bush. fine nevf 38 44 foreign — /. — /. per last Scotch 18 40 Spring 4 5 white 50 66 per cwt do.. 45 65 -3 do.. 45 65 1 4o.. - — s do.. - extra 88 90 new 50 53 Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. Bags Pocks. 1836 1836 1837 1837 1838 1838 1839 1839 1840 1840 East Kent. 4510 65 45.. 75 none . 105 , 105 , 150 , 180 .300 140 . . 320 Mid. Kent. 45 to 65 45.. 75 none 80. 85. 110. 140. 135. 140, .105 , 105 . 150 . 180 ,290 ,320 Weald of Kent. s. s. 45 to 56 45.. 65 none 75 . . 85 80 . . 100 110.. 150 116.. 190 Sussex. — to — 45 . . 63 non» 105 . . 130 110.. 170 Farn- ham. 240, 300 290,355 < to 450 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 483 WORCESTER, May 22.— There has been a con- siderable demand for Hops to-day and during- llie week, but owing to the scanty supply, especially of fine samples, the trade experienced great difficulty in executing thoir orders. The reports of the g-rowinp: crops are, upon the whole, favourable, the iiine in most places being strong- and arrowing, and at present there is no talk of fly to check their progress. 'I'he duty has uot yet been named. FROM THE MATDSrONE GAZETTE. MAIDSTONE. — A correspondent, who has travelled much during the last week, in all directions within seven miles around Maidstone, describes the bijies generally as being very unequal. In some grounds the bines are remarkably vigorous, whilst in others they have been almost eaten up by the flea; many of the grounds arc turning very yellow. BENENDEN AND BIDDENDEN. — Appear- ance OF THE Fly. — We are sorry to have to state that the fly has appeared in these parishes, where as many as three on a leaf may be observed. It has been remarked by the old planters, that the fly invariably comes into Mid Kent from the direction of the Weald, and that when the fly appears early here, the bine has an oppor- tunity of recovering, but that reaching Mid-Kent a month later, the bines there [suffer irreparable injury. Let us hope that the present year will prove an ex" caption. MEREWORTH, WATERINGBURY, NETTLE- STED, &c.— The hops have improved greatly within this fortnight, and most grounds have had a very thriving appearance ; but there are some grounds that arc much eaten by the flea, so that there is very little appearance of any bine. MALLING. — The present appearance of the bine in this neighbourhood decidedly promises a crop year. BRENCHLEY. — The hops are doing well, and seve- ral o( our pieces of slack bine are improving daily. HORSMONDEN.— The bines in general are look- ing healthy, particularly some pieces that were early dressed, and are but very little infested with the flea. GOUDHURST.— The bine in this neighbourhood has made some improvement within these last few days, but some grounds are looking very bad. The bines are very weak, and not sufficient to stock the poles. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. May 24. s. d. i. d. Do^TTi Teses 1 3 to 1 2i Half-bred Hoks 1 1^ 1 2 Ewes and Wethers Oil 10 Flannel do 0 lOj 1 2A Blanket Wool 0 5^- 0 8| Skin, Combing Oil 12 LIVERPOOL, May 22. Scotch. — There continues to be but a limited demand for laid Highland W"ool, just for the immediate wants of the manufacturers, stocks being light of this class, and no pressure frem the holders, prices remain stationary ; if any thing the turn is in favour of the buyer. White Highland there is none. There has been less demand this week for the Cross and Cheviot Wool, but in the ab- sence of transactions, we keep our quotations as before. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 9 6 to 10 0 White do. do 12 6 13 6 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 10 0 11 0 Do. washed do 11 0 12 0 Do. Cheviot unwashed do 10 0 12 6 Do. washed 15 0 18 6 Cheviot wliite, washed 24 0 26 G FOREIGN. CITY, May 24. — The wool trade has not varied much in its position since our last, and naturally feels in some degree the effect of the extreme depression in all branches of our manufacturing industry. Austra- lian first quality sheep's wool is quoted Is. lOd. to 2s. 3d. per lb. ; lamb's ditto. Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. ; and Van Dieman's Land superior sheep's. Is. 9d. to 2s. 2d, per lb. The imports of wool into London last week were 425 biles, of which 155 were from the Cape of Good Hope, 48 from Germany, 24 from Italy, 53 from Africa, and 145 from Buenos Ayres. Advices of the 19th inst. from Rheims state, that there was then nothing particular doing in woollen cloths, or in raw wool, and that prices were much the same. Combed wool at 14 francs met the easiest sale. At Chalons-sur-Marne (France) on the 15lh iust. there were 6,000 killogrammes (about 13,5001bs.) of wool in the market. Superior brought 3 francs, 5 cen- times, and good ord. 2 francs 45 centimes per half kil- logramme. We have further accounts from the Leipzic fair, viz. to the 8th May. The report of the business done alludes to the apprehensions entertained respecting a rise in the American Tarif, if the German league does not speedily revise the import duties upon tobacco, rice, cotton, &c. imported from the United States. The quantity of cloth sold at the fair was 100,000 pieces. Business in the more expensive Dutch cloths was decreasing. One Tiflis merchant purcliHsed 15,020 pieces of cloth. There was a fair supply of English pressed cloth in the market. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE, May 24. During the past week the following supply of Pota- toes have been received in the London market, viz. — From Scotland, 1100 tons ; Jersey and Guernsey, 330 ; Devons, 336 ; Yorkshire, 130 ; Kent and Suffolk, 134 ; — Total, 2030 tons — a large supply for the present ad- vanced state of the season, and the markets abundantly supplied with every species of vegetables. A consider- able portion of the late arrivals have come to market in very inferior and damaged condition ; such samples have been obliged to be sold at the lowest prices to clear the vessels, and save them from perishing. The conti- nuance of fine growing weather, with plentiful warm rains, causes sales to be heavy for the middling sorts, but good fresh samples of superior qualities (as York red and late Devons) are much in request, and meet with ready sales at liberal prices. Present prices per ton. Yorkshire Reds 80s. to 90s. per ton. Scotch Reds 40s. to 50s. „ Late Devons 75s. to 80s. ,, Jersey & Guernsey Blues 40s. to 50s. „ Kent Kidneys — s. to 70s. „ Kent & Suffolk whites . 50s. to 55s. ,, Early Devons from warehouse . . 40s. „ PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of manure : — Bone-dust, 21s. 6d. per qr. of 8 bushels Half-inch ditto, 21s. per qr. do. Rape-dust, 7l. Os. per ton. Rags, 4L to 41. 10s. per ton. Graves, 5l. to 51. 10s. per ton. Gypsum, 38s. pet ion. Salt, 21. 5s. dirty, 21. 15s. clean, per on. Lance's Carbon, 12s. Od. per qr. ,, Humus, 14s. Od. „ Soap ashes, 10s. per ton. Artificial Manure, 12s. per qr. Poittevia's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr. Nitrate of Soda, 21s. Od. to 24s. Od. per cwt. Nitrate of Potash or Saltpetre, 26s. to 28s. 6d. per cwt. Willey Dust, -il. 4s. per ton. The Urate of the London Manure Company, 5^ 5s. per ton. Ale:caQder's Chie-fou, or Chinese Manure, 2ls. per cwt. 484 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. No. of Shares. 6,300 6,300 9,500 9,600 15,000 9,300 7,500 3,000 64,000 64,000 lt<,000 10,918 10,918 10,918 10,000 25,000 25,000 37,500 8,000 36,000 33,000 20,000 9,000 80,000i. 24,000 1,500 2,100 6,100 ill,475 7,968 36,000 36,000 6,000 125,000 25,000 31,2.50 25,000 ;i3,ooo 13,000 30,000 10,000 10,000 15,000 15,000 13,000 3,762 1,000 28,000 6,000 6,700 10,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 20,000 2000 4,000 30,000 60,000 12,432 20,000 10,000 7,739 20,000 4,000 20,000 12,000 6,000 ao,ooo IRON RAILWAYS. per Share. Div. per Share per Ann. Birmingham & Derby June. 100? sli GilaOl Ditto J shares 25Z sh \ol p.l Ditto and Gloucester lOOl sh 70/a2/ Ditto Quarter Shares m ydMa^l pra Bristol and Exeter.. 100« sh 601 pd 36/a7/ Ditto and Glouces. . 501 sh HI pd Cheltenham & Great West. Union lOOish 62j;pd30?nn Clarence (Durliani) 100/ sh 30/ Eastern Counties ....25/sh 23/ pd 7j/a8/ Ditto Debentures.. 8/ 6s 8d..4/ pd 6^/87/ Edinburgh & Glasgow 50/ sh 40/ pd 33/a4/ Grand Junction 100/ sh 201/aO/ Ditto Half Shares 50/ si; 101/aO/ Ditto Quarter Shares . .25/ sh pd 2U/aO/ Great N. of England 100/ sh 80/pd63/aO/ Great Western lOO/sh 65/pd91/a2/ Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh 62^(a3Z Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 4/ pd lOi/all/ Hull and Solby 50/ sh 44/aO/ London and Brighton 50/ sh 45j/ a J/ London & Croydon.. Av. lS/15s9d IS^/aJ/ London and Greenwich .... 20/ sh SJ/a^J/ Ditto New 10/ sh 17j/a0/ Ditto Debentures (various amounts) Ditto Scrip .... ej/ each 4/ pd 5j/a3/ London & Blackwall 25/ sh 18/aJ/ Leicester and Swannington..50/sli 55/ Leeds and Selby 100/ sh Liverpool and Manchester.. 100/ sh 199/ Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 47j/ Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh 95/ aO/ London & S. Western, late London and Southampton Av. 38/ 17s 9d 55/a6/ Ditto One-tenth Shares 5/ sh IJ/pd lj/a2/ Do.Portsmouth Branch 50/sh 45/pd 51/ a2/ London & Birmingh. 100/sh90/pd 155/a7/ Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh 5/ pd 23/aO/ Ditto 32/ sh Ditto New 33/ sh 2/ pd Manchester & Leeds 100/ sli 70/ pd Ditto Half Shares . . 50/ sh 30/ pd Manchester &Birming. 70/ sh 40/ pd Midland Counties 100/ sh Ditto J-Shares of 25/ . . 5/ pd North Midland 100/ sli Ditto Half Shares 40/ sh Northern & Eastern 100/ sh 50/ pd Severn and Wye . . Average 27/ sh Stockton and Darlington. .Average 106/ 13s 4d S. Eastern and Dover 50/ sh 33/ pd York& North Midland 50/sh Ditto Half Shares 25/sh 10/pd'2l/a2/ JOINT STOCK BANKS. Australasia Bank(Chiirtered) 40/ sli Ditto New (Chartered) 40/ sh . . . . Bankof Ceylon(Chart.)25/sh 10/pd Bank of B. N. America (Cliart.) 50/ sli 40/ pd 52/a3/ 3/a4/ 49/a51/ 20/aO/ 24/a6/ 80/a8/ lOi/llJ/ 67/ a 9/ 33/a4/ 45/ 250/ 141/ aj/ 70/a2/ 58Ja9/ 58/a9/ IJ/persh 10s p sh I4/per ct 14/per ct 1/ 3/ per ct 3/ per ct 3/ per ct 7s per sh 1/ per sh 4/ per sh 9i/per ct 9j/per ct 9J/per ct 3/ persh 5/ per ct 8/ per sh 8/ per ct 8/ per ct 36/aO/ Colonial Bank (Chart.)lOO/ sh 25/ pd '35i/a6/ " 190/ 15/aI6/ Com. Bk. of London 1000/sh 200/pd Ionian State (Chart.) 25/ sh 20/ pd London and Westminster Bank 100/ sh 20/ pd London Joint Stock Bank 50/ sh 10/ pd Do Ne\v,issued at 1/ pm 50/ sh 10/ pd National Bank of Ireland.. 50/ sh 17^/ pd Do. Provincial Bank of England 100/ sh 35/ pd Do. New 20/ sh issued at 2/ 10s pm 10/ pd Provincial Bank of Ireland 100/ sh 25/ pd Ditto New 10/ sh Union Bank of Australia.. 25/ sh Ditto New 25/ sh 10/ pd Union Bk. of London .50/sh 10/pd West of England and South Wales District Bank ..20/ sh 121/ pd 32i/a2/ 12i/aJ/ 15^/al6/ .34J/a5/ 10/aO/ 42/aO/ 171/ 34/ aj/ 16i/aa/ ma.01 2/12spsh 14/per sh 2/ 19s sh 8/ per ct 6/ per ct 8/ per ct 6/ per ct 5/ per ct 6/ per ct 6/ per ct jfi/ per ct 8/ per ct 8/ per ct 50s pr sh 5/ per ct \6l per ct Shares, i 4,000 1,000 10,090 3374|| 10,000* 8,000 2,000 1,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 11,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 9,204 5,739 5,000 14,460 17,006 10,000 28,267 5,281 8,957 MINES. Price. 10,000 10,000 1,080 10,000 5,000 2,700 20,000 1,800 1,800 ! 2,100 I 24,800 5,000 1,800 2,000 I 2,400 ; 20,000 20,000 4,000 5,387 ' 14,400 ,3,000 4,000 ! 200,000/ ■ 200,000/ 10,000/ I 5,000 Alten 50/ sh 121/ pj Ditto New 15/ sh 121/ pa Anglo Mexican (iss. 5/ pm) 100/ sh Ditto Subscription 25/ sh Ditto Mint 2.5/ sh 10/ pd JBlaoiavon Iron & Coal 50/ sh 45/ pd 20/ jBolanoes 150/ sli I Ditto New 50/sh 20/ pd Ditto Scrip 25/ sh I Bolivar Copper Company ,. 15/ sh 1/aO/ 'Ditto Ditto Scrip New .. 3/ sh 2/aO/ |Brazilian Imperial 35/ sh 20/ pd. . I iss. 5/ pm 6/a7/ Ditto St. John Del Key 20/sh 141/ pd 2/ai/ Biitisli Iron Comp. 100/ sh 55/ pd Candonga 20/ sh 81/ pd Copiapo^ 20/ sh 12J/ pd Hibernian .50/ sli Il;;/pd3/a0/ Mexican Company 100/ sh 581/ p^ 2/ai/ Minas Geraes . . . .' 20/ sh 12/ pd Real del Monte registered Av. /sh Ditto Ditto unregistered 2/a3/ Ditto Loan (Notes) 150/ sh Rhymney Iron 50/ sh 25/aO/ United Mexican 40/ sli 40/ pd.. iss. 2/ pm 2/aO/ Ditto Scrip 2/ pd. . 3i/a0/ Ditto ditto (New) 5/ pd 4/ai/ MISCELLANEOUS. | Anti Dry Rot Company . . 181/ sh 2/ap Assam Tea Company 50/sh 12 J/ pd Auction Mart 50/ sh 20/ Australian (Agricultural) 100/ sh' 28/2spd39/a0/ British Rock and Patent Salt I .50/ sh 35/ pd 13/ Canada Company (Chartered) ! 100/ sh 321/ pd 30/a2/ Droitwich Patent Salt 25/sh 17/alO/ Equitable Reversionary Interest Societ5'' 100/ sh 60/ pd General Steam Navigation Com- pany 15/ sh 14/ pd Ditto Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Ditto New (Chartered) 25/ sh Hungerford Market 100/ pd|32/ Ditto Debentures (var. amounts).. London Cemetery (Chartered) 20/ sh London Corn Exchange 37=}/ pd 20j/al/ London Commercial Sale Rooms| Average 75/ shj24/ London and Westminster Steam Boat Company 10/ shI Mexican and South American Companv 10/ sli 7/ pd New Brunswick Land'lOO/ sh 60/ pd New Zealand Company ... .25/ sh Reversionary Int. Society. .100/ sh S. Australian Comp. 25/ sh 20/ pd South Metropolitan Cemetery (Chartered) 25/ sh Thames Tunnel 50/sh Upper Canada Loan Ditto Van D. Land (Agricultural) Char- tered 100/ sh 18/ pd West London and Westminster Cemetery 26/ sh 24ia5/ 2/ 107/ 13/ aO/ 10/a.l/ 8/a9/ END OF VOLUME XIV. Printed kj Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk- street, Strand, London.